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A Few of the Leading Articles in Vohime Two

WRITTEN AND SIGNED BY SPECIALISTS
AUGUSTINIANISM John Grier Hibben

Professor of Philosophy, Princeton University

AUGUSTINIANS ....' Thomas C. Middleton, O.S.A.

AUTOMOBILE Marius C. Krarup

Formerly Editor of ' The Automobile '

BACTERIA AND BACTERIOLOGY A. C. Abbott

Bacteriologist, University of Pennsylvania

BALTIMORE, Md William H. Love

Secretary Board of Trade

BAND SAW BLADES Edward C. Mershon

Of W. B. Mershon & Co., Saginaw, Mich.

BANKS AND BANKING O. P. Austin

United States Treasury Department

BANKS AND BANKING, AMERICAN Levi Parsons Morton

BANKING INSTITUTIONS Willis S. Paine

President Consolidated National Bank, New York

BANKS, SAVINGS . . . . , William Hanhart

Secretary " Savings Bank Section," American Bankers' Association

BANQUETS Miles Bradford

Author of ' Carlotta and I '

BAPTISTS IN AMERICA Henry Clay Vedder

Crozer Theological Seminary

BARBADOES Marrion Wilcox

Authority on Latin-America

BATH, HISTORY OF THE John R. Meader

Editor American Year Book

BEARINGS, ANTI-FRICTION Henry Southern

Engineer of the American Compound Bearing Co.

BEEKEEPING E. R. Root

Author of ' A. B. C. of Bee Culture ' and Editor of ' Gleanings in Bee Culture '

BEET Samuel Eraser

Instructor in Agronomy, Cornell University

BEETHOVEN Henry T. Finck

Musical Critic ' Evening Post,' New York

BERKELEY, GEORGE H. W. Wright

Of Cornell University

BERLIN .E. HiRscHBERc

Director of Statistical Bureau of Berlin

BIBLE Charles Woodruff Shields

Prof, of Harmony of Science and Revealed Religion, Princeton University

BIRDS ;•.•••. Ernest Ingersoll

Editorial Staff, Encyclopedia Americana

BLIND, EDUCATION OF THE Edward Ellis Allen

Principal Pennsylvania Institution for the Instruction of the Blind

BOILER A. D. Risteen

Hartford Steam Boiler Insp. and Ins. Co.

BOOK OF THE DEAD Samuel A. Binion

Author of ' Ancient Egypt or Mizraim '

BOOKBINDING Edwin Ives

Of Edwin Ives & Sons, New York

BOOKKEEPING Edgar M. Barber

Expert Accountant, U. S. Appraiser's Office

BOOTS AND SHOES Frederick D. Hull

Vice-President ' The Shoe Retailer,' New York and Boston

BOSTON M. A. DeWolfe Howe

Author of 'Boston: The Place and the People'

BOTANICAL GARDENS D. T. MacDougal

Director of Laboratories, New York Botanical Garden

BOTANY Frederick V. Covillb

Chief Botanist, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture

613833

KEY TO PRONUNCIATION.

far, father

fate, hate

a or a

at, fat

air, care

ado, sofa

all, fall

choose, church

eel, we

bed, end

her, over : also Fr. e, as in de; eu,
as in neuf ; and oeu, as in boeuf,
coeur; Ger. o (or oe), as in
okonomie.

befall, elope

agent, trident

off, trough

gas, get

anguish, guava

h hat, hot

h or H Ger. cJi, as in nicht, wacht

hw what

1 file, ice

i or 1 him, it

I between e and i, mostly in Oriental

final syllables, as, Ferid-ud-din

j gem, genius

kw quaint, quite

& Fr. nasal m or n, as in embonpoint,

Jean, temps

h Span, n, as in canon (can'yon), pinon

(pen'yon)

ng mingle, singing

nk bank, ink

6 no, open

o or o not, on

6 corn, nor

6 p.tom, symbol

o book, look

'oi oil, soil ; also Ger. eu, as in heutel

6 or oo fool, rule

ou or ow allow, bowsprit

satisf}-, sauce

show, sure

thick, thin

father, thither

mute, use

u or u

but, us

pull, put

between u and

z
zh

Miiller

of, very

(consonantal) yes, young

pleasant, rose
azure, pleasure

' (prime), " (secondary) accents, to indicate
syllabic stress

THE

ENCYCLOPEDIA

AMERICANA

Atahualpa, a'ta-wal'pa (atahii, Latin
virtus and allpa, sweet), a Peruvian
inca, the son of Huayna Capac,
eleventh inca. His brother Huascar
succeeded Huayna Capac ; but Ata-
hualpa obtained the kingdom of
Quito, and a civil war broke out
between the brothers ; though the details are
not accurately known, it appears that when
Pizarro was beginning to move inland Huas-
car had been defeated and thrown into
prison, and Atahualpa had become inca. Pi-
zarro set out in September 1532, and made
for Cassamarca, where the inca was. On
15 Nov. Pizarro entered Cassamarca, and sent
to request an interview with the inca. On the
evening of the next day, Atahualpa entered the
great square of Cassamarca, accompanied by
some five or six thousand men, while Pizarro's
artillery and soldiers were planted in readiness
in the streets opening off the square. The in-
terview was carried on by the priest Vicente de
Valverde, through an interpreter. He stated
briefly and dogmatically the principal points of
the Christian faith and the Roman Catholic pol-
icy, and concluded by calling upon Atahualpa
to become a Christian, obey the commands of
the Pope, give up the administration of his king-
dom, and pay tribute to Charles V., to whom
had been granted the conquest of these lands.
To this the inca at first returned a very tem-
perate answer. The priest retired, and Pizarro
at once gave the signal for attack. The Span-
iards rushed out suddenly, and the Peruvians,
astonished and defenseless, were cut down in
hundreds. Atahualpa, thus treacherously cap-
tured, offered an enormous sum of money as a
ransom, and fulfilled his engagement ; but Pi-
zarro still detained him, until the Spaniards
should have arrived in sufficient numbers to
secure the country. While in captivity, Ata-
hualpa gave secret orders for the assassination
of his brother Huascar, and also endeavored to
raise an army to expel the invaders. His plans
were betrayed, and Pizzaro at once brought him
to trial. He was condemned to death, and, as
Vol. ?— I

being an idolater, to death by fire. Atahualpa,
however, professed himself a Christian, received
baptism; and his sentence was then altered into
death by strangulation. His body was after-
ward burned, and the ashes conveyed to Quito.
Consult Prescott, * Conquest of Peru.*

Atakapa, a'ta-ka'pa, the designation of an
extinct cannibal tribe who occupied the west
gulf coast of Louisiana.

Atala, a'ta'la, a romance of the American
wilderness, by Chateaubriand, published in 1801.
It is the extravagant and artificial but beautiful
story of two lovers — a young Indian brave,
Chactas (that is, Choctaw), and an Indian
maiden, Atala.

At'alan'ta, the name of two heroines in
Greek mythology. One was a native of Ar-
cadia, celebrated for her skill in archery. She
slew with her arrows the Centaurs Rhoecus and
Hylseus, sailed to Colchis with the Argonauts,
and was present at the chase of the Caledonian
boar, which she first wounded ; hence Meleager
awarded to her the prize. She was renowned
for her beauty and swiftness in running. She
stipulated that every candidate for her hand
should run a race with her, and if he conquered
her she was his own, but if he was conquered he
was doomed to death at her hand. Many had
fallen victims in the attempt, when Meilanion,
by the aid of Aphrodite, overcame her. The
goddess gave him three golden apples, which he
threw behind him, one after another, as he ran.
Atalanta stopped to pick them up. and Meilanion
reached the goal before her. She accordingly
became his wife. The other Atalanta, who can-
not very well be distinguished from the preced-
ing, the same stories being told about both, is
connected with Boeotia and Boeotian localities.
She is said to have been married to Hippo-
menes. See Morris. <Atalanta's Race.'

At'alan'ta in Cal'ydon, a tragedy by Alger-
non Charles Swinburne, published in 1864. It
deals with a Greek theme, and employs the
Greek chorus and semichorus in its amplifica-
tion. To this chorus are given several songs,

ATAMAN — ATCHISON

which exemplify the highest charms of Swin-
burne's verse — his inexhaustible wealth of
imagery, and his flawless musical sense. The
story is founded upon the hunting of the Cale-
donian boar.

At'aman, the title of the chief of the Cos-
sack tribes. See Hetman.

Ataulfus, Ataulf or Adolf, king of the
Visigoths. The date of his birth is unknown.
He was the brother-in-law of Alaric, whom
he assisted in the sieges of Rome. After
Alaric's death he went to Gaul and married
Galla Placidia, sister of the emperor, June
414. In the same year he went to Spain and
was assassinated at Barcelona in 415.

At'avism (Latin atavus, originally "an-
cestor," later specialized as "great-great-great-
grandfather*') : in biology, the reappearance in
an organic being of specific ancestral peculiari-
ties which have not appeared in intermediate
generations, or of peculiarities of ancestral side
branches not represented in the direct line. It
is often loosely used as synonymous with rever-
sion, but in scientific usage the latter is not
the reappearance of single characteristics, and
certainly not of abnormal ones, but the return in
general type to the primitive type from which
the special race was evolved. In this sense, it
may be said that reversion is the extreme
backward limit of atavism. For example, the
birth of a six-fingered child with a six-fingered
grandfather or uncle but normal parents would
be atavism ; but the approach of human beings
left on a desert island to the prognathous and
hairy type of the simians, were it conceivable,
would be reversion. Sometimes the two are
hardly to be discriminated ; thus, the appearance
of a tail-bone or pointed ears would be an
atavism recalling the primitive type, as are
horses with toes, yet not quite a reversion. A
true reversion is the banded pigeon which is a
frequent "sport'* among fancy breeds ; and the
still commoner mongrel "yellow dog," a rever-
sion to the jackal type. Atavisms are part of
the perpetual family wonders, the reproduction
of minute special features, habits, tricks of be-
havior, even tastes and fashions of speech, char-
acteristic of distant relatives or far-back ances-
tors, but perhaps obliterated for long periods.
In sociology, especially criminology, the word is
used precisely in the sense of reversion to primi-
tive instincts and passions, supposed to be over-
laid or suppressed by civilization. The criminal
on this theory is a being who has lost his
evolved characteristics, and gone backward to
the primitive savage. This, however, has too
many flaws to be scientifically acceptable.

Atax'ia, an irregularity of function, but the
term is usually applied to inco-ordination of
muscular movements. It is a phenomenon seen
in many disordered states of the body and not
confined to the one disease, locomotor ataxia.
Thus, ataxia is a common symptom of alco-
holic intoxication. Two forms of ataxia may
be distinguished, static and motor. In static
ataxia there is an irregularity in the maintenance
of attitudes and positions. This form of ataxia
is common in chronic cocaine poisoning and is
present in some severe cases of chorea, or St.
Vitus' dance. The patients' limbs seem to give
way beneath them and there is a restless irregu-

larity in attitude and pose. Static ataxia is alsQ
a symptom in certain types of insanity, notably
the disease termed catatonia. Motor ataxia is a
much commoner form of this condition. In
alcoholic intoxication it is well developed and
the loss of control, largely due to diminution of
the function of the sensory nerves, is too well
known to need description. In a number of
diseases of the nervous system ataxia of the
muscles_ of the arms, lips, tongue, trunk, and
lower limbs is a prominent symptom. Ataxia
is to be distinguished from loss of the sense of
equilibrium. See Cerebellum ; Co-ordination ;
Equilibrium; Hemiplegia; Locomotor Ataxia;
Sclerosis.

Atbara, at-ba'ra (Bahr-el-Agivad, or Black
River), an important tributary of the Nile. It
rises in Abyssinia to the northwest of Lake
Tzana, flows to the north, receiving several large
tributaries, especially the Mareb and Tacazze,
and enters the Nile lat. 17° N.

Atchafalaya, ach'a-fa-ll'j^a, a river in
Louisiana, an outlet of the Red River. It flows
southward through Grand Lake, and enters the
Gulf of Mexico by Atchafalaya Bay. Its length
is estimated at 250 miles and it is supposed to
have been formerly the principal channel of the
Red River.

Atcheen, a province of the Dutch Indies,
until 1873 an independent state in the north-
west part of Sumatra. Area 20,471 square
miles, and containing a population of about
500,000. See AcHiN.

Atch'ison, David Rice, American legis-
lator; b. Frogtown, Ky., 11 Aug. 1807; d. 26
June 1886. He was educated for the bar, and
began practising in Missouri, in 1830. He was
elected to the legislature in 1834 and 1838; was
appointed judge of the Platte county circuit
court ; and, in 1843, while holding this office,
was appointed United States senator to fill a va-
cancy. He was twice elected to the last ofiice,
and during several sessions was president pro
tern, of the Senate. During Sunday 4 March
1849, he was the legal President of the United
States, as Gen. Taylor, the President-elect, was
not sworn into office until the following day.
Senator Atchison became conspicuous in the
slavery debates and in the Kansas-Nebraska
struggle, because of his strong pro-slavery
views. The city of Atchison, Kan., was named
after him.

Atch'ison, Kan., a city and county-seat of
Atchison County ; on the Missouri River, 20
miles above Fort Leavenworth and on the Atchi-
son, T. & S. F., the Chicago, R. I. & Pacific,
the Burlington & Q. and other railroads. The
city is beautifully situated on the "Great Bend*'
of the Missouri River, and because of its excel-
lent river and extensive railroad facilities it is
an important commercial centre, and one of the
principal cities of the State. It exports large
quantities of grain, flour, live-stock, coal,
lumber, fruit, and general agricultural produce.
The wholesale trade of the city in gro-
ceries, drugs, hardware, etc., is also very
extensive, representing annually more than $50,-
000,000. The manufacturing interests of Atchi-
son are important, there being over 50 large
industrial establishments, including grain elc-

ATCHISON

vators, flouring-mills, foundries, railroad
shops, carriage works, brick yards, fur-
niture, broom and harness factories, etc. The
city contains many attractive buildings, notably
the county court-house and government build-
ing, and the union depot erected at a cost of
$140,000. The Missouri River is bridged by a
noteworthy structure some 1,200 feet long.
There are three parks in the city — Forest. City
and Central ; three banks with a combined cap-
ital of $300,000 and an annual business of
$7,000,000; daily, weekly and monthly periodi-
cals, and gas, electric-light, sewer, water and
electric railway plants. Atchison is the seat of
the State Soldiers' Orphans' Home ; Wells' In-
sane Asylum ; Allaman's Hospital ; Midland
College (Lutheran) ; Saint Benedict's College
(Roman Catholic) ; Blount Saint Scholastica's
Academy (Roman Catholic) : has a fine public
library and an excellent system of public educa-
tion (8 public and 3 parish schools). The
school board is chosen by popular vote. The
city is governed by a mayor, elected every two
years, and a municipal council of 10 members.
The mayor appoints the administrative officials
who are subject to confirmation by the city
council. The city was first settled in 1854 and
was named in honor of Senator D. R. Atchison.
It was incorporated as a city in 1859. Pop.
(1904) 16,925. H. B. HoRX,

Editor Atchison Champion.

Atchison, Topeka & Santa Fe Railway,

The, one of the most important railways in
the United States, and including a long list of
auxiliary companies. The charter was granted
3 March 1863, the route prescribed being from
Atchison on the ^Missouri River to the western
boundary of the State of Kansas, in the direc-
tion of Santa Fe, New ^lexico, a distance esti-
mated at 500 miles. The time for completion
was limited to 10 years, which expired 3 March
1873. Five years and six months were allowed
to pass without commencing operations. In
September 1868 the charter was transferred to
new parties. In 1869 28 miles were built ; in
1870 34 miles ; in 1871 75 miles. The western
boundary of Kansas not having been established,
it was estimated that the remainder to be built,
with only one year for the completion of the
road and telegraph line which was to accompany
it, was 345 miles. By great effort the means
were provided, and the work completed with
rapidity then unprecedented, and the cars were
run over the entire line from the Missouri River
to Colorado, about 470 miles, on the 28th day
of December 1872, thereby saving the land
grant, which would have been forfeited had the
road not been completed before 3 ^larch 1873.
The road was remarkably well built, much better
than the majorit}' of western raihvays at that
time, and in general construction bore compar-
ison with the best roads either east or west.
It ran for the greater part in the valley of the
Arkansas River, with easy grades and curves.
and_ almost immediately developed an amount of
business that surprised the ownership and the
public. The part which this railway has had in
the building up of Kansas. Colorado and other
sections through which it runs cannot be over-
estimated. It opened vast tracts of productive
land to settlement, and drew a large emigration
from the East to that region, where thriving

towns and fertile farms took the place of what
had been a desert. The road acquired a large
share of through business in 1876 by leasmg the
Pueblo & Arkansas Valley and the Kansas City,
Topeka & Western. Steel rails were adopted in
place of iron, and neither effort nor expense
were spared to bring the road up to the highest
standard.

The growth of the Atchison, Topeka & Santa
Fe in 30 years is shown by recent statistics. In
1875 the gross earnings of the system were
$1,500,000, operating expenses $700,000; and net
earnings $800,000; in 1902 the gross earnings
were $59,100,000; operating expenses $33,000,-
000 ; and net earnings $25,200,000. The growth
of mileage has been equally rapid. In 1875 the
road only extended from Kansas City and
Atchison to Wichita and Pueblo, 711 miles. On
30 June 1902 the main track mileage operated
was about 7,900, which has since been added to
considerably by the acquisition of new lines.
The rolling stock, about 28 years ago. consisted
of 38 locomotives and 1.028 cars, including two
Pullmans. By recent figures it was 1.3 12 loco-
motives and 36.370 cars. Locomotive repairs
were $60,000 in the early period, and $3,700,000
in the present. Grain shipments in 1875 were
28,400 tons, and w^ere by late figures 1,550,000
tons. Live stock jumped from 87,500 head to
870,000 head. Passenger and freight traffic
showed proportionate increase. These figures
give an idea not only of the growth of the
Atchison, Topeka & Santa Fe system, but also
of the strides made by the Western United
States in the past 30 years.

In the annual report of the Atchison, To-
peka & Santa Fe for 1904 President Edward P.
Ripley says :

"The large increase in the system earnings
reflects the rapid growth of the territory served
by your lines in population and wealth, and this
growth is likelj- to continue. Many miles of
your main lines are fed by but few branches,
and extensive territory that should furnish
profitable traffic to the system still remains, in
a great measure, undeveloped for want of ade-
quate railroad facilities. The construction of
additional branches and feeders will be desirable
in the near future, in order to increase the
earnings of the system and strengthen its posi-
tion, and in order to furnish additional trans-
portation facilities to the growing territory
through which the system extends. Further-
more, the traffic on your main lines has become
so dense that the construction of second tracks
and provision for additional equipment will soon
be imperative. Since the year 1896 more than
$30,000,000 of surplus net income has been ap-
plied to the development and enlargement of
your properties, and it is expected that a con-
siderable amount of surplus net income will be
applied in like manner hereafter : but it is the
opinion of your directors that additional capital
should be obtained during the next few years
for the purposes above referred to. and it is be-
lieved that the expenditure of this capital will
result in a substantial increase of the surplus
net income of the company.'*

The gross earnings for the year amounted to
$68,171,200, an increase of $5,820,802 as com
pared with 1903. The operating expenses show
an increase of $3,784,922. The mileage of the
railroad increased 214.46. Of this increase. 134

ATE — ATHABASCA PASS

miles was due to the completion of the Eastern
Oklahoma Railway. It also includes the Gulf,
Beaumont & Kansas City Railroad, which was
leased during the year.

Ate, a'te, among the Greeks the goddess
of hate, injustice, crime, and retribution. Ac-
cording to Homer she was the daughter of
Zeus, but according to Hesiod, the daughter
of Eris (Strife). She was a vengeful god-
dess and was banished from Olympus by Zeus,
whom she had induced to take an oath of
which he subsequently repented. Her influence
was always pernicious, and in her journeyings
over the earth she atiflicted mankind, but she
was followed by other goddesses, the benevo-
lent daughters of Zeus, who restored those who
had come under Ate's evil influence.

At'eles, a genus of South American mon-
keys of the division with long prehensile tails,
to which the name Sapajou is sometimes collec-
tively applied. The head is round, and the
facial angle about 60 degrees ; the limbs are re-
markably long and slender, upon which account
the English name of spider monkey is some-
times used as a generic designation ; the fore-
limbs are either destitute of a thumb or have a
rudimentary one.

Ateles'tite, a native basic arsenate of bis-
muth, having the formula 3Bi2O3.As2Oo.2H2O.
It is yellow in color, and translucent with an
adamantine lustre. It occurs in small mono-
clinic crystals, at Schneeberg, Saxony.

Ateliers Nationaux, a-te-lia' na'syo'no',
national workshops established by the provi-
sional government of France in 1848. Previous
'■o the outbreak of the revolution of Feb. 1848,
there had been two years of scarcity, inunda-
tion, and commercial crisis. Ateliers nationaux,
or national workshops, were opened at once.
The workmen were organized under lieutenants
and brigadiers of their election. The number of
applicants, including arrivals from the prov-
inces, at length exceeded 100,000, and the total
expense reached nearly 16,000,000 francs. The
men were employed on roads, railways, earth-
works, etc., but it was impossible to find work
for the whole, and a great part of the labor was
unprofitable. There were besides 30.000 to
40,000 women employed in preparing articles of
outfit for the army, whose work left only a
trifling loss. In June the Constituent Assembly
resolved upon the immediate closing of the ate-
liers. This rash step provoked the insurrec-
tion of the Red Republicans (23d-26th June),
suppressed by Gen. Cavaignac with fearful
slaughter. In Lyons the ateliers were closed
wihout disturbance, but in some other towns
trouble was occasioned.

At'ella'nae Fab'ulae (called also Oscan
plays), a kind of light interlude between tragedy
and comedy, performed by freeborn young Ro-
mans. This kind of a play is said to have origi-
nated in Afella, a city of the Oscans, between
Capua and Naples, and a few disconnected frag-
ments are all that remain of a national Ital-
ian comedy, consisting of farce seasoned by
satire.

Atesh'ga (the place of fire), a place much
revered by Persian fire-worshippers. It is on
the peninsula of Apsheron, on the west coast

of the Caspian, and is visited by large numbers
of pilgrims, who bow before the sacred flames
issuing from the bituminous soil.

Ath, at, a town of Belgium, 14 miles from
Mons. It has a hospital and college and im-
portant manufactures of linen, lace, cutlery,
soap, and large hammers. It was formerly a
fortress. Pop. (1900) 11,100.

Ath'a, a false prophet in the reign of the
Caliph j\lehedy, or his predecessor, Al-mansur.
He taught the doctrine of metempsychosis, and
claimed to be an incarnation of divinity. He
had lost one of his eyes, on account of which
he always wore a veil, whence he received the
epithet of Mokanna. He is the hero of Moore's
"Veiled Prophet of Khorassan* in 'Lalla
Rookh.'

Athabasca, ath'a-bas'ka, a district in
northwestern Canada formed in 1882 and en-
larged in 1895. It contains 251,965 square miles,
including 8,805 square miles of water area, and
is bounded on the north by the district of Mac-
kenzie, on the east by the district of Keewatin.
on the south by the districts of Saskatchewan
and Alberta, and on the west by British Co-
lumbia. The district is watered by the Atha-
basca and Peace rivers. There are numerous
lakes in the district, chief of which are Atha-
basca in the north and Reindeer in the east.
The climate varies greatly but is not so severe
as the high latitudes would seem to imply, and
the air is very clear and bracing. The snow
and rainfall is not great, but during the grow-
ing months of summer the rains are abundant,
which add much to the productiveness of the
district. The soil in the western part of the
district is very fertile, and wheat, potatoes, and
other cereals are readily grown. In the east-
ern section the soil is less fertile, being rocky
and sandy. The fur trade is still a consid-
erable industry. The country is well wooded
with spruce, pine, and poplar. In the west the
aspen trees predominate, growing to consider-
able size. The population of the district is
small, consisting mostly of Indians (1,239) and
half-breeds, who support themselves by hunt-
ing, but the immigration to the Northwest will
soon seek this productive territory. The principal
settlement is Dunvegan. in the southwest. On i
Sept. 1905 the province was divided, the westerly
portion being united to Alberta, and the easterly
portion combined with Saskatchewan and Assini-
boia to form the province of Saskatchewan.

Athabasca, (i) the name of a river in
northwestern Canada which has its source in the
eastern slopes of the Rocky Mountains, near
Mount Brown, pursues a tortuous course to the
north till it falls into Lake Athabasca. (2)
The name of a Canadian lake, in the northwest
territories, also called Lake of the Hills, 230
miles in length and averaging 14 miles in width.
Near its southwestern extremity it receives the
Athabasca River and discharges its waters
northward by the Great Slave River. The noi;th
shore is high and rocky and thickly wooded with
firs and poplars, etc., the south shore is level.

Athabasca Pass, a narrow passage in the
Canadian Rocky Mountains, between Mount
Brown and Mount Hooker. It crosses the
boundary between the district of Alberta and
British Columbia.

ATHALIAH — ATHANASIUS

Ath'ali'ah, the daughter of Ahab, king of
Israel, and wife of Joram, king of Judah.
She was a woman of abandoned character, and
fond of power, who, after the death of her son
Ahaziah, opened her way to the throne by the
murder of 42 princes of the royal blood. She
reigned six years ; in the seventh the high priest
Jehoiada placed Joash, the young son of Aha-
ziah, on the throne of his father. Athaliah,
attracted by the noise of the people who were
crowding to the coronation of Joash, entered
with them into the temple, where the ceremony
was going on. At the sight of the new king,
surrounded by priests, Levites, great officers of
the kingdom, and the joyful people, she was be-
side herself; she tore her hair, and cried out,
^Treason!'* Jehoiada ordered her to be imme-
diately led from the temple by the officers, and
commanded that all who should offer to defend
her should be slain ; but she was put to death
at the gate of the palace without opposition.
The altars of Baal, which she had erected, were
thrown down, and the worship of God restored
(about 877 B.C.) (2 Kings viii. ix.). This story
is the theme of Racine's ^Athalie,^ written at
the request of Aladame de Maintenon.

Athalie, a'ta-le, a famous tragedy by Ra-
cine, based on the Bible story of Athaliah. It
was first performed in 1600. Rachel won her
greatest triumphs in this play.

Ath'amas, the son of .^olus, and husband
of Nephele, the cloud goddess. Their children
were Helle and Phryxus. Being afterward sep-
arated from Nephele, he had by Ino, his second
wife, Learchus, Melicertes, and Eurycleia. Ath-
amas, having lost his reason through the anger
of Hera, and taking Ino and her children for
a lioness and her whelps, seized Learchus and
dashed him against a stone ; while Ino, with
Melicertes in her arms, plunged into the sea,
and became the sea goddess Leucothea, Mel-
icertes being transformed into Palaenon, a di-
vinity worshipped by sailors. Athamas now
abandoned Boeotia and fled to Phthiotis, where
he built Alos, and united himself with Themisto.

Athan'agild, the 14th king of the Spanish
Visigoths, who succeeded .\gila in 554, and died
in 566. Being threatened by Agila. he applied
for aid to Justinian, emperor of the Ea.st, who
sent troops, and Athanagild defeated his adver-
sary, who was obliged to retire to Merida. Ath-
anagild was re-established at Toledo, which he
made his capital.

Athan'aric, a king of the Visigoths in
Thrace about the middle of the 4th century:
d. Constantinople, 25 Jan. 381. The emperor
Valens made war upon him and compelled him
to sue for peace, but Athanaric would not come
upon the Roman territory to sign the treat}',
while Valens thought it beneath his dignity to
visit the barbarian at home. Accordingly a
bridge of boats was constructed across the
Danube, and the two potentates met in the
middle. In 380 he w-as compelled to flee to
Constantinople, where Theodosius received
him hospitably, and gave him a small pension
until his death. See Hodgkin, < Italy and Her
Invaders,^ Vol. I. (1880).

Athanasian (ath'a-na'zhan) Creed. See
Creed.

Athanasius (ath'a-na'zhi-us) Saint, Bishop
of Alexandria, a celebrated Greek theologian:
b. Ale.xandria about 296; d. 373. He had
a Christian education, and came into the family
of Alexander, afterward archbishop of Alexan-
dria. Alexander took him to the council at
Nice, where he gained the highest esteem of the
fathers by the talents he displayed in the Arian
controversy. About 326 he became bishop of Al-
exandria. The complaints and accusations of his
enemies at length induced the emperor Constan-
tine to summon him in 334 before the councils of
Tyre and Jerusalem, but his judges could do
nothing, however, further than suspend him
from his office. He still continued in the dis-
charge of his duties until the emperor, deceived
by new falsehoods, banished him to Treves.
The death of Constantine put an end to this ban-
ishment at the end of a year and some months.
Constantius, emperor of the East, recalled the
holy patriarch. His return to Alexandria re-
sembled a triumph. The Arians made new
complaints against him, and he was condemned
by 90 Arian bishops assembled at Antioch. while
100 orthodox bishops, assembled at Alexandria,
declared him innocent. Pope Julius confirmed
this sentence, in conjunction with more than
300 bishops assembled at Sardis from the east
and west, and in consequence of this he re-
turned a second time to his diocese. But when
Constans, emperor of the West, died, and Con-
stantius became master of the whole empire,
the Arians ventured to rise up against Athana-
sius. Athanasius, displaced for a third time,
fled into the deserts of Eg}'pt. His enemies
pursued him even here, and set a price on his
head. To relieve the hermits who dwelt in
these solitary places, and who would not betray
his retreat, from suffering on his account, he
went into those parts of the desert which were
entirely uninhabited. He was followed by a
faithful servant, who, at the risk of his life, sup-
plied him with the means of subsistence. In
this undisturbed spot Athanasius composed
many writings, full of eloquence, to strengthen
the faith of the believers, or e.xpose the false-
hood of his enemies. When Julian theApostate
ascended the throne he allowed the orthodox
bishops to return to their churches. Athanasius
therefore returned after an absence of six years.
The mildness which he exercised toward his
enemies was imitated in Gaul, Spain, Italy, and
Greece, and restored peace to the Church. But
this peace was interrupted by the complaints of
the heathen, whose temples the zeal of Athan-
asius kept always empty. They excited the em-
peror against him, and he was obliged to flee to
Thebais to save his life. The death of the
emperor and the accession of Jovian again
brought him back; but Valens becoming em-
peror eight months after, and the Arians re-
covering the superiority, he was once more
compelled to flee. He concealed himself four
months, until Valens, moved by the pressing
entreaties and threats of the Alexandrians, al-
lowed him to return. From this period he re-
mained undisturbed in his office until he died,
2,72,- Of the 46 years of his official life he
spent 20 in banishment, and the greater part of
the remainder in defending the Nicene Creed.
Athanasius is one of the greatest men of whom
the Church can boast. His deep mind, his noble
heart, his invincible courage, his living faith,

ATHAPASCAN STOCK— ATHENAGORAS

his unbounded benevolence, sincere humility,
lofty eloquence, and strictly virtuous life, gained
the honor and love of all. His voluminous
writings, which are chiefly controversial and
dogmatical, treat of the mysterious doctrines of
the Trinitv, the incarnation of Christ, and the
divinity o'f the Holy Spirit. His 'Apology
Against the Arians,^ addressed to the emperor
Constantine, is a masterpiece. The creed which
goes under his name w^as not written by him,
but belongs to a later time. (See Creed.) The
most complete edition of of his works is that
published at Padua in 1777 (4 vols, folio).

Bibliograpliv. — Bright, 'Lessons from the
Lives of Three Great Fathers^ (1890) ; Farrar,
< Lives of the Fathers' (1889) ; Fisher, 'History
of Christian Doctrine^ (1896) ; Harnack. "His-
tory of Dogma.> Vol. IV. (1898): M5hler,
'Athanasius and the Church of His Time' ;
Hergenrother, 'Athanasius the Great, Gorres
Gessellschaft.'

Athapascan Stock (also Tinnch), of Ameri-
can Indians, and one of their most numerous
and widely distributed linguistic and ethnolog-
ical groups. The type-name is taken from a
northwest Canadian group, the western Alontag-
nais: but the tribes are scattered from Alaska
to Mexico. The original stock were semi-
arctic, along the Yukon and Mackenzie, fierce
and energetic, but of a low type of culture ; and
spread southward by conquest on both sides of
the Rocky ]\Iountains. They are divided into
three chief groups, the northern, the Pacific,
and the southern. The first are those in the
original home. — northwest Canada and interior
Alaska, — Montagnais, Montagnards, Chippe-
wayan, Kutchin, etc. These number about
8,500. The second are those of Washington,
Oregon, and California, except the Thlinkeet
coast tribes, which extend along the Alaskan
coast also. These are few and scattered tribes.
about 900 souls in all. The southern, and far
the most important, comprises some 23.500
mostly of the great .Apache and Navajo confed-
eracies, also the Jicarillas and Mescaleros, and
the Lipan, of Mexico.

Atharvana, at'har'vana, the fourth of the
Indian Vedas. Its language is more modern
than that of the other three. The theological
treatises, regarded as 52 in number, called Up-
anishads, are appended to the Atharvan Veda.

A'theism, the denial of the existence of a
God. Among the Greeks atheism consisted in a
denial or non-recognition of the gods of the
State. Socrates was put to death for assert-
ing the superiority of the divine wisdom to the
other gods, as the ruler and disposer of the uni-
verse, thus contradicting Greek mythology,
which assigned that office to Zeus. In Latin
times atheism still continued to be a negation,
with no pretension to rank as a system. It
was closely akin to that cultured unbelief which
extensively prevailed among the Humanists dur-
ing the early part of the Renaissance. The
atheism of the i8th century was a protest
against current religious hypocrisy; and, like
its predecessors, put forward little or nothing
to replace the system it attempted to destroy.
The atheism of the 19th century may be taken
to mclude every philosophic system which re-
jects the notion of a personal Creator; in this
sense it ranks as a genus, of which Atomism,

Pantheism, Positivism, etc., are species. Strict-
h-, it is the doctrine that sees in matter the
sole principle of the universe. Popularly, athe-
ism consists in the denial of a God; this view is
probably founded on the mistranslation of
Psalms xiv. i, and liii. I, which should be,
"The fool hath said in his heart, Xo God for
m.e," that is, he wilfully rejects God, at the
same time knowing that he is.

Ath'el, or Mthel, an Old English \vord
signifying noble, eminent, not only in blood or
by descent, but in mind. It is frequently a
part of Anglo-Saxon proper names.

Ath'eling, a title of honor among the
Anglo-Saxons, meaning one who is of noble
blood. The title was gradually confined to
princes of the blood royal, and in the 9th and
loth centuries applied exclusively to the sons
or brothers of the reigning king. It was first
conferred on Edgar by Edward the Confessor,
his grand-uncle, who bestowed it when he de-
signed to make him successor to himself.

Athelney, ath'el-nT, a marshy island in
Somersetshire, England, about seven miles
southeast of Bridgewater. It is formed by the
junction of the rivers Parret and Tone. Al-
fred the Great established a fortified post here
during a Danish invasion, and afterward found-
ed an abbey which has entirely vanished.

Ath'elstan, a Saxon monarch, the first to
assume the title of king of England. He suc-
ceeded his father, Edward the Elder, in 925,
and died in Gloucester, 2~ Oct. 940. He was
victorious in his wars with the Danes of North-
umberland, and the Scots, by whom they were
assisted. After the overthrow of his enemies
at Brunanburh (937), which became famous in
Saxon song, he governed in peace and with
great ability.

Ath'enae'um, the general name of temples
to Athena, but more especially applied to the
temple at Athens, frequented by poets, learned
men, and orators. Instruction was also given
there to the youth, and in later times the name
was applied to all places of education for the
young. The same name w-as given at Rome to
the celebrated school which Hadrian estab-
lished on the Capitoline ]\Iount about 135 a.d.
Many learned men received ample salaries for
giving instruction in this institution, and that
they might be enabled to study at leisure. Here
also learned men assembled to exchange ideas.

Ath'enaeus, a Greek rhetorician and gram-
marian, who lived at Xaucratis. in Egypt, then
at Alexandria, and afterward at Rome, at the
end of the 2d and beginning of the 3d century
after Christ. He has left an encyclopedic work
in the form of conversation, called the 'Feast
of the Learned' vDeipnosophistse), a rich but
ill-arranged treasury of historical, antiquarian,
philosophical, grammatical, and other know-
ledge. The principal editions are those of
Schweighiiuser (1801-7) ; Dindorf (1827) ;
Meineke (1859-67).

Ath'enag'oras, a Christian philosopher of
Athens, who wrote in Greek an 'Apology for
the Christians.' addressed to the emperor Mar-
cus Aurelius. in 177. This work defends the
Christians from the accusations brought against
them by the heathens (of atheism, of incest, of

ATHENAIS — ATHENS

eating murdered children, and the like), with a
philosophical spirit and in a lively and forcible
style.

Ath'ena'is, or Eudocia, empress of the
East, daughter of the Athenian philosopher
Leontius : b. Athens about 393-4 -^-d. ; d.
Jerusalem about 465. Athenais gaining the
favor of Pulcheria, sister of the emperor The-
odosius, a youth of 20 years of age, presently
became the wife of Theodosius and was per-
suaded to receive baptism by the name of Eu-
■docia. By Theodosius she had a daughter,
Eudoxia, who was married to Valentian III.,
emperor of the West. She was indisposed to
submit to the authority of Pulcheria, who vir-
tually ruled the empire of the East, and a quar-
rel ensued, in which Eudocia had for a time
the ascendency; but the jealousy of her husband
being aroused, the authority of Pulcheria was
restored, and Eudocia was permitted to retire
to Jerusalem. When her daughter and grand-
daughters were taken prisoners by Genseric she
became reconciled to the orthodox Church.

Athene, a-the'ne. See Minerva.

Athene, Temple of. See .Egina.

Athen'odo'rus, a Greek sculptor of the
Rhodian school, who, with his father, Agesan-
der. and Polydorus, executed the celebrated
group of the "Laocoon."

Ath'ens, Ala., county-seat of Limestone
County, situated on the Louisville & N. railroad,
107 miles south of Nashville, Tenn., 85 miles
north of Birmingham. Athens has a cotton
factory, knitting mill, sash, door and bhnd fac-
tory, two large lumber mills. State Agricultural
School ; Athens Female College, under owner-
ship and direction of North Alabama Confer-
ence, Methodist Episcopal Church south. Has
five churches for whites and several churches
for colored population, and two newspapers.
Surrounded by a splendid agricultural country
and has many advantages. City owms and oper-
ates water and light plant and the town has an
excellent sewer system. City also owns and
operates a dispensary.

Robert ^L Rawls,
Editor '^Alabama Courier?

Ath'ens, Ga., a city and county-seat of
Clarke County, on the Oconee River, and the
Central of G., the Georgia, the Northeastern of
G., and the Seaboard A. L. R.R.'s, 67 miles east
of Atlanta, the State capital. It is in a cotton-
growing region; has a large trade in that staple;
and contains cotton and woolen, rotton-secd oil,
bobbin, and hosiery mills, iron works, furniture
factories, and other industrial plants. It is the
seat of the L'niversity of Georgia, the State Col-
lege of Agriculture and Mechanic Arts, Lucy
Cobb Institute, Knox Institute, Jeruel Academy,
and a State Normal School. There are electric
light and street railway plants, two national
banks, several hotels, and daily, weekly, and
monthlj' periodicals. The assessed property
valuation exceeds $6,000,000. Athens was first
settled in 1801. Pop. (1904) 14.000.

Ath'ens (ancient Greek. Afheiiai), the cap-
ital of the kingdom of Greece, anciently the
capital of the State of Attica and the centre of
Greek culture. Its origin and early history are

shrouded in darkness. It is situated in the cen-
tral plain of Attica, about four miles from the
Saronic Gulf or Gulf of Athens, an arm of the
yEgean Sea, running in between the mainland
of Greece and the Peloponnesus. The site is
irregular, the city having been built on and
around several hills rising from the plain.
Mount Lycabettus, on the northeast, overlook-
ing the whole. The principal eminence within
the city boundary was the Acropolis, the site
first built on ; west from the Acropolis was a
lower hill, called the Areopagus ; southwest
from the Areopagus was the Pnyx and south
from the Pnyx the Museum ; toward the sea on
the south the view was unimpeded. On the
east of the city was the stream known as the
Ilissus, and on the west the Cephissus. The
Acropolis was often called Polis or the city,
from its having formed the original nucleus of
the town, while the whole city, or sometimes
only the lower city, as distinct from the Acro-
polis, was called Asty. In the Areopagus and
the line of hills that run north and south to the
west of it traces of numerous dwellings cut in
the rocks have recently been found. At its most
flourishing period, in the 5th century B.C.,
Athens w-as connected with its port-town
Pirseeus and the harbors of Pirseeus and ]Muny-
chia by two massive walls 550 feet apart, while
a third wall ran to the less important harbor of
Phalerum. The first was considered the most
convenient, and was one of the emporiums of
Grecian commerce. The surrounding coast was
covered with magnificent buildings, whose
splendor vied with those of the city. The walls
of rough stone which connected the harbors
with the city were so broad that carriages could
go on their top. The Acropolis contained the
most splendid works of art of which Athens
could boast. Its chief ornament was the Par-
thenon or Temple of Athena Parthenos (the
Virgin). This magnificent building was 228
feet long, loi broad, and 66 high. It was built
under the administration of Pericles, and fin-
ished in 438 B.C. It was of the Doric order of
architecture, and was built of marble, resting
upon a basement of limestone. It had columns
on all sides, 8 at either front and 17 at the sides,
counting the corner columns twice. These
columns were fully six feet in diameter at the
base, and 34 feet high. The structure was
adorned both within and without with statues,
reliefs, and other sculptures. Inside the temple
stood the statue of Athena by Phidias, a master-
piece of art, nearly 40 feet high, the unclothed
portions formed of ivory, the drapery of plates
of gold, the weight of which was estimated at 44
talents. The Propylaea, a magnificent building,
built of white marble, formed the entrance to
the Acropolis, of which it covered the whole
western end. A splendid marble stair, 70 feet
broad, led up to the Propylaea. The chief build-
ing on the Acropolis, in addition to the Parthe-
non and the Propylaea, was the Erechtheum, a
kind of double temple, especially sacred to
Athena Polias (or Athena, guardian of the
city), and Erechtheus, or Poseidon. On the
Acropolis also were other temples, altars, stat-
ues, etc.. including a colossal bronze statue of
Athena Promachos, 50 or 60 feet high. On the
south slope of the Acropolis were the theatre of
Dionysus, the Odeum of Pericles, and the later
Odeum of Herodes, the latter two buildings
being intended for musical competitions. In

ATHENS

the lower city the greatest pieces of architecture
were the temples of Theseus and Olympian
Zeus, one of which stood on the northwest, the
other on the southeast side of the Acropolis.
The first was of Doric architecture, and resem-
bled the Parthenon. On the metopes of this
temple the famous deeds of Hercules and The-
seus were excellently represented. The temple
of Zeus Olympius was of Corinthian architec-
ture, and was the largest temple in Athens, and
the greatest ever erected to the supreme deity
of the Greeks. It was begun by Pisistratus,
and continued from time to time until at length,
after 700 years, it was finished by Hadrian.
The outside of this temple was adorned by 120
fluted columns, 60 feet high, and 6 feet in diam-
eter. It was 354 feet long and 171 broad.
Other structures deserving of notice were the
Horologium of Andronicus Cyrrhestes or the
«Temple of the Winds," the choragic- monu-
ment of Lysicrates, and the Stoa Poikile or
gallery of paintings. Besides these wonderful
works of art Athens contained many other
places which must always be interesting from
the recollections connected with them. Such a
spot was the renowned Academy where Plato
taught, lying about six stadia north of the city,
and consisting of a gymnasium surrounded by
walks, groves, and fountains. Such a place was
the Lyceum, where Aristotle taught, and which,
through him, became the seat of the Peripatetic
School. It lay on the bank of the Ilissus, oppo-
site the city, and was also used for gymnastic
exercises. Not far from thence was the less
renowned Cynosarges. where Antisthenes, the
founder of the Cynic School, taught. The sects
of Zeno and Epicurus held their meetings in
the city. Zeno chose the well-known Poikile,
and Epicurus established himself in a garden
within the walls, for he loved both society and
rural quiet. Not only literarj', but political
assemblies gave a particular interest to different
places in Athens. Here was the court of Areo-
pagus, where that illustrious body gave their
decisions ; the Prytaneum or senate-house ; the
Pnyx, where the free people of Athens deliber-
ated. After 23 centuries of war and devasta-
tion, of changes from civilized to savage mas-
ters, have passed over this great city, its ruins
still excite astonishment. The northern wing
of the Propylsea is still tolerably perfect, and
the inner wall, with its five gateways leading
into the Acropolis, still stands. The Parthenon
remained almost entire till 1687, when it was
much injured by an explosion of gunpowder
during the siege of Athens by the Venetians.
It is now a magnificent ruin. Its two pedi-
ments represented, respectively, the contest of
Poseidon and Athena for Athens and the birth
of the goddess, while the metopes represented a
number of events in which the goddess or he-
roes connected with Athens took part. A great
number of these sculptures are now in the Brit-
ish Museum. In the whole of this mutilated
building we find an indescribable expression of
grandeur and sublimity. Near the Propylaea is
the small but elegant temple of Nike Apteros
(Wingless Victory), which having been de-
stroyed in 1687, was re-erected in 1835 from its
remains. There are well-preserved remains
to be seen of the Erechtheum. especially the
beautiful female figures called Caryatides, sup-
porting the roof of the southern portico. The

Temple of the Winds is still tolerably perfe'rt.
Its form is an octagon : on each side it is cov-
ered with reliefs, which represent one of the
principal winds. The choragic monument of
Lysicrates also remains. It consists of a ped-
estal surrounded by a colonnade, and is sur-
mounted by a dome of Corinthian architecture.
Outside of the city are the lofty ruins of the
temple of the Olympian Zeus. Of 120 pillars
16 remain, but none of the statues are in exist-
ence. The pedestals and inscriptions are scat-
tered here and there, and partly buried in the
earth. The main body of the temple of Theseus
has remained almost entire, and it now contains
a collection of ancient sculpture. On the hill
where the famous court of Areopagus held its
sittings are tO' be seen steps hewn in the rock,
places for the judges to sit, and over aga-'nst
these the stations of the accuser and the ac-
cused. The hill became a Turkish burial-
ground, and is covered with monuments. The
Pnyx, the place of assembly for the people, not
far from the Areopagus, is very nearly in its
primitive state. One may see the place from
which the orators spoke hewn in the rock, thf;
seats of the scribes, and at both ends the places
of those officers whose duty it was to preser-'e
silence, and to make known the events of puV
lic deHberations. The niches are still to be
seen where those who had any favor to ask of
the people deposited their petitions. The spot
occupied by the Lyceum is only known by a
quantity of fallen stones. The ground occu-
pied by the gardens of the Academy is still
well cultivated and fertile. The long walls are
totally destroyed, though the foundations are
yet to be found on the plain. The Piraeus has
scarcely anything of its ancient splendor, ex-
cept a few ruined pillars scattered here and
there, though it promises to become a handsome
modern town, and has again a harbor filled
with shipping, engaged in carrying on a con-
siderable trade. The most thorough investiga-
tion of the places among the ruins of Athens
worthy of attention is contained in Leake's
^Topography of Athens, with Some Remarks
on its Antiquities^ (1821, with an atlas in
folio; 2d ed. 1841). Other valuable works on
the same subject are such as Stuart and Rev-
ett's ^Antiquities of Athens^ (1762-1816) ;
Dodwell's *Tour Through Greece^ ; Words-
worth's ^Athens and Attica-* ; Curtius' ^Attische
Studien^ ; Dyer's "^Ancient Athens* ; and Wach-
smuth's "^Die Stadt Athen in Alterthum.* An-
cient Athens is believed to have had a popula-
tion of not more than 200,000.

Athens was at no time so splendid as under
the Antonines, when the magnificent works of
from eight to ten centuries stood in view, and
the edifices of Pericles were in equal preserva-
tion with the new buildings. Plutarch himself
wonders how the ancient structures could re-
tain such a perpetual freshness. Pausanias. wha
traveled in Greece at this time, that is, in the
2d century after Christ, has left a valuable ac-
count of the state of Athens as he saw it.
Many of the edifices of later times were due to
foreign potentates, rulers of Pergamus. of
Egypt, of Rome. But after a time the whole-
sale robberies of collectors, the removal of
great quantities of the works of art, first to^
Rome and then to Constantinople, Christian
zeal, and the attacks of barbarians, made sad

PARTHENON AND ACROPOLIS.

I. Acropolis from the Hill of the Museum. 2. Parthenon (west front) restored.

ATHENS — ATHERTON

inroads among the monuments. When Justin-
ian closed the schools of the philosophers in
529, Athens soon ceased to be a centre of intel-
lectual activity. The Parthenon was turned
into a church of the Virgin Mary, and Saint
George stepped into the place of Theseus. In
1456 Athens fell into the hands of the Turks,
under whom the Parthenon became a mosque.
When it was selected as the capital of the
modern kingdom in 1833, it had only a scanty
population inhabiting a scene of ruins.

Modern Athens lies mostly northward and
eastward from the Acropolis, and consists of
well-built streets, the most important being
Piratus, Athens, Stadion, and University.
Among the principal buildings are the royal
palace, the university, the academy of science
and art, the polytechnic, the national museum,
the observatory, the chamber of deputies, ex-
hibition buildings, new theatre, and new library.
The palace (1838-43) is a conspicuous but un-
attractive building of limestone with marble
portico. The National University, founded in
1837, is a handsome structure, with a large
number of teachers and an attendance of over
2,000 students. The academy is a beautiful
building faced with Pentelic marble ; the new
National Library is also a fine building, contain-
ing over 200,000 volumes, and so is the Poly-
technic School, part of which is occupied as a
museum, and contains the Schliemann and other
collections. Saint Nicodemus, the largest and
finest of the Byzantine churches (62 feet long
by 45 wide), dates from the nth century.
Athens is well equipped with educational insti-
tutions, possessing besides the National Uni-
versity and Polytechnic School, a number of
high schools, a gymnasium, a school for the
higher education of girls and female teachers,
orphanages for boys and girls, and four foreign
archaeological schools or institutes, the French,
German, American, and British. The city is
governed by a mayor elected every four years,
with a council of 18 members. There is a mu-
nicipal fire department and the city controls the
gas, electric light and waterworks, but the
water supply is so inefficient that the inhabi-
tants are obliged to have recourse to water-car-
riers. Street cars cross the city in all direc-
tions and it is an important railroad centre.
The bathing resort of Phaleron. adjoining the
Fort of Pirseus, is connected with Athens by
a suburban railroad. The city has very little
manufacturing, although the financial centre of
the kingdom, and its trade is concerned chiefly
with its own requirements. Pop. (1896)
1 1 1 ,486.

Ath'ens, Ohio, a town and county-seat
of Athens County, situated on the Baltimore &
O. S. W., the Toledo & O. C, the Hocking V.
& T., and the Kanawha & :\I. R.R.'s. Athens
was settled in 1797, and in 181 1 was incorp-
orated. The government is by a mayor, elected
every two years, and a village council. The
town owns and operates the waterworks. It is
the seat of Ohio State University fq.v.) and of
the Southeastern Ohio Insane Asylum, and
manufactures lumber and brick. Pop. (1900)
3,066.

Ath'ens, Tenn., a town and county-seat of
McMinn County, on the Southern R.R. half
way between Knoxville and Chattanooga, 56
miles to either city. The town was incorpor-

ated in 1868. It has woolen mills, spinning
mills, lumber factories and two newspapers. It
is the seat of Grant Memorial University (q.v.).
Pop. (1904) 2,600. w. T. Lane,

Editor *^ Athens Post.^

Ath'ens, Texas, city and county-seat of
Henderson County; at the junction of the
Saint Louis & S. and the Texas & N. O. R.R.'s.,
75 miles from Dallas. It is an important manu-
facturing town and has pressed brick, fire brick
and tile works, cotton oil mills, potteries, and
other industries. There are excellent public
schools, four churches, and two national banks.
Athens was first settled in 1850 and was incor-
porated as a city in 1901. Pop. (1900) 3,200.

Ath'ens of America, a name frequently ap-
plied to Boston, Mass., on account of her in-
tellectual and literary pre-eminence.

Ath'ens of the North, a name given to
Edinburgh, Scotland, on account of the pictur-
esqueness of the site and beauty of architecture,
as well as intellectual distinction. Copenhagen
also is often so called.

Ath'ens of the West, a name given to
Cordova, Spain, the centre of Arab learning
and culture in the Middle Ages.

Ath'ens, American School at, an institu-
tion for classical study, founded in Athens,
Greece, in 1882. It is affiliated with the Arch-
aeological Institute of America, and is man-
aged by a committee representing the colleges in
the United States which contribute to its sup-
port. The building was erected by means of
private subscriptions, on grounds donated by
the Greek government, and the institution has
an endowment of $50,000.

Ath'erine, a small fish, from five to six
inches long, called also the sandsmelt.

Atheroma, a term sometimes applied to
the process of arteriosclerosis as a whole, but
best restricted to that type of chronic degenera-
tion of the blood vessels associated with soften-
ing of the tissues and their infiltration with
the necrotic products, fat cholesterin, etc. See
Arteries, Dise.\ses of.

Atherton, Charles Gordon, American pol-
itician : b. Amherst, N. H., 1804; d. iNIanchester,
N. H., 15 Nov. 1853. He was graduated from
Harvard in 1822, was a member of the New
Hampshire legislature for five years and speaker
of the lower house for four, and in 1837-43 was
a Democratic representative from New Hamp-
shire in Congress. In 1843-9 and 1852-3 he
was a member of the Senate. On 11 Dec. 1838
he introduced in the house the so-called "Ather-
ton gag" resolution, which provided that all
bills or petitions on the subject of slavery
should be "laid on the table without being de-
bated, printed, or referred." The resolution
was passed by a vote of 126 to yj,, and remained
in effect until 1844. It was resolutely opposed
l^y J- Q- Adams, who advocated the "right of
petition.'' Adams was ultimately victorious, and
on 3 Dec. 1844 the 21st rule of the House, pro-
viding that no paper praying the abolition of
slavery or the slave trade should be in any wise
entertained, was abolished by a vote of 108 tc^
80. See G.^G-RULEs.

Atherton, George William, American edu-
cator: b. Boxford, Mass., 20 June 1837; d. Belle-
fonte, Pa., 24 July igo6. He worked his way

ATHERTON — ATHLETICS

through Phillips Kxeter Academy and Yale Col-
lege ; was professor of political economy and
constitutional law in Rutgers College, N. J., in
1869-82; was admitted to the bar of New Jersey
in 1878; and from 1882-1906 was president of
the Pennsylvania State College.

Ath'erton, Gertrude Franklin (Horn),
American novelist : b. San Francisco in 1857.
Since the death of her husband she has chiefly
pursued a literary career. She has written
'The Doomswoman* (1892): 'Before the
Gringo Came* (1894) ; <A Whirl Asunder'
(1895); 'Patience Sparhawk and Her Times'
(1897) ; 'American Wives and English Hus-
bands' (1898): 'The Californians' (1898); 'A
Daughter of the Vine' (1899) ; 'The Valiant
Runaways' (1899); ^Senator Worth' (1900);
'The Aristocrats' (1901) ; 'The Conqueror'
(1902); 'The Splendid Idle Forties' (1902). a
revision of 'Before the Gringo Came'; 'The
Bell in the Fog' (1905).

Ath'erton, a manufacturing town of Eng-
land, Lancashire, 13 miles northwest of Manches-
ter, containing cotton-factories, collieries, iron-
works. Pop. (1900) 16,200.

Ath'erton Res'olu'tions. See Gag Rules.

Athetosis, a peculiar movement, usually
cf the hands and fingers, occurring after some
destructive process in the brain. It is seen in
the young who have suffered severe injuries at
birth and sometimes following an apoplectic
stroke.

Ath'letes (Greek, athlctai), combatants who
took part in the public games of Greece; also
young men who went through the gymnastic
exercises to harden themselves and to become
fit to bear arms. In a narrower sense athletes
were those who made the athletic or gymnastic
exercises their principal business, particularly
wrestlers and boxers. Their business was to
contend at the public festivals, and they regu-
lated their habits of life for this end. Not onh^
the applause of the people, but also crowns and
statues, were conferred upon the victor. He
was led in triumph ; his name was written in
the public records ; and poets sang his praise.
He also received peculiar privileges, had a year-
ly pension, and the foremost seat at the sacred
games.

Athlet'ics, or Athletism, is the exhibition
of man's physical prowess in games of skill
and endurance, and though in the passing cen-
turies it has undergone many phases, it is prac-
tically the same to-day as when the Olympian
games, which were resumed at the Pan-Ameri-
can Exhibition at Buffalo in igoi, were originally
given 2,500 years ago, and Greece was in
her prime. Then not only Greek met Greek,
but the influence of the Olympian, Pythean, Ne-
mean and Isthmian games was felt to the far-
thest extremities of Asia. After the fall of
Rome, the mantle of physical prowess which
that nation had inherited from the Greeks, fell
upon the shoulders of the sturdy Norseman,
whose chief glory was in his individual capacity
to bear unflinchingly the stress and strain of con-
tests and the elements. They bred into the bone,
the hardihood, and love of personal achievement
which in turn carried the current through the
Dark Ages, even into those of the exaggerated
chivairy, which C'ervantes killed with ridicule

in 'Don Quixote.^ The spirit of the Greek,
Roman, and Norseman planted its seeds in the
hardy Anglo-Saxons, who in turn transplanted
them into Virginian and New England soils on
the northern continent of America, where its in-
fluence has been felt, even to the entire disap-
pearance of the softer Latin races' supremacy.
It is not surprising, therefore, that, with the dis-
appearance of the earlier modes of life of the
first settlers, calling for all the physical strain
that the human frame was capable of, and the
return of the comparative leisure which in early
youth now surrounds the American universities
and colleges, there has re-appeared a yearning
after opportunities to supply, artificially, if so it
must be, the stress and contest, physical effort,
and the proof of supremacy of the earlier ages,
when such conditions were compulsory. It was
in the blood, and it came out, much to the na-
tion's benefit. First in the form of isolated col-
lege and club contests, and subsequently in such
a volume as to need a separation of contests into
classes and the creation of an especial federa-
tion of the separate units, to regulate and control
it. In the beginning, athletics developed in this
or that college, or university, or club, acting
separately and indiscriminately in its scope. Ul-
timately the lines of natural cleavage forced
athletics into its two great branches : one out-
doors, commonly known as track-events ; the
other, those carried on in a gymnasium. The
out-door events are those which are now usually
meant when the term athletics is used. The de-
velopment of these came tentatively. First one
college, or university, or club, then another, or-
ganized outdoor contests, until at length the net
was spread over all the rising generation, and
the Amateur Athletic Union was formed, whose
fundamental rule is that "no person shall be
eligible to compete in any athletic meeting, game
or entertainment given or sanctioned by this
Union who has (i) received or competed for
compensation or reward, in any form, for the
display, exercise or example of his skill in or
knowledge of any athletic exercise, or for ren-
dering personal service of any kind to any ath-
letic organization, or for becoming or continuing
a member of an}' athletic organization; or (2)
has entered any competition under a name other
than his own, or from a club of which he was
not at that time a member in good standing;
or (3) has knowingly entered any competition
open to any professional or professionals, or has
knowingly competed with any professional for
anj' prize or token ; or (4) has issued or allowed
to be issued in his behalf any challenge to
compete against any professional, or for money;
or (5) has pawned, bartered or sold any prize
won in athletic competition ; or (6) is not a
registered athlete. Nor shall any person resid-
ing within the territory of any active member
of this Union be. eligible to compete for or tc«
enter any competition as a member of any club
in the territory of any other active member of
this Union, unless he shall have been elected to
membership in such club prior to i April 1891 ;
provided, however, that this restriction as to
residence shall not apply to undergraduates con-
nected with any allied college athletic organiza-
tion.

"No one shall be eligible to compete in any
athletic meeting, games or entertainment given
or sanctioned by this Union, unless he shall be

ATHLONE ; ATHOL

a duly registered athlete, a member of the or-
ganization from which he enters, and shall not
have competed from any club in this Union dur-
ing a period of three months next preceding
such entry ; nor shall any member of any club
in this Union, or any club in any district in this
Union be allowed to compete in case he has with-
in one year competed as a member of any other
club then in this Union, except with the consent
of such other club, which consent shall be filed
with the registration committee of his district
prior to such competition unless such other club
shall have disbanded or practically ceased to
exist ; provided that the requirements of this
section shall not apply to any athletic meeting,
games, or entertainment, the entries for which
are confined to the club or organization giving
such meeting or entertainment.

*'No athlete who has been released from a
club which is a member of this Union, and who
competes for another club directly thereafter,
shall be allowed to compete again for the club
he was released from for one year from the
date of his release, except that the club has
disbanded or ceased to exist.

"No person shall be eligible to compete for
or enter any competition as a member of any
club in the territory of any active member of
this Union, unless he shall have resided within
the territory of said active member at least four
months previous to entering for competition ;
nor shall any person be eligible to enter or
compete in anj' district championship meeting
unless he shall have been a bona-fide resident
of such district for at least six months prior
to the holding of such championship meeting ;
and no person shall be eligible to compete in a
championship meeting of more than one dis-
trict in one year. The restrictions contained m
this section shall not afifect the eligibility of an
undergraduate connected with any allied college
athletic organization who shall have been elect-
ed to membership in any club of this Union prior
to 20 Nov. 1899, to represent such club as
long as he remains an undergraduate; nor shall
these restrictions apply to an undergraduate com-
peting for any college belonging to an allied
body.*

The Amateur Athletic Union (A.A.U.) of the
United States has jurisdiction over the following
out-door sports among amateurs : Baseball, bi-
cycling, boating, bowling, cross-country running,
football, hurdle-racing, jumping, lacrosse, lawn-
tennis, pole-vaulting, putting the weight, quoits,
racquets, running, skating, sculling, swimming,
throwing the hammer, throwing weights, tug of
war, and walking. The Union consists of the
Metropolitan Assoc, comprising the States of
New York and New Jersey, north of Trenton ;
the N'ctv England Assoc, comprising Maine,
New Hampshire, Vermont, Massachusetts,
Rhode Island, and Connecticut; the Atlantic
Assoc, comprising New Jersey, south of and
including Trenton, Delaware, Maryland, Penn-
sylvania, West Virginia, District of Columbia,
Virginia, North Carolina, South Carolina, Flor-
ida, and Georgia; the Central Assoc, comprising
Ohio, Illinois, Indiana, Michigan, Wisconsin,
Iowa, Minnesota ; the Pacific Assoc, compris-
ing California. Arizona, Nevada, Utah, Idaho,
Oregon, and Washington ; the Southern Assoc,
comprising Alabama, Louisiana. Florida, Mis-
sissippi, Texas, Georgia, and Tennessee; the

JJ'estern Assoc, comprising Missouri, Wyom-
ing, Arkansas, Oklahoma, South Dakota, North
Dakota, Indian Territory, Kansas, Kentucky,
New Mexico, and Colorado; and the Pacific
N^ortlizvest Assoc, comprising Idaho. Mon-
tana, Oregon, Washington, and Alaska. All
its meetings are under the direction of "a
games committee," one referee, two or more in-
spectors, three judges at finish, three or more
timekeepers, a starter, a clerk of the course, a
scorer, and a marshal ; besides which all the con-
ditions and restrictions for various events: the
number of throws allowed, the size of the area
of preliminary effort, as in shot-putting, etc.,
are subject to definitions from time to time
prornulgated, and imposed, by virtue of the au-
thority of the A. A. U. in meeting assembled.

The athletic events at outdoor field meetings
are for 100, 220, 440, and 880 yards run ; i and 5
mile run ; i and 3 mile walk ; 2 mile bicycle ride ;
pole vault for height ; running high and broad
jumps: throwing 16-pound hammer; throwing
56-pound weight, for distance; putting 16-pound
shot; 120 yards hurdle-race, 10 flights 3 feet 6
inches high ; 220 yards hurdle-race, 10 flights 2
feet 6 inches high ; and at indoor meetings, for
runs of 75, 150, 300, 600, and 1,000 yards; 2
mile run ; three quarter mile and 4 mile walk ;
standing, broad, and high jumps; three stand-
ing broad jumps; running hop. step, and jump;
pole vault for distance ; throwing 56-pound
weight for height ; putting 24-pound shot ; 200
yards hurdle-race, 10 flights 3 feet 6 inches
high ; 300 yards hurdle-race, 10 flights 2 feet 6
inches high ; and tug of war, 4 men, unlimited
\\eight. The associations award in each year
three prizes for all-round excellence to the three
athletes making the highest three aggregate
scores, and two prizes for individual excellence.
The Intercollegiate Association of Amateur Ath-
letes of America is the governing body of inter-
college athletics. Its championships must be
won at the annual meeting. See also Gym-
XASTics ; Educational Athletics.

Bibliography. — Stonehange, 'Rural Sports,^
illustrated: Cassell, 'Sports and Pastimes,^
with 700 illustrations; 'Athletics' (by various
authors) in the 'Encyclopedia of Sport' ; James
Sullivan, "Athletic Almanacks' (issued yearly).

Athlone, ath-lon', a town of Ireland, on
the Shannon, about 67 miles west b}' north of
Dublin. It is divided by the river into two nearly
equal parts, which communicate by a handsome
stone bridge of five arches. It is one of the
chief depots for troops and military stores ; and
the barracks, occupying a height above the river,
can accommodate 1,500 men, and have attached
an ordnance yard, magazines, and armory pro-
vided with 15,000 stand of arms. By means of
a canal the Shannon has been rendered navigable
for 71 miles above the town, which, being also
terminus of four important railways, carries on a
brisk trade. The chief industrial establishment
is an extensive woolen factory, and there are
also large saw-mills. Pop. (1891) 6,742.

Ath'ol, ^lass., a town in Worcester
County, on Miller's River, and the Boston &
A., and Fitchburg R.R.'s ; 26 miles northwest of
Worcester. It contains several villages, has
electric railways connecting with the suburbs,
and is principally engaged in the manufacture
of cotton warps, shoes, sewing-silk, fine me-
chanical tools matches, organ-cases, pocket-

ATHOL — ATKINSON

books, billiard-tables, and furniture. The town
has two national banks, public library, high
school, several weekly and monthly periodicals,
and a property valuation exceeding $4,000,000.
Pop. (1900) 7,061.

Athol, ath'61, or Athole, a mountainous
and romantic district, situated in the north of
Perthshire, Scotland. It gives the title of duke
to a branch of the house of Murray, and the
duke owns the greater part of the district.

Athor, a'thor, Hathor, or Hether, an Egyp-
tian goddess, identified with Aphrodite (Venus).
Her symbol was the cow bearing between its
horns the solar disk and hawk feather plumes.
Her chief temple was at Denderah. From her
the third month of the Egyptian year derived
its name.

Athos, now Hagion Oros or Monte Sanio
(Holy Mountain), a high mountain in European
Turkey, forming the extremity of a long chain of
mountains which runs through a peninsula jut-
ting into the Archipelago. The peninsula is
about 30 miles long and 5 miles broad. It is
covered with forests of various kinds of trees,
and with vineyards and plantations of olive and
other fruit-trees. The surface is very irregular,
and the coast displays numerous creeks and in-
lets of the sea. In ancient history the peninsula
is mentioned chiefly on account of the ship-
wreck which here befell the Persian fleet under
Mardonius in 493 B.C., and on account of the
canal which, in order to avoid a similar calam-
ity, Xerxes caused to be cut through the isth-
mus that joins the peninsula to the mainland.
The whole peninsula, as well as the mountain,
which is about 6,700 feet above the level of the
sea, receives the name of Athos. It contains
some 20 monasteries, and a multitude of her-
mitages, inhabited by about 6,000 monks and her-
mits, of the Order of St. Basil. They are ex-
tremely industrious : they diligently cultivate the
soil, grow vines and olives, vegetables, etc., and
actively engage in fishing, and they also carve
statues of the saints, Agni Dei. crucifixes, rosa-
ries, etc., which they send to the small town of
Karyes, on the mountain, where weekly markets
are held, and to the rest of Europe, especially to
Russia. They also collect alms to pay their
heavy yearly tax to the Porte. There is an
academy in which the younger monks receive in-
struction in various subjects. The libraries of
the monasteries are rich in literary treasures,
particularly in manuscripts, partly procured from
Constantinople before its conquest by the Turks,
partly presented to them from the same place,
and partly written by the laborious monks.
Many books have been brought thence to the
great collections at Paris, Vienna, etc., and the
rest are but little used among the monks them-
selves. Their monasteries and churches are the
only ones in the Ottoman empire w'hich have
bells. Every nation belonging to the Greek
Church has here one or more monasteries of
its own, annually visited by pilgrims from Rus-
sia, Servia, Bulgaria, etc., as well as from Greece,
Asia Minor, and Constantinople. The privileges
which the members of the various establish-
ments enjoy they owe to Murad II., who, on
account of their voluntary submission, even be-
fore the capture of Constantinople, granted them
his protection. Hermits were established on
Athos in the middle of the 9th century, and the

first monastery, that of St. Lavra, w^as founded
by the monk Athanasius in 968.

Athos, a'tds', a character who figures in
Dumas' 'Musketeer^ novels. He is one of the
three guardsmen associated with d'Artagan.

Athy, a-thi', a market-town in Ireland, ^7
miles southwest of Dublin, with Protestant and
Roman Catholic churches, extensive county jail,,
police barracks, etc. It has a large trade in
corn, by canal and river, and is an important
railway-station.

Atitlan, a'te-tlan', a lake, mountain and
town of Central America, in Guatemala. The
lake is about 24 miles long and 10 broad ; the
mountain an active volcano, 12,160 feet high.
The town, known also as Santiago de Atitlan,.
is located on the side of the mountain, and is
chiefly known for its medicinal springs. Pop.
(1903) about 10,000.

At'ka Mackerel. See Greenling.

At'kinsoHj Edward, American economist:
b. Brookline, Mass., 10 Feb. 1827; d. Boston,
II Dec. 1905. He invented a cooking-stove
called the << Aladdin Oven.» and was president
of the Boston ^Manufacturers" Mutual Fire In-
surance Co. since 1878. His wide reputation was
due chiefly to the fact that for 40 years he was
a prolific writer of pamphlets on economic, com-
mercial, and political subjects, including banking,
competition, railroads, fire-prevention, economic
legislation, industrial education, the money and
tariff questions, and colonial expansion. He
vigorously opposed the war in the Philippines,
and during 1899-1900 published the ^Anti-Impe-
rialist' in support of his views. The following is
a selected list of his more important publications :
^ Cheap Cotton by Free Labor' (1861) ; < Collec-
tion of Revenue' (1866) ; ^Reform of the Legal-
Tender Act' (1874) ; *The Fire-Engineer, the
Architect, and the Underwriter' (1880) ; 'Dis-
tribution of Products' (1885) ; ^The Margin of
Profit' (1887) ; ^Taxation and Work' : < Science
of Nutrition' ; ^Prevention of Loss b}- Fire.'

At'kinson, George Francis, American
botanist: b. Raisinville, Mich., 26 Jan. 1854.
He was educated at Olivet College, Michigan,
and Cornell University, and taught general zo-
ology, biology, and entomology in the universi-
ties of North Carolina, South Carolina, and the
Alabama Agricultural and Mechanical College.
He was assistant and professor of cryptogamic
botany at Cornell, 1892-6, and professor of bot-
any there since 1896. He has written: ^Biology
of Ferns' ; 'Stories of Plant Life' ; Studies of
American Fungi.'

At'kinson, John, American clergj-man: b.
Deerfield, N. J., 6 Sept. 1835 ; d. Haverstraw,
N. Y.. 8 Dec. 1897. He entered the Methodist
niinistrj-- in 1853, and held pastorates in Newark,
Jersey City, Chicago, Bay City, Adrian, and
Haverstraw. He was the author of the hymn
'Shall We Meet Beyond the River.' He wrote:
'The Living Way' (1856) ; 'Memorials of
Methodism in New Jersey' (2d ed. i860) ;
'The Garden of Sorrows' (1868) ; 'Centennial
History of American Methodism' (1884).

At'kinson, John Christopher, noted Eng-
lish clergyman and antiquary: b. Eddhangor,
England, 1814; d. 1900. He was for half a cen-
tury vicar of the parish of Danby in the North
Riding of Yorkshire, which he has described ia

ATKINSON ; ATLANTA

his delightful 'Forty Years in a Moorland Par-
ish^ (1891). He wrote much on natural history,
and his ^ Walks, Talks, Travels and Exploits of
Two School-Boys* (1859) ; *Play Hours and
Half Holidays* (1880); ^ British Birds' Eggs
and Xests* (1861), and <The Last of the Giant
Killers* (1891), have been widely read.

At'kinson, Thomas, American bishop: b.
Mansfield, Va., 6 Aug. 1807; d. Wilmington,
N. C, 4 Jan. 1881. He was graduated from
Hampden-Sidney College, Virginia, in 1825, and
practised law for nine years. Ordained priest in
the Episcopal Church in 1837, he served as rec-
tor in Norfolk and Lynchburg, Va., and Balti-
more, Md., whence he was elected third bishop
of North Carolina, 26 May 1853. He was an
able administrator and prominent in the coun-
cils of his Church. He published various ser-
mons and Episcopal charges.

Atlanta, the capital of Georgia and the
countj'-seat of Fulton County, is situated at the
foot of the Appalachian chain of mountains on
the ridge dividing the watershed of the Atlantic
Ocean from that of the Gulf of Mexico. The al-
titude of 1,050 feet at the lowest point and 1,100
feet at the highest, makes the climate cooler than
the latitude, 23° 44' 58-8", would indicate, and
the air has a bracing effect conducive to mental
and physical vigor. This commanding site was
determined by the building of railroads in the
first half of the 19th century. The village of
Marthasville was first a terminus of the line
from Savannah and INIacon. As one road after
another centred there, the place grew rapidly;
its destiny as a business centre was foreseen, and
the name changed to Atlanta. Here eastern and
western traffic meet. Atlanta was an important
strategic point in the Civil War. In 1861 it be-
came a depot of Confederate military supplies,
and this made it an objective point in Gen
Sherman's march to the sea. After a siege of
several weeks he occupied the city (see Jones-
BORO, Battle of, and Fall of Atlanta), and by
his order it was bvirned 17 Nov. 1864. In later
years Gen. Sherman described the strategic posi-
tion of Atlanta by comparing it to the wrist of
a hand whose fingers reached the five principal
ports of the gulf and south Atlantic coast.
During the Spanish war the city was headquar-
ters for the Department of the Gulf. Twice the
test of war has approved the site, and twice a
city has been built on the same spot. In 1865 the
militarj^ government of Georgia was established
there. The legislature removed from Milledge-
ville, and Atlanta became the capital of the
state during the reconstruction era. It was made
the permanent capital by vote of the people in
1877, and the capitol building was completed in
1889 at a cost of $1,000,000. The exterior is of
oolitic limestone, and the interior is ornamented
with Georgia marble. The Cotton Exposition of
1881, projected by citizens of Atlanta, was a
rallying point for southern industry. Atlanta
now became the business centre of the southeast-
ern States and shared the general growth. From
39,000 in 1880, its population grew to 89.872 in
1900. At the beginning of 1903 the number of
buildings indicated loo.ooc population. A postal
census then gave a population of 110,000 in the
city and suburbs. The city assessment showed
^57,000,000 of taxable wealth. A second exposi-
tion, held in 1895, greatly stimulated the growth

of business. Bank clearings increased from
$56,000,000 in 1894 to $131,000,000 in 1902. In
same period bank deposits grew from less than
$4,000,000 to $12,750,000. Business has recently
increased four times as fast as population, al-
though that has grown at the rate of 4 per cent
a year. The increase of postal receipts in 1902
was 16 per cent, and that of bank clearings 18 per
cent. Postal receipts for the year ending 30
June 1902, were $415,546.14. Congress has ap-
propriated $200,000 for an entire block of ground
upon which to erect a $1,000,000 post-office. The
wholesale and retail trade of the year 1902 is es-
timated at $50,000,000. The mule market is one
of the most important in the country. Sales for
the year 1902-03 are estimated at 62,500 head,
valued at $7,000,000. Total trade and manufac-
tures, $80,000,000. As a manufacturing centre,
Atlanta's strength is in variety. The census of
1900 reported 395 establishments with $16,085,-
114 of capital, 9,368 wage-earners, $3,106,039 to-
tal wages, and $16,721,899 of products. An in-
vestigation made by the Atlanta Chamber of Com-
merce in December 1902, showed that the prod-
ucts had increased to $20,400,000, the wage-earn-
ers to 11,000, and the total wages to $1,600,000.
The most important products are cotton
goods, fertilizers, gins, engines, car-wheels, ma-
chinery, lumber, sheet-metal work, terra-cotta,
brick, wagons, carriages and buggies, furniture,
confectionery, crackers, cigars, coffins, chemicals,
printing, lithographir.g, electrotyping, engraving,
paper-bags, flour and meal, paints, varnish, cot-
ton-seed oil and cake, ice, harness, belting, hos-
iery, suspenders, underwear, neckwear, woolen
goods, clothing, trunks, and condiments.

The factories of the city use 45,000 horse-
power furnished by steam and electricity. A
massive masonry dam is under construction at
Bull Sluice Shoals on the Chattahoochee, and a
plant costing $2,000,000, to be completed by the
middle of 1904, will deliver 11,000 horse-power
of electric current in the city. This has given
a new impetus to manufacturing, much of the
additional power having been taken in advance
of completion. Atlanta's central position has
made it southern headquarters for large busi-
ness concerns. It is the third insurance centre
of the United States, with premium collections
estimated at $8,000,000 per annum, and is head-
quarters for the railways, telegraphs, telephones,
and the large industrial corporations doing busi-
ness in the southern or southeastern States.
The concentration of these interests has created
such a demand for quarters that Atlanta has
more fire-proof office buildings than any other
southern city. A fire-proof hotel with over 300
rooms was recently completed. With other ex-
cellent hotels, Atlanta has been famous for many
years as "A Convention City.** Atlanta is the
most important centre of publication for news-
papers and periodicals in the southern States.
The postal receipts for second-class matter were
$44,064.76 in the fiscal year ending with June
1902, exceeding that of Brooklyn, Baltimore,
Buffalo, Washington city. Omaha, New Orleans,
Louisville, and Indianapolis.

The public school system embraces gramrnar
schools and high schools, with 14,000 pupils.
Three business colleges have 700 students.
Medical and dental colleges have 800. Tw<
female colleges, a female seminary, and several
select schools for boys have an attendance of 550

ATLANTA UNIVERSITY —ATLANTIC OCEAN

The Georgia Institute of Technology, with 481
students, is the most important institution for
higher education. It has textile, mechanical en-
gineering, and electrical engineering schools, and
machine-shop practice, in addition to literary and
scientific courses. The total number of students
in these institutions for white youth is 2,500. A
site has been given and funds are partially
raised for a Presbyterian university, the total
investment of which will be $1,000,000.

There are six institutions for the higher edu-
cation of colored youth, with a total attendance
of 2,265. They include literary and scientific
schools, theology, industrial training, and a
training school for nurses. Charities are nu-
merous and include such educational features as
free kindergartens, night schools, and three or-
phan asylums. Grady Hospital is supported by
the city ; St. Joseph's Infirmary by the Roman
Catholics, and the Presbyterian Hospital by the
Presbyterians. Private hospitals or sanatoriums
are numerous and well equipped. There are two
theatres with 2,500 and 2,000 seating capacity,
and two lyceum or lecture associations. Carne-
gie Library is a white marble building in classic
style, and contains 20,000 volumes. The book
circulation is 11.000, one fourth among juveniles.
There are 131 churches, including missions, and
the attendance in fair weather averages 25 per
cent of the population. The total membership
exceeds a third of the population. Railway fa-
cilities include 10 radiating lines, five of which
belong to the Southern Ry., and three controlled
by the Louisville & N. system. A union depot
to cost $900,000 is under construction. Belt lines
complete the terminal system. Local transporta-
tion is unified in a system of well-equipped street
railways, covering 142 miles of track, 100 miles
within the cit}^ the rest extending eight miles
out. The area of the city is 11 square miles, and
the boundary a circle of SV2 miles diame-
ter, extended in two suburbs. Street im-
provements since 1880 cost $3,807,667, including
100 miles of sewers, 63 of paved streets, 227 of
sidewalks. Six miles of streets are paved with
asphalt, the remainder with granite blocks, ma-
cadam, and vitrified brick. The city waterworks
takes its supply from the Chattahoochee River
above Peachtree Creek, in a sparsely populated
district. By settling and filtration water is puri-
fied. Two engines of 15,000,000 gallons daily
capacity each pump it into the city. The con-
sumption in 1902 was 8,966,000 gallons a day.
For domestic use water is supplied at 10 cents
per thousand gallons. At this rate, with some
reduction to manufacturers, the city makes a
profit. Fire, police, sanitary, and other city de-
partments are well equipped and efficient. The
city government is administered bv a mayor and
general council. Appropriation bills are voted
separately by two legislative branches, and the
mayor has a veto. Bonded debt is limited by
State Constitution to 7 per cent of the taxable
wealth. The charter requires a sinking fund to
retire all borias m 30 years from date of issue.
Atlanta is one of ten cities designated bv the
secretary of the treasury whose bonds might be
used as security for federal deposits. The tax
rate is i^ per cent and the assessment averages
60 per cent of actual value.

The cool and invigorating climate makes At-
lanta a desirable place of residence, the mean
summer temperature being 77 ; winter 44. Streets
are made attractive by grassy lawns and shade

trees. Grant Park, Piedmont Park, Lakewood.
East Lake, Ponce De Leon Spring, and the Chat-
tahoochee River are outing resorts. A bill has
been introduced in Congress to make a national
military park on the battle ground north of the
city. Public spirit is strong in Atlanta. The
Chamber of Commerce, Clearing House Associa-
tion, Credit Men's Association, Manufacturers'
Association, and Freight Bureau are organs for
concerted action among business men. The
Greater Georgia Association, projected by the
Atlanta Chamber of Commerce, unites the ef-
forts of Georgia towns, cities, and counties to
develop the resources of the State. Fraternal
and social organizations are numerous and ac-
tive. Religious denominatioas are well organ-
ised. \v. G. Cooper.

Atlan'ta University, a co-educational (non-
sectarian) institution, in Atlanta, Ga., organized
in 1869. In 1905 it had 18 professors, 340 stu-
dents, 12,000 volumes in the library, grounds and
buildings valued at $250,000; productive funds,
$54,000; benefactions, $36,000, and an income of
$54,000, graduates 508.

Atlantes, at'-lan'tez, in architecture, colos-
sal statues of men used instead of pillars to
support an entablature. Roman architects called
them tclaiuoncs (Greek).

Atlan'tic, Iowa, a city and county-seat of
Cass County, situated on the Chicago, R. I. &
P. R.R., 80 miles southwest of Des Moines.
It has various manufacturing interests, includ-
ing iron and bridge works, planing mills, can-
ning factories, starch-works, soap-factory, and
two machine shops. It was chartered as a city
in 1869. Pop. (1900) 5,046.

Atlan'tic City, N. J., a city and seaside
resort in Atlantic County ; on the Atlantic Ocean
and on the Reading and the Pennsylvania R.R.'s.
It is built on a long, sandy island, known as
Absecom Beach, 60 miles southeast of Phila-
delphia. The island stretches along the coast
for 10 miles ; has an average width of three
fourths of a mile, and is from four to five miles
from the mainland. At the north end is the
Absecom Light, well known to coastwise sailors.
The city has several miles of bathing beach, a
magnificent promenade on the ocean front, nearly
100 hotels and boarding houses, electric lights,
public schools, churches of the principal de-
nominations, seven national banks, and daily,
weekly, and monthly periodicals. It is probably
the most important all-the-year-round resort in
the United States, its splendid climate giving it
a large popular patronage even in the dead of
winter. The assessed property valuation exceeds
$14,000,000. A fire in April 1902 destroyed many
hotels and other buildings and led to a mu-
nicipal enactment that all structures henceforth
erected within the municipal limits must be
fireproof. Atlantic City was first settled in
1854. It is governed by a mayor and a city
council of 17 elected by popular vote. Pop.
(1890) 13,055; (1900) 33,000; (in summer)
150,000.

Atlan'tic Ocean, the vast expanse of water
lying between the w^estern coasts of Europe and
Africa, and the eastern coasts of North and
South America, and extending from the Arctic
to the Antarctic Seas. Its greatest breadth is
between the western coast of North Africa and
the eastern coast of Florida in North America,

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H J|.. iiH

CARNEGIE LIBRARY.

mamssa

GEORGIA SCHOOL OF TECHNOLOGY.

ATLANTIC OCEAN

a distance of 4,150 miles. If the Gulf of Mexico,
in reality one of its bays, be included, it will
extend to 5,000 miles. Its least breadth, between
Norway and Greenland, is about 930 miles. Be-
tween Cape St. Roque, Brazil, and Sierra Leone,
the breadth is 1,730 miles. Its superficial extent
has been estimated at 25,000,000 square miles.
From the number and extent of its inlets, gulfs,
and bays, its coast lines are of great length, the
eastern being upward of 32,000 miles, and the
western upward of 55,000. Its principal inlets
and bays are Baffin and Hudson bays, the Gulfs
of Mexico, Honduras, and San Juan, the North
Sea or German Ocean, the Bay of Biscay, and
the Gulf of Guinea. The principal islands north
of the equator are Iceland, the Faroe, and Brit-
ish islands, the Azores, Canaries, and Cape de
Verd islands, Newfoundland, Cape Breton, and
the West India islands ; and south of the equa-
tor, Ascension, St. Helena, Trinidad, Columbus,
and Tristan da Cunha, the last three being mere
rocks.

Currents. — The great currents of the Atlantic
are of two kinds, drift and stream. Drift cur-
rents are produced by the wind, either by the
perpetual or trade winds, or by prevailing winds.
Those having the former origin are constant,
running always in the same direction, and gen-
erally with a nearly equal velocitj' ; those having
the latter are not so constant, neither do they
always run in the same direction, nor at a simi-
lar rate. The drift currents produced by the
trade winds are found between the tropics ; those
resulting from prevailing winds, north and south
of the parallels of 30°. Stream currents are due
indirectly to the influence of winds, being pro-
duced by drift currents, of which they are con-
tinuations. As these currents travel for great
distances they meet with many obstacles in
their course, which result in changes of direction.
A stream current may thus be successively pro-
pelled by different currents, or consist in the
combination of different stream currents. A
third kind of currents is produced by the flow of
the water to restore the level disturbed by other
currents. This is called a current of indraught.
The great currents of the Atlantic are the Gulf
Stream, the equatorial current — which may be
divided into the main equatorial current, the
north equatorial current, and the south equa-
torial currents — the North African and Guinea
current, the South connecting current, the South-
ern Atlantic current. Cape Horn current, Rennel
current, and the Arctic current.

The Gulf Stream is a continuation of the
main equatorial current, and partly of the north
equatorial current, both western drift currents
produced by the trade winds. The former
passes across the Atlantic to the American
coast, upon which it strikes from Cape St. Roque
to the Antilles. On being turned by the coast
it runs along it at a rate of 30 to 50 miles per
day, and sometimes at a higher speed, till it
enters the Gulf of Mexico, from which, having
previously received part of the waters of the
north equatorial current, it issues between Flo-
rida and Cuba under the name of the Gulf
Stream. It afterward flows nearly parallel to
the coast of the United States, separated from it
by a belt of cold water. Off Cape Hatteras it
spreads into an expanding channel, reaching a
breadth of 167 miles, and consisting of three
warm sections with two cold belts interposed.

On passing Sandy Hook it turns east and con-
tinues to be recognizable, partly by the blue color
derived^from the silt of the Mississippi, till about
Ion. 30° W., where, with a greatly diminished
temperature, it is found flowing nearly due
east. The equatorial current, so called from its
being under the line, commences on the western
coast of Africa, about lat. 10° S., or nearly
opposite St. Paul de Loando. From this point
it pursues a northwest direction till it makes
Ion. 0°, when it proceeds due west on both sides
of the equator, till it arrives at Cape St. Roque
in South America, when it is divided into two
branches, one running along the Guiana coast,
and into the Gulf of Mexico, as already men-
tioned, the other along the coast of Brazil, and
so called the Brazil current. The latter is re-
inforced by the south equatorial current, which,
however, is not distinctly separable from the
main equatorial current. The length of the
equatorial current, from the coast of Africa to
Cape St. Roque, is 2,500 miles. Its breadth near
the commencement is 185 miles; opposite Cape
Palmas, 420; and before dividing, about Ion.
31° or 32° W., it is 510. Its average velocity,
which is greater in summer than in winter, is
from 25 to 30 miles a day. The North African
and Guinea current originates between the
Azores and Cape Finisterre in Spain. It flows
in a southeasterly direction, and after sending
a mass of water into the ^lediterranean it pur-
sues a southerly course to Cape Mesurada, south
of Sierra Leone, keeping at a considerable dis-
tance from the land. It then flows rapidly for
1,000 miles due east to the Bight of Biafra,
v/here it seems to mingle with the equatorial
current. It is led from the west by the Guinea
counter current, a back flow of water between
the main and the north equatorial currents. The
south connecting current strikes across the
South Atlantic from the Brazil current, then
turns north, and finally joins the great equa-
torial current. The South Atlantic or South
African current originates north of the Cape of
Good Hope, from which it flows in a northwest-
erly direction, at a rate of from 15 to 30 miles
a day, and eventually merges into the equatorial
current. Cape Horn current flows constantly
from the Antarctic and South Seas into the
Atlantic Ocean, its general direction being east-
northeast and northeast. Rennel current, which
is possibly a continuation of the Gulf Stream,
enters the Bay of Biscay from the west, curves
round its coast, and then turns northwest to-
ward Cape Clear in Ireland. The Greenland or
Arctic current runs along the east coast of
Greenland to Cape Farewell : having doubled
this cape, it flows up toward Davis Strait, from
which it receives an inflow of water, and then
turns to the south along the coast of Labrador,
and continues along the coast of the United
States, from which it separates the Gulf Stream
by a cold band of water. Immense masses of
ice are borne south by this current from the
Polar seas, and carried into warmer regions,
where they gradually dissolve and disappear.
In the interior of the North Atlantic there is a
large area comparatively free from currents, ly-
ing between 20° and 30° N. and 30° to 60"
W. It is called the Sargasso Sea, from the
large quantity of sea weed which drifts into it.
A similar area exists in the South Atlantic, to
which the same name is occasionally applied by

ATLANTIC TELEGRAPH — ATLAS

analog>% though it is destitute of sea weed. It
extends between 20° and 30'' S. and 0° and
25° W. Besides the surface currents, recent
investigation has established the existence of a
general oceanic circulation, consisting of an un-
der current of cold water flowing from the
Poles to the equator, and an upper current of
warm water from the equator to the Poles.

The winds of the Atlantic are not peculiar to
that ocean, but identical with those that prevail
in the same latitudes in the other seas around the
globe. The most remarkable of these are the
perennial or trade winds, which blow constantly
in one direction, namely, from east to west, or
nearly so. The tract of the trade winds to the
north of a zone, which is almost always found
on the north side of the equator, is called the
region of the northeast trade wind, from blow-
ing one or two points north of east ; that to the
south, the region of the southeast trade wind,
from blowing south of east. The northeast
trade wind blows with less steadiness than the
southeast, but toward the West India islands
it keeps generally steady between east and
northeast. The trade winds are constant only
at a considerable distance from land, and be-
come more steady the greater the expanse of
water over which they blow.

Depths. — The greatest depth yet discovered
in the Atlantic is to the north of the island
of Porto Rico, in the West Indies, namely,
27,366 feet. Formerly depths of 40,000 or
50,000 feet were reported, but this was owing
to defective sounding apparatus. The geog-
raphy of the ocean bed is now pretty well
known, especially in the North Atlantic. Cross-
sections of the North Atlantic between Europe
and America show that its bed may be repre-
sented as exhibiting two great valleys lying in
a northerly and southerly direction, and separat-
ed by an intervening ridge. Each of these val-
leys is about 500 miles in width. The mean
depth of the east valley is about 14,000 or 15,000
feet, and it can be traced from the equator to
the latitude of the Faroes, where it terminates,
or over an extent of 3,700 miles. The west
valley has a maximum depth of 16,800 feet, and
can be traced from the latitude of the Azores
as far north as Greenland, where it bifurcates,
the deeper portion pointing north up Baffin
Bay. The submarine ridge dividing these two
valleys appears to be very uniform in depth
below the surface, having 1,600 fathoms of wa-
ter above it from the Azores to the latitude
of the Hebrides. It then rises gradually till at
last it culminates in Iceland. On this plateau
the Atlantic telegraph cables have been laid,
and from it the first specimens of deep-sea
mud were brought up. This was found on
examination by the microscope to consist to
a large extent of calcareous shells {Foramini-
fera), not water-worn, but quite perfect, show-
ing that the water at such depths can have
little or no motion. No sandy particles were
found in the mud. The South Atlantic is not
so well known as the North, but so far as
soundings yet prove it has not a greater depth
than the latter, the greatest depth found being
2,900 fathoms, in lat. 28° S. It would ap-
pear to be separated from the North Atlantic
by a rocky ridge, on which rest the islands of
Ascension, Fernando de Noronha, and St. Paul.
The saltness and specific gravity of the Atlantic

differ in various parts, and gradually diminish
from the tropics to the poles, and also from
within a short distance of the tropics to the
equator. In the neighborhood of the British
Isles the salt is given as one thirty eighth of the
weight of the water. See Ocean Current.

Atlan'tic Telegraph. See Telegraph.

Atlan'tides, a name given to the Pleiades,
the seven daughters of Atlas or of his brother
Hesperus.

Atlan'tis, or Atlan'tica, a large island
traditionally asserted to have once existed in
the ocean immediately beyond the Strait of
Cades ; that is, in what is now called the
Atlantic Ocean, a short distance west of the
Strait of Gibraltar. Homer, Horace, and some
others made two Atlanticas, distinguished as
the Hesperides and the Elysian Fields, and be-
lieved to be the abodes of the blessed. Plato
states that an easy passage existed from the
one Atlantis into other islands, which lay near
a continent exceeding in size all Europe and
Asia. Some have thought this America. At-
lantis is represented as having ultimately sunk
beneath the waves, leaving only isolated rocks
and shoals in its place. Geologists have discov-
ered that the coast line of western Europe did
once run farther in the direction of America
than now ; but its submergence seems to have
taken place long before historic times. *^The
New Atlantis^ is the title which Lord Bacon
gives to a literary fragment, in which he sketch-
ed out an ideal commonwealth.

Atlan'tis, a romance of the antediluvian
world, by Ignatius Donnelly (1882).

Atlan'tosau'rus. See Camarasaurus.

Atlas, an extensive mountain system in
North Africa, starting near Cape Nun, on the
Atlantic Ocean, traversing Morocco, Algiers,
and Tunis, and terminating on the coast of the
Mediterranean. It is divided into the great
and little Atlas. The little Atlas is the range
nearest the sea-coast ; the great is more inland,
and borders on the desert. In fact, however,
the two ranges are one and the same system,
though sometimes connected only by separate
mountains, or ranges of low hills. On the
coast, the range skirts the Mediterranean, from
Cape Spartel, and the straits of Gibraltar, to
Cape Bon, on the northeast of Tunis. The
Atlantic shore is sometimes sandy and low, at
other times formed by cliffs, which do not at-
tain any great height, except at Cape Ghir.
The Mediterranean shore, between Capes Spar-
tel and Bon, is generally rugged, and in places
attains a considerable height. Between Cape
Bon and the gulf of Gabes it is rocky, but with-
out reaching any great elevation. The southern
slope of the Atlas reaches the great desert,
from which it is . separated by a region of
sand hills, shifting with every strong wind, and
gradually making encroachments on the fertile
lands at the foot of the mountains. On the
west of the gulf of Gabes, Mount Nofusa, the
If. St eastern spur of the Atlas, joins Mount Ga-
rian, which extends into the regency of Tripoli.
The French geographers include within the
limits of the Atlas their own province of Alge-
ria, together with the empire of Morocco, and
a part of Tunis. The whole area is 500,000
square miles, including a great variety of sur-
face, mountains, valleys, and extensive plains.

ATLAS — ATMOSPHERE

The loftiest peaks form a diagonal line, striking
across the general course of the mountains from
southwest to northeast. This Ime begins at
Cape Ghir, on the Atlantic, which rises almost
perpendicularly from the sea to a great eleva-
tion. It then stretches away, east of the meridi-
an of Morocco, then turns abruptly northeast,
and from this quarter four important rivers take
their rise, the Wady Oum Erbegh (Morbeya),
the Muluia, the Tafilet, and the Draa. At this
precise spot, the loftiest peaks of the whole
mass seem to be brought together, and the most
elevated chain runs away north. The principal
chain traverses a region called the desert of
Ansad, the boundary line between Morocco and
Algiers. Here the name great Atlas is first
applied. The principal chain recurs in Algeria,
where its highest part is called Wanashrees, or
Warensenis, and terminates on the banks of
the Shelliff, whose valley makes a gap in its
course. It reappears southwest of Algiers, in
the lofty summits of the Jurjura. From this
point, the chain follows a direction parallel to
the coast, then it dips again to the southeast,
and takes the name of the mountains of Wan-
nooga. Further on to the east, we meet it as
the Djebel Aiires, and approaching the coast
again, it penetrates into the territory of Tunis,
under the name of Mount Tipara, terminating
at Cape Blanco and Cape Zibeb, on the north
of the city of Tunis. The highest summits, the
Miltsin (11,400 feet), southeast of the city of
Morocco, and other mountains near the Wady
Oum Erbegh, and the Muluia, are rarely free
from snow. The greatest heights of the entire
system are the Jebel Ayashi (14,600 feet), and
Tamjurt (14,500 feet). The little Atlas is by no
means so lofty, its highest peak, Shelia, having an
altitude of only 7,611 feet. The great Atlas is
the water-shed of the province. The rivers flow-
ing north from this line force their way through
the lesser Atlas to the Mediterranean, while those
that take their rise on the southern slope are
lost in the marshes of the desert. There are
several defiles through the Atlas, the best
known of which are those of the Beboonan,
leading to Terodant in Morocco, and the Biban,
or Iron gate on the east, leading from Algiers
to Constantine. The geological constitution of
these mountains presents old limestone alter-
nating with a schist, oftentimes passing to a
.veil-characterized micaceous schist, or gneiss.
The stratification of the gneiss is also very ir-
regular, only presenting organic debris; then
come schistose clays, alternating with second-
aiy limestones; then come limestone with white
clays, and iron sands resting on blue clay.
This formation is particularly developed near
Oran, and the plains in which the soil is formed
from it are of great fertility. Volcanic rocks
have been found in small quantities. There are
veins of iron, copper, and lead. Saltpetre is
found near Terodant. x\bout 50 miles from
the same towm, excellent malleable iron is found.
At Elala there are copper and silver mines.
The vegetation embraces all the varieties of
T)oth temperate and tropical climates. The At-
las was known to the ancients, and the Romans
formed several colonies in the district.

AtTas, an anatomical term applied to the

first vertebra of the neck, which supports the

head. It is connected with the occipital bone

in such a way as to permit of the nodding

\'oi. 2 — ^

movement of the head, and rests on the second
vertebra or axis, their union allowing the head
to turn from side to side.

At'las, in Greek mythology, the Titan
v/hom Zeus condemned to bear the vault of
heaven. The same name is given to a collection
of maps and charts, and was first used by
Gerard Mercator in the i6th century, the figure
of Atlas bearing the globe being represented on
the title-pages of such works.

At'lee, Washington Lemuel, American
surgeon: b. Lancaster, Pa., 22 Feb. 1808; d. 6
Sept. 1878. He became noted as a pioneer in
ovariotomy and the removal of uterine fibroid
tumors, and published < Ovarian Tumors'
(1873) ^Struggles and Triumphs of Ovariotomy'
(1875), and a prize essay on 'Fibroid Tumors
of the Uterus' (1876).

At'midom'eter, an instrument for measur-
ing the evaporation from water, ice, snow, etc.
It consists of two glass or metal bulbs, one of
them placed above the other, with which it
communicates by a narrow neck. The instru-
m.ent having been immersed in a vessel of wa-
ter through a circular hole in which the steam
rises, distilled v;ater is gradually poured into
the pan above, causing it to sink to the point
at which the zero of the stem is on a level
with the cover of the vessel. As then the water
in the pan gradually evaporates, the steam
slowly ascends, the amount of evaporation being
indicated in grains on the graduated scale.

Atmorysis, the separation of the compo-
nents of a gaseous mixture by means of diffu-
sion. See Diffusion.

Atmom'eter, an instrument invented by
Sir John Leslie for measuring the quantity of
moisture exhaled in the open air in a given time
from any humid surface. It consists of a very
thin ball of porous earthenware, from one to
three inches in diameter, having a small neck
firmly cemented to a long and rather wide tube
of glass, to which is adapted a brass cap with
a narrow collar of leather to fit closely. It is
filled w^ith distilled or pure water, and its cap
screwed tightly. It is then suspended out of
doors where it is exposed freely to the action
of the wind, but sheltered from rain. As the
water evaporates from the external surface of
the ball, it transudes through its porous sub-
stance, and the waste is measured by the cor-
responding descent of the liquid in the stem.
To test the amount of this descent, there is a
finely-graduated scale. When the water has
sunk to the bottom of the stem, the latter re-
quires to be filled anew.

At'mosphere (Greek, "vaporous sphere''),
in ordinary usage, the gaseous envelope that
surrounds the earth. The atmosphere consists
chiefly of the gases oxygen and nitrogen, not
chemically combined, but mechanically mixed
in the proportion of about 21 volumes of oxy-
gen to 79 of nitrogen. It also contains small
quantities of carbon dioxid, organic matter, wa-
ter vapor, argon, and other substances. (For
a more precise statement of its composition, see
Air.) At the surface of the earth it has a den-
sity of about i/8ooth of that of water, though
this varies somewhat with the height above the
sea level at which the determination is made,
and with the temperature and barometric pres-
sure prevailing at the time. The presence of

ATMOSPHERE

free nitrogen in the atmosphere may be attribut-
ed, probably, to the comparative inertness of
that gas, so far as any tendency to form chem-
ical compounds is concerned. The presence of
free oxygen cannot be explained in this man-
ner, however, because oxygen is one of the most
active chemical substances known. It appears
more probable that oxygen is present in the
free state simply on account of the immense
quantity of that element that the earth contains.
In past geological times, it combined with prac-
tically all of the oxidizable minerals that were
near enough to the surface of the earth to be
accessible to it, and the present supply of free
oxygen in the atmosphere must be regarded as
merely the excess of that element that re-
m.ained unused, after all the possible oxidations
had been effected. According to this view, the
earth (at least in its more superficial parts) is
a gigantic, burned-out cinder ; and this accords
with the estimates that chemists and geologists
make, that nearly one half of the weight of the
earth's crust consists of oxygen. It is likely
that in past ages, and particularly in the carbon-
iferous period when the vegetation that gave rise
to our modern coal fields was flourishing, the
quantity of carbon dioxid present in the atmo-
sphere was considerably greater than at the
present time. Part of this gas was absorbed by
plants, its carbon being stored in the coal beds
and its oxygen returned to the air ; but it is
likely that by far the greater portion combined
with lime and other similar earths to produce
the present vast deposits of limestone and other
carbonated minerals and rocks. At the present
day, carbon dioxid is being absorbed from the
atmosphere by plants, and returned to it again
by animals, and by factories in which coal is
burned. We have no means of knowing wheth-
er the balance is being preserved, so far as this
constituent of the atmosphere is concerned, or
not ; because the mass of the entire atmosphere
is too vast for the composition to be sensibly
changed by these causes, since the time when
exact analyses became possible.

Galileo observed that water cannot be drawn
up by a suction pump or other equivalent device,
to a greater distance than about 34 feet. He
did not succeed in explaining the existence of
this limiting height, but his friend and amanu-
ensis Torricelli, who succeeded him as profes-
sor at Florence, afterward made the shrewd
guess that water rises in such a pump for the
reason that the atmosphere exerts a certain pres-
sure upon all terrestrial objects, and that when
a portion of this pressure is removed from the
water in the suction tube of the pump, it is the
pressure of the atmosphere upon the water
external to the pump that causes the water in
the pump-tu.be to rise ; and he saw that if that
were the case, it would follow that a pump
could only "draw^^ water up to the particular
height at which the pressure due to the water-
column so "drawn up** would precisely balance
that of the atmosphere. The limit of 34 feet
corresponds (as is easily shown by a simple
calculation) to a pressure of about 15 pounds
to the square inch ; and hence Torricelli inferred
that the atmosphere exerts a pressure of that
amount upon all objects. Meditating upon this
hypothesis, it occurred to him that if his explan-
ation were indeed correct; the atmosphere would
be able to raise mercury (which is about 14

times as heavy as water) to only about one
fourteenth of the height to which it can raise
water. He accordingly (in 1643) procured a
glass tube some 35 inches long, and closed at
one end. Placing it with the open end up-
ward, he filled it with mercury. He then cov-
ered the open end to prevent the escape of the
mercury, and inverted the tube so that its mouth,
dipped into a basin also filled with mercury.
Upon uncovering the open end of the tube, he
was gratified to see that the mercury in the tube at
once sank until its upper surface stood at about
30 inches above that in the basin. This experi-
ment proved that the- atmosphere exerts a pres-
sure equal to that due to a column of mercury
30 inches high ; or, in other words, equal to
about 14.7 pounds per square inch. Additional
proofs were soon given, also. Thus Pascal sug-
gested that if the explanation were true, thi
pressure ought to be less at the top of a moun-
tain, than in a lower place; because the moun-
tain projects up into the atmosphere so -fai
that there is a sensibly smaller height of ail
above it then there is above a point in a valley.
The experiment was actually carried out by
M. Perrier, who carried an apparatus like Tor-
ricelli's (now known as a "barometer**) to the
summit of a mountain in Auvergne called the
Puy de Dome, and found at the top of this
mountain (which is 4,800 feet high) the atmo-
sphere could sustain only about 27 inches of
mercury, although after returning to the plains,
below, the full height of 30 inches was agam
observed. Shortly afterward (in 1650) the
air-pump was invented by Guericke, and the
pressure of the atmosphere was demonstrated
beyond any doubt whatever, by numerous direct
experiments.

The pressure of the atmosphere varies some-
what from day to day, and even from hour to.
hour, as well as with the latitude and with the
height above the sea. For scientific purposes
the normal atmospheric pressure is now gen-
erally taken to be equal to the pressure due to a
column of pure mercury 760 millimeters.
(29.9212 inches) high, at the level of the sea^
in latitude 45° ; the mercury being at the tem-
perature 32° F. The pressure so defined is
called an "atmosphere** ; or, more briefly and
conveniently, an "atmo.** The "atmosphere*'
of pressure, as so defined, is nearly equal to a
pressure of one million dynes per square centi-
meter, and it has therefore been proposed to
take one million dynes per square centimeter
as the standard atmosphere of pressure, calling
it an "absolute atmosphere,** because the dyne
is a unit in the "absolute system'* of units.
This proposal has not yet been adopted by physi-
cists to anjf great extent. See Units.

Knowing the pressure exerted by the atmo-
sphere upon each square inch of the earth's
surface to be about 14.7 pounds, and knowing
the dimensions of the earth, it is not difficult to
calculate the total weight of the entire atmo-
sphere. The calculation, when performed, shows
that the mass of the atmosphere is about
i/i,ooo,oooth of that of the whole eartn.

If the atmosphere were of uniform density,
it would be easy to calculate the height to which
it extends. We should only have to divide the
pressure upon one square inch of the earth's,
surface by the weight of a cubic inch of the air^
and the quotient would be the height of the

ATMOSPHERIC ENGINE — ATMOSPHERIC RAILWAY

atmosphere, in inches. Thus a cubic inch of air,
at a pressure of 30 inches of mercury and at
the temperature of freezing water weighs about
0.000749 of an ounce ; and as a column of mer-
cury 30 inches high exerts a static pressure of
about 235.8 ounces, it follows that if the at-
mosphere were homogeneous (that is, of uni-
form density throughout), its height would be
about 253.8-^0.000749 = 314,000 inches, or 4.97
miles, when the air has a temperature of 32' F.,
and the barometric pressure is 30 inches. The
height so calculated is convenient for use in cer-
tain physical computations, and is called the
"height of the homogeneous atmosphere." If
we turn from this problem to the more difficult
one of determining the actual height of the at-
mosphere, we find that no satisfactory results
can be given. As we go up, the strata become
rarer and rarer, for the reason that the lower
layers are weighed down and compressed by
those above, and at increasing heights there is
less and less air above, to exert this compression.
At great heights the atmosphere becomes more
and more attenuated, and thins out by insensible
gradations into a perfect vacuum. There is no
definite boundarj', immediately below which
there is an atmosphere, and immediately above
v.'hich there is none. Glaisher and Coxwell, in
their famous balloon ascension of 5 Sept. 1862,
attained an actual elevation of over 29,000 feet,
and observed a barometric height of 9.5 inches
(corrected) ; but it is certain that the atmo-
sphere extends far higher than this. Some esti-
mates, based on the calculated heights of shoot-
ing stars when they first become luminous, place
the limit at which the atmosphere has a density
sufficient to produce any observable effects, at
about 200 miles ; but, as has been pointed out
above, all estimates of this kind are necessarily
indefinite and unsatisfying. (For some of the
questions raised in connection with the limits
of the atmosphere, see G.\ses, Kinetic Theory

OF.)

The atmosphere, as might be expected from
its relatively great depth, exhibits an absorption
spectrum (see Spectroscope), and this varies to
a certain extent from time to time. A portion
of this absorption spectrum is due to the pres-
ence of water vapor, and the "rain bands" in the
spectrum have been utilized to a limited extent
(though not very generally) in connection with
W'eather predictions. It is also known that the
atmosphere is less transparent to the rays at the
blue end of the spectrum than to tliose in the
middle and toward the red end. The experi-
ments of Professor S. P. Langley, on the ex-
pedition of the United States Signal Service to
Mount Whitney, demonstrated that this selective
absorption is so great that the sun would appear
distinctly bluish, instead of white or yellowish
as it does under actual conditions, if we could
see it from a point outside of our own atmo-
sphere. (See Langley, < Researches on Solar
Heat,> 1884.)

Little is yet known concerning the electrical
phenomena of the atmosphere. In clear, calm
weather, the atmosphere appears to be always
positively electrified, with respect to the earth,
and the diflference in potential increases greatly
during snow storms and high winds. In thun-
der storms it is subject to sudden and violent
oscillations, as might be expected. Many the-
ories have been proposed to account for the

electrification so observed, particularly for the
enormously high potentials that are in evidence
during thunder storms; but none has yet met
with general acceptance. It was formerly
thought that the evaporation and condensation
of water had much to do with it, but no ex-
perimental evidence has been adduced to justify
this hypothesis, although physicists have given
it the most careful attention. Bartoli and Pet-
tinelli made exhaustive experiments in connec-
tion with it, both with water and with organic
compounds; but always without obtaining any
favorable results. Kelvin, MacLean, and Gall
observed electrification when dry air bubbled
through a liquid, the air being electrified nega-
tively in the case of pure water, and positively
in the case of sulphuric acid or salt water. Ap-
parently these are all friction phenomena, and it
is not certain that they have any bearing on
the electrical phenomena of the atmosphere.
We know, from numerous experiments, that
dust facilitates the condensation of aqueous va-
por, and numerous authorities have endeavored
to trace a similar connection between dust and
the development of high electric potentials in the
atmosphere. No certain results have been at-
tained, however, as may be judged from the
fact that in the 12 years immediately preceding
1902, no less than 25 new thunder-storm theories
were proposed, 6 of these being published dur-
ing the year 1895. See also Meteorology;
Wind.

Atmospheric Engine, an early form of
pumping engine, invented by Papin in 1695 and
subsequently improved by Newcomen and Watt.
The steam cylinder is vertical and single acting,
the piston being alternately forced upward by
steam, and downward by the pressure of the at-
mosphere. See Steam and Steam Engine.

Atmospheric Line. See Indicator.

Atmospheric Railway, a railway in which
the propulsive force designed to move the car-
riages along is that of the atmosphere. The
notion of such a method of locomotion seems
first to have suggested itself, in the latter part
of the 17th century, to the French physician
Papin, whose name is forever associated with
the celebrated digester. In 1810, Mr. Medhurst
published a work entitled ^A New Method of
Conveying Letters and Goods by Air.^ His pro-
posal was to construct a close tunnel, in whick
the carriages, — the last of them provided with
a piston fitting the tunnel, — should be propelled
by air forced in behind them. Vallance, of
Brighton, in 1825, recommended, as an improve-
ment on this plan, the exhaustion of the air
in front. About 1835, Henry Pinkus, an Amer-
ican, residing in England, patented a scheme
for placing the carriages in the open air, but
connecting them below with a small tunnel,
having a narrow slit above, with ingeniously
constructed apparatus to render the tunnel tem-
porarily air-tight, notwithstanding the slit. Not
much was done to carry out the patent ; and
Pinkus' scheme of what he called a pneumatic
railway was considered as having failed, when,
in 1840, Messrs. Clegg and Samuda brought
forward a somewhat similar project under the
name of the "Atmospheric Railway.'' An e>-
perimental fragment of line laid down near
Wormwood Scrubs, just outside of London, on
the Great Western line, was successful, a? was

ATOLL — ATOMIC THEORY

one designed for actual use from Kingstown
to Dalkey, in Ireland, another between London
and Croydon, and a third in South Devon ;
but these have been since abandoned, and all
that now remains to represent this mode of
propulsion is the pneumatic dispatch tube, used
for transmitting parcels to short distances. See
Wire-rope.

Atoll, a-tol', the Polynesian name for coral
islands of the ringed type enclosing a lagoon in
the centre. They are found chiefly in the Pa-
cific in archipelagos, and occasionally are of
large size. Suadiva Atoll is 44 miles by 34,
and Rimsky 54 by 20. See Coral Islands.

Atomic'ity. See Valency.

Atomic Theory, in chemistry, the theory
whose fundamental doctrine is that all matter
is composed of ultramicroscopic particles,
separated by spaces either entirely destitute
of matter, or at least containing it in a very
attenuated state. Such a theory was taught by
Lucretius and other ancient philosophers, but
the views of these early writers were neces-
sarily vague and indefinite, and the atomic theo-
ry, as held by chemists of to-day, is generally
attributed to the English' scientist, John Dalton.
In the early part of the 19th century Dalton
called attention to the fact that when sub-
stances combine chemically they do so in cer-
tain definite proportions. His reasoning was
something Hke this : In 100 pounds of carbon
monoxid there are 42.9 pounds of carbon, and
57.1 pounds of oxygen. In the same weight of
carbon dioxid there are 27.3 pounds of carbon,
and 72.7 pounds of oxygen. These are merely
experimental facts, obtainable by direct analy-
sis, and they involve no hypothesis whatever.
No particular relations are discernible among
the numbers stated above ; but Dalton dis-
covered that if the same facts are stated in a
different way, a very remarkable relation ap-
pears. Thus, suppose we calculate what weight
of oxygen is combined with each pound of car-
bon in 'the two gases. In carbon monoxid we
find that there are 57.1 -^ 42.9= 1.33 pounds of
oxygen to each pound of carbon, and in carbon
dioxid we find that there are 72.7^-27.3 = 2.66
pounds to each pound of carbon. One of these
numbers being exactly twice the other, we con-
clude that carbon can unite with oxygen in two
proportions, the quantity of oxygen, per unit
weight of carbon, being twice as great in one
case as in the other. Dalton observed similar
relations among other compounds, — in fact, his
theory first occurred to him while he was study-
ing the simpler compounds of carbon and hy-
drogen ; and after turning the matter over in
his mind he came to the conclusion that the
facts can best be explained by assuining that
matter consists of exceedingly minute, indivisi-
ble particles or atoms, each of which has a
definite weight. When two bodies combine
chemically, he conceived their atoms to come to-
gether in pairs, or in threes, or fours, according
to the compound formed ; and he devised sym-
bols to represent the various elementary bodies
and their compounds. Thus oxygen was repre-
sented by a circle with a white centre, hydrogen
by a circle with a dot in the centre, nitrogen
by a circle crossed by a vertical straight line,
and carbon by a solid black circle. His nota-
tion has no advantages over the one now in com-

mon use, and hence, in what follows, we shall
adopt the modern symbols. As water was the
only compound of oxygen and hydrogen that
Dalton knew, he naturally represented it by the
symbol OH, considering that in it the particles
of oxygen and hydrogen are united in pairs.
Taking the hydrogen atom as the unit, it fol-
lows that the weight of the oxygen atom must
be 8, if Dalton's view of the composition of wa-
ter is correct ; for experiment shows that in a
given mass of water there is eight times as
miuch oxygen, by weight, as there is hydrogen.
Carbon monoxid was represented by the sym-
bol OC, and since for each unit of its oxvgen
(by weight) this gas contains ^ of a unit of
carbon, it follows that the atomic weight of
carbon is ^ of that of oxygen. Hence the
weight of the carbon atom is 6, the weight of
the hydrogen atom being arbitrarily taken, as
before, as i. Carbon dioxid was represented by
the symbol OCO. Ammonia gas, being the only
compound of hydrogen and nitrogen known to
Dalton, was represented by the simple symbol
NH ; and since experiment shows that am-
monia gas contains (by weight) 47^ times as
much nitrogen as hydrogen, the atomic weight
of nitrogen must be 4^, or 4.67. In presenting
the foregoing sketch of Dalton's views, use has
been made of better experimental data than were
available in his time, in order that the relation
of his system of atomic weights to the modern
system may be more clearly seen. A few of his
actual determinations of atomic weights, from
the imperfect data that he had, are given in the
accompanying table. These were published in

Element

Atomic Weight

Hydrogen

Nitrogen

Carbon

Phosphorus

Oxygen

I.O

4.2
4.3
7.2

S-5

1805, and his general theory of chemical com-
pounds was given in the first volume of his
*New System of Chemical Philosophy,^ pub-
lished in 1808. All subsequent researches have
tended to confirm Dalton's fundamental con-
ception, that matter is discontinuous in its ulti-
mate nature, and consists of discrete atoms
which come together in definite groups when
chemical combination occurs. And we agree
with him, to-day, in the belief that the so-called
"atomic weights* of substances are really the
true relative weiglifs of their atoms; the weight
of the hydrogen atom being taken as unity. Soon
after Dalton's theory had been announced, it was
observed that there are simple volumetric rela-
tions among gases when they combine. Thus it
was noticed that 2 volumes of hydrogen com-
bine with I volume of oxygen to form water ;
that I volume of' hydrogen combines with I
volume of chlorine to form 2 volumes of hydro-
chloric acid gas ; and so on. This being the
fact, it was suggested by Avogadro in 181 1, and
independently by Ampere in 1813, that all gases,
v/hen under the same conditions of temperature
and pressure, contain the same number of con-
stituent particles per unit of volume. This
principle, known as "Avogadro's Law." has
been of the greatest service to chemistry. Its
truth was long questioned, but as it has led to
results of great value, and has been found to be
in conformity with all other known facts of

ATOMIC THEORY

chemistry, it is now accepted without reserve
as a fundamental principle of nature. More-
over, the kinetic theory of gases has shown
that it is a mathematical necessity, if gases are
admitted to consist of elastic particles, flying
about through space, and colliding with one
another, and with the walls of their containing
vessels. (See Gases, Kinetic Theory of.)
But if Avogadro's law be admitted to be a
fact of nature, it becomes necessary, at once, to
make an important modification in Dalton's the-
ory. For it is plain that if i cubic inch of hydro-
gen, containing (say) )i atoms, combines with i
cubic inch of chlorine, also containing n atoms,
to produce 2 cubic inches of hydrochloric acid
gas, containing n con.stituent particles alto-
gether, then the number of such particles in
each cubic inch of the hydrochloric acid gas is
only n -^ 2 ; whereas Avogadro's law requires
us to admit the existence of n particles per
cubic inch, in the compound gas as well as in
each of its constituents. It follows, therefore,
that when the rl and the CI combine, their ulti-
mate particles do not simply unite in pairs.
There is no way to explain the observed facts,
consistently with Avogadro's law, unless we as-
sume that the ultimate particles of H and CI are
both compound, and that when these gases com-
bine, their particles split in two, half a particle
of the one combining with half a particle of the
other, to produce a whole particle of HCl. In
other words, Avogadro's law compels us to
admit that the little corpuscles of which mat-
ter is composed, and which we have heretofore
called atoms, are really (in some cases, at
least) systems composed of still smaller bodies.
To distinguish between the two kinds of parti-
cles — namely, between the systems and their
component bodies — it therefore becomes neces-
sary to introduce a new term. The systems are
called "molecules'^ (literally, "tiny masses"),
and their constituent parts are still called
"atoms." To put the case in another way, the
smallest parts into which a given substance can
be conceived to be divided, without changing
its chemical character, are called "molecules" ;
while the word "atom" is reserved for the
smallest portion of a substance that can enter
into a chemical combination. A molecule is a
system of atoms capable of independent exist-
ence ; and an atom is one of the parts into
v/hich the molecule of a substance divides, as a
preliminary to entering into a chemical com-
bination.

We have but little information, up to the
present time, concerning the number of atoms
entering into the molecules of the different ele-
ments. The molecules of cadmium, mercury,
zinc, and indium are believed to be monatomic,
at least when those bodies are in the gaseous
state; so that in these cases there is no differ-
ence between a molecule and an atom. The
same is apparently true of the newly discovered
gases, argon, helium, neon, krypton, and xenon.
Hydrogen, nitrogen, oxygen, selenium, and
tellurium are believed to be diatomic : that is,
their molecules are believed to contain two
atoms each. Phosphorus and arsenic are be-
lieved to be tetratomic, their molecules contain-
ing four atoms each. Chlorine, bromine, and
iodine are diatomic at temperatures below iioo°
F., but above iioo° their molecules are believed
(by some authorities) to break up into single

atoms, so that at about 2200° F. two thirds of
the little particles present in these substances
are free atoms, while the remaining one third
continue to exist as diatomic molecules. Sul-
phur is hexatomic at 900° F., but its molecules
break up somewhat at higher temperatures, and
are practically all diatomic above 1500°. Ac-
cording to this view of the case, if H stands
for the atom of hydrogen and CI for the atom
of chlorine, what happens when a molecule of
one of these gases combines with a molecule of
the other is not simply H-|-C1=:HC1, because
the molecule of hydrogen must be represented
by H2 and that of chlorine by CI2. Hence the
process of combination consists of two parts, the
first of which is

H, -f CI2 = H + H -f- Cl + Cl

Molecule Molecule Atoms of Atoms of

of hydrogen of chlorine hydrogen chlorine

The atoms of hydrogen and chlorine, thus
set free, then combine to form hydrochloric
acid, in the following manner :

H + H -f- CI + CI = HCl + HCl :
or we may write the whole operation in the fol-
lowing simple manner :

H. + CU = 2HC1.

Dalton, assuming that the formula of am-
monia is NH, and knowing by experiment that
the weight of the nitrogen present is 4.67 times
as great as the weight of the hydrogen, would
conclude that the atomic weight of nitrogen is
4.67 ; but since experiment shov/s that when
ammonia gas is separated into its constituent
elements, 2 volumes of the ammonia yield I
volume of nitrogen and 3 volumes of hydrogen,
Avogadro's law requires us to conclude that the
true formula for ammonia is NH3 ; and hence
we must take 3 X 4.67 = 14 as the atomic
weight of nitrogen. This example will suffice to
show how Avogadro's law obliged chemists to
modify the atomic weights that would be ob-
tained by the methods known to Dalton. Di'
rect analysis of compounds of an element whose
atomic weight is desired will give either that
atomic weight itself, <5f some simple multiple or
submultiple of it ; but to decide between these
several multiples (as for example between 4.67
and 14, in the case cited above), it is necessary
to have recourse to Avogadro's law, or to some
other equally general principle. Unfortunately
Avogadro's law cannot always be applied to
the determination of atomic weights, because it
frequently happens that no coi^pound of the
element under examination can be obtained in
the gaseous condition, or that the gaseous com-
pounds that can be obtained are unsatisfactory,
for one reason or another, and not adapted to
the determination of the particular multiple that
should be selected as the atomic weight of the
element. In such cases recourse may be had
to the law of Dulong and Petit, or to the "pe-
riodic law" of Meyer and Mendeleeff. In 1819
two distinguished French physicists, MM. Du-
long and Petit, announced that the specific heats
of 13 elements upon which they had made care-
ful experiments are inversely proportional to the
respective atomic weights of those elements. In
other words, that the product of the specific heat
and the atomic weight (which product is called
the "atomic heat") is the same for all of them.
This remarkable generalization did not meet
with universal and immediate acceptance, be-
cause it failed in numerous cases unless the

ATOMIC THEORY

atomic weights of the corresponding elements
were changed somewhat from the values that
had been previously assigned to them from
purely cnemical considerations. Thus in the
case of bismuth, platinum, silver, and cobalt, Du-
long and Petit substituted multiples or submul-
tiples of the atomic weights then in use; and
other changes were also made. Moreover, the
law could not possibly be exact, because the spe-
cific heats of bodies are not constant, but vary
with the temperature, and sometimes to a con-
siderable extent. Subsequent experimenters have
paid great attention to Dulong and Petit's law,
however, and now that the atomic weights of
the more familiar elements have been pretty
well determined in one way and another, the
law is found to be surprisingly near to the
truth, and most of the changes for which they
contended, in connection with previously ac-
cepted atomic weights, have since been made.
A list of ten elements whose specific heats have
been well determined are presented in the table,
to illustrate the degree of accuracy with which

Element

Atomic
Weight

Specific
Heat

("Atomic
Product
Heat ")

Lithium

Aluminum. . . .
Potassium. . . .

Copper

Silver

Antimony. . . .

Tungsten

Gold

Bismuth

Uranium

7-
27.
39-
63.

107.

119.

183.

196.

207.

238.

0.941

0.214

0.166

0.0952

0.0570

0.0508

0.0334

0.0324

0.0308

0.0277

6.6
5-8
6.5
6.0
6.1
6.1
6.1
6.4
6.4
6.6

a proposed element may be expected to conform
to it. The atomic weights in the table range
from 7 to 238, and yet when we multipl)' each
one by the corresponding specific heat, we find
that the product (or "atomic heat") remains con-
stant, or nearly so. In some cases (notably for
boron, silicon, and carbon), a large deviation
from the law is observed ; but these exceptions
cannot be considered in the present place. As
an example of the use of Dulong and Petit's law,
the case of silver may be cited. Previous to
the publication of that law, the atomic weight
of silver had been taken at 215. Dulong and
Petit pointed out that if this value were retained,
the product of the atomic weight and the spe-
cific heat greatly exceeded the value 6, to which
many of the other elements approximated. They
therefore proposed to halve the then accepted
atomic weight of this element, and to make (of
course) a corresponding change in the formulas
of all compounds of silver. Regnault con-
firmed their experiments, and repeated their de-
mand that the atomic weight be halved. But
Berzelius, then the greatest living authority on
such matters, refused to consent to the change,
on the ground that silver and sodium com-
pounds are isomorphous (see Isomorphism),
and that the analogy between the formulas of
their corresponding compounds would be de-
stroyed, if the atomic weight of silver were
halved, while that of sodium was left unchanged.
Regnault then determined the specific heat of
metallic sodium, and showed that the atomic
weight of that element should also be halved, in
order for it to conform to Dulong and Petit's
law. Berzelius' objection thus lost its force,
and the atomic weights of both silver and so-

dium were ultimately halved, by universal con-
sent. The "periodic law," already referred to,
cannot be adequately treated in this place (see
Periodic Law) ; but it may be said that when
the known elements are arranged in the order of
their atomic weights, it is found that certain
attributes recur in a remarkable "periodic" man-
ner, as we pass from one end of the array to
the other. This fact is of great assistance in the
determination of atomic weights, because any
great error in the assignment of the atomic
weight of an element would throw that ele-
ment, among others with which it would have
relations, entirely out of harmony with those
that prevail in other parts of the array. This
"periodic" classification is so powerful and far-
reaching, that the existence of new and previous-
ly unsuspected elements has been predicted by
it, and afterward verified (in some cases) by
the actual discovery of the elements themselves.
The newly discovered gas "argon" (q.v.) affords
an interesting case of the determination of an
atomic weight by indirect means. Argon has re-
sisted all attempts to make it combine with other
substances, and hence it has been impossible,
thus far, to analyze any of its compounds. Its
density was found, by direct experiment, to be
about 20 times as great as that of hydrogen.
Now if, as Avogadro's law states, a cubic inch
of argon contains just as many molecules as a
cubic inch of hydrogen (under the same condi-
tions of temperature and pressure), then it fol-
lows that a molecule of argon weighs 20 times
as much as a molecule of hydrogen, or 40 times
as much as an atom of hydrogen. To find the
weight of an atom of argon we therefore merely
have to divide 40 by the number of atoms that
there are in its molecule. For an explanation
of the method by which the number of atoms
in the molecule of such a gas is obtained, we
must refer to the article G.a.ses, Kinetic The-
ory of; it will suffice, in the present place, to
state that it was found that argon is monatomic,
its molecule containing but a single atom.
Therefore the conclusion was, that the atomic
weight of argon is about 40. The "periodic
law" was not of any great service in this case,
because the properties of the new gas proved to
be so unlike those of any previously known sub-
stance that its proper place in the general
scheme could not be even guessed until its
atomic weight had been determined. The sub-
sequent discovery of helium and the other inert
gases of the same group showed, however, that
the atomic weight already assigned to argon is
in reasonably good accordance with the periodic
law.

Chemists educated in recent years can hardly
conceive the confusion that prevailed half a
century ago, while the principles that have been
outlined above were struggling for recognition
and universal adoption. There was no agree-
ment as to what atomic weights nor what for-
mulas should be used. Mendeleefif says : "Some
took o=:8 and others 0=16. Water in the
first case would be HO and hydrogen peroxid
HO2, and in the second case (as is now gen-
erally accepted) water would be H2O and hydro-
gen peroxid Hi>02 or HO. Discussion and con-
fusion were reigning. In i860 the chemists of
the whole world met at Carlsriihe for the pur-
pose of arriving at some agreement on the sub-
ject. There was great diflterence of opinion,

ATOMIC THEORY

and a conditional agreement (or compromise)
was proposed and defended with the greatest
acumen by the ranks of science. A conditional
agreement was not arrived at, and ought not to
have been; but instead of it, truth, in the form
of the law of Avogadro-Gerhardt, received by
means of the Congress a wider development, and
soon afterward conquered all minds. Then the
new so-called Gerhardt atomic weights establish-
ed themselves, and in the seventies they had al-
ready become generally used. As soon as a few
of the atomic weights had been determined with
some little degree of precision, it became evident
that they came nearer to exact integers than one
would naturally expect them to, judging from
the theory of probability. As early as 1815,
Prout made the assumption (since known as
*Prout's Hypothesis") that the true values of
these atomic weights are really integral num-
bers ; .and he drew the inference that all elements
are composed of hydrogen. Thus nitrogen,
whose atomic weight is almost exactly 14, he
believed to contain 14 times as many atoms to
the molecule as hydrogen contains, and he be-
lieved the fundamental atom to be the same in
each case. Ihere is nothing about this assump-
tion which conflicts with what has been said
above about nitrogen being a diatomic gas ; for
all that Avogadro's law positively shows is that
when a molecule of that gas divides, it. splits into
halves, and therefore contains an even num-
ber of atoms. In the absence of any evidence to
the contrary we assume it to be simply diatom-
ic, although we must always remember that fu-
ture research may require us to admit if to be
tetratomic, hexatomic, or even more complex.
Front's hypothesis has provoked a great deal of
discussion, and since it was first proposed it has
been attacked and defended by many distin-
guished chemists ; and although rather in dis-
favor at present, we can hardly yet say that it
has been finally laid to rest. One can scarcely
glance at a table of atomic weights (such as that
here presented) without being impressed by
the manifest tendency shown by these atomic
weights to approach integral values. Of course
there are conspicuous exceptions — chlorine, for
example — but the fact that many of the atomic
weights are nearly integral demands some sort
of an explanation. What that explanation may
ultimately prove to be, we cannot now guess ;
but it is possible that it will be found in the de-
velopment of the remarkable corpuscular hy-
pothesis of Prof. J. J. Thomson. (See Elec-
tron.) The atomic weight of oxygen was long
thought to be precisely 16 ; very careful experi-
ments then indicated that 15.96 is a closer ap-
proximation to the real fact ; and it has recent-
ly been ascertained that 15.88 is a still better
approximation. It is a matter of choice what
element is taken as having the atomic weigiit
unity, hydrogen having been chosen for this
purpose merely because it is the lightest element
known. For many purposes it would be con-
venient if the atomic weight of oxygen were
precisely 16; but this value is now known to be
incompatible with the assumption that the atom-
ic weight of hydrogen is i. Chemists have
therefore been in the habit, in recent years,
of multiplying all the atomic weights, as de-
duced on the hypothesis that H^=i, by a con-
stant number, so determined as to make the
atomic weight of oxygen come precisely 16. It

happens that this number is 1.008, and this is
therefore the atomic weight that must be as-
signed to hydrogen, if we are to adopt a scale
on which the atomic weight of oxygen is to be
precisely 16. A majority of the chemists of the
world now use this modified scale, on which the
atomic weight of hydrogen is taken as 1.008;
and the scale so established is known as the
^'International" scale of atomic weights. A table
of the atomic weights of the elements, both for
H = i, and for 0=16, is presented herewith.

TABLE OF ATOMIC WEIGHTS.

Element

Symbol

Aluminum. . . .
Antimony. . . . .

Argon

Arsenic

Barium

Bismuth

Boron

Bromine

Cadmium

Caesium

Calcium

Carbon

Cerium

Chlorine

Chromium. . . .

Cobalt

Columbium. . .

Copper

Erbium

Fluorin

Gadolinium. . .

Gallium

Germanium. . .
Glucinum. . . . ,

Gold

Helium

Hydrogen. . . .

Indium -

Iodine

Iridium

Iron

Krypton

Lanthanum. . .

Lead

Lithium

Magnesium. . .
Manganese. . .

Mercury

Molybdenum. ,
Neodymium. .

Neon

Nickel

Nitrogen

Osmium

Oxygen

Palladium. . . .
Phosphorus. . .

Platinum

Potassium. . . .
Praseodymium
Rhodium. . . .
Rubidium. . .
Ruthenium. .
Samarium. . .
Scandium. . .
Selenium. . . ,

Silicon

Silver

Sodium

Strontium. . .

Sulphur

Tantalum. . .
Tellurium. . .
Thallium. . . .
Thorium. . . .
Thulium. . . .

Tin

Titanium. . . .
Tungsten. . .
Uranium. . . .
Vanadium. . .

Xenon

Ytterbium. . .
Yttrium. ...

Zinc.

Zirconium. . .

A!
Sb
A
As
Ba
Bi
B
Br
Cd
Cs
Ca
C
Ce
CI
Cr
Co
Cb
Cu
E
F
Gd
Ga
Ge
Gl
Au
He
H
In
I

Ir
Fe
Kr
La
Pb
Li
Mg
Mn
Hg
Mo
Nd
Ne
Ni
N
Os
O
Pd
P
Pt
K
Pr
Rh
Rb
Ru
Sa
Sc
Se
Si
Ag
Na
Sr
S

Ta
Te
Tl
Th
Tu
Sn
Ti
W
U
V
X
Yt
Y
Zn
Zr

Atomic Weight

H=i.

0=16.

26.9
1 19.1

39-6

74.4
136.4
206.9

10.9

7936

III. 6

132.

39-7
1 1. 91

139-

35.18

51-7

58.56

93-3
63.1

164.8
18.9

155-
69-5
71-5
903

195.7
4-
I.

113.1

125-9

191-5
55-6
81.2

137.

205-35
6.98
24.18
54-6

198.8
95-3

142-5
19.9
58.3
13-93

189.6
15.88

105.2
30.77

193-3
38.86

1394

102.2
84.76

100.9

148.9
43-8
78.5
28.2

107.12

22.83

86.94

31-83
181.6
126.

202.6
230.8
170.
I 17.6

47-7
182.6
237-7

50.8
127.
172.

88.3

64.9

90.

27.1
120.
39-9
75-
137-4
208.S

1 1.
79.96
112.4
133-
40.

12.
140.

35-45

52-1

59-

94-

63-6
166.

19-
156.

70.

72.
9-1
197.2
4-

i.oo»
114.
126.8s
193-

56.

81.8
138
206.9
7.03

24.36

55-
200.3

96.
143.6

20.

58.7

14.01
191.

16.
106.

31.
194.8

39. IS
140.5
103.

8s-4
101.7
ISO.

44.1

79.1

28.4
107.93

23.05

87.6

32.06
183.
127.
204.1

171.
118.5

48.1
184.
239.5

51-2
128.

173-
89-
65-4
90.7

ATONEMENT

The many questions that suggest themselves
as to the size and physical nature of atoms be-
long properly to the domain of physics, and are
discussed under the heading Molecular Theory.
The day will doubtless come when the phy-
sicist and the chemist will find some common
ground for the discussion of the nature of atoms
and molecules ; but at present these two sciences
deal with such widely different classes of phe-
nomena that no such common ground can be
discerned. The atom and the molecule of the
physicist appear to be hardly capable of pos-
sessing the properties that the chemist demands ;
but this difficulty may one day be overcome. See
Chemistry ; Electron ; Molecular Theory ;
Gases. Kinetic Theory of; Valency; Spectro-
scope ; Periodic Law. ^ ^ Risteen, Ph.D.

Editorial Staff ^-Encyclopedia Americana?

Atonement. The Atonement is the caption
under which Christian theology introduces the
discussion of the application of the merits of
the life and death of Christ to the reconcilia-
tion of fallen man to his Creator, as well as
of the acceptance thereof by the Divinity. It
expresses the crowning effect of the incarna-
tion. It is, in this sense, an attempt at an ex-
planation of the coming of the Redeemer. In
a general way it means compensation, restora-
tion, expiation, satisfaction, ransom. It is a
word made up etymologically of at and one,
and suggests that two who were divided have
become one again. It embraces all that the
Saviour accomplished to nullify the effects of
sin. The atonement is considered to have re-
paired the consequences of the primal trans-
gression, all the moral consequences, say some,
say most of the authorities. As to the physical
outcome of the rebellion in Eden, it claims no
change save, that through it, man has been
enabled to bear patiently and meritoriously all
the ills of existence and to wrest from what is
evil a good that worketh unto satisfaction. The
atonement idea is co-existent with what, in
order to avoid conflict with those who think
otherwise, may be called Biblical humanity ;
that is, the race whose chronicle is found in
the pages of Scripture. It has no meaning for
those who reject the inspiration of Holy Writ
or for those whose beliefs are antagonistic to
Christianity. With these, if there be any atone-
ment at all, it lies in an evolution, by virtue
of which man develops from worse to better
and in the ^'process of the suns'' reaches, un-
aided, to a deliverance and a perfection far
surpassing even the dreams of Christianity.
The subject is a vast one. It has many and
far-reaching ramifications which are constantly
in contact with every issue of soteriological
study. To confine it within the limits of an
encyclopedic article necessarily cramps it and
scarcely -makes for completeness. All that can
be done is to present its general features, the
basis on which it rests, and some of the opin-
ions which deserve attention in the different
stages of development incidental to its growth.
The fact upon which the doctrine reposes is
that narrated in Genesis iii., wherein the pre-
varication of the first couple is said to draw
on them and posterity the curse of the Al-
mighty, which He tempers with the promise of
a Redeemer to come. This violation nf Gnd's
command, while it rendered Adam and Eve

criminal and placed them under a ban, was at
the same time an insult outraging, as much as
anything finite could, the infinite perfections.
Thus a condition was brought about which
consigned man to punishment and left an af-
front against the Creator to be, in some way
or other, atoned for. In this plight the whole
race was involved and became ostracized from
God. All humanity was confronted by a God
whose infinite justice called for an indemnity
of some kind as a reparation for the indignity
offered to His perfections, by a penal sentence
to be endured, by the loss of innocence, by the
unbridling of concupiscence and by a slavery
which reduced it to the thrall of the prince of
the powers of darkness. Immediately is per-
ceived the gaping breach which the atonement
had to bridge over. Could the restoration be
achieved by man himself and alone, or by en-
tire humanity? The general answer is a nega-
tive. It is clear from the attitude into which
man was forced by his sin what the questions
are which in this discussion call for a reply.
The views entertained by theologians are not
marked by very harmonious notes. There is a
very great discrepancy of opinion. Like other
doctrines, that of the atonement did not come
into existence full grown. It was not formu-
lated in the beginning. Hints of its nature are
found in the New Testament. By Christians
up to the time of the Reformation it was re-
ceived from individual teachers, by whom, as
by the laity, it was instinctively grasped, though
scarcely expressed, and thus in many forms
traversed the duration of nearly 15 centuries.
Whenever, during all that period, it was
treated by the fathers and doctors and other
writers, there was unanimity on this one point :
that the atonement was effected by the incar-
nate Son of God and that the satisfaction was
complete and answered all the exactions of a
just Deity, while it simply deluged man with a
sea of spiritual blessings. Their contention,
summed up, was that it was in the absolute
power of God to pardon man without any
atonement, without sending His Christ. In
His wisdom, however, consulting not only the
great wrong perpetrated against Him, but the
welfare of His creatures. He decreed the in-
carnation of His divine Son, the second person
of the Blessed Trinity. That Son incarnated
was both God and man, possessing two natures
in one person. This person was divine. As
all acts are attributable to the personality of
the individual, it followed that the acts of the
God-man were divine, and so, whether proceed-
ing from the human nature or not, they were
infinite in value. It was necessary for an atone-
ment act to have infinity, because sin, though
committed by a finite agent, was in a measure
infinite, si.nce its malice was directed towards
a being infinite in nature. Theologians made
the distinction that sin was finite subjectively,
but objectively infinite. The divinity of the
person made the atonement secure on the side
of the Father. Man was doubly privileged.
The Redemption of Christ obtained for him,
through grace which had its efficacy in the
blood of the Saviour, the remission of sin, and
strengthened him against his own weakness,
his own passion and the wiles of the enemy
from wh-^se thraldom he had been rescued.
In a word, the insult to the Father was wiped

ATONEMENT

out; man was restored to the old friendship,
was endowed with the means of justification
and sanctification and his feet put on a path to
the vision of God, in the enjoyment of which
sin becomes an impossibiHty and happiness is
supreme. With very few exceptions this, more
or less completely, was the form the atonement
took in the thoughts of the large majority of
teachers of the Church for a decade and half
of centuries. They labored to hold up the dig-
nity and liberality of the atonement. The Atoner
was Christ, and He atoned through His sac-
rifice on the cross in a manner ample beyond
all human reckoning. But the atonement was
not a thing of Christianity only; its effects
reached back to the whole past of man, for the
Lamb who atoned was <'slain from the founda-
tion of the world.'* They argued that the re-
demption was universal as to time and place
and for all the generations of man. All the
peoples before Christ came within its pale. No
man, however incult, fell outside of the plan
of redemption. Everyone everywhere could
find its blessings within his reach. It wrought
from alpha to omega on the race. Not the
chosen people only, but the Gentiles as well
participated in its benefits. It was taught in
the period under reflexion that just as soon
as tht Pvcdeemer was foretold to Adam and
Eve the atonement began to energize in some
inexplicable manner, but always with a view
to the merits of Qirist, who was to come in
the fulness of time and pay the ransom. The
concession of the Creator in granting a Re-
deemer who was to make plenary atonement for
every man until the passing away of the race
was, before the incarnation, a promissory note —
if it may be allowed to use the term — a prom-
issory note of salvation accepted and honored
by the Maker, who knew that at the appointed
time a priceless amount would be stored up
for its redemption. The atonement idea, that
is, the necessity of making amends to a Ruler
whose mandates had been and were being vio-
lated, prevailed everywhere in the ancient
world and was not confined to the descendants
of Abraham. Sacrifices, propitiatory and ex-
piatory, so common among the ancient idolators,
are evidence sufficient. Among them was an
uppermost thought that reconciliation with God
or wMth the gods could not be brought about
by individual efforts alone. The sacrifices of
Israel emphasize the essence of all atonement.
A victim was always called for. Something
outside of the transgressor had to be offered
to effect the lifting of the ban. That blood
offerings, or others, were ineffective, save in-
directly and by a mysterious connection with
the oblation of Christ, is admitted throughout
the extent of ante-Reform tradition. In the
Jewish mind the concept of sacrifice in a mul-
titude of cases connoted effusion of blood. The
Hebrews were instructed that transgressions
placed on the back of the victim died with the
victim. This only in a measure, for it does
not appear that they professed that after the
death of the victim the guilt of the sacrificers
was cancelled without any further act or co-
operation on their part. Repentance was nec-
essary and each had to do his utmost to share
by individual action in the redeeming work of
the sacrificial object. The vexed subject of
imputation (q. v.) recurs frequently but can-

not be touched here. The religion of the Jews
was distinguished by the number and variety
of its sacrifices. But atonement was ever be-
fore their eyes. Yom hakkippurim, or Day
of Atonement, is another proof. It was a
penitential occasion. Its austerity was rigor-
ous. From the evening of the Qth to the even-
ing of the loth of the seventh month no bodily
labor could be done, no food taken under pen-
alty of death. All the ritual was carried out
by the high priest, who offered sacrifices for
the sins of himself, of the priesthood and of
the people. For the typical meaning of these
ceremonies see Heb. viii-x, and for a descrip-
tion of the solemnity cf. Lev. xvi. These types
ceased with the advent of Christ. Mention
has already been made of the gradual develop-
ment of the doctrine of atonement. From the
death of the Saviour it was admitted that "Je-
sus died, the just for the unjust, to redeem
mankind from the bondage of corruption and
to restore the broken connection between heav-
en and earth.'' Different ways of looking at
this fundamental axiom of Christianity in gen-
eral, have suggested various explanations. The
conditions of the dispute led to many questions
which relate to the incarnation. The one thing
the teaching Church held to was that Christ
as man is the first and supreme mediator be-
tween God and man (i Tim. ii. 5). Because
as man He was a created being He is below
God, but is above all creatures by reason
of the plenitude of His grace and glory. As
man He offered to God a satisfaction so singu-
larly adequate that by it was destroyed "the
handwriting of the decree" so adverse to us,
and by it also man was endowed with all that
is requisite to be in friendly association with
God, by grace in the present and by glory in
the future. Others, ministerially or otherwise,
may co-operate in uniting God and man, but
Christ is the chief and first and literally the
only mediator (Billot).

The doctrine of the incarnation in its en-
tirety illumines this subject, but of it and of
other cognate subjects, such as justification and
original sin, notice cannot be taken here. The
atonement, as such, has not been treated spe-
cifically by early writers, and it would be diffi-
cult to put one's finger on any dogmatic decree
in which it is definitely formulated. Just as
from definitions here and there spread over
the volume of authoritative teaching the na-
ture of the atonement is elicited, so from the
utterances of ecclesiastical writers one is able
to reach a conclusion in harmony with the af-
firmation of tradition. The view still claiming
attention bases itself on Scripture. Texts there-
from are not necessary for the present writing:
they embrace the prophetic language of the
Old and the literal language of the New Tes-
tament. The Apostolic Fathers, from Clement
to Polycarp, are satisfied with stating the fun-
damental idea that "Christ died for us" and
for our sakes. Irenaeus and Origen insist that
a price had to be paid to Satan because Satan
had gained a rightful mastery over and own-
ership of men, for which the only equivalent
was the blood of Jesus. This view was never
universal, but now and again it is brought for-
ward, even up to the time of Peter Lombard.
The Fathers and writers from Origen to An-
selm wrote more systematically on nearly every

ATONEMENT

topic, but were unanimous in maintaining that
the death of Christ was the sacrifice unique and
par excellence and amply satisfactory. Some
do, others do not, endeavor to explain whether
and why this sacrifice was imperative. This is
true of 'the Church East and West, Greek and
Latin. Two ideas are prominent : the infinite
value of the human acts of Christ, and the need
of grace for human weakness. More stress is
placed on the incarnation than on its concom-
itant effecting of the atonement. "The work of
mediation was summed up but not exhausted
in the dying. He was a priest and a sacrifice
from the beginning, and is and always will be.
The imitability of Christ's career was not
confined to the death on the cross, but as well
to the whole existence" (Newman).

Occasionally a peculiar view would startle
the world, but without changing the generally
accepted opinion. Anselm (1033) in his <Cur
Deus homo^ vigorously opposes the view of
Origen and others concerning the so-called bar-
gain by which the Almighty, through Christ,
purchased back the souls of men from the
grasp of Satan. Then came the age of the
Schoolmen. It has been the custom to_ look
upon these men as triflers and hair splitters,
but what Huxley says of Saint Thomas is, with
modification, applicable to many of these very
imperfectly known and much abused investi-
gators: "His marvelous grasp and subtlety of
intellect seem to me to be almost without a
parallel" (Science and Morals). They all united
in declaring that Christ by His sacrifice was
the Atoner. They differ in their explanation of
some points connected with the incarnation
which are irrelevant here. They are broad and
moderate in their views. Christ not only freed
us from sin, says Aquinas, but won for us
grace and glory, and it was fitting that by
death He should overcome the power of death,
but His death need not have been a violent one.
Over the questfon whether the incarnation was
an absolute necessity or only something con-
gruous, they run through every note of the
gamut of argument. Duns Scotus is one of
the principal figures in the discussion. Among
other views he maintains that a mere man
conceived without sin, or a good angel, could
have made satisfaction for the entire race had
it pleased God to accept it. Express treatises
on the atonement cannot be found. It is al-
ways treated as an adjunct of the incarnation.
There have been many pious and devotional
essays on this topic. Since the days of the
scholastics all Catholic analysis of the atone-
ment can be traced back to them or to the
Fathers and doctors. The Reform opens with
the 15th century of modern times, and those
leaders only who have left an indelible impress
upon their followers will receive attention.
Arians, and those who reject the divinity of
Christ directly or by implication, fall outside
this inquiry.

An insistent tenet of the Reformers is, that
Christ reconciled God to us, whereas the Tri-
dentine Council teaches that He reconciled us
to God. The Divinity by the very force of the
divine perfections. Catholics hold, remained in
itself unchanged. The fall affected man, that
is, man by his transgression placed himself vol-
untarily under the ban of infinite justice and
willingly subjected himself to all the conse-

quences of his disobedience. Man alone
changed. God's attitude was always the same.
In one of his bulls Leo X. (1520) condemned
41 propositions of Luther, some of which in
one way or another refer to the doctrine of the
atonement. In the sixth session of the Council
of Trent the decrees on justification, on the
advent of Christ, on justification, etc., set forth
a basis for views on the Atonement which are
in opposition to those of Luther and others.
Luther denies the supernatural character of
man's original sanctity. God, according to Lu-
ther, planted in the very essence of human
nature the capabilities and the acts of virtue.
Hence no freedom of will. Sin is of the es-
sence of man. Man is wholly evil. Calvin
asserts that everything coming from man's cor-
rupt nature is damnable and so can in no way
co-operate in the atonement. It must all occur
outside of himself. He contributes nothing.
He is justified; he is reconciled to God, or
God is reconciled to him through faith in the
merits of Christ, whose obedience becomes
man's obedience and whose righteousness be-
comes man's justification. In this way the Cre-
ator remits sin, reputes man just and rewards
him with eternal life. Christ made satisfaction
for sinners in two ways : by fulfilling the law in
their place and by enduring the curse and pen-
alty of the law. Everything in the atonement be-
comes vicarious. Another person is substituted
for the debtor and the criminal. These doc-
trines are gathered from the Epistles of Saint
Paul. Only the bare statement has been here
presented of the doctrine of the Reformers.
A review of the reasons advanced to sustain
this teaching would repay the student. Those
who came after Luther and Calvin and Me-
lancthon modified in a lesser or greater degree
this teaching and modified the idea of trans-
ference as atonement and demanded at least
some co-operation, on the part of the sinner.
Imputation soon became the great battleground
of controversy. Investigation will reveal that
in the Protestant churches there has been a
recoil from the positive utterances of the Re-
formers. The disparity existing between the
above and what can be gleaned from the early
and modern history of the Catholic Church is
undoubtedly marked. So much so that Pusey
in his introductory essay to 'Essays on the
Reunion of Christendom^ observes: "The Lu-
theran and the Catholic belief are as like two
different religions as any can be, wherein the be-
lief as to the adorable Trinity and the incarna-
tion is the same. The zvhole doctrine of the ap-
plication of the merits of Christ to fallen man
and the condition of man in consequence of
the fall is radically different." In fact, the
difference is so radical that there is no possi-
bility of confounding, one with the other. All
Protestant theology from the rise of that re-
ligion is a literature which is within the reach
of any one to consult, and further quotations
or references are unnecessary. "Just as the
justice of man binds the judge to 'punish the
criminal, so is some penalty exacted from man
by virtue of the same attribute, which, of
course, is more perfect in the divinity. It is
not the spirit of vengeance which animates
God. In spite of the transgression God's love
remains as it was in the beginning, without
diminution or alteration of any kind. The Son

ATONEMENT

of man died for all men sufficiently, for the
elect efficiently. Satisfaction is required of
man. But that satisfaction is amply made by
man by believing, who thus becomes one with
the Redeemer and shares with Him in the re-
demption He wrought as the Head of the Re-
deemed. This is enough to excite love and
repentance and the striving after holiness."

Everything bracketed above, though taken
from different writers, expresses the view of the
Atonement as held by Protestant expounders.

In later years, both in Germany and else-
where, the theology outside of the Catholic
Church, while apparently concordant with the
opinion of the necessity of man's co-operation,
harks back, consciously or unconsciously, to the
belief of Luther and his immediate disciples that
Christ atoned fully, and so fully that the sinner
need only by some interior act appropriate to
himself the work already done by the Saviour.
Where there is any insistence that man must
of himself do something positive, in so much
is that insistence at variance with the thought
that in the beginning of the Reformation was
spread broaocast among the adherents of the
New Religion. Might there not be drawn a
distinction between atonement and salvation?
The atonement would mean that Christ had
done all that was necessary to reconcile man
with God, but there could be no salvation un-
less man turned to God through the path of
the atonement and by individual repentance and
satisfaction so comported himself as to bring
by voluntary acts his life into entire harmony
with the will of his Creator. No solution of
the evidently complicated nature of the atone-
ment will compel conviction which does not
answer adequately the following questions :
What is the relation of the Atonement to an
offended God? What was His acceptance of
the sacrifice? How far did that sacrifice in
itself go towards bringing God and man to-
gether? Was it alone enough to liberate man
so absolutely that after the death of the victim
no more was expected on his part? How were
the outraged excellences of the Godhead — His
justice. His mercy. His love — compensated for
the injury done them by sin? Did that injury
really affect the divine nature? It may be ad-
vanced here that in every theory which pos-
sesses any serious claim to assent the Su-
preme Being remained unimpaired in the beauty
of His perfection, and it was due to the in-
finite justice of God to demand a congruous
if not a condign reparation. What part does
Satan play in the plan of redemption? Has a
solution been presented? Is it and will it al-
ways be an impenetrable mystery? It is a mat-
ter so significant for Christians that they have
the right to expect from some form of Chris-
tianity a clear exposition based on Scripture
and authoritative teaching. For Christians it
means salvation, regarding which certainty is
security and doubt a calamity.

Thus much for Christianity, which empha-
sizes the necessity of an atonement. All Chris-
tians admit Christ as the fountain head of all
reconciliation of man with God. But the world
is far from being entirely or even largely
Christian. In the world to-day there are about
1,500,000,000 human souls, of which number
only a little over 400,000,000 have received the

religion of Christ. Half of these, it is com-
puted are Catholics, the remainder are Prot-
estants or Catholics of some kind or other, but
divided from the See of Rome. The rest of
the race is either Jewish or Mohammedan or
belongs to some Oriental form of worship or
is out and out heathen. Will Christianity as-
sume the responsibility of stating that beyond
its pale the atonement does not reach and that
therefore for the pagan there is hope neither
here nor hereafter? Some mention has already
been made of the Jews and their manner of
atonement. Their views have crystallized into
the shape which their orthodox members adopt
to-day and which they base upoji certain books
of the Old Testament, upon their Talmud and
their Targum. It differs in no way materially
from the teachings of Piloses and the Law and
the Prophets. They lived in the past as they
are living now in the hope of a great Deliverer
to whom every act of worship bore and bears
reference. In some way or other these typical
ceremonies, it is said, influenced Jehovah to
make them the promise: "I will be merciful to
their iniquities, and their sins I will remember no
more.^> (Hebrews viii, 12.) The space of this
article is inadequate to include even the
most summary account of the atonement idea
as it was understood by the nations outside of
the chosen people. Research has made it ad-
missible that everywhere there have been re-
ligious beliefs, opinions and practices pointing to
the acknowledgment of a Supreme Being and
judgment to come and a reward or punishment
in a life beyond this. With this are apparently
connected sacrifices which no matter how ac-
companied by fanaticism and superstition are
an attestation of an homage paid to a deity, a
homage of praise, or petition, or thanksgiving
or of supplication for pardon — an homage
which was inspired by an underlying sentiment
of the need of appeasing some offended divin-
ity. Yet it is not easy to trace this need in
those religions which are so widespread in the
Levant and furthest East and proclaim as
fundamental Fatalism, Metempsy-chosis and
Pantheism. The investigation of the subject
of atonement as advanced by the followers of
Christ, by those followers who profess that
Jesus was the Son of God, that is, was Divine,
among other questions inevitably suggests the
question of the possibility of salvation for all
individuals of the race whose creed negatives
Christianity altogether. Some reply, adequate
or otherwise, may be found in the dogma that
"Christ died for all men,'' whence the inference
is deducible that even those who never heard of
the Redeemer, or the atonement, cannot but be
affected by that death. How? is a large thesis.
That the problem has been approached by hon-
est and able thinkers is plain to the readers of
history. In the Christian world there is no
small number who deny the primal fall and
hence see nothing urgent in the discussion of
the atonement. The Messiah has not yet
reached this earth say the Jews, Christ was
not God, say the Arians. there is no God, say
the Atheists, if there be He is unknowable, say
the Agnostics. For all these the atonement has
very slight, if any, significance. Teacher? of
note advance the theory, basing it on Scrip-
ture, that the first tradition of a redeemer to

ATOSSA — ATRIUM

come and who was to atone, was carried by the
earlier peoples as they grew and scattered and
populated the earth. The Jewish idea brought
by the Israelites in their wanderings and cap-
tivities and assimilated by the tribes and na-
tions among whom they dwelt, was in the lapse
of time weakened or metamorphosed, or adapted
to pagan beliefs and so corrupted. "The only
theory which accounts for all these facts,^' says
Rawlinson, "is that of a primeval revelation
variously corrupted through the manifold and
multiform deterioration of human nature, in
different races and places.^'

Bibliography. — Various commentaries on the
Fourth Gospel and the Epistles of Saint Paul ;
Canones Concil Trident; Luther's 'de Servo
Arbitrio,^ <Two Catechisms,^ etc.: Augsburg
Confession; Melancthon's <Loci Theologici^ ;
Mohler's 'Symbolism^ ; Oxenham's 'The Cath-
olic Doctrine of the Atonement' ; Calvin's
'Christianse Religionis Institutio,' etc.; various
theological tracts on the incarnation ; Campbell,
'Nature of the Atonement' ; Hallam, 'Litera-
ture of Europe' ; writings of the Fathers and
Doctors; Grotius on 'Satisfaction'; Prof. Jow-
ett, 'Essay on Atonement and Satisfaction' ;
Coleridge, 'Aids to Reflection' ; Bishop Forbes,
'Thirty-nine Articles.' p ^ ^j,^^^^^

Saint-Thomas' Rectory, New York.

Atos'sa, the daughter of Cyrus, 530
B.C. She was successively married to Cambyses,
Smerdis, one of the Magi, and Darius, son of
Hydaspes, the last of whom she incited to in-
vade Greece. The word served as a poetical
name given by Pope, in his 'Moral Essays,' to
Sarah, Duchess of Marlborough.

Atrato, a-tra'to, a river of Colombia, of
note, because it has repeatedly been made to
bear a part in schemes for a ship-canal across
the Isthmus of Panama. Rising on the Western
Cordillera at an altitude of 10,560 feet, above sea-
level, it runs 305 miles northwest through low,
swampy country and falls by several mouths,
interrupted by bars, into the Gulf of Darien. It
is navigable by steamers for fully 250 miles, be-
ing 750 to 1,000 feet wide, and 8 to 70 feet deep.
A route, surveyed by the United States govern-
ment in 1871, proposed to connect the Atrato and
the Jurador, flowing into the Pacific, by a canal
48 miles long. At the Paris International Con-
gress (1879), that route was, with various others,
discussed and rejected in favor of De Lesseps'
line from Limon to Panama. Gold-dust is found
in and about the Atrato.

Atrau'li, a town of India, in the northwest
provinces. It is clean, well built, and has a good
trade. Pop. 14,374.

Atrebates, a-treb'a-tez, or at're-ba'tez, the
ancient inhabitants of that part of Gallia Belgica
afterward called Artois. A colony of them
settled in Britain, in a part of Berkshire and
Oxfordshire.

Atrek, a-trek', a river of Asia, forming the
boundary between Persia and the Russian Trans-
caspian territory, and flowing into the Caspian.
Its length is over 300 miles.

Atreus, a'troos, in fabulous history, the
son of Pelops and Hippodamia. He and his
brother, Thyestes, murdered their half-brother,
Chrysippus, from jealousy of the affection en-

tertained for him by their father. Thereupon
they fled to Eurystheus, with whose daughter^
Aerope, Atreus united himself, and after the
death of his father-in-law became king of My-
cene. Thyestes had two sons by the wife of his
brother, and was banished by Atreus. Thirsting;
for revenge, Thyestes conveyed away secretly a
son of his brother, and instigated him to murder
his own father. This design was discovered,,
and the youth, whom Atreus thought to be the
son of his brother, was put to death. Too late
did the unhappy father perceive his mistake. A
horrible revenge was necessary to give him con-
solation. He pretended to be reconciled to
Thyestes, and invited him with his two sons to a
feast, and after he had caused the latter to be
secretly slain he placed a dish made of their flesh
before Thyestes. When the father had finished
eating Atreus brought the bones of his sons and
showed him the dreadful revenge which he had
taken. Atreus (or his son Pleisthenes) was the-
father of Agamemnon and Menelaus, who are
hence called the Atridae, Atrides (the singular)
being often distinctively applied to Agamem-
non.

A'treus, Treasury of, a subterranean
building at Mycenae, so styled by Pausanias and
frequently referred to as "the tomb of Agamem-
non." It is a vaulted tomb resembling a bee-hive
in construction, its arch being composed of pro-
jecting horizontal courses of stone narrowing as.
the top is approached. It contains a circular
chamber 50 feet wide with a smaller square one
adjoining.

Atri, a'tre, Italy, the ancient Adria; a
town of the province of Teramo, in Italy; 14
miles southeast of the city of Teramo, on the
Brindiri R.R. There are some ruins of ancient
walls and buildings. The cathedral is inter-
esting for its frescoes, and a 15th-century paint-
ing of the Madonna worshipping the child. It
manufactures silk, soap, and licorice. Pop.
(1901) 13.448.

At'riplex, a large genus of succulent plants
of the natural order Chcnopodiaccce, widely dis-
tributed in tropical and temperate climates.
Many of the species are weeds, but some, known
as saltbush (for example, A. Icptocarpa and A,
semibaccata) are used as forage plants in Aus-
tralia, where they are native upon the alkali soils^
They have also proved promising in the alkali
soils of the western United States. (Consult
Circular 3, Division of Agrostology, United
States Department of Agriculture, Washington.)
A. hortcnsis, orach (q.v.) or sea-purslane, an
erect annual herb with yellowish-green or red
leaves, was formerly very popular as a substi-
tute for spinach and is still so used to some ex-
tent. A few species are also cultivated for orna-
ment.

A'trium, the entrance hall and most im-
portant apartment in ancient Roman houses. It
was usually ornamented with statues and various
family relics, and in the roof there was an open-
ing called the compluvium, toward which the
roof sloped so as to throw the rain-water into a
cistern in the floor known as the impluvinm. In
this room the nuptial couch was placed, and here
the matron with the women of the household sat
and spun. It was also used as a reception room
for visitors and clients. In mediaeval times, till!
the 1 2th century, the name was given to a cov-

ATROPA — ATTAINDER

ered court, somewhat on the model of the ancient
atrium, constructed in front of the principal
doors of an edifice. Later the cloister at the
side of the church, for the use of the monks,
took the place of the atrium.

At'ropa, a genus of plants of the natural
order Solanacecc. Its best known species is
•;>robably A. belladonna. See Belladonna.

Atrophy, a term denoting a diminution in
the size of the organs, or tissues that make up
the body. It is part of the physiological process
in its simpler forms, as many parts of the body
atrophy and become of secondary service in
adult life ; the thj'mus gland and umbilical ves-
sels being examples. It may also be a symptom
of disease, particularly in affections of the
nervous system in which the trophic fibres of
an organ are involved. It may also indicate a
perverted state of nutrition. See Nutrition.

At'ropine, a crystalline alkaloid obtained
from the deadly nightshade. It is extremely
poisonous. Large doses cause delirium, convul-
sions, and finally stupor and death. It is em-
ployed for several purposes in medicine, to re-
lieve pain or spasm, and to arrest excessive
sweats. The physiological action of atropine is
chiefly exerted on the nervous system. It is a
strong stimulant, particularly of the motor and
respiratory centres, and paralyzes the end fila-
ments of many nerves, particularly those that
supply the secretorj' glands, the involuntary
muscles, and the heart. Its chief poisonous
symptoms are, in the stage of excitement, dry-
ness of the mouth and pharynx, with anes-
thesia, a hot dry skin, dilatation of the pupil
with blurred vision, due to paralysis, ex-
treme restlessness, due to the motor excita-
tion, a noisy, busy, and incoherent brain
action, perhaps a delirium, quickened pulse,
quickened respiration. This stage may pass
into one of depression in which the patient
becomes comatose, the pulse and respiration
DCcome slowed and death results from as-
phyxia. Treatment of the poisoning should
include prompt washing of the stomach, emet-
ics being of no service because of the aues-
thesia, artificial respiration, infusions oi hot
coffee, and general supportive measures. See
Belladonna ; Solanace.e.

Atropos, at'ro-pos, the eldest of the Fates,
who cuts the thread of human life with her
shears.

Atsuta, at-soo'ta, Japan, a town in the
southern part of Honishu, practically a suburb
of Nagoya, with which it is connected by rail.
It contains a number of Shintoese temples, in
one of which the sword formmg part of the
Japanese imperial regalia, is kept. Pop. (1898)
24.291.

Attache, a'ta'sha', a military, naval or sub-
ordinate member of the diplomatic service at-
tached to an embassy or legation. Modern
usage in effect restricts the term to subordinate
officers of an embassy or legation.

Attach'ment, in law, a taking of a person,
goods, or estate by virtue of a writ or precept.
It is distinguished from an arrest by proceeding
out of a higher court by precept or writ, where-
as the latter proceeds out of an inferior court
by precept only. An arrest lies only against the
body of a person, whereas an attachment lies

often against the goods only, and sometimes
against the body and goods. It differs from
a distress in that an attachment does not extend
to lands, while a distress cannot touch the
body. In the United States attachment may be
defined as the taking into the custody of the
law the person or property of one already before
the court, or whom it is sought to bring before
the court; also a writ for this purpose. To
some extent it is of the nature of a criminal
process. In some States a plaintiff can at the
beginning of an action to recover money attach
the property of the defendant as a security for
the payment of the judgment expected to be
recovered ; and in case of recovery the property
is applied in satisfaction of the judgment. But
the more usual rule is that there can be no
seizure of property, except in specified cases,
till the rights of the parties have been settled
by judgment of the court. The exceptions are
chiefly in cases where the defendant is a non-
resident or a fraudulent debtor, or is attempting
to conceal or remove his property. In some
States, attachments are distinguished as foreign
and domestic — the former issued against a
non-resident having property with the jurisdic-
tion of the State, the latter against a resident in
the State; jurisdiction over the person or prop-
erty being necessary for an attachment. An
attachment issued under a State law not adopt-
ed by Congress, or by a rule of court, cannot
be sustained in a United States court.

Attack', a term denotmg the openmg act
ot hostility by a force seekmg to dislodge an
enemy from its position. It is considered more
advantageous to offer than to await attack,
even in a defensive war. The historic forms of
attack are: (i) The parallel; (2) The form
in which both the wmgs attack and the centre
is kept back; (3) The form in which the centre
is pushed forward and the wings kept back ;
(4) The famous oblique mode, dating at least
from Epaminondas, and employed by Frederick
the Great, where one wing advances to engage,
while the otlier is kept back, and occupies the
attention of the enemy by pretending an attack.
Napoleon preferred to mass heavy columns
against an enemy's centre. The forms of attack
have changed with the weapons used. In the
days of the pike, heavy masses were the rule,
but the use of the musket led to an extended
battle front to give effect to the fire. The advent
of magazine rifles, machine and rapid-fire guns,
breech-loading field and horse artillery guns,
smokeless powder, etc., has reduced the methods
of attack to a practical science. See Tactics.

Attain'der, the legal consequence of a
sentence of death or outlawry pronounced
against a person for treason or felony, the per-
son being said to be attainted. It resulted
in forfeiture of estate and "corruption of
blood," rendering the party incapable of in-
heriting property or transmitting it to heirs ;
but these rpsu'us now no longer follow. For-
merly persons were often subjected to attainder
by a special bill or act passed in Parliament.
In the United States, the Federal Constitution
declares that "No bill of attainder shall be
passed, and no attainder of treason, in conse-
quence of a judicial sentence, shall work cor-
ruption of blood or forfeiture except during
the life of the person attainted."

ATTAINT — ATTERBURY

Attaint', a writ at common law against a
jury for a false verdict. It was abolished in
England in 1825 except as to jurors guilty of
embracery. See Attainder.

At'tal'ea, a genus of about 20 species of
mostly tall, smooth-stemmed tropical American
palms with large pinnate leaves sometimes used
for thatch, mats, hats, etc., and with nut fruits
enclosed in a fibrous husk. A. fitnifera, the
piassaba palm of the coast provinces of south-
ern Brazil, yields a cordage of great strength
and durability in sea water. Its fruits (coquil-
la nuts) are as large as ostrich eggs and are
used like vegetable ivory (see Vegetable
Ivory). The piassaba palm of northern Brazil
is a different species. It furnishes a fibre which
is exported. A. excelsa and A. speciosa furnish
nuts which are burned in rubber-making to dry
and color the rubber obtained from Siphonia
elastka. A. compta, the pindova or indaja
palm, a handsome species with a wide-spread-
ing crown, yields edible fruits as large as goose
eggs. A. Cohune, indigenous to Honduras, sup-
plies a fruit from which the oil is extracted for
soap-making at home and abroad. Several spe-
cies are cultivated in greenhouses, but are gen-
erally considered too slow of growth from seed
to be satisfactory.

At'talus, the names of three kings of an-
cient Pergamus, 241-133 B.C., the last of whom
bequeathed his kingdom to the Romans. All
were munificent patrons of art and literature.

At'talus, Flavius Priscus, the emperor of
the East for one year, 409-10. He was pro-
claimed by Alaric and his Goths, but soon de-
posed. Honorius later cut off his thumb and
forefinger and banished him to the island of
Lipari.

AttSr, at-tar', Ferid eddin, celebrated Per-
sian poet: b. near Nishapur, 11 19; d. about
1229 (?). Ihe son of a spicer, he followed
his father's trade (whence his surname of At-
tar), but afterward became a dervish and one
of the greatest mystics of Persia. He is said
to have been killed by a Mongol soldier dur-
ing the invasion by Jenghiz Khan. Of his ex-
tant political works the most famous are: <The
Book of Council,' a series of didactic poems
on ethics; <The Parliament of Birds' (1184-7).
His principal work in prose is 'Biographies of
the Saints.'

At'tar, or Otto of Roses, a perfume ex-
tracted from rose petals. It is a volatile oil, of
soft consistency, nearly colorless, and deposits
a crystallizable stibstance partially soluble in
alcohol. The best article, is prepared at Ghazi-
poor in Hindustan ; but is apt to be much adul-
terated with sandal wood and other oils. The
whole country, for many miles around Ghazi-
poor, is a garden of roses, and in the spring
of the year presents a most beautiful picture
of red and green. The roses are used both for
rose water and the oil of roses. The latter is
obtained from the rose water by setting it out
during the night in large open vessels, and
early in the morning skimming off the essen-
tial oil, which floats at the top. The rose
water after the removal of the oil is not so high-
ly valued as before. It is estimated that 200,-
000 well-grown roses are required to produce
half an ounce of the oil; and the value of this
when it is manufactured is about $40, and even

then it is likely to be adulterated. If warranted
genuine, it sells for about $50 or $100 per
ounce. Attar is also imported from Smyrna
and Constantinople; but it rarely, if ever, ar-
rives in this country pure. It is commonly
adulterated with spermaceti and a volatile oil,
which appears to be derived from one or more
species of Andropogon, and which is called oil t
of ginger-grass, or oil of geranium. Pure attar 3
of rose, carefully distilled, is at first colorless, .
but speedily becomes yellowish. It congeals
below 80° ; melts at 84°. At 57°, 1,000 alcohol
dissolve 7J^ oil. and at 72°, 2>2> oil. Specific
gravity 872. Formula, C23H23O3. Many at-
tempts have been made to discover some chem-
ical reaction whirh would reveal the falsifi-
cation of attar with geranium oil, but hitherto
mostly in vain.

Attempt', in criminal law an endeavor to
accomplish a crime carried beyond mere prep-
aration, but falling short of the execution of
the ultimate design in any part of it. 5 Cush.
Mass. 367. To constitute an attempt, there
must be an intent to commit some act which
would be indictable, if done, either from its
own character or that of its natural and proba-
ble consequences. In some States an attempt to
commit a crime is defined by statute. The
statute in New York is substantially similar to
that of other States. The Penal Code of New
York, § 34, provides that ''An act, done with
intent to commit a crime, and tending but fail-
ing to effect its commission, is an attempt to
commit that crime."

Attention. See Consciousness.

Atterbom, at'ter-bom, Peter Daniel Ama-
deus, Swedish poet: b. Asbo, East Goth-
land, 19 Jan. 1790; d. Upsala, 21 July 1855.
Having visited Germany and Italy in 1817-19,
he formed ties of friendship with Schelling and
Thorwaldsen ; became instructor to Crown
Prince Oscar, in 1820, and professor at the
university in Upsala in 1828. He was unques-
tionably the foremost among the lyric poets of
the romantic school in Sweden. His most cele-
brated work is 'The Isle of Blessedness'
(1823), a romantic drama in the manner of
Tieck; but he also wrote 'The Flowers,' a
cycle of lyrics; 'The Blue Bird,' a play; and
'Swedish Seers and Poets,' a volume of criti-
cism.

At'terbury, Francis, celebrated English
prelate : b. Middleton Keynes, England, 6 March
1662; d. Paris, 15 Feb. 1732. He distinguished
himself at the university as a classical scholar,
and gave proofs of an elegant taste for poet-
ry. In 1687 he took his degree of M.A. ; is
thought to have assisted his pupil, Boyle, in his
famous controversy with Bentley on the Epis-
tles of Phalaris. Taking' orders in 1691 he set-
tled in London, where he became chaplain to
William and Mary, preacher of Bridewell, and
lecturer of St. Bride's, and soon became distin-
guished by the spirit and elegance of his pulpit
compositions, but not without incurring opposi-
tion, on the score of fheir tendency and doc-
trine, from Hoadly and others. Soon after the
accession of Queen Anne he was made dean of
Carlisle, and besides his dispute with Hoadly
on the subject of passive obedience, he aided
in the defense of the famous Sacheverell, and
wrote 'A Representation of the Present State

ATTIC — ATTICA

of Religion,^ deemed too violent to be presented ceiling is square with the sides, to distinguish ii

to the queen, although privately circulated. In from a garret.

1712 he was made dean of Christ Church and At'tica, a State of ancient Greece, whose
m 1713 Bishop of Rochester and dean of West- capital, Athens, was once the first city in the
minster. The death of the queen, in 1714, put ,vorld. It is a peninsula, united, toward the
an end to his hopes of further advancement; ^orth, with Bceotia. toward the west, in some
for the new king treated him with great cool- degree, with Megaris, and extends far into the
ness Aterbury not on y refused to sign the .^gean Sea at Cape Sunium (now Cape Colon-
loyal declaration of the bishops in the rebellion ^a). The unfru.tfulness of its soil protected it
of 1715, but suspended a clergyman for lending ^g^inst foreign invaders, and the Athenians
his churcn xor the performance of divme ser- boasted of their ancient and unmingled race,
vice to the Dutch troops brought over to act The earliest inhabitants of Attica lived in a
against the rebels. Not content with a consti- savage manner until the time of Cecrops, who
tutional opposition, he entered into a corre- ^ame 1550 B.C. with a colony from Sais, at the
spondence with the Pretender s party, was ap- ^q,,^]., of ^^^ ^iie, to Attica, and is acknow-
prehended in August 1772. and committed to jedged as their first real king. One of Cecrops'
the lower; and in the March foHowing a bill descendants founded 11 other citi'^s, which
was brought into the House of Commons for j^ after-times made war upon each other,
the infliction of pains and penalties. This mea- Theseus compelled these cities to unite, and to
sure met with considerable opposition in the giyg to Cecropia, now called Athens, as the
House of Lords, and was resisted by the bishop capital city of the whole countrv, the supreme
who maintained his innocence with his usual po^^er over the confederacy. He founded the
acuteness and dexterity. His guilt, however, great feast called the panathencea, watched over
has been tolerably well proved by documents the administration of the laws, commanded the
since published. He was deprived of his digni- ^rmy, divided the whole people into three
ties, and outlawed, and went to Pans where classes — noblemen, husbandmen, and mechan-
he chiefly occupied himself in study, and m cor- jcs. He embellished and enlarged Athens, and
respondence with men of letters. But even invited foreigners to people the country. Af-
here. m 1725, he was actively engaged in fo- ter the death of Codrus. 1068 b.c, the monarchi-
menting discontent m the Highlands of Scot- cal form of government, which had continued
land. As a composer of sermons he still re- 487 years from the time of Cecrops, was abol-
tains a great portion of his original reputation, jghed. An archon, chosen for life, possessed
His letters, also, are extremely easy and ele- the regal power. After 316 years the term of
gant; but, as a critic and a controversialist, he office of the archons was limited to 10 years,
IS deemed rather dexterous and popular than and 70 years later to i year, and their number
accurate and profound. was increased to 9. A regular code of laws

At'tic, pertaining to Attica or to Athens, was now needed. The archon Draco was corn-
Elegant; classical; poignant; characterized by missioned to dra_w one up ; but his severity dis-
keen intellect, delicate wit, sound judgment and gufed the minds of the people, and 594 B.C.
expressive brevity ; as, the Attic Muse. Attic Solon introduced a milder code and a better
dialect was the most refined and polished of all constitution. He provided that the f9rm of
the dialects of ancient Greece; and in it wrote government should continue democratic, and
Solon, the lawgiver ; Thucydides and Xeno- that a senate of 400 members, chosen from the
phon, the historians; Aristophanes, the comic People, should administer the government,
poet; Plato and Aristotle, the philosophers, and Pisistratus, a man of talents boldness and am-
Demosthenes, the orator. When, after the bjtion, put himself at the head of the poorer
Macedonian conquest, Greek became the Ian- classes, and made himself master of the su-
guage of literature and diplomacy in most parts preme power in Athens. His government was
of the civilized world, the Attic came to be that splenaid and beneficent, but his tvvo sons could
dialect of the Greek tongue which was general- "ot maintain it Clisthenes, a friend of the
1 adooted people, exerted himself to prevent future abuses
^ by some changes in the laws of Solon. He di-

Attic Order, in architecture, a low order, vided the people into 10 classes, and made the
commonly used over a principal order, never senate consist of 500 persons. Attica was al-
with columns, but usually with antae or small ready highly cultivated; the vintage and har-
pilasters. It is employed to decorate the vest, like all the labors of this gay people, were
fagade of a stpry of little height, terminating celebrated with dance and song, with feasts and
the upper part of a building; and it doubtless sacrifices. Then came the splendid era of the
derives its name from its resemblance in pro- Persian war, which elevated Athens to the
portional height and concealed roof to some of summit of fame. Miltiades at Marathon, and
the buildings of Greece. In all the best ex- Themistocles at Salamis, conquered the Per-
amples, and especially in the remains of antiqui- sians by land and by sea. The freedom of
ty at Rome, the attic is decorated with a Greece escaped the dangers which had threat-
molded base and cornice ; often with pilasters ened it ; the rights of the people were enlarged ;
and figures, as in the Arch of Constantine. In the archons and other magistrates were chosen
modern architecture, the proportions of the from all classes without distinction. The pe
attic order have never been subject to fixed riod from the Persian war to the time of Alex-
rules, and their good effect is entirely depend- ander (500 B.C. to 336) was most remarkable
ent on the taste and feeling of the architect, for the development of the Athenian constitu-
Attic base: The base of a column consisting of tion. According to Bockh's 'The Public Econ-
an upper and lower torus, a scotia and fillets be- omy of Athens,* Attica contained, together with
tween them. Attic story: A term frequently the islands of Salamis and Helena, a territory
applied to the upper story of a house, when the of 847 square miles, with 500,000 inhabitants,

ATTICA — ATTILA

365,000 of whom were slaves. Cimon and
Pericles (444 b.c.) introduced the highest ele-
gance into Athens, but the latter laid the foun-
dation for the future corruption of manners,
and for the gradual overthrow of the state.
Under him began the Peloponnesian war, which
ended with the conquest of Athens by the Lace-
dsemonians. A more dangerous enemy rose in
the north — Philip of Macedon. Athens, to-
gether with the other states of Greece, became
dependent on the Macedonians. When they
suffered themselves to be misled to support
Mithridates against the Romans, they drew
upon themselves the vengeance of Rome. Sulla
captured the city, and left it only an appear-
ance of liberty, which it retained until the time
of Vespasian. This emperor formally changed
it into a Roman province. After the division
of the Roman empire, Attica belonged to the
empire of the East. 396 a.d., it was conquered
by Alaric the Goth, and the country devastated.
Attica, along with the ancient Boeotia, now
forms a nome or province (Attike and Viotia)
of the kingdom. See Athens.

Attica, Ind., city in Fountain County, on
the Wabash River and Wabash Railroad ; 21
miles southwest of Lafayette. It has numerous
manufactories, churches, schools, two banks, and
a public library. Pop. (1900) 3,005.

At'ticus, Titus Pomponius, a noble Roman,
the intimate friend of Cicero : b. 109 B.C. ; d.
32 B.C. The Pomponian family, from which he
originated, was one of the most distinguished
of the eqiiites, and derived its origin from
Numa Pompilius. When he attained maturity,
the republic was disturbed by the factions of
Cinna and Sulla. His brother, Sulpicius, the
tribune of the people, being killed, he thought
himself not safe in Rome, for which reason he
removed, with his fortune, to Athens, where he
devoted himself to science. His benefits to the
city were so great, that he gained the affec-
tions of the people in the highest degree, and
acquired so thorough a knowledge of Greek,
that he could not be distinguished from a na-
tive Athenian. When quiet was restored in
Rome he returned and inherited from his
uncle 10,000,000 sesterces ($500,000). His
sister married the brother of Cicero. Cjesar
treated him with the greatest regard, though he
was known as a friend of Pompey. After the
death of Caesar, he lived in friendship with
Brutus, without, however, offending Antony.

At'ticus Herod'es, Tiberius Claudius, a
wealthy Athenian; b. about 104 a.d.; d. about
180. He received a careful education under the
most distinguished masters of the time, and
specially devoted himself to the study of ora-
tory, to excel in which seems to have been the
ruling motive of hie life, ultimately attaining
to great celebrity as a speaker and as a teacher
of rhetoric. Among his pupils were Marcus
Aurelius and Lucius Verus. He was highly
esteemed by the Antonines, particularly by
Aurelius, and received many marks of favor,
among others the archonship at Athens and
the consulate at Rome. Atticus is principally
celebrated, however, for the vast sums he ex-
pended on public purposes. He withdrew from
Athens, and resided at his villa near Marathon,
where he died about 180 a.d. None of his writ-
ings are extant.

Attila, at'ti-la (in German, Etzel), the sou
of Mundzuk, a Hun of royal descent, who fol-
lowed his uncle, Roas, m 434, and shared the
supreme authority with his brother, Bleda.
These two leaders of the barbarians, who had
settled in Scythia and Hungary, threatened the
Eastern Empire, and twice compelled Theo-
dosius H. to purchase an inglorious peace. The
Huns themselves esteemed Attila, their bravest
warrior and most skilful general. Their re-
gard for his person soon amounted to supersti-
tious reverence, and being now sole master of
a warlike people, his unbounded ambition made
him the terror of all nations; and he became,
as he called himself, the scourge which God
had chosen to chastise the human race. In a
short time he extended his dominion over all
the people of Germany and Scythia, and the
eastern and western emperors paid him tribute.
The Vandals, the Ostrogoths, the Gepidse, and
a part of the Franks united under his banners.
Hearing a rumor of the riches and power of
Persia, he directed his march thither, but was
defeated on the plains of Armenia, and drew
back to satisfy his desire of plunder in the do-
minions of the emperor of the East. He easily
found a pretext for war, for all states which
promised him a rich booty were his natural
enemies, and all princes whom he hoped to
conquer had broken alliances. The Emperor
Theodosius collected an army to oppose his pro-
gress ; but in three bloody battles fortune de-
clared herself for the barbarians. Constantino-
ple was indebted to the strength of its walls,
and to the ignorance of the enemy in the art of
besieging, for its preservation. Thrace, Mace-
donia, and Greece, all submitted to the savage
robber, who destroyed 70 flourishing cities.
Theodosius was at the mercy of the victor, and
was obliged to purchase a peace. Attila now
directed his eyes to Gaul. With an immense
army he passed the Rhine, the Moselle, and the
Seine, came to the Loire, and sat down under
the walls of Orleans. The inhabitants of this
city, encouraged by their Bishop, Agnan
(Anianus), repelled the first attack of the bar-
barians, and the united forces of the Romans,
under their general, Aetius, and of the Visi-
goths, under their king, Theodoric, compelled
Attila to raise the siege. He retreated to
Champagne, and waited for the enemy in the
plains of Chalons. The two armies soon ap-
proached each other. Attila, anxious for the
event of the battle, consulted the soothsayers,
who assured \\m\ of a defeat. He concealed his
alarm, rode through the ranks of his war-
riors, reminded them of their deeds, spoke of
his joy at the prospect of a battle, and at the
thought that their valor was to be rewarded.
Inflamed by his speech, and by the presence of
their leader, the Huns were impatient for bat-
tle. At length the fanks of the Romans and
Goths were broken through, and Attila was al-
ready sure of the victory, when the Gothic
prince, Thorismond, the son of Theodoric,
poured down from the neighboring height upon
the Huns. Attila, pressed on all sides, escaped
with difficulty to his camp. This was perhaps
the bloodiest battle which has ever been fought
in Europe; for, according to contemporary his-
torians, 106,000 dead bodies covered the field of
battle. Attila caused all his camp equipage and
treasures to be brought together into a heap, in

ATTITUDE — ATTORNEY-GENERAL

order to burn himself with them, in case he
should be reduced to extremities. But the enemy-
were contented with collecting their forces
during the night, and having paid the last hon-
ors to the dead body of King Theodoric (Die-
trich), which they discovered with difficulty,
they saluted his son, Thorismond, king upon
the field of battle. Thus Attila escaped, but the
Franks pursued him till he had passed the
Rhine. He now demanded Honoria, the sister
of Valentinian III., in marriage, and conquered
and destroyed Aquileia, Padua, Vicenza, Vero-
na, Bergamo, and laid waste the plains of Lom-
bardj\ The inhabitants fled to the Alps, to the
Apennines, and to the small islands in the shal-
lows (lagoons), of the Adriatic Sea, where they
built Venice. The emperor had no army to op-
pose him; the Roman people and senate had re-
course to tears and supplications. Pope Leo L
went with the Roman ambassadors to the ene-
my's camp and succeeded in obtaining a peace.
Attila went back to Hungary. The Romans
looked upon their preservation as a miracle, and
the old chronicles relate that the threats of St.
Peter and St. Paul had terrified Attila — a
legend which the art of Raphael and Alghardi
has immortalized. Not having obtained Honoria
for a wife, Attila would a second time have de-
manded her, sword in hand, if the beautiful
Ildico had not been added to his numerous
■wives, with whom he solemnly united himself
(453)- On this occasion he gave himself up
to all the extravagance of debauchery ; but
on the other day after the marriage, the ser-
vants and warriors, impatient to salute their
master, thronged into the tent; they found
Ildico veiled, sitting by the cold corpse of her
husband. During the night he had died of
a hemorrhage. The news of his death spread
sorrow and terror in the army. His body was
enclosed in three coffins — the first was of gold,
the second of silver, and the third of iron. The
captives who had made the grave were
strangled. The description that Jornandes has
left us of this barbarian king reminds us of his
Kalmuck-Tartar origin. He had a large head,
a flat nose, broad shoulders, and a short and ill-
formed body. See Thierry, *Histoire d'Attila'
(1814).

Attis. See Atys.

At'titude, an art term signifying an artis<
tic pose or position assumed by living figures.
Attitudes require a regular study, a part of
which is a Knowledge of anatomy. The art of
exhibiting attitudes, at least in modern times, is
of recent invention. At the end of the i8th
century the celebrated Lady Hamilton began
the practice, and imitated, with great talent,
the attitudes of antique statues in many large
towns of Europe, so that Sir William Hamilton
could say that he possessed, in his wife, a
whole collection of antiques. Her dress was a
simple tunic, fastened with a ribbon tight un-
der the breast, and a shawl. With these she
imitated all the different draperies. On the con-
tinent of Europe this art was carried to much
perfection by Mrs. Hendel Schutz, who exhibit-
ed attitudes, copied from the Greek, Egyptian,
Italian, and German styles of art.

At'tleboro, Mass., a town of Bristol
County, 30 miles southwest of Boston, and 12
miles from Providence. It has good railroad
connections, contains national banks, newspaper

Vol. 2— J

offices, several churches, and a system of graded
schools. The town is the seat of several m:por-
tant industries, the chief of which is the man-
ufacture of jewelry and electro-plate. There
are also manufactories of cotton, woolen, and
knit goods, and of boots and shoes. Pop.
(1900) 11,335- Consult Daggett, <A Sketch of
the Town of Attleborough> (1894).

Attock, at-tok', a town and fort of the
Punjab, on the east bank of the Indus. Attock
stands below the fort, established by the Em-
peror Akbar in 1581, to defend the passage of
the river. The great railway bridge across the
Indus here was opened in 1883. It has five
arches 130 feet high, and renders continuous
the railway connection between Calcutta and
Peshawur (1,600 miles). The situation of At-
tock is important, whether in a commercial or
in a military view. It is at the head of the
steamboat navigation of the Indus, being 940
miles from its mouth. Taxila, where the
Macedonians crossed the Indus, has been
identified with Attock.

Attorney, at-tiir'ni (attoniatus, in Latin),
a person appointed to do- something for and in
the stead and name of another. A public at-
torney or attorney at law is a person quali-
fied to appear for another before a court
of law to prosecute or defend any action on
behalf of his client. The term was formerly
applied especially to those practising before the
supreme courts of common law at Westminster,
and corresponded to the term solicitor u.sed in re-
gard to the courts of chancery. As an attorney
was almost invariably a solicitor, the two terms
came to be generally regarded as synonymous.
By the Judicature Act of 1873 all persons prac-
tising before the supreme courts at Westmins-
ter are now called solicitors. Attorneys or
solicitors do not plead or argue in court on be-
half of their clients, this being the part of the
barristers or counsel : their special functions
may be defined to be, to institute actions on be-
half of their clients and take necessary steps
for defending them, to furnish counsel with
necessary materials to enable them to get up
their pleadings, to practice conveyancing, to
prepare legal deeds and instruments of all
kinds, and generally to advise with and act for
their clients in all matters connected with law.
An attorney, whether private or public, may
have general powers to act for another ; or his
power may be special, and limited to a particu-
lar act or acts. In Scotland there is no class
of practitioners of the law who take the name
of attorneys. A special attorney is appointed
by a deed called a power or letter of attor-
ney, and the deed by which he is appointed
specifies the acts he is authorized to perform.
It is a commission, to the extent of which only
he can bind his principal. As far as the acts of
the attorney, in the name of the principal, are
authorized by his power, his acts are those of
his principal. But if he goes beyond his au-
thority, his acts will bind himself only; and he
must indemnify any one to whom, without au-
thority, he represents himself as an attorney of
another, and who contracts with him, or other-
wise puts confidence in him, as being such at-
torney.

Attorney-General, in English law, an mi-
portant officer under the king, made by let-
ters patent. His most important duties are to

ATTORNEY AT LAW — ATWATER

exhibit informations and prosecute for the
crown in matters criminal, and to file bills in
the exchequer in any matter concerning
the kings revenue. The attorney-general of
the United States is an officer appointed by the
President He is required by statute to give
his advice and opinion upon questions of law
whenever required by the president; to pass up-
on the validity of the title to public lands pur-
chased for the erection of public buildings by
the United States; when requested, to give his
opinion to the head of any executive depart-
ment on any questions of law arising in his
department; to conduct and argue all cases in
which the United States is interested, whenever
he deems it best for the interests of the United
States for him to do so; to exercise general
superintendence and direction over the attor-
neys and marshals of all the districts in the
United States and the Territories as to the
manner of discharging their respective duties.
The attorney-general is also a member of the
Cabinet, and according to the provisions of the
act of Congress of 19 Jan. 1886, is the fourth in
succession, after the Vice-President, to the
office of President in case of a vacancy in that
office. In each of the United States there is an
attorney-general, or similar officer, who appears
for the people, as in England he appears for
the Crown. Only a few of the duties of the at-
torney-generals in the various States are defined
by statute, consequently, so far as applicable to
our altered situation, jurisprudence, and system
of government, attorney-generals of the various
states are clothed with the common law powers
of the attorney-generals of England. The at-
torney-general of England had the power (i)
to prosecute all actions necessary for the pro-
tection and defense of the property and reve-
nues of the Crown; (2) by information to
bring certain classes of persons accused of
crimes and misdemeanors to trial; (3) by ^'■scire
facias''^ to revoke and annul grants made by
the Crown improperly, or when forfeited by the
grantee thereof; (4) by information, to recover
money or other chattels or damages for wrongs
committed on the land, or other possessions of
the Crown; (5) by writ of quo zvarmnto, to de-
termine the right of him who claims or usurps
any office, franchise, or liberty, and to vacate
the charter, or annul the existence of a corpora-
tion for violations of its charter, or for omit-
ting to exercise its corporate powers ; (6) by
writ of mandamus to compel the admission of
an officer duly chosen to his office, and to com-
pel his restoration when illegally ousted; (7)
by information to chancery, to enforce trusts,
and to prevent public nuisances, and the abuse
of trust powers; (8) by proceedings in rem, to
recover property to which the Crown may be
entitled, by forfeiture for treason, and property
for which there is no other legal owner, such as
wrecks, treasure trove, etc. ; (9) and in certain
cases, by information in chancery, for the pro-
tection of the rights of lunatics, and others who
are under the protection of the Crown.

Attor'ney at Law, an officer of a court of
justice employed by a party in a cause to man-
age it for him. Appearance by attorney has
been allowed in England from the time of the
earliest records of the courts of that country.
Such appearances were first allowed in France
by letters patent of Philip le Bel, 1290 a.d. No

one can, by consent, be the attorney of both
the litigating parties in the same section or
suit. The agreement of an attorney at law,
within the scope of his employment, in general,
binds his client (i Salk. 86) as to amend the
record, to refer a cause, not to sue out a writ of
error, to strike out a non pros, to waive a judg-
ment by default, etc. The principal duties of
an attorney are to be true to the court and to
his client, to attend to the business of his
client with prudence, skill, and honesty (4
Burr. 2061, 72 Ga. 83) ; to keep his client in-
formed as to the state of his business, and to
keep his secrets confided to him as such, and an
attorney is privileged from disclosing such se-
crets when called as a witness (16 N. Y. 180,
29 Vt. 701). An attorney is allowed consid-
erable freedom of speech, and ordinarily, is not
liable for the use of false, defamatory, or ma-
licious language, provided it was material to the
issues raised by the pleadings (Hastings v.
Lusk, 22 Wend. N. Y. 410). He is liable, how-
ever, if his language is defamatory, if it can be
shown that it was not relevant to the issues, and
was used for the purpose of injuring the char-
acter of his adversary (i Barn. & C. 258).

Attrac'tion, in physics, any force acting
between two bodies, which tends to bring them
nearer together, or to oppose their further
separation. All attractions can be divided into
two classes: (i) Those which act at sensible
distances, such as gravity and magnetism, and
(2) those which exert measureable effects only
when the bodies are exceedingly close together.
Cohesion and molecular forces are examples of
the second class. See Cohesion ; Electricity ;
Ether; Gravitation; Magnetism; Molecular
Theory; Surface Tension.

At'tribute, in philosophy, a quality or
property of a substance, such as whiteness or
hardness. A substance is known to us only as
a congeries of attributes. In the fine arts an
attribute is a symbol regularly accompanying
and characterizing some personage. Thus the
caduceus, purse, winged Hat, and sandals are
attributes of Mercury, the trampled dragon an
attribute of St. George.

Attrition, a disposition of the soul which con-
sists in sorrow for sin springing from a salutary
fear of its consequences. Theologians of the
Catholic Church teach that such sorrow joined to
the absolution of the priest in the Sacrament of
Penance is sufficient for the remission of sin, al-
though the penitent is counselled to strive for
the more perfect sorrow (contrition), which has
its motive the love of God.

At'water, Lyman Hotchkiss, American
theologian : b. Hampden, Ct., 23 Feb. 1813 ; d.
Princeton, N. J., 17 Feb. 1883. He was pastor
of the First Congregational Church in Fairfield
Ct., in 1835-54 ; in the last named year becomin-
professor of mental and moral philosophy a
Princeton College, and, in 1869, professor ot
logic, metaphysics, political science, economics
and ethics there. He was the author of i,
< Manual of Elementary Logic' (1867).

At'water, Wilber Olin, American chem-
ist : b. Johnsburg, N. Y., 3 May 1844. He was
graduated at Wesleyan University in 1865 ;
made a special study of chemistry in the Shef-
field Scientific School of Yale and the univer-
sities of Leipsic and Berlin. He has beeti

ATWILL — AUBE

successively professor of chemistry in East Ten-
nessee University, Maine Stale College, and
Wesleyan University. He was director of the
Connecticut Agricultural Experiment Station,
1875-7, and was appointed director of the
Storrs (Conn.) Experiment Station in 1887.
He has been connected for several years v;ith
the United Slates Department of Agriculture;
has published a large number of papers on
chemical and allied subjects; and since 1894,
has given much attention to nutrition investiga-
tions.

At'will, Edward Robert, American bishop:
b. Red Hook, N. Y., 18 Jan. 1840. He was
graduated from Columbus University in 1862,
and General Theological Seminary, 1864. He
was rector of St. Paul's Church, Burling-
ton, Vt., 1867-80; of Trinity Parish, Toledo, O.,
1881-90; and was consecrated first Protestant
Episcopal bishop of West Missouri, 14 Oct.
1890.

At'wood, Charles B., American archi-
tect: b. Millbury, Mass., 18 May 1849; d. Chi-
cago, 19 Dec. 1895. He studied at the Harvard
Scientific School, and opened an office in 1872.
Within three years he received prizes for de-
* signs for the San Francisco city hall, the
Connecticut State capitol, the court house in
Springfield, Mass., and a commission to build
the Holyoke, Mass., city hall. Removing to
New York in 1875, he designed residences for
W. H. Vanderbilt. Elliot F. Shepard, and W. D.
Sloane, and interior decorations for the houses
of Mrs. Mark Hopkins in San Francisco and
Gt. Barrington, Mass. In 1884 he gained the
first prize for a design for the Boston Public
Library, and later a prize of $5,000 for plans
for a new city hall in New York city. From
1891-3 he was associated with D. H. Burnham
in planning the World's Fair buildings in Chi-
cago. The art building, peristyle, service
building, and many minor features were from
his designs. He was a close student of his
art, and a marvelous draughtsman, using his
left hand with sureness and rapidity. D. H.
Burnham said of him, "He was of an honorable,
charitable disposition, but like most great
artists, a mere child in the practical things of
Iife.»

At'wood, George, an eminent English
mathematician: b. London 1746; d. 11 July 1807.
In 1874 he published ^Treatise on the Rectili-
near Motion and Rotation of Bodies ; with a
Description of Original Experiments relative to
that Subject^ — a work remarkable for its per-
spicuity and the extensive information which
it afifords. About the same time he made pub-
lic an 'Analysis of a Course of Lectures on the
Principles of Natural Philosophj',^ read at the
University of Cambridge, which is not less val-
uable than the preceding. He published a 'Dis-
sertation on the Construction and Properties of
Arches^ (1801), and several other valuable
treatises relating to mathematics and mechanical
science. He invented a machine still used in
physical lectui '--rooms, which affords great fa-
cilities for verifying the laws of falling bodies.
See Atwood's Machine.

At'wood, Isaac Morgan, American edu-
cator : b. Pembroke, N. Y., 24 March 1838. He
was ordained in the Universalist Church in
1861 ; held several pastorates ; edited The

Christian Leader (1867-73); became an as-
sociate editor of ^the Universalist Leader;
and was chosen president of the Canton (N. Y.)
Theological Seminary in 1879. His chief works
are: ^Have We Outgrown Christianity ?>
(1870) ; 'Latest Word of Universalism' (1878) ;
'Manual of Revelation* (1888) ; 'Walks About
Zion> (1881).

At'wood, Melville, Anglo-American geol-
ogist: b. 31 Juiv 1812, Prescott Hall, Eng-
land ; d. Berkeley, Cal., 25 April 1898. He stud-
ied iithology, microscopy, and geology early in
life, and engaged in gold and diamond mining
in Brazil. In 1843 he made a discovery that
greatly enhanced the value of zinc ore. After
coming to the United States, in 1852, he in-
vented the blanket system of amalgamation.
He also established the value of the famous
Comstock silver lode, by an assay of minerals
in that region.

At'wood's Machine, an instrument devised
by George Atwood, an English physicist, for
illustrating the principles governing the mo-
tion of falling bodies, and described by him
in a book published in 1784. It consists es-
sentially of a light wheel or pulley, over which
a thin, flexible cord passes. A mass of mat-
ter is attached to each end of the cord, and
the experiment consists in observing the velocity
acquired by the system at the end of a given
time. The mass to be removed is evidently
the sum of the two masses attached to the ends
of the cord (assuming that the wheel is light
enough to be disregarded) ; and the force
tending to set the system in motion is the
difference of the weights of the two masses.
By making these masses nearly equal, the mo-
tion can be made slow enough to be conveniently
studied. The intensity of gravity can be de-
termined by the aid of this machine, with suffi-
cient accuracy for class-room purposes, and it
is an admirable device for illustrating the laws
of uniformly accelerated motion. For a more
detailed account see Gravity.

Atys, a'tis, or Attis. (i) The favorite of
Cybele, who, having broken the vow of chastity
which he made to the goddess, castrated him-
self, as a punishment for his crime. (2) A
son of Croesus, king of Lydia — an affecting
example of filial love. He was dumb, but, see-
ing a soldier in a battle who had raised a sword
against his father, he exerted himself so much
that the bands of his tongue gave way, and he
cried out, "Soldier, kill not Crcesus!'*

Aubanel, o-ba-nel', The'odore, French
poet, sometimes called "The Petrarch of
France*': b. 1829; d. 1886. He devoted his life
to the restoration of the troubadour literature.
His drama, 'Lou Pan don Pecat,* was success-
fully staged in 1878 at Montpellier.

Aube, 6b, a French department, formed
out of the south of Champagne and a small
portion of Burgundy; area, 2,351 square miles.
The north and northwest districts are very
bleak, bare of trees, and almost destitute of
vegetation ; the southern districts are remarkably
fertile. The forests, which are extensive, fur-
nish much fuel for the supply of Paris. The
chief manufactures are worsted and hosiery.
Troyes is the capital.

AUBER— AUBURN

Auber, 6-bar', Daniel Francois Esprit,

celebrated French operatic composer : b. Caen,
29 Jan. 1782; d. Paris, 13 May 1871. From
natural inclination he devoted himself to the
study of music, in which he had the assistance
of Cherubini. His first decided success was
his opera *La Neige,^ produced in 1824. By
this time he had associated himself with Scribe,
a very skilful writer of libretti; and other
operas now followed in quick succession, for
which the words were supplied by Scribe, and
the music by Auber. Some of these are still
favorites, for example, ^Le Domino Noir,^ *Les
Diamants de la Couronne^ (Crown Diamonds),
and above all, *^Fra Diavolo,' and ^La Muette
de Portici^ (usually known as ^Masaniello^).

Aubigne, D', J. H. M. See D'Aubigne,
J. H. M.

Aubigne, o'be-nya', Theodore Agrippa d',

French soldier and author: b. Saint Maury
(Saintonge), 8 Feb. 1552; d. Geneva, 29 April
1630. He fought under Henry IV., king of
France, who made him a gentlemen of his bed-
chamber ; but when the king, thinking it nec-
essary, favored the Roman Catholics more than
the Protestants, Aubigne expressed his displeas-
ure with little reserve, and lost the favor of
Henry. He now retired to Geneva, where he
devoted himself to literary pursuits. He wrote
a valuable ^Histoire Universelle, from 1550
to 1601* (3 vols, folio), the first volume of
which was ordered to be burned by the Parlia-
ment of Paris. A volume of sonnets and other
poems, under the title ^Le Printemps,^ also
bears his name.

Aublet, 6-bla', Albert, French painter : b.
Paris. He studied historical painting under
Gerome ; won a first-class medal in the Paris
Exposition of 1889, and the decoration of the
Legion of Honor in i8go. His first great paint-
ing was the ^The Wash-room of the Reserves
in the Cherbourg Barracks,^ exhibited in the
Salon of 1879, and probably his most celebrated
one is the ^Meeting of Henri IH. and the Due
de Guise, ^ shown in the Salon of 1880.

Aubrey, a'bri, John, English antiquary:
b. Easton Pierse, 1626 ; d. 1697. He published
little, but left large collections of manuscripts,
which have been used by subsequent writers.
He collected materials for the ^Monasticon
Anglicanum', and afforded important assistance
to Wood, the Oxford antiquary. His ^Mis-
cellanies^ (1696) contains a great deal of cu-
rious and interesting information, but also dis-
plays much credulity and superstition. Another
work of his was published in 1719 under the title
of the ^Natural History and Antiquities of the
County of Surrey.^ In 1898 appeared a work
by him entitled ^ Brief Lives Chiefly of Con-
temporaries,' edited by Andrew Clark.

Au'burn, Cal., a city and county-seat of
Placer County, situated on the Southern P. R.R.,
36 miles east of Sacramento. It was first set-
tled in 1849 and was incorporated as a city in
1888. It is the seat of the Sierra Normal Col-
lege. Gold and quartz is found in the vicinity
and there are many quartz mills. The leading
industries are mining, fruit-growing, and farm-
ing. Pop. (1900) 2,050.

Au'burn, Ind., city and county-seat of
De Kalb County, situated on branches of the

Lake Shore & M. S., and the Baltimore & O.
R.R.'s, 22 miles north of Fort Wayne. It has
a thriving trade in grain, live stock, etc., and
its chief manufactures are furniture, carriages,
automobiles, gas engines, windmills, and stoves.
Auburn was first settled in 1833, became a
borough in 1836 and a city in 1900. The mayor
and other officials are elected biennally. Pop.
(1900) 3,396.

Au'burn, Me., a city and county-seat of
Androscoggin County, on the west bank of the
Androscoggin River, on the line of the Maine
C. and Grand Trunk R.R.'s, 34 miles north of
Portland. The city is one of the most beautiful
in the State. It rises westerly from the river
in almost amphitheatre form, culminating in
beautiful heights known as the Western Prom-
enade. These heights are terraced by broad,
handsome avenues, upon which, overlooking
the city, are elegant residences with spacious
and well-kept grounds. The view from the
summit of these heights is one of the most strik-
ing in Maine. The beautiful Androscoggin
River, with its waterfall grand and picturesque,
flows through the valley below, the two thriving
cities of Auburn and Lewiston on either bank,
while broad and fertile fields dotted with com-
fortable farm homes stretch to the north and
east. Taylor Pond and Lake Auburn lie to
the west and are justly considered among the
most beautiful lakes of Maine. The territory
of the city covers an area of 65.4 square miles.

History. — Auburn is an old town and has
an interesting history. Its territory is a part
of a large tract of land, originally known as
Bakerstown, granted by the general court of
Massachusetts in 1765. It was settled as early
as 1786 and Auburn was incorporated as a
town in 1842, and as a city in 1869.

Industries. — Its largest single industry is
the manufacture of boots and shoes, and in this
branch of manufacture it is one of the fore-
most cities in the country. It has ten large
shoe factories employing 3,325 persons. The
value of their yearly product is $6,730,000, and
the shoe shipments include every State in the
LTnion, also Canada, England, Australia, South
America, China, and the Philippine Islands. Its
other industries include one cotton mill with
250 employees, last, box, and carriage factories,
machine shops, shoe findings, dairy products,
beef and packing houses, marble and foundry
products, lumber, shuttles, and spools.

Banks. — There are two national banks and
two savings banks located here. The capital
stock of the two national banks is $350,000;
surplus, $138,378. The deposits in the savings
banks, $2,492,595.

Government. — The municipal government is
created by charter of the State Legislature and
consists of a Maj^or, a Board of Aldermen, and
a Board of Common Councilmen, all are elected
annually by the people on the first Monday of
March. One Alderman and three Common
Councilmen are elected from each of the five
wards into which the city is divided, while
the Mayor is elected by the votes of the entire
city. The administrative officers of the city
are partly elected by the Board of Aldermen
and Common Council in joint body known as
the City Council and partly appointed by the
Mayor with the confirmation of the Board of
Aldermen. The police, including the chief, are

AUBURN— AUBURN THEOLOGICAL SEMINARY

appointed by tlie Mayor, subject to confirmation
by the Board of Aldermen. The Fire Depart-
ment is under the management of a Board of
Fire Commissioners consisting of three mem-
bers elected by the City Council and holding
office for a term of three years. The streets,
sewers, and bridges, and all matters pertain-
ing to the repair and maintenance of the same,
are under the direction of a Board of Public
Works of five members created by special act
of the State Legislature, elected by the City
Council and holding office for a term of five
years. The city owns its waterworks and the
same is under the management of a board of
seven Water Commissioners of which the
Mayor is a member ex-ofiicio, also created by
special act of the Legislature of the State. They
are elected by the City Council, each holding
office for a term of six years. The schools are
under the control of a Superintending School
Committee of ten members, two from each
ward in the city. The members of the com-
mittee are elected annually by the voters of
each ward and hold their office for a term of
two years. The Mayor is ex-officio chairman of
the board. The assessed valuation of the real
and personal property in 1904 was $6,610,071 :
rate of taxation 20 mills; bonded debt $533,700;
floating debt $56,820.

Churches and Schools. — The city has nine
churches, one of them organized as early as 1807,
supported by the following denominations :
Baptist, Free Baptist, Universalist, Episcopal,
Methodist, Congregational, and Catholic. The
city has a school population of about 5,000.
School accommodations are furnished absolutely
free from the kindergarten to the completion
of the high school course. Excellent buildings,
commodious, well appointed, and equipped with
modern improvements are distributed over the
city sufficient for the full accommodation of
all the pupils in the primary, intermediate,
grammer and high school grades. At the head
of the public school system stands the Edward
Little High School, a noted institution having
its origin in the old Lewiston Falls Academy,
incorporated in 1834. In addition to the public
schools there is a Catholic Parochial School of
300 scholars, supported solely by the Catholic
portion of the population. There is also an
excellent free public library. The city, generally
speaking, is thriving and prosperous. Its popu-
lation is composed larsrely of skilled workmen
who own their own homes and are permanent
residents. The streets are wide and well paved,
regularly laid out, and in the residential sections
adorned with beautiful shade trees. There is
an excellent and extensive electric street rail-
way, two large and centrally located hotels,
a beautiful public park, a handsome and com-
modious set of Count}' buildings in which are
located the Supreme Court rooms and all the
Countj' offices, and the railroad facilities and
connections with all parts of the country are of
the, best. The city is connected with the city
of Lewiston (q.v.), located immediately across
the river, by four large iron bridges, and the
two cities are so closely related socially and in
a business way, that they form practically one
community and are known as the Twin Cities
of Maine. Pop. (1842, at the time of its incor^
poration as a town), about 2,000 (1869, at the
time of its incorporation as a city), 6,169; (1900)
12,951, a gain of 15 per cent, in the preceding

decade, with one exception the largest percent-
age of gain of any city in the State.

D. J. McGlLLICUDDY.

Au'burn, Neb., a city and county-seat of
Nemaha County, situated on the Missouri P.
and the Burlington & M. R. R.R.'s, 65 miles
south of Omaha. It was first settled in 1861,
became a borough in 1804 and a city in 1890.
There are large fruit packing and canning plants
and a flour mill here. Pop. (1900) 2,664.

Au'burn, N. Y., city, county-seat of Cayuga
County ; on Owasco River, the outlet of Owasco
Lake, and on the New York Central and Lehigh
Valley R.R.'s, 26 miles southwest of Syracuse.
It was first settled in 1793 by Colonel John
Hardenburgh, and was called Hardenburgh's
Corners ; in 1805 the name was changed to Au-
burn, and it was selected as the county-seat ; in
1815 it was incorporated as a village, and in
1848 became a city. It is the seat of a session
of the Federal Court. Auburn was the home
of William H. Seward, of Gen. John S. Clark
(Gen. Clark still lives here), the Indian archae-
ologist, and of Theodore Cuyler. It is situated
on hills commanding an extensive view to the
northeast ; the head of Owasco Lake is only a
few miles from the city limits to the south ; and
the course of the outlet of the lake is very
picturesque until reaching the manufacturing
district. This outlet furnishes excellent water
power for the numerous industries which have
made Auburn prosperous. The largest estab-
lishment is a manufactory of agricultural imple-
ments which exports its goods to every part of
the world ; other industries of almost equal im-
portance are tool, carpet, and shoe factories,
woolen mills, cordage factories, and breweries.
The city has a progressive board of trade, and six
banks, two of which are national banks having
a combined capital of $400,000. Auburn con-
tains a number of fine pul)lic and private build-
ings, including a general hospital, costing $100,-
000, a municipal hospital for contagious diseases,
the court-house, the United States government
building, the Case Memorial Library, and the
Burtis Auditorium (erected 1904-5). There
are 14 public grammar schools, the public high
school, and 4 Roman Catholic parish schools.
Auburn is also the seat of the Auburn Theolog-
ical Seminary (Presbyterian), which, with its
four buildings, Welch Memorial, and Dodge Li-
brary, IMorgan Hall and Williard Memorial
Chapels, forms another interesting feature of the
city. In 1883 the 400th anniversary of Luther's
birthday was celebrated at the Seminary by the
planting at Morgan Hall of a sprig of ivy from
Wartburg Castle, Luther's prison home. The
city government is vested in a mayor, elected
every two years, and a board of aldermen of 10
members; the mayor has the power of appoint-
ing the heads of the city departments. The
municipality owns and operates the waterworks.
Pop. (1900) 30,345; (1905) 3I>423.

Clinton S. Marsh,
Superintendent of Schools, Board of Education.

Au'burn Theological Seminary, a Presby-
terian institution in Auburn, N. Y. ; organized
in 1820. At the close of 1905 it had 9 profes-
sors and instructors, 56 students, 30,240 volumes
in the library, grounds and buildings valued at
$300,000 ; aggregate endowment funds, $752,583 \
income, $63,823; benefactions, $11,456. Its grad-
uates then numbered 1.608.

AUCKLAND — AUDETTE

Auckland, a province of New Zealand,
forming the northern part of North Island, and
with an area of 25,746 square miles. Auckland,
a city and capital of the province, and formerly-
capital of New Zealand, is situated on the
northeast coast of North Island. It has two
excellent harbors, one at Waitemata and one
at Manukan on the opposite side of the isthmus.
The former is one of the finest in New Zealand.
There are numerous wharves and two graving
docks, one of which, the Calliope dock, opened
in 1887, is one of the largest in the South Seas.
Connected with the chief towns of the island
by rail the city has a large and increasing trade.
The site is fine, and there are numerous hand-
some public buildings, including churches, fine
schools, and the Auckland Institute. Chief
manufacturing interests are ship-building yards,
boiler works, glass works, shoe factories, etc.
There is a United States consulate here. Pop.
(1901) 34.216.

Auck'land Islands, a group of islands in
the Pacific Ocean to the south of New Zealand.
The largest island is about 30 miles long by 15
broad, and is covered with dense vegetation.
They belong to the English government, almost
entirely uninhabited, and serve as a station for
whaling ships.

Auction and Auctioneer. An auction is
a public sale of property to the highest bidder.
It is not material how the sale is conducted,
whether by public outcry or other manner. The
essential part is the selection of a purchaser
from a number of bidders. Catalogues describ-
ing the property are usually printed, the terms
of the sale are also usually stated in the cata-
logue. Auctions are generally conducted by
persons licensed for that purpose. Bidders may
be employed by the owner of the property, if it
be done bona fide and to prevent a sacrifice of
the property under a given price, but where the
bidding is fictitious and by combination with the
owner to mislead the judgment or inflame the
zeal of others it would be a fraudulent and void
sale. Unfair conduct on the part of the pur-
chaser will avoid the sale. Misdescription of
property sold will avoid the sale if it is material.
An auctioneer cannot bid for himself; he can-
not deny his principal's title; he cannot sell at
private sale ; he has ordinarily the power to col-
lect the purchase price of goods 3old from the
buyer. The auctioneer must use ordinary care
and skill in the discharge of hs duties, and like
other agents he must obey the instructions he
receives from the owner of property sent him
for sale. An auctioneer, according to the
weight of authority, who sells stolen property is
liable to the owner, notwithstanding that the
goods were sold by him, and the proceeds paid
over to the thief without notice of the felony.
An auctioneer is also liable for want of care of the
goods while in his possession. The auctioneer
has a lien upon the goods for the charges of the
sale, and for his commission. He is the agent of
the seller, and for same purposes, of the buyer.

Aucuba, a'ku-ba, a genus containing three
species, of which A. japonica is the best known.
They belong to the natural order Cornacece.
The species mentioned is a dioecious evergreen
laurel-like shrub of many varieties, native of
China and Japan, largely planted on lawns and
in shrubberies. It withstands the dust, smoke.

and gases of cities remarkably well, but is not
hardy in the Northern States. The plants bear
purple flowers in summer and the female ones
are particularly beautiful when bearing their
scarlet berries which ripen in early spring. It
is easily propagated by seed, or by green wood
cuttings, and succeeds in half shade where the
soil is good, friable, moist, but well-drained.

Audae'us (Syrian Udo), the founder of a
religious sect called Audians, which held an-
thropomorphic views, and was established under
the following circumstances: Audius (b. at the
end of 3d century; d. 370), was a Mesopotamian,
of singular purity and severity of character.
He became disgusted with the Syrian clergy,
and on expressing his opinion with more firm-
ness than discretion, was excommunicated ;
when a considerable number of sympathizers
gathered around him and constituted themselves
into a church. But this sect could not long
withstand the persecutions to which it was ex-
posed, and died almost at the same time as its
founder, who passed the latter part of his life
in exile in Scythia, where he converted many
pagans to Christianity by the force of his teach-
ings, and the moral beauty of his ascetic life.

Aude, od, a maritime department in the
south of France; area. 2,430 square miles. It
is mainly covered by hills belonging to the Py-
renees or the Cevennes, and is traversed by a
valley drained by the Aude. The loftier dis-
tricts are bleak and unproductive ; the others,
tolerably fertile, yielding good crops of grain.
Its capital is Carcassonne. Pop. (1901)
311,386.

Aude, a river of France, which rises in the
East Pyrenees, in the Department of Pyrenes
Orientales, and after a course of nearly 130
miles, falls into the Mediterranean. It receives
several affluents, of which the principal is the
Orbieu.

Audebert, 6d-bar', Jean Baptiste, French
naturalist and engraver: b. Rochefort, 1759; d.
1800. He went, at the age of 18, to Paris to
learn drawing and painting, and made himself a
skilful miniature painter. This occupation
having awakened in him a taste for natural his-
tory, he undertook some works which laid tht
foundation of his fame. The first was 'Histoire
Naturelle des Singes, des Makis, et des Gale-
opitheques^ (1800), in which he shows himself
an able draughtsman, engraver, and writer.
Not satisfied with laying different colors on the
same plate, so as to produce a kind of painting,
he went farther, and, instead of water colors,
used the more durable oil colors. He carried
his art to still greater perfection by using gold
in his impressions, the color of which he changed
in different ways, in order to imitate the splen-
dor of his patterns. Natural history was
greatly benefited by his work, the splendor of
which was astonishing. His ^Histoire des Co-
libris. des Oiseaux-Mouches, des Jacamars, et
des Promerops' (1802), is esteemed the most
complete work that has appeared in this depart-
ment. Fifteen copies were struck off with
golden letters.

Audette, a-det', Louis Arthur, Canadian
lawyer : b. Quebec, 14 Dec. 1856. He was edu-
cated at Quebec Seminary and Laval University ;
called to the bar in 1880 ; was secretary to the
board of arbitrations appointed in 1893 to deter-

AUDIFFRET-PASQUIER — AUDRAN

mine disputed matters of account between Can-
ada and the provinces of Ontario and Quebec;
and also became registrar of the exchequer court
of Canada. He published ^The Practice of the
Exchequer Court of Canada^ (1895).

Audiff ret-Pasquier, o'de-f ra'pas-kya', Edme
Armand Gaston, Due d', French statesman:
b. Paris, 1823. He was president of the
National Assembly in 1875 and was the first
life-senator appointed by that body. In 1878 he
was chosen to the French Academy.

Au'diom'eter, for the measurement of
hearing, an instrument devised by Prof. Hughes,
the English inventor of the microphone. Among
its constituent parts are an induction coil, a mi-
crophone key and a telephone. The audiome-
ter has been materially modified, and is now
principally used for obtaining a balance of in-
duction from two electric coils acting upon a
third. A scale is provided to show the extent
of the movement. A varying or interrupted
current being passed through the two outer
coils, the preponderating current will produce
the most induction if the central coil is equidis-
tant. It can always be moved to such a point
that there will be no inductive effect, one coun-
teracting the other. Thus its position measures
the relative induction. A telephone is in cir-
cuit with the intermediate coil and is used to
determine when its position is such that no
current is induced in it.

Au'diphone, an invention to assist the
hearing of partially deaf persons in whom the
auditory nerve is not entirely destroyed. The
instrument, made of a thin sheet of ebonite rub-
ber or hard vulcanite, is about the size of a
palm leaf fan, with a handle and strings at-
tached to bend it into a curving form, and a
small clamp for fixing the string at the handles.
The audiphone is pressed by the person using it
against his upper front teeth, with the convex
side outward ; when so placed it communicates
the vibrations caused by musical sounds or ar-
ticulate speech to the teeth and bones of the
skull, thence to the organs of hearing. For
different sounds it requires to be focussed to
different degrees of convexity. A simple strip
of fine glazed mill-board has been recommended
by some experimenters as cheaper and equally
serviceable; and birch wood veneer has been
used with success for the same purpose.

Au'dit, a term denoting an examination
into accounts or dealings with money or prop-
erty, along with vouchers or other documents
connected therewith, especially by proper offi-
cers, or persons appointed for the purpose.
Also the occasion of receiving the rents from
tenants on an estate.

Audition. See Ear: He.aring.

Au'ditor. An auditor is an officer of the
government, whose duty it is to examine the
accounts of officers who have received and dis-
bursed public moneys by lawful authority. In
practice an auditor is an officer of the court, as-
signed to state the items of debit and credit
between the parties in a suit where accounts
are in question, and exhibit the balance. They
may be appointed either by courts of law or
equity. They are appointed at common law in
actions of account, and in many of the States
in other actions, under statutory regulations.

The auditor's report must state a special ac-
count, 4 Yeates, Penn. 514, giving items allowed
and disallowed, 5 Vt. 70, but it is sufficient if it
refer to the account, and it is their duty to re-
port exceptions to their decisions of questions
taken before them to the court, and exceptions
must be taken before them, 4 Cranch, U. S.
308; 22 Bart. N. Y. 39; unless apparent on the
face of the report. The report of the auditor ar
to facts is final in some of the States, unless
impeached for fraud, misconduct, or very evi-
dent error. When the report is set aside in
whole or in part, it may be referred back or
may be rectified by the court, or accepted if the
party in favor of whom the wrong decision is
made, remits the item.

Auditory Canal. See E.\r.

Auditory, or Eighth, Nerve, the nerve of
hearing, and of the sense of position. It has
its origin in two distinct portions of the ear, in
reality being two distinct nerves, the cochlear
and the vestibtdar. both of which are sensory in
their function. The cochlear nerve originates
in the cells of the organ of Corti in the cochlea
of the ear, and is the one that carries sound im-
pressions mto the brain. The vestibular nerve
has its origin in the semicircular canals and is
the nerve that conveys the sense of localization
of position. Both of these nerves soon join
and run together in the internal meatus, where
they lie in the same sheath for some distance
with the seventh or facial nerve. They enter
the medulla, the cochlear nerves forming the
acoustic striae on the floor of the fourth ven-
tricle, and end about the superior olivary body
and the nucleus of the trapezium. From here
the fibres enter the fillet and end about the
auditory centre in the brain in the second tem-
poral convolution. Disease here causes auditory
aphasia. The fibres of the vestibular branch
end in the nuclei of Deiters and Bechterew in the
medulla, and then further fibres pass for the
most part into the cerebellum. Disease here
causes cerebellar ataxia. See Ataxi.\ ; Apha-
sia ; Equilibrium ; Hearing.

Audley, a manufacturing town in Stafford-
shire, England. Pop. (1901) 13,700.

Audouard, 6'dowar', Olympe, French
writer: b. 1830: d. 1890. She was married to
a notary in [Marseilles, but soon after divorced.
She traveled in Egypt, Turkey, and Russia ; and
having conducted various journals in Paris since
i860, made a successful lecture tour through
the United States in 1868-9. After her return
she became interested in spiritism. She was an
ardent advocate of woman's rights. Among her
novels and books of travel may be mentioned :
^How Men Love* (1861); <The IMysteries of
the Seraglio and of the Turkish Harems*
(186^) ; 'The Mysteries of Egypt Unveiled*
(1865) ; <War to Man* (1865) ; <Across Amer-
ica* (1869-71) : 'Parisian Silhouettes* (1883).

Audouin, 5'dooan', Jean Victor, French
naturalist: b. Paris, 1797; d. 1841. He was
professor of entomology in the Paris natural
history museum and was the founder and first
president of the Entomological Society. He
wrote much respecting the injuries done by in-
sects to vine and silk culture.

Audran, o-draii'. Edmond, French com-
poser: b. Lyons, 1842: d. 1891. He composed
several comic operas which were exceedingly

AUDRAN — AUERBACH

popular, among them ^La Mascotte^ (1881) ;
<01ivette>; *La Grand MoguP (i884> ; <Miss
Helyett^ (1890); ^La Ponpee.^

Audran, o-draii', Gerard, French engraver:
b. Lyons, 1640 ; d. Paris, 1703. After three
years at Rome, where he acquired a high repu-
tation by his engraving of Pope Clement
IX., was recalled to France by Colbert, and ap-
pointed engraver to Louis XIV. Here he en-
graved the works of Lebrun, illustrating the
battles of Alexander, and many paintings by
Raphael, Titian, Domenichino, Poussin, and
others. His nephews, Benoit (b. 1661, d. 1721)
and Jean (b. 1667, d. 1756), were also en-
gravers.

Au'drey, Saint. See Ethelreda, Saint.

Audrey, a'dri, a shepherdess in Shake-
speare's comedy ^As You Like It.^

Auds'ley, George Ashdown, Scottish-
American architect : b. Elgin, Scotland, 6 Sept.
1838. He established himself in the United
States in 1892, and subsequently became promi-
nent both as an architect and author. In col-
laboration with his brother, William J. A.
AuDSLEY, he was author of several works —
on illuminating-, decorating, Christian symbol-
ism, etc., and, individually, published ^Keramic
Art of Japan^ ; * Ornamental Art of Japan^ ;
^The Art of Chromolithography' ; *^The Prac-
tical Decorator,^ etc.

Audubon, a'du-bon, John James Laforest,
American naturalist : b. Mandeville, La., 4 May
1780; d. 27 Jan. 1851. From 1827-38 he
published a series of 1,065 colored figures
of American birds in a descriptive work, 'The
Birds of America,^ which still holds its place
as one of the most attractive and beautiful or-
nithologies of the world. He was a keen and
sympathetic observer, rather than a trained spe-
cialist either in science or art. The full details
of his life may be found in "^Audubon and His
Journals,^ by his granddaughter, Maria R. Au-
dubon, with zoological and other notes by El-
liott Coues (1897), and in an earlier biography
by Lucy Audubon, as well as in 'The Life and
Adventures of J. J. Audubon, the Naturalist,^
by Robert Buchanan (1869). He was educated
in France, and studied drawing for some time
under the great artist, David, but in 1798 he
returned to America and took possession of a
farm owned by his father on the Perkiomen
River, near Philadelphia. Here, in 1808, he
married Lucy Bakewell, the daughter of an
English neighbor; with her he moved to Ken-
tucky and subsequently to Louisiana, meeting in
both places with financial misadventures due to
his inadaptability to attend properly to trade,
which left him so poor that he was obliged to
paint portraits and teach dancing and fencing.
From his boyhood, however, in all fortunes, he
had spent much time in sketching birds and
studying their habits, and in 1826 he found
means to take these sketches to England, where
he elaborated them into the great series which
made him famous and relieved his pecuniary
troubles. In 1830 he returned to America to
travel for new material and, in 1831, began the
publication of his 'Ornithological Biography,'
in five volumes. In 1842, after 12 years
spent chiefly in explorations, he bought a home
on the Hudson River at a spot considerably
north of New York city at that time, but now

within the city limits and known as Audubon
Park; here his two sons, Victor Gifford and
John Woodhouse Audubon, also lived with their
families. In 1843 the naturalist took another
long journey, going to the Missouri River re-
gion. After 1844 he devoted himself with Dr.
John Bachman (q.v.) and his sons, to a new
publication, ^The Quadrupeds of America.*
After 1S47 his health began to fail. He was
buried in Trinity Cemeterj'-, New York.

Au'dubon Societies are organizations of
bird-lovers who work to educate public opinion
to a proper appreciation and protection of bird-
life. They have now (1903) been organized in
30 States and have 60,000 members. Thus the
efforts of a few lovers of birds have developed
into a widespread movement of national im-
portance. Hundreds of thousands of circulars^
explaining the economic, educational, and es-
thetic value of birds, were distributed. Meet-
ings were held ; classes for bird-study formed.
Whenever public opinion in a State seemed ripe,
a bill was introduced in the legislature and
many a law-maker was surprised to discover
an active interest in birds that he had never sus-
pected. Even the department of Agriculture
at Washington began to inform him of their
economic value. The bird law of the American
Ornithologists" Union, which forbids the killing
at any time of non-gamebirds, has been adopted
in all the New England States, in New York,.
New Jersey, Delaware, Florida, Ohio, Kentucky,
Indiana, Illinois, Wisconsin, Arkansas, and Wy-
oming. It is probable that within 10 years
birds will be protected by law practically
throughout the Union. But even then the labors
of the Audubon Societies will by no means end.
The laws must be enforced and the public con-
science kept alive until sentiment enforces them.

Auenbrugger von Auenbrug, ow'en-brug'-
er fon ow'en-briig, Leopold, Austrian physi-
cian: b. Gratz, 1722; d. Vienna, 1809. As
early as 1754 he had discovered the method of
studying internal diseases (percussion) which
made him famous ; but not until after seven years
of experiments and verification did he publish
his treatise, entitled 'Inventum Novum ex Per-
cussione Thoracis Humani Interni Pectoris
Morbos Detegendi' (1761).

Auer, OAv'er, Adelheid von, pseudonym ot
Charlotte von Cosel, German novelist : b,
Berlin, 6 Jan. 1818. She is the author of many
stories of real life, among them, 'Footprints iri
Sand^ (1868); 'A Sister of Charity> (1870);
'In the World's Labyrinth^ (1878); 'Castles
in the Air> (1882).

Au'er, Alois, Ritter von Welsbach, Aus •
trian printer: b. Wels, 1813; d. 1869. He was
trained as a compositor and in his leisure mo-
ments acquired several languages, _ becoming A
professor of Italian in the Gymnasium of Linz.
From 1841 to 1868 he was at the head of the im-
perial printing office at Vienna. He made many
typographical discoveries and published 'Die
Sprachenhalle oder das Vaterunser in 60S
Sprachen' (1844) ; and 'Das Vaterunser in 206
Sprachen' (1847).

Auerbach, OAv'er-baH, Berthold, German
novelist : b. Nordstetten, Wiirtemberg, 28 Feb.
1812; d. Cannes, France, 8 Feb. 1882. He be-
gan to write while a student in Heidelberg, and
under the pseudonym "Theobald Chauber'' pro-

AUERBACH — AUGIER

duced a ^Biography of Frederick the Great^
(1834-6). A series of novels from the history
of Judaism, under the collective title ^The
Ghetto/ of which ^Spinoza* (1837) and *Poet
and Merchant^ (1839) were printed in separate
editions, was followed by a translation of
Spinoza, with a critical biographv (1841).
< Black Forest Village Stories^ (1843), was re-
ceived with universal favor, translated into near-
ly all European languages, and established his
fame. To this class of tales belong also <^The
Professor's Lady^ (1847); 'Little Barefoot'
(1856); 'Joseph in the Snow^ (i860); 'Edel-
weiss' (1861); 'After Thirty Years' (1876).
His first effort in the field of the novel, 'New
Life' (1851), met with little favor; but 'On the
Heights' (1865) constituted the crowning suc-
cess of his literary career. It was followed by
'The Villa on the Rhine' (1868); 'Waldfried,
a Family History' (1874) ; and 'The Head For-
ester' (1879).

Au'erbach, Henry: b. 1482, at a place
of the same name in Bavaria, the builder of the
Auerbach court and cellar at Leipsic, mentioned
in Goethe's 'Faust.' The building was erected
in 1530, and tradition reports that five years
after Dr. Faust was seen riding out of it on a
barrel of wine. This tale Goethe has made use
of in his famous poem.

Au'erbach's Keller. See Auerbach, Hexry.

Auerlite, a rare North Carolina mineral,
remarkably rich in thoria, named after Dr. Carl
Auer von Welsbach, the inventor of the Wels-
bach incandescent gas mantel. It was origi-
nallv described as a hydrous silico-phosphate of
thoritim, Tha.(Si02. iP205) +2H0O. It oc-
curs in yellowish, zircon-like crystals of resinous
lustre and having a hardness of 2.5 to 3 and a
specific gravity of 4.1 to 4.7.

Auerstadt, ow'er-stet, a village in Saxony,
famous for the great battle which took place
there 14 Oct. 1806, between the French under
Davoust, and the Prussian army under Duke
Charles of Brunswick, which ended in a great
victory for the former. The Prussians, who num-
bered 48,000, left nearly half of their men dead
or wounded on the ground, while the French
(30,000) escaped with a loss of only 7,000.
Napoleon made Davoust Duke of Auerstadt.

Augean (a'je-an) Co'dex (Codex Augien-
sis), a noted Greek and Latin MS. of the
Epistles of St. Paul, supposed to have been writ-
ten in the 9th century, and so called from Aiigia
Major, the name of a monastery at Rheinau.
After passing through several hands it came, in
1718. to Dr. Bentley, who purchased it for 250
Dutch florins, and is now in the library of Trinity
College, Cambridge. This MS. is written in
uncial letters, and without accents; not coutinua
serie, as is common with the more ancient
copies, but with intervals between the words,
and a dot at the end of each. The Greek text
is written in capitals, the Latin in Anglo-Saxon
letters ; hence it is tolerably clear that it must
have been written in the west of Europe, where
that formation of the Latin letters, usually called
Anglo-Saxon, was in general use between the
7th and i2th centuries.

Au'geas, in Greek legend, a king of Elis,
famed for his stable, which contained 3,000 oxen
and had not been cleaned for 30 years. Her-
cules was desired to clear the filth away in one

day, and Augeas promised if he performed it
to give him a tenth part of the cattle. This
task Hercules is said to have executed by turn-
ing the River Alpheus, or as some say. the
Peneus through the stable, which immediately
carried away the dung and filth. Augeas re-
fused to perform his engagement. Upon this
a war ensued and Hercules conquered Elis and
put Augeas to death.

Au'ger-shell, a common designation of the
spiral gastropod mollusks of the Tereboidce fam-
ily. The shells are slender and tapering, some-
times ending in a sharp point, and are usually
decorated with brown, orange, and red spots
or patches. More than 200 species are known,
all inhabitants of tropical waters, where they
occur from the shallow waters of the shore to
very great depths.

Augereau, ozh-r5', Pierre Frangois
Charles, Duke of Castiglione, a marshal of
France: b. Paris, 1757; d. 12 June 1816. He
distinguished himself in 1794 as general of bri-
gade in the army of the Pyrenees, and in 1796
as general of division in the army of Italy. He
made himself master, 16 April, of the intrenched
camp of the Piedmontese at Ceva, after%vard
of that at Casale; threw himself on the Bridge
of Lodi, and carried it with the enemy's in-
trenchments. i August he came to the assistance
of Massena; maintained during a whole day a
most obstinate struggle against a superior num-
ber of troops and took the village of Castiglione,
from which he derived his ducal title. In the
battle of Arcole, when the French columns
wavered, Augereau seized a standard, rushed
upon the ^nemy, and gained the victory. The
directory bestowed this standard on him 29
Jan. 1797. In 1799 he was chosen a member
of the Council of Five Hundred, and therefore
resigned his command. He then obtained from
the consul Bonaparte the command of the army
in Holland. Being superseded in October 1801,
he remained without employment till 1803. when
he was appointed to lead the army collected at
Bayonne against Portugal. When this enter-
prise failed, he went back to Paris, and 19 May
1804, was named m.arshal of the empire, and
grand oflficer of the Legion of Honor. In July
of this year the king of Spain sent him the
order of Charles III. He contributed to the
successes which gave birth to the peace of
Pressburg, and in March 1806, had possession
of Wetzlar and the country around, until, in
the autumn of this year, a new war called him
to Prussia. Early in 181 1 Napoleon gave him
the command of a corps in the army of Spain.
After the entrance of the allies into France,
he made submission to Louis XVIIL. who made
him a peer. Napoleon, on his landing in 1815,
declared him a traitor. Augereau, however, ex-
pressed himself in his favor, but took no active
part in the new order of things. After the re-
turn of the king he took his place again in the
chamber of peers.

Augier, 6-zhya', Guillaume Victor Emile,
(ozh-ya'), French dramatic poet: b. Valence,
20 Sept. 1820; d. 25 Oct. 1889. 'La Cigue.' his
first piece, in two acts, after being rejected at
the Theatre Frangaise in 1844, was accepted by
the managers of the Odeon Theatre, and there
brought out. It had a run of three months, and
established the popularity of the author. The

AUGITE — AUGUST

latter subsequently produced other light pieces.
These, however, were thrown in the shade by
•Gabrielle,^ a five-act comedy, which has been
pronounced by competent critics to be Augier's
most finished and best constructed work,
whether as regarding lot, poetry or the delinea-
tion of character. At the solicitation of Mile.
Rachel, Augier wrote < Diane. > In 1868 his
*Fils de Giboyer' was successful. The style
of Augier is at once classic and easy, dignified
and j'et pictorial. He may be said to have
founded a new school in French dramatic liter-
ature, and his works, partly by their originality,
and partly by intrinsic merit of a kind pos-
sessed in common with other dramatic produc-
tions, have acquired very great popularity.

Aug'ite. See Pyroxene.

Augsburg, owgz'burg, a city of Bavaria;
situated on a plain, 35 miles northwest of
Munich. It was founded by the Emperor Au-
gustus, 12 B.C. The streets are narrow but pic-
turesque, the buildings retaining many mediaeval
characteristics. Among the most notable are
the cathedral, arsenal, town hall and Abbey of
St. Ulrich. Napoleon III. received his early
education in a gymnasium of this city. It is a
centre of the book trade. Augsburg has been
prominent since the Middle Ages for its com-
mercial and financial operations and was long
the home of merchant princes such as the Fug-
gers. It was the scene of the Augsburg Diet.
It was a free cit}' till 1806, when Napoleon ceded
it to Bavaria. Pop. (1900) 88,700.

Augs'burg Confession, a document adopt-
ed by the Protestants in 1530 as a declaration of
faith. Charles V., on his accession to the
throne of Germany (1520), found his new do-
minion the theatre of religious dissensions. The
insurrection in Castile, and the war with France
and Italy, called Charles into Spain, diverting
his attention from the Lutheran schism. The
Diet of Spires (1529) had issued a decree for
the purpose of conciliating the Lutherans to the
proposed Roman Catholic reform, and uniting
them against the Sacramentarians and Anabap-
tists. At this juncture, Charles returned, and
the German princes and estates were summoned
to convene in diet at Augsburg in June. The
summons was conciliatory, and called for aid
against the Turks, making no reference to the
religious difficulties of the kingdom, further
than to promise at no distant time a speedy ad-
justment of them. On the 25th of the month, a
confession, prepared by Melanchthon, and ap-
proved by Luther, was presented and read by
Dr. Christian Bayer in the diet. This confession
is said to have been prepared on the basis of the
Swabach and Torgau articles, although these
had been drawn up (1528-9) in the attempt to
unite with the Zwinglians, and the object of the
present confession was to become reconciled to
the Roman Catholic reform party. A copy of
the confession, in German and English, was de-
livered to Charles. Two days after the reading
of the confession, it was delivered to the Roman
Catholic theologians for a reply. The reply was
read in the diet on 3 August following, and
called forth from Melanchthon a defense (Apo-
logia Confessionis), which was afterward en-
larged and published in Latin, and then in Ger-
man. The object of the Augsburg Confession
was not attained, and the edict of the emperor

(22 September) gave the Lutherans until the
following April to bring themselves into con-
formity with the requirements of the Church,
and required their co-operation with the throne
against the Zwinglians and Anabaptists. The
Augsburg confession and ]\Ielanchtlion's defense
were generally circulated in western Europe, and
became a sort of rallying point among the re-
formers.

Augs'burg, League of, a league concluded
at Augsburg, 9 July 1686, for the maintenance
of the treaties of Miinster and Nimeguen, and
the truce of Ratisbon, and to resist the encroach-
ments of France. The contracting parties were
the Emperor Leopold I., the kings of Spain
and Sweden, the electors of Saxony and Ba-
varia, and the circles of Suabia, Franconia, up-
per Saxony and Bavaria.

Augs'burg Seminary, an educational in-
stitution in Minneapolis. Minn., under the aus-
pices of the Lutheran Church. It was organized
in 1869 and reported in 1902: Professors, 10;
students, 170 ; grounds and buildings valued at
$50,000; income, $12,250; graduates, 374.

Au'gur, Christopher Colon, American mil-
itary officer: b. New York, 10 July 1821 ; d-
Washington city, 16 Jan. 1898. He was grad-
uated at the United States Military Academy in
1843; became major of the I3tli United States
Infantry in 1861 ; colonel of the 12th Infantry m
1866; brigadier-general, L^nited States army,
4 March 1869; major-general in the volunteer
service in 1862 ; mustered out of that service in
1866; and was retired in the regular army, 16
July 1885. He commanded a division in the bat-
tle of Cedar Mountain, being severely wounded.

Au'gur, Hezekiah, American sculptor: b.
New Haven, Conn., 21 Feb. 1791 ; d. 10 Jan. 1858.
^Jephthah and His Daughter,^ in the Trumbull
gallery at Yale, is the most important of his
works. In addition to his skill as a sculptor, he
possessed much mechanical genius, inventing
among other machines one for carving wood.

Au'gurs, a celebrated college of diviners
in ancient Rome, who predicted future events
and determined the will of the gods from the
occurrence of certain signs, connected with
thunder and lightning; the flight and cries of
birds ; the feeding of the sacred chickens ; the
action of certain quadrupeds or serpents ; ac-
cidents, such as spilling the salt, etc. The an-
swers of the augurs and the signs were called
auguries ; bird-predictions were auspices. Noth-
ing was undertaken without the advice of the
augurs, and by the w-ords alio die ('^meet on an-
other day"), they could dissolve the assembly
of the people and annul decrees passed at the
meeting.

August, ow'gust, the name of many princes
of the German principalities: (i) August Wil-
HELM, prince of Prussia, brother of Frederick
the Great, and general in the Prussian army: b.
Berlin, 9 Aug. 1722: d. 12 June 1758. He took
an active part in the Silesian campaign, and dis-
tinguished himself at the battle of Hohenfried-
berg (in June 1745), but owing to the fatal
retreat of Zittau, in 1756, he incurred the dis-
pleasure of his brother, and withdrew from the
army. This conflict between the two brothers
led to a correspondence, which was published in
1769. (2) August Emil Leopold, duke of Saxe-
Gotha and Altenlaurg, successor to the throne,

AUGUST — AUGUSTA

20 April 1804. He was twice married, and the
first marriage left him issue, one daughter, who
became the reigning duchess of Saxe-Coburg,
and died in 1822. By the second marriage he
had no children, and on his death he was suc-
ceeded on the throne by his brother, Frederick
IV., with whose decease, 11 Feb. 1825, the line
of Saxe-Gotha became extinct. Duke August
Emil Leopold was a favorite of Napoleon, and
his duchy enjoyed perfect immunity from the
burdens of French invasions and French wars.
He was a man of taste and considerable literary
talent. (3) August Friedrich Wilhelm Hein-
R]CH, prince of Prussia: b. 19 Sept. 1790 ; d. 19
July 1843, in Bromberg; the son of Prince Au-
gust Ferdinand, the brother of Frederick the
Great, who died in 1813. He was considered one
of the richest men in Prussia, and left various
children by morganatic marriages. He took an
active part in the campaign against Napoleon in
1806, by whom he was taken prisoner, and de-
tained in Paris until after the peace of Tilsit.
On his return to Prussia in 1813. he resumed
his duties in the Prussian army, fought at Dres-
den, Ulm, and Leipsic, distinguished himself
during the campaign of 1814, on various occa-
sions, and bore throughout his life the character
of a gallant soldier and an upright man. (4)
August P.\ul Friedrich, grand duke of Olden-
burg: b. 1783; d. 27 Feb. 1853; mounted the
throne 21 May 1829, under the title of grand
duke, which had been conferred upon his fam-
ily by the Congress of Vienna ; but of which his
father had never availed himself. When Olden-
burg was invaded by the French, in 181 1, he ac-
companied his father to Russia, where his
younger brother (b. 1784, d. 1812) was married
to the Grand Duchess Catharine. He distin-
guished himself in the Russian war, and in 1813
was appointed governor of Revel. His reign,
after his return to Oldenburg, was marked by
political and material progress. In 1830 he con-
cluded a treaty with Prussia for the annexation
of Birkenfeld to the Prussian-Hessian Zollver-
ein, and a reciprocal treaty of navigation. In
1836 he prevailed upon Hanover and Bruns-
wick to make satisfactory arrangements for the
regulation of excise duties. In 183 1 he laid the
foundation for a constitution of Oldenburg,
which was ratified in 1848, and which, although
modified in 1852, still secures much civil and re-
ligious freedom to the people. In 1817 he
married the Princess Adelaide of Anhalt-Bern-
burg, who died in 1820, leaving him two daugh-
ters, Frederica and Amalie; the latter, in 1830,
married King Otho of Greece. In 1825 he mar-
ried the sister of his first wife, Ida, who died in
1828, having borne him a son. In 1831 he mar-
ried for the third time, Cecilia, youngest daugh-
ter of the former king of Sweden, Gustavus
Adolphus IV., who died in 1844, leaving a son.
He was succeeded by his first son. Nicholais
Frederick Peter, grand duke of Oldenburg.

Au'gust, the eighth month of our year,
named by the Roman Emperor Augustus after
himself, being associated with several of his vic-
tories and other fortunate events. Before this
it was called Sextilis or the sixth month Ccount-
ing from March). July had been named for
Julius Caesar, and the Senate, to gratify Augus-
tus, decreed that August should have equal
length, taking a day from February.

Augus'ta, a title first given to his wife
Livia, after the death of Augustus, according to
the will of the emperor. It was afterward con-
ferred by Claudius on Agrippina (51 a.d.), and
by Nero on his wife, Poppaea, as well as her
daughter (64 .ji.d.). Eventually it became a
common title of the mother, wife, sister, or
daughter of an emperor.

Augusta, ow'gus-ta, Marie Luise Katha-
rina, a queen of Prussia, and empress of
Germany: b. 181 1 ; d. 1890. She was the daugh-
ter of Charles Frederick, grand duke of Saxe-
Weimar, and was educated at the Weimar court.
In 1829 she married William, then crown prince
of Prussia, afterward emperor of Germany.

Augus'ta Victoria, duchess of Schleswig-
Holstein-Sonderburg-Augustenburg: b. 22 Oct.
1858. She is the daughter of the late Duke
Friedrich; married Prince Friedrich Wilhelm,
afterward Wilhelm II., 27 Feb. 1881, and became
empress of Germany and queen of Prussia
on the accession of her husband to the thrones
in June 1888. In 1900 she had borne the em-
peror seven children, the crown prince, Fried-
rich Wilhelm, being born 6 May 1882.

Augus'ta, Ga., the third city of the State
in population and wealth. It is the capital of
Richmond County, and at the head of navigation
on the Savannah River, 231 miles by water above
its mouth. It is 132 miles by rail from Savan-
nah, 171 miles east of Atlanta, and 137 miles
northwest of Charleston. It lies about 150 feet
above sea level, has an even temperature and
dry, invigorating atmosphere very different from
most riverside cities, being indeed a well-known
health resort for pulmonary invalids, particularly
its suburb Summerville. on the Sand Hills 400
feet above it. It is laid out in broad rectangu-
lar streets, many of them beautifully shaded,
and with a good electric car service; and has
several parks, of which the chief is May Park
of about II acres. The city hall is in a park
containing a granite monument to the Georgia
signers of the Declaration of Independence;
while on Broad Street, the principal thorough-
fare of the city, is a noble monument to the
Confederate dead. The cemetery and fair
grounds are also suburban attractions.

Manufactures. — The power is chiefly derived
from a dam across the river seven miles above
the city (enlarged from a smaller one in 187s,
at a cost of about $1,000,000), 150 feet wide
at top, 106 at bottom, and 11 feet deep; turning
a part of the river into a canal affording 14,000
horse-power, sold to industries at $5.50 per
horse-power per annum, with a working day
of 16 hours. Augusta is one of the chief seats
of cotton manufacture in the South. Eli Whit-
ney's cotton gin was invented on a farm on the
outskirts, and the first working gin was set up
in the city. In 1902 there were 13 cotton mills
with offices in the city, having a capital of nearly
$6,000,000, operating 329,740 spindles, and 19,360
looms, and employing some 8.000 hands. Dur-
ing 1899, of about $8,000,000 new capital invested
in Georgia cotton manufacturing, fully a third
was in Augusta. There are also four large cot-
ton-seed oil mills, and a bleachery. Of other
manufactures, the chief are of lumber and wood
products, bricks and tile drain pipe from the
fine clays in the vicinity, flour, and iron goods.
In 1900 there were 388 manufacturing establish-
ments, with $9,016,619 capital and 7,042 em-

AUGUSTA

ployees; paying $2,093,915 for wages and
$6,244,286 for materials ; and having a total out-
put valued at $10,069,750. The increase within
the past three years, however, has been very
large ; and it is proposed to utilize the river
still more for electric power, the present manu-
factories practically exhausting the direct water
power. The river at Augusta is about five feet
deep the year round, and fair-sized passenger
and freight steamers make semi-weekly trips to
Savannah. Augusta is the largest inland cotton
market in the South ; and it has also a large
shipping trade in lumber, fruit and vegetables.
Its annual trade exceeds $80,000,000, its cotton
receipts amounting to 200,000 bales. The water
supply is derived from the Savannah River and
is unlimited. The city abounds in educational
and charitable institutions. Most notable
among the former is the Georgia INIedical Col-
lege, a branch of the State University at
Athens; there are also Richmond Academy,
which has recently been put under the care of
the State University; Saint Mary's and Sacred
Heart (Roman Catholic) academies, Paine's
Institute for Colored Students, and high schools
for white and colored youth. There is also a
public library of 10,000 volumes. There is an
orphan asylum, two public hospitals (white and
colored), a juvenile reformatory, and the Louise
King Home. A United States arsenal, a
Masonic temple, an Odd Fellows' hall, a Cham-
ber of Commerce, and a cotton exchange are
also among the notabilities. The city has three
daily and several weekly newspapers. The
assessed property valuation exceeds $20,000,000,
and the bonded debt in 1900 was $1,752,300.
There are two national and several state banks.
Augusta is on the line of many railroads,
among them the Central of Georgia, the
Charleston & West Carolina, the South Carolina
& Georgia, the Southern, etc. Its original char-
ter was obtained in 1798, and revised 1882; the
mayor is elected for three years, and a city
council, consisting of 15 members, is also elected
for three years, one third being elected each
year. The board of education is elected by the
people. All other offices are appointive by the
council, save that the mayor appoints the super-
intendent of canal and waterworks, and of
streets and drains.

Population. — In 1800, 2,215; (1840) 6,403;
(1852) 10,217; (i860) 12,493; (1870) 15,389;
(1880) 21,891; (1890) 33,300; (1900) 39-441-
It suffers on the census returns, however, from
having suburbs. North Augusta, across the
river in South Carolina ; Summerville, and
others not counted in ; and claims about 60,000
at present.

History. — Augusta was founded in 1736 by
Gen. James Edward Oglethorpe (q.v.), the
founder of Georgia, and named after the Prin-
cess Augusta of Saxony, who married Freder-
ick, Prince of Wales, in that year, and became
the mother of George III. All through its
early period it was the chief trading station in
Georgia, and a very important military post ;
especially notable as the seat of conferences
and treaties with the southern Indians, who
under the treaties of 1763 and 1773 ceded large
tracts of land to the whites ; the latter, how-
ever, had to occupy much of it at the same risk
of Indian warfare as before. In 1778 it was
made the State capital, and remained such till

1798. The building of the Georgia railroad in
the middle of the 19th century was a heavy
blow to its prosperity for a time, carrying trade
over new routes ; but its natural advantages
enabled it to recover itself.

Thos. W. Loyless,
Editor '•The Augusta Chronicle.'*

Augusta, ]\Iaine, city county-seat of Ken-
nebec County and capital of the State ; on the
Kennebec River, 40 miles above its mouth, at
the head of tidal navigation, and on the IMaine
Central R.R., 63 miles northeast of Portland.
It is situated on both sides of the Kennebec,
mainly on the right or west bank, and some por-
tion of it, including much of the residential sec-
tion, occupies an elevation considerably above
the river, along which the principal business
part of the city extends. The Augusta, Win-
throp and Gardiner electric railway connects
the city with neighboring places, and its water
communications afford excellent facilities for
travel and trade.

Public Buildings and Institutions. — The
State Capitol is a handsome granite building,
for which the stone was quarried from the sur-
rounding hills. It stands on high ground over-
looking a wide extent of pleasant country.
Among other noteworthy buildings are those of
the Maine Insane Hospital, the City Hospital,
the public library, the county buildings, and the
United States arsenal. The churches include
those of the Congregationalists, Episcopalians,
Free Baptists, Colonist Baptists, Christians,
Universalists, Unitarians, Methodists, Roman
Catholics, and the People's Church. The public
schools include all grades from the primary to
the high school. In the capitol are the State
library, a notable collection of portraits of
American statesmen, and, in the rotunda, an
impressive array of the Civil War battle flags
of iNIaine soldiers. In the principal park is a
soldiers and sailors' monument.

Industries. — Augusta, by reason of its rail-
road and river facilities, is the trade centre of
a large region, and the water-power furnished
by the Kennebec, across which, just above the
city, extends a dam nearly 1,000 feet in length,
affords abundant means for manufacturing.
The cotton factories here employ about 1,100
persons; shoe manufacture, 300; pulp mill, 250;
lumber mill, 100 ; sash and blind factory, 75 ;
and besides various smaller establishments the
city has publishing houses in which some 400
persons are employed.

Banks, etc. — There are two national banks
in the city, with a combined capital of $350,000,
a trust company having a capital of $100,000,
and two savings banks. The deposits of these
institutions aggregate $11,000,000.

Municipal Government. — The city is gov-
erned by a mayor and a city council, a body
consisting of boards of aldermen and common
council, elected by the people.

History. — Augusta was first permanently set-
tled in 1754 by colonists from Massachusetts :
was incorporated under the name of Hallowell
in 1771 ; and upon the setting off of Hallowell
in 1797 became a separate town. In 1831 it be-
came the capital of the State, and has been the
scene of many important political events. _ It
received a city charter in 1849. Its population
in 1900 was 11.683; in 1903 it was estimated at
12,031. The employees of the cotton factories

AUGUSTA — AUGUSTINE

are mostly French Canadians, the other inhabi-
tants chiefly natives. Consult: North, 'History
of Augusta> (1870). Fred'k W. Plaisted,
Editor ^Tlie New Age."*

Augus'ta, the name of many ancient Euro-
pean towns, as Augusta Trevirorum, now
Treves; Augusta Taurinorum, now Turin; Au-
gusta Vindelicorum, now Augsburg, etc.

Augus'ta, a city of Sicily. See Agosta.

Augus'ta Histo'ria, a series of Roman
biographies of the emperors from the accession
of Hadrian to the death of Carinus, the predeces-
sor of Diocletian, a period covering 167 years.
The writers included in this collection are six in
number, namely, ^Elius Spartianus, Julius Capi-
tolinus, ^lius Lampridius, Vulcatius Gallicanus,
Trebellius Pollio, and Flavins Vopiscus.

Augus'tan Age, the Latin literary epoch
of the reign of the emperor Augustus Caesar.
During this period Horace, Ovid, Virgil, Ti-
"bullus, and other writers flourished ; also great
patrons of literature like Maecenas. The poets
of the Augustan .A.ge are noted for their pure
Latinity. The name is applied in England
to the reign of Queen Anne (1702-14). By far
the foremost name is that of Sir Isaac Newton,
and of commanders, John Churchill (Duke of
]\Iarlborough). The poets were Congreve,
Garth, Gay, Parnell, Philips, Pope, Prior, Rowe,
and Swift. The other authors were Addison,
Barnes, George Bull, Anthony Collins, Jeremy
Collier, Roger Cotes, Defoe, Dodwell, Flam-
steed, George Hickes, Dr. John Jeffery, John
Norris, Ray, South, Steele, etc. Wren, Archi-
bald Pitcairn, and Sir Cloudesley Shovel also
lived in this reign.

Au'gusta'na Col'lege, a co-educational in-
stitution in Rock Island, 111., organized in i860
under the auspices of the Lutheran Church ; re-
ported in 1902: Professors, 31; students, 250;
volumes in the library, 18,000; ground and build-
ings valued at $166,000; productive funds,
$225,000; income, $32,119; graduates, 881.

Au'gustine, Saint (Aurelics Augustinus),
one of the most renowned fathers of the Chris-
tian Church: b. Tagaste, in Numidia, 13 Nov.
354; d. Hippo, 28 Aug. 430. His father, Patri-
cius, was a pagan, his mother, Monica, a Chris-
tian. He has related his own early life in the
work to which he gave the title of 'Confessions.^
His mother instructed him in Christianity, but
for many years this faith had little influence
on his life. He was long devoted to pleasure,
and when quite young became father of a son by
a woman with whom he was not connected by
marriage. He was intended for the profession
of rhetorician, and was sent to Carthage to study
with this object in view. Cicero's work, *Hor-
tensius,^ which has not come down to our times,
first led him to speculative studies, and he now
became a member of the sect of the Manichasans.
He was one of their disciples for nine years ;
but after having obtained a full knowledge of
their doctrine, he found it unsatisfactory and left
them. In 383 he left Africa for Rome, and after
a short stay there proceeded to Milan, where he
was invited as a teacher of rhetoric. St. Am-
brose was bishop of this city, and his eloquent
discourses, combined with the study of the
Scriptures, converted Augustine to the orthodox
faith, and wrought an entire change in his life

and character. His conversion appears to have
taken place in 386. He now retired into solitude,
and prepared himself for baptism, which he re-
ceived in the 33d year of his life, together with
his son Adeodatus, from the hands of Ambrose,
his mother being then with him. Returning to
Africa, he sold his estate, and gave the proceeds
to the poor, retaining only enough to support
him in a moderate manner. For three years he
lived a retired life, devoting himself to reli-
gious duties, and to the composition of several
treatises. Chancing on one occasion to be pres-
ent in the church at Hippo, the bishop, who
was a very old man, signified a desire to conse-
crate a priest to assist and succeed him. At the
desire of the people Augustine entered upon the
holy office, preached with extraordinary success,
and in a few years became Bishop of Hippo.
The remainder of his life was occupied with his
ecclesiastical labors, and with various controver-
sies in which he warmly engaged, such as those
with the Donatists, the Manichaeans, and more
especially the Pelagians, concerning the doctrines
of free-will, grace, and predestination. Augus-
tine maintained the necessity of divine grace in
determining man's moral acts to salvation, and he
supported the doctrine of predestination, includ-
ing election and reprobation, but always allowing
for free-will and for the merit of the individual.
His authority has alwaj^s been very influential
in the Roman Catholic Church, and his view
upon any doctrinal matter has at all times car-
ried great weight and is constantly eited in
controverted questions. He died at Hippo, while
the town was besieged by the Vandals. There
have been more learned fathers of the Church,
but none have ever more powerfully touched the
human heart, and warmed it toward religion.
Painters have, therefore, given him for a symbol
a flaming heart. His writings (which are in
Latin) are very numerous. The most celebrated
are his 'Confessions^ (belonging to the year
397), his 'De Civitate Dei^ (On the City of
God), a work on the Christian Church, his treat-
ise on the Trinity, 'Christian Doctrine^ ; 'Na-
ture and Grace^ ; 'Grace and Free-WilP ; 'Im-
mortality of the Soul,^ and his 'Letters.' His
works have been published at Paris in 22 vol-
umes, and an English translation in 15 volumes
has appeared at Edinburgh, edited by Dr. Marcus
Dods See Neander, 'Church History' ; Mil-
man, 'Latin Christianity' ; Farrar, 'Lives of the
Fathers,' etc. Two monastic bodies, the Au-
gustiitian Canons, or Black Canons, and the
Aitgustinian Hermits (q.v.), claimed to derive
their origin from St. Augustine. Life by
Hatzfeld.

Au'gustine, or Austin, Saint, the first arch-
bishop of Canterbury: d. 26 May 604. While
prior of the Benedictine monastery of Saint
Andrew at Rome he was selected by Pope
Gregory L, together with 39 other monks, to
convert the Anglo-Saxons to Christianity, and ■
establish the authority of the Roman See in
Britain. In the spring of 597 the missionaries
landed on the Island of Thanet and were kindly
received by Ethelbert, king of Kent, whose wife
Bertha was already a Christian. The conver-
sion of the king speedily followed, contributing
greatly to the success of Augustine's Vv'ork.
large numbers of persons were converted and
baptized, and it was soon manifest that a new
influence for good had come into the lives of

AUGUSTINIANISM

the Anglo-Saxons. In acknowledgment of his
success, the Pope directed Augustine in 597 to
go to Aries, where he was consecrated arch-
bishop of Canterbury and metropolitan of Eng-
land. On his return he at once informed the
Pope of his success, sending a presbyter and a
monk to Rome for that purpose and also to
obtain instructions concerning other questions
with regard to the propagating of the faith.
The answer of Gregory to the archbishop's in-
quiries are fine examples of tact, good sense and
judgment in dealing with the problems confront-
ing the early missionaries, and instead of de-
stroying the heathen temples they were con-
verted into Christian churches. Saint Augustine
was a zealous missionary of the Church and
labored with untiring energy to extend the au-
thority of the Church and to convert the ancient
Britons, whom the English had driven into the
mountains of Wales. In this, however, he was
only partially successful, some of the British
bishops refusing to acknowledge his authority
and to unite with the English Church. Augus-
tine died in Canterbury, and eight years after-
ward his body was removed to the Ca-
thedral of Canterbury. Consult: Bede, <His-
toria Ecclesiastica Gentis Anglorum' ; Mason,
<The Mission of Saint Augustine to England^
(1897).

Augustinianism, the system of philosophy
and theology taught by Saint Augustine. In
order to reach a just estimate of the teachings
of Augustine, we must remember that we are
not dealing with a philosopher simply, or with
a theologian simply, but with one whose nature
combined in a marked degree, the philosophical
and theological strains together. He was both
philosopher and theologian. These elements are
so mixed in him at times as to reciprocally rein-
force one another, but again so disparate as to
cause irreconcilable inconsistencies and bold
contradictions. There is a most excellent analy-
sis of this exceedingly complex nature by Teufifel
in his * History of Roman Literature,^ re-
markable alike for its comprehensiveness and
brevity. "Augustine combined in his character
qualities seemingly opposite : an abundant imag-
ination, and penetrating intellectual vigor, a pas-
sionate want of regard and affectionate tender-
ness, a tender heart and zealotism, a blind belief
in superior authority and originality of thought,
zeal for unity of the Church and individual piety,
romanticism and scholasticism, mysticism and
sophistry, poetical talent and philosophical gen-
ius, rhetorical pathos and grammatical pedantry,
— himself a psychological mystery.'^ With this
portrait of his personality before us, let us
examine his teachings. For him, the source of
all truth is to be found in the interpretation
of the inner experience. His philosophy is pri-
marily anthropocentric. In consciousness lies
the assurance of the reality of one's own being.
This is the earnest and the warrant of all
reality. Without this central and elemental
knowledge all other knowledge would be vague,
and illusory. This assurance is given even in
the very act of questioning it ; for, as Augustine
insists, the simple fact that I am conscious of
doubting even the doubting of my own reality,
is in itself an indication that I the doubter am.
Man cannot escape himself. Such an analysis
of the implications of self-consciousness forms
a striking anticipation of Descartes' famous
Cogito ergo sum.

With the reality of human personality firmly
established upon a basis which even the most
searching skepticism is unable to shake, but on
the contrary the rather confirms, Augustine pro-
ceeds through a profound analysis of the human
reason to disclose abundant intimations of a
divine reason, and therefore of a divine being.
For in his subtle examination of the processes
of reason, he points out that these processes
are ever working toward one and the same end, —
the constructing of a body of knowledge con-
sisting of truths universally valid, that is, truths
which hold not merely for the individual but
which necessarily hold for all individuals, under
all circumstances and at all times. They become
moreover, the norm or standard for all our
thinking and their sway embraces the complete
range of all human activity. These truths are
so universal, so complete, so commanding as to
indicate a oneness of origin which can be noth-
ing less than that of an eternal mind. More-
over, the eternal mind must be an eternal per-
sonality. The universal truths, therefore, which
lie at the basis of all thought, of all being, of all
desire, and all activity are according to Angus-"
tine ideas in God. In regarding the Absolute
as not merely the sum total and unification of all
truth, the unum, verum boniim, but also a living
personality, the divine Logos, we recognize the
marks of the religious teacher, and in this re-
spect Augustinianism is to be regarded as a sig-
nificant advance beyond the doctrines "of Neo-
Platonism. From this exposition, it should not
be inferred, however, that in the Augustinian
psychology, the primary, or the sole basis of our
conscious life is knowledge. On the contrary it
is quite evident throughout the works of Augus-
tine that he exalts the will above knowledge.
He finds in consciousness three elements,
memoria, intellcctus, voluntas. Of these memoria
is equivalent to a reproducible idea {Vorstcl-
lung), an idea which, moreover, carries with it
the warrant of the reality which underlies it as
its ground; intcllectus is the judgment; and
voluntas of course, the will. The three form a
psychological trinity corresponding to the trinity
which is manifested in the unity of the divine
nature. Both in God and man, the will is
supreme. Omnes nihil aliud quain voluntates
sunt.

Certain difficulties emerge at this point in the
exposition of the Augustinian system owing to
the shifting of the point of view. The philoso-
pher gives way to the theologian. Augustine's
philosophy is essentially anthropocentric ; his
theology, theocentric. And in discussing the
relations which obtain between God and man
Augustine naturally subordinates the human to
the divine, so much so indeed that the Augus-
tinian system is severely criticised because, as
it is alleged, it leads logically to a pantheism
which wipes out the individuality and respon-
sibility of man. For Augustine insists that to
appreciate divine truth and the will of God for
man there is need of an inner spiritual illum-
ination, and that such an illumination comes only
to the soul in which faith resides, and that faith
is the gift of divine grace. Faith, therefore,
must precede knowledge, that is, knowledge of
things divine and knowledge of things as they
are. Insight may be regarded as the fruitage,
but faith is the root of knowledge. There is a
grave difficulty at this point in reconciling such
a doctrine with Augustine's fundamental posi-

AUGUSTINIANS

tion which puts supreme emphasis upon the
dignity and worth of man's inner nature, and
the trustworthiness of that inner guiding light.
It can only be said by way of explanation that
in the one the theologian, and in the other, the
philosopher, speaks.

Moreover, in this view of the human con-
sciousness the primacy of the will is in a large
measure denied by the insistence that man is
wholly dependent upon divine grace in order to
exercise his will aright. He alone is free, says
Augustine, whose will has been touched by the
divine will, and whose desires and activities are
found wholly in accord with the will of God.
The natural man is not free unless emancipated
by divine grace ; for Adam, the representative of
humanity, the federal head of the race, abused
his natural freedom of will and in his fall has
left as an inheritance to the race the tendency
to sin. And the most significant consequence
of sin is the bondage of the will, which divine
grace alone can overcome. Augustine, therefore,
seems to solve the problem of free will and
predestination by denying to man a real freedom.
He indulges in many subtle distinctions as to
the various kinds of grace. There is, for in-
stance, the prevenient grace, also the supporting
grace, active grace, and grace bestowing the gift
of perseverance which seals all previous effects.
No distinction, however, is drawn which relieves
the system from the criticism already mentioned
of minimizing the autonomy of the human will.

This position of Augustine naturally raises
the question as to how the evil in the world can
be reconciled with the idea of divine power and
divine goodness. For if God alone is free. He
alone is responsible ; and man should not be
held accountable for that which he unaided is
unable to prevent. Such a criticism Augustine
meets by the statement that the evil in the world
is after all not a real evil ; it is not a causa
efHciens, but merely a causa deiicicns, in fact only
an incausale. Such an explanation, however, is
not satisfactory and does not squarely meet the
difficulty of the problem which the common ex-
perience of humanity all too unhappily empha-
sizes.

Augustine's type of mind is essentially that
of a great systematizer of doctrine. He could
rest content with no form of knowledge unless
it could be reduced to a scJicma in which part
fitted to part in an exact and inflexible manner.
Augustine's system has been criticised for this
very reason that its lines are hard and fast,
yielding at no point the full rigor of its inexor-
able doctrines. But while in a certain sense
such a criticism is justified, there was, in addi-
tion to this pronounced synoptical tendency of
thought, an equally profound strain of sentiment
and feeling. Augustine was essentially human,
and wont to be moved by the passions and aspi-
rations common to man. Within the very body
of this system of doctrine, and its closely con-
catenated dogmas, it is possible to discover a
deep underlying current of mysticism, which may
be traced no doubt to its source in Neo-Platon-
ism, — a mysticism manifesting itself in that
compulsion of the soul, to long for communion
with God, and to behold Him face to face. It
is this intensely human strain, this mystical ele-
ment, which relieves the Augustinian system as a
system from its more severe and sombre features.
The great system builder after all subordinates
the system to that which is the ground of the

system. Not in the processes of reason, but m a
direct and immediate consciousness of God, does
he find the ultimate certitude. Nothing can
more beautifully or more adequately express
this mystical strain in Augustine's nature than
those words which embody both a philosophy
and a creed: «Thou hast made me for thyself
and my heart is restless until it finds rest in
thee.'*

Bibliography.— Uenn, < Problems of the Age
With Studies in Saint Augustine on Kindred
Topics' (1903); McCabe, <Saint Augustine and
His Age' (1903); SchafT, <Saint Augustine,
Library of the Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers,'
Vol. I., pp. 1-25; Donier, 'Augustinus' (Berlin
1872) ; Lingard, 'Antiquities of the Anglo-
Saxon Church' (2d edition 1902).

John Grier Hibben,
Professor of Philosophy, Princeton University.

Au'gustin'ians, hermits of St. Augustine
(calceJ), brotherhood of churchmen, devoted
to the spread throughout Christendom of the
principles of the higher life, of religion as well
as earthly science, and searchers, too, after peace
of the spirit, established in the 4th century, at
Tagaste in Africa, by the famed St. Augustine,
later Bishop of Hippo and illustrious doctor
of the Church. Up to the 13th century Augus-
tinians were engaged mainly in the practices of
ascetic life, a course of seclusion, or retirement,
from the bustle and troubles of worldly affairs
in trade, politics, commerce. As hermits, at
first they lived, some alone in their cells in out-
of-the-way places in forest and mountain, others
in community-groups outside of towns. Here
their life was passed in quiet, in contemplation,
study, prayer, copying MSS., and manual toil, as
farm, and garden-work, reclaiming waste lands,
digging canals for irrigation and drainage. Emi-
nent among them in this peaceful era were two
reformers of their brotherhood, famed in hagi-
ography, who by centralizing the energies of
their followers on set lines of work, sought to
render their societies more potent factors fo.
the common good, as adepts in intellectual, ar-
tistic, and more industrial spheres. William
IX., duke of Aquitaine, an old-time leader in the
crusades, now a dweller in a monastery of the
Tuscan hills, and John Bonus, The Good, of
Mantua, a one-time strolling player by profes-
sion, now penitent, who by their wonderful pow-
ers of nature and grace employed in the ser-
vice of their respective communities, reached
high rank in the world of saintly heroism in
southern Europe, in France, and Italy, then in
the north, in Germany and England, wherein
were founded congregations under their rule.
Spreading thence throughout the various quar-
ters of Christendom, especially in western Eu-
rope, their followers settled in Spain, Portugal.
Belgium, and Ireland, where they established
houses of their brotherhood in the principal
cities and towns of the civilized world. In 1256,
in pursuance of the designs of his predecessors
in the papal chair, Alexander IV. moved to en-
sure the complete union of all the different
congregations of Augustinians in Europe, suc-
ceeded finally in merging their several branch
orders into one body politic and social under the
leadership of Lanfranc Septala, of noble Milan-
ese birth, the first superior general of the Augus-
tinian Hermits, chosen thereto in the first gen-
eral chapter of the brethren at Rome in the
above year. Nor were the successors of Alex-

AUGUSTULUS — AUGUSTUS

aiider slow in their recognition of the powers
of this new association. To them were entrust-
ed several places of honor in the pontifical
court, among them the offices of apostolic con-
fessor, of librarian, papal sacristan, the latter
subsequentl}' declared by Sixtus IV. as of per-
petual right of the Augustinians. Not long af-
ter they were entrusted with the collection of
papal revenues in many countries, and even
charged by some of the republics of Italy with
the handling of state funds.

In the Middle Ages as in later days many
of this brotherhood won fame in the higher
realms of life, by their gifts of spirit in science
and art, as saints, writers, masters in theology,
Scripture-study, philosophy, history, law, an-
tiquities, letters and poetry. Celebrated as
teachers in schools of their order as well as out-
side were such masters as Egidius Colonna of
Rome, known as the "Fundamental Doctor* ;
then Augustine of i\.ncona, who won renown in
scholastic theology ; John Capgrave in history ;
Onuphrius Panvinio in antiquities ; Luis de Leon
in theology and poetry; John Laurence Berti in
history ; John Baptist Cotta in poetry, John
Michael Cavalieri in liturgy, and lately Augus-
tine Ciasca in Oriental languages. Eminent for
their supernatural gifts, many of the most sin-
gular character, were Nicholas of Tolentine,
"wonder-worker of the Church,* so styled by
Pope Eugene IV. ; Clare of Montefalco, the stig-
matized, in whose heart were discovered the in-
signia of Christ's passion ; Rita of Cascia, ec-
static, known as "the saint of the impossilDle" ;
Thomas of Villanova, almsgiver of Spain, and
John de Schagun, reformer of the clergy of that
country. They are of prominence from the i6th
century especially in various mission fields in
Mahometan and heathen countries ; in Asia, in
China, India, Persia, Japan, and the Philip-
pines ; in Africa, in Zanzibar, Mozambique, and
the Guineas ; then in America, both north and
south, and Australia. In later times during the
closing years of the i8th century, was established
the first English-speaking branch of the Augus-
tinians in the United States, where, in 1796, a
house of that brotherhood was opened in Phila-
delphia, by two members of Irish blood, — Dr.
Matthew Carr and John Rosseter, — the latter
said to have been formerly an officer under
Rochambeau. They are the calced communities.
Here their aim chiefly has been mission work
among the faithful in pulpit and school. Ofl^-
shoots from Philadelphia, now thriving in the
United States as well as in Cuba and the Phil-
ippines are some 20 convents and houses of the
order, as mission-centres, with 113 members in
residence or in study-houses in Europe. Seven-
ty-five are priests, actively engaged in two col-
leges, one of them in Havana, i academy, 10
parish-schools, besides the congregations of 29
parishes. Furthermore attached to every cen-
tral establishment the Augustinians have charge
of various guilds, or societies, devoted to such
aims as religion, social improvement, beneficence
in the promotion of good works in the several
fields of charity, patriotism, letters, and science.
Thomas C Middleton, O. S. A.

Augus'tulus, Romulus, the son of Orestes,
a general of the Roman emperor Julius Nepos.
Orestes deposed the emperor, and placed his son
upon the throne, in 475. In the following year
Odoacer, a commander of the German forces in

the Roman service, revolted, put Orestes to
death, obliged Augustulus to resign, and thus
put an end to the Roman empire in the West.
The emperor's name was originally Romulus
Augustus, but the Romans changed the latter
into the diminutive form Augustulus, out of
contempt for his character.

Augus'tus, Gaius Julius Caesar Octavianus,
originally called Gaius Octavius, the celebrated
Roman emperor : b. 2^ Sept. 63 B.C. ; d. Nola,
19 Aug. 14 a.d. He was the son of Gaius Oc-
tavius and Atia, a daughter of Julia, the sister
of Julius Caesar. The Octavian family originated
at Velitrae, in the country of the Volscians.
The father of Octavius had risen to the rank of
senator, and had gone to Macedonia, after being
chosen praetor, where he was a civil and
military officer. Octavius lost his father when
young, but was carefully brought up by his
mother and L. Marcius Philippus, the second
husband of Atia. His talents gained him the
regard of his great-uncle, Julius Csesar, who
declared himself willing to adopt him as his
son, in case he himself should remain without
children. Octavius was studying under the re-
nowned orator Apollodorus, when he received
the news of the tragic death of his uncle, and
of his having adopted him as his son. Not-
withstanding the anxiety of his friends, he went
to Italy, and on landing at Brundusium, depu-
ties from the veterans collected there came to
him. Conducted in triumph to the city, and
saluted as the heir and avenger of Csesar, he
made his adoption publicly known, and took the
name of his uncle, adding to it that of Octa-
vianus. He then advanced to Rome, where
there were now two parties, that of the republi-
cans, who had killed Csesar, and that of Antony
and Lepidus, who, under the pretense of aveng-
ing him, strove to establish their own authority.
Octavianus addressed himself first to Cicero,
at Cumae, being desirous to gain over this great
orator, and from thence he went to Rome, where
the greater part of the magistrates, soldiers, and
citizens came to meet him, Antony alone pay-
ing no attention to his return. After Octavianus
had caused his adoption to be confirmed in
the most solemn manner, he went to Antony,
and demanded of him the inheritance left him,
in order to pay the legacies mentioned in his
uncle's will. Antony at first haughtily refused
to acknowledge his claims, but changed his
attitude when he found the influence of Oc-
tavianus continually increasing, and his own
proportionably diminishing. There could be no
real union, however, between two equally am-
bitious rivals. In their hearts they cherished
reciprocal hatred and jealousy; and their en-
mity was so little a secret that Octavianus
was accused of having wished to get Antony
murdered. He afterward, when Antony, to-
gether with Lepidus, entered Italy at the head of
a powerful army, united with him. and a trium-
virate was formed by the three generals, who
defeated the republican army under Brutus and
Cassius, at Philippi in Macedonia (42 B.C.).
After his return to Rome he satisfied the de-
mands of his soldiers by dividing among them
confiscated lands. This division caused great
disturbances. In the midst of the stormy scenes
which convulsed Italy, he was obliged to con-
tend with Fulvia, whose daughter, Clodia, he had
rejected, and with Lucius, the brother-in-law oj

AUGUSTUS

Ant*ny. After several battles, Lucius threw
himself into the city of Perusia, where he was
soon after obliged to surrender. The city was
given up to be plundered, and 300 senators were
condemned to death. After the return of An-
tony, an end was put to the proscriptions. Oc-
tavianus allowed such of the proscribed persons
as had escaped death by flight, and whom he no
longer feared, to return. There were still some
disturbances in Gaul, and the naval war with
Sextus Pompeius continued for several years.
By a skilful course of conduct he brought about
the defeat of Pompeius and reduced Lepidus
to a nullity, thus leaving Antony alone as his
rival. The empire was now divided between
him and Antony ; but while the former, in the
East, gave himself up to a life of luxury, the
j'oung Octavianus pursued his plan of making
himself sole master of the world. He especial-
ly strove to obtain the love of the people.
He displayed mildness and magnanimity, with-
out the appearance of striving after the highest
power, and declared himself ready to lay down
his power when Antony should return from the
war against the Parthians. He appeared rather
to permit than to wish himself to be appointed
perpetual tribune — an office which gave him
supreme power. The more he advanced in the
affections of the people, the more openly did he
declare himself against Antony.

By making public a will, wherein his rival ap-
pointed his sons by Cleopatra his heirs, he
stirred up the ill-will of the Romans against
him. Availing himself of this feeling, Octavian-
us declared war against the queen of Egypt, and
led a considerable force, both by sea and land,
to the Ambracian Gulf. Here his admiral Vip-
sanius Agrippa gained the naval victory of Ac-
tium (q.v.), which made Octavianus master of
the world, 31 B.C. He pursued his rival to
Egypt, and ended the war, after rejecting the
proposal of Antony to decide their dit¥erences by
a personal combat. Cleopatra and Antony hav-
ing killed themselves, Octavianus caused them
to be buried with imposing ceremonies. A son
of Antony and Fulvia was sacrificed to ensure
his safety, and Csesarion, a son of Caesar and
Cleopatra, shared the same fate. All the other
relations of Antony remained uninjured, and
Octavianus, on the whole, used his power with
moderation. He spent two years in the East,
in order to arrange the affairs of Egypt, Greece,
Syria, Asia Minor, and the islands. On his re-
turn to Rome he celebrated a triumph for three
days in succession, and (29 B.C.) closed the
temple of Janus — for the third time since the
foundation of Rome. Freed from his rivals and
enemies, and master of the world, he is said
to have been undecided as to how he should
exercise his power, or whether he should even
retain it. He first set about correcting the abuses
v.'hich had prevailed during the civil war, estab-
lished a general peace, ejected unworthy mem-
bers from the Senate, restored ruined temples,
and built new ones.

At the end of his seventh consulship, he en-
tered the Senate house, and declared his resolu-
tion to lay down his power. The Senate, aston-
ished at his moderation, besought him to retain
it. He yielded to their pressing entreaties, and
continued to govern through them. He now ob-
tained the surname of Augustus, which marked
the dignity of his person and rank, and united,
by degrees, in himself, the offices of imperator,

Vol. 2—4

or commander-in-chief by sea and land, with
power to make war and peace ; of proconsul over
all the provinces ; of perpetual tribune of the
people, which rendered his person inviolable, and
gave him the power of interrupting public pro-
ceedings ; and, in fine, of censor, and pontifex
maximus, or controller of all religious matters.
The laws themselves were subject to him, and
the observance of them depended upon his will.
It was the spirit of his policy to retain old names
and forms, but he steadfastly refused to as-
sume the title of dictator, which latterly had
become especially odious. He conducted many
wars in Africa, Asia, and particularly in Gaul
and Spain, where he triumphed over the Can-
tabrians after a severe struggle. His arms sub-
jected Aquitania, Pannonia, Dalmatia, and II-
lyria, and held the Dacians, Numidians, and
Ethiopians in check. He concluded a treaty with
the Parthians, by which they gave up Armenia,
and restored the eagles taken from Crassus and
Antony. At the foot of the Alps he erected
monuments of his triumphs over the mountain-
eers, the proud remains of which are yet to be
seen at Susa and Aosta. After he had estab-
lished peace throughout the empire, he again
closed the temple of Janus. But this peace was
interrupted, 9 a.d., by the defeat of Varus, who
lost three legions in an engagement with the Ger-
mans, under Arminius, and killed himself in
despair. The information of this misfortune
greatly agitated Augustus. He let his beard and
hair grow, and often cried out in the deepest
grief, "O Varus, restore me my legions I"
Meanwhile the Germans were held in check by
Tiberius. During the peace, i\ugustus had is-
sued many useful decrees, and abolished abuses
in the government. He gave a new form to the
Senate, employed himself in improving the man-
ners of the people, particularly by promoting
marriage, enacted laws for the suppression of
luxury, introduced discipline into the armies,
and order into the games of the circus. He
adorned Rome in such a manner that it was
truly said, "He found it of brick, and left it of
marble.'* He made journeys, as Velleius says,
everywhere, to increase the blessings of peace;
he went to Sicily and Greece, Asia Minor, Sy-
ria, Gaul, etc. ; in several places he founded cit-
ies and colonies. The people erected altars to
him, and, by a decree of the Senate, the month
Sextilis was called August. The debauchery of
his daughter Julia gave him great pain, and iie
showed himself more severe against those who
destroyed the honor of his family, than against
those who threatened his life. History says
that, in his old age, he was ruled by his wife
Livia, the only person, perhaps, whom he truly
loved. He had no sons, and lost by death his
sister's son, Marcellus. and his daughter's sons,
Gains and Lucius, whom he had appointed his
successors. Also, Drusus, his son-in-law. whom
he loved, died early : and Tiberius, the brother
of the latter, whom he hated, on account of
his bad qualities, alone survived.

These numerous calamities, together with
his continually increasing infirmities, gave him
a strong desire of respose. He undertook a
journey to Campania, from whose purer air he
hoped for relief: but disea.se fixed upon him. and
he died, in the 79th 3'ear of his age, and 45th of
his reign. When he felt his death approaching
he is said to have called for a mirror, arranged
hi' hair, and demanded of the by-standers.

AUGUSTUS — AUK

''Have I played my part well?^' and, an answer
being returned in the affirmative, *Then,'* added
he, using the form of the players, ^^farewell, and
applaud'^ (valcfe, et plaudite). If this last pas-
sage in the life of Augustus is true, it iS certain-
ly indicative of his character, his policy, and even
of his fortune. He conquered Brutus by means
of Antony, and Antony by means of Agrippa.
He several times changed his party, but never
his purposes, and knew how to cause power to
be offered, and pressed upon him, while it was,
in fact, the object of all his exertions. It cannot
be denied that he used his power with wisdom,
and became the benefactor of his country, which
he had previously plunged into the horrors of
civil war. His taste and active mind led him
to favor and protect the learned ; and he even
exercised the art of the poet himself; so that
he was not unworthy of giving his name to an
age distinguished for intellectual creations. His
death plunged the empire into the greatest grief.
He was numbered among the gods, and temples
and altars were erected to him. See Gardthau-
sen, ^Augustus und seine Zeit^ (1891) ; Schuck-
burg, ^Augustus* (1903).

Augus'tus I., elector of Saxony: b. 1526;
d. 1586. During a peaceful reign, he greatly
beautified Dresden, his capital, and built the
palace of Augustenburg.

Augus'tus II., Frederick, elector of Sax-
ony and king of Poland, second son of John
George III., elector of Saxony : b. Dresden,
1670; d. I Feb. 1733. He was noted for his ac-
tivity. In 1695 he became elector and in 1696
was candidate for the vacant Polish throne.
The French ambassador and the nobles sup-
ported the Prince of Conti, but Augustus by ac-
ceptance of the Roman Catholic faith, by bri-
bery and intimidation secured the election, 27
June 1697. Early in his reign, a treaty
was made between Denmark, Poland, and
Russia against Charles XII. of Sweden,
for the conquest of Livonia. But Charles,
after having defeated the Danes and
the Russians, turned toward Poland. Thus
began the celebrated Northern war, which
lasted 20 years. Charles gained a complete vic-
tory, 20 July 1702, and on i May 1703, the
Saxon army was defeated again at Pultusk.
The diet assembled at Warsaw declared Augus-
tus, 14 Feb. 1704, incapable of wearing the
crown of Poland, and Stanislaus Lesczinsky,
waywode of Posen, was chosen king, 12 July
1704. Charles, victorious on every side, ad-
vanced into Saxony, and Augustus found him-
self obliged to negotiate a secret peace, at Al-
transtadt, 24 Sept. 1706.

He now devoted himself to the domestic af-
fairs of Saxony. His love of splendor involved
him in many expenses, by which the finances of
his kingdom were disordered. In 1709, after the
defeat of Charles at Pultawa, the Poles recalled
Augustus, who united himself anew with Peter
the Great. A confederation was now formed
in Poland against the Saxon troops, by the party
of Stanislaus, in the belief that Augustus was
aiming at absolute power. The Saxons were
attacked and obliged to surrender. At length,
through the mediation of Peter, an arrangement
was concluded at Warsaw, 1717, between Au-
gustus and the Polish leaders. The Saxon
troops were removed from the kingdom, and
Augustus agreed not to maintain more than

17,000 soldiers in Poland, who were to be undei
the Polish authorities. The last years of his
reign were characterized by boundless luxury
and corruption of manners. He was not dis-
liked by his subjects, and filled with dignity his
station among the European powers. In his char-
acter generous ideas were united with despotic
feelings, a taste for pleasure with the cares of
ambition, and the restlessness of a warlike spirit
with the effeminacy of a luxurious life. By hi*
mistresses he had many children. The Countess
of Konigsmark bore him the celebrated Mauri«
of Saxony.

Augus'tus III., Frederick, elector of Sax-
ony and king of Poland, son of Augustus II- :
b. Dresden, 1696; d. there 5 Oct. 1763. He suc-
ceeded his father as elector in 1733. A part of
the Polish nobility chose Augustus king; and in
1736 he was first generally recognized as sitch
by the congress assembled at Warsaw to con-
clude a peace. Although without the great and
amiable qualities of his father, in other respects
he closely followed his example, distinguishing
himself by the splendor of his feasts and the
extravagance of his court. His system of poli-
tics consisted in entire dependence upon Russia.
He preferred Dresden to Warsaw, and through
his long absence from Poland the government
sank into entire inactivity. When Frederick at-
tacked Saxony itself in 1745, Augustus deserted
his capital, and preserved his pictures and porce-
lain, but lost the archives of the state, which
fell into the hands of the victors. By the peace
of Dresden, 25 Dec. 1745, he was reinstated in
the possession of Saxony, in the next year. In
1756 he saw himself involved anew in a war
against Prussia, and fled to Konigstein, and af-
terward to Poland. His authority in this coun-
try had always been inconsiderable, and after
the loss of Saxony, became still more insignifi-
cant. The accession of Catherine to the Rus-
sian throne was a source of disquietude, for she
sought to deprive the Saxon princes, who were
allies of France, of the Polish thrones. The
Peace of Hubertsberg was hardly concluded
when Augustus returned from Warsaw to Dres-
den, where he died. His son, Frederick Chris-
tian, succeeded him as elector of Saxony, and
Stanislaus Poniatowsky as king of Poland.

Auk, ak, a diving sea-fowl of the family
Alcidw found in the northern regions, the term
covering guillemots, murres, lomvias, puffins,
and others. They are thick-set birds, seldom
more than a foot long, which move about with
difficulty on land, from the fact that their legs
are set very far back, giving them an erect,
penguin-like attitude. In color they are dark
brown, black, or lead-color above, and white be-
neath, except in the breeding season, when
bright colors and ornamental plumes tempora-
rily appear on the males of some species. The
wing-feathers are so short as to be of little ser-
vice for flight, and the wings are more used as
aids in swimming under water, w^here they pur-
sue fishes with great speed. The bill is much
compressed, but in the breeding season, among
the puffins, which show the most marked com-
pression of bill at other times, the bills increase
in size and develop ornamental appendages which
disappear as the moulting season comes on.
The most important North Atlantic auks are the
now-extinct great auk (plautus impcnnis) which
was as large as a goose and within historic
times abounded as far south as the Hebride*

AULD LANG SYNE — AUMONT

(see Garefowi) ; the little auk (Allc alle), not
larger than a robin and very abundant, ?r>rne-
times in winter coming as far south as New
York and the Great Lakes (see Dovekie) ; and
the razor-billed auk {Alca tarda), which has
a bill of remarkable length and sharpness, and
which breeds even as far south as the Maine
coast. (See Murrelet; Puffin; Razor-Bill.)
The auk lays only a single large egg, which,
as no nest is prepared, the parents care for
by holding upon the top of their webbed
feet and between their thighs. These eggs are
a staple food for the natives of the arctic re-
gions, as are the birds, also. They are taken in
summer and preserved for winter use, as in the
autumn the auks migrate from the frozen coasts
and spend the winter in the open spaces of the
sea. Consult American and British ornitholo-
gies; and Selous, ^Bird Watching^ (1901).

Auld Lang Syne, aid lang sin, a song at-
tributed to Burns, who added a couple of stan-
zas to a poem known to have existed in 1600
and set to an old Lowland air by George Thomp-
son.

Auld Licht Idylls, aid Hcht i'dills, a work
by James ^I. Barrie. It is a series of 12
sketches of life in Glen Quharity and Thrums.
In all of them the same characters appear.

Auld Rob'in Gray, a famous Scottish
ballad by Lady Anne Barnard, published anony-
mously in 1722, but unacknowledged till 1825.

Au'lic (Latin, aula, a court or hall), a term
applied to a council {the Reichshof rath) in the old
German empire. It was one of the two supreme
courts of the German empire, the other being
the court of the imperial chamber {Reichskain-
mergcricht). It had not only concurrent juris-
diction with the latter court, but in many cases
exclusive jurisdiction, in all feudal processes,
and in criminal affairs, over the immediate
feudatories of the emperor and in affairs which
concerned the imperial government. The title
is now applied in Germany in a general sense to
the chief council of any department, political,
administrative, judicial, or military.

Aulich, ow'Hh, Ludwig, Hungarian general:
b. Presburg, 1792 ; d. Arad, 6 Oct. 1849.
After the evacuation of Pesth by the imperial
troops in 1849, Aulich made his triumphant entry
into that capital, and was received with enthusi-
asm by the people. In his famous proclamation
of Godollo, Kossuth paid also an appropriate
homage to Aulich's gallantry. Subsequently,
when Gorgey was forced to renounce either the
army or the ministry of war, he took the lat-
ter alternative, and Aulich was appointed his
successor. But although he might have used
his authority as minister of war to frustrate
Gorgey's negotiations with the Russians, he actu-
ally assisted Gorgey to bring these negotiations
to a successful close. He was then delivered
over to Austria by the Russians, and, in com-
pany with 12 others, perished on the gallows.

Au'lis, in ancient Greece, a seaport in
Boeotia, on the strait called Euripus, between
Bceotia and Euboea, noted chiefly for its temple
of Artemis, and as the scene of the sacrifice of
Iphigenia.

Aullagas, owl-la'gas, a salt lake in Bolivia,
which receives the surplus waters of Lake Titi-
caca through the Rio Desaguadero. and has

only one perceptible, insignificant outlet. The
disposition of its superfluous water is, there-
fore, still a matter of uncertainty.

Au'lula'ria (from Aulula, a pot), a corned v
by Plautus. Euclion, an old miser, is the prin-
cipal character.

Aumale, d-mal', Henri Eugene Philippe
Louis d'Orleans, Duke of, 4th son of king
Louis Philippe: b. Paris, 16 Jan. 1822; d. 7 May
1897. He entered the military .service at the
age of 17, and distinguished himself by his
bravery. At the age of 20, he was promoted to
the rank of brigadier-general, and was sent to
Algeria, in October 1842. Intrusted with the
command of the district of Medeah, he at-
tacked the smala of Abd el Kader with such
impetuosity that in less than two hours the
emir's troops were entirely routed. As a re-
ward, Aumale was made lieutenant-general and
commander of the province of Constantine. In
1847, the young prince, but 25 years old, was in-
trusted \vith the general governorship of Al-
geria, which was taken from the hands of Mar-
shal Bugeaud. This appointment was not
approved either by the army or the French
nation, and it was the occasion for loud com-
plaints against the ambition of the king, who
was concentrating the direction of the whole
military service in the hands of his sons. Af-
ter the revolution of 1848, he went to England,
where he devoted his attention to literary pur-
suits. His latest years were passed in Sicily.
He wrote ^Les Institutiones Militaires de la
France^ (1867) ; ^Histoire des Princes Conde'
(1869).

Aumale, a town in France, 35 miles north-
east of Rouen, which has given titles to several
notables in French history : Jean d'Arcourt,
Eighth Count d'Aumale, fought at Agincourt,
and defeated the English at Gravelle (1423).
Claude II., Due d'Aumale, one of the chief in-
stigators of the Massacre of St. Bartholomew,
was killed 1573. Charles de Lorraine, Due
d'Aumale, was an ardent partisan of the League
in the politico-religious French wars of the i6th
century. Pop. (1900) 2,219.

Aumont, 6-m6n', the name of one of the
great historical families of France. The first
Aumont mentioned in history is Je.\n III., Sire
d'Aumont, who, in 1328, took part in the bat-
tle of Cassel, and served under Philip de Valois,
on many other important occasions. A more
distinguished member of the family was Jean"
d'Aumoxt : b. 1522; d. 1595. He was on the
battlefield almost from his cradle to his grave,
and served under si.x kings : Francis I., Henry
II., Francis II., Charles IX., Henry III., and
Henry IV. Antoine d'Aumont: b. 1601 ; d.
1669; served with distinction under Louis XIV.,
and in 1662 was appointed governor of Paris.
Louis M.\rie Victor d'Aumont and de Roche-
baron: b. 1632; d. 1704; took an active part in
the war in Flanders under Louis XIV., was
governor of Boulogne and the Boulonnois, and
member of the academy of inscriptions and
belles-lettres. Jacques, duc d'Aumont: b.
1732; d. 1799; was the commandant of the
national guard, on 5 Oct. 1789, when Louis
XVI. was forcibly taken away from Versailles.
Louis Marie Celeste de Vienne. duc dAu-
mont: b. 1762; d. 183 1 ; served in Germany,
Spain, and Sweden, until the restoration, when
he was appointed lieutenant-general. He made

AUNGERVILLE — AURELIUS ANTONINUS

himself very useful to the cause of royalty
in suppressing the troubles in Normandy, and
in 1815 was created peer of France, and raised
to the office of first chamberlain. He was one of
the most prominent men at the courts of Louis
XVIII. and Charles X., but he exchanged poli-
tics for theatres, and became the chief director
of the comic opera.

Aungerville, an'ger-vil, Richard, known
as Richard de Bury (from his birthplace, Bury
St. Edmunds), an English statesman, bibli-
ographer, and correspondent of Petrarch : b.
1281 ; d. 1345. He entered the order of Bene-
dictine monks, and became tutor to the Prince
of Wales, afterward Edward HI. Promoted to
several offices of dignity, he ultimately became
Bishop of Durham, and Lord Chancellor of
England. He made the acquaintance of many
of the eminent men of the day, and was a dili-
gent collector of books. He was the author of
*Philobiblon,^ 'Epistolse Familiarium,^ includ-
ing letters to Petrarch, etc.

Aura. See Epilepsy.

Au'ramine. See Coal Tar Colors.

Aurangabad, ow-run'ga-bad', a town in
India; 175 miles from Bombay, and on the
Kaum River, a small tributary of the Godavery.
It is surrounded by walls with semicircular
towers at the different angles, and contains a
ruined palace of Aurengzebe and a mausoleum
erected to the memory of his favorite wife. A
mile to the west of the town are cantonments
for cavalry, infantry, and artillery. Auranga-
bad was founded early in the 17th century, and
rose to be a considerable trading centre, but
its commercial importance decreased when
Hyderabad became the capital of the Nizam.
In late years the trade has revived considerably,
and embraces wheat, cotton, and manufactured
goods. Pop. (1891) 33,887.

Auran'tia. See Coal Tar Colors.

Au'rates. See Auric Acid.

Aurbacher, owr'ba-ner, Ludwig, German

author: b. 1784; d. 1847; well remembered by
his *^Volksbiichlein* (1827-9) ; a collection of
popular tales, ranking among the best produc-
tions of this kind in German literature.

Aure'lia. See Jellyfish.

Aure'lian, Lucius Domitius Aurelianus,

one of the later emperors of Rome : b. about
212 ; d. 275. He was the son of a peasant of
Illyricum, and rose to the highest rank in the
army, and even to the consulate ; which good
fortune was increased by a wealthy marriage.
Claudius IL, on his death-bed, in 270, recom-
mended Aurelian to the choice of the troops of
Illyricum, who readily acceded to his wishes.
He delivered Italy from the barbarians, re-
duced Tetricus, who had been unwillingly made
to assume the purple in Gaul, and conquered
the famous Zenobia, queen of Palmyra. Aur-
elian followed up his victories by the reforma-
tion of abuses, and the restoration throughout
the empire of order and regularity, but tar-
nished his good intentions by the general se-
verity of his measures, and the sacrifice of the
senatorian order to his slightest suspicions. He
had planned a great expedition against Persia,
and was waiting in Thrace for an opportunity
to cross the straits, when he lost his life by
assassination, the result of a conspiracy ex-

cited by a secretary whom he intended to call
to account for peculation. Aurelian was a wise,
able, and active prince, and well deserved the
title given him by the Senate of "Restorer of
the Roman Empire.^'

Aure'lian, a historical novel by William
Ware, an American author born in 1797. It
was first published in 1838 under the title *^ Pro-
bus,^ and was a sequel to 'Letters of Lucius
M. Piso,' published the year before; and like
that novel, written in the form of letters. The
full title is * Aurelian; or. Rome in the Third
Century. In Letters of Lucius M. Piso, from
Rome, to Fausta, the daughter of Gracchus at
Palmyra.' The novel presents a singularly
faithful picture of the Rome of the second half
of the 3d century.

Aure'lian Wall, a wall around Rome,
huilt mostly by the emperor Aurelian, but
completed in the reign of Probus. It was
almost 12 miles long, and 54 feet high, enclosing
an area of 5,000 square iniles, and marking the
boundaries of Rome in the time of Aurelian.
The wall was built in great haste as a defense
against the barbarians, and includes the re-
m-ains of house- and garden-walls. It was fairly
well preserved until recently, but is now rapid-
ly falling to decay.

Aure'lius Antoninus, Marcus, often called
simply Marcus Aurelius, a distinguished Ro-
man, and according to Canon Farrar, "the no-
blest of pagan emperors'' : b. Rome, 29 April 121
a.d. ; d. Vindobona, — the modern Vienna — 17
March 180 a.d. He was descended from an il-
lustrious line which tradition declared extended
to the good Numa, the second king of Rome. In
the descendant Marcus were certainly to be
found, with a great increment of many centuries
of noble life, all the virtues of his illustrious an-
cestor. Doubtless the cruel persecutions of the
infamous emperors who preceded Hadrian ac-
count for the fact that the ancestors of Aurelius
left the imperial city and found safety in His-
pania Bsetica, where in a town called Succubo,
— not far from the present city of Cordova —
the emperor's great-grandfather, Annius Verus,
was born. From Spain also came the family
of the emperor Hadrian, who was an intimate
friend of Annius Verus. The death of the
father of Marcus Aurelius when the lad was of
tender years led to his adoption by his grand-
father and subsequently by Antoninus Pius. By
Antoninus he was subsequently named as joint
heir to the imperial dignity with Commodus, the
son of iElius Csesar, who had previously been
adopted by Hadrian. From his earliest youth
Marcus was distinguished for his sincerity and
truthfulness. '^Hadrian's bad and sinful habits
left him," says Niebuhr, ''when he gazed on the
sweetness of that innocent child. Punning on
the boy's paternal name of Verus, he called him
Verissimus, 'the most true.' '' Among the
many statues of Marcus extant is one represent-
ing him at the tender age of eight years offer-
ing sacrifice. He was even then a priest of
Mars. .It was the hand of Marcus alone that
threw the crown so carefully and skilfully that
it invariably alighted upon the head of the statue
of the god. The entire ritual he knew by
heart. The great emperor Antoninus Pius
lived in the most simple and unostentatious
manner ; 3'et even this did not satisfy the ex-
acting, lofty spirit of Marcus. At 12 years

AURELIUS ANTONINUS

of age he began to practise all the austerities
of Stoicism and became a veritable ascetic. He
ate most sparingly ; slept little, and when he did
so it was upon a bed of boards. Only the re-
peated entreaties of his mother induced him to
spread a few skins upon his couch. His health
was seriously affected for a time; and it was,
perhaps, to this extreme privation that his
subsequent feebleness was largely due. His
education was of the highest order of excel-
lence. His tutors, like Nero's, w'ere the most
distinguished teachers of the age ; but unlike
Nero, the lad was in every way worthy of his
instructors. His letters to his dearly beloved
teacher, Fronto. are still extant, and in a very
striking and charming way they illustrate the
extreme simplicity of life in the imperial house-
hold in the villa of Antoninus Pius at Lorium
by the sea. They also indicate the lad's deep
devotion to his studies and the sincerity of his
love for his relatives and friends. When his
predecessor and adoptive father Antoninus felt
the approach of death, he gave to the tribune
who asked him for the watchword for the night
the reply "Equanimity,* directed that the golden
statue of 'Fortune' that always stood in the
emperor's chamber be transferred to that of
Marcus Aurelius, and then turned his face and
passed away as peacefully as if he had fallen
asleep. The watchword of the father became
the life-word of the son, who pronounced upon
that tather ill the 'Meditations,' one of the
noblest eulogies ever written. It would be im-
possible here to detail even briefly all the mani-
fold public services rendered by Marcus Aure-
lius to the empire during his reign of 20 years.
Among his good works were these : the es-
tablishment, upon eternal foundation, of the
noble fabric of the civil law — the prototype
and basis of Justinian's task; the founding of
schools for the education of poor children ; the
endowment of hospitals and homes for orphans
of both sexes ; the creation of trust companies
to receive and distribute legacies and endow-
ments; the just government of the provinces;
the complete reform of the system of collecting
taxes ; the abolition of the cruelty of the crimi-
nal laws and the mitigation of sentences un-
necessarily severe ; the regulation of gladiatorial
exhibitions ; the diminution of the absolute pow-
er possessed by fathers over their children and
of masters over their slaves ; the admission of
women to equal rights to succession to prop-
erty from their children ; the rigid suppression
of spies and informers ; and the adoption of the
principle that merit, as distinguished from rank
or political friendship, alone justified promo-
tion in the public service. But the greatest
reform was the reform in the imperial dignity
itself, as exemplified in the life and character of
the emperor. It is this fact which gives to the
^Meditations' their distinctive value. The in-
finite charm, the tenderness, and sweetness of
their moral teachings, and their broad .humanity,
are chiefly noteworthy because the emperor him-
self practised in his daily life the principles of
which he speaks, and because tenderness and
sweetness, patience and pity, suffused his daily
conduct and permeated his actions. The horri-
ble cruelties of the reigns of Nero and Domi-
tian seemed only awful dreams under the be-
nignant rule of Marcus Aurelius. It is not
surprising that the deification of a deceased
empeJor, usually regarded by senate and peo-

ple as a hollow mockery, became a veritable
fact upon the death of Marcus Aurelius. He
was not regarded in any sense as mortal. All
men said he had but returned to his heavenly
place arnong the immortal gods. As his body
passed, in the pomp of an imperial funeral, to
its last resting-place, the tomb of Hadrian.—
the modern Castle of St. Angelo at Rome,
— thousands invoked the divine blessing of
Antoninus. His memory was sacredly cher-
ished. His portrait was preserved as an in-
spiration in innumerable homes. His statue
w^as almost universally given an honored place
among the household gods. And all this con-
tinued during successive generations of men.
Marcus Aurelius has been censured for two
acts: the first, the massacre of the Christians
which took place during his reign ; the second,
the selection of his son, Commodus, as his suc-
cessor. In extenuation of his persecution of
the followers of Christianity, it has been alleged
in his behalf that he was deceived by evil coun-
cillors, who misrepresented the conduct of the
Christians to him. This excuse impinges upon
his wisdom as a ruler and his admittedly wide
knowledge of the conditions of the empire. It is
further urged that when we take into considera-
tion the environment of the emperor, no just
cause for condemnation of his course remains.
He imbibed a bitter prejudice against the new
religion from his beloved friend and instructor,
Fronto. In the writings of Epictetus, whom he
greatly revered, he found severe condemnation
of the Christians as fanatics. With such a pro-
found natural bias, it is urged, it is no wonder
that he was led to regard the new creed with
aversion. But the reason of his course is to be
found rather in his deep-rooted attachment to
the heathen beliefs of his ancestors and of the
empire. It was rather his fear that the ancient
cult, bound up as it seemed in the character of
Roman rule, was seriously menaced by the prog-
ress of Christianity, which actuated him to the
severe and bloody measures he took to root out
a dangerous rival. Regarding Christianity as a
«pernicious sect,» a «secret conspiracy" against
the empire, an «immoral superstition,)) whose
poison was eating into the social life, and him-
self as the conservator of the empire and its
traditions, some extenuation might be conceded
to such fierce zeal in persecuting the Christians
in almost any other emperor that Marcus .Aure-
lius. For there is a glaring inconsistency in his
character in the adoption of so cruel and mon-
strous a course by one who appears otherwise so
admirable. In this signal instance he is as bloody
and heartless as a Domitian, a Nero or a Calig-
ula; in all other things merciful, in this pitiless;
in his general administration, just and humane;
in this, singularly unjust and even vindictive.
Whatsoever may be urged in his defense, this
relentless persecution of the Christians is a
dark blot on his fame. Whatever extenuating
circumstances may seem to condone it, his policy
in this instance was utterly inconsistent with
his general character.

His first edict against the Christians was pub-
lished in 177. Multitudes perished in the fierce
persecutions which followed. Notable amongst
the victims were St. Polycarp in Smyrna and
St. Caecilia at Rome. The manner in which
they were tortured before being relieved from
sufferings by death was more befitting a savage
chief than a civilized ruler.

AURELIUS — AURORA

Of the appointment of Commodus as his
successor, it may be said that the paternal
heart hoped against hope for filial excellence.
Marcus Aurelius believed, as clearly appears
from many passages in the ^Meditations,^ that
men did not do evil willingly, but through ig-
norance ; and that when the exceeding beauty
of goodness had been fully disclosed to them,
the depravity of evil conduct would appear no
less clearly. The emperor who, \vhen the head
of his rebellious general was brought to him,
grieved because that general had not lived to be
forgiven ; the ruler who burned unread all
treasonable correspondence, would not, nay,
could not believe in the existence of such an
inhuman monster as Commodus proved himself
to be. The appointment of Commodus was a
calamity of the most terrific character; but it
testifies in trumpet tones to the nobility of the
emperor's heart, the sincerity of his own belief
in the triumph of right and justice. See Farrar,
< Seekers after God> (1868) ; Renan, <Marc
Aurele* (1881) ; Pater, <Marius the Epicurean.^

Aure'lius Victor, Sextus, Roman histo-
rian of the 4th century whose 'History of the
Csesars* is a collection of biographical ."sketches
of the emperors from Augustus to Constantine.

Aurengzebe, a'reng-zeb'. See Aurungzebe.

Au'reo'la, or Aureole, in paintings, an il-
lumination surrounding a holy person, as
Christ, a saint, or a martyr, intended to repre-
sent a luminous cloud or haze emanating from
him. It is generally of an oval shape, but may
be nearly or quite circular, and differs from
the nimbus surrounding the heads of sacred
personages in being an emanation of light from
the whole body.

Aure'osin. See Coal Tar Colors.

Aureus, a're-us, or Aureus Nummus, the

earliest gold coin of Rome, coined 207 B.C., in
the second Punic war. It weighed 2 denarii,
and I quinarius, and was worth 25 denarii, or
idb sesterces. In later times it was called
sotidus, but had diminished in value.

Auric Acid. Trioxid of gold, AusOs, does
not combine with acids to form salts, but a
hydrated form of the oxid, AU2O3.H2O, is
known, which unites with bases to form salts.
From this acid-like property, the hydrated oxid
has been called <<auric acid.^^ Compounds of
auric acid with bases are called "aurates.®
Aurate of potassium, Au2O3.K2O.3H2O, is a
crystalline substance, readily dissolving in wa-
ter with the formation of an alkaline solution.
When digested with ammonium sulphate, it
yields an aurate of ammonia of undetermined
composition, called ''fulminating gold.» This
substance, yellowish-brown in color when in the
solid form, decomposes explosively upon per-
cussion, or when heated to 212° F.

Aurichal'cite (-kal'-), a native basic car-
bonate of copper and zinc, usually occurring in
beautiful bright blue or green, pearly incrusta-
tions, composed of ill-defined monoclinic (?)
crystals or scales. Its hardness is 2, and its
specific gravity about 3.6. It has been found in
Greece, Italy, England and various other Euro-
pean countries, and in fine specimens at Morenci
in Arizona, Magdalena in New iMexico, in Col-
orado, Montana, Utah and elsewhere.

Auricle. See Ear.

Auricles of the Heart. See He.\rt; Cir-
culation.

Auric'ula, a hardy perennial herb. Primula
auricula, of the natural order Primulacecc, found
in the mountainous parts of central Europe.
The wild plant has an umbel of small yellow
flowers on a short stalk, which rises from a set
of radial leaves. By selection a very large num-
ber of varieties have been produced. These
have long stalks and very diversely colored,
fragrant large flowers, for which the plant is
widely cultivated in Europe. Since the climate
of the United States is hot and dry, the plant is
almost confined to greenhouses. It is propa-
gated by means of seeds and offsets, and suc-
ceeds best on rich, light, loamy soil.

Auric'ular Confes'sion. See Confession ;
Penance ; Sacraments.

Au'rifa'ber, the Latinized name of Johann
GoLDScHMiDT, One of Luther's friends: b. 1519;
d. Erfurt, 1579. He became pastor at Erfurt in
1566. He collected the unpublished manuscripts
of Luther, and edited the 'Epistolas^ and the
' Table-Talk. >

Auri'ga, in astronomy, the Wagoner, a con-
stellation of the northern hemisphere, contain-
ing as its chief luminary Capella, a star of the
first magnitude.

Aurillac, 6're-yak', a town of France, 272
miles south of Paris. It is noted for its an-
cient buildings, among which are the Church
of Notre Dame, constructed in the 13th cen-
tury, and the castle of St. Stephen. It has man-
ufactures of jewelry, copper, kettles, paper,
woolen stuffs, and carpets. Pop. (1896) 13,531.

Au'rin, Au'rine, a trade name for impure
rosolic acid.

Au'ringer, Obadiah Cyrus, American poet:
b. Glens Falls, N. Y., 4 June 1849. He
served for some years in the United States na\'y.
In 1875 he became a farmer in his native place.
Among his works are: 'Voices of a Shell,-*
'Scythe and Sword' (1887) ; 'Episode of Jane
McCrea> ; and 'The Book of the Hills.'

Aurochs, a'roks, the European bison {Bos
honasus, or Bison eiiropceus) called by the
Germans "wisent*' and in the Slavonic lan-
guages "zubr'' tor "suber.*' This great bison
stands six feet or more in height at the shoul-
der, and closely resembles the American bison
or "buffalo* (q.v.) ; it is believed, indeed, that
the American animal descended from the an-
cestral race of aurochs. When the Romans
spread northward into Europe they found these
and other oxen in the forests wherever they
went, and even down to the days of Charle-
magne they were spread over Germany and
were beasts of chase. They have steadily di-
minished, however, until now they exist only
as a single herd in the royal forest-preserves of
Bielovege, in Lithuania, which in 1899 num-
bered 700, while a few hundred roam in the
Caucasian Mountains. See Bison.

Aurora, 111., city, Kane County; on Fox
River, and on the Chicago, B. & Q., the Chicago
& N. W., the Elgin, J. & E., and the Illinois, I.
& i\I. R.R.'s. It was founded in 1834 by Joseph
and Samuel McCarty; was organized as a vil-
lage in 1857, and was incorporated as a city in
1887. It is an important manufacturing city,
having a variety of extensive establishments ;
these include the shops of the Chicago, Burling-

AURORA — AURORA BOREALIS.

ton & Quincy Railroad, cotton mills, a wheel-
scraper manufactory, carriage and wagon
fac<;ones, smelting-works, and foundries and
machine shops. There are five national banks with
a combined capital of $600,000, and a State
bank. There are 38 churches, a good system of
public schools including two high schools, the
East Aurora High School and the West Aurora
High School, the latter established in 1870 ; and
a public library, a building for which was pre-
sented bj' Andrew Carnegie. It is also the seat
of Aurora Business College and of the Jennings
Seminary for j'oung women. The government
is vested in a mayor and a city council of 14,
seven of which are elected each year for a term
of two years ; the city officials are elected by the
people. The waterworks and the electric light
plant are owned and operated by the city. Pop.
(1890) 19,688; (1900) 24,147; (1904; estimated)
28,000.

Auro'ra, Ind., town in Dearborn County,
on the Ohio River; C, C, C. & St. L., and the
Ohio and Miss. R.R.'s. It has regular steam-
boat connection with Cincinnati. There are ex-
tensive car shops here, and a large grain and
hay trade. Pop. (1900) 3,645.

Auro'ra, Mo., a city in Lawrence County,
situated on the Kansas City, Fort Scott, and
Memphis R.R.'s., about 18 miles northwest
of Pierre City. The chief industries are fruit
growing, lead and zinc mining, and farming.
There are also flour mills, foundries, and ma-
chine shops. Aurora has two banks with $75,-
000 capital. Pop. (1900) 6,191.

Auro'ra, N. Y,. a village in Cayuga
County, situated on Cayuga Lake ; 25 miles
northwest of Ithaca ; on the Lehigh Valley
R.R. It is the centre of an agricultural region,
and is a residental town and excellent summer
resort. It is the seat of Wells College for
Women, Pop. (1900) about 1,000.

Auro'ra (Greek, Eos), in mythology, daugh-
ter of Hyperion and Theia, and sister of Helios
and Selene. She is goddess of the dawn ; rises
from the ocean, drawn by the celestial horses,
Lampus and Phsethon, and with rosy fingers
raises the veil of night, shedding light upon the
world.

Auro'ra, a famous painting by Guide Reni,
on the ceiling of the Casino Rospigliosi in Rome.

Auro'ra Bo'rea'lis (French, aurore borcale;
German, Nordlicht), the northern light. An
illumination in the sky, seen oftenest north of
middle latitudes in the northern hemisphere,
and south of them in the southern hemisphere.
In our hemisphere it is generally visible in the
north, and has, therefore, been called the Aurora
Borealis. In the southern hemisphere it is called
the Aurora Australis.

The frequency with which it is seen varies
with the latitude of the place. It is compara-
tively rare within 45° of the equator, but be-
comes more frequent toward the north up to the
latitudes of about 60°, where it sometimes be-
comes almost a nightly occurrence. Nearer the
pole it again becomes less frequent. We shall
first describe it as it is commonly seen in our
own latitudes. The first noticeable phenomena
commonly occurs after the end of twilight, when
the northern sky near the horizon will be seen
illuminated with a light somewhat like that of
the dawn. Careful examination will show, how-

ever, that the illumination is in the form of a
broad arch, highest near the magnetic north,
and reaching the horizon in the northeast
and northwest directions. Presently beams of
light are seen crossing this arch with a quivering
or flickering motion, and shooting toward the
zenith. Each beam constantly varies in bright-
ness and seemingly fades away to give place
to another.

In more northern latitudes, say north of 45"
or 50°, these beams form the most brilliant
feature of the aurora. Sometimes they are ar-
ranged in curved, wavy lines like the slats of a
window shade flying in the wind, giving the
appearance of a scroll in the process of being
unrolled. In the case of a very brilliant aurora
the beams may cover almost or quite the entire
sky. In this case they will be seen to converge
toward a point commonly not far from the
zenith. The appearance presented by the beams
grows out of the direction in which they are
seen and to the laws of perspective. Long-re-
peated observations show that the rays are
really parallel to the direction of the dipping
needle, or to the lines of the earth's magnetic
force. In the latitudes which we have men-
tioned, the dip is commonly more than 60°, in-
creasing to 90° at the magnetic pole ; hence
when a great number of beams, all parallel to
each other, are viewed from a point on the
earth's surface under the region in which they
are found, they all seem to converge according
to the laws of perspective, toward that part of
the sky to which the upper (south) pole of a
dipping needle is directed. If the parallelism
to the magnetic lines is exact, the direction
of this point should be the same as that of
the compass needle itself. It is still an open
question where the parallelism is exact. Many
observations seem to show a deviation of 10°
or more, but the determination of the exact
centre of convergence is difficult unless the rays
are so numerous as to cover a large part of the
sky, and it is not certain that the deviation may
not be due to errors of estimation.

The Nature of the Auroral Light. — As a gen-
eral, perhaps universal, rule, the rays or beams
which we have described have a slightly yellow-
ish tinge. When their light is analyzed with
the spectroscope, several lines, sometimes as
many as 12, are found in the spectrum. Of
these the brightest and most constant is in the
yellowish green part of the spectrum, having
a wave length of 557. This line is characteristic
of the aurora, but has not been identified with
that emitted by any known substance.

The light of an aurora does not proceed
wholly from the beams. Very irregular sheets
of light, having the appearance of thin lumi-
nous clouds, are often seen. These are of
various colors, red being especially frequent.
The appearance is then that of a red cloud
illuminated by the rays of the sun sometime
after the latter has _ set. The light can, how-
ever be easily distinguished from that of a
cloud by its diffused character and the ab-
sence of any definite outline. The height
of the region in which the auroras are
formed has never been definitely determined.
The most important question is, whether the
height is, in any case, above the upper lim.it
of the atmosphere. This question is all the
more difficult in that this limit is in itself an
uncertain quantity. Observations of shooting

AURORA LEIGH — AUSABLE CHASM

stars show that these objects become visible at a
height of about lOO miles above the earth's
surface. The limit of the atmosphere must
therefore be as high as this, and may be much
higher. The difficulty of making observations
upon the same auroral beams, at one moment,
at different points of the region from which
they are visible, is such that no exact deter-
mination of the height of a beam has ever
been made. There is some reason to believe
that the height may range from lOO to 150 miles,
but there is no reason to believe that a beam
is ever seen above the possible limit of the
atmosphere.

The lower limit of the aurora is undeter-
mined. Observers have sometimes been sup-
posed to see a beam between their own position
and a mountain or other terrestrial object, but
this was probably one of those optical illusions
from which even the best observers can scarcely
free themselves. It is also very frequently be-
lieved in countries where auroras are numerous
that the phenomenon is accompanied by a crack-
ling sound, somewhat resembling the rustling
of silk or straw. As these sounds have been
more difficult to hear, the more accurate and
well-trained the ear of the observer, the pre-
sumption is that they are entirely illusory. It
is a well-known psychological fact that when
a phenomenon is seen which is commonly asso-
ciated with sound, many people fancy that the
latter is heard even in cases where it is mani-
festly impossible. A familiar instance of this
sort is the rocket-like sound which many per-
sons fancy to accompany the passage of a bril-
liant meteor through the air. Apart from the
fact that such a sound could not possibly have
come from the meteor, we have the fact that
only untrained observers ever hear these sounds.

Caitse of the Aurora. — Science has not been
able to as yet determine with certainty and pre-
cision the cause of this very common phenom-
enon. When the luminous effect produced by
the passage of electricity through the highly
rarefied air of a vacuum tube was first observed,
its resemblance to the aurora led to the view
that the latter was produced by electric currents
in the upper regions of the atmosphere. Al-
though it is not impossible that such currents
may be associated with the aurora, they do not
adequately explain its light, and are apparently
inadequate to explain its rays. Yet there is no
doubt that the aurora is associated in some way
with the magnetism of the earth. The coinci-
dence of the rays of the aurora with the direc-
tion of the magnetic needle is one proof of this
relation ; another proof is found in the rela-
tion of the aurora to magnetic storms. The
general rule is, that a very brilliant aurora is
associated with such a storm, disturbing the
magnetic needle not only at the point where the
aurora is visible, but perhaps over the whole
earth. Earth currents so strong that from time
to time a line of telegraph may be run by them
are also occasional accompaniments of a bril-
liant aurora, but although the intimate connec-
tion of the two phenomena is so well established,
the exact relationship is yet to be worked out.
In recent years Arrhenius has propounded a
theory, based on the very probable fact that the
sun emits a flood of corpuscles of a nature sim-
ilar to that of the mysterious rays known as X-
rays, cathode rays, electrons, etc., the investiga-

tion of which has occupied so large a place in
recent physics. His theory is, that these cor-
puscles on approaching the earth are acted on in
the direction of the lines of its magnetic force
round which they describe helices. While noth-
ing as yet has been found to disprove this the-
ory, it is one which still needs much proving.
What can be said with reasonable probability is
that the aurora is caused by irregular emana-
tions of corpuscles from the sun, which are
stopped in the upper regions of our atmosphere.
Periodicity of the Aurora. — Records of au-
roras extending back two centuries or more
show that they have been much more numerous
at some period than at others. Sometimes it
has been supposed that they have been more
numerous at intervals of 2>3 or some fixed
number of years, but this has not yet been
proved, nor has any law been determined by
which we can definitely say at what times they
appear in the greatest number. But several
periods are observed which show that the ap-
pearance of the aurora is in some way con-
nected with the sun. The first instance of this
is the fact that they are more numerous when
the spots of the sun are more numerous. As
there is an ii-year period in the spots on
the sun, so there is a corresponding period in
the aurora. There is also a semi-annual period
in the frequency of the aurora, the greatest
number being observed in March and Septem-
ber and the smallest in June and December.
Arrhenius has connected this with the fact
that in March and September the earth is
over the region of the sun's surface in which
spots are more numerous. Statistics also show
that there are more auroras in the northern
hemisphere when the moon is south of the
equator than when she is north. This, however,
is not proved to be a general law. There is
also an observed period of 25.93 days in the
frequency of the aurora. This is so near
the time of the sun's rotation that it may be
connected with the latter. Consult : Angot,
*The Aurora,^ International Scientific Series.
Simon Newcomb, LL.D.

Auro'ra Leigh, le, a blank verse novel by
Mrs. Browning, published 1857. The book dis-
cusses various theories for the regeneration o£
society, and is filled with passages of great
beauty, and ethical utterances of a lofty nature.

Aurungzebe, a'riing-zeb', the last impor-
tant emperor of Hindustan, of the Mogul dynas-
ty: b. 22 Oct. 1618; d. Ahmednuggur, 21 Feb.
1707. He was the son of Shah Jehan, and prop-
erly named Mohammed, but received from his
grandfather that of Aurungzebe (Ornament of
the Throne), by which he is known to history.
Aurungzebe, in 1658, was crowned sole monarch
of the great Mogul empire.

Ausable (6-sa'b'l) Chasm, a picturesque
and popular American summer resort, in New
York State ; 12 miles from Plattsburg, and i
mile from Keeseville. It is an isolated forma-
tion, wholly independent of, and disconnected
from, any other similar panorama. At the be-
ginning of the chasm, the river is hemmed into
a channel not more than 10 feet wide by walls
of rock from 100 to 200 feet high. Lower down
the walls gradually spread apart till in some
places there is a distance between them of 50
feet, and then extend with sharp turns and oc-
casional enlargements for nearly 2 miles.

AUSCULTATION — AUSTEN

Lateral fissures, narrow, and deep, project from
the main ravine at nearly right angles, and
through one of these a staircase of over 200
feet reaches to the abyss. The walls are formed
of laminae of sandstone, laid in precise and regu-
lar order, and their crevices are filled with a
thick growth of hardy pines and cedars. The
trip through the chasm may be made in a small
boat or on foot. For the accommodation of
tourists, stone walks with substantial iron rail-
ings and firm bridges have been constructed.

Auscultation, a method of examining the
body by means of the sounds given to the ear.
The naked ear may be used, or instruments, such
as the stethoscope (q.v.), or the phoneidoscope
be employed. The natural sounds may be alone
investigated, as in listening to the breathing
sounds, or the heart sounds, or the organ, or
that portion contiguous or remote from the
organs, may be tapped, or percussed, to deter-
mine variations in the resonance. All of the
parts of the body may be investigated by these
means. Auscultation is probably, next to in-
spection, the oldest mode of investigation. Hip-
pocrates II. used it extensively, but it was not
until Lsennec, in 1816, gave his demonstrations
that the method came to be recognized as one
of the most important in the diagnosis of dis-
eased conditions. Consult Butler, 'Diagnostics
of Internal Medicine^ (1901) ; Sahli, 'Unter-
suchungsmethoden.> See Percussion.

Auso'nia, a poetical synonym for Italy;
so used by Virgil and other Roman poets.

Auso'nius Decimus Magnus, the most dis-
tinguished Roman poet of the 4th century a.d. :
b. Burdigala (Bordeaux) about 310; d. about
392. He studied under several distinguished
masters, and became at last professor of rhetoric
in his native city, whence his fame extended
through the whole empire. Valentinian intrust-
ed to him the education of his son, Gratian,
and appointed, him afterward quaestor and prae-
torian prefect. After Gratian had ascended the
throne he showed himself not less grateful to
his preceptor. About the year 379 he appointed
him consul in Gaul. After the death of
Gratian, Ausonius lived upon an estate at Bor-
deaux, devoted to literary pursuits. As Valen-
tinian was of the Christian religion, it is prob-
able that Ausonius was so, too ; and many of his
writings confirm this conjecture. Critics are
not unanimous on the subject of his poetical
merits. He is undeniably learned and ingenious,
but his style and versification have the blem-
ishes of the age, and his Latin is impure. His
epigrams, idyls, eclogues, letters in verse, etc.,
are extant. The best edition is that of -Peiper^
(1886).

Aus'pices, among the Romans, omens, es-
pecially those drawn from the flight or other
movements of birds, supposed to be indications
of the will of heaven, and to reveal futurity.
At first only the augurs took the auspices, but
after a time civil officers, discharging impor-
tant functions had the right of doing so. Two
kinds of auspices, however, arose — a greater
and a lesser ; the former reserved to dictators,
consuls, censors, praetors, or the commander-in-
chief in war ; the latter permitted to less exalted
functionaries. The glory of a successful enter-
prise was universally assigned to the person
who took the auspices, and not to the leader of

the enterprise itself; hence, the phrase arose,
to carry on a war "under the auspices'' of the
emperor or some other high authority. See
Augurs.

Aussig, ow'sig, a town in Bohemia, near
the junction of the Bila with the Elbe; 42 miles
north-northwest of Prague. It has large manu-
factures of woolens, chemicals, etc. Pop. (1901)
38,407.

Austen, Jane, English novelist: b. Steven-
ton, Hampshire, 16 Dec. 1775; d. Winchester 18
July 1817. Miss Austen was the daughter of the
Rev. George Austen, rector of Steventon and
Deane, and Cassandra Leigh Austen, daughter
of the Rev. Thomas Leigh and niece of Theo-
philus Leigh, for many years master of Balliol
College, Oxford. Jane was the youngest of
seven children, of whom others besides herself,
particularly Admiral Francis William Austen,
became distinguished. Until 1801 she lived at
Steventon. Her life here was quiet, domestic,
and moderately studious. Much of her spare
time she spent in writing, chiefly for her own
amusement. In 1801 the family removed to
Bath, whence Miss Austen made visits to Lyme,
Southampton, and other places in the south of
England. Her father died in 1805, and in 1809
she settled at Chawton, in Hampshire, where
she remained until within two months of her
death. In May 1817, after some months of ail-
ing health, she went to Winchester for treat-
ment, and there died in the following July.

]\Iiss Austen began writing stories at an early
age, and before 16 is said to have composed
good-humored nonsense. The first of her ex-
tant novels, 'Pride and Prejudice, > was written
between October 1796 and August 1797. Be-
fore that she had written 'Eleanor and
Marianne,' which, in 1797-98, she altered into
the present 'Sense and Sensibility.' Her third
novel, 'Northanger Abbey,' belongs to 1798.
The first of these novels to be published was
'Sense and Sensibility,' in 181 1. Two years
later 'Pride and Prejudice,' which had been re-
fused by a publisher in her father's lifetime,
made its appearance. 'Northanger Abbey' had
an even longer period of darkness ; in 1803 it
had been sold to a publisher for £10, but the
publisher, after keeping it ten years or more,
sold it back to the family, by whom it was issued
in 1818, the year after the author's death. In
1804, Miss Austen began 'The Watsons,' but
never finished it, and until 1811 apparently did
comparatively little writing. Between that year
and 1816, however, she wrote 'Mansfield Park,'
'Emma,' and 'Persuasion,' published respec-
tively in 1814, 1816, and 1818. There is also an
unfinished story, 'Lady Susan.'

The novels were not especially popular in the
author's lifetime, though Scott and Macaulay (a
little later) paid sincere and high tribute to
their excellence. To-day they are regarded as
among the best novels in the language and are
probably as widely read as those of any first-
rate woman novelist in English. The reason for
their high place appears to He in Miss Austen's
skill as a story-teller and a drawer of character.
The people she deals with are chiefly from the
higher middle classes in the English country,
and she rarely goes above or below them. In a
time, that of' the Napoleonic wars, when there
was every temptation to write battle stories and
heroics, iMiss Austen kept her eye on. the life

AUSTEN — AUSTIN

that she knew, and had nothing to do with spec-
tacular means of arousing interest. The aspect
of the few warriors and seamen who come into
her pages is domestic rather than martial. Nor
is there any very serious adventure of any sort;
the worst that happens is an elopement, or when
a heroine slips down stairs and is stunned. Her
people are quite unintellectual and in no wise
grand or heroic. On the whole, her material is
less startling than that of any English novelist,
but the picture which she gives is unsurpassed
in the perfection of truth, humor, and vivacity.
As a story-teller, she has, in point of technical
construction, no superior. Her plots are not
elaborate and there is no conspicuous wealth of
invention ; in all her six novels the plot turns
on an elopement or a hidden engagement ; but,
granting this, the construction of "^ Pride and
Prejudice,^ "^Emma,^ and ^Mansfield Park' is
not to be bettered. They are models of their
class of story telling. As an artist in character
drawing, ]\Iiss Austen has contributed to the
gallery of familiar persons such figures as Miss
Bates,' Mr. Woodhouse, Mrs. Bennet, "Sirs. Nor-
ris, and a number of others, all of whom are
brilliant, though occasionally exaggerated,
creations. All her important characters are
strongly individual, and are so firmly drawn
that there is no tendency to confuse them as
types or as persons.

< Pride and Prejudice' is usually regarded as
the best of the novels in point of liveliness of
style, neatness of structure, and vigor of sub-
stance. This position would be disputed by ad-
mirers of the more intricate ^Emma' and the
more intricate and gloomy ^Mansfield Park,'
both of which probably surpass ^ Pride and
Prejudice' in maturity and variety of character-
ization. <Xorthanger Abbey' is less ambitious
than either of the preceding; it is a very vi-
vacious burlesque, with a charming moral. The
other two novels, ^ Sense and Sensibility' and
'Persuasion,' are usually thought to be inferior.

Bibliography. — Excellent editions of the
novels of Jane Austen are easily to be had. The
principal life is the Rev. J. E. Austen Leigh's
'Memoir of Jane Austen.' There is also a life
by Goldwin Smith in the 'Great Writers'
series (1890). The place of Jane Austen in
literature is treated in such literary his-
tories as Mrs. Oliphant's ^Literary History of
the 19th Century,' and W. L. Cross's 'The De-
velopment of the English Novel.' W. D.
Howells, in 'The Heroines of English Novels'
(1901) and 'Criticism and Fiction' (1891)
pays very high tribute to Miss Austen as an
artist and as a creator of character.

W. T. Brewster,
Professor of English in Columbia University.

Aus'ten, Peter Townsend, American chem-
ist: b. Clifton, S. I., N. Y., 10 Sept. 1852, and
educated at Columbia University, School of
Mines, and in Germany and Switzerland. In
1876, he was appointed instructor of chemistry
at Dartmouth ; in 1877, professor of chemistry at
Rutger's. From 1887 to 1893 he was engaged in
industrial work, and 1893-8 was professor of
chemistry at Brooklyn Polytechnic Institute. He
has invented several useful manufacturing proc-
esses ; has written a number of valuable papers,
and translated Pinner's 'Repetitorium der Or-
ganischen Chemic' under the title 'An Intro-
duction to the Study of Organic Chemistry.'

Austerlitz, ows'ter-lets, Moravia, a town on
the Littawa, 13 miles southeast of Briinn. In
the vicinity, on 2 Dec. 1805, was fought the
famous battle between the French army of
80.000 men, commanded by Napoleon, and the
combined Russian and Austrian armies, num-
bering 84,000, under their respective emperors ;
in which the former achieved a signal victory.
According to Alison, the allies lost 30,000 in
killed, wounded, and prisoners, and the French,
12,000. The battle was followed by an armis-
tice, the terms of which were dictated by
Napoleon ; and immediately after, on 26 Decem-
ber, by the Treaty of Presburg, which dis-
astrously affected Austria. The battle of
Austerlitz is sometimes called "The Battle of
the Three Emperors."

Aus'terlitz, The Sun of, a term given to
any favorable omen, in allusion to the brilliant
appearance of the sun just before the battle of
Austerlitz, and which Napoleon accepted as a
token of coming victory.

Aus'tin, Saint. See Augustine, Saint.

Aus'tin, Alfred, English poet, critic, and
journalist: b. Headingly, near Leeds, 30 May
1835. He graduated from the University of
London in 1853, was called to the bar in 1857,
and was editor of the 'National Review,'
(1883-93). In 1896 he was appointed poet
laureate of England. He is the author of po-
litical books, novels, and many volumes of
verse. The latter include 'The Season: a
Satire' (1862) ; 'The Human Tragedy' (1862);
'The Golden Age: a Satire' (1871) ; 'The
Tower of Babel,' a drama (1874) ; 'Savona-
rola,' a tragedy (1881) ; 'Veronica's Garden,'
in prose and verse (1895). 'The Garden That
I Love,' 'In Lamia's Winter Quarters,'
'Haunts of Ancient Peace' (1902), and 'A Les-
son in Harmony' (1904), are delightful vol-
umes of mingled prose and verse. Opinion is
much divided as to his merits as a poet, par-
ticularly in such works as 'Fortunatus, the
Pessimist' (1891). In December 1899, he pub-
lished a war poem, 'To Arms!' and, in May
1900, one on the relief of Mafeking.

Aus'tin, George Lowell, American physi-
cian and writer : b. Massachusetts, 1849 ; _d.
1893. Among his numerous works are 'Perils
of American Women' ; 'Water- Analysis'
(1882); 'Under the Tide'; 'Life of Franz
Schulbert' ; 'Popular History of Massachu-
setts' ; 'Life of Wendell Phillips' (1888).

Aus'tin, Henry, American lawyer and le-
gal writer: b. Boston, Mass., 21 Dec. 1858. He
has been a commissioner of insolvency for six
years and is an associate justice of the munic-
ipal court of Boston (West Roxbury district).
He is the author of 'American Farm and Game
Laws' ; 'American Fish and Game Laws' ;
'Liquor Law in New England.'

Aus'tin, Jane (Goodwin), American nov-
elist: b. Worcester, Mass., 25 Feb. 1831 ; d.
Boston, 30 March 1894. Her works include
'Fairy Dreams' (i860); '^loonfolk' (1874);
'Mrs. Beauchamp Brown' (1880); 'A Name-
less Nobleman' (1881) ; 'The Desmond Hun-
dred' (1882); 'Nantucket Scraps' (1882);
'Standish of Standish' (1889); 'Betty Alden'
(1891) ; and 'David Alden's Daughter and
Other Stories (1892).

From the Hollyer photograph after Linnel

JANE AUSTEN

AUSTIN

Aus'tin, John, English writer on juris-
prudence : b. Creeling Mill, Suffolk, 3 March
1790; d. Weybridge, i Dec. 1859. From 1826
to 1835 he filled the chair of jurisprudence at
London University. He served on several royal
commissions, one of which took him to Malta ;
lived for some years on the Continent, and final-
ly settled at Weybridge in Surrey. His fame
rests on his great works, "The Province of Ju-
risprudence Determined,* published in 1832;
and his * Lectures on Jurisprudence,' published
by his widow between 1861 and 1863. His
wife, Sarah, one of the Taylors of Norwich :
b. 1793; d. Weybridge, 8 Aug. 1867; produced
translations of German works, and other books
bearing on Germany or its literature; also ^Con-
siderations on National Education,' etc.

Aus'tin, Jonathan Loring, secretary and
treasurer of Massachusetts : b. Boston, 2 Jan.
1748; d. 10 May 1826. He remained two years
in Paris as Dr. Franklin's secretary. He also
spent two years in England as agent of Dr.
Franklin. On his return in May 1779, he was
liberally rewarded by Congress. In 1780, in his
passage to Spain as agent of the State, he was
taken and carried to England. He afterward
held the offices of state secretary and treasurer
in Massachusetts, and died universally respect-
ed. His son, James Trecothic : b. Boston, 7
Jan. 1784, studied law, rose in the profession,
and was attorney-general of the State from
1832 to 1843.

Aus'tin, Moses, an American who obtained
the first grant from the Mexican government
for the formation of an American colony in
Texas: b. Durham, Ct. ; d. January 1821. He
forwarded to the commandant-general at Mon-
terey, an application for permission to colonize
300 families in^some part of Texas. The ap-
plication was successful, and the enterprise pros-
ecuted by his son, Stephen F. Austin (q.v.).

Aus'tin, Oscar Phelps, American statis-
tician, chief of the bureau of statistics, treasury
department : b. Illinois. At the age of 12 he
removed v/ith his parents to Nebraska, where
he remained until manhood. He then engaged
in journalism until his appointment as chief of
the bureau of statistics, 9 May 1898. He has
since lived in Washington, serving as Washing-
ton correspondent for newspapers in New York,
Chicago, and other cities. He is the author
of *^Uncle Sam's Secrets' ; ^Uncle Sam's Sol-
diers' ; and other publications for the in-
struction of youth in national and international
affairs; also of official monographs ^Com-
mercial China in 1900' ; ^Commercial Japan' ;
* Commercial Africa' ; * Russia and the Trans-
Siberian Railway' ; ^American Commerce' ;
'Commercial Alaska' ; 'Submarine and Land
Telegraphs of the World' ; 'Colonies of the
World and Their Government' ; 'Colonial Ad-
ministration' ; etc. He is associate editor of
the 'National Geographic Magazine.'

Aus'tin, Stephen Fuller, American pioneer:
b. 1792; d. 27 Dec. 1836. He was a son
of Moses Austin (q.v.), followed up the
grant previously issued to his father. By it
he was clothed with almost absolute power
over the colonists, and only obliged to report
to the captain-general. He founded what is
now the city of Austin, the capital of Texas.
The colony prospered, and, being accompanied

by a considerable number of similar associa-
tions, promoted an influx of Americans to such
an extent that they met i March 1833, without
the concurrence of the Mexican population, in
a convention to form a constitution for the as
yet Mexican state of Texas. Austin was one
of the delegates chosen to carry the result of
their deliberations to the central government at
Mexico, and obtain its ratification. The delays
and frequent revolutions at Mexico leading him
to despair of ever bringing his commission to a
close, he addressed a letter, 2 Oct. 1833, to the
municipality of Bexar, and through them to the
people of Texas, recommending a union of all
the municipalities to provide against the conse-
quences of a probable refusal of their applica-
tions by organizing a state under the Ada con-
stitutiva of 7 May 1824. This letter was
considered treasonable, and Austin was arrested
and held as a hostage for the good behavior of
Texas. There he was detained until September
1835. He was appointed a commissioner to
the United States in November 1835. This was
before the Texan declaration of independence ;
and it was not till after his arrival at New Or-
leans, and the information of the union of Santa
Anna with the federal party for the invasion
of Texas, that he was brought to the point of
recommending such a measure. He acted with
prudence and patience, and was successful in
preparing for the independence and annexation
of the new republic. He is looked upon as one
of the most eminent and honorable of the found-
ers of Texan prosperity.

Aus'tin, William, American author: b.
1778; d. 1841 ; remembered for his striking and
original tale. 'Peter Rugg, the Missing Man,'
in effect a New England variant of the Wan-
dering Jew legend.

Aus'tin, Minn., a city and county-seat of
Mower County, situated on Red Cedar River,
and on the Chicago G. W., and the Chicago, M.
& St. P. R.R.'s. It is the centre of a fertile
agricultural region, and has a large export
trade, as well as a variety of manufacturing es-
tablishments, including a meat-packing factory,
flour mills, cement works, railroad shops, brick
works, creamery, etc. It is the seat of the
Southern Minnesota Normal College, and has
several fine public buildings, among them a Car-
negie library. Austin was first settled in 1852.
Pop. (1900) 5,474.

Aus'tin, Tex., the capital and county-seat
of Travis County, on the Colorado River. It is
81 miles north-northeast of San Antonio by
the International & G. N. R.R., 186 miles west
by north of Houston, and 230 miles northwest
of Galveston, by the same, and the Houston &
T. C. R.R. : and on the Austin & N. W. R.R. It
is beautifully situated about 40 feet above the
river, which here flows through attractive scen-
ery, is navigable for river steamers in the win-
ter, and is spanned by two bridges. An immense
dam, 1,275 feet long by 67 feet above bed rock,
the twelfth longest in the world, was completed
in 1892, for water supply and power ; but was
carried away by a flood 7 April T900. During
its existence it created a large and handsome
sheet of water called Lake AIcDonald, a fa-
vorite resort for fishing, hunting, and health-
seeking parties, and famous for having two in-
ternational regattas on it, Stansbnry of Australia
winning the championship of the world. There

AUSTRALASIA

are manufactories of lumber and iron goods,
flour and leather; and oil refineries. There is
a very large export trade in agricultural pro-
duce and live stock, hides and wool, cotton and
grain ; it is also the wholesale supply centre
for a great district in provisions, dry goods,
drugs, agricultural implements, ranching sup-
plies, etc. The city is well built with wide
and well-shaded streets. The most prominent
building is the capitol, one of the largest of such
structures in the United States, built of granite
at a cost of $3,500,000. There are also the main
building of the State University, which accom-
modates the law and literary departments ; State
asylums for the insane, blind, and deaf-mutes,
and for colored patients of these classes ; the
State Confederate Home ; St. Edward's Col-
lege; the Tillotson Institute for Colored Pupils;
seminaries and academies, besides the public
school system. The State land office and the
county court-house are prominent buildings.
The government is administered under the re-
vised charter of 1901, is by mayor, biennially
elected; a city council, chosen half by wards
and half .at large ; and officials elected partly by
the council and partly by popular vote. The
city owns its own waterworks and electric plant.
The settlement was first called Waterloo, but in
1837, after the Texan revolution, incorporated
and re-named after Stephen F. Austin (q.v.),
the county being likewise named from William

B. Travis (q.v.), killed at the Alamo. It was
made the capital in 1839, and remained such
after the admission of Texas as a State. The
first free school in the State was established
here in 1871. Pop. (1900) 22,258.

Australasia, as'tral-a'shia, a geographical
term of loose application, but usually regarded as
comprehending the continental island of Aus-
tralia and an unascertained number of other
islands, some of them very little known, lying
between Ion. 110° and 180° E., and stretching
from Papua or New Guinea, the farthest north-
ern island of the division, to lat. 50° S. Be-
sides the great island of Australia, it thus in-
cludes Tasmania, New Zealand, the Loyalty
Islands (New Caledonia, etc.), Norfolk Island,
New Hebrides, Solomon Islands, New Ireland
(Neu-Mecklenburg), New Britain (Neu-Pom-
mern). Admiralty Islands, and New Guinea, be-
sides numerous other islands and island groups.
The island of Timor and those lying west of
it, though coming within the general boundary
above indicated, belong to the Eastern or In-
dian Archipelago, called also Malasia. Austral-
asia is estimated to have an area of 3,740,000
English square miles, and a population of
6,400,000. It forms one of three portions into
which some geographers have divided Oceania,
the other two being Malasia and Polynesia.
Consult A. R. Wallace, (Australasia.)

HISTORY

AUSTRALIA:
AND MODERN DEVELOPMENT.

I. Australia — Areas and Divisions. Aus-
tralia, the largest island in the world, is of con-
tinental dimensions, with an area of approxi-
mately 2,946,691 square miles. The smaller
island, Tasmania, which is now included in the
general term ^'Australia," as well as in the fed-
eral Commonwealth, and has an expanse of
26,215 square miles, is 150 miles south of Aus-
tralia. The total area of the federated states is
thus 2,962,906 square miles. This does not in-
clude British New Guinea, a territory of about
90,540 square miles, which is practically under
the direction of the Commonwealth. The area
of the respective states is — Western Australia,
975,876 square miles; South Australia (includ-
ing the Northern Territory, which is for all
practical purposes part of the state), 903,690
square miles ; Queensland, 668,497 square miles ;
New South Wales, 309,175 square miles; Vic-
toria, 87,884 square miles ; Tasmania, 26,215
square miles. With the exception of a small
space in the northwest part of the Continent the
whole of the land has been more or less ex-
plored and mapped and a fairly accurate idea
may be formed of its physical features, though
new facts are naturally frequently disclosed with
the gradual advance of settlement over a
sparsely populated country. (Pop. 31 Dec. 1905
— males, 2,135,728; females, 1,921,033; total.
4,056,761, exclusive of aborigines). The coast-
line of Australia is somewhat less than 8,000
miles. Its widest part from east to west is
2,400 miles, and its deepest from north to south
nearly 2,000 miles. The configuration of the
island in places is so irregular that the political
terminology of some of the states is misleading.
Victoria, for example, is more southerly than
South Australia.

Geology. — The east coast of Australia is
mostly rugged and rocky, and fringed with
many islets. Part of the south coast is low and
sandy, but on other portions are bold cliffs ris-
ing several hundred feet sheer from the sea.
The north and west coasts are generally de-
pressed and scenically uninteresting, with
monotonous sandhills. The interior, so far as
explored, is largely composed of rocky tracts
and sandy plains with little or no surface water,
though thousands of artesian bores have re-
vealed the presence of underground currents,
which fertilize the soil, and transform deserts
into highly productive areas. The whole con-
tinent is an irregular plain with high ridges in
the east, and a marked depression in the centre,
in some parts beneath sea-level. The base of
the table-land is granite, which appears on the
surface on the southern and western sides. Si-
lurian rocks are prominent in South Australia,
where unmistakable marks of glacial action
have recently been discovered. In the south-
east and east the rocks are volcanic, Silurian,
carbonaceous, and carboniferous ; the coal de-
posits on the eastern and parts of the western
coasts are extensive, and brown coal has been
found in South Australia, but at too great depths

to be profitably worked, at a long distance from
the seaboard.

Minerals, etc.— West of the Dividing Range
are extensive plains largely used for pastoral
and for agricultural purposes. The compara-
tively dry and scrub, or saltbush-covered lands
in the mterior are in many cases richly mineral-
ized, and succeeding years show that they de-
serve less and less their old designation of "des-
ert." On one of such "deserts" is situated the
famous Broken Hill Silver mine in New South
Wales, and on others the celebrated Coolgardie
and Kalgoorlie gold mines in Western Australia
In various parts of Australia and Tasmania are
found, often in payable quantities (besides the
royal metals and coal), tin, as well as nearly all
the minor minerals and precious stones; while
on the northeastern, northwestern, and north-
ern coasts are probably the most extensive and
productive pearl-shelling waters known. It has
been shown, too, that the monotonous and ex-
tensive mallee country everywhere yields profit-
able returns when farmed under mixed cultiva-
tion and grazing systems; while some varieties
of the mallee itself contain water-yielding roots
long used by the aborigines and capable of sus-
taining the life of lost travelers.

Mountains. — There is no active volcano in
the Commonwealth but some craters show signs
of only recent extinction and of intermittent
previous eruptions. A mountain range varying
from 100 to 200 miles in width outlines the
eastern and southern border of the continent ;
and, broadly speaking, all the rivers of Southern
Australia take their rise in this Great Dividing
Range. The Australian Alps, in the southeast
part of the Dividing Range, contain the highest
mountain summits in Australia — Kosciusko
(N.S.W.), 7,308 feet; Mount Bogong (Vic),
6,508. These are the most elevated points on
the Continent. In Queensland peaks in the Be-
lenden Ker range rise to 5,400 feet, and in other
parts of the state are several eminences of about
4,000 feet. In South Australia the loftiest range
is the Flinders — Mounts Remarkable and
Brown, 3,100 feet each; and the principal eleva-
tion in the Gawler range in the northwestern in-
terior is about 2,000 feet. In western Australia
Mount William (3,000 feet) in the Darling
Range, and Ellen's Peak (3,420 feet), are the
loftiest. Tasmania is very mountainous —
highest peaks. Cradle Mountain 5,069 feet, and
Ben Lomond 5,010 feet.

Rivers and Lakes. — The Australian "Father
of Waters" is the river Murray, which with its
chief tributary, the Darling, flows 2,400 miles
before reaching the Southern Ocean on the
South Australian coast, and with its Queensland
extensions has in favorable seasons a length of
about 3,000 miles navigable by small steamers.
It is probable that under agreement between the
riparian states (South Australia, Victoria, and
New South Wales), the river will be locked to
improve navigation, and also to provide water
for irrigation In the Northern Territory of

AUSTRALIA — GEOGRAPHY

South Australia, as well as elsewhere, some of
the rivers are of Jarge volume, and are navigable
for comparatively short distances. On the east
coast are the Hunter, Clarence, Brisbane, Fitz-
roy, and Burdekin ; on the west the Swan,
Murchison, Gascoyne, Ashburton, and De Grey;
on the north the Fitzroy, Victoria, Flinders, and
Mitchell. A considerable river of the interior is
Cooper's Creek, or the Barcoo, which falls into
Lake Eyre, one of a group of lakes on the south
side of the continent having no outlet, and, ac-
cordingly, salt. The principal of these are lakes
Eyre, Torrens, and Gairdner, all of which vary
in size and saltiness according to the season.
Another large salt lake of little depth, Lake
Amadeus, lies a little west of the centre of Aus-
tralia. Various others of less magnitude are
scattered over the interior.

Rainfall. — Speaking generally, wherever the
land is elevated the rainfall is good. It varies
from about 70 inches annually in the tropical
zone to three or four inches or even less, in the
arid interior regions, and in the southern part
to about 40 inches. The fall diminishes in close
relation to the decline in the elevation of the
land, allowing for coastal influence in the south,
and tropical or sub-tropical conditions in the
north.

Climate. — The climate of Australia is gener-
ally temperate, and in summer hot and dry,
especially in the southern and central parts, but
very healthy. In the tropical portions heavy
rains fall and in most of the coast districts there
is a sufficiency of moisture, but in portions of the
interior the heat and drought are sometimes ex-
treme. The air is, however, so exhilarating that
even 120° Fahr. of shade heat in Australia is less
oppressive than 90° in London, Paris, or
New York, and cases of sunstroke are rare.
This dry-hot atmosphere is especially recom-
mended by medical men as an essential for
sanitoria for sufferers from lung disease, and
among the artesian waters in some of the arid
country are highly mineralized springs with
valuable medicinal properties. The dangers of
drought, too, are being largely reduced by the
rapid extension of the artesian boring area. At
Melbourne (Vic.) the mean temperature is about
57°; Sydney (N.S.VV.). about 63; Adelaide
(S.A.), 61; Perth (W.A.), 64; Brisbane (Q.),
68; and Port Darwin (N.T.), 82 (tropical);
Hobart (Tas.), 55. In the mountainous and
more temperate parts of Australia snow falls in
winter (June, July, and August), and long re-
mains unmelted on portions of the Great Divid-
ing Range, as well as in Tasmania. Practi-
cally, however, at no time of the year is it possi-
ble to skate on ice in any division of the Com-
monwealth. Australia is essentially a warm
country throughout, but the winters are keen
and bracing.

Fauna (extinct). — The distinguishing fea-
tures of the extinct fauna (of which most inter-
esting discoveries have been made) are specially
worthy of note. In the mammalian class the
great majority are marsupials, though the dingo
and the whale (non-marsupial) are also found
in a fossil state. Fossil remains of birds, reptiles
(such as crocodile, monitor), turtles, and fishes,
have also been unearthed some in the banks
of the rivers in the interior. This indicates that
the ancient vertebrate fauna of Australia was
very similar to what it is now. The preponder-

ant t3'pe of mammal was marsupial. In most
respects, however, the species and even the
genera were different, and many (such as dipro-
todon, nototherium, and the giant kangaroo)
were much larger animals and of a more gener-
alized type than exist at present. One living
tj'pe (a wombat) is precisely of the same
specie as is found in a fossil condition. Re-
garding the probable cause of the destruction
of the extinct animals, it is impossible to give a
general statement applicable to such a wide-
stretching country as Australia, any more than
such a statement could be applied to other coun-
tries where there has been a wholesale disap-
pearance of once numerous groups. Changes of
climate or physical conditions rendering the
country or district unsuitable for their main-
tenance ; over-specialization in structure causing
the types to be incapable of adapting themselves
to changed conditions ; not impossibly the ravages
of infectious or parasitic diseases — all these have
had their effect. As a probable explanation in
the special case of the Lake Callabonna fossils
(a remarkable discovery in South Australia) the
following occurs in ^The Physical Features of
Lake Callabonna and the Account of the Dis-
covery^ by Prof. Stirling (Director of the South
Australian Museum), which was published in
the ^Memoirs of the Royal Society* : <*The
facts that the bones of individuals are often un-
broken, close together and frequently in their
proper relative positions — the attitude of many
of the bodies and the character of the matrix
in which they are imbedded — negative any
theory that they have been carried thither by
floods. The likelihood, rather, is that they met
their death by being entombed in the effort to
reach food and water. . . The accumulation
of so many bodies in one locality points to the
fact of their assemblage around one of the last
remaining oases in the region of desiccation
which succeeded an antecedent condition of
plenteous rains and abundant waters." An
identical explanation has been suggested by
Daintree in his ^ Notes on the Geology of the
Colony of Queensland.* Among the extinct
fauna the most remarkable of the mammals is
th.i Diprotodon australis; size 10 to 11 feet in
length, five and one-half to six feet in height.
Of the birds, the most noteworthy is Genyornis
nezi'toni, a large bird with bones as big and mas-
sive as the elephant-footed moa of New Zealand,
and the Aepyornis of Madagascar. It stood
about six and one-half feet high, but is remark-
able mostly for its massiveness. The deposit of
this treasure trove of natural history at Calla-
bonna is large and valuable, but (so far as the
ground has been explored) it does not equal
the immense deposits in certain places of fossil
mammals and reptiles in the United States of
America. Still, only one area of limited extent
in Lake Callabonna has been exploited Owing
to the superior resources of the United States,
and the greater generosity displayed tnere in
this direction, much more systematic starch has
been undertaken both in that country and in
South America than in Australia ; but the pos-
sibilities are cherished of further revelations of
the highest importance in this branch of research
in the Commonwealth.

Fauna (existing) . — To the northwest of Aus-
tralia between the Dutch- Javanese islands of
Lombok and Bali runs the Lombok Strait, which

AUSTRALIA — GEOGRAPHY

curiously marks a dividing line between the
fauna and the flora of Asia and those of Austra-
lia. The channel is narrow, if very deep, and
the Asiastic birds might easily fly across it in
one direction, and the Australian in another. So
might a natural growth of plants be encouraged
by the agency of wind and feathered carriers of
seed; but none of these things has happened to-
any extent ; the individuality of the relative
fauna and flora has been strongly preserved.
A number of the birds in Australia, however,
migrate from one part of the Commonwealth to
others with the changes of the seasons, and some
pass to and from the continent of Asia — e.g., the
sandpiper or sharp-tailed stint, that each season
comes from Siberia, a distance of 10,000 miles.
As already indicated, the existing fauna does
not differ widely (except in proportions) from
the extinct ; and the forms observed in some
instances are exceedingly interesting, if not
bizarre. The "Bunyip" of the aborigines'
legends (a monster that lurked in certain rivers
and creeks and swamps) has" never yet been
proved to be other than fabulous. Much specu-
lation and some mystery, however, surround the
occasionally recurring visitations of plagues of
rats in the far-northerly country, and of mice in
the more southerly or agricultural areas. At
periods of several years the rodents suddenly
appear in vast numbers, and as suddenly disap-
pear after doing, in some cases, much damage.
The locust or grass-hopper plague, which at one
time was much feared, is now almost unknown.
In a generalization, Australia may claim to be
free from all animals that attack man, except
in exceedingly rare instances when a large kan-
garoo may be brought to bay, and in frenzy of
fear strive to defend itself almost invariably
vainly. Introduced animals, such as the rabbit
and the fox, the sparrow, the starling, and other
old-world birds, as well as the snail, multiply
literally by millions, and become a scourge to
pastoralists, farmers, and gardeners. The im-
ported dog running wild has sometimes been
confused with the aboriginal dingo (canis dingo)
(q.v.) or "warrigal* (native name), a predatory
animal, the wolf of Australia, that has caused
heavy losses among sheep and lambs, which he
destroys in mere wantonness. The dingo never
barks, but howls dismally in the bush at night.
Kangaroos once abounded virtually all over
Australia, and varied in size from the "old man*'
of six feet to the most minute specrmens, in-
cluding wallabies and kangaroo rats. The most
interesting example is the tree kangaroo, dis-
covered in Queensland about 100 years after and
not far from the spot (Endeavour River), where
the first kangaroo (Macropus major) was found
by Captain Cook, the great navigator, in 1770.
In particularly the southern and western parts
of Australia is seen a small "native bear," that
inhabits trees, and, in Tasmania, the "Tasman-
ian devil," {sarcophihis iirsinus) fierce and (like
the dingo) untamable, and the "Tasmanian
tiger" {Tliylacinus cynoccphalus) are the prin-
cipal examples of fauna. The numbers of these
latter, like those of the kangaroos and the opos-
sum, have been largely reduced through indis-
criminate slaughter with the advance of settle-
ment ; but recent legislation for the protection
of the kangaroo (the skin of which is valuable
for export) has stayed the race toward destruc-
tion. The wombat {Phascolomys) is a curious,

burrowing, land animal, resembling in some re-
spects the platypus and kindred creatures ; but
the most extraordinary is the platypus itself
(ornithorhynchus anatinus) , an amphibious ani-
mal that forms a connecting link between the
mammals, birds, and reptiles. Of the birds the
emu {Dromaius novae hollandia) is from five
to SIX feet high, and ranks next to the African
ostrich, which it resembles in its habits; its
numbers, as with the kangaroo, have been
greatly reduced as settlement has progressed.
The cassowary (Casuarius australis) is small,
and not nearly so widely diffused as the emu;
and the native companion or Australian Crane
iGrus australasiamis) is still slightly smaller
than the cassowary, and an exceedingly graceful
bird of somewhat eccentric habit. The black
swan (Cygnus atraius) is scarcely so large as
the white swan of the northern hemisphere, but
is a beautiful bird. Strange in its habits is the
satin bower bird ( Ptilonoriiynchus Iwloscriceus)
that forms for itself a playground or bower in
which it sports with a miscellaneous collection
of bright objects. Altogether about 750 species
of birds have been found, mostly in Northeast
Australia (which has been chiefly explored), but
some of them are gradually becoming extinct.
The old idea that Australian birds are songless
is only relatively true. The flute-like note of the
magpie or shrike is one of the most mellifluously
melodious sounds in nature, and has been de-
clared to surpass that of the nightingale. The
reptiles are numerous. The largest of the
snakes is the carpet snake (Morclia varicgata),
non-venomous, with an average length of about
seven or eight feet, but with authenticated speci-
mens up to 15 feet and even more ; its habits
are generally similar to the python's. Of the
five principal poisonous reptiles the most deadly
is the death adder (about three feet). Not
more than 12 or 15 fatal cases of snakebite occur
annually throughout Australia, but this com-
parative immunity is due partly to the prompt
application of effective remedies. The white ant
is common in the northern part of the Common-
wealth, and is very destructive to wooden build-
ings in the early stages of settlement; its nests
of mud and clay, generally with angles pointing
north and south, range from 20 feet in height
downward. The seas abound in numerous varie-
ties of fish. In the period of pioneer settlement
the Australian whaling grounds were very pro-
ductive, and still are occasionally exploited with
profit. Sharks are exceedingly numerous. The
largest, the white pointer or white shark, (Car-
charodon rondcletii) to the length of 16 feet and
over has been caught, and attended by the pilot
fish (Xaucratcs ductar) it preys upon man as
well as upon denizens of the deep. Deaths
through sharks are rarer even than those from
snakebite, but this is to a large extent due to
the precautions taken in bathing in the seas.
The crocodiles or alligators, as they are popu-
larly called {Crocodilus Porcatus and Phyllas
johnsonii — a small variety), are plentiful in the
tropical and sub-tropical zone on the northeast,
northwest, and north coasts, they vary from
about 20 feet (an unusual length) to (^^'G. or six
feet. In common with the shark the larger alli-
gator sometimes attacks human beings, but the
aborigines evidently stand in little fear of it.
In the warmer waters is found the dugong
{Halicora australis), from whose habits and

AUSTRALIA — THE ABORIGINES

structure doubtless originated the fables con-
cerning the mermaid. Seals are still seen on the
remote parts of the coast and the southern
islands. The most noteworthy is the sea bear
yOtaria cincrca) from about seven feet in
length, that are more prized for their oil than
for their skins. In the northern waters turtles,
the edible green (Chclone My das), and the
shell-yielding hawkbill {Chclone imbricata)
varieties are very numerous, and attain to a
large size. The trepang or beche-de-mer is
found, with the mother-of-pearl oyster — large
(Meleagrina margaritfera) and small (Mclca-
grina radiata). The former frequently yield
fine pearls, some single specimens of which have
been sold for thousands, and many for hundreds
of pounds. The edible rock oyster is widely rep-
resented, and the mangrove tree-climbing fish
iper'wphtJwlmus) abounds, particularly in the
northern waters.

Flora. — In a concise description the Austra-
lian flora may be said to possess peculiarities
which distinguish it unmistakably. ^lany of its
most striking features bear a natural relation
to the general dryness and greatly differing con-
ditions of the climate, owing to the vast area of
the Commonwealth. The trees and bushes have
mostly a scanty foliage, with little surface for
evaporation, or thick leathery leaves well fitted
to retain moisture. Nearly all are evergreen,
but the effect upon the landscape is rather
monotonous. The most extensively spread
types of vegetation are the various kinds of
gumtree (Eucalyptus), the shea-oak (Casua-
rina), the acacia or wattle, the grass tree (Xan-
thorrhcra, many varieties of the Proica-
cece, a few baobab trees, and very many ferns
and tree-ferns. Of the gumtree there are more
than 150 species, nearly all valuable for timber,
and for their essential oils, which possess im-
portant medicinal properties. The wattle or
acacia includes about 300 species, some of which
also yield good timber or bark for tanning.
The most beautiful, the most fragrant, and the
most useful in these latter respects is the golden
wattle (Acacia dealbata). Palms (of which
there are at least 24 species, all, except the cocoa-
palm, peculiar to Australia) are mostly confined
to the northern and eastern coasts. The mallee
scrub is formed by a dwarf eucalyptus, and the
mulga scrub by a thorny acacia. A plant which
covers large areas in the arid regions is the
spinifex or porcupine grass (coarse and spiny),
which renders traveling difficult, and is uneat-
able by any animal. Other expansive tracts are
occupied by useful herbs and fodder bushes.
Foremost among those stands the salt-bush
(Atriplex miimmularia, order Chcnopodiacecc),
an exceedingly hardy plant, upon which the
sheep and other animals thrive, and which has
strong drought-resisting powers. Beautiful flow-
ering plants, especially in Western Australia, are
almost innumerable. Australia also possesses
many turf-forming grasses, particularly the kan-
garoo grass (Anthisth-ia ausfralis), which sur-
vives in even a protracted rainless period. The
nr.tive fruits, including the native cherry (Exo-
carpus cuprcssiformis), the nut of which grows
partially outside of the fruit proper, are few and
of little practical worth, and the plants yielding
roots used as food are not of much economic
value ; but exotic fruits and vegetables grow
everywhere in unstinted abundance, and some of

the cherished garden blooms of the older coun-
tries flourish so riotously as to become a pest in
Australia. The vine and the olive thrive better
than in the country of their origin, and enor-
m us quantities of wine and oil are produced
and exported. The cereals of Europe and maize
are extensively cultivated, and large tracts of
.country, particularly in Queensland, are under
the sugar cane, the pineapple, the cocoanut and
other tropical exotics.

Bibliography — Geography. — A g a s s i z , < A
Visit to the Great Barrier Reef of Australia
. . . 1896^ (Cambridge, ]Mass., 1898) ; Bar-
ton, ^Australian Physiography' (Brisbane,
1S95) ■> Bonwick, 'Climate and Health in Aus-
tralia> (London, 1886) ; Kent, <The Great Bar-
rier Reef of Australia' (London, 1893) ; Ran-
ken, 'The Federal Geography of British Aus-
tralasia' (Sydney, 1891), and 'The Dominion of
Australia' (London, 1874); Reclus, 'The Earth
and Its Inhabitants, Oceanica' (New York,
1890) ; Taylor, 'Geography of New South
Wales' (Sydney, 1898;; Thomson, 'The Phy-
sical Geography of Australia' in 'Smithsonian
Report' of 1896, (Washington, D. C, 1898) ;
Trollope, 'Australia and New Zealand' (Leip-
zig, 1873) ; Wall, 'Physical Geography of Aus-
tralia' (^Melbourne, 1883;.

Geology. — Clarke, 'Sedimentary Formations
of New South Wales' (Sydney, 1878) ; Cur-
ran, 'Geology of Sydney and the Blue ]\Ioun-
tains' ; Darwin, 'Geological Observations'
(London, 187G) ; Etheridge and Jack, 'Geology
and Palaeontology of Queensland' (Brisbane,
1892) ; Johnston, 'Geology of Tasmania' (Ho-
bart, 1888) ; McCoy, 'Palaeontology of Victoria'
(^Melbourne, 1874J ; Tate 'A Century of Geo-
logical Progress in Australia' (Adelaide, 1893).

Flora and Fauna. — Aflalo, 'Natural History
of Australia' (London, 1896) ; Bentham and
Mueller, 'Flora Australiensis' (London, 1863-
78) ; Brown, 'Miscellaneous Botanical Works'
(London, 1866-7) i Cook, 'Handbook of Aus-
tralian Fungi' (London, 1892) ; Fitzgerald,
'Australian Orchids' (Sydney, 1870-90) ;
Flower and Lydekker, 'Mammals, Living and
Extinct' (London, 1891) ; Gould, 'The Mam-
mals of Australia' (London, 1863), and 'The
Birds of Australia' (7 vols., London, 1848) ;
Guilfoyle, 'Australian Botany' (Alelbourne,
1884) ; Heilprin, 'The Geographical and Geo-
logical Distribution of Animals' (London, 1887) ;
Kent, 'The Naturalist in Australia' (London,
1897) ; Krefft, 'The Snakes of Australia' (Syd-
ney, 1869) ; Maiden, 'Useful Native Plants of
Australia' (Sydney, 1889) ; Ogilvy, 'Catalogue
of Australian J\Iammals' (Sydney, 1892) ;
Schomburgh, 'Flora of South Australia'
(Adelaide, 1875) ; Tenison- Woods, 'The Fish
and Fisheries of New South Whales' (Sydney,
1883) ; Turner, 'Australian Grasses' (Sydney,
1S95) ; Wallace, 'The Geographical Distribution
of Animals' (London, 1876).

William John Sowdex,
Editor of South Australian '•Register.''

z. Australia — The Aborigines. The abo-
rigines of Australia are fast dying out — slain
by civilization through interference with the
game that they formerly hunted and lived on,
added to the influence of the white man's dis-
eases and vices. It has always been impossible
to number the aborigines with any certainty on

AUSTRALIA — THE ABORIGINES

account of the immense territory over which
they were scattered, and of the nomadic habits
of the people — habits which quite unfitted them
for any sustained industrial work ; but, accord-
ing to the most trustworthy estimates which
can be obtained, only about 150,000 of the
blacks (including half-castes) now remain upon
a territory of nearly 3,000,000 square miles. Cer-
tainly this is nearly four times the number of
Maories who are left in New Zealand, but the
territorial and other conditions are so essen-
tially different in the two countries that com-
parisons are practically valueless. It is assumed
that the representatives of the Australian abo-
rigines are distributed in these proportions in
the respective states : Western Australia, 70,-
000; South Australia (including the Northern
Territory), 50,000; Queensland, 25,000; New
South Wales, 6,828, and a few hundreds divided
between Victoria and Tasmania. In Tasmania
the last pure bred aborigine died in 1877; but
157 half-castes remain. Even on the Australian
continent the sight of a full-blooded black near
to a centre of settlement is very rare ; and prob-
ably during the next 20 years the few survivors
of the original owners of the soil will be found
in only the remote districts. Already there is a
striking disparity between the number of the
natives as shown relatively in the estimates and
the actual ofificial records. The latest census
gave these figures (which included half-castes
as well as full-bloods in the cases of New South
Wales and Western Australia) : New South
Wales, 4,287 ; Queensland, 6,670 ; South Austra-
lia, 3,888; Tasmania (half-castes only), 157;
Victoria, 652; Western Australia (settled dis-
tricts only), 5,261; total, 20,915.

Treatment of the Aborigines. — Although the
racial antipathies and collisions due to the
seizure by superior races of the lands of in-
ferior peoples have been at least as marked in
Australia as elsewhere, and although the treat-
ment of the aborigines by many of the pioneer
settlers did not err on the side of scrupulous
humaneness, the governments, as such, have
done a good deal to mitigate the sufferings of
the unfortunate people, the dealing with whom
was more difficult than it would have been if the
vast majority of them had not in hopeless in-
dolence always manifested an unconquerable
repugnance to systematic labor or anything like
sustained industry. The policy shown towards
them might well have reflected — and in some
cases it has done so — the fact that the conquest
of the natives in Australia has been exceedingly
easy owing to their utterly disorganized condi-
tion and their almost complete helplessness.
These defects were in contrast to the valor, the
country-love, and the mental alertness of the
colored inhabitants whom the early white set-
tlers found in New Zealand. As a rule the Aus-
tralian aborigine — while in good districts phy-
sically stalwart and strong — was not of a fero-
cious or blood-thirstily aggressive nature ; and
in most cases when numbers of them have at-
tacked a few isolated European settlers or
travelers, the cause has been either a lack of
firmness or judicious care on the part of the
persons molested, or else revenge for w-rongs in-
flicted upon the natives by other white men,
mostly in the shape of interference with the
black women, or by way of reprisals for the
killing of cattle, the intrusion of which upon

Vol 2 — s

their former hunting grounds the blacks natur-
ally connected with the gradual disappearance
of the indigenous game.

All the state governments have enacted, and
so far as possible enforced, laws for the protec-
tion of the blacks — laws in some instances pro-
viding for them special reserves within which
the Europeans must not kill game or depasture
stock ; prohibiting the supply of intoxicating
liquor or opium to the aborigines, and defending
them against anything like enslavement or
other ill-usage. During many years past at
least a yearly — and in bad seasons a more fre-
quent — distribution of flour, tobacco, blankets,
and other useful articles has been made by the
governments among the natives; and the state-
aided efforts have been liberally supplemented
by the benefactions of private persons and phil-
anthropic institutions, especially in relation to
education, spiritual and otherwise by mission-
aries who have established aboriginal stations.
In the latest year for which statistics are avail-
able the purely governmental expenditure
amounted annually (with allowances for en-
dowed lands) to i20,ooo in New South Wales,
£9,000 in Queensland, £5,000 in South Australia,
£5,000 in Victoria, and £12,000 in Western Aus-
tralia.

Origin and Characteristics. — The origin of
the aboriginal tribes of Australia has been a
theme of much controversy; and the space avail-
able here is not adequate for even an enumera-
tion of the many theories — including one com-
prehending an invasion by representatives of the
Lost Tribes of Israel — advanced b}' various
differing authorities. This seems to be a prob-
lem insoluble. In such circumstances sufficient
must be the statement that there is a fair con-
sensus of opinion to the effect that the native
black races, as they were found by the European
pioneers, had apparently been substantially af-
fected (especially in the northern areas, which
were for many centuries visited periodically by
IMalay proahs in search of pearl shell, trepang,
and other products) by strains of blood intro-
duced from beyond the island continent. A
judicious balance of the evidence adduced by
the most trustworthy ethnographers tends to the
conclusion that the two points whence Australia
benefited or otherwise by migration of fauna
and flora, as well as ethnologically, were the
group culminating in New Guinea on the one
hand, and on the other in the chain of islands
and peninsulas touching Australia on the North-
west. Certain plants and animals came from
Asia to Australia, and it is held to be extremely
probable that the ancestors of the Australian
native tribes (who differ somewhat from those
of Tasmania) crossed over to Australia from
those two points. The native population is de-
clared to be an admixture of at least two
distinct elements. The skin of the one was a
true yellow, and that of the other was a
velvety black. The hair varies from straight to
woolly, and the face and skull also have material
dissimilarities. The nose assumes various
grades, from the flat negro to the arched Jew-
ish, and these contrasted types are believed to
be due to the immigration of Malays and
Papuans as indicated.

One reason why the black had no means of
sea navigation was that "the negroid blood in
his veins fetters the Australian so firmly to the

AUSTRALIA — DISCOVERY AND EARLY HISTORY

soil;* and another was that unkindly nature
made the pressure of food requirements so
heavy that tlie black was forced to be a wander-
er, and had little time for anything else than the
sustainincf of bare life. As, however, this judg-
ment reflects disparagingly upon the natural
resources of the land, it is important to add
that on their advent Australia's "Pilgrim Fa-
thers'* surprised the black inhabitants in a state
of the most primitive savagery. There was not
anywhere the remotest sign of any cultivation
of the soil, or of the slightest attempt at tillage,
or the thrift or providence which stores food for
emergencies. Neither had the natives made —
though they possessed roughly hewn bark or
log canoes — any effort to clothe themselves, or —
apart from miserable hovels constructed of
rank grass or reeds, or boughs or bark of trees —
to provide shelter from the cold of winter or the
heat of summer. They had no written lan-
guage, unless one may include in that character-
ization such crudeh^ artistic representations as
were inscribed on rocks or in caverns. Some
of these, like the message sticks sent from one
part of the country to another, are ideagraphic —
or picture-writing — but none was at any rate
unmistakably idealistic. Though most of the
tribes paid deference to their "medicine men*'
or sages — mostly the older members of the
tribal camps, who were always well treated by
the younger blacks — they possessed practically
no conception of abstractions. In this respect
they were, while less provident than the ants,
essentially untutored children of Nature — al-
most as much so as the dogs and the lower ani-
mals. They were endowed with instinct rather
than with intuition. No bloodhound ever dis-
played keener sight or scent than the Australian
blacktrackers, whose power in following a trail
seems almost miraculous.

On the other hand, a close study of the abo-
rigines reveals curious anomalies. Speaking
generally the natives rise and fall in mental
and physical superiority in exact harmony with
the fertility or otherwise of the territory over
which they roamed. Some of them had scarcely
reached the low stage of intelligence associated
with the stone age, others rapidly acquired
education under European teachers, and in the
wilds had constructed the boomerang which,
with its marvellous power of returning to the
thrower, has long puzzled even the most pro-
found scientific experimenters. Among the
highest-class natives, too, the character of their
spears and other weapons indicated the posses-
sion of no little constructive skill, as well as
undoubted patience and perseverance on the part
of the makers. Where an aboriginal population
is divided into hundreds, and probably thou-
sands, of tribes, all mutually independent and
mutually hostile, and distinguished usually by
arbitrarily marked rings of exclusiveness, and
each tribe speaking a dialect of its own, it is
impossible to write with exactitude concerning
their customs. One must not, therefore, attempt
to explain why the tribal boundaries should in
some cases be defined by geometrical devices ;
why in tribal territories here and there circum-
cision should be practiced, and on adjoining
areas not observed ; why some natives should
exchange salutes similar to Masonic signs, and
others be unaware of the meaning of this
interchange, but be familiar with a somewhat

intricate code of smoke signals ; why some
should be cannibals and others should not be;
why the superstitious ceremonies should vary
so widely; and yet why the main idea of the
native "corroboree" or dance should be appar-
ently almost everywhere the same or closely-
similar.

What seems to be certain is that the wild
aborigines have no religion properly so called —
no impelling attraction towards or trust in a
God of Love, but a wholesome fear of "Mool-
darbie* or the devil, whom all tribes sedulously
seek to propitiate — some even by periodical
human sacrifices, and the dread of whom as a
spirit walking in the darkness keeps them
shrinking in their camps until the break of day.
Very extensively diffused also is the belief that
nobody can die a natural death, but must be
the victim of a maleficent influence or the evil
eye. Equally widespread is the aspiration
among the aborigines that after death they
may "jump up a white fellow** — a notion said,
perhaps fancifully, to have originated in the
general custom of smoking the corpses of the
dead, with the result that the peeling outer
cuticle revealed the white dermis or true skin.
Some tribes are prudishly modest in their rela-
tions with their women others are as flagrantly
immoral. The language of some seems to be
little better than mere gibberish, while concern-
ing that of others one of the Jesuit mission-
aries has written that in its construction it is
most ingenious, and curious in its form, indi-
cating high intelligence and suggestive of the
Hebrew. IMany of the natives are musical, but
their musical instruments are of the crudest
character, made chiefly of hollowed wood, or
grasses, or bamboos. At the age of puberty
youths of both sexes are formally initiated by
peculiar, jealously preserved, and often inde-
scribable ceremonies, into the respective secrets
of manhood and womanhood, but even the old
men and women of the tribes who perform these
rites — which include the knocking out of some
of the young men's teeth and certain genital
mutilations — seem to have no clear and coher-
ent idea of their import.

Bibliography. — Curr, ^The Australian Race:
Its Origin, Languages, Customs, etc.* (4 vols.,
IMelbourne, 1886-7) ; Dawson, ^Australian
Aborigines* (Melbourne, 1881) ; Lumholtz,
^Among Cannibals* (London, 1890) ; ^Matthew,
^Eaglehawk and Crow* (London, 1889) ; Roth,
'Queensland Aborigines* (Brisbane, 1897) ;
Smith, 'Aborigines of Victoria* (London,
1878) ; Spencer and Gillen, 'Native Tribes of
Central Australia* (London, 1899) ; Wallace.
'Australasia* (1893).

William John Sowden,
Editor of South Australian ^Register.'*

3. Australia — Discovery and Early His-
tory. The discovery and the early history of
Australia have been the themes of much discus-
sion, but one conclusion admitted by all dis-
putants is that the really pioneer navigation
which resulted in the finding of the great island
continent of the Southern Seas was not con-
ducted by the British who now occupy the ter-
ritory that was originally called Terra In-
cognita, and then New Holland. British enter-
prise, however, built a structure of colonization
upon the site disclosed by the investigations of
the people of other nations ; and nearly all the

AUSTRALIA — DISCOVERY AND EARLY HISTORY

definite surveying of the Australasian seas has
been done by the sailors of Britain.

The later days of the time in which Australia
was still unknown were the days when the
Portuguese, the Spaniards, and the Dutch
roamed the oceans as intrepid searchers for
new sensations rather than in the hope of ter-
ritorial aggrandisement. Though anything like
the exact year in which Australia was first
sighted is doubtful, records show that between
1531 and 1542 the Portuguese declared the
existence of a land which they styled "Great
Java,*' and which corresponded with the north-
ern parts of what is now the Australian Com-
monwealth. The most authentic available data
indicate that the first European who saw the
land was a Portuguese named Manoel Godhino
de Eredia, who sighted it in 1601. By common
consent, however, it has been conceded, as a
starting point for Australian history, that Luis
Vaez de Torres, who had been second in com-
mand of the De Quiros (Spanish) expedition,
saw and sailed close to the Australian coastline
in 1606; and that he was navigating in the
neighborhood of New Guinea to the east of
Cape York Peninsula at about the same time
when a Dutch mariner was similarly engaged to
the west of the Peninsula. Yet centuries
elapsed before any attempt was made to settle
the newly found continent, though meanwhile
it was more than once passed and even circum-
navigated. After 1619, when the Dutch expedi-
tion under de Houtmann anchored oflf the
Abrolhos Reef on Xorthwest Australia, that
part of the continent was repeatedly visited
during the former half of the 17th century, and
well verified history shows that in 1656 a Dutch
ship was wrecked in the vicinity of the Abrolhos
Group — fragments of the cargo are even now
washed up occasionall}' by the sea or foiuid in
the guano deposits. Towards the end of 1642
Abel Jansen Tasman. a Dutch navigator, dis-
covered and landed on Tasmania, and named it
Van Diemen's Land (a title which it continued
to bear until 1854). In 1688, William Dam-
pier, a freebooter, was the first Englishman to
set foot on Australia — at King Sound on the
northwest coast. This same Dampier on a sub-
sequent vo\'age took Alexander Selkirk (De-
foe's "Robinson Crusoe) off the island of Juan
Fernandez, on which the man had disembarked
some time before. Still, curiously enough, Aus-
tralia was not annexed on behalf of any nation
until the last third of the iSth century. In 1768
Lieut. James Cook set out from England in a
crazy ship, the Endeavour, in charge of an ex-
pedition appointed to observe at Tahiti the
transit of Venus. Steering thence westward, he
made an examination of New Zealand, came on
19 April 1770, upon the east coast of Australia,
and anchored in Botany Bay. Later he pro-
ceeded northerly along the coast ; and, after the
Endeavour had in June struck upon a coral reef
and well-nigh foundered near to the present
Queensland port of Cairns, he continued his
journey until on 21 August 1770, he hoisted the
colors of England on the north Australian
peninsula of Cape York, and thus formally took
possession of the whole eastern part of Aus-
tralia.

But settlers did not follow closely upon the
heels of the navigators, and 18 years had passed
before, on 18 Jan. 1788, a British convict expe-

dition with 1,030 persons, of whom 750 were
under penal servitude and banishment, reached
Botany Bay. On 26 Jan. (now celebrated as
Australian Foundation Day) the expedition
landed, displayed its national colors with due
pomp and circumstance, and so inaugurated
European settlement in the "Great Land of the
Southern Cross,*' which was, however, even
thus late imperfectly known even in outline, and
was comprehended under the general title of
New South Wales, now applied to one of the
territorially smallest states of Australia. With
the occupation of the country further explora-
tion by land and by sea proceeded apace. In
1798 Dr. Bass and Captain Flinders (who after-
wards achieved immortal renown as a great
navigator in association with Sir John Franklin,
the Arctic hero) demonstrated by sailing round
Tasmania that that country was veritably an
island, and not a portion of the Australian Con-
tinent, as had been supposed. In 1802, having
been provided by the British Admiralty with a
scarcely seaworthy vessel, the Investigator,
Captain Flinders surveyed the larger part of
the southern coast of Australia, from west to
east, and forestalled a French expedition which
had been sent out under Captain Baudin in the
ship Le Geographe, for purposes similar to
those Flinders had in view.

The course of further marine exploration
need not be further pursued ; for the initial
work had been accomplished. In 1S03 the first
colonization settlement was begun in Van Die-
men's Land (Tasmania). In 1804 an unsuc-
cessful attempt was made by Colonel David
Collins, first governor of Tasmania, to found
another convict colony in the now prosperous
state of Victoria, which, however, from that
time remained for 30 years with only one white
man in it — a deserted convict named William
Buckley, who dwelt among the aborigines until
the year 1834, when real occupation was started,
10 years subsequently to the founding of
Queensland, five years after that of Western
Australia, and two years before that of South
Australia.

During all the intervening time the explora-
tion of the interior of the continent, mainly
f'-om Sydney, had been steadily progressing.
First the disclosing of a means of passing be-
yond the Blue Mountains in 1813 showed (by
Blaxland) a way out of what had been re-
garded as an impasse preventing acce<^s from
the coastal fringe to the expansive interior ter-
ritories which represented the Mystery Land
of the early colonists. In 1824 Hume discov-
ered the Upper Murray, the head of the great
Australian ]\Iississippi. Following the course of
that river in 1828, Captain Charles Sturt added
to the geographies of the period the name of its
tributary, the Darling; and in 1830 he made,
with almost sensational intrepedity, a journey
down the Murray to its junction with the sea
not far from Adelaide (the present capital of
South Australia). In many directions other ex-
plorers were contemporaneously (and subse-
quently) causing the wilderness of the Terra
Incognita of the Portuguese to yield up its
secrets but only two of the dauntless explorers
v;ho have laid mankind under obligation to
them for all generations need be particularly
mentioned here. One of these was Ludwig
Leichhardt, who started out from the east in

AUSTRALIA — POLITICAL HISTORY

1848, and (with all the members of his party)
apparently disappeared mysteriously and abso-
lutely from the face of the earth ; for no sign
or trace of the expedition has ever since been
seen or heard of. The other was John McDouall
Stuart, who, after having been repeatedly baf-
fled, succeeded at last in crossing the continent
from south to north, and on 24 July 1862, laved
his hands in the waters of the Indian Ocean,
and hoisted the British flag on the northern
shores of Australia. And now in this year of
1906 practically all the blank spaces in the
Commonwealth may have been filled in by the
cartographer, and Australia has no further
laurels of fame to offer as worthy guerdons to
brave; and daring explorers by land or by sea.

Bibliography. — Calvert, < Discovery of Aus-
tralia > (London, 1893), and 'Exploration of
Australia^ (London, 1895) ; Collingridge, <The
Discovery of Australia > (Sydney, 1895) ;
Favenc, ^History of Australia Exploration from
i788-i888> (London, 1892); Finney, 'History
of the Australian Colonies > (Sydney, 1901) ;
Giles, 'Australia Twice Traversed^ (London,
1889) ; Gre3% 'Two Expeditions of Discovery in
Northwestern and Western Australia^ (Lon-
don, 1841), and 'Early Voyages to Terra Aus-
tralia,> Hakluyt Society, (London, 1859) ;
Grimm, 'Discovery and Exploration of Austra-
lia) (Melbourne, 1888); Howlitt, 'History of
Discovery in Australia, Tasmania, and New
Zealand from the Earliest Times' (London,
1865) ; Parkers, 'Fifty Years in the Making of
Australian History* (London, 1892) ; Rusden,
^History of Australia* (Melbourne, 1897) ; G.
F. Scott, 'The Romance of Australian Explor-
ing* (London, 1899).

William John Sowden,

Editor of the South Australian ^Register.''

4. Australia — Political History. Begin-
nings of Colonial Sclf-Govermncnt. — It was a
maxim of the common law that, if an unin-
habited country were discovered and peopled by
British subjects, they were supposed to possess
themselve of it for the benefit of their sovereign,
and that such of the laws of England as were
applicable and necessary to their situation and
the conditions of an infant colony were imme-
diately in force; that wherever an Englishman
went he carried with him as much of English
law and liberty as the nature of his circum-
stances required. It was recognized that Eng-
lishmen carried their political birthright with
them over the broad surface of the earth ; that
the charters of freedom for which their ances-
tors fought were not left behind, but accom-
panied them to their new homes beyond the
seas.

The Colonial Legislatures of Newfoundland
and Jamaica were established not by British
statutes, but by Royal Commissions under the
Great Seal accompanied by Royal instructions.
Local self-government in Australia did not,
however, originate in the exercise of the pre-
rogatives of the Crown, as it did in the case of
some of the early North American and West
Indian colonies. From the very first it was
founded upon, as it was subsequently developed
and built up, by statutory authority.

NEW SOUTH WALES THE FIRST ORIGINAL COLONY.

Foundation.— In 1784 the British Parliament
passed the statute of 24 Geo. III., c. 56, intituled

"An Act for the effectual transportation of
felons and other offenders, and to authorize the
removal of prisoners in certain cases, and for
other purposes therein mentioned.*' This law
empowered the King, with the advice of the
Privy Council, to appoint places to which felons
might be transferred. By an order in Council
bearing date 6 Dec. 1786, His Majesty's "terri-
tory of New South Wales, situated on the east
part of New Holland,** was appointed a place
for the reception of persons within the meaning
of the Act.

By letters-patent and commission dated 2
April 1787, Captain Arthur Phillip was ap-
pointed Governor of the territory. The limits
of his authority extended from Cape York on
the north to the southern extremity of the coast
of the continent and inland and westward as far
as the 135th meridian, which w'as afterward
extended to the 129th meridian east longtitude.
The Governor was empowered to make orders
for the good government of the settlement.

By the Act 27 Geo. HI., c. 2, the King was
authorized to establish a Court of Criminal Jur-
isdiction on the eastern coast of New South
Wales. Such was the legal authority under
which, on 26 Jan. 1788, a penal settle-
ment was established at Sydney Cove. It was
not at first intended to be a colony, or planta-
tion, for the purposes of trade and cultivation,
within the ordinary meaning of those terms.

Tlie First Constitutional Charter. — The tem-
porary Act 4 Geo. IV., c. 96. (1823), which be-
came law during the governorship of Sir
Thomas Brisbane, was the first legislation
passed by the Imperial Parliament conferring
anything like the rudiments of local self-gov-
ernment on the New South Wales community.
A council of five persons was appointed having
limited legislative powers. On 17 May 1824, a
Charter of Justice, creating a Supreme Court
was promulgated.

Tlie Second. Constitutional Charter. — The
Act 9 Geo. IV., c. 83 (25 July 1828), passed
during the governorship of Lieutenant-General
Sir Ralph Darling, was the second Constitu-
tional Charter of Australia. Courts of Criminal
and Civil Jurisdiction, coupled with trial by
jury, were organized. The laws and statutes in
force within the realm of England, so far as
applicable, were applied to the administration
of justice in New South Wales and Van Die-
men's Land. The Crown was authorized to
constitute in New South Wales and Van Die-
men's Land respectively, an Advisory Council
to consist of such persons resident in the said
colonies respectively, not exceeding 15. and not
less than 10, as the King might be pleased to
nominate.

The Tliird Constitutional Charter. — The
third charter regulating the government of New
South Wales was the Act 5 and 6 Vic, c. 76
(30 July 1842), passed during the governorship
of Sir George Gipps. This Act established for
the first time in Australia a legislature, partly,
but not wholly, representative in its character.
It enacted that, there should be within the
colony of New South Wales a Legislative
Council consisting of 36 members, 12 of whom
were to be appointed by the Crown, and 24
were to be elected by the inhabitants of the
colony having certain property qualifications.

AUSTRALIA — POLITICAL HISTORY

The Governor, with the advice of the Council,
was authorized to make laws for the peace,
welfare and good government of the colony,
provided that such laws were not repugnant to
the laws of England ; nor were they to interfere
with the sale or occupation of the waste lands
of the Crown. Bills imposing duties of customs
had to be reserved for the Queen's assent. This
Act did not grant to New South Wales the
system known as "Responsible Government.*
The Governor presided over and managed all
the public departments. It contained, however,
the feeble germs whence has since sprung the
splendid fabric of parliamentary institutions in
Australia. It was the first concession made by
enlightened British statesmen to the growing
wealth and importance of the Australian
colonies.

The new Council was opened by Sir George
Gipps on I Aug. 1843.

The Fourth Constitutional Charter. — The
next important charter granted to Australia was
13 and 14 Vic, c. 59 (5 Aug. 1850, intituled "An
Act for the better government of Her Alajesty's
Australian Colonies," and commonly known as
the Australian Colonies Government Act. The
bill, of which this Act was the outcome, was
first introduced into the House of Commons in
June 1849. The two main objects of the Act
were the separation of the Port Phillip District
from New South Wales, and the establishment
in all the colonies of an improved system of
Provincial Government. The Legislative Coun-
cil, erected in New South Wales by the Act of
1842, was not materially disturbed. Its powers
were in some respects increased, and the fran-
chise on which its representative members were
elected was liberalized.

The Xezu Constitution. — A new election of
members of the Legislative Council of New
South Wales on the liberalized franchise then
took place. The new Council complained that
the Act 13 and 14 Vic, c. 59, did not place the
control of revenue taxation, and the waste lands
o- the Crown in the Colonial Legislature, and a
full measure of local self-government in a Con-
stitution similar in outline to that of Canada
was applied for.

In 1852 gold was discovered in New South
Wales and Victoria, which caused a great influx
of immigrants into these colonics. In a despatch
addressed to Governor Fitzroy, dated 15 Dec.
1852, Sir John Packington, Secretary of State
for the Colonies, stated that Her Majesty's gov-
ernment had been greatly influenced by con-
siderations arising from the extraordinary dis-
coveries of gold in the Australian colonies,
which had imparted new and unforeseen features
to their political and social positions. It was
the wish, therefore, of Her Majesty's Govern-
ment that there should be established in each
colony, a new Legislature consisting of a Legis-
lative Council nominated by the Crown, and an
elective House chosen by qualified inhabitants.
To such Legislatures it was proposed to give
general powers including that of dealing with
the waste lands of the Crown.

Upon the receipt of this despatch the Legis-
lative Council of New South Wales, under the
authority conferred by 13 and 14 Vic, c 59, s.
32, appointed a select committee to draw up a
constitution establishing a bicameral Legisla-
ture, having increased powers and functions. A

constitution was accordingly drawn up. It pro-
vided that, in place of the Legislative Council
then existing there should be a Legislative
Council and a Legislative Assembly, and that
Her Majesty should have power by and with
the advice and consent of the said Council and
Assembly to make laws for the "peace, welfare,
and good government of the said colony in all
cases whatsoever." The members of the Coun-
cil were to be nominated by the Governor with
the advice of the Executive Council. The first
nominees were to hold their seats for five years
only. The members of the Assembly were to be
chosen by male electors having certain residen-
tial and property qualifications. An Assembly
once constituted was to continue for five years
unless dissolved by the Governor. The new
Legislature was endowed with full power to
deal with the waste lands of the Crown and to
impose duties of customs.

On 21 Dec. 1853, the new Constitution was
adopted and transmitted to the Secretary of
State for the Colonies. In an amended shape it
was made a schedule to a bill introduced into
the Imperial Parliament, intituled "A Bill to en-
able irier ]\Iajesty to assent to a bill as amended
by the Legislature of New South Wales to con-
fer a Constitution on New South Wales." The
bill was passed by Parliament and received the
Royal assent on 16 July 1855. Its number is
18 and 19 Vic, c. 54. The Act conferring a
Constitution on Victoria was assented to on the
same day. The Constitutions were then trans-
mitted to the respective Colonies, accompanied
by explanatory despatches from the Secretary
of State, Lord John Russell, in which the Gov-
ernors were instructed as to the introduction of
responsible government.

Responsible Government. — That great change
in the colonial system of administration known
as " The Introduction of Responsible Govern-
ment " — that is of Ministers appointed by and
responsible to the Governor, but constitution-
ally and practically responsible to Parliament —
is said by some authorities to have been effected
solely by despatches from the Secretary of State
to Colonial Governors. These despatches de-
scribed the circumstances in which the Crown,
through the Governor for the time being, would
exercise its right of displacing one set of public
servants and of appointing others in their places
— that no change would be made so long as
those public servants, being Ministers in charge
of Departments, possessed the confidence of the
local Legislature. In the body of the Constitu-
tion Act of New South Wales (and this remark
applies equally to that of Victoria) the words
"responsible ministers" do not occur. Were it
not for a marginal note to one of the sections,
not even a hint would have been given on its
face of the important change it was intended to
effect.

Other constitutional jurists, however, afiirm
that section 37 of the Constitution Act of New
South Wales, and the corresponding section of
that of Victoria, contains provisions which as-
sume if they do not originate some plan of min-
isterial and responsible government. Both those
sections declared that appointments of all public
offices shall be vested in the Governor with the
advice of the Executive Council, "except tlie
appointment of officers liable to retire from
office on political grounds which appointments

AUSTRALIA — POLITICAL HISTORY

shall be vested in the Governor alone. '^ The
Constitution Acts of South Australia, Queens-
land and Western Australia, contain substan-
tially similar sections. But section i8 of the
Constitution Act of Victoria and section 32 of
the Act of South Australia went much further
in the direction of expressly recognizing and
introducing responsible government. Those
sections enacted that a certain number of offi-
cers of the Governments in those colonies for
the time being should be members of the Legis-
lature created by the new Constitutions. On
22 May 1856, the first Parliament of New South
Wales under the new Constitution was opened
by Sir William T. Denison. The first Respon-
sible Ministry had Mr. Alexander Donaldson
as Colonial Secretary and Premier.

Aduiinistration and Lc,^islation. — With the
establishment of responsible Government in
New South Wales the initial pulsations of po-
litical life in Australia may fairly be said to
date their beginnings. The Governor of the
colonv was the representative of the Crown,
but he was no longer his own Prime Minister.
In 1859 a new Parliament was elected under
the provisions of an Act to Amend the Consti-
tution, introduced and passed by the advice of
the Cowper Administration, providing for in-
creased electoral representation, vote by ballot
and manhood suffrage which in later years was
developed into *one man one vote,^^ and finally
into "one adult one vote.'*

In i860 the Robertson Ministry introduced
two Land Bills, one providing for the alienation
and the other for the pastoral occupation of
Crown lands. The main principles of these
bills were free selection — before survey, which
constituted the battle cry of the land reformers.
In 1861 the bills were again introduced into the
Assembly, Mr. Robertson resigned his seat in
the Assembly and was appointed a member of
the Council in order to pilot the bills through
that Chamber. Both bills were again passed
by the Assembly and sent to the Council. In
order to counteract and overcome the opposi-
tion in the Council it was decided to swamp that
Chamber by the appointment of 21 members. A
parliamentary crisis was thus brought about. A
majority of the old members withdrew from the
Chamber, thus leaving it without a quorum and
the fresh nominees could not be sworn in. The
term of office of the first members of the Coun-
cil was limited to five years which was then
about to expire. The Council was reconstituted
by the appointment of 27 life members on 24
June 1861 ; Wentworth being appointed the first
President. In 1862 the Crown Land Alienation
Bill and the Crown Land Occupation Bill were
passed by both Houses. A Chinese Immigra-
tion Restriction Bill embodying the main pro-
visions of Victorian legislation, was also passed.

In 1863 Messrs. Dalley and Parkes returned
to the Colony from England where they had
been sent on a mission to promote emigration
to New South Wales. From this time on Mr.
Parkes became a prominent figure in the polit-
ical world of New South Wales. He was
closely identified with the cause of free trade.
In 1868 Mr. Parkes resigned, and temporarily
withdrew from public life. The most notable
public events of this period were the withdrawal
of the British troops from New South Wales
and Victoria, and the successful transmission

of the first through cable message from Aus-
tralia to England.

In 1872 the Martin-Robertson Ministry was
defeated. Mr. Parkes having returned to the
House was entrusted with the task of forming
a ministry. He retained the premiership until
1875 when his government was defeated on the
motion by Mr. Robertson. The Robertson Min-
istry remained in office imtil 17 Dec. 1877, when
Mr. Parkes formed another ministry which had
but a short reign. A political duel went on be-
tween Mr. Parkes and Mr. Robertson for a
considerable time, but was at last terminated
by a coalition of the two leaders who in De-
cember 1878, formed a Ministry which lasted
until Jan. 1883. In 1881 a Chinese Immigration
Restriction Act was passed imposing severe
penalties on Chinese entering the Colony, with-
out payment of a poll tax of iio. An Act was
passed legalizing trade unions. The Federal
Council of Australia was created on 28 Nov.
1883. A rich silver field was discovered at
Broken Hill (1883).

The Land Bill of 1882 was the rock on which
the Parkes-Robertson Ministry was wrecked.
A general election resulted in Mr. (afterwards
Sir) Alexander Stuart coming to power which
he held until October, 1885. In 1888 another
Chinese Restriction Act was passed. The Poll
Tax was raised to £100 per head. Chinese were
not permitted to engage in mining and they
were not qualified to be naturalized. A tonnage
limitation was imposed on vessels bringing
Chinese to New South Wales ; they were not
allowed to bring more than one Chinese pas-
senger to every 300 tons.

In February 1890, a Federal Conference,
presided over by Sir Henry Parkes, was held
in Melbourne, at which it was resolved that a
National Australian Convention should be held
to draft a Constitution for the federation of the
Australian colonies. In March 1891, the Con-
vention was held in Sydney and a draft Con-
stitution was adopted. In October 1891, the
last Parkes Ministry was defeated, being suc-
ceeded by that of Sir George Dibbs. In 1893 an
Electoral Bill was passed embodying the prin-
ciple of "one man one vote.*'

In August 1894, the Dibbs' Ministry, which
had introduced protection in a modified form,
gave way to a free trade Ministry formed by
George H. Reid. A new tariff on free trade
lines, a land tax, an income tax, and homestead
bills were passed under his leadership. Early
in 1895 Mr. Reid attended a conference of
Premiers at Hobart at which the draft of an
Enabling Bill to be introduced into the Legis-
lature of each colony, providing for the election
directly by the people of each colony of 10 rep-
resentatives to attend a Federal Convention
to frame a Constitution for the federation of
the colonies, to be afterward submitted to a
referendum of the people of each colony, was
adopted. Subsequently the Parliament of New
South Wales, as well as the Parliaments of the
other colonies passed identical bills for the
aforesaid purpose. It was under the authority
of this legislation that the Commonwealth Con-
stitution was afterward framed and adopted.
In 1897 an Immigration Restriction Act, based
on the Natal Act, imposing an education test in
order to exclude colored aliens, was passed.

AUSTRALIA — POLITICAL HISTORY

Legislation on similar lines was adopted in sev-
-eral other colonies.

On 13 Sept. 1899, the Reid ]\Iinistry was de-
feated and Sir William Lyne formed a Govern-
ment which succeeded in passing the Early
Closing Act, the Navigation Act. the Old Age
Pension Act, and the Women's Franchise Act.
In March 1901, Sir William Lyne retired in
order to take office as a Commonwealth Min-
ister. The Ministry formed by Mr. (after-
wards Sir) John See succeeded it. One of the
most important measures passed through its
instrumentality was the Industrial Arbitration
Act (1901) ; under which the principle of com-
pulsory arbitration and settlement of industrial
disputes was established. A short-lived Wad-
dell ^linistry was followed bv one formed by
Mr. Joseph Hector Carruthers, and it is still
in office (September 1906).

VICTORIA AN OFF-SHOOT OF NEW SOUTH WALES.

Separation. — By Act 13 and 14 Vic, c. 59,
(5 Aug. 1850), the district of Port Phillip,
bounded on the north and northeast by a straight
line drawn from Cape Howe to the nearest
source of the river ^lurray, and thence by the
course of that river to the eastern boundar}' of
the colony of South Australia, was separated
from the colony of New South Wales, ceased
to return members to the Legislative Council of
such colony, and was erected into and thence-
forth formed l separate colony, *to be known
and designated as the colony of Victoria.*' A
Legislative Council was created in and for
the new colonj' having powers and functions
similar to those of the newly-organized Council
of New South Wales. On i July 1851, writs
for the election of 20 elective members for the
Legislative Council of Victoria were issued ; 10
were nominated by the Crown. Mr. La Trobe
was appointed Lieutenant-Governor. In this
manner the Colony of Victoria was called into
existence and received the first impulse of an
autonomous political life. The new Council
was convened for the despatch of business in
November 1851, at about the time when gold
was being discovered in fabulous quantities in
the famous goldfields of Ballarat and Bendigo.
The official members were : Mr. W. Lonsdale,
Colonial Secretary; Mr. (afterwards Sir) W. F.
Stawell, Attorney-General; Mr. (afterwards
Sir) Redmond B;.rry, Solicitor-General; C. H.
Ebden. Auditor-General ; and R. W. Pohlman,
Chairman of the Court of Requests. J. F.
Palmer was elected Speaker.

The A'ew Constitution. — A new Constitution
drawn on the same lines, and passed in the
same manner as that of New South Wales, was
assented to by Her Majesty on 16 July 1855.
The only substantial difference between the two
bicameral Legislatures was that whilst the
Legislative Council of New South Wales was
composed of members nominated by the Crown
the members of the Legislative Council of Vic-
toria were elected by residential inhabitants
having high property qualifications.

Responsible Government. — The Premier of
the first Responsible Government was W. C.
Haines. The first election for the Legislative
Assembly took place in the spring of 1856. The
first Ministry resigned on the passing of an un-
favorable resolution upon the subject of the
Estimates, in ISIarch 1859. Sir John O'Shan-

assy, the mover of the resolution, then became
Premier.

Administration and Legislation. — Among
the problems which soon engaged the attention
of the newly-created Parliament of Victoria
were those of Constitutional Reform, Manhood
Suffrage, Land and Mining Legislation, Agri-
culture, Protection, and Free Trade. Inter-
Colonial Relations, Public Works, Railways,
Telegraphs, Water Supply, Immigration, Chi-
nese Immigration Restriction, Naval and Mili-
tary Defence, and Education.

Arnong the first Administrations which held
office in Victoria were those of which William
Clark Haines was Premier in 1855-57; 1857-58;
r\Ir. (afterwards Sir) John O'Shannassy, Pre-
mier, 1857; 1858-59; 1S61-63; Wm. Nicholson,
Premier, 1859-60; Richard Heales, Premier,
1860-61.

In the early days of the goldfields great dis-
content existed because of the heavy license fee
of 30 shillings per month which every digger was
required to pay. In Noven-ffier 1854, the tyr-
annical policy of the Government culminated
in an open insurrection which broke out at
Ballarat. A flag of revolt, having the emblem
of the Southern Cross, was hoisted over a bar-
ricade known as the "Eureka Stockade.*' By
command of Governor Sir Charles Hotham a
force of British troops were sent to Ballarat to
storm the stockade. Many lives were lost.
After this tragic period, — the first and only
bloodshed in Australia in the name and for the
cause of political freedom, — the grievances of
the diggers were redressed.

In 1855 the Legislative Council of the newly-
created Colony of Victoria led the way in the
passage of a number of laws intended to restrict
Chinese immigration, which commenced in 1854,
when the fame of the gold diggings of Victoria
began to attract thousands of Chinamen to that
Colony. The Victorian Council passed a bill,
which w^as assented to by the Governor, "to
make provision for certain immigrants.** The
substance of the law was that no ship should
bring to a Victorian port more passengers, be-
ing Chinese immigrants, than in the proportion
of one person to every 10 tons of the tonnage
of such ship, under a penalty of iio for each
passenger in excess of such proportion. On the
arrival of a ship in any port of Victoria with
Chinese immigrants on board, the master was
required to pay to the Collector of Customs a
tax of iio for every such immigrant. The
money so collected was to be invested by the
Government to form a fund for the relief, sup-
port and maintenance of such immigrants. Pro-
vision was made for the registration of such
immigrants, on their arrival in any district or
place to which they proceeded. This and other
Immigration Acts were consolidated in 1865.

Another notable measure passed by the first
Legislative Council of Victoria was a bill adopt-
ing "vote by ballot;'* this was the first measure
in the history of Parliamentary Government in
which this method was made legal.

The first important bill was introduced by
James Service as Commissioner of Crown
Lands and Surveys in the Nicholson Govern-
ment, on 30 Nov. 1859. The chief feature in
this bill was that of free selection for settle-
ment and agriculture over all the waste land of
the Colony, subject to certain conditions with

AUSTRALIA — POLITICAL HISTORY

respect to lands not yet surveyed. The bill was
passed by the Assembly but was rejected by
the Council.

The period from 1863 to 1866 was memor-
able in the history of Victoria. It began in a
conflict between the parties representing Pro-
tection and Free Trade. It then developed into
a struggle between the two Houses for financial
supremacy, and in its third and last stage it
became a contest between the Legislative As-
semblv and the Crown. The first McCulIoch
Ministry took ofiice in June, 1863 ; it remained
in power until 6 May 1868. One of its first
proposals was a bill imposing numerous cus-
toms duties of a protective character. It was
passed by the Lower House and rejected by the
Council. It was then reintroduced tacked on to
the Appropriation Bill. The Council again re-
jected it, and a deadlock ensued. The Govern-
ment in the meantime collected duties on the
authority of the Assembly alone. Funds not
having been voted for payment of the Public
Service the Government borrowed money to
the amount of £40,000 from the London Char-
tered Bank which then sued the Government
for money lent. The Government confessed
judgment. The Supreme Court pronounced the
collection of customs duties on the resolution
of the Assembly to be illegal. It also held that
confessed judgments against the Crown were
illegal. A tariff, separated from the Appropri-
ation Bill, was again passed by the Assembly
and again thrown out by the Council. The
Ministry resigned. Mr. Fellows formed a Gov-
ernment which, however, could not carry on.
Mr. McCulloch returned to office and the Tariff
Bill was again passed by the Assembly, and
again sent up to the Council. The preamble of
the bill asserting the exclusive right of the
Assembly to grant mone}' and taxes, was eventu-
ally withdrawn, and the bill was passed.

The second McCulloch ^Ministry was de-
feated on 20 Sept. 1869. It was followed by an
Administration formed by John Alexander
McPherson which remained in office for six
months. It was displaced on 9 April 1870, by
Sir James McCulloch, who, on 19 June 1871,
was dvjfeated on his Property Tax Proposals.
Charles Gavan Duffy then formed a Ministry
which successfully proposed and carried a Pro-
tectionist Tariff. The Duffy ^linistry was de-
feated on 10 June 1872. The Governor refused
a dissolution and James Goodall Francis be-
came Premier. The first Mining on Private
Property Bill, was carried in the Assembly by
43 votes to 3, but was rejected by the Upper
House. A bill to regulate mines, in order to
prevent mining accidents, and to protect miners,
was passed.

In 1875 the Kerferd Government introduced
a bill imposing certain duties on wines and
spirits. The tariff proposals were carried by
a majority of one. This the Government ac-
cepted as an adverse vote and applied for a
dissolution, which the Governor refused. On
7 Aug. 1875, Graham Berry formed his first
Ministrjf, but he was defeated on 20 Oct. 1875.
Sir James McCuUoch's fourth and last Govern-
ment then came into power. Its accession
marked the beginning of a stormy and momen-
tous political period. The Berry party raised
a *'stonewall" of obstruction, and the AlcCulloch
party retaliated by passing standing orders to

restrict and limit debate, which became known
as the "Ironhand" and the «Gag.» The McCul-
loch Alinistry became very unpopular through-
out the country. At a general election held on
II ]\Iay 1877, an immense majority was returned
against the Government. ]Mr. Berry then
formed his second Ministry. The principal
planks in its program were, a Land Tax to
"burst up the large estates," and payment of
members. A Land Tax Bill was introduced
and passed. Provision for the payment of
members, to the amount of £300 per year, was
made in the Appropriation Bill. In that form
it was sent to the Council where it was rejected
on the ground that it was a "tack.*^ Then en-
sued the historic deadlock of 1877-78. No
money having been voted to pay the public
servants the Government on 8 Jan. 1878, or-
dered the dismissal of all heads of departments.
County Court Judges, Police ^Magistrates, and
other public officers. This proceeding caused a
great sensation, and by the opponents of the
Ministry it was denounced as "revolutionary.*
Shortly afterwards a compromise was arrived
at ; payment of members was passed in a sepa-
rate bill and the Appropriation Bill without the
obnoxious "tack" was carried. The Berry
party then devoted their attention to the ques-
tion of Constitutional reform. A bill was
passed through the Assembly providing for the
adoption of a method of referendum to settle
disputes between the two Houses. It was re-
jected by the Council. A deputation, or em-
bassy, consisting of the Premier and Professor
Pearson, was sent to England to interview the
Secretary of State for the Colonies, who was
asked to settle the Constitutional difficulty ia
Victoria. Sir Michael Hicks-Beach gave a very
guarded reply stating that the Imperial Parlia-
ment would never alter the Constitution of the
Colony at the instance of one House only.

In 1879 the Parliament of Victoria again re-
sorted to legislation in order to arrest the in-
flux of Chinese. Vessels were not allowed to-
introduce into any Victorian port more than one
Chinaman per 100 tons of tonnage, and a poll
tax of iio was imposed on each immigrant oa
his landing. In April, 1888, a Chinaman, Chun
Toy, arrived in the port of Melbourne on board
the British ship Afghan. The Collector of Cus-
toms considered that the Afghan had brought a
larger number of Chinese than was allowed b}''
law ; he refused to allow any of them to land, or
to accept the poll tax of iio each. Chun Toy
brought an action against the Collector in the
Supreme Court of Victoria, which decided that
the action of the Government in preventing the
landing of the Chinese prepared to pay the pre-
scribed poll tax was illegal. The Victorian
Government appealed from this decision to the
Privy Council which reversed the judgment of
the Victorian Court, and held (i) that the Col-
lector of Customs was under no legal obliga-
tion to accept payment, whether tendered by
the master on behalf of any such immigrant, or
tendered b\' or for any individual immigrant;
(2) that, apart from the Act, an alien has not a
legal right, enforceable by action, to enter Brit-
ish territory.

After an appeal to the Constituencies in
March, 1880, Berry resigned, and James Service
then formed a Alinistry. He introduced a meas-
ure to amend the Constitution, which upon a

AUSTRALIA — POLITICAL HISTORY

division was lost by two votes. Parliament was
dissolved and a general election was held in
June, 1880, which resulted in the Berry party
being returned to office with a substantial ma-
jority. The nrmcipal work done by the third
Berry Ministry was the carrying of a bill to
amend the Constitution of the Legislative Coun-
cil by reducing the qualification of electors and
of members. A bill was also passed making
permanent provision for payment of members.
In July 1881, the third Berry Ministry was suc-
ceeded by one formed by Sir Bryan O'Lougthlin,
The O'Loughlin Ministry' lost office in March,
1883. when a Coalition ^linistry under Service
and Berry was formed. Under this Govern-
ment, Acts were passed for the abolition of po-
litical control of the Government railwaj's, by
placing them under the management of three
independent commissioners, and for the aboli-
tion of patronage in the public service. During
his premiership. Service took great interest in
the question of Australian Federation, and
through his instrumentalit}' a convention was
held in Sydney at which a scheme for the es-
tablishment of a Federal Council was adopted.

The Service-Berry Alinistry was followed in
Februarj^, 1886, by the Gillies-Deakin combina-
tion. In 1888 another Chinese Immigration
Restriction Act was passed providing that no
vessel should enter any Victorian port having
on board more than one Chinaman for every
500 tons of the tonnage of such vessel. Any
Chinese who should enter Victoria by land,
without first obtaining a permit in writing,
from some person to be appointed by the Gov-
ernor in Council, was declared guilty of an
offence against the Act, and made liable on con-
viction to a penalty of not less than £5 nor more
than £20 and also upon the warrant of the
Commissioner of Trade and Customs, to be re-
moved or deported to the colony from whence
he came.

On 5 Nov. 1890, the Gillies-Deakin Ministry
was succeeded by a Ministrj' formed by James
^lunro, who in his turn gave place in February,
1892, to one formed by William Shiels. The
career of the Shiels ^linistry, the Patterson
]^Iinistry, and the early part of that of the
Turner ^linistry, which came into office on
27 Sept. 1S94, were comparatively uneventful.
In February. 1895, Sir George Turner was as-
sociated with Reid and other Premiers in a
conference held at Hobart at which a Federal
Enabling Bill was drafted. The first Turner
Ministry was defeated in December, 1899.
Allen McLean's Ministry held office for a little
over II months; during which time several con-
tingents were sent from Victoria to assibt the
British army in South Africa. On 15 Nov. 1900,
Sir George Turner again became Premier in
lime to make arrangements for the establish-
ment of the Commonwealth. An Old Age Pen-
sion Act was passed, also bills protecting the
rights and interests of Victorian public serv-
ants. In the beginning of 1901 Sir George Tur-
ner resigned the Premiership and accepted office
as Treasurer in the first Federal Cabinet. Sir
Alexander Peacock became head of the new
Government. On 3 June 1902, the Peacock
Ministry was displaced on a no-conlidence mo-
tion by W. H. Irvine. During the career of
the Irvine Ministry a railway strike occurred in
Victoria which resulted in an Act being passed
for the separate representation in Parliament of

railway and other public servants. On the re-
tirement of Irvine through ill-health he was
succeeded by Thomas Bent as Premier, who
still holds office (September 1906).

T.A.3M.A.NI.\ AN OFF-SHOOT OF NEW SOUTH WALES.

Separation.— By the Act 4 Geo. IV., c. 96
(19 July 1823). the Crown was empowered to
separate Van Diemen's Land from Xew South
Wales, and erect it into a separate colony which
then received a Lieutenant-Governor, an'Execu-
tive Council and a sm-M Legislative Council,
consisting of seven members. Bv Act 13 and
14 Vic, c. 59, s. 7, it was provided that the
Legislature already existing in Van Diemen s
Land might establish within the colo.iy a Legis-
lative Council to consist of not more than 24
members, of whom one-third should be nomi-
nated by Her Majesty and the remainder elected
by Qualified inhabitants of the colony. Under
the aiithority of this law a new Legislative
Council was called into existence having pow-
ers and functions similar to the Legislative
Council of Xew South Wales.

The Xezi.' Constitution. — During the Gov-
ernorship of Sir William Denison the new
Legislative Council of Van Diemen's Land
under the powers conferred by 13 and 14 Vic,
c. 59, s. 2>-< drafted a Constitution for the es-
tablishment of a bicameral Legislature in Van
Diemen's Land composed of a Legislative Coun-
cil of 15 members elected by the qualified in-
habitants, and a House of Assembly of 30
members elected on a more popular franchise
than that of the Council. The bill so drawn was
passed by the Legislative Council and reserved
by the Lieutenant-Governor for the Royal as-
sent. It became law on 24 Oct. 1856; the first
Parliament being opened on 2 Dec. 1856. Sir
Henry E. F. Young was appointed the first
Governor-in-Chief of the colony under the new
system of Responsible Government. The first
Premier was William T. N. Champ. In the
year 1853, upon tlic cessation of transportation,
the name of the island was changed from that
of Van Diemen's Land to Tasmania.

Administration and Legislation. — L'pon the
cessation of transportation and the grant of
Responsible Government to Tasmania a new
life and destiny was imparted to the struggling
community. Between 1855 and 1872 there was
substantial improvement and progress in the
position ;.nd prospects of the island, marked
by the development of the interior, the con-
struction of roads and tramways, the initiation
of railway and telegraphic communication, the
expansion of the agricultural and pastoral in-
dustries, the division of the colony into muni-
cinalities, the laying of a sub-marine cable be-
tween Tasmania and the mainland, the discovery
of tin at Mount BischoflF and other places, gold
in the quartz reefs at Brandy Creek, and sub-
sequently of silver and lead at Zeehan. and gold
and copper at Mount Lyell. The west coast be-
came famous by the opening up of some of the
richest silver lead mines in the world ; coal
seams were opened at Hastings, Langlock, and
Ivanhoe.

In February 1894, whilst the Dobson Min-
istry was in office the necessity of financial re-
form became a burning question. Financial
proposals were submitted by the Government.
A bill to authorize a graduated Land Tax was
submitted to the Assembly and rejected; conse-

AUSTRALIA — POLITICAL HISTORY

quently Dobson and his colleagues resigned in
Anril 1894, and Sir Edward Braddon formed a
Ministry. An Income Tax was passed, to-
gether with a Land Tax iinposing one penny
per £ on the capital value of all land in the
colony. This general tax was adopted as a sort
of a compromise instead of the proposed tax
on the unimproved capital value of the land
which was at first submitted and rejected.

In February 1895, ^ conference of Premiers
was held at Hobart at which the draft of a
Federal Enabling Bill was adopted. At a gen-
eral election held in 1897, a system of voting
based upon Hare's preferential method was used
for the first time. During the year a Federal
Referendum was held at which a large majority
of votes was given in favor of the Federal Con-
stitution. In 1899 the Braddon ]\Iinistry was
defeated and it was succeeded by one formed
bj- Sir Neil Elliot Lewis on 12 Oct. 1899, who
retained office until 8 April 1903. On 9 April
1903, William Bispham Propsting became Pre-
mier, and on 12 July 1904 he was succeeded by
John William Evans, who still holds office
(September 1906).

QUEENSLAND AN OFF-SHOOT OF NEW SOUTH
WALES.

Separation. — On 6 June 1850, letters-patent
were issued erecting the Moreton Bay district
into a separate colony, under the name of
Queensland, and appointing Sir George Fergu-
son Bowen to be Captain-General and Governor-
in-Chief thereof. The boundary of the new
colony was defined as a line commencing on the
sea coast at Point Danger, in latitude about 28°
8' south, running westward along the Mac-
pherson and Dividing Ranges and the Duma-
resq River, to the Mclntyre River, thence by
the 29th parallel of S. latitude to the 141st
meridian of E. longitude; on the west the 141st
meridian of E. longitude from the 29th to the
26th parallel, and thence the 138th meridian
north to the Gulf of Carpentaria, together with
all the adjacent islands, their members and ap-
purtenances in the Pacific Ocean. The Gover-
nor was authorized to appoint an Executive
Council to advise and assist him in the govern-
ment of Queensland. The Constitution of
Queensland was embodied in an Order in Coun-
cil bearing the same date as the letters-patent.

The A'czv Constitution. — The Order in Coun-
cil provided that there should be within the
Colony of Queensland a Legislative Council and
a Legislative Assembly, with the advice and
consent of which Her Majesty should have
power to make laws for the peace, welfare, and
good government of the colony in all cases what-
soever. In its main outlines the Constitution of
Queensland was almost a replica of that of
Is^ew South Wales. The first Parliament under
the New Constitution was convened for the
despatch of business on 29 May 1859.

Administration and Legislation. — Public
events in Queensland became clustered around
and associated with the following prominent
men who held office as Premier between 1859
and 1899: Robert G. Herbert, Arthur Mac-
Alister, Robert Mackenzie, Charles Lilley,
Arthur Palmer, George Thorn, John Douglas,
Thomas Mclllwraith. Samuel Griffith, Boyd D.
Morehead, Hugh Muir Nelson, Thomas J.
Byrnes, and James R. Dickson.

From the date of separation Queensland
began to advance with rapid strides, and it soon
occupied a prominent position in the Australian
group. Between 1861 and 1871, under a policy
of assisted immigration the population largely
increased and the resources of the country were
developed in the direction of pastoral and agri-
cultural pursuits, gold and silver mining, sugar
and cotton growing. Cotton growing was stim-
ulated by bounties. The pastoral industry was
promoted ; railway construction was com-
menced ; state aid to religion was withdrawn
and a system of primary and secondary educa-
tion was initiated. Queensland was found to be
particularl}' suitable for sugar growmg and a
demand for cheap labor quickly sprang up.
In course of time shiploads of South Sea
Islanders were introduced by the sugar planters
and it was soon found necessary for the Legis-
lature to interfere.

A financial crisis occurred in 1865, which
in 1866 resulted in a change of Ministry. The
first MacAlister Ministry had a short term of
office. Herbert was again called to the helm
of affairs but in a few months he was again
displaced. The second MacAlister Ministry
lasted for 12 months and eight days. It secured
the passing of an important measure dealing
with the cultivation and occupation of Crown
lands. It was followed by the MacKenzie Min-
istry and the Lilley Ministry. The MacKenzie
Ministry of 1867 introduced and passed a Crown
Land Act which gave greater facilities for set-
tlement. The Lilley ^Ministry of 1868 passed
Acts relating to the Civil Service, Court proced-
ure, and electoral laws. The Lilley Ministry
was followed by the Palmer Ministry which
lasted from 3 Jan. 1870 to 8 June 1874. In
1875 during the reign of the third MacAlister
Administration a State Education Act was
passed which embodied the principles of free,
secular, and compulsory education. A complete
measure of local government was passed in 187S,
under the rule of the Douglas Administration.
In the same year the first act to restrict Chinese
immigration into Queensland became law.

In 1879, Mr. (afterward Sir) Thomas Mc-
lllwraith formed his first Government. On
4 April 1883, he made a dramatic and sensa-
tional attempt to annex New Guinea, directing
H. M. Chester, at Thursday Island to cross
Torres Straits and on behalf of Her Majesty's
Government in Queensland to hoist the British
flag and proclaim the annexation to that colony
of that part of the island not claimed by the
Dutch. This act was repudiated by Lord
Derby, who, however, on 10 Oct. 1884 declared
a British Protectorate over the southern part of
the island; Germany seized the remainder.

In November, 1S83, Mclllwraith was de-
feated and Mr. (afterward Sir) Samuel Grif-
fith succeeded him. During his term of office
a convention of Australian representatives was
held in Sydney, at which a scheme for the es-
tablishment of a Federal Council of Australasia,
drafted by Griffith, was adopted and it after-
ward became law by Imperial legislation. A
Crown Lands Act was passed by the Griffith
Administration in 1884. It encouraged Crown
Tenants to improve their holdings, facilitated
bona fide settlement and discouraged the specula-
tive acquisition of land. The first Griffith Min-
istry was succeeded (13 June 1888) by the

AUSTRALIA — POLITICAL HISTORY

second Mcllhvraith Government, which had only
a brief tenure of office, being on 20 Xov. 1888,
supplanted by the Morchead Ministry which
lasted until the 7 Aug. i8go. The second Grif-
fith ^Ministry was then formed. In April 1891,
Griffith took an active part in a Federal con-
vention held in Sydney at which a draft Con-
stitution for the union of the Australian Colonies
was adopted.

The Kanaka labor question became important
about this time and the Griffith Ministry advised
the reintroduction of Polynesian laborers. On
14 April 1892, the Pacific Laborers" Extension
Bill was passed, notwithstanding strong objec-
tions urged against the introduction of colored
races into Queensland. On 11 Jan. 1893, Grif-
fith was appointed Chief Justice. Mr. (after-
ward Sir) Huijh Muir Nelson occupied the
post of Acting Chief Secretary pending the ar-
rival from England of Sir Thomas Mclllwraith
who, on 27 March, became Premier of his third
nnd last Administration. In October follow-
ing he resigned the Premiership in which he was
succeeded by Sir Hugh Muir Nelson. In 1S94
the great strike of shearers occurred in Queens-
land, leading to a reign of lawlessness which
resulted in the passage of the Peace Preserva-
tion Act. In 1896 a Meat and Dairy Produce
Act was passed which gave a stimulus to the
primary industries. Increased facilities for land
settlement were offered.

On 13 April 189S, Sir Hugh Nelson resigned
the Premiership and was appointed President
of the Legislative Council. The task of form-
ing a new Government was entrusted to T. J.
Byrnes who gave promise of a brilliant political
career v.-hich was cut short by his death, at the
early age of 36, after five months of office. Mr.
(afterwards Sir) James R. Dickson then be-
came Premier. He was an ardent Federalist
and exercised the whole of his influence in
favor of Queensland joining the Commonwealth
which was then on the eve of being established.
He represented Queensland at a conference of
Premiers at which the constitution, as adopted
by the Convention, was slightly modified. In
Sept. 1899 the constitution was submitted to the
people of Queensland by a referendum and
was approved by a large majority. In Decem-
ber 1899, a Labor Ministry was formed by
Anderson Dawson; it lasted six days and R.
Philp, a former colleague of Dickson, then
formed a ^linistry. Philp held office until 17
Sept. 1903. The Labor Party, having in the
meantime increased in members and influence,
became sufficiently strong to take a share in
the Executive Government of the country, and
accordingly Arthur Morgan vacated the Speak-
er's chair and formed a Liberal Labor Govern-
ment in which the Liberals and Laborites were
equally represented. In January 1906, Morgan
resigned the Premiership and became Vice-
president of the Executive Council, William
Kidston, leader of the Labor Party becoming
Premier.

WESTERN AUSTR.\LI.\ THE SECOND ORIGINAL
COLONY.

Foundation. — The first Imperial Act applica-
ble to Western Australia was 10 Geo. IV.,
c. 22. (1829). It was intituled ".An Act to
Provide Until the 31st Day of December 1834,
For the Government of His Majesty's Settle-

ments in Western Australia on the Western
Coast of New Holland.'' It will be noticed
that the name "Australia" first suggested for
the continent in 1814 by Matthew Flinders, is
here used and for the first time mentioned bv
an Imperial Act. By that Act the King, with
the advice of the Privy Council, was empow-
ered to authorize any three or more persons
resident within the settlements, to make, ordain,
and constitute laws, institutions, and ordinances
for the peace, order, and good government of
His Majesty's subjects and others within the
settlement.

A Representative Legislature. — Under the
Act 13 and 14, Vic, c. 59 (5 Aug. 1850), Western
Australia was granted a Legislative Council,
consisting of 26 members, nine of whom were
nominated by the Crown and 17 were elected by
qualified inhabitants. Three years afterward
an agitation was commenced in favor of Re-
sponsible Government as it existed in the east-
ern colonies. In 1874, a draft of a Constitu-
tional Bill was sent to the Secretary of State,
who. however, decided that the colony was not
yet ripe for the change.

The Nezu Constitution. — The movement was
not successful until July, 1890, when a new
Constitution was passed by the Imperial Parlia-
ment, being embodied in the Act 53 and 54 Vic,
c 26. It created a bicameral Legislature con-
sisting of a nominee Council and an elective
Assembly to make laws in and for Western
Australia, and along with it Responsible Gov-
ernment was introduced. The first Premier was
Sir John Forrest.

Administration and Legislation. — The dis-
covery of goldfields, and a rapid influx of popu-
lation were factors which largely contributed
toward the success of the constitutional move-
ment. The new Parliament was called upon to
pass legislation relating to gold mining, land
settlement, railway construction, and water sup-
ply. Under the old regime a railway 243 miles
long had been constructed on the land grant
system between Beverly and Albany. Under
the terms of the contract, payment was made
at the rate of 12,000 acres for every mile of
completed road. The lands selected in payment
were situated within a belt of 40 miles on each
side of the line; half the frontage to the rail-
way was reserved to the Government. In 1896
the Government acquired this private land-grant
railway, the purchase price being £1,100,000.
The Perth Water Works constructed by the
Perth Water Supply Company, was taken over
by the Government at a cost of £220,000. Among
the lines of railways which greatly assisted in
the development of the interior were the lines
to Kalgoorlie, Menzies, and Kanowna, penetrat-
ing into the heart of the eastern gold-fields. A
gigantic scheme of water supply for the convey-
ance of water through pipes by pumping from
station to station, from the Mundaring Reser-
voir to Coolgardie and Kalgoorlie, a distance
of 330 miles at a cost of £2,500,000, was in-
augurated, and afterward successfully com-
pleted.

In 1897-99 the question of federation came
into prominence. The attitude of the Forrest
Government toward the new Constitution was
not favorable whilst on the gold-fields there v.-as
a strong movement in favor of the bill backed
up by threats of separation. This led to a <:hange

AUSTRALIA — POLITICAL HISTORY

of attitude on the part of the Government, and
at the test referendum that followed a majority
of electors voted in favor of Federal union.

In 1899 an Electoral Bill was passed which
conferred the political franchise on adult
woman ; it was exercised for the first time on
the occasion of the Federal referendum.

Sir John Forrest retired from state politics
in February, 1901, and G. Throssell succeeded
him as Premier. The Throssell Ministry w'as
defeated at a general election held the same
year. George Leake then formed a Ministry
which was short-lived, as also was another
formed by Alfred Edwards Morgans. On 23
Dec. 1901 Leake formed his second Ministry
and held office until his death on 24 June 1902.
He was succeeded in the Premiership by Walter
H. James on i July 1902. The only notable
piece of legislation passed in this period of
short-lived Ministries, were the Arbitration
and Conciliation Act, and the Workmen's Com-
pensation Act. On 10 Aug. 1904 James was de-
feated and a Labor IMinistry was formed by
Henry Daglish. It remained in office until
25 Aug. 1905 when it was displaced — partly by
dissension within the ranks of the Labor Party,
and ostensibly on the question of purchasing and
resuming possession of the ^Midland Railway.
On 25 Aug. 1905 Cornthwaite Hector Rason
became Premier of a Liberal Administration,
pledged to oppose the extreme policy of the
Labor Party. He secured a dissolution and
went to the country from which he returned
with a strong working majorit3^ He resigned
in May 1906, to accept the position of agent-
general in London and Newton James Moore
became Premier and is still in oftice (September
1906).

SOUTH AUSTRALIA THE THIRD ORIGINAL COLONY.

Foundation. — This province was originally
carved out of that part of the colony of New
South Wales lying between the meridians 132°
and 141° E. longitude, bounded on the north
by the 26° parallel of S. latitude and on the
south by the Southern Ocean. This region was
never occupied, or settled, by the New South
Wales Government. On 15 Aug. 1834, the Act
4 and 5 Wm. IV., c. 95, intituled "An Act to
empower His jNIajesty to erect South Aus-
tralia into a British Possession or Province,
and to provide for the Colonization Thereof"
was passed. It did not purport to separate the
territory from New South Wales ; it seemed to
contemplate the whole of that part of the con-
tinent as not being subject to any prior statutory
authority. It empowered the King to appoint a
Governor and Colonization Commissioners, who
were to have the control of the Crown lands,
with power to survey and sell the same, and to
employ a portion of the money so derived in
conducting the immigration of laborers from
Great Britain. In the exercise of these powers
the Province was erected; a Governor, a Judge,
seven commissioners, and other officials were ap-
pointed. The Governor, with the concurrence
of the Chief Justice, the Colonial Secretary,
and Advocate-General, or two of them, was
authorized to make laws and impose taxes.
Captain (afterward Sir) John K. Hindmarsh
was appointed the first Governor.

On 28 Dec. 1836, Governor Hindmarsh ar-
rived at Glenelg and proclaimed the establish-

ment of the Government. He was succeeded'
on 12 Oct. 1838, by Governor Gawler, during
whose term of office the settlement became in-
volved in debt to the extent of £281,842. Gaw-
ler was recalled (May 1841), and a radical
change was made in the government of the
colony ; the office of Colonization Commission
in London was abolished ; South Australia was
made a Crown colony, and the government was
vested in the Secretary of States for the
Colonies. Captain (afterward Sir) George
Grey was appointed Governor, and almost abso-
lute power was entrusted to him.

In 1842 the Act 5 and 6 Vic, c. 61, intituled
"An Act to provide for the better government
of South Australia^' was passed. Under it a
nominated Legislative Council, consisting of the
Governor and seven other persons resident in
the colony, was created, having power to make
laws for its government. On 25 Oct. 1845. Cap-
tain Grey was transferred to New Zealand, and
Lieutenant-Colonel Robe acted as Governor for
a short time. His successor was Sir Henry Fox
Young, to whom the colony was indebted for
an extensiv^e main road system, and the institu-
tion of local government in the shape of Dis-
trict Councils.

A Representative Council. — Under the Act
13 and 14 Vic, c. 59. (5 Aug. 1850) the Legislative
Council then established in South Australia was
authorized to establish another Legislative
Council consisting of not more than 24 mem-
bers, one third of whom were to be appointed
by the Crown and the remainder were to be
elected by the qualified inhabitants. This new
Council was authorized to make laws for the
peace, order, and good government of the
province and to impose rates and taxes. On
21 July 1851, this Council consisting of 24 mem-
bers was duly constituted.

The A'czv Constitution. — In 1853 the Legis-
lative Council of South Australia, in pursuance
of powers conferred by section 32 of the Act
13 and 14 Vic, c 59, passed a bill to establish
a bicameral Legislature for South Australia,
consisting of a Legislative Council and a House
of Assembly. This bill was reserved for the
Queen's assent but it was disallowed. Subse-
quently a second bill to create a bicameral Leg-
islature was introduced in the Council and
passed. It provided for the creation of two
elective Houses to take the place of the Council
created by the Act 13 and 14 Vic, c 59. This
bill eventually received the Royal assent, and is
sometimes called the "Constitution Act" of
South Australia. It contained provisions and
machinery somewhat similar to the Constitu-
tion Act of Victoria. The suffrage for the
Assembly was manhood coupled with regis-
tration and residence. Both Houses were
chosen by ballot which was adopted on the mo-
tion of Francis S. Dutton, afterwards Premier.

Responsible Government. — The election of
members of the two new Houses took place in
■March 1857. The first session of the new
Parliament commenced on 22 April 1857, during
the Governorship of Sir Richard Graves Mc-
Donnell. The first Premier was B. T. Finnis.

Administration and Legislation. — Among the
public men of South Australia, who, in the early
history of the Colony under Responsible Gov- .
ernment. took an active and prominent part in
the great business of administration and legis-

AUSTRALIA — POLITICAL HISTORY

lation were the following who held office as
Premiers from 1856 to 1870; Lieutenant-
Colonel Boj-l Travers Finniss, John Baker,
Robert Richards Torrens, Richard Davies Han-
son, Thomas Reynolds, George Marsden Water-
house, Francis Stokes Button. Henry Ayers,
John Hart, Arthur Blyth, and Henry Bull
Templar Strangways.

Mr. (afterward' Sir) R. R. Torrens took
office in 1857. His name has become famous
by association with an act simplifying the
transfer, conveyance, and registration of land.
Torrens was the originator of the plan ; it was
based on practical knowledge obtained by him
as Collector of Customs, but he was assisted by
the leeal knowledge of Doctor Hubbe. The
Torrens' Land Act system was afterward
adopted by all the other Australian colonies. In
1861 a strip of territory lying between latitude
129° and 132° E. longitude and south of the 26°
S. latitude known as «Xo ]\Ian's Land*> was
added to South Australia.

Sir Dominic Daly succeeded Sir Richard G.
JilacDonnell on 4 March 1862. In ^larch 1863
an intercolonial conference was held in Mel-
bourne at which the majority of the Australian
colonies were represented. This conference
was originated in a suggestion made by Sir
Dominic Dah'. It was resolved that it was
desirable to settle the basis for a uniform tariff
for the Australian colonies. No practical results
followed the conference, but it foreshadowed
the necessity of some form of Federal Union.
In the same year the Northern Territory was
added to South Australia by letters-patent.

In 1868-69, a Ministry, of which Henry B.
Templar Strangways was Premier, held office.
Its career was distinguished by the passing of
a Land Act which was intended to promote
settlement and prevent the monopolization of
the large tracts of land by land sharks and
dummies. Sale of land by auction was limited.
Land was sold to bona fide selectors on credit,
the payments being allowed to extend over a
period of four }'ears, and no selector was al-
lowed to take up more than 640 acres.

The great overland telegraph line from Port
Augusta to Port Darwin, the construction of
which was prosecuted during the Premiership
of Strangways, John Hart, and Sir Arthur
Blyth, was completed on 2 Aug. 1872. In
1875—76 a strong administration formed by Mr.
(afterward Sir) James Penn Boucaut, was in
power ; it introduced a policy of internal de-
velopment, public works and railways. It was
proposed that a loan of £3,000.000 should be
raised, coupled with increased taxation, stamp
tax, and probate duties. This scheme was
passed by the Assembly and rejected by the
Council. ]Mr. (afterward Sir) John Colton
formed a Ministry which adopted Boucaut's
policy and carried his scheme of public works
and railways without the increased taxation.
In 1877 Boucaut's second ^Ministry was in office,
and during that year the overland telegraph
line between Adelaide and Perth was com-
pleted.

The second Boucaut Ministry was succeeded
by Administrations of which the following were
Premiers from 1878 to 1905 : William Mor-
gan, John Cox Bray, John Colton, John W.
Downer, Thomas Playford, John Alexander
Cockburn, Frederick William Holder, C. C.

Kingston, Vaibeu Louis Solomon, and J. G.
Jenkins.

In 1S86 the jubilee of South Australia was
celebrated. C. C. Kingston came into power
in 1893. A Crown Lands Consolidation Act
was passed by his Ministry which restricted the
sale of Crown lands by auction, introducing a
system of leasing country lands, coupled with
the right of purchase and provided perpetual
leases for agricultural purposes. Small blocks
not exceeding the unimproved value of iioo,
were thrown open for lease on the application
of working men. Personal residence on a
block was necessar.v, either by the lessee or by
his wife or children. The rent of each lease
was notified in the 'Gazette'. These lots were
not subject to a revaluation, but were liable to
land tax. In 1894 a bill was passed conferring
the franchise on women. In order to give en-
couragement and to grant assistance to the
farmers an Advance to Farmers' Act was passed
in 1896, under which a State Bank has been
established in South Australia with power to
grant loans to farmers at a low rate of inter-
est with extended time for repayment of the
principal.

On 25 April 1896, a general election was
held in South Australia at which women exer-
cised their right to vote ; about 66 per cent of the
women whose names were enrolled recorded
their vote. On 22 Jan. 1897, Sir Samuel J.
Way, Chief Justice of South Australia, was
appointed a member of the Judicial Committee
of the Privy Council. On 22 March the Federal
Convention held its first session at Adelaide,
at which the first preliminary draft was pre-
pared. Mr. Kingston being defeated i Dec.
1899, resigned, and V. L. Solomon formed a
Ministry which was defeated on 7 December.
F. W. Holder then became Premier. An Early
Closing Act, and a Workmen's Compensation
Act were passed. The gunboat Protector, be-
longing to South Australia, was despatched to
the Chinese Sea to assist in a naval demonstra-
tion against the Boxers. In May 1901, Holder
resigned in order to accept office in the Federal
Parliament. He was succeeded in the Premier-
ship by J. G. Jenkins, who held office in the
Playford, Kingston, and Holder Cabinets. He
undertook the difficult task of carrying consti-
tutional amendments rendered necessary by
the adoption of the Federal Constitution trans-
ferring certain powers, functions, and depart-
ments from the State to the Federal Govern-
ment. He succeeded in carrying a measure re-
ducing the number of responsible ministers, re-
ducing the number of members of the Assem-
bly from 54 to 42, and reducing the number of
the Council from 24 to 18. He resigned on
I March 1905, and accepted the appointment
of Agent-General for South Australia in Lon-
don. A Ministry of which Richard Butler was
Premier then took office. A general election
took place in May at which Butler's party was
defeated and on 20 July he resigned, and was
succeeded as Premier by Thomas Price who
still holds office (September 1906).

Bibliography — Australia. General. — Chap-
man, * Parliamentary Government for Aus-
tralian Colonies' (1854); Martin, ^\ustralian
Essays, Political, Etc.> (1857); Lahillier.
'Constitution of Australian Colonies' (1870) ;
Ranken, 'Dominion of Australia' (1874);

AUSTRALIA — THE COMMONWEALTH GOVERNMENT

Clarke, <Historv of Australia and Tasmania'
(1877); Blair, '<History of Australia' (1878);
Douglas, <An Australian Nation, (1880); Blair,
'Cyclopaedia of Australia > (1881) ; Allen, 'His-
tory of Australia' (1882) ; Rusden, < History of
Australia' (1883); Sutherland, 'History of
Australia' (1883) ; Forbes, 'Present and Future
of Australian Colonies' (1883); Service, 'Fed-
eration of Australia' (1884)1 Carnarvon,
'Annexation and Federation in Australia'
(1884) ; Parkes, Australia and the Imperial
Connections' (1884) ; Parkes, 'The Australian
Empire' (1884) ; Hodgson, 'Our Australian
Colonies' (1885); Froude, 'Oceana' (1886);
Garran, 'Picturesque Atlas of Australia'
(1886) ; INIartin, 'Australia and the Empire'
(1889); Hopkins, 'Australia; Progress, Peo-
ple, and Politics' (1889); Duffy, 'Road to
Federation' (1890) ; Dilke, 'Problems of Greater
Britain' (1890) ; Reid, 'Commonwealth of
Australia' (1891) ; Willoughby, 'Australian
Federation' (1891) ; Clarke, 'Australia and
the Imperial Connection' (1891) ; Braddon,
'Australia; Its progress and Resources' (1892) ;
Tregerthen, 'Australian Commonwealth'

(1893); Baker, 'The Executive in a Federa-
tion' (1897) ; Way, 'Observations on Draft
Commonwealth Bill' (1900) ; Butterworth,
'Annotated Constitution of the Commonwealth'
(1901) ; Finney. 'History of Australian Colon-
ies' (1901) ; Cockburn, 'Australian Federa-
tion' (1901) ; Jose, 'Australia and New Zea-
land' (1901) ; Quick and Garran, 'Constitu-
tion of the Australian Commonwealth' (1901) ;
Barton, 'Troubles of Australian Federation'
(1901) ; Rowland, 'Australian Federation,
History, Character and Possibilities' (1901) ;
Posnett, 'Federal Constitution of Australia'
(1901) ; Cockburn, 'Australia's First Federal
Parliament' (1901) ; Hogan, 'First Steps of
the New Common v/ealth' (1901) ; Clark,
'Studies in Australian Constitutional Law'
(1901) ; ]\Ioore, 'Constitution of Common-
wealth of Australia' (1902); Cockburn, 'Sphere
of State Activity in Australia"" (1902) ; Teece,
'Comparison between the Federal Constitution
of Canada and Australia' (1902); Reeves,
'State Experiments in Australia and New Zea-
land' (1902) ; Kirwnn, 'Three Years of Aus-
tralian Federation' (1904-).

Neiv South Wales. — Martin, 'History of New
South Wales' (1836) ; Burton, 'Constitution
of Government of New South Wales' (1840);
Brain, 'History of New South Wales' (1846);
Martin, 'History of New South Wales' (1853) ;
Lang, 'Historical Account of New South Wales'
(1875); Garran, 'New South Wales' (1884);
Oliver, 'Constitution of New South Wales'
(1884); Morris and Byron, 'Progress of New
South Wales' (1886): Gane, 'New South
Wales and Victoria' (1885) ; Buchanan, 'Hun-
dred Year's Progress, New South Wales'

(1888) ; Barton, 'History of New South Wales'

(1889) and (1894); Coghlan, 'Wealth and
Progress of New South Wales' (1893);
Hutchinson, 'New South Wales' (1896);
Britton and Bladen, 'Historical Records, New
South Wales' (1898); Bcanvick, 'New South
Wales' (1900).

Queensland. — Boyd, 'Queensland' (1882);
Coote, 'History of Queensland' (1882);
Blakeney, 'Form of Government in Queensland'
(1883) ; Trail, 'Historical Sketch of Queens-

land' (1886); Weeden, 'Queensland; Past and
Present' (1897); Dicken, 'Queensland' (1900).

South Australia. — Martin, 'History of Sou«h
Australia' (1836) and (1853): Angas. 'South
Australia Illustrated' (1847); Duncan, 'Colony
of South -Australia' (1850); Forster, 'South
Australia; Progress and Prosperity' (i860);
Harcus, 'South Australia ; History and Progress'
( 1S76) ; Stow, 'South Australia; History, etc'
(1883); Finniss, 'Constitutional History of
South Australia' (1886) ; Gill, 'Bibliography
of South Australia' (1886); Hodder, 'History
of South Australia' (1893) ; Blackmore. 'Law
of Constitution of South Australia' (1894).

Tasmania. — Parker, 'Van Dieman's Land^
(1834); Martin, 'History of Van Dieman's
Land' (18^0) and (1853); Bonwick, 'Tas-
mania' (1888); Braddon, 'History of Tas-
mania' (1S91); Walker, 'Early History of
Tasmania' (189S); Mill, 'Tasmania' (1899);
Levy, 'Tasmania' (1900).

Victoria. — Martin, 'Victoria, Its History and
Conditions' (1853) ; Duff3% 'Land Law of
Victoria' (1862) ; Wcstgarth, 'History of Vic-
toria' (1864); Duffy, 'Political History of
Victoria* (1876); FitzGibbon, 'Party Govern-
ment in Victoria' (1878) ; Hodden, 'Constitu-
tional Difficulties in Victoria' (1879); Walch,
'Victoria' (1880) ; Carlisle, 'Constitution of
Victoria' (1884); MacFie, 'Victoria, Its His-
tory and Prospects' (1888) ; Jenks, 'The Gov-
ernment of Victoria' (1891) ; Dyer, 'Victoria
and Its Resources' (1893) ; Dow, 'An Aus-
tralian Colony' (1898) ; Clarke, 'Victoria and
Her Resources' (1899).

West Australia. — Martin, 'History of West
Australia' (1836); Knight, 'History and Pro-
gress of West Australia' (1870) ; Broome,
'Western Australia (1885); Bonwick, 'Western
Australia' (1888); Hart, 'Western Australia'
(1893); Calvert, 'Western Australia; History
arid Progress' (1894) ; Robinson, 'Western
Australia; Present and Future' (1896); Rob-
inson, 'Western Australia' (1900).

Sir John Quick,

Member of Commonzvcalth House of Rcp~
resentatives ; Joint Author of ^Constitution
of Australian Coininonivcalth''.

5. Australia — The Commonwealth — Its
Constitution, Government, and Administra-
tive Departments. Tlie Beginning of the Fed-
eral M ovcmcnt Tozvards Political Union. — ■
Under the Acts of 63 and 64 Vic, c 12, (1900)
known as the "Commonwealth of Australia
Constitution Act," the people of New South
Wales, Victoria, South Australia, Queensland,
Tasmania, and Western Australia were vmited
in a Federal Commonwealth under the name of
The Commonwealth of Australia ; and the old
colonies under the name of states, were de-
clared to be parts of the- Commonwealth. This
great act marked the completion and consum-
mation of a movement in favor of Australian
federation, which extended over a period of
nearly 60 years.

In 1847, Earl Grey, Secretary of State for
the Colonies, proposed to create a separate Leg-
islature in and for Australia in which all the
colonies then in existence should be represented,
and which should have power to make laws
in matters of common concern. In 1849, the
Privy Council proposed that there should be a
General Assembly having power to deal with

AUSTRALIA — THE COMMONWEALTH GOVERNMENT

customs duties, postal matters, and to create a
Supreme Court of Appeal. In 1853, a Commit-
tee of the Legislative Council of New South
Wales recommended the establishment of a
General Assembly. All these proposals, how-
ever, were regarded as premature. The fol-
lowing is a sumraarj' of other unsuccessful ef-
forts in the same direction: (1857) a select
committee of the Victorian Legislative As-
sembly agreed that "the time for union had
come;" in the same year a select committee of
the New South Wales Parliament passed a
similar resolution; (i860), a select committee
of the Victorian Assembly recommended nego-
tiation; (1862), the Colonial Secretary of
South Australia commenced correspondence
with other colonies urging that a uniform tariff
was indispensable; (1863), Tariff conference in
Melbourne; (1865), Inter-Colonial conference
at Sydney resulting in agreement by which the
Murray border was made free of fiscal re-
striction; (1867), Inter-Colonial conference in
Melbourne in reference to ocean postal service
to Australia, at which Sir Henry Parkes said
"the time has arrived when the colonies should
be united;*' (1880), Inter-Colonial conference
in Melbourne, at which a resolution was passed
that "a Federal Council was needed to deal
with the question of inter-colonial interest;"
(1883), Inter-Colonial conference at Sydney, at
which the necessity of a Federal Council was
affirmed, and at which a Draft Bill was
adopted which afterwards became law. (This
Council, however, was not a success as only
three of the colonies joined it;) (1890), Federal
conference in Melbourne convened by Sir
Henry Parkes at which resolutions were passed
affirming the necessity for an early convention
of the representatives of all the colonies to pre-
pare a scheme for a Federal Constitution.

Coiizriition of 1891. — On 22 March 1891, the
first Federal convention was held in Sydney at
which all the Australasian colonies, including
New Zealand, were represented by seven dele-
gates chosen by the Parliament of each colony.
A constitution was draftd and adopted by the
convention, but no practical action was taken
to give it effect. In January, 1895, a conference
of Premiers was held at Hobart, at which all
the Australasian colonies were represented. It
was resolved that "a convention, consisting of
10 representatives from each colony, directly
chosen by the electors, be charged with the
duty to frame a constitution ; that the constitu-
tion so framed be submitted to the electors for
acceptance or rejection by direct vote." Five
of the six colonies, viz. : New South Wales,
Victoria. South Australia, Tasmania, and West-
ern Australia elected 10 representatives.
Queensland did not take part in the convention
which met in Adelaide in March 1897. C. C.
Kingston, then Premier of South Australia, was
elected president of the convention, which
afterwards sat in Sydney and Melbourne. A
constitution was drafted, subsequently submit-
ted to the people of the various colonies, and
ratified, Queensland coming in at the last
moment. The constitution so drafted and rati-
fied by the people of Australia was afterwards
embodied in an Imperial Act, came into force
and the Commonwealth was proclaimed.

The Federal Constitution. — The Federal
constitution came into force and the Australian

colonies were united on i Jan. 1901. By this
constitutional instrument a new Parliament was
called into existence, as well as a new execu-
tive, and a new judiciary. The union of people
and states, so organized and constituted, in
many respects resemble that of the United
States of America. The new form of govern-
ment has been created for special and limited
purposes to deal with matters of common Aus-
tralian mterests. The power and authority of
the Federal Parliament, and Federal Govern-
ment, are limited and restricted to such powers
and authorities as have been expressly taken
from the states, or such new powers as are
specified and particularized in the instrument.
The Governments and Parliaments of the states
have the same legislative and executive scope as
before — save as to matters delegated to the
Federal authority. In this respect the Austral-
ian Constitution differs from that of Canada,
which limits and defines the powers of the prov-
inces, and confers upon the Dominion Parlia-
ment all the residue of sovereign power.

Executive Department of the Common-
li'ealth. — The executive power of the Common-
wealth is vested in the King, and exercised by
the Governor-General as the King's represen-
tative. It includes the maintenance of the con-
stitution and the excution of the laws of the
Commonwealth. There is an Executive (Coun-
cil to advise the Governor-General in regard to
the government of the Commonwealth. The
Governor-General can appoint ministers to pre-
side over the several departments. No minister
can hold office longer than three months, unless
he be a member of the Senate or of the House
of Representatives. There can be no more than
seven ministers in office at the same time. The
sum of ii2,ooo per annum is appropriated to be
divided among ministers by themselves.

Immediately upon the establishment of the
Commonweahh the departments of customs and
excise in all states were by operation of law
taken from the states and transferred to the
Commonwealth. By proclamation later on, the
departments of post offices, telegraphs, and
telephones, naval and military defence were
taken from the states and vested in the Com-
monwealth. Four new Federal departments
were also created by proclamation, viz., the
Department of External Affairs, the Depart-
ment of Home Affairs, the Department of the
Treasury, and the Department of the Attorney-
General.

Legislative Department of the Common-
zi-ealth. — The legislative power of the Com-
monwealth is vested in a Federal Parlia-
ment consisting of the King, or Queen, of the
United Kingdom, the Senate and the House of
Representatives. The Senate consists of rep-
resentatives from each of the six states directly
chosen by the people of each state voting as one
electorate ; each state is entitled to six senators.
Senators are chosen for six years, one-half re-
tiring every three years. The House of Rep-
resentatives is composed of members directly
chosen by the electors of the Commonwealth;
the total number of such members must be as
nearly as practicable twice the number of the
senators. The Senate is called the State
House, the House of Representatives is called
the National Chamber, in which the people of
each state are represented according to popula-

AUSTRALIA — THE COMMONWEALTH GOVERNMENT

tion, save and except that no state to have less
than five members. In the first Parliament New
South Wales sent 26 members to the House of
Representatives, Victoria sent 23, Queensland
sent nine, South Australia sent seven, Western
Australia and Tasmania sent five each. The
House of Representatives continues to exist for
a period of three years from the first meeting,
unless sooner dissolved by the Governor-Gen-
eral. In case of a deadlock between the two
Houses extending over a certain time the
Governor-General may under certain conditions
and circumstances dissolve both Houses and
send them to the people ; after such a double
dissolution a joint sitting of both Houses of the
newly elected members must be held at which
thev deliberate and vote upon the proposed law
in dispute.

The Federal Parliament can make laws re-
specting trade and commerce, taxation, bounties,
borrowing, postal, and telegraphic matters,
naval and military defence, light houses, fish-
eries, census, currenc}^ inter-state insurance,
weights and measures, negotiable instruments,
bankruptcy, copyrights, patents, naturalization,
foreign co-operations, marriage and divorce,
old age pensions, service and execution of
process, immigration, influx of criminals, ex-
ternal affairs, relations of the Commonwealth
with the islands of the Pacific, acquisition of
property for Federal purposes, control of rail-
ways for naval and military transport, acquisi-
tion of state railways with the consent of such
state, construction of railways through a state
with the consent of such state, conciliation and
arbitration for the settlement of inter-state in-
dustrial dispues, seat of government of the
Commonwealth, and departments of the public
service.

Judicial Department of the Common-
ivealth. — The judicial power of the Com-
monwealth is vested in a High Court consist-
ing of a Chief Justice, and not less than two
other justices. The High Court has appellate
and original jurisdiction. It has jurisdiction
to hear appeals from all other Federal courts,
or courts exercising Federal jurisdiction, and
from the Supreme Courts of states in the exer-
cise of jurisdiction conferred by state laws.
The High Court must be regarded as a Federal
Court of Appeal, and a National Court of Ap-
peal, and as such it holds a wider jurisdic-
tional area than its great exampler, the Su-
preme Court of the United States of America,
which cannot entertain appeals from state
courts in cases not involving Federal issues.
The Act confers a new right of appeal from
the Supreme Courts of States in state law
cases, but it does not abolish the existing right
of appeal in those cases to the Privy Council.
The latter right still remains. The High
Court, though a general Court of Appeal for
Australia is not the sole or exclusive, but a
concurrent Court of Appeal in state law cases.
Parties to cases decided by the Supreme Courts
of state on matters of state law here, there-
fore, an alternative right of appeal, either to
the Privy Council direct or to the High Court.

The judgments of the High Court are de-
clared by the constitution to be final and con-
clusive. This negatives the right of litigants
in the High Court to appeal to the Privy Coun-
cil as a matter of right. The appeal as a mat-

ter of right has been taken away, but the con-
stitution has left unimpaired any right the
King may be pleased to exercise by virtue of
his prerogative to grant special leave of appeal
from the High Court to His ]M^ljesty in
Council. To this reservation of the prerogative
to grant leave there is, however, a most im-
portant exception. No appeal can be permitted
to the King in Council from a decision of the
High Court upon any question as to the limits
inter sc of the constitutional powers of the
Commonwealth and those of any state, or
states, or as to the limits inter sc of the consti-
tutional powers of any two or more states
unless the High Court shall certify that ques-
tion is one which ought to be determined by
His Majesty in Council.

The High Court has original jurisdiction to
decide all matters arising under anj^ treaty, all
matters affecting Consuls, all matters in which
the Commonwealth is a party, all matters be-
tween states or between residents of different
states in any matters arising under the consti-
tution or involving its interpretation.

The several courts of the states have been
vested with Federal jurisdiction to deal with
matters arising under the constitution, or in-
volving its interpretation, and in matters of
any laws made by the Federal jurisdiction.

Finance and Trade. — During the first 10
years after the establishment of the Common-
wealth, the Federal Government has only a
limited use of the revenue derived from cus-
toms and excise duties. It can only use for
Federal purposes one fourth of the total of the
net sum so collected. The remaining three-
fourths must be paid to the several states ac-
cording to the following method of distribu-
tion, viz., each state is credited with the whole
of the revenue collected in it and each state is
debited: (A.) with departmental expenditure
actually incurred in such state; and (B.) with a
proportion on a population basis of the other
expenditure of the Commonwealth. The Com-
monwealth pays to each state monthly the bal-
ance in favor of each state. Upon the imposition
of uniform customs duties in October, 1901,
trade, commerce, and intercourse between the
states, whether by land or by sea became abso-
lutely free.

Relations of States to the Commonwealth
and the Crown. — The relations of the Austral-
ian states to the Commonwealth and to the
Crown were authoritively expounded by the
Secretary of State, IMr. Chamberlain, in the
despatch dated 15 April, 1903, directed to the
Lieutenant-Governor of South Australia in re-
ference to the case of the Dutch ship "Vondel.*'
The owners of this ship complained to the
British Government that the state government
of South Australia had declined to arrest the
crew of the ship while she was in South
Australian waters. The Secretary of States
brought the complaint under the notice of the
Governor-General of Australia. The Federal
government forwarded the papers to the state
government desiring them to furnish a report
on the case. The state government refused to
report to the Federal government on the
ground that the latter had no jurisdiction in
the matter. The constitutional issues raised by
the action of the South Australian government
were dealt with at length in Mr. Chamberlain's

AUSTRALIA — THE STATE GOVERNMENTS

■despatch: "So far as other communities in
the Empire or foreign nations are concerned,
the people of AustraHa form one poHtical com-
munity for which the government of the Com-
monweahh alone can speak, and for everything
affecting external states or communities which
takes place within its boundaries, that govern-
ment is responsible. The distribution of
powers between Federal and state authorities is
a matter or purely internal concern of which no
external country or community can take
cognizance. It is to the Commonwealth and to
the Commonwealth alone that, through the Im-
perial government, they must look for remedy
■or relief for any action affecting them done
within the bounds of the Commonwealth,
whether it is the act of a private individual, of
a state official, or of a state government. The
Commonwealth is, through His ^lajesty's gov-
ernment, just as responsible for any action of
South Australia affecting an external com-
munity as the United States of America are
for the action of Louisiana or any other state
of the Union. The Crown undoubtedly remains
part of the constitution of the state of South
Australia, awd in matters affecting it in that
capacity, the proper channel of communication
is between the Secretary of State and the State
Governor. But in matters affecting the Crown
in its capacity as the central authority of the
Empire, the Secretary of State can, since the
people of Australia have become one p®litical
community, look only to the Governor-General
as the representative of the Crown in that
community. The view of your ministers would,
if adopted, reduce the Commonwealth to the
position of a Federal League, not a Federation,
and appears to me to be entirely opposed not
only to the spirit but to the letter of the Act.'*

Administration and Legislation. — The first
Federal government was formed by Mr. (after-
ward Sir) Edmund Barton. The principal
measure passed by the first Parliament
were as follows : A L^niform Tariff Act, an
act to restrict immigration by the imposi-
tion of an educational test for the purpose of
excluding colored races and to exclude laborers
coming to Australia under contract of service ;
an act to abolish Kanaka labor in connection
with sugar growing, and to encourage the use
of white labor by granting a bonus of £2 per ton
on sugar so produced : an act establishing a
imiform suffrage for both the Senate and the
House of Representatives ; a naval agreement
with the admirality under which the Common-
wealth undertook to pay £200,000 per year for
10 years towards the maintenance of a navel
force on the Australian station ; an act to
organize the High Court, of which Sir Samuel
Griffith was appointed Chief Justice, Sir Ed-
mund Barton, and R. E. O'Connor, Justices.

An administration formed by Alfred Deakin
came into office on 24 Sept. 1903. The first Par-
liament was dissolved on 23 November, and the
second Parliament was convened for business
on 2 March 1904. The Deakin ministry was de-
feated on 26 April by an amendment to the
Conciliation and Arbitration Bill proposed by
the Labor Party extending it to state railway
servants. J. C. Watson then formed a Labor
ministry. On 17 August an adverse amend-
ment to the Conciliation and Arbitration Bill,
limiting the principle of preference to unionists
\'oI 2 — 6

was carried against the Labor ministry and
they resigned. G. H. Reid, leader of the Free
Trade Party, next formed a government in
combination with a number of Protectionists,
including Sir George Turner and A. McLean.
They successfully wound up the business of
the session. Parliament reassembled on 26
Juh% 1905, when the Reid ministry was de-
feated. Deakin formed his second ministry
which received the support of the Labor party.
Among the measures passed this session were a
Commerce Act; Sugar Bonus Extension Act,
and a Trade ^Larks Act — the latter containing
clauses legalizing the «Union Label." Acts
were also passed modifying the educational test
and the contract labor clauses of the Immigra-
tion Act.

Bibliography — See article Australi.il —
Political History. Sir John Quick,

Member of Commonzvealth House of Repre-
sentatives; Joint Author of ^Constitution
of Australian Commonwealth?

6. Australia — The States, Their Consti-
tutions and Governmental Departments.

Colonies Transformed Into States. — Under the
Constitution of the Commonwealth Act, the
colonies of New South Wales, Victoria, Tas-
mania, Queensland, Western Australia, and
South Australia, have been converted into
states of the Federal Union, and certain legisla-
tive, executive, and judicial powers formerly
vested in colonial authorities have been trans- ^
ferred to the Commonwealth.

Executive Departments of States. — In each
state there is a Governor representing the King,
and he is the head of the executive as well as
a branch of the legislature. In the administra-
tion of public affairs the Governor is assisted
and advised by responsible ministers who pre-
side over the public departments and generally
have seats in the Legislature.

In New South Wales the Governor receives
a salary of £5,000. There are six responsible
ministers, among whom the public departments
are distributed as follows, viz.: (i) Premier
and Treasurer; (2) Colonial Secretary; (3)
Attorney-General, and Minister of Justice ; (4)
Lands; (5) Instruction, Labor, and Industry;
(6) Mines and Agriculture. The sum of iio,-
400 is appropriated for payment of ministers
in such proportions as may be arranged among
themselves.

The Governor of Victoria receives a salary
of £5,000; the various public departments are
presided over and distributed among ministers
as follows, viz.: (i) Premier, Treasurer and
Minister of Railways ; (2) Chief Secretary and
Minister of Labor; (3) Attorney-General and
Minister of Justice; (4) Lands; (5) Public
Instructions; (6) Works; (7) Mines and
Forests ; (8) Water Supply and Irrigation.
Two ministers must sit in the council. The ag-
gregate amount of salary payable among min-
isters is £8.400 per year. A minister being a
member of one House may attend the other
House by its permission, and speak upon and
explain bills relating to his department.

In Queensland the Governor's salary is
£5,000. There are seven salaried ministers
among whom the offices are distributed as fol-
lows, viz: (i) Premier, Chief Secretary and
Secretary for Railways; (2) Treasurer; (3)

AUSTRALIA — THE STATE GOVERNMENTS

Home Secretan^ ; (4) Secretary for Agriculture
and Public Works; (5) Attorney-General,
Secretary of Mines; (6) Secretary of Lands;
(7) Public Instruction. The aggregate amount
of salary payable among ministers is i7,300 per
year.

The Governor of Tasmania receives a salary
of £2,750. Ministerial offices are distributed as
follows, viz.: (i) Premier and Chief Secre-
tary; (2) Attorney-General; (3) Treasurer
and Lands ; (4) Mines and Works. The ag-
gregate amount of salary payable among min-
isters is £3,000 per year.

In South Australia the Governor's salary is
£4,000. There were formerly six responsible
ministers, but by the Constitutional Amendment
Act of South Australia, (1901), the number
was reduced to four, and the aggregate salary
divisable amongst them is £4,000 per year. The
offices at present are distributed amongst them
as follows, viz.: (i) Premier, Education and
Works; (2) Treasurer and Attorney-General;
(3) Chief Secretary; (4) Lands, Mines and
Agriculture.

The Governor of Western Australia receives
a salary of £4,000. There are five ministers
holding offices as follows, viz.: (i) Premier
and Treasurer; (2) Education; (3) Colonial
Secretary; (4) Railways and Labor; (5)
INIines and Justices. The aggregate amount of
salary payable amongst ministers is £7,200 per
year.

Leglslatiz'c Departments of States. — The
State Parliaments have no longer any control
over customs, excise, post offices, telegraphs,
telephones, navy, and militar\' defences.

The Parliament of New South Wales, like
that of every Australian state, consists of a
Legislative Council and a Legislative Assembh'.
The council is still a nominated body as it was
at the beginning of responsible government,
being composed of about 65 life members.
There were before Federation 125 members of
the Assembly; in 1901 that number was reduced
to 90 as one of the results of the transfer of
certain powers and functions to the Common-
wealth government. Plural voting was abol-
ished in 1893. Manhood suffrage, established
in 1858, was in 1903 superseded by adult suf-
frage ; that is to say, *one adult person one
vote.'' Since 1899, each member of the As-
sembly receives the sum of £300 per year in
reimbursement of his expenses together with
a free railway pass. Members of the council
receive free railway passes but no payment.
The Assembl}' is a triennial chamber, but it
may be at any time dissolved by the Governor.
Elections are conducted by ballot: this being
the method of election of members in all the
Australian states.

By the Constitutional Amendment Act,
(1903), the Legislative Council of Victoria
consists of 35 members, one of whom is directly
elected by, and represents, the public and rail-
way servants ; the others are elected by quali-
fied voters of whom there are three classes,
viz. : ( I ) owners of freehold land of the
annual value of £10; (2) rate-paying occupiers
of land of the annual value of £15; (3) uni-
versity and professional men. The property
qualifications of a member of the council were
formerly ownership of freehold land of the
annual value of £100; that has been reduced to

£50. The tenure of a seat in the council is six
years; one-half the members retiring every
three years. In the event of a deadlock be-
tween the two Houses on matters of ordinary
legislation, (constitutional alterations being ex-
cepted), the Governor may, subject to certain
conditions, dissolve both Houses. The council
has power by message to the Assembly to sug-
gest amendments in the Appropriation Bill.
Manhood suffrage coupled with <'no plural vot-
ing" is the franchise for the Assembl}^ in addi-
tion to which, however, every owner of free-
hold land of the capital value of £100, and of
the annual value of £5 is entitled to be regis-
tered for, and to record his vote in every
electorial district in which such land is situated ;
the act abolishing plural voting prohibiting him,
however, from voting more than once on the
same day. There are 68 members of the As-
sembly. Public and railway officers are unable
to vote in and for ordinary electorates ; instead
of which they are allowed to choose three
special members to represent them in the As-
sembly. ^Members of this House receive £300 per
year, and a free railway pass. Legislative coun-
cillors receive free railwa}^ passes but no pay-
ment. The Assembly is a triennial chamber,
but it may be dissolved by the Governor at any
time. Every elector is qualified to be chosen
as a member.

In Tasmania the Legislative Council con-
sists of 18 members elected by resident inhabi-
tants possessed either of freehold land of the
annual value of £20, leasehold of the annual
value of £40, or having university or profes-
sional qualification ( Constitutional Amend-
ment Act. 1901). The Assembly consists of 35
members elected by adult suffrage coupled with
residential qualification. Members of both
chambers receive an honorarium of £100 each,
subject to their attending a certain number of
days per session. An act to confer the fran-
chise on women was passed in 1904.

In Queensland the Legislative Council, like
that of New South Wales, is a nominated body
consisting of ^7 members ; they are appointed
by the Governor in council, and subject to cer-
tain attendance each session they hold their
seats for life ; they receive no payment, but are
entitled to free railway passes. The Assembly
consists of 72 members elected practically by
manhood suffrage ; but owners of freehold land
of the value of £100, and household occupiers of
the annual value of £10 are entitled to vote in
every electorial district in which they have that
property qualification. The Assembly exists for
three years unless previously dissolved, and its
members receive a remuneration of £300 per
year, and free railway passes, and allowances
for traveling expenses. Every elector is quali-
ved to be chosen a member.

In Western Australia the Legislative Coun-
cil consists of 30 members elected by adult
persons having as a qualification, either freehold
lands of the capital value of £100, or leasehold
of the annual value of £25, or being Crown
lessees or licensees of land of the annual value
of £10. The tenure of seats is six years : one-
third retiring every two years, (Constitution
Act, 1890). The Assembly consists of 50 mem-
bers elected by adult persons being residents
of an electorate, but persons having freehold
land of the capital value of £50, or leasehold

AUSTRALIA — MUNICIPAL AND LOCAL GOVERNMENT

]and of ilie annual value of iio, are entitled to
vote in any district in which they hold the
property qualification. The Assembly, like
other popular chambers of Australia, is a trien-
nial House. A bill conferring the franchise on
women was passed in the year 1899.

Under the provisions of the Constitutional
Amendment Act (igoi). tlic number of mem-
bers of the Legislative Council of South Aus-
tralia was reduced from 24 to 18. Under earlier
acts the members are elected by adults of both
sexes, having as a property qualification either
a freehold estate of the capital value of £50, or
a leasehold of the annual value of £20 with
three years to run, or being the occupier of a
dwelling house of the annual value of $25.
^Members of the council hold their seats for six
years, one-half retiring every three j^ears ; un-
less the chamber is sooner dissolved by the
Governor : which can be done in cases of dis-
putes, or deadlocks between the two chambers
extending over a certain time. By the Consti-
tutional Amendment Act of (1901) the number
of members of the Assembly was reduced from
54 to 42. The Assembly is a triennial chamber,
unless previously dissolved. In the event of a
deadlock between the two Houses in reference
to a proposed law it is within the power of the
Governor to dissolve them both, subject to the
following limitations, viz. : ( i ) It must have
been passed by the Assembly and rejected by
the council in one session; (2) it must have
been, after a general election, passed a second
time by an absolute majority of the whole
number of members of the Assembly and a
second time rejected by the council. Members
of both Houses are entitled to receive £200 per
annum each and free passes over government
railways.

Judicial Dcf^artmcnts of States. — The Su-
preme Court of Xew South Wales is consti-
tuted under Act 4, Geo. IV.. c. 96, and 9, Geo.
IV.. c. 83. It consists of a Chief Justice and six
other justices. It has unlimited civil and
criminal jurisdiction. Circuit districts and cir-
cuit courts are established to try civil actions
and determine crimes and misdemeanors. The
Supreme Court has appellate jurisdiction to
hear appeals from all inferior courts. There
are seven district courts having jurisdiction in
personal actions not exceeding £200 and a lim-
ited criminal jurisdiction. Courts of Petty Ses-
sions having summary jurisdiction to deal with
minor offences and a limited civil jurisdiction
presided over by a Stipendary ^Magistrate, or
by two or more justices, exist in all cities,
towns and centers of population.

There is a Supreme Court in and for Vic-
toria, constituted under the authority of the
constitution. It consists of a Chief Justice and
four justices. It is unlimited in civil jurisdic-
tion a? well as jurisdiction to try crimes and
misdemeanors ; as a full court it has appellate
jurisdiction from all inferior tribunals. Courts
of General Sessions of the Peace having juris-
diction to inquire into a limited class of indict-
able offences and to hear appeals from Courts
of Petty Sessions, exist in certain proclaimed
districts. Wardens Courts and Courts of
Klines exist for hearing mining disputes.
County Courts having authority to decide all
personal actions up to the amount of £500.
Courts of Petty Sesssons having summary jur-

isdiction in minor criminal matters and civil
jurisdiction up to the amount of £50.

The Supreme Court of Tasmania consists
of a Chief Justice and two puisne judges; it
has both original and appellate jurisdiction in
common law, equity, ecclesiastical, and crim-
inal matters. Local courts can deal with civil
matters, some up to £100, and others up to
£50. Justices in Petty Sessions can make con-
victions and orders in minor or criminal mat-
ters.

The Supreme Court of Queensland may be
composed of not less than four, and not more
than five judges. It has the same jurisdiction
as the Superior Courts of Common Law, and
the High Court of Chancery, in England; it
also possesses ecclesiastical and criminal juris-
diction. An appeal lies to the full court from
all inferior courts. District courts are vested
with a limited civil and criminal jurisdiction.
Courts of Petty Sessions and Small Debt
Courts exercise a limited authority in specified
civil and criminal matters. Wardens Courts
are constituted to deal with mming disputes.

The Supreme Court of Western Australia
was established by Royal Charter in 1861, and
the rnain provisions relating to its constitution
and jurisdiction are contained in the Supreme
Court Act, (1880.) It has jurisdiction in com-
mon law, equity, ecclesiastical and criminal
matters. Local courts similar to those in some
of the other Australian states can decide small
debt cases. Justices in Courts of Petty Session
can summarily convict, imprison, or fine per-
sons guilty of minor offences. Warden Courts
have authority to deal with mining cases.

The Supreme Court of South Australia is
composed of a Chief Justice and two other
puisne judges. Its jurisdiction extends to all
matters of law and equity. It has also juris-
diction in crimes and misdemeanors. It is the
court of appeal from the decisions of all inferior
courts. South Australian local courts are to
some extent analogous to the district courts
and county courts of other states. Some of
these courts have jurisdiction in civil matters
up to the amount of £490; other local courts
are limited to actions where the debt or damage
claimed is no more than £20.

Bibliography. See article Austr.\li.\ —
Political History. Sir John Quick,

Member of Commonzvealth House of Represen-
tatives ; Joint Author of '^Constitution of
Australian Commonwealth.^

7. Australia — Municipal and Local Gov-
ernment. I)itroductory and General. — The or-
ganization of municipal government in Australia
is modeled largely on the English system and
is composed of mayors, aldermen and coun-
cilors in the chief cities and larger towns, with
district or shire councils, local or divisional
boards (the nomenclature varies in the different
States) presided over by elected chairmen or
presidents in the small towns or villages, and
outlying districts where settlement is sparse.
All of these are creations of statute deriving
their authoritj', power, and duties from the Par-
liaments of the various States. No salaries are
paid to the mayors who in the capital and mo«t
of the larger towns are voted an annual allow-
ance by the councils for entertaining and keep-
ing up the traditional dignities of the office. In

AUSTRALIA — MUNICIPAL AND LOCAL GOVERNMENT

Melbourne the vote is i 1,500, in Sydney and
Adelaide ii.ooo. The mayor has no direct
power of veto over the council's actions. He
represents the city as a whole and presides over
the council and undertakes only those duties
which devolve naturally on the leading officer
of a city. The paid officials are non-partisan
appointed by the councils and form a permanent
stafif holding their positions during good be-
havior; the head of which (as in England) in
the cities is the town clerk. The terms munici-
pal and local government are interchangeable
as applying to (a) the cities and the larger
towns of the Commonwealth, of which the cap-
itals are types, and (b) to the smaller towns
and outlying districts which are simply micro-
cosms like unto the larger bodies but with
functions of a more prosaic and limited char-
acter conditioned mostly by population. In fact
it may be taken as axiomatic that when the gov-
ernment of the cities is understood everything
of importance to the student is known about
municipal and local government in the Com-
monwealth of the newest of the nations.

Nominations for municipal offices usually re-
quire the signatures of proposer, seconder, and
candidate. In Melbourne 10 ratepayers' signa-
tures are required together with a deposit of
iio. Secret voting, or voting by ballot as it is
styled, is the universal system, which had its
origin many j^ears ago in Australia and has
since found world-wude acceptance.

Generally speaking adult owners and occu-
piers of real estate assessed for taxation who
have paid their rates, whether residents or non-
residents, are entitled to vote in the cities of
Australia. Aliens are barred in some cities and
women are not yet universally welcomed to the
council chambers although they may vote.

The councils of the capital cities are single
chambers, aldermen and councilors sitting to-
gether, presided over by the Mayor. Except in
the Federal Government, and in the State Par-
liaments where it is universal, the bicameral
system of government as it exists in some Amer-
ican cities is unknown in Australia.

The Origin of Local Government. — The be-
ginning of municipal government in Australia
dates back to 1839 when the first municipal law
(based on the English Statute of 1835) was
passed in the State of South Australia and put
into operation in 1840 in the city of Adelaide
whose virgin soil w^as surveyed in 1836. The
parent city of Sydney, the capital of New South
Wales, established in 1788, was incorporated in
1842. Melbourne, the chief city of the State of
Victoria originated as a small settlement in
1835 ^"d was incorporated in 1842 by the legis-
lature of New South Wales of which State it
then formed an integral portion. The other
capital cities are: Brisbane (Queensland),
founded 1826, incorporated 1859; Perth (West
Australia), founded 1829, incorporated 1871 ;
Hobart (Tasmania), founded 1804, incorporated
1857.

Local Government in Xezu South Wales. —
The city council of Sydney is composed of 24
aldermen, one of whom is elected by the council
annually to be Lord Mayor. Two aldermen for
each of the 12 wards are elected by ballot by
the ratepayers every two years. Plural voting
obtains, based on assessment values up to four
votes. Owners, leaseholders, occupiers and

lodgers are entitled to vote. Accounts are aud-
ited bv State Government inspectors. Assess-
ments are based on rental values of improved
property.

The condition of local government in this
State is admittedly unsatisfactory. In the metro-
politan area the agitation for a "Greater Syd-
ney* is still proceeding by which its advocates
hope that the city council will absorb the small
surrounding suburban local governing bodies,
of whom there are no less than 41 each with its
own separate mayor, council, officered staff, and
administration.

The number of municipalities in New South
Wales is only 192, covering an area of 1,810,912
acres with an annual value for assessment pur-
poses of £8,351,420 and a very large area still
remains under the control of the State Govern-
ment which is now considering proposals to
extend the system of local government bj- the
creation of shire councils and new municipalities
allowing such bodies to levy their rates on the
unimproved capital value of the land instead of
on the annual value of improved property.

Besides the municipalities there are boards
and trusts composed of members appointed by
the State Government and members appointed
by various municipal bodies, which are estab-
lished for the benefit of districts covering areas
of two or more ordinary municipalities and are
empowered to construct and supervise water
works, drainage works and similar undertak-
ings with power to raise money by the sale of
debenture stock and levy rates on the assessed
value of benefited properties. In New South
Wales there are the Metropolitan Board of
Water Supply and Sewerage, various Harbor
Trusts, Country Water Trusts, and the Metro-
politan Fire Brigades Board, on which latter
representatives of the fire insurance companies
sit who contribute to the upkeep of the brigades.

Local Government in Victoria. — The city
council of Melbourne consists of 28 members
(seven aldermen and 21 councilors) presided
over by the Lord Mayor who is elected annually
by the council. Three councilors are elected
for each of the seven wards of the city, one
being chosen annually by plural voting for a
period of three years. The aldermen are ap-
pointed by the council and hold office for four
years. Residence within seven miles of the city
and minimum rating of iio qualifies for a vote
which slides upward to three votes on a £150
assessment.

This State has had a comprehensive system
of local government in force for many years
which divides it into cities, towns, boroughs,
and shires ; the councilors are elected by the
ratepayers, and the mayors of cities, towns, and
boroughs, and presidents of shires by the coun-
cilors. The total area under local control
being 87,302 square miles, only 582 square
miles remaining outside of local government.

Melbourne and 22 suburban municipalities
constitute the metropolitan area, and thoughtful
students of local government look forward to
the time when all or most of these will be
amalgamated with the city. A Royal Commis-
sion has taken most exhaustive evidence pro
and con during the past three years but so far
has not submitted its report.

Other governing bodies outside, yet dove-
tailing in with the municipal councils and the

AUSTRALIA — MUNICIPAL AND LOCAL GOVERNMENT

State Government in Victoria, are the Metro-
politan Fire Brigades Board, the Melbourne
Harbor Trust, the Tramway Trust consisting of
representatives of the ]\Ierbourne City Council
and 1 1 other suburban municipalities, the Metro-
politan Board of Works controlling water sup-
plies, sewerage and drainage and various other
Water Works, Irrigation, and Water Supply
Trusts under quasi-local and quasi-State Gov-
ernment control.

Local Government in South Australia. — The
council of the city of Adelaide consists of the
mayor, six aldermen, and 12 councilors. All
of them including the ma3or are elected by the
ratepayers. The mayor and aldermen hold office
for one and three years respectively; the coun-
cilors (two for each of the six wards) hold
office for two years. At each annual election
the mayor, two aldermen and six councilors
are balloted for. Plural voting obtains for
mayor and aldermen, the system allowing a
citizen one vote in each ward where he has
property assessed. The State is divided for
local government purposes into municipal and
district councils. Aldermen may be elected
to surburban councils in addition to councilors
after a poll of the ratepayers has been taken
approving such a proposition, followed by a
proclamation by the State Governor, and it is
worthy of note that the chairmen of the dis-
trict councils are elected not by the ratepayers
but by the members of the councils. The an-
nual assessed value of property in municipalities
is £2,661,238. There are no boards or trusts
(other than the Fire Brigades Board) of any im-
portance, but very extensive powers are vested
in corporate bodies w-ho may raise loans for
the construction and working of tramwaj's,
ferries, jetties, water-works, gasworks, electric-
light works, baths and washhouses, abattoirs,
markets ; and make and provide pleasure
grounds, libraries, museums, hospitals, and
asylums.

Local Government in Queensland. — The
city council of Brisbane comprises 14 members
who are styled aldermen, one of whom is elected
annually to be mayor. The capital value of land
is assessed here and not the rental value. The
owner or occupier has from one to three votes
according to valuation. If, however, the prop-
erty is valued at less than £120, only the occu-
pier has a vote.

A general system of local government was
started in 1878 and revised in 1902. Local
areas are divided into cities, towns, and shires.
Members of councils are styled aldermen in
cities and towns and councilors in the shires.
Aldermen and councilors are elected by rate-
payers in each area, but all mayors of cities
and towns and chairmen of shires are chosen
by the members of the councils. The total area
controlled by local bodies is 668,252 square miles,
leaving only 245 square miles unincorporated.

In Queensland the water supply construction
work is undertaken by the State Government
and when complete is handed over to the local
authorities with attendant liabilities, \yhich be-
come a debt due from the local authority to the
State Government which must be repaid in in-
stalments. There are a few bridge boards and
harbor boards in various districts.

Local Government in West Australia and
Tasmania. — The city of Perth — the capital of

West Australia — is governed by a mayor and
15 councilors, all of whom are elected Dy the
ratepayers. For ward elections there are two
classes of voters and for general municipal
elections four. The local governing bodies in
West Australia are termed Municipalities,
Water Boards, Road Boards, and Health
Boards; the latter may be established within
or without municipal boundaries. Members of
boards are elected by ratepayers and the chair-
men by the members.

In Hobart — the capital city of the island
State of Tasmania — the council consists of
nine aldermen, one of whom is elected by the
members to be mayor. The aldermen are
elected by plural voting with a minimum quali-
fication of £8 annual value, the scale being from
one to seven votes according to assessed value
of property.

Tasmania has its outlying districts governed
by Town Boards and Road Trusts. The rate-
payers in these districts elect their representa-
tives who are termed "councilors" and these
councilors elect their chairman who is stvled
«Warden.»

Pozvcrs and Duties of the City Councils.-^
The functions of the city councils are leg+sla-
tive as well as administrative. They are em-
powered under statutes granted by the State
Parliaments to make by-laws for the suppres-
sion of nuisances for all matters of minutise
relating to good rule and government, and af-
fecting the comfort, convenience, and welfare
of their inhabitants. They may levy rates to
cover the cost of general administration and
raise loans (under certain restrictions) when
necessary for public works. Properties ex-
empted from payment of rates are Federal and
State Government buildings (including State
schools), charitable and benevolent institutions,
churches, chapels, and buildings used exclusively
for public worship, and buildings privately
owned which are used exclusively as schools.
They are charged with the control of traffic, the
testing of weights and measures, the construc-
tion and maintenance of roads, bridges, and foot-
ways, the care and management of parks and
recreation grounds, public baths, street lighting
sheep and cattle markets, meat, produce, and
fish markets, abattoirs, the collection and dis-
posal of garbage, trade refuse, and they may
and do hold large properties in real estate.
They supervise the erection and construction
of buildings and in some cities have jurisdic-
tion over theatres, music halls, and places of
public entertainment as to fire-proof materials
and means of exit. They regulate sky signs and
scaffolding and in most cities license cars, cabs,
and conveyances plying for hire.

Public Health and Sanitary Functions. — The
city councils are constituted as Boards of Health
and are responsible in their areas for the proper
administration of the various public health acts
to the State Boards of Health or Government
Commissioners as the case may be. They in-
spect and license private hospitals and maternity
homes and employ medical officers of health and
staffs of inspectors (male and female) whose
duties are to look after the adulteration of food
and to have the oversight of food supplies (par-
ticularly meat, milk, and bread), inspection of
common lodging houses, dairies, milkshops and
dairy cattle ; noxious trades and businesses,

AUSTRALIA — MUNICIPAL AND LOCAL GOVERNMENT

abatement of common nuisances and smoke nui-
sances ; to prevent spitting in the streets and in
public vehicles ; to inspect restaurants, fishshops,
butcher shops and all premises where food is
prepared or consumed ; to prevent overcrowding
of premises ; and to attend to matters of isola-
tion, disinfection, and hospital accommodation
for infectious diseases and fevers.

Notification of disease is generally compul-
sory under penalty. Medical practitioners,
heads of families, and relatives are all liable for
neglect. In compulsory notification of pulmon-
ary tuberculosis (consumption) the State of
South Australia has led the way, and the diffi-
culties and dangers feared by some medical men
have been found to be mythical and non-existent.

Budget Items and Flotation of Loans. — The
chief sources of municipal revenue are income
from rates, rents from real estate, market dues,
fines, penalties, and license fees.

The rates levied in the city of Adelaide may
be taken as typical of Australia and are as fol-
lows : General purposes, rate, one shilling in
the pound ; street lighting, rate, three pence ;
parks and gardens, rate, one halfpenny ; rate for
sinking funds (loans), one halfpenny, rate for
police purposes, two pence; and a sanitary rate
of three pence. To which must be added a
water and sewerage rate of one shilling and six-
pence in the pound (levied by the State Govern-
ment), making a total of three shillings and
three pence to be paid by the citizens, which in
comparison with the rates charged in London
and most of the large populous cities of Great
Britain is an exceedingly light impost.

The expenditure budgets of the cities con-
tain as principal items : road and footway main-
tenance, upkeep of parks and gardens, baths,
markets and kindred establishments, salaries and
wages. Da\^ labor invariably obtains except on
new construction work. The wage of the ordin-
ary unskilled mimicipal laborer is on an average
seven shillings per day — in some cities slightly
higher.

Loans are mostly raised by the sale of deben-
ture stock, redeemable at due dates, although in
some instances the State Government advances
monej' and becomes the creditor of the local
authority. In Sydney and Melbourne, bills are
passed by the State Parliaments authorizing those
cities to float loans for street construction work,
establishment of electric light, erection of mar-
kets, etc. In Victoria, outside the capital, the
limit of indebtedness for municipalities is fixed
at 10 times the amount of annual income; the
establishment of a sinking fund is obligatory
with an annual appropriation of not less than
two per cent of the amount of the debt. A law
similar in many respects exists in West Aus-
tralia. A referendum of any proposed loan may
be demanded in Victoria and the consent of the
State Governor is required in West Australia.
In New South Wales municipalities may bor-
row on debentures, with the sanction of the
State Governor, an}' sum not exceeding the
total estimated amount of revenue for an en-
suing five years.

In South Australia the consent of the rate-
payers is required preparatory to floating any
loan, the maximum indebtedness of a municipal-
ity is fixed, sinking funds are compulsory, and
where the loan is to be applied to works of a
non-revenue producing character, a rate must
be struck to provide sinking fund and interest.

Population.

Annual Value.

511.030

£5,669.670

501,460

4.489,181

168,066

1,201,996

124.463

1,167.135

46,400

378,266

34.917

i75.'94

Statistics of the Metropolitan Cities. — In any
survey of the progress of modern civilization
the concentration of population in cities is the
most startling fact. It is a world-wide move-
ment and is nowhere more strikingly exemplified
than in the cities of Australia. The progress
of the chief cities has been remarkable and has
no parallel among the cities of the old world.
Even in the LTnited States the rise of the great
cities has been accompanied by a corresponding
increase in the rural population, but in Australia
(perhaps for the first time in history) is pre-
sented the spectacle of magnificent cities grow-
ing with marvelous rapidity and embracing
within their limits one third or more of the
population of the States of which they are the
seat of government.

The population and annual assessment value
for rating purposes of the metropolitan areas
are illustrated in the following table :

Sydney . .
!^'ieIbourne
Adelaide .
Brisbane .
Perth . . .
Hobart . .

City Functions Controlled by the States. —
The police, although supervising traffic and ad-
ministering city by-laws and regulations are
controlled and paid by the State governments
with the one exception of South Australia where
the city and all other municipal corporations are
compelled to contribute a moiety of the cost in
each district. Education is invariably State con-
trolled although private schools exist. The care
of the poor is attended to by the States side by
side with religious and philanthropic institu-
tions. Prisons, asylums, and hospitals are under
the charge of the central governments, although
the local authorities are compelled to pay for
the accommodation in some States of indigent
cases of infectious disease. The cities generally
take no share in the management of public libra-
ries, museums, technical schools, and art gal-
leries which exist in every capital. Telegraphs
and telephones are entirely controlled by the Fed-
eral Government. Tramways (street railways)
are in the hands of the State Government in
New South Wales and in the other capitals are
owned and operated b}' private companies, under
charters granted by the State Parliament. Pro-
vision is, however, made in some States, notably
in Melbourne and Perth, for the metropolitan
municipalities eventually taking them over.
Gasworks and supplies are mostly owned and
operated by private companies. Electric light-
ing is owned and operated municipally in Mel-
bourne and Sydney. In Adelaide the private
company's existing rights expire in 1908. Fire
brigades are managed by boards, with municipal
representation upon them. Water and sewerage
are managed either by State Government de-
partments or quasi-government boards.

The Municipal Outlook for the Future. —
The municipal limits of the capital cities of
Australia by no means correspond to their
social, industrial, and economic boundaries ; as
municipal centres they are the <<pulses'> which
contain only a fraction of the population of the
metropolitan areas and are only just now wak-
ing up to the necessity of bringing into being
comprehensive Greater Sydneys, Greater Bris-

AUSTRALIA — EDUCATION

banes, Greater Melbourncs, and Greater Ade-
laides. The same sociological forces are at
work in Australia as in America, Great Britain,
and the continent of Europe, where enlargement
of areas and greater cities have been dominant
planks in municipal platforms for years. We
may therefore expect similar results to follow
in Australia as have been achieved elsewhere
in the course of the next decade.

Some small effort in this direction has al-
ready been accomplished, notably in Brisbane
and Melbourne, by the recent absorption of one
or two adjacent suburbs, but the movement gen-
erally can hardly be said to have yet passed
much beyond the embryonic stage.

In the metropolitan areas of Sydney, Mel-
bourne, and Adelaide there are respectively 41,
22, and 19 municipal governing bodies with be-
wildering codes of by-laws and methods of ad-
ministration, and it has been well said that on
the score of economy alone the arrangement is
an absurdity which tolerates within a lo-mile
radius of the centres such an enormous num-
ber of local governing bodies — each separate,
distinct, and independent of the other — to man-
age the affairs of from 160,000 to half a million
of people with, of course, as many staffs of
municipal officers, all working in isolation, and
often unable to agree about matters of vital
concern to all. Experience has shown that occa-
sional conferences are at best but an inadequate
substitute for a permanent body with a fair
representation of all interests and smoothly
working machinery. Whether reform takes the
shape of federation or unification, whether it
comes with a rush or gradually, as the dwellers
outside the city bounds awaken to the advan-
tages of co-operative effort — come it must, in
order to permit the carrying out of works at
present impracticable, such as the control and
working of tramways, gas and electric light con-
cerns and kindred undertakings. With the
example of the London County Council before
us it is obvious that it pays to concentrate as
much as possible the municipal work of cities
in one central body. Lord Rosebcrry has said
that "the larger the sense of municipal responsi-
bility which prevails the more it reacts on the
community itself. And men outside the munici-
pality, or who have hitherto held aloof from
municipal government when they see the higher
aims of which the municipality is capable, when
they see the wider work that lies before it,
when they see the incomparable practical pur-
poses to which the municipality may lend its
great power, are not inclined any longer to hold
aloof. ^' The broad policy of the London County
Council is proof of this where the finest intel-
lects in England take their share of the work in
common with those who are attracted to the
Council of the Nation at Westminster.

Notwithstanding its shortcomings the de-
velopment of municipal government in Austra-
lia exhibits an upward and progressive tendency.
The cities have always been free from that gross
corruption which has been such a marked feature
and has wrought such pernicious results in some
other countries. ^Municipal government in Aus-
tralia stands for probity and purity and as a
recent Australian writer in 'The Annals' of
the American Academy has put it : "We are
imdoubtedly further advanced to-day than we
were 20 years ago, and we may reasonably hope
that the silent evolution which is working out

Its eternal purposes in the social, as truly as in
the physical world, will equip us for the achieve-
ment of higher things in the future. »

T. G. El.LKRY,

Tozi-n Clerk of Adelaide, South Australia.

8. Australia — Education. Formed, like
the United States, by the union of previously
autonomous communities, the Commonwealth
of Australia has followed the example of the
United States in the distribution of powers be-
tween the Federal and State authority. That
is to say none but enumerated powers have
been conferred upon the Commonwealth, and
all unenumerated powers remain in the hands
of the originating states. Thus education, not
being among the enumerated powers, is re-
tained, as in the case of America, by the individ-
ual States. Every man, and in recent years,
every woman, possesses, after registration, a
parliamentary franchise, and it is customary to
subject knotty public questions to a direct refer-
endum of the people of a State. Such a degree
of democracy could exist only in a highly en-
lightened community. Elementary education,
therefore, being essential for the exercise of
the duties of citizenship which are imposed
upon all, is compulsory, and the corollary fol-
lows that it is in almost every case free ; other-
wise the school fees would amount to a poll
tax on children, which in a country crying out
for population is the most undesirable of im-
posts. Being for the benefit of all and not of
any sect, state education is secular; and this
not from any disregard for religion, but be-
cause experience has proved that when the
state concerns itself, with dogma strife rather
than religious amity is produced. Education
was in the early days of each colony left to
private enterprise. Before long, however, it
was recognized, consciously by some and in-
stinctively by the majority, that a function so
essential to the general welfare must be re-
garded as a duty of the state. So it came to
pass that education was one of the first matters
of public concern to be included in the ever
widening of the sphere of state activity which is
the most characteristic movement of the present
age. Primary education is accordingly through-
out Australia undertaken by the several gov-
ernments.

There is a general resemblance in the condi-
tions which those who settle in new countries
are called upon to face. The problems of edu-
cation in Australia are very similar to those in
America. The circulars of information issued
by the bureau in Washington have been of the
greatest assistance to the educational depart-
ments in Australia, and several useful reforms
have derived their inspiration from this source.
The laws relating to education in the Austral-
ian states, as might naturally be expected in
adjacent communities springing from the same
stock, bear a strong family likeness ; but as
considerable intervals intervened between the
dates of colonization, and as the science of
education was steadily progressive, the system
adopted by each state was colored with the
views which obtained at the date of its founda-
tion. The older colonies had, therefore, a
more difficult task in bringing the laws into
conformity with improved methods than those
which at a later period were established on
ground unencumbered. All have, however, now

AUSTRALIA — EDUCATION

come into a fairly uniform line. The sequence
of evolution has been the same, although the
successive steps taken were independent and
not simultaneous. In the beginning of each
colony the first schools were established by the
churches, aided by government grants. Soon,
however, state non-sectarian schools were es-
tablished and the subsidies to private schools
ceased. The state schools were in the first in-
stance placed under the control of a Board of
Education appointed by the government ; but
the basic British idea of responsibility to Par-
liament asserted itself, and a cabinet minister
was vested with the powers previously exer-
cised by the board. The Minister of Education
or of Public Instruction, as he is sometimes
termed, appoints and dismisses teachers and
officers, arranges the curriculum and controls
the whole department. Regulations framed by
him and approved by the Governor in Council
acquire the force of law after they have been
laid before Parliament. This centralized ad-
ministration is mitigated, and to some extent,
assimilated to local conditions, through the
agency of district inspectors and local boards of
advice. The funds necessary for education are
derived from the general revenue. From time
to time attempts liave been made to place a
portion, at least of the burden upon the local
rates, but it is felt that the cost of a system
designed for the benefit of the public at large
should be met from a source to which, either
directly or through the customs, all contribute.
In New South Wales and Tasmania fees are
still levied, but in the former these amount to
only a fraction of the whole expenditure, and
are about to be abolished; and in the latter
there are free schools in the large towns. The
net yearly cost to the State of primary instruc-
tion per scholar in average attendance, exclud-
ing the cost of school premises, varies from
£3.9.1 to £4.17.3. The average of all six States
being £4.4.9.

The statutory school age is in New South
Wales and Western Australia from 6 to 14
years; in Victoria from 6 to 13; in Queensland
from 6 to 12; in South Australia and Tasmania
from 7 to 13. Pupils under the maximum age
are exempted from further attendance if on
examination they pass a prescribed standard.
Attendance is required in New South Wales on
70 days, and in Queensland on 60 days in each
half year; in South Australia on 35 days in
each quarter, and in central districts on 8 out
of 10 school sessions in each week ; in Victoria
on 75 per cent of the days in each quarter ; in
Western Australia and in Tasmania on every
day on which the school is open. As a rule,
children under the age of nine, living within a
radius of two miles by road from a state school,
and those between nine and the maxin^um age
living within a radius of three miles, come
under the laws relating to compulsory attend-
ance. Truant officers and in some cases the
police are employed to enforce the law. Prose-
cution and punishment of the parents of
defaulting childrcu is when necessary resorted
to without hesitation.

State schools in Australia come under the
category of Public, Provisional, Half-time, and
Special. In most of the States a public school
may be established if an average attendance of
20 can be maintained. The buildings are pro-

vided by the department. In Queensland an
average attendance of 30 is required, and the
locality has to contribute one-fifth of the cost
of erection and maintenance of the building.
Where the average attendance is under 20, but
over 12, the school is termed provisional. In
sparsely populated districts half-time and spe-
cial schools or itinerant teachers are provided.
The policy of concentration of attendance has
been largely carried out, children are carried
free to and from school over the state rail-
ways in New South Wales and in Tasmania.
In Victoria they are carried at reduced rates.
It is not unusual to see a passenger train stop
at cross roads to pick up a group of children
on their way to or from school. In many
cases it is found to be more economical to make
an allowance to parents for the, conveyance of
children to a school than to bring a school to
the children. JNIoreover, better schools can be
provided and higher standards maintained
imder the "conveyance* system which there is
a disposition to extend. The schools will then
still better serve the purpose of central or
consolidated schools. The average attendance
of pupils at the state schools is at the rate of
about 62 per school, 30 per teacher, and 11. 51
per cent of the population ; the average enrol-
ment being 15.59 per cent.

Normal schools are provided for the training
of teachers, and are usually recruited from
those who have served for four years as pupil
teachers. In South Australia a six-year course
has been arranged for the training of teachers ;
two years are spent in study combined with a
certain amount of practical work; two years in
teaching in the schools, and the final two years
at the University. During the term of training
the students receive a maintenance allowance
of from £30 to £80. The schools are classified
according to the number of the children in
average attendance, and progressive grades of
certificates are awarded to teachers which qual-
ify them for appointments in the public schools.
Uncertificated teachers are frequently employed
in the provisional schools. In all the states
with the exception of New South Wales, there
is a preponderance of female teachers. The
salaries of male head teachers range upwards
to £450, and of female head teachers to £360.
Male assistants receive from £60 to £262, and
female assistants from £50 to £216. The
salaries of provisional teachers run from £66 to
£140. Payment by results has proved unsatis-
factory in operation and has been practically
abandoned. The system of inspection is less
mechanical than formerly and several of the
States exempt schools of recognized excellence
from detailed examination, leaving the promo-
tion of the scholars in the hands of the head
teacher. Boards of Advice .visit, inspect and
report upon the schools in their district, are
authorized to expend small svmis on the school
buildings, arrange for the use of the buildings
out of school hours, and take part in the ad-
ministration of the compulsory clauses of the
Education Acts. The Boards of Advice are
honorary. In some cases they are nominated
by the Executive, in others they are wholly or
partly elective. In Queensland there is usually
a committee for each school. In no case, how-
ever, has the theoretically desirable association
of the official with a public body on each plane

AUSTRALIA — EDUCATION

been achieved ; viz., a school committee acting
with the teacher, correlated with a Board of
Advice co-operating with the District Inspector,
and a Central Council stimulating, assisting,
a.id, if need be, acting as a check upon the
Minister. Education falls short of its object if
the Department does not carry parents and the
locality along with it. The schools, when the
pubh'c sympathi/^es with their work, exercise
a vitalizing and elevating influence on the whole
neighborhood. There is no caste system in
Australia. The state schools are intended to
meet the requirements of rich and poor alike;
it is not uncommon to see the child of a cabinet
minister, or of a wealthy citizen imbibing the
elements of knowledge by the side of the child
of an artisan or laborer.

The education in the state schools is prac-
tical and is now designed as a preparation for
the actual requirements of modern life rather
than for the conditions that obtained in the
Middle Ages. The pupil is led by carefully
graded steps from the known to the unknown ;
from the particular to the general; from the
concrete to the abstract; "from the microcosm
of the school to the macrocosm of the Universe.^'

The tendency is to subordinate theory to
practice. Language is taught before grammar ;
religious conduct precedes dogma. Kindergar-
ten methods, local geography, nature study,
drawing, clay modelling, and manual training
are taking the place of purely literary studies.
History as now taught in Australia is less con-
cerned than formerly with the character of
medinsval kings, it is studied more with the
view of inculcating patriotism, civic duties and
responsibilities. Since the contingents from
Australia bore arms with comrades from the
mother country and the cementing power of
kindred blood shed in common cause has been
realized, the Union Jack is saluted in the
schools of the Commonwealth as is the Star
Spangled Banner in those of the United States.
Arbor Day was instituted in the schnnls of
South Australia in 1887, and the celebration
has become general throughout the States.
On this day the ordinary school work is sus-
pended. The children assemble in the morn-
ing, and, in the presence of the Mayor, or
Chairman of the Board of Advice and other
visitors, plant trees with some ceremony. After
a few speeches and some words as to the care
of trees and their usefulness, the school is dis-
missed and the rest of the day is enjoyed as a
holiday. All new country schools in South
Australia are surrounded by a reserve of sev-
eral acres. Some of the schools adopt practical
agriculture as a form of manual training, and
in all the States, teachers are encouraged to
make, with the aid of the children, gardens
around their schools.

In some of the States there are Manual
Training Centres at which pupils drawn from
the surrounding schools receive instruction
from special teachers. In South Australia the
ordinary teachers are encouraged to qualify
themselves in this branch of education. The
greatest latitude is given as to the form of the
instruction; for that subject is taught best in
which the teacher feels the deepest interest.
Chip carving, joinery, brush making, book
binding, and wire work are among the subjects
taken up in the various schools. Domestic

economy and cookery are taught to girls in
most of the States. Calisthenic class exercises
to a musical accompaniment are commonly
adopted as an attractive form of physical train-
ing. The pupils are taught by drill to move in
masses and the order is occasionally given for
fire parade. The Cadet Corps are under mili-
tary supervision. Rifles are supplied to the
boys, but they have to provide themselves with
an inexpensive uniform. Swimming is taught
in some of the schools. The teaching of sing-
ing by the tonic solfa method is a prominent
feature.^ The principles of morality are sedu-
lously instilled, and good manners cultivated.
Special attention is given to temperance lessons
in almost all the States.

The average minimum time devoted to secu-
lar instruction is four and one-half hours each
day. This stipulated condition being fulfilled
certain facilties are provided for imparting
religious instruction. In New South Wales
and Western Australia the word "secular'* is
held to include religious teaching of a general
as distinguished from that of a dogmatic char-
acter; and the teachers in the performance of
the ordinary day's duty give Scripture lessons
based on those issued by tlie Commissioners for
National Education in Ireland. In South Aus-
tralia, if the parents at any school so desire,
teachers may be required to read without note
or comment a portion of Scripture for a quar-
ter of an hour before the ordinary work be-
gins. In Victoria and Queensland no teacher
is allowed to give other than secular instruction
in a school building. In Victoria. Queensland,
and South Australia the buildings may be used
for any approved purpose out of school hours.
The regulation in Victoria states that half an
hour may be set apart in one or two school
days in each week for religious instruction by
persons other than State school teachers. Such
classes must, however, be held either from g.15
to 9.45 A. M.. or from 3.30 to 4 p. ^r. No sub-
stituted secular instruction is to be given to
the children who do not attend these classes.
In New South Wales and Tasmania one hour a
day may be set apart for the use of visiting
clergymen or teachers of religion. The time,
if not itsed for this purpose, is devoted to ordi-
nary instruction. In Western Australia half
an hour at any time in each day is available for
special teachers of religion, subject to as little
interference as possible with the ordinary work
of the school. In none of the States is a child
required to attend any religious lessons without
the parents' consent. In South Australia the
desire to arrive at a settlement of the vexed
question of religious teaching in State schools
led to the following resolution being carried in
the House of Assembly 16 Dec. 1895: "That
in the opinion of this House a poll of electors
should be taken on the following questions :
Do you favor (i) The continuance of the pres-
ent system of education in State schools? (2)
The introduction of Scriptural instruction in
State schools during school hours? (3,) The
payment of a capitation grant to denomina-
tional schools for secular results?"

The poll was taken at the general election
in April 1896, and resulted in the following
answers: Question No. i: Yes, 51,681; no,
17,819. Question No. 2: Yes, ig,j8o: no.
34,834. Question No. 3: Yes, 13.349". it^>
42,007. Informal, 12,830. The referendum.

AUSTRALIA — RELIGION

thus initiated has since been adopted for the
sokition of various questions in Australia.

Secular education does not satisfy the re-
quirements of the Roman Catholic Church,
which, therefore, in populous centres, maintains
separate schools. In some of the States pri-
vate schools are oflficiall}' inspected. There are
but few evening schools ; little public require-
ment in this direction has so far been manifest.
But continuation schools have been fairly suc-
cessful in Western Australia.

Although as has been seen above Primary
education is chiefly a State function, this is not
the case with secondary education. With few
exceptions the secondary and high schools for
both sexes are private or denominational es-
tablishments. The higher classes, however, in
the State schools include subjects usually re-
garded as secondary. Provision is made by
means of exhibitions, scholarships, etc., to enable
bright and successful pupils from the State
schools to continue their ascent, free of charge,
up the educational ladder, through the high
schools and at the universities. In New South
Wales children who reach the highest class in
the public schools may receive advanced in-
struction including Latin and French for 3d. a
week, and the Department maintains four high
schools, two for girls and two for boys. The
Sydney Grammar school receives an annual
grant from the State, as does also the high
school in Perth. Queensland liberally subsi-
dizes secondary schools. In South Australia
there is an Advanced school for girls which,
althoitgh a State institution, is largely supported
by fees. There is also in Adelaide a secondary
State school for boys which is preparatory for
the School of !\Iincs and Industries, and the
Agricultural College. The distinctive feature
of this school is that only half of each day is
spent in the class rooms, during the other half
the pupils receive practical instruction in the
garden, the laboratory, and the workshop. In
Victoria extra and advanced subjects are taught
in many of the public schools for a small fee.
The Chambers of Commerce, the Bankers' In-
stitute, and the Incorporated Institute of Ac-
countants hold periodic examinations in com-
mercial and allied subjects which have a stimu-
lating effect on this branch of education. There
are private schools in each of the capitals which
provide a commercial curriculum. Technical
education, being a special need in a new coun-
try whose resources are only partially devol-
oped, is largely undertaken by the State. In
the cities and in many of the towns, schools of
design, schools of mines and industries, tech-
nological museums, and workingmcn's colleges
abound. There are also numerous agricultural
colleges. In several of the States technical
schools have been built and equipped by private
munificence.

In the capitals are art galleries containing
many works bj- famous modern artists and
sculptors. In connection with these are fine
art schools where instruction in painting, sculp-
ture, art needlework, and allied subjects reaches
a high standard. These are as a rule controlled
by Boards, in some cases partly appointed by
the Government and partly elected. The Uni-
versity of Sydney was established in 1852,
and that of ^Melbourne in 1855. South Australia
followed Ml 1874 the example thus set and
Tasmania founded a university in 1890. These

universities are supported by grants from the
public chest, by public and private endowments,
and by fees. The Australian universities do
not confer degrees in divinity; otherwise they
resemble and are in no way inferior to those
of the old world. The universities in Adelaide
and Melbourne grant degrees in music, and
each has a fully equipped conservatorium of
music. In all the imiversities women are ad-
mitted to degrees and to the full privileges of
graduates. The universities of Sydney, Mel-
bourne, and Adelaide grant degrees in medicine
to both sexes.

John Alexander Cockburn,
Formerly Minister of Education in South Aus-
tralia.

9. Australia — Religion. . There is no es-
tablished Church in Australia. All religions are
now on an equal footing so far as the Govern-
ments are concerned ; grants in aid were for-
merly given to the leading religious bodies, but one
by one the States relinquished the practice. South
Australia led the way in this abolition in 185 1, a
few years after the foundation of the Colony.
Queensland, in i860, shorth' after the assembling
of its first parliament, limited future payments to
the clergy actually in receipt of grants ; New
South Wales followed suit in. 1862 and Victoria
in 1875. Western Australia voted periodical
subsidies until 1895. when future annual pay-
ments were commuted by the distribution of two
grants of £17,715 each in that and the following
year among the Anglican, Roman Catholics,
Wesleyans, and Presbyterians, which are the
only denominations that have received state aid
in recognition of their religious work. The
members of these four churches constitute the
great bulk of the population and their relative
numerical strength has remained almost con-
stant for the last 30 years. The Commonwealth
is debarred from legislating in respect to reli-
gion. Clause 116 of the Constitution Act pro-
vides that : "The Commonwealth shall not make
any law for establishing any religion, or for im-
posing an}' religious observance, or for prohib-
iting the free exercise of any religion, and no
religious test shall be required as a qualifica-
tion for any office or public trust under the
Commonwealth''. In the convention which
framed the Federal instrument after long and
earnest debate the words "humbly relying on
the blessing of Almighty God*' were inserted in
the Preamble to the Act in recognition of the
deeply religious sentiment of the people. At the
census of 1901 the numbers of adherents of the
various denominations in each State of the Aus-
tralian Commonwealth were given as follows :

Church of England i>497.S70

Roman Catholic 855,799

Presbyterian 426,105

Metho^.st 504,139

Baptist 9J,670

Congregational 73.561

Lutheran 75,021

Salvation Army 31,100

Unitarian 2.629

Other Christian 66,968

Jew, Hehrew 15,239

Mahometan 3,206

Buddhist, Confucian 16,405

Hindoo. Bralimin 846

Other Non-Christian 18,894

Freethinker, Agnostic, etc 10,402

Indefinite 479

Others 80,673

Total 3.771.715

AUSTRALIA — INDUSTRIES AND COMMERCE

Australia was originally included for ecclesi-
astical purposes in the province of Canterbury
and up to the year 1836 was attached as an
Archdeaconry to the diocese of Calcutta. For
15 years after the foundation of New South
Wales the only denomination recognized by the
Government or possessing a Minister was the
Church of England. There is now a general
Synod of this church which meets every five
years under the presidency of the Archbishop of
Sydney, who has the title of Primate of Aus-
tralia, although each State preserves its auton-
omy in church affairs. ^Melbourne and Brisbane
also have Archbishops. There are six dioceses
in New South Wales ; five in Victoria ; four in
Queensland, together with that of New Guinea ;
and two in Western Australia. There is also
the diocese of Adelaide in South Australia and
of Tasmania. The Roman Catholic Church
occupies, so far as numbers are concerned,
the second place in each of the States, with the
exception of South Australia, where the Metho-
dists are numerically stronger. Its organization
in Australia as elsewhere is superb. At the
head of the Church stands the Cardinal Arch-
bishop of Sydney. There are Archbishops in
Melbourne, Brisbane, Adelaide, and Hobart ;
and 14 Bishops in the six States. Until 1834
Australia, so far as the Roman Catholic Church
is concerned, was under the Bishop of Mauritius.
Sydney was in that year constituted a see ; eight
years later the prelate was invested with the
title of '^Archbishop of Sydney and Vicar Apos-
tolic of New Holland.** In 1885 the Archbishop
of Sydney was created a Cardinal and
placed at the head of the Roman Catholic
Church throughout Australasia. In 1876 Mel-
bourne, was made an Archdiocese as were also
Adelaide and Brisbane in 1887, and Hobart a
year later. The Cathedrals of Saint Mary in
Sydney and Saint Patrick in Melbourne are
especially magnificent structures. The Roman
Catholic Church takes a prominent part in
furthering social "and industrial legislation and
in temperance work. The Wesleyan Methodist
Church was established in New South Wales
in 1812. at a class meeting attended by 12
persons. Up to 1855 this Church was re-
garded as a Mission, but in that year it was
constituted an affiliated Conference. In 1873
the Australasian Wesleyan Church was raised
to the rank of an independent conference. On
I Jan. 1902, the Wesleyan Methodist, the Primi-
tive Methodist, and the United Methodist Free
Churches of Australia and New Zealand were
united under the name of the Methodist Church
of Australasia. Tn South Australia this Church
includes 25 per cent of the whole population and
throughout Australia its members form a com-
pact, enlightened, and progressive body, which
has exercised a preponderating influence in pro-
moting temperance legislation and measures
tending toward a high plane of morality. The
Presbyterians erected in 1810 one of the first
places of worship in New South Wales. The
Presbyterian Churches in all the States arc
united under the title of the Presbyterian
Church of Australia in a General Assembly
which meets every year in the capital cities in
rotation. The Church in each State, however,
acts independently in local administration and is
autonomous so far as property is concerned.

There is a Union of the Congregational
Churches in each State federalized in the Con-
gregational Union of Australasia. Thus per-
vading the Churches and leading to interstate
Unions, is witnessed the same .synthetic spirit
\vhich was materialized in Australian Federa-
tion. By this means strength is acquired with-
out the sacrifice of local liberty, for a Federal
union combines firmness with 'flexibilitJ^

The youngest and one of the most active
religious bodies in Australia is the Salvation
Army. It started in South Australia in 1880
and two years later officers were sent from
Adelaide to organize forces in Victoria. New
South Wales, and Tasmania, and in 1886 to
Queensland; operations in Western Australia
were commenced in 1891. At first the officers
of the Army met with mucla ridicule and some
ill-treatment but the earnest and effective man-
ner in which they grappled with the problems of
social reform soon reconciled the public to their
methods. Persecution gave way to popularity,
and the work of the Army is now applauded by
all classes. The Prison Gate Brigade reclaims
many criminals, and does such good service in
diminishing crime that several of the State Gov-
ernments give a grant in aid of its operations.
The headquarters of the Army are in Melbourne
and the officer commanding in Australia has the
rank of a Commissioner. There are Colonels
or Brigadiers in each State.

The several churches in Australia are ani-
mated by those friendly and tolerant sentiments
which are the natural offspring of freedom. An
interchange of pulpits is not infrequent. On
Empire day in 1906 a special service was ar-
ranged at Saint Paul's Cathedral, Melbourne,
in which the president of the Methodist Con-
ference and the minister of the principal Pres-
byterian Church took part.

John Alexander Cockburn,
Foniicrly Minister of Education i)i South Aus-
tralia.

ID. Australia — Industries and Commerce.

Manufactorics.^Vor many years Australia
relied chiefly on its raw products for its wealth,
but recently steady progress has been made with
its manufacturing industries, and at the present
time 152,260 men and 50,638 women find em-
ployment in what are ordinarily termed fac-
tories, as well as a large number of others in
smaller establishments.

The most rapid increase in the manufactur-
ing industry has taken place during tlic past 10
years — in fact between 1894 and 1904 the hands
employed increased from 133,631 to 202.898, an
increase of 69,267, as compared with an increase
of only 28,366 during the previous 10 years, the
growth of the factory employees being propor-
tionately far greater than that of the population.
As regards the manufacturing industry gen-
erally, the population of the continent is at
present hardly sufficient to maintain a large
manufacturing population, while its distance
from other market places is at some disad-
vantage as regards the export of manufactured
products. The total horse-power of machin-
ery used in the factories amounts to 160,000, the
increased use of electricity in recent years be-
ing accountable for a rapid addition in such
power.

AUSTRALIA — INDUSTRIES AND COMMERCE

The following table shows the number of
establisiiments and the hands employed in each
state of the Commonwealth in factories and
works employing four hands and over :

Hands
Class of Industry. employed.

Leatherware, not elsewhere included 566

Minor wares, not elsewhere included 1,884

Total -'02,898

New South
Wales.

Victoria.

Queensland.

South_
Australia.

West

Australia.

Tasmania.

3,632
68,036

4,2oS
76,287

1,909

1.339
18,644

607 431

It will be seen from the above table that Vic-
toria, which was the first state to displaj- activity
in the manufacturing industry, emplo3-s the
greatest number of persons, and of these 25,429
are employed in establishments employing from
four to 20 hands, 25,042 in establishments em-
ploying from 21 to 100 hands, and 25,816 in
factories employing over 100 hands.

The capital invested in Victorian factories
amounts to a little over £20,000,000 sterling, in-
cluding the value of the land, buildings, ma-
chinery, plant and sundries. The capital in-
vested in New South Wales factories amounts
to £21,000.000. The capital invested in the
manufacturing industries in Queensland amounts
to £9,000,000. According to the census of 1901,
the capital invested in the manufacturing indus-
tries of the Commonwealth aggregates £65,000,-
000, of which £20.000,000 is represented by land
and buildings, £21,000,000 by machinery and
plant, and £24,000,000 by stock, material, etc.

New South Wales comes next to Victoria in
the employment given in the manufacturing in-
dustries, and its total of 68,036 is made up of
53,457 males and 14,579 females. Establish-
ments employing from four to 20 hands employ
19.879; from 21 to 100 hands, 24,797 persons,
and over 100 hands, 23,360 hands.

In Queensland the two principal manufac-
turing industries are sugar refining and meat
preserving, and of the total number of people
employed, about 12 per cent find employment in
these two industries.

The total output of all factories in Australia,
exclusive of those engaged in the production of
butter, cheese and bacon, figures of which are
included in the pastoral industry, amounts to
£71,000,000, of which £43,000,000 represents the
value of material and fuel used, and £28,000,-
000 the value added in the process of treatment.
Of the latter sum £13,500,000 accrues to the pro-
prietors to pay rent, depreciation, insurance, etc.,
and profits of the business, and £14,500,000 rep-
resents wages paid to the employees.

The following table gives the class of in-
dustries which give employment to people in
the Commonwealth : Hands

Class of Industry. employed.

Treating raw material the product of pastoral

pursuits 7>'^2''

Oils and fats, animal, vegetable, etc i,709

Processes in stone, clay, glass, etc 7>904

Working in wood 15,709

Metal works, machinery, etc 37>3i7

Connected with food and drink, etc 32,754

Clothing and textile fabrics and materials 56,599

Books, paper, printing and engraving 18,019

Musical instruments 282

Arms and explosives 302

Vehicles and fittings, saddlery and harness, etc. 7,959

Ship and boat building, etc 1,826

Furniture, bedding and upholstery 5,396

Drugs, chemicals and by-products 2,110

Surgical and other scientific instruments 134

Jewelry, time]iieces and plated ware 1.286

Heat, light and power 4,020

Tanning, fell-mongering and wool scouring
afford the largest amount of employment among
the industries in class i, and this can be readily
understood, seeing that the pastoral industry
is still the greatest in the Commonwealth.

In class 2 the manufacture of soap and
candles is increasing rapidly.

In class 3 the manufacture of bricks and
tiles is the most important, about 65 per cent
of those engaged in this class being employed in
that industry.

In class 4 it can be readily understood that
with the immense forests of valuable timber,,
the saw mill is the most important of wood-
working establishments, and about 70 per cent
of those employed in that section are in saw
mills.

Class 5 included a great number of persons
employed in the engineering works of the re-
spective state government railwaj'' and tramway
workshops. Also workers in smelting establish-
ments for the extraction of ore, though these
employed in quartz batteries are not classified
as factory hands in Australia. There are sev-
eral important establishments for the manu-
facture of agricultural implements, and at Gaw-
ler, in South Australia, and in Melbourne, the
capital of Victoria, important agricultural im-
plement works have been founded. To an
Australian firm is due the credit of inventing-
that great labor-saving appliance, the " Com-
plete Harvester."

In industries connected with food and drink
butter, cheese, meat preserving, sugar mills, and
breweries employ a great number of hands, while
fiour mills, derated water factories, biscuits and
other articles required for local consumption
also employ a great number of persons.

Factories connected with clothing and tex-
tile fabrics offer more employment than any
other section, and here the females employed
largely outnumber the males. Victoria shows
the greatest development in this industry, and
during the last few joars the manufacture of
wool has made considerable progress in the
various states.

Perhaps a more interesting comparison will
be found in arranging the industries into three
natural classes: (i) Those which come into
competition with imported goods; (2) those
dependent upon the natural resources of the
Commonwealth, and (3) those treating perish-
able products for domestic consumption. We
find that the first section employs 88.866 people,
the second 102,206, and the third 11,826.

Speaking of wages generally, Australia pays
its employees high wages compared to other
countries, while the genial climate and general
healthy conditions of life makes living cheap
compared to other countries of the world.

During the last few j'ears a system of in-

AUSTRALIA — INDUSTRIES AND COMMERCE

•dustrial legislation has come into force in
most of the states, which brings about better
conditions of work, cleanliness, air space, sani-
tation, etc. Australian factories, as a rule, are
well built and room\-. The day's work is gen-
erally limited to eight hours, with extra pay-
ment for overtime in cases of need. Wages
boards have also been appointed for many of
the principal industries, and to prevent strikes
and lock-outs, courts of conciliation and arbi-
tration have been established.

Taking the chief manufacturing state of Vic-
toria as a basis, the latest records show that in
industries controlled by wages boards, the aver-
age earnings of male workers, 21 years old and
upwards, is £2 4s. 3d. per week, and of females,
19s. pd. per week. The average wage in indus-
tries not so regulated, being £2 is. iid. and 17s.
5d.. respectively.

Pastoral Industry. — The pastoral industry
plays the most important part in the resources
and wealth of Australia. At the close of 1904
Australia had 65,822.918 sheep. 7,868,520 cattle,
1.595.256 horses, and 1.062,253 pigs. The 1905-06
figures are not at present available for all the
states, but judging from those available it may
"be safely estimated that the sheep show an in-
crease of about 14 per cent on the figures given
and now number 75,000,000 ; cattle show an in-
crease of 8 per cent, now numbering 8.500,000,
and horses an increase of 5 per cent, numbering
1,675.000. In swine, the figures are probably
about the same.

Nothing is more marvelous than the prog-
ress of the pastoral industry. In the year 1800
there were only 6,124 sheep, 1,044 head of cat-
tle, 203 horses, and 4,017 pigs in the whole of
Australia, but it is since 1850 that the greatest
progress has been made, and from that date the
value of the wool alone which has been ex-
ported has amounted to £650,000,000 sterling.

The first sheep imported were from the Cape
of Good Hope, and in 1823 and 1825 further lots
of Spanish sheep were introduced. In some
respects the climate of Australia changed and
improved the character of the Spanish fleece.
1 he wool became softer and more elastic and
increased considerably in length. The average
■weight of a fleece has increased remarkably, and
while in 1861 the average weight of a Xevv
South Wales fleece was only 3.28 pound per
sheep, the present avcra.ge weight is 7.3 pound.

In recent years there has ueen a tendency
to divide the sheep into smaller flocks. In New
South Wales for instance there are 17.361 sheep
owners as compared with 14,033 ten years pre-
vious, while the average size of a flock is now
1,650 as against 4.050 at a former period. Of
the total number of the sheep in Australia about
95 per cent are merinos. On the coastal districts,
however, where merino sheep do not do so well,
the rearing of cross-bred and long wool sheep is
increasing and these are specially valuable for
the meat they produce. It is intercstin.g to note
that at the present time Australia carries one-
fifth of the total sheep in the world.

The export of wool brings an immense
amount of money to the Commonwealth and the
1904 return for each state was as follows :

New South Wales £9,328,270

Victoria 3-376-" ' 5

Queensland 2,280,909

South Australia £1,306,238

West Australia 419,395

Tasmania 401,512

Total £17,112,339

Cattle.— Ovi'm^ to the more profitable char-
acter of sheep farming, cattle breeding in the
Australian states is, with the exception of
Queensland, second to that of sheep. The fol-
lowing table shows the number of cattle in the
various states at the end of 1904 :

New South Wales 2,167,129

Victoria ii694i976

Queensland 2,722,340

South Australia 520,379

West Australia s6ii49o

Tasmania 202,206

Total 7,868,520

For the year ending 1905 the cattle in the
states for which there are returns had increased
by eight per cent and as the season generally in
Australia w-as a favorable one it is safe to as-
sume that in all the states an increase occurred
on the returns of the previous year and the pre-
sent numbers are not less than 8.500,000.

No form of production in Australia has made
such rapid strides of late years as dairying and
included in the above figures for cattle are the
following numbers of dairy cows and heifers :

New South Wales 591.936

\'ictoria 632,493

Queensland 160,000

South Australia 88,826

West .\ustralia 27,721

Tasmania 50.230

Total 1,551,206

Horses. — Considerable attention has been
paid to the breeding of horses and at an early
period the stock of colonial-bred horses was
improved by the importation of Arabian and
other breeds. The following table shows the
number of horses in the different colonies :

New South Wales 482,663

\'ictoria 37->397

Queensland 413,165

South .Australia 200,241

West Australia 90.225

Tasmania 36.565

Total 1,595.^56

There is a considerable demand in India for
Australian horses and as a rule between 6,000
and 7,coo are exported annually to India, valued
at from £80,000 to £85,000.

Angora Goats. — Considerable attention has
been given during the last few years especially
in Queensland and New South Wales, to the
production of mohair and considerable numbers
of pure bred angoras have been imported from
the United States. The goat thrives admirabh^
in the warm dry climate of Australia and it
seems likely that in the near future, tlie export
of mohair will show considerable incrca.se. At
the present time there are about 65,000 goats
depastured in Australia.

Catncls. — In some of the states cainels are
employed for the carriage of wool and other
produce. In West .Australia camels number
2,150 in New South Wales 850, and in the Com-
monwealth as a whole the number is not less
than 4,200.

AUSTRALIA — INDUSTRIES AND COMMERCE

Pastoral Returns. — The annual return from
the pastoral pursuits in 1904 was about £36,000,-
000, to which total sheep contributed about £26,-
000,000; cattle £7,000,000; horses £3,000,000.
The greater part of the sheep industry is, of
course, the return from wool and skins which
amounts to £20,250,000. The value of wool con-
sumed locall}' is not more than £250,000.

Frozen Meats. — A rapid increase in live stock
in Australia in favorable seasons makes the
question of disposing of the surplus material of
serious consequence. In 1882 the first shipment
of frozen mutton from Australia to Great Brit-
ain was tried. In 1905 £441,018 worth of frozen
beef, £1,081,151 worth of frozen mutton and
£338,823 worth of hares and rabbits were ex-
ported from Australia <■ ve*- sea.

Queensland exports large quantities of
chilled and frozen beef, the total amounting to
about £1,000,000 worth annually. Much of this
is sent to the other states and is not included in
the oversea exports. New South Wales exports
chiefly frozen mutton, which varies in value
from about £200,000 to £500,000 annually. Vic-
toria also exports large quantities of frozen mut-
ton and beef, while South Australian lambs
are highly prized in the British markets. The
export of canned meat was valued at £264,000.

Dairy Farming. — The introduction of the
factories system at convenient centres in Au-
stralia has caused rapid extension in this indus-
try. Immense quantities of butter are now ex-
ported to Great Britain, in 1905 the export
amounting to £2,307,835 sterling or 11 per cent
of the total imports into Great Britain. The total
value of the dairying industry of Australia is
shown in the following table :

Total Value of Dairy and Swine Produce.

New South Wales £2,426,000

Victoria 2,912,000

Queensland 646,000

South Australia 568,000

West Australia 240,000

Tasmania 338,000

Total £7,130,000

Forestry. — Australia is chiefly famous for its
hardwood timbers, the export of which is now
a considerable industry. In 1904 the total ex-
ports from Australia amounted to £839,518 of
which West Australia exported £584,422. The
present annual value of the timber industry of
the Commonwealth, that is of the rough timber
as it leaves the forest saw mills, is about £2,-
250,000 sterling. In West Australia alone the
forests of marketable timbers are estimated to
cover about 21,000,000 acres. The Governments
of all the States have a number of reserves
where the young timber is conserved so that
the source of supply can be maintained.

Jarrah is the chief timber exported, its prin-
cipal use being for wood-blocks, piles, railway
sleepers, etc. The wattle tree grows well in
most parts of Australia, from the bark of which
large quantities of tanning material are pro-
duced. There are various species of eucalyptus
from which is distilled the famous eucalyptus
oil which has a considerable vahie for medicinal
purposes. Some of the fine grained woods are
also very beautiful and rraich used for decora-
tive purposes. The karri is probably the finest
tree of the Australian forests and sometimes
run to over 30 feet in circumference at three
feet from the ground and up to 150 feet from

the ground to the first branch. Other prime
timbers are ironbark, tallow wood, jarrah, spot-
ted gum, grey box, mahogany, blackbutt, etc.
Besides hard woods there are beautiful cabinet
woods, viz. : cedar, rosewood, redbean, silky
oak, blackwood, etc.

Agriculture. — Judging by the experience of
the past 30 years, Australia appears to be on
the threshold of vast agricultural developments.
Up to 187 1 only 2,345,922 acres were under crop
in the Commonwealth but in 1904 this had in-
creased to 9,365.022 acres. Of the cultivated
land 90 per cent lies within the borders of New
South Wales, Victoria and South Australia.
The following table shows the area cultivated
in the various States :

State. Acres.

New South Wales 2,674,896'

Victoria 3.3-21.785

Queensland 539,216

South Australia 2,275,506

West Australia 3.27.391

Tasmania 226, 22&

Total 9,365,022

As in most new countries where the pioneer
farmer needs a quick return from his land,
wheat is the principal crop and nearly 67 per
cent of the cultivated land is sown to wheat.
The area under wheat for grain in the various
states in 1904 was as follows :

State. Acres.

New South Wales i, 775. 955

Victoria 2,277,537

Queensland 1 50,958

South Australia. 1,840,157

West Australia . 182,080

Tasmania 43,091

Total 6,269,77s

In 1905 the yield of wheat for the Common-
wealth amounted to 68,000,000 bushels, but the
figures showing areas imder crop in 1905 for
the various states are not at present available.
The other crops of most importance are hay,
oats and maize, 1/6 of the cultivated area being
under hay, 5.2 under oats and 3.5 under maize.

The Commonwealth requires about 30,000,000
Inishels of wheat annually for home consump-
tion and seed and a production of 65,000,000
leaves about 35,000,000 bushels annually for ex-
port.

The average yield of wheat in Australia may
be taken at about 10 bushels per acre. This
appears low judging by the standard of many
other countries, but a bare statement of averages
is misleading, as in Australia the cost of pro-
duction is relatively very low. In ordinary dis-
tricts the expenses of ploughing seed and sow-
ing and harvesting the wheat amounts to only
about i2/-per acre, so that a yield of 10 bushels
at 3/- a bushel means a return of about 18/
an acre out of which to pay the other expenses.

In South Australia the conditions of cultiva-
tion are even more favorable than the above
indicates, and with a smaller yield, wheat grow-
ing is bound to be very profitable. The present
comparatively low yields are largely due to the
fact that immense areas are put under crop by
individual farmers. In consequence, the culti-
vation and harvesting methods are not carried
out so thoroughly as in older countries of the
world. With smaller areas and better farming,
far higher averages will, it is believed, be ob-

AUSTRALIA — INDUSTRIES AND COMMERCE

trained in the future. The following tables show and Tasmania and attracted a rush of popula-
the average area and yield of some of the other tion. A little later gold was found in Queens-
principal crops : land and the last of the states in which extensive

Area under other Principal Crops.

State.

Maize.

Oats.

Other grain
crops.

Hay.

Potatoes.

Sugar cane.

Vines.

Other
crops.

New South W.iles

Acres.

193,614
11,394
119,171

Acres.
40,471
344,019

643
50,630
13,864
43,690

Acres.
23,120

59.879
17,746
30,982
4,377
24.077

Acres.

435,704
452,459

48,740
269,626
105,247

55,545

Acres.

23,855
46,912
J2,754
8,3'5
1,906
25,948

Acres.
21,525

Acres.

8,840
28,016

2,194
23,210

3,413

Acres.
151,812
101,569
66,693
52.586
16,418
33.728

120,317

West Australia

86
149

Tasmania

Total

324,414

493.317

160,181

1.367,321

119,690

141,842

65,673

422,806

Agricultural Production.

State.

Maize.

Oats.

Other grain ,1
crops. «=»>'•

Potatoes.

Sugar cane.

Wir.e.

New South Wales

Bushels.

4-951,132

623,736

2,542,766

Bushels.

652,646

6,158,929

15,137

555.696

226,318

1,178,819

Bushels.
334.205
1,105,822
347.738
440,536
50,396
502,818

Tons.
366,293
514,316
80,662
294,252
113.794
73.457

Tons.

48,754
92,872

33,257

19,521

5.614

110,547

Tons.
199,640

Gallons.

928,160

1,832,386

60,433

2,625,430

185,070

Queensland

1,326,989

West Australia

896

Total

8,118,530

8,787.545

2,781,515

1,442,774

310,565

1,526,629

5.631.479

Large areas are also under orchards in the
various states of the Commonwealth, the total
being about 155,000 acres. Victoria heads the
list with 51,000; New South Wales 50,000 and
S^uth Australia 20,000. The export of apples,
oranges and dried fruits to Great Britain has
been commenced and promises to develop into
an important industry.

All tlic Governments give considerable atten-
tion to agricultural education and have estab-
lished agricultural colleges and experimental
farms where practical and scientific agriculture
is taught.

In most of the States also arrangements are
made by the Government to advance money to
assist farmers at low rates of interest.

Irrigation. — The necessity for providing
water for stock and irrigation in the dry parts
of Australia induced the respective Governments
to spend a good deal of money on water con-
servation and artesian boring. Cretaceous beds
extend over large areas of New South Wales,
West Australia and South Australia. By sink-
ing artesian bores supplies of water are brought
to the surface from underground sources which
exists in the tertiary drifts and the cretaceous
beds.

In New South Wales one of these wells has
a daily flow of 1.750,000 gallons, the depth of
the bore being 2,029 feet. Over 50 artesian bores
have been successfully sunk in South Australia,
the greatest daily flow amounting to 1.200,000
gallons. These bores give excellent water for
stock purposes and are also used in many cases
for irrigating crops.

Mineral Resources. — Most metals of eco-
nomic value are found in Australia. Gold is
found in all the states and in 1823 the first dis-
covery of the precious metal was made. In
185 1 and 1852 important discoveries were made
ia New South Wales, Victoria, South Australia

deposits were foimd was Western Australia.
So important did these deposits prove that in
1905 the otitput of Western Australia was more
than equal to all the other Australian states
together.

The following table shows the gold won in
each State up to the end of 1905 and the return
for the individual year of 1905 :

Total Yield, 1905.

£ Ounces.

New South Wales 53,235,286 274,267

Mctoria 272,801,158 732,603

Queensland 61.618,291 578,364

Soutli Australia 2,778,392 20,447

West .Australia 62.686,475 1, 955, 304

Tasmania 6,026,845 74,3 16

Total. 459,146,447 3,635.301

Sikrr. — .\ustralia is rich in silver and it is
found in all the states either alone or in the
form of sulphides, chloride, bromide, iodide,
chloro-bromide of silver and antimonial and
arsenical ores and argentiferous lead ores. In
the latter the largest deposits of metal are
found.

Prior to 1882 the output of silver in Australia
was small, but with the opening up of the Bar-
rier Mines at Broken Hill, close to the boundary
cf New South Wales and South Australia, rapid
advances took place. The following table shows
the output of silver and silver lead in the re-
spective state up to the close of 1904:

Silver and
State. silver-lead.

New South Wales £37,348,699

Victoria 198.793

Queensland 995-583

South .\ustralia 141.848

West Australia 85.887

Tasmania 3. 436,546

Total £42.207.356

Of the above about £29.000,000 worth is the
product of the Broken Hill mines.

Copper. — The following table shows the pro-

AUSTRALIA — INDUSTRIES AND COMMERCE

duction of copper in Australia up to the end of
1904 with the output for 1904:

State. Total. 1904.

Xew .South Wales £7,017,166 £406,001

\ictoria 206,895

Queensland 2,981,910 257,896

South Australia 24,1 16,098 432,063

West Australia 461,447 25,180

Tasmania 5,602,184 507,066

Total £40,385,700 £1,628,206

It will be seen that South Australia has pro-
duced the greatest quantity of copper, but of late
ye-ars Tasmania has had the largest output.

Tin is also found in payable quantities in
many parts of Australia, the production to igo6
amounting to £21,549,000. Iron is distributed
throughout the Commonwealth and at Lithgow,
in Xew South Wales, where iron and coal de-
posits lie alongside each other, a commencement
has been made to smelt the ore. Tasmania has
enormous deposits situated near the Blyth river.
Other minerals widely diffused throughout Au-
tralia are antimony, bismuth, manganese, plati-
num, tellurium, lead, wolfram and a number of
earth colors. The annual production of such
other minerals amounts to about i8oo,ooo.

Coal. — Coal was first discovered in New
South Wales in 1797. Since that time it has
1-een proved that nature has bountifully supplied
Australia with mineral fuel. Black coal forms
one of the principal mineral resources of New
South Wales and it is estimated that the known
areas of coal fields of this class contain over
85,000 million tons. The following table shows
the value of the total output of coal in the
respective States and also the output for 1904:

Output
State. Total output, in 1904.

New South Wales £46,016,054 £1,994,952

Victoria 1,331.877 70,208

Queensland 3, 3-5. 609 166,536

South Australia

West Australia 373,598 67,174

Tasmania 524,859 29,878

Total £51,571,997 £2,328,748

Brown coal or lignite occurs principally in
Victoria but it is much inferior to the black
coal. Good coal has been found in Western
Australia, while in Queensland the extent of
the coal fields is practically vmlimited — over
24,000 square miles of coal measures having al-
ready been explored. Tasmania also has im-
portant carboniferous formations.

^farble of high quality is found in many
parts of Australia, while the finest opal known
is obtained in the Upper Cretaceous formation
near Wilcannia, New South Wales. The out-
nut of opals from this district amounts to about
£125,000. Other gemstones, including emeralds,
sapphires, rubies, etc., are found in various parts,
while diamonds are found in New South
Wales, Victoria, Queensland and South Au-
stralia, though only in the first named are the
diamond drifts worked commercially.

Commerce. — The external trade of Australia
is increasing rapidly as the following table
shows :

Year. Imports. Exports. Total trade.

1861 £17,562,960 £17,399,656 £34,962.616

'881 29,031, i'3i 27,528,583 56,559-714

1901 42,433,811 49.696,172 92,129,983

^905 38,407,579 56,750,347 95,157.926

If the interstate trade be included the figures
will be greatly increased. Taking, for instance,

the returns for 1905 and including the interstate
figures the trade of each state was as follows :

Imports. 1905-

New South Wales £29,433,078

\'ictoria 22,317,195

Queensland 6,504,919

South Australia 8.431.594

Western Australia 6,481,309

Tasmania 2,652,777

Total £75,820,872

The following figures show the distinction
between oversea and Australian goods :

Goods Interstate

Imported. Trade.

New South Wales £14,573,819 £14,859,259

Victoria 1-^,937,932 9,379 -'C'3

Queensland 3,164,487 3,340,432

South Australia 3,224,589 5,207,005

West Australia 3,768,830 2,712,479

Tasmania 737,922 1,914,855

Totals £38,407,579 £37,413,293

The total exports for the same year were as
follows :

Exports. 1905

New South Wales £36,645.451

\'ictoria 22,706,658

Queensland 1 1,862,367

South Australia 9,455,991

West Australia 9,789.354

Tasmania 3,703,819

Total 94,163,640

These are distinguished as follows :

Oversea Interstate

Direct. Trade.

New South Wales £24,484,740 £12,160,711

Victoria 14,028,641 8,678,017

Queensland 3,384,856 8,477,511

South Australia 5,402,638 4-053,353

West .\ustralia 8,977,297 812,057

Tasmania 47^,175 3,23i-644

Totals £56,750,347 £37,413,-93

The external trade of the Commonwealth
amounts to £23. lo.od per head of population,
which is nearly four times that of the United
States and considerably greater than that of the
United Kingdom.

Of the total trade 49 per cent in 1905 was
with Great Britain, 23 per cent with other parts
of the British Empire and 30 per cent with for-
eign countries. The trade of Australia shows a
considerable diversion in recent years from Brit-
ain to foreign countries. In fact one-third of
imported goods are now of non-British origin
as compared to one-fourth 10 years ago, and
of the exports over one-fourth are sent to non-
British countries compared with one-tenth in
1885. The chief cause of this is the establish-
ment of direct and rapid communication between
Germany, France, Belgium, Japan and the Uni-
ted States with Australia.

In the exports the same tendency is notice-
able, in 20 years the percentage to Great Britain
having fallen from 74.91 per cent to 46.11, while
exports to foreign countries have increased from
9.26 per cent to 25.89 per cent.

The following are some of the chief articles
of export during . 1905 :

Butter £2,447,133

Copper, ingots, and matte 2,103,694

Coal 910, 518

Wheat 4,140,676

Flour 1, 211, 351

Lead, pig, and matte 772,079

Leather 418.681

Beef 441,018

Mutton and lamb 1,081,151

AUSTRALIA — GOVERNMENT UNDERTAKINGS

Rabbits and hares £338,823

Silver, bar, ingot, etc 818,341

Silver lead 757,460

Hides 176,030

Rabbits and hares (skins) 231,627

Sheep skins 1,396,849

Tallow 774,646

Timber 1,036,183

Tin, ingots 71 4,074

Wine, fermented 106,789

Wool, greasy, washed and scoured 19,822,216

Gold 10,965,612

5/n>/';;;g.— In 1904-5 the total number of
vessels, in the interstate, coastal and oversea
trade, exclusive of river traders, entering and
•clearing Commonwealth ports was 17,691, of
29,150,962 tons. This shows an increase of 813
vessels and 4,450,847 tons on the figures of the
previous year.

The number of vessels and tonnage of same
•entering Au'^tralian waters from foreign parts
and those clearing for same is shown in the
following table :

1903.
Description of Vessel. Vessels. Tons. Crew.
Entered:

Steam 1,038 2,639,708 75.845

Sailing 938 1,085,378 16,744

Total 1,976 3,725,086 92,589

Cleared:

Steam 1,050 2,629,677 76,285

Sailing 1,062 1,089,654 17,067

Total 2,112 3,719.331 93.352

Timothy Augustine Coghlan,
Agent-General for New South Wales.

II. Australia — Government Undertak-
ings. The manifold activities of the State —
which is the striking feature of Australian polity
— originated from the obvious inability of a
sparse population to develop an enormous ter-
ritory by individual effort. Australia is nearly
as large as the United States, if we exclude the
northern part of Alaska, and even now it only
contains 4,000.000 people. Roads, railways and
means of communication in this vast territory
were necessarily the care of the State in a coun-
try where neither individuals nor townships
possessed sufficient capital or labor to under-
take these works. Consequently posts, tele-
graphs, and railways in every State of the Com-
monwealth are under government control. The
posts and telegraphs are since 190c under the
Federal Government but the railways continue
to belong to the several States. The impulse
given to State energies by the necessity for
means of locomotion and intercourse soon led
to the provision by the same authority of facil-
ities for shipping produce. The control of har-
bors and rivers thus passed naturally to the
State Governments and the State of New South
Wales in 1902 compulsorily purchased all the sea
frontages of the business portion of Sydney
Harbor in order to exercise a more effective
control of the wharves and prevent the charges
being raised to shippers by any combination
of private owners. The States have in many
instances delegated the management of State
property to boards. But the wisdom of vigorous
and ever-watchful State activity is the accepted
creed of the Australian democracy, which dreads
nothing more than the industrial anarchy of
imregvilated individualism.

Raihvays. — Railways have always been re-
garded in Australia as a means of opening up
Vol 2 — 7

new country. Naturally, therefore, they run
through sparsely settled areas. Nevertheless,
and in spite of the fact that new lines are being
continuously added, the 13,500 miles of railway
in the Commonwealth give a net return of 3.38
per cent. In all the States — and in New South
Wales the tramways also — they are under gov-
ernment control. In Western' Australia there
are also 277 miles of private lines; in New
South Wales, 81 '4 miles; in Tasmania, 160
miles ; in South Australia. 20 miles, and in
Queensland, 102 miles. Until 1897 Western
Atistralia favored the construction of lines of
private enterprise on the L'and Grant system;
but the results as compared with governmental
control were found to be so unsatisfactory, that,
following the example of New Zealand which
had had the same experience, the State acquired
the Great Southern Railway (243 miles) by
compulsory purchase. In order to minimize the
dangers and political interference the manage-
ment and maintenance of the railways in all the
States is under the control of commissioners
who are appointed for terms of not less than
seven years and are independent of Parliament.
In New South Wales and Victoria proposals for
new lines are submitted to committees com-
posed of members of both Houses of Parliament
whose duty after taking evidence is to advise
Parliament as to the expediency of their con-
struction.

The following table shows the amount ex-
pended on construction and equipment up to
30 June 1905 :

State. f

New .South Wales 43,062,550

\'ictoria 41.279,045

Queensland 21,610,980

South Australia 13,587,406

West Australia 9,808,458

Tasmania 3,920,508

Commonwealth 133,268,947

The greater part of the public debt of Aus-
tralia has been expended on railway construc-
tion.

In 1850 the first railway was commenced but
it was not until 1855 that the line was opened.
It ran for 14 miles from Sydney to Paramatta.
At the end of 1871 just over i.ooo miles of rail-
way lines had been built. After that the work
of construction was carried on rapidly and the
following table shows the total number of miles
open for traffic in the various States at the end
of June 1905 :

State. Miles.

New South Wales 3.-80 3-4

Victoria 3,394

Queensland 3,692 1-2

South Australia i,745 3-4

West Australia i ,605

Tasmania 462 1-2

Commonwealth 13,580 1-2

The following tables show the net profit after
paying working expenses, and the percentage of
profit to capital invested :

jj Net Percentage

•*"'^" profit. in capital.

New South Wales £1,491,869 £3/9/3

Victoria 1,462,643 3/10/9 l-:»

Queensland 598,695 2/15/5

-South .\ustralia 536,53° 3/19/

West Australia 354,126 3/12/2

Tasmania 71,926 1/16/7

Commonwealth £4,515,789 £3/ 7/9

AUSTRALIA — GOVERNMENT UNDERTAKINGS

The freight charges are low, as the main
object of railway construction has been to open
up and develop the country Railway construc-
tion in Australia has not proceeded with uni-
formity of gauge. In New South Wales a gauge
of 4 ft. 81/2 in. has been adopted. In Victoria
5 ft. 3 in., in South Australia partly 5 ft. 3 in.
and partly 3 ft. 6 in., while in the other States
3 ft. 6 in. in gauge is universal.

Speaking generally the agricuUural districts
are excellently served with railways. The total
number of passengers carried annually amounts
to about 115,000,000, the receipts from coaching
traffic being about 41 per cent of the whole and
those from goods traffic 59 per cent.

Other Public Works. — The early settlement
of Australia, unlike that of America, was cen-
tralized in the capital cities of each State ; con-
sequently municipal institutions and local gov-
ernment are as yet imperfectly developed. Thus
many of the functions of municipalities are per-
formed by the Central Government although
there is a growing tendency to transfer these to
local bodies as the country population gathers
round townships. At present the State Govern-
ments maintain all main roads and bridges.
They also construct the harbor works and pro-
A'ide dredgers for their maintenance. In Mel-
bourne and Sydney this work has been delegated
to Boards. Punts and ferries on rivers are also
under the control of the State Governments ;
which is also charged with the con-
struction of all school buildings, prisons, and
hospitals. Water conservation is another very
important function of the State Governments,
and large sums have been spent in sinking for
water and maintaining artesian wells along the
stock routes of the dry interior.

Activities of Federal Government. — The
Federal Government of the Commonwealth has
not yet assumed all the powers which by the
Constitution are permitted to it. At present it
only controls public works in so far as these are
connected with the postal, telephonic, and tele-
graphic services, with military and naval de-
fence, and with the customs houses. It will
soon also take over from the States the light-
ing of the coasts, the quarantine grounds, and
the observatories.

The Commonwealth Parliament has recently
passed an act providing for the compulsory ref-
erence of industrial disputes extending beyond
the limits of one State to a judicial tribunal ;
but it is questionable whether this act is not
unconstitutional, and in its present form it is not
likely to be effective. The Commonwealth has
also, in the exercise of its powers to "make laws
with respect to trade and commerce,'' passed a
stringent law against fraudulent marks on goods
whether these are imported or made in Aus-
tralia, and also to provide for the marking with
a government stamp on all goods intended for
export. The same measure permits goods which
are made under trade union conditions to be
marked with a special union label. The Parlia-
ment has now before it a measure to prevent
trusts and combines within the Commonwealth
and to prohibit the importation of "dumped"
goods (i.e. goods sold for export at below cost).

In military matters the Parliament, imder the
influence of the Labor party, have adopted the
principle that if a country is worth living in it

is worth defending; and that therefore it is the
duty of every citizen in a democracy' to be able
to bear arms. The Defence Acts empower the
calling out of every citizen under the age of 40,
and provision is made for universal instruction
in military matters by the formation of cadet
corps in all the State schools. A movement is
now on foot for providing for the coastal de-
fences of Australia by means of locally owned ■
warships. The Federal Government administers
as a dependency the British portion of New
Guinea which is now known as Papua. It is
also proposed that the Federal Government shall
provide old age pensions.

The Federal Government has control of im-
migration but its activities in that direction are
at present hampered by the jealousies of the
States which own the available land and are
willing to co-operate with the Commonwealth.
The law as to the immigration of undesirables
is practically the same as that of the United
States, and Canada; but its administration is
less strict. No white person has ever been ex-
cluded under its provisions.

State Actiz'ities. — All the States, except Tas-
mania and Western Australia, have from time
to time attempted to deal with the problem of
the unemployed by means of labor settlements.
None of these, however, have been permanently
successful and they have not been adopted on
any large scale.

Co-operative and village settlements have,
however, been more successful in Victoria and
South Australia. Areas of land are set apart
in both these States for village communities.
The government makes advances for improve-
ments and on the performance of the required
conditions the occupier may obtain a perpetual
lease on the freehold of his block. Up to
30 June 1904, a total of 1,891 settlers, making
with their families a community of 8.556 souls,
were residing in these settlements in Victoria
on an area of 57,588 acres on which improve-
ments had been effected to the value of £254.955.
In South Australia at the same date, the num-
ber of settlers was 84, to whom ii02,ii6 had
been advanced, while the improvements effected
were valued at £41.869. The unoccupied lands
in every State belong to the State and not to
the Commonwealth.

Agricultural Activities. — Every State has
tried by legislation to improve and develop its
agricultural resources. Until the establishment
of the Commonwealth the States gave bonuses
on the export of butter, cheese, and fruit, but
these have now ceased. There are, however, in
New South Wales, Victoria, and South Aus-
tralia depots under State management for the
storage and freezing of perishable products.
Exports of poultry, butter and cheese are
graded and marked by government brands, and
South Australia for some years maintained in
London a depot for the sale of her wines. ]\Iost
of the States have appointed boards which are
empowered to lend money to farmers to effect
improvements. Every State maintains agri-
cultural colleges or lecturers, and in some there
are experimental farms. New South Wales
maintains State nurseries for fruit and forest
trees.

Charities. — The administration of charity is
an important function of the States in a country

AUSTRALIA — FINANCE

which has no poor law ; hospitals, asylums for the
insane, asylums for the aged, orphanages, and
industrial schools are all established and main-
tained by the State governments. A system of
boarding out of State children is also in opera-
tion in New South Wales, Victoria, and South
Australia. Old age pensions of 10/ a week are
given in New South Wales to all above the
age of 65 who have not an income of Izd a
year.

Iitdusfriiil Aciiz'ifies. — In New South Wales
and Victoria the States have adopted the view
that an industrial dispute between capital and
labor is as much a concern of the State as a
quarrel in the street between two citizens. Each
State deals with the matter in a different way.
In New South Wales a tribunal has been
established to which all industrial disputes must
be referred. A workman striking or a master
locking out before making such a reference is
guilty of a misdemeanor. The court has power
to enforce its awards by fine or imprisonment :
it can direct a minimum wage and may order
that preference be given to unionists in any in-
dustry. It has power to declare an order made
in any case to be the "common rule* of the in-
dustry in question within a given area. It is
claimed for this act, which has been in force
since 1902, that it has given a new security to
capital by preventing strikes and that it has
abolished "sweating." In Victoria, Wages
Boards have been established for every industry,
consisting of an equal number of representatives
of workmen and employers with an umpire. All
questions relating to the trade may be referred.
The decisions of the board may be enforced by
action in the courts as upon the award of an
arbitrator.

The Factory Acts of Great Britain have been
partially adopted by all the States, but in none is
there the same strictness of supervision nor the
same restraint upon the manufacturer as in Eng-
land. The government of New South Wales
makes the clothes of the railway employees and
police in a State factory. Most of the States
have State workshops for manufacturing rolling
stock and railway engines. The State of New
South Wales also owns a dry dock and a ship
repairing plant.

All the States publish Year Books giving full
details of the progress of the State, and the
working of all government departments. These
can be obtained gratis on application to the
Agent-General of the State in London.

BERNn.\RD RlXGR^sSE WiSE,

Formerly Attorney-General, .Vrtc South Wales.

12. Australia — Finance. In matters of
finance, as well as in many other things, Aus-
tralia presents a most interesting field for study.
Sprung from a splendid body of pioneers, who
had been brave and enterprising enough to quit
the old home-land, with all its tender associa-
tions, and well ascertained conditions of life,
and to cross the ocean, in a voj^age lasting, in
those days, three or four months, in order to the
beginning of a new life under unaccustomed con-
ditions, in a new and undeveloped land, the
colonists have wrought wonders. Untrammeled
by any vmdue preference for the old ways and
with ample scope for bold, not to say audacious,
experimenting, the spirit of enterprise, inherited
from their fathers strong in them, the second

generation of the settlers, who are the Austral-
ians of to-day, have striven to put into practice,
and by no means without success, some theories
which have elsewhere remained merely theories.
In their systems of land settlement, their State
ownership of such undertakings are railways,
tramways, water-works, etc., and in schemes of
ta.xation, to say nothing of other matters of
iinance, they have sometimes discarded precedent
and have no reason to be ashamed of the re-
sults which they have to show for their enter-
prise and fearlessness. Complicated as are, in
some respects, Australian questions, through the
existence, at one and the same time, of a dual
citizenship, every person owing allegiance to his
own individual State and also to the broader
Commonwealth government, a very little care
will enable a complete view to be taken of
Australian finance, including both those figures
relating to the Commonwealth, or National, and
to the State, or Provincial Governments. The
4,000,000 people of tlie Commonwealth occu-
pying the great island continent of Australia
and the adjacent small one of Tasmania, with
an area, in all, of as nearly as possible 3,000,-
000 square miles, having, for national pur-
noses, united imder the Commonwealth Consti-
tution Act, are still, in respect of all but certain
specified matters, citizens of one or other of the
six States of New South Wales, Victoria,
Queensland, South Australia, Western Australia,
and Tasmania. So far as their finances are con-
cerned it is necessary to remember that to the
Commonwealth are assigned very large powers
of taxation, which, however, are, so far, only
exercised in respect of customs and excise, the
whole revenue from which is collected bv the
Commonwealth, the balance, after meeting its
own necessities, being handed over to the
States, in proportion to the amount of the duties
derived in each State. The Commonwealth con-
trols all posts, telegraphs, and telephones, as
well as all military and naval defences, and
also several other important departments of
State, but the finances and statistics are unaf-
fected by these matters, as in the case of all of
them, where there is Commonwealth control
State control ceases. In taxation, however, if
it were attempted to show the total for Australia
by adding to the total for the Commonwealth
those for the States, the result would be wrong;
just as would be any attempt to get the total
revenue or expenditure for Australia by adding
Commonwealth totals to those for all the States,
because of the portion of the customs and excise
revenue which, being first collected by the
Commonwealth, is afterward paid over to the
States and so would appear twice in the totals.
In this statement care will be taken to show
all the figures once, without any duplication
whatever. The figures given will, unless other-
wise stated, be from the unchallengeable author-
ity of the latest volume published by the govern-
ment statistician of New South Wales, }klr.
Coghlan, now Agent-General for that State in
"London. We shall, however, begin with the
totals of revenue and expenditure of the Com-
monwealth for the financial year ending 30 June
1905, as given to Parliament by the treasurer
of the Commonwealth, the Rt. Hon. Sir John
Forrest, in his budget speech in August 1005.

AUSTRALIA — FINANCE

The figures show the sum collected in each
State :

State

Customs

and
Excise

Posts and
Telegraph

Other
Revenue

Totals

N. S.Wales.
Victoria ....
Queensland.
S Australia.
W. Australia
Tasmania. . .

£3.033,617
2,488,842
1,095,476

678,880
1,029.515

3^0,651

£980,141
682, 565
331,096
266,691

»57. 489
112,923

£6, q68
7,800
3,288
7,838
1,938
2,047

£4,020, 727
3,179,207
1,429,860

953,409
1,288,942

445,621

Totals

£8,656,981

£2, 630, 905

£29, 880

£11,317,766

Beside the totals given the Commonwealth
collected in Western Australia, and paid over to
that State, temporary duties amounting to
ii42,549. The expenditure was :

Customs and excise department £256,060

Military and naval defences 706,279

Posts, telegraphs and telephones 2,560,756

Other expenditures 461,497

Total £3,984'592

The customs and excise revenue for the year
ending 30 June 1905, was collected under the
following heads :

CUSTOMS.

Stimulants £2,050,648

Narcotics 922,248

Sugar 192,391

Agricultural products and groceries 684,746

Apparel and textiles 1,348,848

Metals and machinery 454,325

Oils, paint and varnish 121,466

Earthenware, etc 138,122

Drugs and chemicals 56,646

Wood, wicker and cane 202,719

Jewelry and fancy goods 166,906

Leather and rubber 154.588

Paper and stationery 106,488

Vehicles 80,813

Musical instruments 47,062

Miscellaneous 122,025

Total customs £6,850,041

EXCISE.

Stimulants £753,529

Tobacco 516,761

Sugar 503,627

Miscellaneous 33,023

Total excise £1 ,806,940

Total customs and e.xcise £8,656.981

The amount per head in each State was as
follows: New South Wales, 41/7 1-2; Victoria,
Queensland, 42/. ; South Australia,
West Australia, 85/. ; Tasmania,
Total, £235 1-2. The free list in the
tarifif covers 10,000.000 sterling value of im-
ports out of a total of £36.244,000 per annum.
The Commonwealth, it will be noticed, has

41/1 1-2;

36/51-4;
36/8 1-4.

main in the hands of the several States. It is
to a large extent a tax-gatherer for the States,
the constitution requiring it, for the first 10
years at least, to return to the States, or to pay
on their behalf as interest or principal on State
loans, not less than three-fourths of the total
income from customs and excise. This provi-
sion was adopted in order to avoid dislocation
of the State finances through the transfer of this
revenue from the States to the Commonwealth,
and also to restrain the Commonwealth Parlia-
ment from mopping up all the revenue from
customs and excise by launching out on new and
costly enterprises, which might leave the States
in an awkward financial position. The Common-
wealth Parliament as it is has set its face
sternly against borrowing, even for public works,
pays for all that are necessary out of sur-
plus revenue. It is proposed in influential cir-
cles to federalize the State loans to such an ex-
tent as would finally absorb the revenue now
returned year by year to the States, so as to
remove the present interdependence of Com-
monwealth and State finance. The expenditure
of the Commonwealth is narrowed down to a
very few items. We have the cost of the de-
partments transferred from the States to the
Commonwealth and now controlled by it, such
as the customs and excise, posts, telegraphs, and
telephones, military and naval defenses, etc. To
these are added the cost of the Commonwealth
machinery of government, including the de-
partments of the Governor-General, the Minis-
ters of State, and the Legislature, together with
the Judiciary. The outlay on public works and
buildings was for the year under review £333.-
725, and the total expenditure was therefore £4,-
318,435. The balance of revenue over expendi-
ture was returned to the States as follows : New
South Wales, £2,529,069; Victoria, £2.071,378;
Queensland, £752,532; South Australia, £555.692;
Western Australia, £885,349, and Tasmania,
£259,099. Total, £6,999,119; beside £142,549 col-
lected for Western Australia and paid to that
State. This was in excess of the minimimi laid
down by the constitution. The payments to the
States must tend to diminish as the Common-
wealth extends its functions, but, in many cases,
the new departments will be taken over from the
States, which will in that way obtain relief. The
expenditure quoted includes the imperial naval
subsidy and £20,000 for British New Guinea.

The revenue and expenditure of the several
States forming the Commonwealth will be seen
by the following tables compiled from the bud-
get speeches delivered by the State treasurers
shortly after the close of the financial year end-
ing 30 June 1905 :

State.

Returned by
Commonwealth

Taxation

Land Sales
and Rents

Public Works

Miscellaneous

Totals

New South Wales

£2,529,069
2,017,378

752, ■;32

555,692

1,027,898

259,999

£1,114,408
713,227

454,574
439,048

221,735
216,953

£1. 7^7, 902
388.170
623,416
182,247
315,613
82,811

£5-055,353
3,6og, 120
1,409,414
1-382,749
1,797,433
220. 632

£880, I 86
781,762

355,462

165,988

252.661

3-199

£11,336,918
7,509,657

3-595-398

2,725-724

3,615.340

852.694

Totals

£7,141,668

%, 159,945

£3-350,159 1 £13,544,701

£2,439,258

£29,635,731

no revenue from any other form of taxation The expenditure was as follows:

beside customs and excise, neither has it any New South Wales £11,195.075

territorial revenue, having no control over the Ou^"n^and ......'..........'■..'. ■■■■■'■ 3!58i!403

huge areas of unalienated lands, which still re- South Australia 2,693,495

AUSTRALIA — FINANCE

Western Australia
Tasmania

£3,745,224
842,469

The grand total was therefore £29,040,339,
leaving a surplus of £595,392.

It will be seen that nearly one half of the
total revenue of the States is derived from
^'public works.* This represents the earnings of
the railways, tramways, harbor works, and
water-works, together with other lesser under-
takings, the construction of which has been the
main factor in building up what at first sight ap-
pears to be the huge debt of Australia. It may,
however, be noted that the public works not only
aid very greatly in the development of the vast
areas of the unoccupied Crown lands in Aus-
tralia, but they also produce a large annual
revenue, which maj'' well be set off against the
annual interest charge, as the value of these
permanent assets are set off against the debts
themselves. The works include between 13 and
14 thousand miles of railways, which cost just
over £132,930,764, up to the end of 1904, the
latest year for which the details are obtainable,
and for that year they earned, over and above
working expenses and upkeep, the sum of £4,-
065,631 toward interest on the loans raised to
pay for them. As the country through which
they pass develops their earnings must increase.
The item land sales and rents is much lower
than in past years as the present policy of all
the States is to encourage settlement, by leasing
land on very long leases, with or without right
of purchase, so as to assist people with little
capital, rather than to sell land for cash. In
many cases the purchase money is spread over as
much as 20 years, all pajniients going off the
purchase money, so as to aid would-be cultiva-
tors, who art short of funds, to make a start.
The provision of such conveniences as roads,
bridges and schoolhouses, absorb practically all
the proceeds from the land for several years
after it is first leased, so that the States are by
no means living on their capital. The lands
which once returned no revenue at all are, by
these means, being gradually developed and
made to produce loading for the railways and
business for the harbors as well as assets and
income taxable by the treasurers. The taxation
differs in the several States, though most of
them now levy on the estates of deceased per-
sons in proportion to the size of the bequests
left and to the degree of relationship between
the testator and the legatee, the larger bequest
and the more distant relative paying the higher
rate. There are also, in most States, taxes on
income and on ^'unimproved land values," that is
to say on the capital value of land less the value
of improvements thereon. The direct taxation
including all these came for the whole Com-
monwealth, in the latest year for which figures
are available, to 14 shillings and 4 pence per
head. The extremes in different States were
South Australia highest at 18 shillings and '
penny per head, and Victoria lowest at 12 shill-
ings and 4 pence. The principle of progression
in taxation is recognized in some States, not
only in succession duties, but in income and also
in land values taxation. The usual distinction
is observed between income derived from per-
sonal exertion, and therefore depenuent upon the
life and health of the earner, and that derived
from investments or property, which is inde-
pendent of personal effort. The rate of tax is

higher on the income from property than upon
the produce of personal exertion. There is, too,
the further graduation according to the amount
of the income. In Victoria, for example, the
rate is on incomes derived from personal exer-
tion 3d. in the £ up to £300, on every £ in excess
of £300 up to £800 4d.. over £800 to £1,300 5d.,
over £1,300 to £1,800 6d., and over £1,800 /d. in
the £. Double these rates is charged on income
from property. The land values taxation levied
in certain States is on the value of the land
after deducting the value of improvements
thereon. It is, therefore, much heavier on city
and suburban than on country land, area for
area. Taking South Australia the rate is one
halfpenny in the £ capital value up to £5,000
value, and one penny in the £ if the value be
over £5,000, and there is also an extra tax of
20 per cent, on the first tax if the owner of the
land be not resident in the State. The miscel-
laneous receipts gall for no special remark. The
total revenue looks very large, but it needs to be
remembered that altogether apart from the
postal and telegraphic receipts, which appear not
in the State, but in the Commonwealth accounts,
as do also all figures relating to military and
naval defences, nearly one half of the total is
for services rendered to the people by means of
public works, and altogether outside the ordi-
nary functions of government, as commonly un-
derstood. On this account it cannot be said
that Australians are burdened by the contribu-
tions they make to revenue, even though they
pay in all, to Commonwealth and States, £7, 8
per head per annum. The further taxation
levied by local governing bodies for purely local
expenditure, such as road maintenance and sani-
tation, is not large. The figures for Western
Australia are abnormal on account of the rapid
development of the gold-fields and the resulting
preponderance of highly paid adult males in the
population, consuming highly dutiable goods.
'Ihe expenditure of the States would be absurdly
high were it not for the fact that it includes, to
the extent of 50 six per cent of the whole, pro-
vision for the working of the railways and the
payment of interest and repayments of debt.
These charges are not in any true sense "costs
of government." They must be considered in re-
lation to special income appearing on the other
side of the account. That seven per cent of
the expenditure is for education is indicative of
the general trend of affairs in Australia, and of
the high ideals cherished. Of course it needs
to be remembered that at the present stage set-
tlement is sparsely spread over a huge terri-
tor}% and that the costs of administration would
be "lightly increased, if at all, if there were three
or four times the number of people on the
land that there are to-day, while the revenue
would be largely multiplied. It is area rather
than population which, under certain circum-
stances, determines expenditure, and these cir-
cumstances exist in many parts of Australia to-
day. The Australian of the present is fully de-
termined not to allow extravagance in public
expenditure, and no blunder in public life is
more speedily punished by the electors. The ex-
penditure of the States of course includes all the
cost of the legislative machinery, with the salary
of the State governors, and the members of the
State parliaments, and also all the charges con-
nected with the administration of all the depart-
ments, such as police, public health, and educa-

AUSTRALIA — FINANCE

tion, together with the oversight of an elaborate
system of local government in each State, which
in its turn deals with a wide area of purely local
concerns. Australia indeed possesses all the
concomitants of a highly organized political
and social organism, and believes that it gets a.
full return for its public expenditure. The ex-
ceedingly close approximation of expenditure to
revenue results from a disposition, whenever
any considerable surplus appears in the accounts
for any year, to devise further public conven-
iences which may be provided for the future,
and so the surplus is absorbed. There is no
general desire to show large surpluses nor is
there much efifort to reduce taxation, which is
not felt to be burdensome, but rather to add
to the facilities afforded for trade, and for the
occupation and development of the country and
of its industries. These ends are being achieved,
and the cost of them is not grudged by those
who have to find the money, and who reap the
gain.

The debts of Australia have all been in-
curred by the States, and the Commonwealth
has^ as yet, carefully avoided any line of policy
which would involve it in any necessity for em-
barking on a borrowing policy, on its own ac-
count. Indeed, as has already been suggested,
the Commonwealth Parliament has determined
to construct all such public works as post
offices, fortifications, etc., out of revenue. It has
taken over from the States all the customs
houses, post offices, military and naval defences,
stores, etc., which were the property of the
States, prior to the establishment of the Com-
monwealth, and will ultimately have to recoup
the States for them, either by taking over State
debts to an amount equivalent to their value, or
in some other way, which must almost of neces-
sity involve the Commonwealth in a debt, and
it is probable that the final settlement between
the Commonwealth and the States, as to the
annual surplus now paid over to the States out
of the proceeds of the customs and excise duties,
may result in the assumption by the Common-
wealth of the responsibility for a certain por-
tion of their public debt. There are further
schemes in contemplation for the transfer of
State obligations on certain terms to the Com-
monwealth, beside which there are proposals
under consideration, in Commonwealth circles,
for the construction of trunk lines of railway
across the continent of Australia, east and west,
as well as north and south, and also for naval
defence which, when carried out, will require
the raising of Commonwealth loans. For the
present, however, we have only the debts of the
States to treat of. Mr. Coghlan's < Statistical
Account of Australia and New Zealand,' pub-
lished early in 1905, gives the debts of all the
States of the Commonwealth as follows:

State

Debt

Per head

Annual
interest

New South Wales. . .

^80,033,581
51, 819,962
41,781,287
28, 593, 645
16,090,288
9, 318, 400

£55 7 2
42 19 4
79 II 5
77 9 I
67 12 I
51 i3 4

£2,841,368
1,885,983

I 1 547 -47°

South Australia

Western Australia..

1,069, 325
547,160
341,627

Total debt

£227,637, 163

£57 8 8

£8,232,933

These figures practically represent the posi-
tion as it is to-day. All the States have some
provision of the nature of a sinking fund for the
ultimate extinction of the debts and in several
cases stock is from time to time purchased and
canceled out of funds set apart for purposes of
redemption. None of these funds have, how-
ever, as yet, assumed proportions sufficiently
large to modify materially the facts as to the
total debts just quoted. The debt of Australia
in no case represents the cost of war. The whole
of it has been incurred with a view to the
development of the vast resources of the con-
tinent and for practically the whole of it there
are very valuable permanent assets. Of the
total debt of ^227,637,163, £136,600,855 was spent
on railways and tramways; £29,245,167 on water
supplies and sewerage; £17.373,507 on harbors,
rivers, and navigation; and £17,188,178 for pub-
lic works and buildings, beside other sums for
telegraphs, telephones, defence, and other items.
The net revenue produced by these works aggre-
gated, in the year under review, over and above
working expenses and maintenance, 2.30 per
cent, on their cost. It should be also remarked
that the year for which the figures are given
was not a normal year, the effects of the prev-
ious year's drought liaving by no means passed
away. The revenue from this source could be
increased to an amount sufficient to meet in full
the interest charge, if it were desired to do so.
but the charges for railage and harbor dues and
water supplies, etc., are all kept down with a
view to the encouragement of settlement and of
production, it being recognized that the direct
return received from the enterprises is by no
means the sum of their earnings, as they produce
through the resulting prosperity of the people, a
very large indirect return through the customs
house, and in many other ways. It is the
general prosperity rather than the direct
revenue which is the primary objective for the
time being. Meantime the works are permanent
assets of constantly increasing value, and
revenue earning power. As has often been
pointed out, Australia could, by the sale of her
railways, harbor works and water services, im-
mensely reduce her public indebtedness, for the
undertakings would sell readily for what they
cost, but she would be poorer, rather than
richer, by the transaction at once, to say nothing
of the folly of such a policy from the point of
view of the future. There is, further, one great
asset of Australia which cannot be overlooked
in any consideration of her financial position,
and that is her imalienated land. In four out of
the six States the areas are very large and, al-
though the values vary very widely according to
climate and other conditions, they call for tabu-
lation, and the following statement shows the
area of each State, and the unalienated land in
each, etc. :

It is necessary to bear in mind that the
public indebtedness of the Australian States was
not contracted against any specific security, but
against the public credit of each generally, so
that there is behind it, not only the public
estate in the shape of land and works of every
kind, but also the whole taxing power of the re-
spective governments. In view of this it must

AUSTRALIA— THE LABOR PARTY

be manifest that the securities are absolutely The volume of business done in the Common-
«gilt edged.» The following table shows the wealth by the various life assurance offices is

State

Area in Acres

Area alienated

or in process of

alienation

Area leased

Area neither

alienated nor

leased

New South Wales

198,848.000
56,245,760
427,838,080
578,361,600
624.588,800
16,778,000

48,851,524
24,526,255
16,991. 127

14, 14Q, 171
10.S48.057
5,040,415

127,901.840
9,516,372
277.569,396
189, 531 955
135.678,028
I. 581. 937

Victoria

22,094.636

22, 203,433

South Australia

13^.277,557

Western Australia

374.680,474

478.362,715

19 155-650

Total Commonwealth

6/So 1 £

, ,240

"".'""047

741,779,528

1.040,774,165

figures given by Air. Coghlan as to the values of
the alienated land and the improvements
thereon, and also the value of the private prop-
erty in Australia :

very large as the figures quoted below will
show, and there are also a number of friendly
benefit societies, whose roll of membership is
indicative of the widespread practice of habits

St.\te

Land without
improvements

Land and
improvements

Total value of
property

Per
head

New South Wales

£136,417,000
126,078,0^0
41,400,000
.'5. 957,00^
21,832,000
21,832,000

£264, 492,000
234.057,000
72, 040, 000
59, 176,000
19, 272,000
34.907,000

£368,778.000
310,074,000
no, 454,000
86, 320,000
49,0^5,000
48,288,000

£258
256

Victoria

234

2l6

269

Tasmania

Total Commonwealth

^373.679,000

£683,944,000

£981,979,000

£249

Of course, the figures in the last two columns
are subject to adjustment on account of absentee
ownership, persons in one State often owning
properties in other States. Mr. Coghlan also
furnishes elaborate calculations to show the
amount of the private incomes of the people, ex-
cepting interest paid by Australian governments,
that is to say money paid by themselves to
themselves, and his result is a total of private
annual incomes of £179,563,000 or £45 per in-
"habitant of Australia, including men, women,
and children.

The extent of the financial operations con-
ducted within the Commonwealth will appear
from the sworn returns of the banks doing busi-
ness there for the year 1904. The totals were :
Notes in circulation not bearing interest, £3,-
133,268; bills in circulation not bearing interest,
£521,267; deposits not bearing interest, £34,968,-
383; deposits bearing interest, £56.579,719;
balances due to other banks, £290,439; total
liabilities, £95,493,076. The assets are shown as
follow-s : Coin, £17,910,771; bullion, £1.447.698;
landed property, £5,245.311; debts due to banks
from other banks, including notes and bills dis-
counted. £87,052,471 ; balances due from other
banks, including notes and bills of other banks,
£2,126,809; total assets, £113.783,060. Beside the
joint stock banks, whose returns have just been
quoted, there are numerous investment com-
panies carrying on business in the Common-
wealth such as savings banks, land, building, and
investment, trading and commercial companies,
complete returns of whose business are not
available. For the savings banks, which are
under government supervision, the following
figures will be suggestive : Number of deposi-
tors, 1,072,853, or 27 per cent of the whole pop-
ulation. Amount on deposit at the close of the
year, £34.180,055 or £8 13s. 8d. per head of the
■whole population, and £31 17s. 2d. per depositor.

of thrift and self-help. Industrial life assur-
ance is also widely availed of by persons who (
are not able to afford large premiums for life
assurance of other types. The receipts and ex- *
penditure of the 17 life assurance institutions
for the year were: Receipts, £5,186,062; expendi-
ture, £3,483,532. The average amount of life
assurance per head of the population was £25.
There are 300.453 members of friendly societies,
and their funds amount to £3,190.322. It will
thus appear that as regards the public wealth,
the private wealth, and the annual product of
labor and capital in Australia there are abundant
evidences of soundness and of progress, and
that Australia may fearlessly challenge compari-
son with any other part of the world. At the
same time the magnitude of her undeveloped
resources points unerringly to a future which
shall outshine both the past and the present.

Sir F. W. Holder,
Speaker House of Representatives, Coiiniion-
Zi'ealth Parliament, 1901-1907

13. Australia — The Labor Party. The

Australian Labor Party has its genesis in the
great maritime strike of 1890. It is true that
spasmodic attempts had been made during
earlier years to procure direct Parliamentary
representation for working-class interests, and
in two or three isolated instances men had been
returned to one or other of the Colonial Parlia-
ments. Nothing, however, in the nature of an
extended or sustained effort had been attempted
prior to the great strike. For some years before
1890 the trades unions generally had been gain-
ing in strength and influence, and had won
many concessions from the employers in regard
to wages and w-orking conditions ; but the sea-
faring classes had not participated in these ad-
vantages in anything like equal degree. A

AUSTRALIA — THE LABOR PARTY

crisis was reached when the marine officers,
who had been for years overworked and under-
paid, decided to form a union and affiliate with
the other labor orgnizations. The shipowners
demanded, as a prehminary to the discussion
of grievances, that the officers should dissociate
themselves from the labor unions : but, fearing
this would leave them at the mercy of the em-
ployers, the officers refused to acquiesce, and a
strike was precipitated. In sympathy with the
officers, the seamen and longshoremen around
the coast ceased work, and as the employers
continued obdurate the trouble extended until
the strike included many unions wholly imcon-
nected with shipping. ^'Freedom of Contract^'—
an equivalent of the American *open shop* —
became the war-cry of the employers, and prac-
tically the whole community took sides with one
party or the other. After a struggle lasting
some three months, during which trade was
paralyzed, much bad blood created, and both
sides financially injured, the men acknowledged
defeat. Apart from the cost to the combatants
themselves, the public had suffered severely, and
when the smoke of battle had cleared away there
was a general desire expressed to find some way
of avoiding similar conflicts in the future. A
Royal Commission was appointed by the gov-
ernment of New South Wales, and served some
good purpose in ascertaining clearly the griev-
ances of the men ; but it achieved little of a
practical nature beyond suggesting the creation
of an Arbitration Court to which disputes could
be voluntarily referred. The press, while mostly
taking the employers' view upon the points at
issue, concurred in advising the unions to rely
upon legislation to remedy their legitimate
grievances, and this advice was taken seriously
by the men when they emerged from the con-
flict — defeated, but grimly determined to re-
trieve their lost influence.

While the effects of the strike had been
felt all through Australia, the battle had raged
most fiercely along the eastern seaboard, where
population is greatest, and therefore the colonies
mostly affected were those of Xew South
Wales, Victoria, Queensland, and South Aus-
tralia. It was in these colonies, then, where
the cry arose for a more equitable distribution
of political power and a greater consideration
of labor interests. This demand was accentuated
by the political conditions existing at the time.
From the granting of self-government the Par-
liaments of the various colonies had included
many men who fought strenuously for the peo-
ple's interests, and who deserve the whole-
hearted gratitude of the reformers of to-day.
but in spite of their efforts matters political
were so backward in 1890 that there was an
urgent need of a fresh impulse. While manhood
suffrage had been nominally secured, plural
voting obtained in all the colonies except South
Australia ; factory legislation was either non-
existent or so inefficient as to be practically use-
less ; except in Victoria, nothing had been done
to protect those working in dangerous occupa-
tions, such as mining ; the question of employ-
ers' liability was in a very unsatisfactory state ;
hours of employment were unregulated, and
sweating was rampant ; and many other social
questions were carefully avoided. In addition,
and perhaps most important, there was no
method by which public opinion could find ex-

pression in an authoritative manner with regard
to the merits of labor disputes. Briefly, the
complaint of the unionists and their sympathizers
was that working-class interests had been neg-
lected, as should perhaps have been expected
from Parliaments made up for the most part of
the wealthier classes or their representatives.

With a view to altering this state of affairs
for the better, the unions decided upon political
organization ; but, recognizing that no purely
class effort could be permanently successful,
they called upon radicals generally to assist
them in the work of reform. On this wider
basis leagues connected with, but independent
of the unions were formed, and programmes
embracing the legislation immediately desired
were speedily adopted. Necessarily these dif-
fered with the circumstances existing in the
various colonies, but in the main they were
markedly similar. In all, the central idea was
to form a new party, working independently of
those already existing, and prepared, until
strong enough to take office, to accept 'install-
ments from either of the older parties. Taking
the platform adopted in New South Wales as
typical, the aims of the new part}- were stated
as being: "(i) To secure for the wealth-pro-
ducers of this colony such legislation as will
advance their interests, b}^ the return to Parlia-
ment of candidates pledged to uphold the plat-
form of this league : (2) to secure the due
enrollment of all members of the league who
may be entitled to a vote in any electorate: (3)
to bring all electors who are in favor of demo-
cratic and progressive legislation under one
common banner, and to organize thoroughly
such voters with a view to concerted and effec-
tive action at all Parliamentary elections in the
future.'*

The platform adopted ran as follows :

1. Electoral reform — to provide for the abolition of

plural voting; the abolition of money deposits
in Parliamentary elections; the extension of the
franchise to seamen, shearers, and general lab-
orers by the registration of votes: the extension
of the franchise to policemen and soldiers; the
abolition of the six months' residence clause as
a qualification for the exercise of the franchise;
the establishment of single member electorates
and equal electoral districts on an adult pop'ula-
tion basis; the holding of all Parliamentary elec-
tions on one day — that a pviblic holiday; and
that all public houses shall be closed during the
hours of polling.

2. Free, compulsory, and technical education — higher

as well as elementary — to be extended to all.

3. Eight hours to be the legal maximum working day

in all occupations.

4. A Workshops and Factories Act to provide for the

prohibition of the sweating system; the super-
vision of land, boilers, and machinery; and the
appointment of representative working men as
inspectors.

5. An amendment of the Mining Act — to provide for

all applications for mineral leases being sum-
marily dealt with by the local wardens; the
strict enforcement of labor conditions on such
leases; the abolition of the leasing system on all
new gold fields; the right to mine on private
property; the greater protection of persons en-
gaged in the mining industry; and that all in-
spectors shall hold certificates of competency.

6. The extension to seamen of the benefits of the

Employers' Liability Act.

7. The repeal of the Masters and Servants Act and

the Agreements \'alidating Act.

8. The amendment of the Master and Apprentices

Act and the Trades Union Act.

9. The establishment of a Department of Labor; a

National Bank; and a national system of water
conservation and irrigation.
10. Election of magistrates.

AUSTRALIA — THE LABOR PARTY

11. Local government and decentralization; the exten-

sion of principle of the (lovcrnment acting as an
employer, through the medium of local self-gov-
erning bodies; and the abolition of our present
unjust method of raising municijial revenue by
the taxation of improvements effected by labor.

12. The federation of the Australian colonies on a

national as opposed to an imperial basis; the
abolition of the present Defence Force, and the
establishment of our military system upon a
purely voluntary basis.

13. The recognition in our legislative enactments of the

natural and inalienable rights of the whole com-
munity to the land — upon which all must live
and from which by labor all wealth is produced
— by the taxation of that value which accrues
to land from the presence and needs of the com-
munity, irrespective of improvements effected by
human exertion; and the absolute and indefeasi-
ble right of property on the part of all Crown
tenants in improvements effected on their hold-
ings.

14. The execution of all Government contracts in the

colony.

15. The stamping of all Chinese-made furniture.

16. -Any measure which will secure to the wage-earner

a fair and equitable return for his or her labor.

On these lines the Labor Party entered the
political arena in the four eastern colonies. The
first skirmish occurred in South Australia, when
the new party succeeded in returning three
workingmen to the Legislative Council (the
Second Chamber) in spite of a restricted fran-
chise. This happened early in i8gi. and in the
middle of that year the first real trial of
strength for control of the popular chamber
took place. This was in New South Wales,
where, notwithstanding the existence of plural
voting, the Laborites captured some 36 seats out
of 141. In i8g2, Victoria followed the example
of the older colony by returning a small con-
tingent of labor members, and in 1893, both
Queensland and South Australia elected parties
of greater proportionate strength on the labor
ticket.

With the first labor successes the wildest
views were expressed by critics on both side —
the Conservatives prophesying utter ruin for the
community, and many Labor supporters ex-
pecting tliat the millenium would arrive in short
order. Xeedlcss to say, both proved wrong.
In the first place it was soon found that a pro-
portion of those returned as Laborites were so
only in name, and had no conception of the
sentiment responsible for the movement. These
quickly dropped out or were pushed aside. Then,
as might have been expected in a party hur-
riedly organized, there arose internal dissen-
sions of such a character as to seriously
threaten, in one or two of the colonies, the
future of the movement. As matters settled
down, however, the need for cohesion was em-
phasized, and with the recognition of that fact
better work resulted. Looked at broadly, the
first Labor contingents did excellent v.'ork,
which served to encourage the party's supporters
to renewed efforts, and as a result the parties
in the various colonies have been increasingly
strengthened at each successive election. This
steady growth has not been confined to those
colonies where political organization was first
entered upon, but has extended also to West
Australia and Tasmania. At the present time
( 1906) Labor Premiers are at the head of
coalition governments in Queensland and South
Australia, while in New South Wales. Victoria,
and West Australia, the Labor parties constitute
the direct opposition, with the reversion of
office. At the recent Tasmanian elections the
party secured a material increase of strength.

The Labor party has not, during its 15 years
of existence, succeeded in gaining a majority in
any of the Australian Parliaments; but its in-
fluence is not to be gauged solely by its numeri-
cal strength. In most of the colonies its appear-
ance galvanized the older parties into some
appreciation of the need for social legislation.
Old-time politicians suddenly manifested a
tender regard for the interests' of the working-
classes, and vied with each other in propounding
schemes for the amelioration of their condition.
The democratization of those outside its ranks
is among the most noticeable gains of the Labor
party, and has resulted in many useful reforms
being brought about.

In New South Wales there has thus been
secured during the party's existence a liberal
Electoral Act. abolishing plural voting; an act
to allow mining on private property : land and
income taxes, adjusting taxation more equitably;
a Coal Klines Regulation Act ; a Workshops and
Factories Act ; an Amending Land Act to permit
of perpetual leasing in lieu of outright sale ; an
act to restrict the admission of colored immi-
grants ; an important Navigation Act : an Early
Closing Act, applying to shops ; an Old-Age
Pensions Act : an act to nationalize the private
wharves of Sydney; the Miners' Accident Re-
lief Act, designed for the relief ?nd maintenance
of injured miners and their dependents; the
much-discussed Industrial Arbitration Act. pro-
hibiting strikes and insisting upon the reference
of disputes to the decision of a judicial body,
and the Women's Franchise Act.

In South Australia education has been made
free ; the State has established a successful Pro-
duce Export Department ; the nucleus of a State
Bank has been formed, providing cheap loans
to settlers ; workmen have been assisted to take
up land ; adult suffrage has been passed ; factory
legislation and early closing of shops secured;
wages have been protected against liens ; private
estates have been resumed and cut up for settle-
ment, and other practical measures made law.

In Victoria the party's influence has secured,
among other things, improved factory legisla-
tion, providing for boards to fix minimum
wages ; compulsory early closing of shops ; abol-
ition of plural voting; resumption of land for
closer settlement, and cheap money for farmers
on the credit fonder system ; minimum wage on
government contracts ; State supervision of
dairies ; prohibition of secret trade commis-
sions ; pure food laws; exemption of tools of
trade and furniture to the value of £20 from
distraint for rent.

In Queensland legislation has been passed
providing for the early closing of shops ; adult
suffrage and equal voting power ; workers' com-
pensation ; State supervision of exports ; cheap
advances to settlers, and the readjustment of
taxation in favor of the poorer classes.

In West Australia, although the party is only
a few years in existence, the record includes
adult suffrage, with electorates approaching
equality ; factory laws and early closing of
shops ; compulsory arbitration in industrial dis-
putes ; prohibition of secret commissions in
trade, and minimum wages on government con-
tracts.

With the inauguration of Federation in 1901
a new phase was entered upon, as a number of
the most important governmental functions were

AUSTRALIA — THE LABOR PARTY

transferred from State to Federal control ; and
the Labor political organizations throughout
Australia agreed to a common platform upon
which to contest the first Commonwealth elec-
tions. It ran as follows :

1. Electoral Law, providing for one adult one vote.

2. Total exclusion of colored and other undesirable

races.

3. Old-Age Pensions.

4. The Constitution to be amended to provide for:

(a) The Initiative and Referendum for the alter-
ation of the Constitution; (b) the substitution of
the National Referendum for the double disso-
lution in the settlement of deadlocks between the
* two Houses.

At the first Federal elections, held in IQOI,
the Labor party returned 8 members out of 36
in the Senate and 16 out of 75 in the House of
Representatives. Three years later, at the elec-
tions of 1903, the numbers were increased to 14
in the Senate and 22 in the House of Representa-
tives. Since then the number in the latter House
has been increased to 25. Though in a minor-
ity in both Federal Houses, the party has exer-
cised a considerable influence on Commonwealth
legislation. In the first Parliarnent it found a
fairly progressive government in office, with a
programme including several planks of the La-
bor platform, and some of these found expres-
sion in legislation. Naturally much time was
occupied in passing necessary machinery meas-
ures, and the tarifif discussion alone took up
nearly 18 months. But time was found to pass
adult suffrage and a liberal electoral law. The
restriction, amounting practically to exclusion,
of colored immigration was secured, and provis-
ion made for the cessation of the traffic in
Kanaka labor. In the Public Service Act a
clause was inserted providing for a minimum
v.'age of £110 yearly for adults of three years'
service. When the Tariff was being considered,
the Labor party, though assuming no party atti-
tude on Protection or Free Trade, led the way
in abolishing or reducing revenue taxes through
the Customs, and later it headed a successful
resistance to the proposal to enter upon a bor-
rowing policy.

At the second general election the Labor
party increased its strength at the expense of
both the Protectionists and Free Traders, with
the result that when the Parliament met it con-
tained three parties nearly equal in numbers.
The Protectionist Government resigned through
suffering defeat on an important phase of the
Industrial Arbitration Bill, and a Labor Govern-
ment took office. After a few months it was
also defeated on one of the principles
of the same measure, and was succeeded
by a Coalition Ministry representing Free
Traders and Protectionists. This govern-
ment passed the Arbitration Bill through its
remaining stages, but on again meeting Parlia-
ment was in turn defeated by a combination of
Protectionists with the Labor partj^ Since then
measures have been passed to prohibit false trade
descriptions ; to render illegal the acceptance of
secret trade commisssions ; to allow of the pro-
tection of union trade-marks in common with
those of the trading community; and dealing
with other matters of importance.

In touching thus sketchily upon the work of
the various Parliaments of Australia since the
Labor party has arisen, the writer attempts to do
no more than indicate the trend of legislation

as affecting the working classes and bearing
upon social problems generally. In both the
State and Federal Parliaments, during the time
covered, many other important laws have been
passed, and in regard to these the Laborites have
borne their share of the work involved. It is,
however, to the Labor party that credit is mainly
due for the quickening of the public conscience
which has resulted in so many ameliorative
measures being passed in a comparatively short
period.

The Labor party has been accused of con-
cerning itself only with the interests of the
vi-orking classes ; but gradually it is being recog-
nized that the term *Labor* includes brain as
well as hand workers, and all sympathizers are
welcomed as members of the political organiza-
tions. The Labor parties in Parliament include
a fair sprinkling of professional and business
men. who in any narrow interpretation would
be excluded. There is no doubt that much of
the success so far achieved is due to the recog-
nition of the fact that the interests of all pro-
ducers are identical and that justice must be
extended to all equally.

Much has been said about the socialism of
the Australian Labor Party, and it is alluded to
by some as a recent development. That is not
so, as there has been no change, except perhaps
in form, in the aims and programme as first put
forward. Leaving aside the fact that nearly
every plank of the original platform was broadty
socialistic in its interference with individualism,
distinct aspirations toward collectivism were
voiced in the first declarations of the party. In
Queensland this took the m.ost pronounced form,
where as early as 1890 the council of the Aus-
tralian Labor Federation, having decided upon
political action, put forward as its aim **The
nationalization of all sources of wealth and all
means of producing and exchanging wealth.^*
This was a declaration for complete socialism,
but the organizations in the other colonies re-
fused to go that distance. The New South
Wales League in 1890 adopted a proposal for
"the extension of the principle of the Govern-
ment acting as an employer, through the me-
dium of local self-governing bodies," and thus
committed itself to socialistic ideals. In some
of the other colonies declarations of principle
v\ere considered imnecessary, and the platforms
contained no direct mention of socialism, though
many of the detailed proposals were of a social-
istic character. Later on, the Queensland or-
ganization dropped for a time any direct refer-
ence to socialism, but continued its propaganda
on collective lines. In 1897 New South Wales
adopted as a plank of its platform "the national-
ization of the means of production, distribution,
and exchange,'^ and that remained on the pro-
gramme until 1905, when it was struck out. At
the same conference a statement of the local
party's objective was agreed to, which has since
been adopted by an Australian conference as the
objective of the Federal Labor party, and may
be here quoted: «(i) The cultivation of an Aus-
tralian sentiment, based upon the maintenance
of racial purity and the development in Australia
of an enlightened and self-reliant community.
(2) The securing of the full results of their
industry to all producers by the collective own-
ership of monopolies and the extension of the
industrial and economic functions of the State
and ^Municipality.*^

AUSTRALIA — SOCIAL CONDITIONS

The dropping of the "whole hog** phmk in
favor of this statement of aims was looked upon
as a retrograde step by the more ardent social-
ists in the movement ; but it appears to have been
dictated by common sense. The platform is
theoretically a programme for realization when
the party gets a majority, and it is clearly im-
practicable to attempt to carry out any complete
scheme of socialism to-day. Recognizing this,
the party declares its belief in socialistic princi-
ples, and adjusts its programme so that every
step taken will be in consonance with that ideal.
This is shown in the platform for the next Fed-
eral elections, due at the end of 1906, which is
as follows :

1. Maintenance of a white Australia.

2. Nationalization of monopolies.

3. Old-age pensions.

4. Tariff referendum.

5. Progressive tax on unimproved land values.

6. Restriction of public borrowing.

7. Navigation laws (provision for manning, etc.)

8. Citizen defence force.

9. .\rbitration act amendment (ensuring effectiveness).

10. Commonwealth of deposit and issue and life and

fire insuiance department.

11. Uniform industrial legislation; amendm.ent of con-

stitution to provide for same.

12. Civil equality of men and women.

This platform insists that monopolies shall
be nationalized, as constituting a public danger,
and the Labor party expresses its disbelief in the
efficacy of measures designed to merely regulate
modern trusts. Under its objective the party
will embrace every opportunity of extending the
functions of collective authority where it is
shown to be practicable and of value to the com-
munity. From this statement of the position
it will be seen that the Labor party is undoubt-
edly socialistic, but it does not propose to plunge
Australia suddenly into any experiment of a
wholesale character. The people have control
in respect of each successive step, and may be
relied upon to call a halt if at any stage failure
is experienced.

On the whole, the Labor party throughout
Australia has given a much-needed impetus to
social legislation ; and, in reply to those who
urge that its objects and methods are opposed to
the welfare of the community, it points to the
fact that since its appearance in Australian poli-
tics wealth has found a wider distribution; hours
have been shortened and wages raised in many
occupations ; sweating has been minimized ; and
that, though much remains to be done, the peo-
ple enjoy greater prosperity than before the
advent of the new political force.

J. C. W.\TSON,

Premier of Australia 1904.

14. Australia — Social Conditions. The
social conditions of a country may be considered
from different points of view. They might be
considered from the general welfare of the peo-
ple, or from what is known as social distinction
in society. This last aspect of the question could
be disposed of in a few words so far as Aus-
tralia is concerned. The people mostly belong
to the great class of honest industry in one for;n
or another. The large majority arc, if necessity
requires, willing to undertake almost any kind
of work, while those who are wealthy, with but
few exceptions, prefer useful or philanthropic
.employment to a life of idle dissipation.

The common weal of the people is indicated
by the fact that in no country is there less real

poverty than in Australia, or better and more
systematic organization for dealing with those
few persons who arc in need of temporary
assistance. No one is ever knowingly allowed
to suffer for want of food. The State does not
consider it to be its duty to find employment
for those who may be out of work, but in the
interest of humanity it always provides food
for those in want of it.

It has been said that the happiest people are
those who can live upon the products of their
own country. Australia offers greater possibil-
ities for such happiness than almost any other
land. Cattle and sheep, pigs, and poultry, all
kinds of grain, vegetables of every variety, and
nearly all known fruits are easily produced by
properly applied industry.

Primary Productions. — Sir George Syden-
ham Clarke, G. C. M. G., who was Governor of
Victoria for some years, recently said: «It may
be taken as certain that where the averages from
primary production stand high the country is
a good one.» This dictum has such a direct
bearing upon the condition of the people that
the comparisons become important. According
to population the primary production in Aus-
tralia is about 40 per cent greater than in
Canada, 57 per cent greater than in the United
States, twice as great as in Franco, three times
as great as in England, and over four times as
great as in Russia.

The productive nature of the soil and cli-
mate has a great deal to do with the fact that
a greater nurnber of people in Australia, in
proportion to its population, enjoy more of the
comforts and pleasures of life than is the case
in many other parts of the world. The people
as a whole are better housed, fed, and clothed
than the residents of most other countries.
Cheap houses and discomforts arc to be found
in Australia as elsewhere, but even in the cities
there is a lack of the poor shanties and tene-
ments which are so noticeable in many large
cities in Europe, Asia, and America.

Educational Advantages. — No one question
has a more important or direct bearing upon the
social conditions of the people than that of edu-
cation. No country has better facilities, and
but few as good, and with the exception of some
parts of America, Australia affords as good an
opportunity for secondary and advanced educa-
tion at a moderate cost as any other country.

Generally speaking, the system of public edu-
cation is free, compu!sorj% and secular, the
whole expense being met out of the general
revenue. The greatest care is taken to provide
schools in every part of the country as well as
in the thickly populated cities, and in some of the
thinly settled districts, schools of from 10 to 15
children are established. Fortunately, Australia's
educational advancement has not been delayed
by sectarian interference. There it is generally
considered that a country's advancement rests
on the education of its people, and that as na-
tional education is a national gain, the nation's
treasury should meet the bill. Efforts have been
made from time to time by zealous propounders
of sectarian beliefs, to incorporate religious in-
struction with the Education Acts of the differ-
ent States, but the majority of the people are
t-tronqly opposed to any form of State aid to
religion. They feel that in the bitter strife for
sectarian supremacy the efficiency of the schools

AUSTRALIA — SOCIAL CONDITIONS

would become impaired and the practical educa-
tion of the children neglected. A large major-
ity of parents take advantage of the public
schools for their children, but for those who
object, either from class prejudice or religious
scruples, good private schools are available.

The technical schools, colleges and universi-
ties afford ample facilities for higher educa-
tion. The Australian imiversities stand high in
the educational world. Bj^ bequests, endow-
ments, and grants of land they have been enabled
to provide splendid buildings and appliances,
and to procure able and learned professors. The
degrees conferred are recognized and respected
in other lands. No one need leave Australia
to become well versed in music, medicine, litera-
ture, law, or science. The technical schools
have been especially valuable from a mining
point of view, and many of those who have
received their instruction there are now holding
important positions on mining fields in Aus-
tralia and other countries. Nearly 1,300 public
libraries with 2,000,000 volumes of valuable lit-
erature are a great help to those who have
passed on beyond school life. In all the princi-
pal cities there are public museums and art gal-
leries, which are largely patronized, and have an
elevating and refining influence. See Austr.\lia
— Education ; Education — National Systems

OF.

Religious Insiruction. — The secular and non-
sectarian nature of the public schools does not
imply that the religious instruction of the people
is neglected. Churches of every known denomi-
nation are well supported. Sunday schools.
Christian endeavor societies, and young men's
and young women's Christian Associations are
well attended, and all doing good work, while
the Salvation Army has its branches stretching
over every part of the land, and is to be com-
mended for its tireless endeavors to reclaim the
drunkard, lift up the oppressed, and to bring
back to the paths of virtue and truth those who
have strayed or fallen by the wayside. Tem-
perance organizations of various kinds have
many members, and are a powerful factor in
preserving the better, simpler, and purer life of
the community. See Australia — Religion.

Government Institutions. — The Governments
of the different States look after the poor, the
sick, and the afflicted. They have destitute
homes where the aged are properly housed, fed,
and cared for. They have hospitals for the
sick, where those who cannot afford to pay are
nursed, and attended equally with those who
can. Asylums for the insane, sanatoriums for
the consumptive, while homes for incurables,
and schools for the blind, deaf and dumb are
either supported or subsidized by the Govern-
ments. Genuine workingmen, if unable to ob-
tain employment, are allowed to do certain work
to pay for the food which is provided for them
and their families. Such relief is of a tempor-
ary character until more permanent employment
is secured.

Benefit societies and insurance companies
have been established in every State, and num-
ber their members by many thousands. These
have a marked effect in encouraging provident
habits, and, with the temperance societies, are
valuable aids in teaching frugality and modera-
tion, which are notable characteristics in the
Australians.

Some of the States have adopted a system of
Old-age pensions, and a Royal Commission has
recently reported favorably on a scheme for the
whole Commonwealth.

Out-door Life. — For those who are fond of
an out-door life Australia. is an ideal country.
The climate is such that one can practically
spend the whole year in the open air. The ad-
vantages of fresh air have been wisely con-
sidered by those who had to do with laying out
cities and towns, as well as those connected
with the government of the country. Wide
streets, squares, and parks are to be found in
and adjacent to all the cities, while large tracts
of land have been reserved as national parks
within a few miles of the centres of population.

This affords every opportunity for out-door
sport of all kinds. Rowing, football, cricket,
lacrosse, golf, baseball, and almost all other
outside games have numerous patrons. In fact,
games and sport are carried on so extensively
that tourists have criticized Australians for in-
dulging so much in them. Numerous holidays,
reasonable hours for work, and long, fine days
offer every inducement. Australians are de-
cidedly a sport-loving people. The Melbourne
Cup is one of the world's greatest racing events^
and the Flcmington grounds with their com-
modious stands and extensive lawns are unsur-
passed in any part of the world. The roads
are so well made that motoring and cycling
are greatly indulged in. Many residents own'
motors, and during the last few years money
has become so plentiful that vehicles for
pleasure have been purchased in large numbers.
Wealth of the People. — It is not generally
known that the Australians are the richest
people in the world, except the residents of
England, and a good many of these draw their
incomes from Australian investments. During
the present year (1906) Australia will export
produce of a greater value than ever before.
The distribution of wealth is more general than
in most other parts of the world. Over 30 per
cent of the adult population are possessors of
property, while in England only about 12 per
cent of the adult population enjoy that privi-
lege. There are 1,100,000 depositors in the sav-
ings bank, being 27 per cent of the entire popu-
lation, and they have to their credit $175,000,000,
an average of about $160.

Laii's and Socialism. — Taking an active and
responsible part in the management of national
affairs has a moderating effect upon most
politicians, and to a large degree they have
recognized the responsibility of office and en-
deavored to safeguard the country's interest.

The voice of the people can be made fully
known through the ballot-box. The judgment
of the public may not always be considered the
wisest for the country's advancement, but when
the error is discovered the same power that
caused it can apply the remedy. The Australiari
Commonwealth franchise is the broadest and
most liberal possible. Everyone over the age
of 21 (except criminals and lunatics) has the
right to vote. In some of the State elections as
well, women have the privilege. There were
many strongly opposed to woman's franchise.
AH the arguments about taking her from her
home, destroying her womanly instincts, caus-
ing her to neglect her proper duties, etc., were
indulged in. After the law was passed, how-

ABORICzIXAL AUSTRALIAN AND AUSTRALASIAN ART.

i-S. Clubs from the Marquesas. Islands.
2, 9. Carving from Hervey Islands.

3. Shell Ornament from the Solomon Islands
4, 7, 14. Carved work from New Guinei.
5, II, 13. Obsidian Lances.

6. Australian Carving.

8. Steering Oar, from New Zealand.
10. New Zealand Pipe.
12. Australian Carved Ornament.
16 Carved Shield from New Guinea.

AUSTRALIA — SOCIAL CONDITIONS

ever, those who previously opposed it, quickly
realized (especially if they were parliamentary
candidates) that woman was highly intelligent
and that it was her duty in the interest of the
country to vote.

Australia's socialism has grown with her
people. It has not meant the destruction of
private property. The State railways, harbors,
water-works, telegraphs, telephones, wharves, ex-
porting departments, public schools, and other
tmdertakings, have naturally followed one after
the other, and have not been a hardship to the
capitalists, but have rather been the means of
allowing them to invest their money in other
undertakings and thereby assist in opening up
the pastoral, agricultural, and mining industries.

Many of Australia's laws have been passed
on the belief that the Government could under-
take certain things for the assistance of the
people at less expense than this assistance could
be carried out privately. National credit, as a
rule, is much better than individual credit.
IMoney can be borrowed by the State and lent
to producers on better terms than it can be bor-
rowed by private people for that purpose. Under
certain laws the well-to-do pastoralists, as well
as the poorer producer, can be assisted. It is
necessary to understand Australian life to
realize the need for assistance to pastoralists.
The Governments own most of the lands ; hun-
dreds of miles of which are let on lease to
pastoralists. Wire netting has been found to
be the most effective means of protect-
ing the sheep from wild dogs, and of
keeping the rabbits down. For the lessee on
his own account to undertake to fence his lease-
hold would mean an expense v.'hich would be a
heavy burden upon him, and prevent the use of
his capital for other improvements ; so by com-
bining with adjoining lessees they form a ver-
min trust, and apply to the Government for
miles of wire netting; this is supplied upon the
joint security of the lessees and they repay
the Government, with interest, in instalments
extending over a number of year.s. Large sums
have been lent in this way. and, but little if any
loss has occurred, and it has been the means of
stocking much land that would otherwise have
remained idle. The Governments also assist the
farmers by loans from State Banks at low in-
terest, a long term of years being allowed for
repayments. Blockers, who only have a few
acres, are also assisted, and under certain con-
ditions they borrow from the Government to
help build their houses and carry out other im-
provements. All these loans are on.ly granted
on business principles, after the officers of the
Land Departments have made full inquiries as
to necessary security. The Governments also
largely assist in exporting produce and finding
outside markets. This business is conducted on
commercial lines, certain charges being made for
the storage, freezing, and work done. If the
producer is in need of ready money before his
goods are disposed of an advance is made by
the Government. All this may be considered
Socialistic ; however, upon a moment's reflection
it will be seen that it is only an assistance to
further stimulate individual enterprise and ef-
fort. It has carried many a struggling producer
over early years of hardship, and probably saved
his property for his family when under other

circumstances it might have gone into the hands
of the mortgagee.

Charges, Rates, Taxes. — Railway charges
are, if anything, less than on the roads owned
and worked by private companies in other
countries. The conveniences for traveling are
good. The Government control of water-works
and sewage systems for the large cities has
proved economical and satisfactory. The land-
tax i.s not heavy enough to be burdensome.
Municipal and local rates are low in comparison
with Englan(l. The total rates in the Australian
cities, including water rates, on property worth
$500 per annum, would be from $50 to $100,
v.diile in and around London it would be from
$150 to $300.

Employer and Employee— Tht relations be-
tween the employer and the employee are
generally harmonious; occasionally disputes
may arise but they are nearly always settled
without those long strikes which result in heavy
loss to both resisting forces and engender so
much bitterness of feeling. The employers as a
rule pay good wages, the hours worked are
short, and the employees are provided with
favorable sanitary and safety conditions. Being
thus satisfied that their treatment is just, they in
their turn do their best to give full value in their
work for the wages they receive.

Literature, Art, and Song. — According to
Mr. Coghlan, who is a statistical authority, Aus-
tralia has as large a number of first-class news-
papers, considering its population, as any other
country in the world, while in the matter of
letter-writing the only two countries that sur-
pass it are the United States and England.

That Australians have a taste for literature
cannot be denied ; what they read may not al-
ways be of the highest standard, and what they
write may sometimes lack artistic finish, but
one must recollect that theirs is comparatively a
new country. Its real growth has taken place
during the last 50 years. Other countries have
not risen rapidly to literary fame. The first
settlements of America were made two centur-
ies before the world had the benefit of Irving,
Longfellow, Emerson, or Lowell. England's
men of letters were not numerous or renowned
until man}' generations had passed away.

While in literature Australia may not up
to the present have produced writers of marked
distinction, yet there are those of more or less
note whose productions are of no small merit,
and who have thrown the bright sunshine and
free life into their work. The same ma\' be
said of art. While no one person stands out as a
producer of highly valuable pictures there are
several who have the true artist's spirit, and
have made creditable displays at the Royal
Academy in London and the Salons of Paris.
But when one considers musical artists, Austra-
lia has no need to feel ashamed. With the
climatic conditions it naturally follows that
those who are musically inclined have suc-
ceeded ; and to-day, in proportion to her popu-
lation, y\ustralia is stated to have more
prominent musical talent of world-wide repu-
tation than any other English-speaking country.

Taking the residents of Australia as a whole
they are a happy, prosperous, and contented
people. They have of course the political and
theological differences which are common to all

AUSTRALIA — SOCIAL CONDITIONS

nations. The leaders of public thought en-
deavor to convince by reason, not by force.
Occasional dissatisfaction is expressed. It is
questionable, all things considered, whether any
country in the world is more congenial as a
place of residence for the following reasons :
The death-rate is lower, the primary production
is greater, the wages are higher, the standard of
living is better, the houses are more substantial,
and surrounded with more land, the hours of labor
are shorter, telegraphic communication is
cheaper, the weather is brighter, the laws more

liberal, the wealth more evenly distributed, and
class distinctions fewer than in almost any other
country.

Besides all this, Australia, in the matter of
language, is more English than England or
America. One can hear more foreign languages
spoken in New York or London in a day than
could be heard in Australia in a year.

John G. Jenkins,
Agcnt-Gcncral for South Australia, and Pre-
mier 1901-1905.

AUSTRALIA

Austra'lia, South, one of the original
states in the Commonweahh of Australia. It
occupies the middle of Australia, and at first,
as the colony of South Australia, extended be-
tween Ion. 132° and 141° E., and from the South-
ern Ocean to lat. 26° N., having then an area
of about 300,000 square miles. In 1861 a dis-
trict lying to the west of the colony was added
to it, so tliat its western boundary was shifted
to the nieridian of 129°. In 1863 it received
in addition the country between its northern
boundary and the opposite coast (this portion
being now known as the Northern Territory),
so that South Australia now possesses a terri-
tory extending across Australia, and occupying
an area estimated at 903,690 square miles. It is
bounded on the east by Victoria, New South
Wales, and Queensland; on the west by West-
ern Australia. Its greatest length from north
to south is 1,850 miles, and its width 650 miles.
The south coast, for the first 120 miles east of
where it begins at Port Eucla, is backed by
steep limestone ranges from 400 to 600 feet in
height, but as a whole the coast is low and
desolate-looking. In a straight line from Port
Eucla on the west to Cape Northumberland, near
the boundary 01 Victoria, the distance is 850
miles, but the coast-line between these points ex-
tends to nearly twice that distance, owing to the
indentations of Spencer Gulf and the Gulf of St.
Vincent. Opposite the latter is Kangaroo Is-
land, the largest island on the Australian coast,
excepting Tasmania. The coast of the Northern
Territory is thickly strewn with islands, three of
which are of large size. There are also some
excellent ports, one of these, Port Darwin, where
the overland telegraph and the cable from Ba-
tavia r.nd the East meet, being among the finest
harbors in Australia. On the eastern side of the
Gulf of St. Vincent lie the most populous por-
tions of the state, and here is situated Adelaide,
the state capital.

The interior formation of South Australia
widely differs from that of the more eastern
states. The mountains here run from the sea
to the interior, ending somewhat abruptly among
the lakes. The principal chain, the Mount
Lofty range, begins at Cape Jervis, and follows
the shore of the Gulf of St. Vincent past Ade-
laide, meeting at the head of the gulf, the ridges
forming the backbone of Yorke Peninsula. The
range still running north is called Flinders
range, and ends in a wide mass of mountain
3,000 feet high, separating the lakes Torrens.
Eyre, Frome, and Blanche. All these so-called
lakes are huge expanses of salt water, swamp,
and mud. On the west of Spencer Gulf is
Eyre Peninsula, through the heart of which runs
the Gavvler range, attaining an elevation of 2,000
feet, and ending on the shores of another series
of lakes of the same character as Lake Torrens.
The principal summits of the Mount Lofty
range are Razor-back, in latitude s^° 20', and
immediately north of it Mount Bryan, close to
which is the celebrated Burra-Burra copper
mine. The highest peaks of the Flinders range
are Mount Remarkable, 3,179 feet, Brown 3,174
feet, and Arden 3,000 feet. None of the peaks
in the Gawler range attain more than a mod-
erate elevation. On the left bank of the Mur-
ray, and near its mouth, a range of moderately
elevated heights proceed south-southeast, skirt-
ing the coast to its extremity near Cape North-
umberland. Throughout these ranges the exist-

ence of volcanic agency at a former period is
everywhere apparent. The Warburton range
and the Stuart ranges lie beyond and to the
north and west of the lakes; further north on
the Tropic of Capricorn, are the MacDonnell
ranges, rising to a height of 4.000 feet, from
which the extreme western affluents of the Lake
Eyre River system take their rise. The other
portions of the territory to the north and west
are almost level, and consist of either waterless
plains or plains of sandstone boulders, with des-
ert grass and spinifex.

Among the mountains east of Gulf of St.
Vincent, primitive limestone, often in the form
of a beautiful white marble, is very abundant.
There are indications of a large variety of min-
erals throughout the state, but copper is the only
one that has been met with in large quantities,
the total production to the end of 1899 being
valued at £23,000.000. Gold has been found in
various places, but the quantity won has been
small. In the Northern Territory gold has also-
been ^ound over a considerable tract of country,
and good progress has been made in mining,
while other minerals are known to exist. Al-
most the only stream within the state proper,
which deserves the name of river, is the Mur-
ray, which enters the colony on the east in lat-
itude 34°. and flows first circuitously west and
then south, into the extensive lagoon called Lake
Alexandrina, communicating with the sea by a
narrow opening. During the rainy season it is
navigable by steamers through its whole course
within the state, and for 1,500 miles in New
South Wales. In the Northern Territory the
Roper River is a fine large stream, navigable
for sea-going vessels for 100 miles from its
mouth in the Gulf of Carpentaria ; the \'ictoria
is also navigable. The climate of South Aus-
tralia proper greatly resembles that of Sicily and
Naples. During nine months of the year it is
agreeable, the disagreeable portion of the year
being the three summer months of December,
January, and Februar}^ when the natural heat of
the season is greatly increased by hot winds^
from the interior. What is called winter would
be considered in England merelj^ a wet autumn.
There are no epidemic diseases. Scrofulous and
tubercular diseases are rare, but diseases of the
eyes are common in summer, being either occa-
sioned by the impalpable dust floating in the
atmosphere, or by exposure to the night air after
the glare of the sun.

South Australia produces nearly all the fruits
and vegetables that are cultivated in Europe,
as well as others, but in temperate regions is
chiefly distinguished as a wheat and grape-
growing country. Besides supplying its own
wants, it sends large quantities of wheat to the
neighboring states and to Europe, where *'Ade-
laide'^ wheat is held in high estimation. The
area under wheat is about 1.750,000 acres. The
quantity produced varies greatly with the sea-
son, but the average production is six bushels
per acre. The area under vineyards is gradually
extending, and now approaches 20.000 acres.
Brandy is produced as well as wine. Hop-
growing is attracting some attention, and the
olive is also cultivated. The value of the ex-
ports of the state is £7.100,000, and of the im-
ports £7,300,000, total £14.400.000. The chief
exports are wool, wheat, flour, copper, and cop-
per ore, skins, etc. The value of the wool ex-
ported 'T generally about £1,000,000, and of

AUSTRALIA — AUSTRALIAN BALLOT

wheat and flour from £800,000 to £1,500,000, ac-
cording to the season. The trade of a large part
of New South Wales passes through South Aus-
tralia. The revenue and expenditures are each
about £2r/OO.ooo. The length of raihvaj'S is
1,800 miles. There is a complete system of tele-
graphs, besides the great line from Adelaide
across the continent to Port Darwin, a distance
of 2.000 miles. The public debt of the state is
£24,309.035, and has been mostlj^ incurred for
reproductive public works. See Australia ;
Australian" Federatiox.

Austra'lia, Western, one of the original
states in the Commonwealth of Australia. It in-
cludes that portion of Australia west of Ion.
129° E., and is bounded, east by South Aus-
tralia, and northwest, and south by the Indian
Ocean. It lies between the parallels of 13° 30'
and 35° 8' S. ; greatest length, 1,450 miles north
to south ; greatest breadth, 850 miles : area,
975,920 square miles. The coast-line measures
about 3,000 miles, and, except on the south is
indented bj' numerous bays, creeks, and estua-
ries. The coast is fringed by many islands, but
none of any importance. The principal inlets
are Cambridge Gulf, Admiralty Gulf, York
Sound, Collier Bay. King Sound, Roebuck
Bay, Exmouth Gulf, Shark Bay, Geographe
Bay, and King George Sound, the last the
most important as having Albany on its
shore, the port of call for the European mail
steamers. The chief rivers are the Ord and
Fitzroy on the north, De Grey, Ashburton, For-
tescue, Gascoign, Murchison, Greenough. Swan,
and Blackwood on the west. The Swan River is
important, as Perth, the capital, is situated on
its banks. Some of the rivers within the tropics
are large and navigable, but few of the others
run all the year, and fewer still are navigable
■even for boats to any great distance. The in-
terior was till recent years not well known, but
at present there is little territory which has not
been explored. The country is chiefly an alter-
nation of ridges and hollows, sandy, without
grass, and clothed with bushes and scrubby
timber, without the trace of a water-course. The
really settled and occupied portion of the state
forms only a mere fraction of its whole area.
The population is mostly collected in the south-
west corner, where the first settlements were
Tnade, and around the recently discovered gold
reefs. Scattered settlements stud the coast at
various points. On the west coast are extensive
banks covered with the pearl oyster, which give
employment to a fleet of boats. The Kimberley
di.strict in the north is a region of great promise ;
it comprises 20.000,000 acres of well-watered
land intersected by the Fitzroy River and other
large streams, and is said to be admirably adapt-
ed for pastoral purposes, besides having a large
area suitable for the cultivation of sugar, coffee,
and rice. The greater part of the seaboard, ex-
cept along the Australian bight, is separated from
the interior by a low range of hills running par-
allel to it, and covered with forests. The fertile
land exists in patches, and some of it is of a
very rich character. The principal crops are
wheat, barley, hay, and potatoes ; the vine is also
successfully cultivated, and excellent wine is
made in the colony. The area under cultivation
comprises about 140,000 acres, of which wheat
occupies 42,000 acres, hay 84,000 acres, vines
2,750 acres. The live stock in 1899 numbered

2.210,000 sheep, 245,000 cattle, 62,000 horses, be-
sides a large number of camels, pigs, goats, and
poultry. An available area of 1,000 square
miles is covered with jarrah forests. The jar-
rah is a species of eucalyptus (E. marginata) ;
its timber is in great request for railway sleepers,
for building purposes, and especially for marine
constructions, having the valuable property of
resisting the attacks of the white ant on land
and the ship worm at sea. Considerable areas
in the southwest are covered with karri (E.
diversicolor). There are also numerous for-
ests of sandalwood trees, the timber of which is
exported in large quantities, chiefly to China for
incense purposes. Flowers and fruits from all
quarters of the globe grow luxuriantly. Among
the fruits successfully cultivated are apples,
pears, oranges, peaches, plums, apricots, figs, al-
monds, bananas, olives, etc. English vegetables
may be profitably cultivated at almost all sea-
sons. Bees thrive and produce abundant stores
of honey.

The mineral resources of the state are not
yet fully known. Gold has been discovered in
large quantities, and Western Australia is now
the chief gold-producing state of Australia, the
Coolgardie gold fields being among the most pro-
ductive. In 1899 the gold exported had the
value of £6,246,731. Lead and copper exist
abundantly, and several mines are in operation.
Iron ore might be raised in almost inexhaust-
ible quantities, and tin also exists. The gold
discoveries have formed an epoch in the history
of the state, and trade and population have re-
cently increased very rapidly. The imports,
which in 1887 were valued at £830,000, amounted
in 1899 to £4,474,000, the exports in the latter
year being £6,985,000. Besides gold the exports
include wool, jarrah and karri timber, sandal-
wood, pearls, pearl shells, tin ore, skins, etc.
The revenue has grown enormously. In 1881 it
was £206,205; in 1891. £497,670; and in 1898,
£2,754,747. The public debt is £9.203,738, equal
to £53 i6s. 8d. per inhabitant. There are about
1,400 miles of railway open. The principal
towns are Perth, the capital, and Fremantle,
which is the chief port. The first part of the
state settled was the southwest corner, long
known as the Swan River Settlement, estab-
lished in 1829. From 1850 to 1868 it was a
place for the transportation of convicts. In 1890
the state received a system of responsible gov-
ernment similar to that prevailing in the other
colonies of Australia.

Austra'lian Alps, a range of mountains in
the southeast of Australia, extending over a
length of about 400 miles. The highest peaks
are in New South Wales, and the highest, ac-
cording to Lendenfeld, is Mount Townshend
(7.353 feet), belonging to a group which he
calls the Kosciusko group. The peaks next in
height belong to the Bogong group in Victoria,
and the west of the Mitta Mitta. the highest of
which is Mount Bogong (6,508 feet). They do
not reach the snow line, though snow lies in
the higher valleys all the summer. Geological-
ly, the Australian Alps are composed mainly of
very ancient metamorphic rocks, which have
been worn down in the course of ages to table-
lands, and which slope down rather steeply on
all sides. Volcanic rocks cover the table-land
to the south of Mount Bogong.

Austra'lian Bal'lot. See Ballot.

AUSTRALIAN FEDERATION — AUSTRIA

Australian Federation, the political union
of the five Australian colonies, together with
Tasmania. The first convention looking to this
end was held at Hobart in January 1886. The
colonies represented were Victoria, Queensland,
Tasmania, Western Australia, and Fiji. An-
other conference took place in 1891, at Sydney,
New South Wales, attended by delegates from
each of the colonies. A plan of federal gov-
ernment was proposed, resembling in many of
its features that of the United States. A draft
bill to constitute the Commonwealth of Austra-
lia was adopted by the convention, and it was
agreed to submit it to the approval of the in-
dividual legislatures of the several colonies.
This bill met with success in the lower branch
of but one colonial legislature — that of Vic-
toria. In January 1895 there was a conference
of premiers of five colonies at Hobart, and the
Legislative Assembly of New South Wales
passed a federal enabling act in November of
that year, and notice of motion was given in
other legislatures to bring in a similar bill.
The first practical step was taken in 1898. A
convention of representatives of New South
Wales, Victoria, Tasmania, South Australia,
and Western Australia, succeeded in drafting a
constitution, which was submitted to the popu-
lar vote of each of those colonies in June. The
constitution provided for a governor-general, ap-
pointed by the Crown ; a federal parliament,
composed of the Crown, represented by the gov-
ernor-general, a Senate, and a House of Repre-
sentatives. The powers of the parliament were
set forth in 39 articles, and covered trade with
other countries, taxation, coinage, weights and
measures, foreign corporations, pensions, arbi-
tration, etc. Free trade between the states was
recognized. By the terms of the plebiscite, an
affirmative vote of substantially one third of the
electors of New South Wales, and of one fifth
of the electors of each of the other colonies, was
required to adopt this constitution. But the elec-
tion returns in June were fatal to the scheme.
While the majorities in the four lesser colonies
were overwhelmingly in favor of the constitu-
tion, the requisite affirmative vote in New South
Wales was not obtained.

On 2 Feb. 1899, a unanimous agreement was
reached by the colonial premiers in conference
at Melbourne, regarding the unsettled questions
referred to them by the colonial legislatures,
thus insuring the success of the federation pro-
ject. In 1900, a bill making federation effective
was introduced into Parliament, at London, and
passed, the only amendment offered having re-
ference to the royal prerogative. Later in that
year the Earl of Hopetoun was appointed by the
queen first governor-general. He resigned in
May 1902.

Austrasia, as-tra'shia (the East Kingdom),
the name given, under the Merovingians, to the
Eastern possessions of the Franks, embracing
Lorraine, Belgium, and the right bank of the
Rliine. These districts, thickly inhabited by
Franks, w^ere of great importance at the time of
the rise of the Frankish power.

Aus'tria (from the German Oestreich or
Oesterreich, eastern empire), or Austria-
HcjNGARY, the collective designation of several
states of central Europe, consisting of two semi-
iudependent countries, each with its own par-
liament and government, but with one common
Vol. 2—8.

sovereign, army, and system of diplomacy, and
also with a common parliament.

History of the Country till the Year 982. —
After the Romans had vanquished the Noricans,
SS A.D., and gained possession of the Danube,
the country north of the Danube, extending
to the borders of Bohemia and Moravia be-
longed to the kingdom of the Marcomanni and
Quadi ; a part of lower Austria and Styria, with
Vienna (Vindobona), a municipal city of the
Roman empire, belonged to upper Pannonia ;
the rest of the country, with Carinthia and a
part of Carniola, formed a portion of Noricum.
Gorz belonged to the Roman province of Illy-
ricum, and Tyrol to Rhaetia. These lim-ts be-
came confused by the irruptions of the barba-
rians. The Boii, Vandals, Heruli, Rugii, Goths.
Huns, Lombards, and Avars, in the course of the
5th and 6th centuries, successively occiipied
the country. But after the year 568, when the
Lombards had established their power in upper
Italy, the River Ens formed the boundary line
between the German tribe of Bajuvarii, the pro-
prietors of the territory above the Ens, and the
Avars, who had removed from the east to the
banks of that stream. In 611 the Wendi, a
Slavonic tribe, appeared on the Murr, Drave,
and Save. In 788 the duchy of Bavaria was
dissolved, and the Avars passed over the Ens
and invaded the counties of the Franks in the
Bavarian territory. In 791 Charlemagne forced
them to retire to the Raab, and united the ter-
ritory extending from the Ens to the junction Oi"
the Raab with the Danube (the territory below
the Ens) with Germany, under the name of
Avaria, or the Eastern Mark (Marchia Orien-
talis), or Austria; and in the loth century (in
a document of Otho III. 996) it was called
Ostirrichi, equivalent to the modern Oester-
reich. Many colonists, particularly from Ba-
varia, were sent by Charlemagne into the new
province, and a margrave was appointed to ad-
minister the government. The archbishop of
Salzburg was at the head of ecclesiastical af-
fairs. After its separation from Verdun, in
843, Avaria formed the east boundary of the
German empire. On the invasion of Germany
by the Hungarians, in 900, Avaria fell into their
hands, and was held by them till 955, when the
Emneror Otho I., in consequence of the victory
of Augsburg, reunited a great part of this prov-
ince to the empire. By the power and address
of its margraves the whole country was joined
again with Germany, and in 1043, under the
Emperor Henry III. and the Margrave Albert
I. (the Victorious), its limits were extended to
the Leitha.

Austria under the House of Bamberg till
1282. — From 982 to 11 56 the margraviate of
Austria was hereditary in the family of the
counts of Badenburg (Bamberg) ; the succes-
sion, however, was not regulated by primogeni-
ture, but by the will of the emperor. In ancient
documents mention is made of the estates of
Austria in the year 1096. After Henry the
Proud (Duke of Bavaria and Saxony) was put
under the ban of the empire, Leopold V.. mar-
grave of Austria, received the duchy of Bavaria
in 1 138 from the Emperor Conrad. But when
the Margrave Henry, son of Leopold, under the
title of Ja-so-mir-Gott (Yes-so-me-God), had
again ceded it, in 1156, to Henry the Lion, the
boundaries of Austria were extended so as to
include the territory above the Ens, and tht

AUSTRIA

whole was oreatea a duchy with certain privi-
jeges. Under this Duke the court resided at
Vienna. Duke Leopold VI., the son of Henry,
received the duchy of Styria in 1192 as a fief
from the Emperor Henry VI., it having been
added to the empire by Otho I., in 955, by his
victory over the Hungarians. It was this prince
who imprisoned Richard Coeur de Lion, king of
England. Duke Leopold VII., the youngest
son of the former, erected a palace within the
city of Vienna, which w^as long occupied by the
Austrian monarchs, under the name of the old
castle. Leopold VII., called the Glorious, es-
tablished the hospital of the Holy Cross, made
Vienna, which had adopted a municipal consti-
tution in 1 198, a staple town, and granted 30,000
marks of silver for the promotion of trade and
commerce. In 1229 he purchased a part of
Carniola from the ecclesiastical principality of
Freisingen for 1,650 marks, and left the country
in a flourishing condition to the youngest of his
three sons, Frederick II., surnamed the War-
rior. In 1236 this prince was put under the ban
of the empire, on account of his joining the
alliance of the cities of Lombardy against the
Emperor Frederick II. ; and Otho, Duke of Ba-
varia, seized upon his territory above the Ens
as far as Lintz. The rest of the country was
granted, as a fief by the emperor, to a mar-
grave, and Vienna became an imperial city.

During the emperor's campaign in Italy Duke
Frederick recovered the principal part of his
lands, and his rights were confirmed by the
emperor at Verona, 1245. The rights of Vienna
as an imperial city were abolished, and Frederick
was to be called king, as sovereign of Austria
and Styria ; but all his expectations of empire
were disappointed by his death in the battle of
the Leitha against Bela IV., king of Hungary,
15 July 1246, in the 35th year of his age. Thus
the male line of the house of Bamberg became
extinct. The period from 1246 to 1282 is styled
the Austrian interregnum. The Emperor Fred-
erick II. declared Austria and Styria a vacant
fief, the hereditary property of the German
emperors, and sent a governor to Vienna, the
privileges of which, as an imperial city, were
once more renewed. But the female relations of
the deceased Duke Frederick, his sister Mar-
garet (widow of the Emperor Henry VI), and
his niece Gertrude, by the persuasion of Pope
Innocent IV., in 1248, laid claim to the inher-
itance of their brother. The Margrave Her-
mann, with the aid of the Pope and a strong
party, made himself master of Vienna, and of
several Austrian cities. In Styria he was op-
posed by the governor Meinhard, count of Gorz.
But Hermann died in 1250, and his son Fred-
erick, who was afterward beheaded in 1268, at
Naples, with Conradin of Suabia, was then only
a year old. The whole country was distracted
by various parties, and the Emperor Conrad
IV. was prevented, by disputes with his neigh-
bors, from turning his attention to Austria. In
1251 the states of Austria and Styria deter-
mined to appoint one of the sons of the second
sister of Frederick the Warrior, Constantia
(widow of the Margrave Henry the Illustrious)
to the office of Duke. Their deputies were 01
the way to IMisnia when they were persuaded
by King Wenceslaus, on their entrance int""
Prague, to declare his son Ottocar Duke of
Austria and Styria, who made every effort to

support his appointment by arms, money, and
especially by his marriage with the em.press
widow Margaret. Ottocar wrested Styria from
Bela, king of Hungary, by his victory of July
1260, in the Marchfield; and in 1262 forced the
Emperor Richard to invest him with both duch-
ies. Soon after, by the will of his uncle Ulrich,
the last Duke of Carinthia and Friuli (who
died 1296), Ottocar became master of Carinthia,
a part of Carniola connected with it, the king-
dom of Istria, and a part of Friuli. But his
arrogance soon caused his fall. In 1272 he re-
fused to acknowledge Count Rudolph of Haps-
burg emperor, and was obliged to defend himseh
against Rudolph. After an unsuccessful war
he was forced to cede all his Austrian pos-
sessions in November 1276. In 1277 he at-
tempted to recover these territories, but, in the
battle of the Marchfield, 26 Aug. 1278, he was
slain, and his son Wenceslaus was obliged to
renounce all claim to them, in order to preserve
his hereditary estates. The Emperor Rudolph
remained three years in Vienna, and then ap-
pointed his eldest son governor. But having
succeeded in gaining the consent of the electors
of Saxony and Brandenburg, of the three ec-
clesiastical electors, and of the count-palatine of
the Rhine, he granted the duchies of Austria
and Styria, with the province of Carinthia, to
his two sons, Albert and Rodolph, 27 Dec. 1280.

Austria under the House of Hapsburg. —
I. From 1282 to 1526. Albert and Rodolph
transferred Carinthia to Meinhard, count of
Tyrol, father-in-law to Albert. In 1283 they
concluded a treaty, by which Albert was made
sole possessor of Austria, Styria, and Carniola.
Vienna, having again renounced its privileges
as an imperial city, was made the residence
of the court, and the successors of Rodolph,
from this time, assumed Austria as the family
title. The introduction of the Hapsburg dy-
nasty was the foundation of the future great-
ness of Austria. The despotic Albert was
assailed by Hungary and Bavaria and in 1298 he
won the Roman crown in an engagement with
Adolphus of Nassau. After this he undertook
the conquest of Switzerland ; but was assassin-
ated I May 1308, at Rheinfelden, by his nephew,
John of Suabia, from whom he had basely with-
held his hereditary estates. The inheritance of
John now fell to the five sons of the murdered
Albert — Frederick, surnamed the Fair, Leo-
pold, Henry, Albert, and Otho. They were
forced to purchase of the Emperor Henry VII.
the investiture of their paternal estates (consist-
ing, in 1308, of 26,572 square miles) for 20,000
marks of silver. Under their father, in 1301,
the margraviate of Suabia was added to the
territories of Austria, and the contest with
Bavaria ended in Austria obtaining Neuberg.
On the contrary, the attempt of Duke Leopold,
in 1315, to recover the forest towns of Switzer-
land, which had been lost under Albert, was
frustrated by the valor of the troops of the
Swiss confederacy in the battle of Morgarten.
In 1314 his brother Frederick, chosen emperor
of Germany by the electors, was conquered by
his rival, the Emperor Louis (of Bavaria), in
1322, at Miihldorf, and was his prisoner for
two 3'ears and a half in the castle of Trausnitz.
Tiie dispute with the house of Luxemberg, in
Bohemia, and with Pope John XXII., induced
the emperor, in 1325, to liberate his captive.

AUSTRIA

Upon this the laiier renounced all share in the
government, and pledged himself to surrender
all the imperial domains which were still in
the possession of Austria. But Leopold con-
sidered the agreement derogatory ro his dignity
and continued the war against Louis, i^red-
erick, therefore, again surrendered himself a
prisoner in ]\Iunich. Moved by his faithful
adherence to his word, Louis concluded a
friendly compact with Frederick, and made prep-
arations for their common government, 7 Sept.
1325. These preparations, however, were never
carried into execution ; for the agreement had
been concluded without the consent of the elec-
tors. Leopold died in 1326, and Henry of Aus-
tria in 1327; Frederick also died without chil-
dren, 13 Jan. 1330, after which his brothers, Al-
bert IL and Otho, came to a reconciliation with
the Emperor Louis. After the death of their
unr'e. Henry, margrave of Tyrol, and Duke of
Carinthia (the father of Margaret Maultasch),
they persuaded the emperor to grant them the
investiture of Tyrol and Carinthia, in May
1335 ; they ceded Tyrol, however, to John, king
of Bohemia, by the treaty of 9 Oct. 1356, in
behalf of his son John Henry, or rather of his
wife, Margaret Maultasch. In 1344, after the
death of Otho and his sons, Albert H., called the
Wise, united all his Austrian territories, which,
by his marriage with the daughter of the last
count of Pfirt, had been augmented by the es-
tates of her father in 1324, and by the Kyburg es-
tates in Burgundy in 1326. Of the four sons
of Albert H. (Rodolph, Albert, Leopold, and
Frederick), Rodolph H. (IV.) completed the
church of St. Stephen's, and died in IMilan in
, T365, without children, a short time after his
youngest brother, Frederick. In 1379 the two
surviving brothers divided the kingdom, so that
Albert III. (with the Queue) became master
of Austria, and gave the other territories to his
brother, Leopold III. the Pious. Leopold had
made repeated attempts to gain the Hapsburg
possessions in Switzerland. He was killed 9
July 1386, on the field of Sempach, where he
lost the battle, in consequence of the valor of
Winkelried, and Albert administered the gov-
ernment of the estates of his brother's minor
sons. Margaret Maultasch ceded Tyrol to him
on the death of Meinhard, her only son, who
was married to the sister of Albert. She re-
tained nothing but a few castles and 6,000 marks
of gold. Her claims to Bavaria also she re-
nounced in consideration of receiving Scharding
and three Tyrolese cities, Kitzbiihel, Ballenberg,
and Kutfstein, and 116,000 florins of gold. In
1365 Leopold HI. had bought the claims of the
count of Feldkirch for 36.000 florins; for 55,000
florins Austria received Brisgau from the count
of Fiirstenberg, with the cities of Neuberg, Old
Brisach, Kentzingen, and Billingen. The re-
mainder of Carniola and the Windisch Mark,
after the death of the last count of Gorz, were
purchased, together with the county of Pludentz,
from the count of Werdenberg, and the pos-
sessions of the count of Hogenberg, 7or 66,000
florins; and the city of Trieste was acquired
in 1380 by aiding in the war between Hungary
and Venice. Moreover, the two governments of
upper and lower Suabia were pledged for 40,000
florins by the king of Rome, Wenceslaus, to
Duke Leopold. The Austrian and Styrian lines,
founded by Albert III. and Leopold HI., his

brother, continued for 78 years. In 1395, when
Albert HI. died, his only son, Albert IV., was
in Palestine. On his return he determined to
take vengeance on Procopius, margrave of Mo-
ravia, for his hostile conduct ; but he was
poisoned in 1404 at Znaym. His young son and
successor, Albert V., was declared of age in
1410; and being the son-in-law of the Emperor
Sigismund, he united the crowns of Hungarv
and Bohemia in 1437, and connected them
with that of Germany in 1438. But in the fol-
lowing year the young prince died. His
posthumous son, Ladislaus, was the last of the
Austrian line of Albert, and its possessions de-
volved on the Styrian line, 1457.

From this time the house of Austria has
furnished an unbroken succession of German
emperors. Hungary and Bohemia were lost
for a time by the death of Albert V., and, after
the unhappy contests with the Swiss, under
Frederick HI , the remains of the Hapsburg
estates in Switzerland. But several territories
were gained ; and, to increase the rising splen-
dor of the family, the emperor conferred upon
the country the rank of an archduchy. The
dispute which broke out between Frederick and
his brothers Albert and Sigismund, relating to
the divisions of their paternal inheritance, end-
ed with the death of Albert in December 1464.
In the course of the troubles which resulted
from this quarrel the emperor was besieged in
the citadel of Vienna by the citizens, who fa-
vored the cause of the murdered prince. Sigis-
mund now succeeded to his portion of the es-
tate of Ladislaus and Frederick became sole
ruler of all Austria His son Maximilian, by
his marriage with Mary, the surviving daughter
of Charles the Bold, united the Netherlands tc
the Austrian dominions. But it cost Maximilian
much anxiety and toil to maintain his power
in this new province, which he administered as
the guardian of his son Philip. After the death
of his father, 19 Aug. 1493, he was made em-
peror of Germany, and transferred to his son
Philip the government of the Netherlands.
Maximilian I. added to his paternal inheritance
all Tyrol, and several other territories, partic-
ularly some belonging to Bavaria. He also ac-
quired for his family new claims to Hungary
and Bohemia. During his reign Vienna becamf
the great metropolis of the arts and sciences in
the German empire. The marriage of his son
Philip to Joanna of Spain raised the "house oi
Hapsburg to the throne of Spain and the In-
dies. But Philip died in 1506, 13 years before
his father, and the death of Maximilian, which
happened 12 Jan. 1519, was followed by the
union of Spain and Austria ; his grandson (the
eldest son of Philip), Charles I., king of Spain
(see Charles V.), was elected emperor of Ger-
many. In the treaty of Worms, 28 April 1521,
and of Ghent, 7 May 1540, he ceded to his
brother Ferdinand all his hereditary estates in
Germany, and retained for himself the kingdom
of the Netherlands. The house of Austria was
now the proprietor of a tract of country in
Europe comprising 360,230 square miles. The
Emperor Charles V. immediately increased the
number of provinces in the Netherlands to 17,
and confirmed their union with the German
states, which had been concluded by his grand-
father, under the title of the circle of Burgundy.
In 1526 Austria was recognized as a European
monarchy.

AUSTRIA

II. From 1526 to 1740. Ferdinand I., by
his marriage with Anna, the sister of Louis II.,
king of Hungary, who was killed in 1526 in the
battle of Mohacs, acquired the kingdoms of
Hungary and Bohemia, with Moravia, Silesia,
and Lusatia, the appendages of Bohemia. Bo-
hemia rejoiced to hail Ferdinand its king. Not-
withstanding the divided opinions of the nobles,
and the rising fortune of his adversary, John
von Zapolya (see Hungary), he was raised
to the throne of Hungary, 26 Nov. 1526, by the
Hungarian Diet, and was crowned 5 Nov. 1527.
But Zapolya resorted for assistance to the Sul-
tan, Soliman II., who appeared in 1529 at the
gates of Vienna. The capital was rescued from
ruin solely by the count of Salm, general of
the Austrian army, and the imperial forces com-
pelled Soliman to retreat. In 1535 a treaty was
made by which John von Zapolya was allowed to
retain the royal title and half of Hungary, and
his posterity were to be entitled to nothing but
Transylvania. But after the death of John
new disputes arose, in which Soliman was again
involved, and Ferdinand maintained the pos-
session of lower Hungary only by paying the
war-like Sultan the sum of 30,000 ducats an-
nually. This took place in 1562. Ferdinand
was equally unsuccessful in the duchy of
Wiirtemberg. This province had been taken
from the restless Duke Ulrich by the Suabian
confederacy, and sold to the Emperor Charles
V. ; and when his estates were divided it fell to
Ferdinand. Philip, landgrave of Hesse, the
friend of Duke Ulrich, took advantage of the
opportunity offered him by the embarrassment
of Ferdinand in the Hungarian war. With the
aid of France he conquered Wiirtemberg; but
France ceded it again to Ulrich in the treaty of
Caden, in Bohemia, concluded 29 June 1534, on
condition that the province should still be a fief
of Austria, and after the extinction of the male
line of the Duke that it should revert to that
country. Ferdinand received also the imperial
crown in 1556, when his brother Charles laid
by the sceptre for a cowl. He died 25 July
1564, with the fame of an able prince, leaving
3 sons and 10 daughters. According to the
directions given m his will, the three brothers
divided the patrimony, so that Maximilian II.,
the eldest son, who succeeded his father as
emperor, obtained Austria, Hungary, and Bo-
hemia ; Ferdinand, the second son, received Ty-
rol and Hither Austria ; and Charles, the third,
became master of Styria, Carinthia, Carniola,
and Gorz. But in 1595, after the death of the
Archduke Ferdinand, the husband of Philip-
pine Welser, the fair maid of Augsburg, his sons
Andrew (cardinal and bishop of Constance and
Brixen, and governor of the Netherlands for
Spain) and Charles (margrave of Burgau) were
declared incompetent to succeed their father,
and his possession reverted to his relations. In
Hungary the Emperor Maximilian met with
far better fortune than his father had done.
The death of Soliman at Szigeth in 1566 was
followed by a peace, and in 1572 Maximilian
crowned his eldest son, Rodolph, king of Hun-
gary; he was afterward crowned king of Bo-
hemia, and was elected king of Rome. In his
attempts to add the Polish crown to his Aus-
trian dominions he was equally unsuccessful
with his fourth son, Maximilian, who engaged
in a similar enterprise after the decease of

Stephen Bathori in 1587. Maximilian died 12
Oct. 1576, and Rodolph the eldest of his five
sons, succeeded to the imperial throne. The
most remarkable events by which his reign is
distinguished are the war against Turkey and
Transylvania, the persecutions of the Protes-
tants, who were all driven from his dominions,
and the circumstances which obliged him to
cede Hungary in 1608, and Bohemia and his
hereditary estates in Austria in 161 1, to his
brother Matthias. From this time we may date
the successful exertions of the Austrian sov-
ereigns to put down the restless spirit of the
nation, and to keep the people in a state of ab-
ject submission. Matthias, who succeeded
Maximilian on the imperial throne, concluded a
peace for 20 years with the Turks ; but he was
disturbed by the Bohemians, who took up arms
m defense of their religious rights. Matthias
died 20 March 1619, before the negotiations for
a compromise were completed. The Bohemi-
ans refused to acknowledge his successor,
Ferdinand II., and chose Frederick V., the
head of the Protestant League, and elector of
the palatinate, for their king. After the battle
of Prague, 1620, Bohemia submitted to the au-
thority of Ferdinand. He immediately applied
himself to eradicate Protestantism out of Bohe-
mia proper and Moravia. At the same time he
deprived Bohemia of the right of choosing her
king, and of her other privileges. He erected a
Catholic court of reform, and thus led to the
emigration of thousands of the inhabitants. This
large exodus of inhabitants did much to retard
the growth of Bohemia. In fact the religious
wars waged upon Bohemian soil for so long a
time, dating back to the first outbreaks of the_
Hussites, with the subsequent agitations and con-
flicts consequent upon the Reformation, long
and seriously hampered that state's general de-
velopment up to modern times. The Austrian
states also favoring, in general, the Protestant
religion, were compelled by Ferdinand to swear
allegiance to him, and Lutheranism was strict-
ly forbidden in all the Austrian dominions. The
province of Hungary, which revolted under
Bethlem Gabor, prince of Transylvania, was,
after a long struggle, subdued. This religious
war dispeopled, impoverished, and paralyzed
the energies of the most fertile provinces of the
house of Austria. During the reign of Ferdi-
nand III., the successor of Ferdinand II.
(1637-57), Austria was continually the thea-
tre of war.

In the midst of these troubles Ferdinand
ceded Lusatia to Saxony at the peace of Prague,
concluded in 1635 ; and when the war was end-
ed he ceded Alsace to France, at the peace of
Westphalia in 1648. The Emperor Leopold I.,
son and successor of Ferdinand III., was vic-
torious through the talents of his minister Eu-
gene, in two wars with Turkey ; and Vienna
was delivered by John Sobieski and the Ger-
mans from the attacks of Kara Mustapha in
1683. In 1687 he changed Hungary into a
hereditary kingdom, and joined to it the terri-
tory of Transylvania, which had been governed
by distinct princes. Moreover, by the peace of
Carlovitz, concluded in 1699, he restored to
Hungary the country lying between the Danube
and the Theiss. It was now the chief aim of
Leopold to secure to Charles, his second son,
the inheritance of the Spanish monarchy, ther.

AUSTRIA

in the hands of Charles II., king of Spain, who
had no children ; but his own indecision, and the
policy of France, induced Charles II. to appoint
the grandson of Louis XIV. his successor. Thus
began the war of the Spanish Succession (see
Succession Wars) in 1701. Leopold died 5
May 1705, before it was terminated. Em-
peror Joseph I., his successor and eldest son,
continued the war, but died without children, 17
April 171 1. His brother Charles, the destined
king of Spain, immediately hastened from Bar-
celona to his hereditary states, to take upon
hun the administration of the government. He
wcs elected emperor 24 December of the same
year ; but was obliged to accede to the peace of
Utrecht, concluded by his allies at Rastadt and
Baden in 1714. By this treaty Austria received
the Netherlands, Milan, Mantua, Naples, and
Sardinia. In 1720 Sicily was given to Austria
in exchange for Sardinia. The duchy of Man-
tua, occupied by Joseph in 1708, was now made
an Austrian fief, because it had formed an alli-
ance w'ith France prejudicial to the interests of
Germany. This monarchy now embraced 191,621
square miles. Its annual income was between
13.000,000 and 14,000,000 florins, and its army
consisted of 130,000 men ; but its power was
weakened by new^ wars with Spain and France.
In the peace concluded at Vienna 1735 and
1738, Charles VI. was forced to cede Naples
and Sicily to Don Carlos, the Infante of Spain,
and to the king of Sardinia a part of Milan, for
which he received only a part of Parma and
Piacenza. In the next year, by the peace of
Belgrade, he lost nearly all the fruits of Eu-
gene's victories, even the province of Temeswar ;
for he was obliged to transfer to the Porte,
Belgrade, Servia, and all the possessions of
Austria in Walachia and Bosnia. All this
Charles VI. willingly acceded to, in order to
secure rhe succession to his daughter, Maria
Theresa, by the Pragmatic Sanction. This law^
of inheritance was passed 1713-19, and acknow-
ledged one after another by all the European
powers.

Austria under the House of Hapsburg-Lor-
rainc. — By the death of Charles VI., 20 Oct.
1740, the male line of the Austrian house of
Hapsburg became extinct; and Maria Theresa
having married Stephen, Duke of Lorraine,
ascended the Austrian throne. On every side
her claims were disputed, and rival claims set
up. A violent war began in which she had no
protector but England. Frederick II. of Prus-
sia subdued Silesia ; the elector of Bavaria was
crowned in Lintz and Prague, and in 1742
chosen emperor under the name of Charles VII.
Hungarj^ alone supported the queen. But in
the peace of Breslau, concluded 4 June 1742, she
was obliged to cede to Prussia, Silesia, and Glatz,
with the exception of Teschen, Jagerndorf, and
Troppau. Frederick II., by assisting the party
of Charles VII., soon renewed the war. But
Charles died 20 Jan. 1745, and the husband of
Theresa was crowned emperor of Germany
under the title of Francis I. A second treaty
of peace, concluded 25 Dec. 1745. confirmed to
Frederick the possession of Silesia. By the
peace of Aix-la-Chapelle, 18 Oct. 1748, Austria
was obliged to cede the duchies of Parma. Pia-
cenza, and Guastalla to Philip, Infante of Spain,
and several districts of Milan to Sardinia. The
Austrian monarchy was now firmly established;

and it was the first wish of Maria Theresa to
recover Silesia. With this object in view she
formed an alliance with France, Russia, Saxony,
and Sweden. This was the origin of the Seven
Years' war; but, by the peace of Hubertsberg,
1763, Prussia retained Silesia, and Austria had
sacrificed her blood and treasure in vain. The
first paper money was now issued in Austria,
called state obligations, and the Emperor Fran-
cis erected a bank to exchange them. After
his death, iS Aug. 1765, Joseph II., his eldest
son, was appointed colleague with his mother
in the government of his hereditary states, and
elected emperor of Germany. To prevent the
extinction of the male line of her family Maria
Theresa now established two collateral lines;
the house of Tuscany, in her second son, Peter
Leopold ; and the house of Este, in the person
of the Archduke Ferdinand. For these separa-
tions Maria Theresa indemnified the country by
the confiscation of several cities, formerly
pledged to Poland by Hungary, without paying
the sum for which they stood pledged ; by ob-
taining Galicia and Lodomeria in the first
profligate division of the kingdom of Poland in
1772 ; and by the capture of Bukowina. which
was ceded by the Porte in 1777. In the peace of
Teschen, 13 May 1779, Austria received Inn-
viertel, and the vacant county of Hohenembs in
Suabia, the county of Falkenstein, and the Sua-
bian territories of Tettnang and Argen ; and
thus at the death of the empress, 28 Nov. 1780,
Austria contained 234,684 square miles ; it had
lost 16,366 square miles, and gained 34,301. The
population was estimated at 24,000,000 ; but the
public debt also had increased to 160,000,000
florins. The administration of the empress was
distinguished by substantial improvements in
connection with government, agriculture, trade,
and commerce, the education of the people, the
piromotion of the arts and sciences, and of re-
ligion. The foreign relations of the kingdom
also, even those with the Roman court, w-ere
happily conducted by the talents of her minis-
ter, Kaunitz.

Her successor, Joseph II., w^as active and
restless ; impartial, but too often rash and vio-
lent. While a colleague with his mother in
the government he diminished the expenses of
the state, and introduced a new system in the
payment of pensions and of officers. But after
the death of his mother all his activity and tal-
ent as a sovereign was fully developed. As
severe to the military as to the civil officers,
he adhered, however, to liberal principles. The
censorship of the press was reformed ; the Prot-
estants received full toleration, and the rights
of citizens ; the Jews were treated with kind-
ness ; 900 convents and religious establishments
were abolished, and even the visit of Pius VI.
made no alteration in Joseph's system of refor-
ination. The system of education he subjected
to revision and improvement ; and he tried to
foster manufactures by duties on foreign goods.
But his zeal excited the opposition of the ene-
mies of improvement. The low countries re-
volted, and his vexation probably led him to
attempt the exchange of the Netherlands, un-
der the title of the kingdom of Austrasia, for
the palatinate of Bavaria under an elector. But
the project was frustrated by the constancy and
firmness of the next agnate, the Duke of Deux-
Ponts, and by the German league concluded by

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Frederick II. Joseph was equally unsuccessful
in the war of 1788 against the Porte. His exer-
tions in the field destroj'ed his health; and grief
at the rebellious disposition of his hereditary
states accelerated his death, which happened
20 Feb. 1790. Joseph II. was succeeded by his
eldest brother, Leopold II. By his moderation
and firmness he quelled the turbulent spirit of
the Netherlands, and restored tranquillity to
Hungary. The treaty of Reichenbach with
Prussia, 27 July 1790, and the treaty of Sistova,
4 Aug. 1791, led to a peace with the Porte.
The unhappy fate of his sister and her husband,
Louis XVT. of France, induced him to form an
alliance with Prussia, but he died i March
1792, before the revolutionary war broke out.
Soon after the accession of his son, Francis II.,
to the throne, and before he was elected
German emperor, France declared war against
him as king of Hungary and Bohemia. In the
first articles of peace, dated at Campo Formio,
17 Oct 1797, Austria lost Lombardy and the
Netherlands, and received, as a compensation,
the largest part of the Venetian territory ; two
years previous, in 1795, in the third division of
Poland, the Austrian dominions had been en-
larged by the addition of west Galicia. In the
beginning of the year 1799, the Emperor Francis,
in alliance with Russia, renewed the war with
France. But Napoleon extorted the peace of
Luneville, 9 Feb. 1801, and Francis acceded to
it, without the consent of England. By the
conditions of the treaty he was to cede the
county of Falkenstein and the Frickthal. Fer-
dinand, Grand Duke of Tuscany, at the same
time renounced his claim to this province and
received, in return for it, Salzburg and Berch-
tesgaden, with a part of the territory of Passau,
and was afterward made master of the largest
part of Eichstadt, and honored with the title of
elector. Austria obtained the Tyrolese arch-
bishoprics, Trent and Brixen, and, notwith-
standing its cessions of territory to France, had
gained, including its acquisitions in Poland,
9.580 square miles ; this made the whole extent
253,770 square miles. The public debt had also
increased to 1,220,000,000 florins.

The first consul of France now caused him-
self to be proclaimed emperor; and 11 Aug.
1804, Francis declared himself hereditary em-
peror of Austria, and united the Austrian states
under the name of the empire of Austria. Im-
mediately after this important act he took arms
once more with his allies, Russia and Great
Britain, against the government of France.
The war of 1805 was terminated by the peace of
Presburg, (26 Dec. 1805). By the conditions
of the treaty Francis was obliged to cede to
France the remaining provinces of Italy ; to
the king of Bavaria, Burgau, Eichstadt, a part
of Passau, all Tyrol, Vorarlberg, Hohenembs,
Rothenfels, Tettnang, Argen, and Lindau; to
the king of Wiirtemberg the five towns lying on
the Danube, the county of Hohenberg, the land-
graviate of Nellenburg, Altdorf, and a part of
Brisgau; and to the Grand Duke of Baden the
remainder of Brisgau, Ortenau, Constance, and
the commandery of Meinau. He received, in
return, Salzburg and Berchtesgaden ; the elec-
tor of Salzburg was compensated by the prov-
ince of Wiirzburg; and the dignity of grand
master of the Teutonic order was made heredi-
tary in the house of Austria. Thus ended a

war which cost the Austrian monarchy, besides
the territories just enumerated, 90,000,000 flor-
ins, which were carried away by the French from
Vienna, and 800,000,000 for the other expenses
of the war ; of which Francis paid a large pro-
portion from his private purse. After the for-
mation of the Confederation of the Rhine (12
July 1806) Francis was forced to resign his dig-
nity as emperor of Germany (6 Aug. 1806),
which had been in his family more than 500
years. The old German, or Holy Roman, em-
pire thus came to an end, and Francis had now
only the title of Francis I., emperor of Austria.
In 1809 he resolved on a new war with France,
aided only by Great Britain, which did nothing
more than furnish some pecuniary assistance and
made a useless attack on Walcheren. Austria
fought courageously, but in vain. The peace of
Vienna (14 Oct. 1809) cost the monarchy 42,-
380 square miles of territory, 3,500,000 subjects,
and more than 11,000,000 florins of revenue.
The public debt was also increased to 1,200,000,-
000 florins, and all the paper money in circula-
tion was estimated at 950,000,000.

Napoleon, after tearing from the Austrian
monarchy its fairest provinces — the duchy 0/
Salzburg, with Berchtesgaden, Innviertel, west-
ern Hausruckviertel, Carniola, and Gorz,
Trieste, the circle of Villach, a large part of
Croatia, Istria, a part of the Grisons, the Bo-
hemian territories in Saxony, all west Galicia,
the circle of Zamoski in east Galicia, Cracow,
with half the salt works of Wieliczka, the circle
of Tarnopol, and many other territories which
were given to Russia — formed a personal con-
nection with the ancient family of Hapsburg,
by his marriage with Maria Louisa, daughter of
the emperor of Austria, and (14 March 1812)
concluded an alliance with the emperor Francis
against Russia. But the emperor of France was
repulsed on his invasion of this country ; Prus-
sia rose up against him ; and after the Congress
of Prague had separated without accomplish-
ing anything, Francis, 12 Aug. 1813, declared
war against France, and formed an alliance, 9
Sept. 1813, at Teplitz, with Great Britain, Rus-
sia, Prussia, and Sweden, against his son-in-law.
In the battle of Leipsic, the Austrian troops
took an honorable part. The firmness with
which the emperor signed the act of proscrip-
tion against his son-in-law, and fixed the fate
of his daughter and her infant, excited general
respect. He signed the same act against Na-
poleon a second time, when he returned from
Elba. He also opposed Murat in Italy. Yet
the Austrian cabinet endeavored to provide for
young Napoleon in the settlement of the affairs
of France. By the Congress of Vienna, 1814-15,
Austria gained the portion of Italy which is
usually known as Lombardy and Venetia, and
recovered, together with Dalmatia, the hereditary
territories which it had been obliged to cede.
The former Grand Duke of Wiirzburg, on the
contrary, ceded his territory to Bavaria, and
again took possession of Tuscany. The final
act resulting from the congress was signed in
1820. In 1821 liberal movements in Italy were
put down. The July revolution of 1830, in
France, cause warlike preparations to be made ;
but after Great Britain had acknowledged the
new government Austria acknowledged it
also. Insurrections which took place in Mo-
dena, Parma, and the Papal states, 183 1-2, were

AUSTRIA

suppressed without much difficulty. In the Lon-
don conference relative to the affairs of Belgium
Austria took an active share ; but in proportion
as Great Britain and France became more close-
ly united, Austria entered into more intimate
relations with Russia and Prussia. In the Polish
insurrection Austria ultimately gave indications
of a strong leaning in favor of Russia. The
death of the Emperor Francis I., 2 March 1835,
and the accession of Ferdinand I. made little
change in the Austrian system of government.
Metternich still continued at the head of affairs
and to foster the reactionary policy. In 1846
the failure of the Polish insurrection had led
to the incorporation of Cracow with Austria,
but discontent with the government very widely
prevailed in the empire. In Italy, the declara-
tions of Pio Nono in favor of reform, and the
concessions into which most of the other gov-
ernments of the Italian peninsula had been
hurried, increased the difficulties of Austria.
In Hungary the constitutional opposition became
stronger and stronger, and latterly, under the
guidance of Kossuth and other popular agita-
tors, assumed the form of a great constitutional
movement. In 1848 the expulsion of Louis
Philippe shook all Europe to its foundations.
Metternich found it impossible any longer to
guide the ship of state, and the government
found itself compelled to grant a free press,
and allow the citizens freely to arm themselves.
The popular movement made great progress in
Hungary ; and in Italy a formidable insurrec-
tion broke out, threatening the very existence
of the Austrian power in the peninsula. In the
very centre of the empire, in Vienna itself, the
insurrection made equal progress, and the royal
family, no longer in safety, removed to Inns-
bruck. The Austrian monarchy appeared now
to be hanging by a thread. The Hungarian diet
declared itself permanent, under the presidency
of Kossuth. Various ministerial changes took
place, and at laot the emperor abdicated in
favor of his nephew, Francis Joseph. More
vigorous measures were now adopted, and Aus-
tria, strongly aided by the forces of Russia, suc-
ceeded in suppressing the Hungarian insurrec-
tion. Haynau, on the occasion, rendered himself
notorious by his severity, and Hungary under-
went the fate of a conquered country. The
year 1855 is memorable in Austrian history for
the conclusion of a concordat with the Pope
which put the educational and ecclesiastical af-
fairs of the empire entirely into the hands of
the papal see. It established an ecclesiastical
censorship of the press, and placed all schools,
€ven private schools, under the surveillance of
the bishops ; it proclaimed the complete inde-
pendence of the bishops in relation to the civil
government, so that all decrees proceeding from
Rome might be published without obtaining the
royal placet, and it authorized the bishops to
convoke the provincial councils and diocesan
synods without the consent of the civil au-
thority. In 1859 the hostile intentions of
France and Sardinia against the possessions of
Austria in Italy became so evident that she de-
clared war by sending an army across the
Ticino, but after disastrous defeats at Magenta
and Solferino slie was compelled to cede Milan
and the northwest portion of Lombardy to the
Sardinian king. In 1864 she joined with Prus-
sia and the other German states in the spolia-
tion of Denmark, but a di<5pute about the con-

quered provinces of Schleswig-Holstein involved
her in a war with her allies (1866), while at
the same time Italy renewed her attempts for
the recovery of Venice, Austria had accord-
ingly to show front both in the north and in
the south. The southern army under Archduke
Albert fought successfully, defeating the Ital-
ians under Victor Emanuel at Custozza, 24
June, and driving them back across the Mincio,
but the fortune of the northern army under
Gen. Benedek was very different. On 3
July Benedek was completely defeated by the
Prussian forccsat Koniggriitz (Sadowa) in
Bohemia, and the road to Vienna lay open to
the victors. Francis Joseph now ceded Venetia
to Napoleon III., and claimed his intervention to
assist in procuring a peace, evidently wishing
to make a separate treaty with Italy, so as to
be at liberty to employ the southern army
against Prussia. This design did not succeed,
however. Both Italy and Prussia were willing
to accept the mediation of Napoleon, but Italy
would not hear of a separate arrangement, and
continued the war. On 20 July Admiral Teg-
etthoff defeated the Italian fleet near the Dal-
matian island Lissa; but, on the other hand, the
Prussians continued to advance into Austria,
and threatened Vienna. Francis Joseph accord-
ingly saw himself obliged to conclude a peace
with Prussia 23 August, and a little later peace
was concluded with Italy also, 3 October. The
result of the war was the cession of Venetia
through France to Italy, and the withdrawal of
Austria from all interference in the affairs of
Germany. (See Seven Weeks' War.)

Since 1866 Austria has been occupied chiefly
with the internal affairs of the empire. The
first aim of the government was to restore the
constitution of the state, which had been es-
tablished in February 1861, but which had
been suspended since 1865 owing to the demand
of Hungary for self-government. As Austrian
statesmen were anxious for a settlement of the
dispute, the Hungarian demands were finally
agreed to, and the empire of Austria divided
into two parts, the one made up of the Cisleithan
or Slavonic-German provinces, the other of the
Transleithan provinces, the latter forming to-
gether the kingdom of Hungary. These two
divisions of the empire were to be entirely inde-
pendent, except in matters of diplomacy and
military and naval matters — to some extent
also in matters of finance. This settlement
was consummated by the coronation of the Em-
peror Francis Joseph I. as king of Hungary,
which took place at Pesth-Ofen, on 8 June
1867. During the session of the Reichsrath,
that is, the diet of the Cisleithan provinces, held
in the same year, the important question of the
concordat of 1855 came up for discussion. The
Liberal majority in the diet were desirous of
seeing it entirely repealed, but as they fully
recognized the insuperable obstacles in the way
of this step, they were content to proceed by
separate enactments intended to weaken the
power that had been gained to the papal see
by the concordat. With this end in view three
measures were brought forward, one for the re-
establishment of civil marriage, one for the
emancipation of the schools from the domina-
tion of the Church, and one for the placing of
the different creeds on a footing of equality.
Before 25 May 1868, all these measures had
passed through both houses of the diet, and on

AUSTRIA

that day they received the imperial sanction.
These laws were declared by the Pope to be
''abominable,^' as well as null and void. Fur-
ther enactments having in view the weakening
of the power of the papal see in the state were
passed in 1874, and were condemned by the
Pope in the severest terms. The fact of the
Austro-Hungarian dominions comprising so
many different nationalities with different lan-
guages has always given the government much
trouble, both in the management of internal
affairs and in regard to external matters. In
the recent revival of the Eastern question, for
instance, the course of Austria was hampered by
the sympathy shown by the Mag>'ars for the
Turks, while her Slav, subjects were naturally
more favorable to Russia. Previous to the out-
break of hostilities between Russia and Turkey
she joined with the other powers in remon-
strance with Turkey, but as to the actual strug-
gle remained neutral. At the close of the war
in the middle of 1878 Austria took part in
the Congress of Berlin, where the settlement
of the Eastern question was arranged, and by
this congress it was decided that the provinces
of Bosnia and Herzegovina should in future be
administered by Austria-Hungary instead of
Turkey. Since then the external history of
the monarchy has been uneventful, but there
has been considerable friction at home between
the different nationalities and political parties.

Area and Divisions. — The Austrian empire
extends from about lat. 42° to 51° N., and
from Ion. 8° 30' to 26° 30' E. ; the total area
in round numbers is 240,000 square miles. Its
greatest length from east to west is about 860
miles ; its greatest breadth about 400 miles. It
is bounded south by Turkey, the Adriatic Sea,
and the kingdom of Italy ; west by Switzerland,
Bavaria, and Saxony; north by Prussia and
Russian Poland ; and east by Russia and Ru-
mania. On the shores of the Adriatic, along the
coasts of Dalmatia, Croatia, Istria, etc., lies
its only sea frontage, which, compared to the
size of the monarchy, is of insignificant ex-
tent. Besides being divided into the two great
divisions above mentioned, the Austro-Hunga-
rian monarchy is further divided into a number
of governments or provinces. The following
table exhibits the name and area of these govern-
ments, with their population in 1890 and 1900 :

Natural Features. — Although presenting ev-
ery variety of surface the prevailing character
of the Austrian dominions is mountainous, there
being few districts where mountains are not
found ; while the plains do not occupy more than
a fifth part of the whole superficies. The loft-
iest ranges, and the most extensively ramified,
are found in Tyrol, Styria, lUyria, and the
southern parts of Austria proper. In some of
these regions the scenery is bold and romantic^
and has been considered equal to that of Switz-
erland. The most extensive tracts of low or
flat land occur in Slavonia and the southeast
and central parts of Hungary ; much of this
level land is remarkably fertile, but it is met
at various points by vast morasses and arid
steppes. The principal valleys are found in
Tyrol, Salzburg, Styria, and lUyria. Extensive
plains stretch along the courses of the rivers,
particularlj' the Danube, the Theiss, and the
March. The principal rivers of Austria are
the Danube, the Elbe, the Save, the Drave,
the Waag, the March, ihe Inn, the Teiss or
Theiss, and the Maros. The Danube for up-
ward of 800 miles is navigable for quite
large vessels throughout the whole Austrian
territory ; while all the others, most of them
tributaries of the Danube, are navigable for ves-
sels of smaller size. All the rivers abound in
fish. The lakes are numerous and often pic-
turesque, although those in the lowlands, par-
ticularly in the plains of Hungary, are rather
marshes than lakes. Austria lies between the
isotherms of 60° and 50°, and has a climate
nearly as various as its surface. The northern
regions, between the 49th and 51st degrees of
north latitude, have an average temperature re-
sembling that of the north of France. Be-
tween lat. 46° and 49° the heat is considerable ;
and between 42° and 46°, which comprises the
whole of South Austria, it is still greater ; the
winter lasting two or three months only, and
being, in general, extremely mild. The prin-
cipal products of the north are wheat, barley,
oats, and rye ; in the centre, vines and maize are
added ; and in the south, olives. The productive
capabilities of the soil, however, are not ren-
dered available to their full extent. The wines
of Austria are inferior on the whole, with ex-
ception of a few choice kinds, including the
well-known Tokay. A great portion of the

Divisions.

Austrian Provinces —

Lower Austria

Upper Austria

Salzburg

Styria

Carinthia

Carniola

Coast land

Tyrol and Vorarlberg

Bohemia

Moravia

Silesia

Galicia

Bukowina

Dalmatia

Hungarian Provinces —

Hungary and Transylvania.

Croatia and Slavonia

Fiume

Military out of the country

Total

Area in
sq. m.

7-654

4.631

2,767

8,670

4,005

3,856

3,084

11.324

20,060

8,583

1,987

30,307

4.035

4.940

115.903

108,258
16,773

Population,
Dec. 31, 1890.

2,661,799
785.831
173.510
282,708
361,008
498,958
695.384
928,769

5,843,094

2,276,870
605.649

6,607,816
646,591
527.426

23.895.413

15,231,527

2,201,927

30,337

23.752

17,489,543

Population,
Dec. 31, 1900.

3,100,493
810,246
192.763

1,356,494
367.337
508,150
756,546
981,989

6,318,697

2,437.706
680,422

7. 315. 816
730.19s
593.783

26,150,597

16,656,904

2,397.249

38.139

1 14,81 1

19,207,103

41,384,956

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■worst wine is made into brandy. The average
produce of wine is about 540,000 gallons, of
which Hungary yields by far the largest pro-
portion. The forests cover 69,000 square miles,
or one third of the productive soil of the
empire, and yield timber of excellent quality,
adapted for all purposes. Wild deer, wild swine,
chamois, foxes, lynxes, and a species of small
black bear, are found in many districts, the fox
and lynx being particularly abundant. Herds
of a native breed of horses, of small size, roam
wild over the plains of Hungary. All the
domestic animals of England are known
throughout the empire. A large portion of the
countries now composing the Austrian empire
was at one time submerged by the sea, par-
ticularly Hungary, where the general appear-
ance of its vast plains, the nature of their soil,
and, above all, the occurrence of fossil sea
shells, leave no room to doubt the former domin-
ion of the ocean. Throughout all Austria the
Tertiary formation prevails, with a margin of
the Secondary formation, stretching to a greater
or lesser extent nito the surrounding countries,
and diversified by patches of igneous rocks of
the Tertiary and Alluvial epochs. In mineral
productions Austria is very rich, possessing,
with the exception of platinum, all the metals.
We may more particularly mention gold, silver,
iron, copper, lead, zinc, quicksilver, coal, and
salt. The total annual value of the mineral
products of the Austrian empire is estimated at
upward of ii2,ooo,ooo; of which £2,300,000 rep-
resents coal; £2.000,000 lignite; £4,300,000
smelted ores ; and £3,400,000, salt.

Manufactures and Commerce. — Manufactures
are in the most flourishing condition in Bohemia.
Moravia, Silesia, and Lower Austria ; less so
in the eastern provinces, and insignificant in
Dalmatia, Bukowina, and the military frontiers.
The total money value of manufactured products
amounts to at least £130,000,000, the value of
agricultural products to more than £200,000,000.
As regards the individual branches of manufac-
ture, there are machines produced yearly to the
value of £4,000,000 to £5,000,000, and the
supply about equals the demand. In the manu-
facture of musical and scientific instruments
Austria holds a high position ; those of Vienna
are especially celebrated. The manufactvire of
stoneware and chinaware is very extensive, be-
ing valued at about £2.500,000 yearly, and giv-
ing rise to a brisk export trade. The glass
manufacture is one of the oldest and most high-
ly developed branches of industry in Austria.
The manufactories, about 200 in number, are
spread over the whole of the monarchy, hut
arc most numerous in Bohemia, where glass
and glasswares of every kind are produced.
The yearly value of this class of manufactures
is estimated at about £2.500,000. of which a Very
considerable quantity is exported. The manu-
facture of metal goods is carried on to a great
extent, being valued at about £10,000,000; and
some of the iron and steel goods, such as
scythes and reaping hooks, have a world-wide
reputation. The manufacture of gold and silver
plate and jewelry is also important, and the ar-
ticles of Vienna workmanship compete success-
fully with the French. The production of chem-
icals reaches the amount of £5.000,000, and about
covers the home demand. As regards articles
of food, the sugar from beets has an annual
value of about £12,000,000; of beer the produc-

tion is £4,000,000 in value, the number of brew-
eries is over 2,000; spirits are distilled to the
value of £3,500,000. The manufacture of tobac-
co is a state monopoly, and is carried on in
38, mostly large, establishments. Of textile in-
dustries, the silk manufacture, since the loss of
the Lombardo-Venetian provinces, has become
greatly limited. The manufactures of woolen,
hemp, and flax are among the oldest and most
important of the state. The first gives employ-
ment to about 400,000 persons, and turns out
about £14,000,000 worth of goods yearly, of
which a considerable proportion is annually ex-
ported. In the whole monarchy there are about
650.000 spindles and 65,000 looms employed in
woolen weaving. The linen manufacture (in-
cluding also hemp and jute) gives employment
to a greater number of persons than any other
branch of industry (many of them in their
homes), and produces goods to a greater value.
The chief seats of the manufacture are Bohemia,
Moravia, and Silesia. The annual produce of
the cotton manufacture is next in value to that
of woolens. Although about 2,400,000 spindles
are in activity, cotton yarn has to be imported.
On the other hand, however, excellent cotton
cloths are exported. Tanning is carried on to
the greatest extent in Moravia, Lower Austria,
and Bohemia, 3'et not sufficiently to supply the
demand. The manufacture of leather goods,
however, is very large, and in the production of
gloves (in Vienna and Prague) Austria stands
next to France. Altogether the manufacture
of leather and leather goods employs about
200,000 persons and produces goods to about
£10,000,000 yearly.

In addition to the general import and export
trade, Austria carries on, — partly from its cen-
tral position in the contient of Europe, and part-
ly from its numerous navigable streams, excel-
lent roads, and in later times its partially
completed railway system, — a very considerable
amount of business in the transit of goods
through her territory to other countries. In
1887 the total value of the imports into Austria-
Hungary was, in round numbers, £53.000,000,
while the value of the exports was £69,860,000 ;
the respective figures for the year 1897 were
£62,940,000 and £63,854,000. These values were
exclusive of coin and bullion, the import of
which into Austria-Hungary in 1897 amounted
to £8,322,000, while the export for the same
year was £4.304,000. The principal import is
raw cotton, which was imported in 1897 to the
value of £4,225,000; wool being imported to the
value of £3,209,000 ; cotton and woolen yarn to
the value of £2,433,000; silk and silk goods
to the value of £2,725.000; coffee to the value of
£2.192,000; tobacco leaf and manufactured to
the value of £2,167,000; coal and coke to the
value of £3,100.000. Among the other chief
articles furs and hides were imported to the
value of £1.842,000; leather was imported to the
value of £1,783.000; machinery, locomotives, etc.,
to the value of £1,642.000: hardware and clocks
to the value of nearly £1,000.000; books, news-
papers, and maps to the value of £1,492,000;
grain to the value of £3.400,000; cattle to the
value of £1,300,000. Wood formed the chief
article of export, the value of this product being
in 1897 £7,000.000; next came sugar, value
£5,120.000; cattle to the value of £3.800,000.
Among other exports of importance were grain
to the value of £3,475,000; leather and leather

AUSTRIA

wares (including gloves), £2,242,000; hardware,
£1,533,000; eggs, £3,660,000; coal and coke, £2,-
850,000; woolen manufactures, £1,542,000; glass
and glassware, £1,867,000; paper and paperwares,
£909,000; wool, £883,000; malt, £2,042,000; wood-
en goods, £1,600,000; hides, etc., £1,420,000.
Nearly one half of the commerce of Austria is
carried on with German}', the next places being
occupied by Great Britain, Italy, Russia, and
the United States. Including fishing vessels and
small craft, Austria-Hungary, in the beginning
of 1897, had 12,447 vessels of all sizes, with a
tonnage of 270,250, and employing 34,431 men.
Of these 227 of 212,069 tons were sea-going ves-
sels, the coasting vessels being 1,739 in number
with a tonnage of 35,515. The principal ports
of the empire are Trieste, Pola, and Fiume. In
1898 there were 20,445 miles of railway open for
traffic in the empire, of which 10,598 were in
Austria, and 9.847 in Hungary.

Money, Weights, and Measures. — On i Jan.
1900 a new monetary system went into effect,
the coinage being changed from a silver to a
gold basis, and the standard coin and money of
account being the crown (equal to 20.3 cents in
United States gold) . Practically the chief me-
dium of exchange is banknotes, of various de-
nominations. The Austrian centner, the weight
by which all large quantities are rated, is 123^
pounds avoirdupois. The metze (pi., metzen),
the largest dry measure =1.7 of a bushel, or
somewhat less than the fourth part of an Eng-
lish imperial quarter, nine metzen making two
quarters nearly. The eimer, the most generally
used liquid measure, is equal to 14.94 English
wine gallons. The Vienna foot is equal to
12.45 inches English. The joch of land is 1.43
English acre.

Population. — None of the European states,
with the exception of Russia, exhibits such a
diversity of race and language among their
population as does the Austrian empire. The
Slavs, who amount to above 19,000.000, or 45 per
cent of the total population, are the chief of the
component nationalities of the monarchy in
point of numbers, forming the great mass of
the population of Bohemia, Moravia, Carniola,
Galicia, Dalmatia, the kingdom of Croatia and
Slavonia, and Northern Hungary, and half the
population of Silesia and Bukowina. This pre-
ponderance, however, is only apparent, as none
of the other races are split up into so many
branches differing so greatly from each other in
language, religion, civilization, manners, and cus-
toms. These branches are the North Slavic
Czechs, Moravians, and Slovaks, the Ruthenians
and Poles, and the South Slavic Slovenians,
Croats, Serbs, and Bulgarians. The Germans,
about 10,570,000 in number, are scattered over
the whole monarchy and form almost the sole
population of the archduchy of Austria, Salz-
burg, the greatest portion of Styria and Carin-
thia, almost the whole of Tyrol and Vorarlberg,
considerable portions of Bohemia and Moravia,
the whole of the west of Silesia, etc. ; and they
are also numerous in Hungary and Transylva-
nia. The Magyars or Hungarians (7,440,000 in
number, or about 16 per cent of the total popu-
lation) form the great bulk of the inhabitants
of the kingdom of Hungary and of the eastern
portion of Transylvania. To the Italic or West-
em Romanic stock belong the inhabitants of
South Tyrol and parts of the coast lands and
Dalmatia, numbering about 700,000 in all. A

considerable portion of the southeast of the
empire is occupied by members of the Rumanian
(or Eastern Romanic) stock, who number alto-
gether about 2,800,000, and form more than
half the population of Transylvania, besides be-
ing spread over the southeastern parts of
Hungary, Bukowina, and part of Croatia and
Slavonia. The number of Jews is also very con-
siderable (above 1,000,000), especially in Galicia,
Hungarj', Bohemia, and Moravia. There are
also several other races whose numbers
are small, such as the Gypsies (95,000), who are
most numerous in Hungary and Transylvania,
and the x-\lbanians in Dalmatia and neighboring
regions. The population is thickest in Lower
Austria, Bohemia, Silesia, and Moravia ; thin-
nest in Salzburg. Generally speaking, it de-
creases in density from west to east.

Religion. — The state religion of Austria is
the Roman Catholic, and next in numbers is the
Greek Church. Calvinism and Lutheranism are
also professed by a large body of the people;
the former mostly in Hungary and Transylva-
nia^ the latter in the German provinces and in
Galicia. The civil power exercises supreme con-
trol in all ecclesiastical matters, the emperor
being, in everything but name, head of the
Church ; and as no sentence of excommunica-
tion, or other ecclesiastical edict, can be issued
without the sanction of the Crown, the Pope's
direct authority in Austria is somewhat limited.
In 1890 there were in the Austrian portion of
the monarchy 18,784,063 Roman Catholics, 2,797,-
089 Greek Catholics united to the Roman
Church, 540,715 non-united, 430,849 Protestants,
and 1,135,118 Jews. In Hungary and Transyl-
vania there were 8.823,105 Roman Catholics,
1,670,283 Greek united and 2,633,491 non-united,
3,427,896 Protestants, and 724,588 Jews.

Education. — The intellectual culture of the
people is at very different stages of advancement
among the different racss. It is highest in the
German provinces and lowest in the east. In
Upper and Lower Austria, Salzburg, Tyrol, Mo-
ravia, Silesia, and Bohemia, almost all the chil-
dren of suitable age are in attendance on the
public schools ; while in Bukowina only about
34, and in Galicia about 59 per cent of them are
at the schools. The educational system has been
entirely remodeled in recent times. The elemen-
tary schools, or those in which the common
branches are taught, are designated national
schools or schools for the people (Volksschu-
Icn), and there children have to attend from the
end of their 6th to the end of their 14th
(in some provinces only their 12th) year. A
higher class of elementary schools are known as
town schools (Biirgerschulen), in which a su-
perior education may be obtained. For the
training of instructors for the people's schools,
there are 43 normal schools for male teachers
and 26 for female. As secondary schools or in-
stitutions of a more advanced grade, there are
the gymnasia and the '^real-schools,** as they
are called. The gymnasia resemble the best
sort of our grammar schools, being intended
chiefly to prepare pupils for the universities,
great attention being paid in them to the
classical languages. In the real-schools a more
practical end is kept in view, and modem
languages and physical science form the ground-
work of the educational course. A complete
course in a gymnasium extends over four years,
in a real-school either three or four. There

AUSTRIA

are also schools of an intermediate stamp known
as "real-gymnasia.** The higher education is
provided for by the universities, the pol3'technic
institutes, and the various institutions in which
particular subjects are taught. There are ii
universities in the monarchy, namely, in Vienna,
Prague (two — a German and a Bohemian),
Pesth, Gratz, Cracow, Lemberg, Innsbruck,
Klausenburg, Agram, and Czernowitz. Most
of these have four faculties — Catholic theology,
law and politics, medicine, and philosophy.
There are also several technical high schools in
which mathematics, physics, and natural science
are the chief objects of study. Besides these
there are theological institutions ; schools for
jurisprudence and philosophy; schools of com-
merce, industrial arts, agriculture, arboriculture,
and mining; military schools, naval schools, art
schools, conservatories of music, etc. The prin-
cipal libraries are the royal librar}' at Vienna,
with 450,000 volumes, 24,000 manuscripts, and
7,000 incunabula ; and the university libraries
of Vienna and Prague.

Constitution, Revenue. — As already men-
tioned, the Austrian dominions now consist of
a German, or Slav'O-Germanic, or Cisleithan
empire, and a Transleithan or Hungarian king-
dom, each with its own parliament, ministers,
and government. The same hereditary sover-
eign rules over both, and they have a common
army and navy, and a sort of common parlia-
ment known as the Delegations. The Delega-
tions consist of 120 members, one half of whom
are chosen by and represent the legislature of
German Austria, and the other half that of
Hungary, the upper house of each legislature
returning 20 and the lower house 40 deputies.
In all matters affecting the common affairs of
the monarchy the Delegations have a decisive
vote, and their resolutions do not require the
confirmation of the representative assemblies
in which they have their source. The Delega-
tions meet alternately in Vienna and Budapest.
Their ordinary mode of procedure is to sit
and vote in two chambers, the 60 deputies of
Cisleithan Austria forming the one, and the
60 of Hungary the other. But if no agree-
ment can be arrived at in this manner, the
two bodies must meet together and without
further debate give their final vote, which is
binding for the whole empire. The jurisdiction
of the Delegations extends specially to all mat-
ters affecting foreign affairs, war, and finance.
The constitution of German Austria was final-
ly established in December 1867. The prov-
inces have each a diet or legislature of their own
for provincial aft'airs, these diets being 16 in
number, one each for Bohemia, Dalmatia. Ga-
licia. Upper Austria, Lower Austria, Salzburg,
Styria, Carinthia, Carniola, Bukowina, Moravia,
Silesia. Tyrol, Vorarlberg, Gorz and Gradisca,
and Istria. the municipal council of Trieste
having similar functions. The provincial diets
are composed of the archbishops and bishops, the
rectors of the universities, the representatives of
the great estates, of towns, of boards of com-
merce, of rural communes, etc. The laws passed
in these diets have reference to provincial taxa-
tion, agricultural, educational, and other mat-
ters. The national parliament or legislature
of German Austria, called the Reichsrath (or
council of the realm), consists of an upper house
or house of lords (HerrnJiaus), and a lower
house or house of deputies (Abgeordnetenhaus) .

The former is composed of princes of the im-
perial family, of nobles whose families have a
hereditary right to this dignity, of the arch-
bishops, the bishops of princely rank, and of a
certain number of life members nominated by the
emperor. The lower houses consist of 353 mem-
bers, elected by all citizens above 24 possessing
a small property qualification. The rights be-
longing to the Reichsrath are: consent to all
laws relating to military service ; co-operation in
the legislation on commercial matters, customs,
railways, etc. ; and examination of the estimates
of the income and expenditure of the state, and
other financial matters. The constitution of
Hungary, including also Croatia, Slavonia, and
Transylvania, dates from the foundation of the
kingdom, or about 895 a.d. It rests upon a
number of statutes published at long intervals,
the principal of these being the Bulla Aurea or
Golden Bull of Andrew II., granted in 1222, by
which the government was defined as an aristo-
cratic monarchy. The legislative power is vest-
ed in the king and the parliament {Reichstag)
conjointly. The latter consists of an upper
house or house of magnates, and of a lowei
house or house of representatives. The house
of magnates consists of the archdukes of the
imperial family who have attained their major-
ity, 54 ecclesiastical dignitaries, 151 counts, and
36 barons as hereditary members, 84 life mem-
bers nominated by the sovereign, or elected by
the chamber, etc. The lower house (of 453
members) is composed of elected representa-
tives. The Hungarian Reichstag corresponds to
the Reichsrath of the Cisleithan provinces, and
accordingly only deals with such matters as are
common to the provinces belonging to the Hun-
garian crown. Transylvania is, so far as legis-
lation and administration are concerned, entirely
incorporated with Hungary. Croatia and Sla-
vonia, however, have a Landtag or diet of their
own, which, like the provincial diets of the
Cisleithan portion of the empire, consists of
only one chamber, and which is competent to
deal with all matters belonging to the interior
administration of the provinces, with religion
and education, and with the administration of
justice. Fiume, which was formerly associated
with Croatia and Slavonia, and subject to the
Landtag of these provinces, has, since August
1870, been put directly under the central Hun-
garian government.

There being three distinct parliaments in the
empire, there are also three budgets, namely,
that for the whole empire, that for Cisleithan,
and that for Transleithan Austria. In the budget
of the whole empire for IQ02 the revenue and
expenditure were each estimated at 365.181,966
crowns ; in that for Cisleithan Austria the reve-
nue was estimated at 1,685,966.357 crowns, and
the expenditures at 1,685.117.944 crowns; and
in that for Transleithan Austria the estimated
revenue was 1.086,870,018 crowns, the estimated
expenditure being a little less. A small portion
of the imperial revenue of Austria is derived
from customs and other sources, and the re-
mainder is made up by the two divisions of the
empire, 70 per cent thereof being contributed
by the Cisleithan and 30 per cent by the Trans-
leithan portion.

Recent Politics. — Austria to-day is what
]\Ietternich with less truth called Italy, little more
than a geographical expression. Three bonds
do indeed unite its discordant nationalities; but

AUSTRIA

for the hasty observer the country mght well
seem in the last stages of decomposition. There
is nothing really Austrian in Austria — no Aus-
trian interests, no Austrian language, or litera-
ture, or patriotism, no Austrian nationality, no
Austrian standard of civilization ; nothing except
the emperor, and the army, and the cockpit
of the Reichsrath that the races share in com-
mon. The Germans form a compact entity by
themselves in Upper and Lower Austria and the
Duchy of Salzburg. In Bohemia there is a
respectable colony of them along the borders
of Saxony and Bavaria, over 2.000,000 strong,
but even so they are outnumbered by the Czechs
in the ration of 3 to 5. All together the
German-speaking subjects are about a third of
the total population of Austria — some 8,500,-
000 out of 24,000,000. The Czechs in Bohemia,
Moravia, and Silesia number roughly 5,000,000.
In Galicia some 4.000,000 Poles hold down a
trifle over 3,000,000 Ruthenians. A couple of
million Slovenes, Servians, and Croats are scat-
tered over Carinthia and Carniola, while nearly
1,000,000 Italians inhabit the Tyrol. None of
these races can alone be said to represent Aus-
tria, though all of them claim to ; and their mu-
tual wranglings, struggles to realize themselves,
struggles to elbow out their neighbors and seize
an incontestable ascendency, are the back-
ground, and at times something more, of mod-
ern Austrian politics. But for the dashing
tenacity of the Magyars, Hungary might be as
heterogeneous as her partner in the dual mon-
archy. The Magj'ars are only 7,500,000 out of
nearly 18,000,000, but they are a race with the
fierce hardihood and determination of the Teu-
tonic stock and a grace and fascination that
are neither Latin nor Celtic, but distinctively
their own. Since the two nations entered into
a partnership agreement as coequal and sover-
eign states, the Magyars have devoted all their
brilliant energies and the immense force of a
concentrated one-idealness to making them-
selves paramount throughout the southern half
of the realm. They revolted against being Ger-
manized, but see no inconsistency in insisting
that the Servians, Croats, Rumanians, and Slo-
venes shall be Magyarized ; and they have set
about the task with unsparing persistency just
saved from relentlessness by their genius for
wise compromise. A restricted suffrage, ex-
excluding nineteen twentieths of the people from
the polls, keeps public affairs in their grasp.
The schools have been a much more effective in-
strument in the development of a national feel-
ing, and the Magyars have thoroughly worked
them to that end. Like the Russians and Amer-
icans, but unlike the English, the Magyars rec-
ognize that where there is difference of speech
there will be difference of sentiment, of heart,
of interests, and at a pinch perhaps of loyalty,
and have accordingly refused to make the pres-
ervation of dialects an object of government.
Fifty years ago the Hungarian nobles spoke
German and a bastard monkish Latin in their
homes and diets. To-day the native tongue ob-
tains, among all classes, and the absorption of
all manner of outlanders, — German, Slovacks,
jews, Rumanians, and Croats, — by the irresist-
ible and peaceful process of denationalization in
the schoolroom, has gone on at such a pace that
the Magyars increase nearly three times as quick-
ly as any of the neighboring races. The strug-
gle of the nationalities in Hungary has ended

in a more or less reoigned acquiescence in Mag-
yar rule.

In Austria, as in Spain, the factory is placed
some distance behind the barracks as an ele-
ment of national welfare, and a contemptuous
bureaucracy shackles trade with a hundred en-
tangling regulations. The Magyars, on the other
hand, have been as attentive to commerce as
to their racial position. Perhaps there is no
country in which the state, as such, has done
more for industrial development. The really
vital domestic problems of Hungary are, indeed,
no longer racial, and as freedom ot worship is
the law, they have never been acutely religious.
But in the rise of what is called Agrarian So-
cialism, there is something that may test Mag-
yar statesmanship severely. Meanwhile the
Magyars are the backbone of the dual monarchy.
Against the rising tides of Pan-Slavism they
present a compact and unbending front. To-
gether with the German empire they may be
considered the outposts of Europe against Slav
aggression ; and even in the domestic affairs of
the monarchy their unbreakable unity as a
political force has made their influence well-
nigh decisive. The Aiisgleich of 1867, — the
partnership agreement between the two halves of
the realm, — prescribed that matters of com-
mon concern, such as foreign affairs, diplo-
matic representation, and naval and military
matters, should be arranged by 60 delegates
from each country, meeting twice a year. The
Austrian delegation is made up of Germans,
Czechs, Poles, Ruthenians, Italians, whose feuds
make steady co-operation all but impossible. The
Hungarian delegation, on the other hand, is
composed of 55 Magyars and 5 Croatians, work-
ing with the directness and harmony of a single
man. The consequence is that in the long run
the Hungarian view is fairly sure to carry the
day. So far each renewal of the Aiisgleich has
brought substantial modifications in favor of
Hungary, and the centre of gravity has, in fact,
shifted from Vienna to Budapest. The em-
peror, when driven to it, might go against the
German-speaking Austrians, but never against
the Magyars ; and the Magyars, fully realizing
their power, have extorted concession after con-
cession from their unhappy partner ; have
applied the screw so persistently, that it is be-
coming a question whether they are not as un-
popular among Austrian statesmen as the very
Czechs themselves. The troubles of the dual
monarchy are due to the failure of the Ger-
mans to repeat in Austria the successes of
the Magyars in Hungary. "You look after your
hordes,*' said Count Beust to a Hungarian
statesman when the Austrian empire became the
dual monarchy, "and we'll look after ours.^'
The Czechs of Bohemia have turned to ridicule
the count's too valiant declaration. The Ger-
mans of Vienna, one must remember, are very
different from the Germans of Berlin. Of all
the sections of the Teutonic race they appear to
have the least robustness of intellect or charac-
ter and the laxest grip on practical affairs. In-
dolent, hypercritical, and self-satisfied, they are
the emasculated editions of their northern kins-
men. From whatever cause, some paralyzing
blight of lassitude and ineffectiveness seems to
have eaten its way into their energies. Against
their cultured fecklessness the Czechs oppose
the elemental force of racial ambition, the driv-
ing power of a people that has the conscious-

AUSTRIA

ness of a great destiny before it and feels itself
on the top of the rising wave.

The Germans protest that they have educated
themselves beyond the point where race is every-
thing and cannot at this time of day be expected
to return to first principles. It is of course
tenable that the variety of parties into which
the Germans are split up argues an advanced
and broad political intelligence. At the same
time it makes a poor barrier against the impact
of a race that subordinates everything to a sin-
gle practical end ; and unless the Germans are
prepared to see a great part of their old ascen-
dency pass away, they must be ready to drop
"theorizing, >> take up the issue that has been
forced upon them, and meet their antagonists
with weapons not necessarily of their own choos-
ing. In other words, they need simplifying
if they are to combat the Czechs successfully.
As it is, the Czechs for the last 30 years have
been slowly driving them to the wall. City
after city has fallen into their hands ; Prague
and Pilsen, that only a quarter of a century
ago were German in tongue and sentiment, are
now Slavonized down to their very street names.
And in politics and industry as well as music
and literature and the lighter arts, the past
hundred years have seen the Czechs advance in
a quite wonderful fashion. They have long
ceased to fear the Germans, and with the dis-
appearance of fear comes naturally the claim
to equality. Moreover, the Czechs have a strong
historical case. Four hundred years ago what
are now the crown-lands of Bohemia, Moravia,
and Silesia formed the Czech kingdom of St.
Vacslav ; and what is now Hungary was then
the kingdom of St. Stephen. The Czechs of-
fered their crown in 1526 to the Hapsburgs,
at the same time, for the same reasons, and
on the same conditions as the Magyars ; stipu-
lating only that they should retain their old
rights of self-government. This contract, to-
gether with the Pragmatic Sanction, was the
legal basis of the Hungarian rebellion of 1848.
Th Czechs still use it to point the justice of
their demands for a resurrection of St. Vac-
slav's kingdom, maintaining that their case is
on all fours with that of Hungary, rests on
the same documents, and is supported by the
same coronation oaths. The Hapsburgs never
quite lived up to their side of the agreement.
They allowed the Turks to overrun Hungary at
will, and when the Reformation came and the
Czechs gathered round John Huss. they stamped
out the heresy in blood and established a strong
German colony along the northern borders of
Bohemia for the protection of the faith and the
suppression of the natives. The Czechs have
kept their native tongue alive, and just across
their borders are their kinsmen of the Russian
empire. The card of Russian sympathy is often
played, and after every fresh frustration of their
national hopes follows the spectacle of 5,500.000
Czechs cautiously sounding the Czar's "racial
instinct.'^ It is this that lends color to the
common charge that the Czechs are disloyal,
but it is to be noticed that when the situation
is reversed and the emperor makes even the
shortest step toward Home Rule, the Germans
at once adopt their opponents' tactics, throw
themselves into the arms of their Prussian
brethren, and vow that sooner than stay and
be swamped by a hated and inferior race, they
would willingly exchange the Hapsburgs for the

Hohenzollerns and enroll themselves among
Kaiser Wilhelm's subjects. The suspicion cannot
be avoided that these dramatics are at bottom
intended for home consumption, and that the
tune would be quickly changed if the czar or
kaiser were to listen too seriously.

The whole history of the dual monarchy goes
to show that real consolidation and unity can
be effected only by the seemingly paradoxical
method of allowing each nationality the widest
possible freedom. Justice toward and equal
treatment of all races is the only sure road to
peace and perpianency. It is a hard one for
the Germans to tread, for it means the over-
throw of an ascendency once paramount in
every corner of the realm ; but unless universal
suffrage brings to the front an entirely new
set of problems, trod it must be. The inter-
play of these racial ambitions has been com-
plicated, sometimes retarded and sometimes
acutely emphasized by a hundred differences of
religious, economic, and purely political inter-
ests, all of which have representatives in the
Reichsrath. They act upon one another under
the shadow of the racial issues in a way that
no foreigner can disentangle. The confusion
of the country is worthily reproduced in the
15 distinct parties and the seven or eight lan-
guages that crop up in the Vienna parliament.
Austria-Hungary is a polyglot chaos in which
even Austrians do not profess to see more than
a half light. The prophecies of disruption may
therefore appear at least plausible. But it is
one of the many paradoxes of the dual mon-
archy that it seems unable to break up. In part
it is protected by the very diversity and num-
ber of the antagonisms it is obliged to house.
A more visible bond of union is the army, in
which all must serve, which is of all races
and creeds, and therefore of none, and the
atmosphere of which is broadly and impressively
imperial. What its actual effectiveness will
prove to be like, should it ever be tested, is
one of the most interesting military problems
of the day. The only force with which it can
be compared in the excellence of its units and
the variety of its nationalities and tongues is
the allied army that rescued the Pekin lega-
tions; and the parallel is not altogether hope-
ful. A polyglot army must of necessity be to
some extent a disorganized army, and while
the forces of the dual monarchy use German as
the language of military command, the rank and
file and the bulk of the officers retain their own
speech for general purposes. The heteroge-
neous character of its composition has had a
steadying influence" on the internal struggles
of the dual monarchy, however much it may
hamper its efficiency on the battlefield. The
army has kept itself largely aloof from poli-
tics, and though the Czechs did once attempt
to transfer the racial bitterness to the parade
ground by answering the roll-call in their own
tongue, a sharp rebuke from the emperor was
enough to bring them to reason.

A second and equally powerful bond of
union is the monarchy. Not only is it accepted
everywhere, but the idea of upsetting it in
favor of any other form of government has
never yet been broached. Even the Kossuth
irreconcilables, who would like to see the
Ausglcich abolished and Hungary direct her
own fiscal policy, — a quite possible development,
— and manage her own foreign affairs, still do

AUSTRIA

not propose to sever the personal tie that binds
the two countries. And not only is the mon-
archy secure in the affections of the people, but
the dynasty is eaually popular. So long as
there is a throne it is not conceivable that any
one but a Hapsburg should occupy it. This
two-fold devotion to monarchy and to the
dynasty has been greatly strengthened of late
years, partly by the breakdown of parliamentary
government and the weariness which has made
the people look to the throne as an escape
from the turmoil and wranglings of small
groups, and partly through the patience and
wisdom, the sterling fair-mindedness and com-
petency of the present emperor, as well as the
ghastly tragedies of his private life. But it is
a curious delusion to argue that just because
Francis Joseph is so adequate and well be-
loved, and comes so near to the ideal of what
a constitutional monarch should be, therefore
the empire must go to pieces when his mod-
erating and persuasive influence is withdrawn.
Such a reign as his is far more than a merely
personal triumph ; it is the consecration of a
system ; it exalts the monarchy as well as the
monarch, and it smooths out the path for his
successors by bequeathing to them an office
made more illustrious by his example and
memory, more powerful and more deeply based
in the hearts of the people. So far from being
a signal for dismemberment, the close of the
present emperor's reign is more likely to wit-
ness a splendid rally round the house and throne
of the Hapsburgs. The general peace of Eu-
rope would indeed be jeopardized in the event
of a scramble for the fragments of the dual
monarchy. But no such catastrophe is likely,
for the reason that it is to no one's interest
to bring it about. It is not for secession from,
but for the fullest liberty within, the empire
that "the numerous nationalities involved** are
struggling. The only genuine secessionists are
HerreH Wolf and Schonerer and their follow-
•srs, who wish to incorporate German-speaking
Austria with the German empire. It is possible
that their wishes may ultimately be gratified,
but not in our time, not till after the next Euro-
pean war, if even then, and not till the clerical-
ism of Austrian Germans has considerably toned
down. What the Czechs and the other races
Tvant, is the same independence as the Magyars
poss^ess, and such independence is as incon-
sistent with Russian as with German domina-
tion. It is against their interests to break away
from the Hapsburgs. The day of small states
has gone by, and a lonely Czech kingdom
could not exist for a year by the side of Russia.

Army. — Military service is obligatory on all
citizens capable of bearing arms who have at-
tained the age of 20, and lasts up to the age of
42, either in the active army, in the landwehr, or
the landsturm. The period of service in the
active army is 12 years, of which three are
passed in the line, seven in the reserve, and two
in the landwehr. In 1900 the standing army
numbered 361,693 men (including officers) on
the peace footing, and 1,826,940 men and 45,238
officers on the war footing.

Navy. — On account of the recent develop-
ment of the Italian navy, Austria has found it
necessary for her self-defense to have a fleet
of her own, and the last ship of a new squadron
was launched in 1904. The new ships are re-
markable for their armament and speed, and

will compare favorably with any equal number
and size of ship in the world. Leaving out the
ships constructed prior to 1887, the new fleet
is composed of two battleships, the Erzherzog
Friedrich and the Erzherzog Karl, of 10,600 and
10,100 tons respectively, and 19.25 knots speed.
Each will carry four 9.45-inch Skoda guns of
40 calibres and twelve 7.48-inch of 42 calibres.
The first will have in addition fourteen 2.75-inch
and the other 2 of the same calibre, each being
furnished with a full complement of small bore
quickfirers. The 7.48-inch guns will fire four
rounds a minute.

The next division is composed of three ships
of 8,300 tons each, named the Habsburg, Baben-
berg and Arpad. Their speed is 18.5 knots, and
the armaments three 9.4-inch and twelve 6-inch
guns each, besides the usual complement of small
calibre quickfirers.

Then comes a division of three coast defence
ships, the Monarch, Wien and Budapest, of
5,600 tons each and 17 knots speed. Their arma-
ment of four 9.4-inch and six 5.9-inch each, with
fourteen smaller calibre quickfirers, is extremely
formidable for their size, and it is well disposed
and protected, entitling them to be reckoned as
battleships.

The cruisers of the Austro-Hungarian navy
are, in order of size, the Kaiser Karl VI., of
6,250 tons ; the Maria Theresa, of 5,370 ; and the
Kaiser Franz Joseph I. and Kaiserin Elizabeth,
of 4,060 tons each. Each carries two 9.4-inch
guns ; the first two eight 6-inch quickfirers ; and
the last two six 6-inch quickfirers each, with
numerous small calibre pieces. Their speed is
between 19 and 20 knots, and they hold a place
between armored and protected cruisers.

Two ships classed as battleships, launched in
1887, the Erzherzog Rudolf of 6,900 tons and
the Erzherzogin Stefanie, of 5,100 tons, may be
added to the effective squadron and would raise
it to fourteen vessels. Their armament is suffi-
ciently powerful, consisting of three and two 12-
inch, six 4.7-inch and six 6-inch guns respec-
tively, with two 2.75-inch pieces each. Their
speed is 16 knots.

There are three small cruisers of 2,306 tons
each, the Zenta, Jaguar and Aspern ; and three
torpedo cruisers, of 1,600 to 1,700 tons each, the
Panther, Leopard and Tiger. The seven tor-
pedo boat destroyers, range from 310 to 610 tons,
of 21 knots speed, and there is a small torpedo
boat flotilla, which is being increased. Experi-
ments are also in progress with submarines.

The personnel of the Austro-Hungarian navy
is excellent, and should the squadron it can
turn out ever be called on to act alone or as
part of the naval force of an alliance, it can be
relied on to give a good account of itself.

Judiciary. — The courts of first instance com-
prise 940 Bezirksgerichte, county courts, and 71
Landes und Kreisgerichte, provincial and district
courts; Geschzvorenengerichte, or jury courts
being connected with the latter. These courts
act as courts of inquiry and have summary juris-
diction. The courts of second instance, or courts
of appeal from the lower courts, having the
supervision of the criminal courts, comprise 9
Oberlandesgcriclifc or higher provincial courts.
There are also special tribunals for military,
revenue, shipping, and other matters, including
four industrial courts and three commercial
courts. The Oberste Gerichts und Kassations-
hof, Supreme Court of Justice and Court of

AUSTRIAN SUCCESSION— AUTOMATISM

Cassation, at Vienna, is the final court of ap-
peal. The High Court of Administrative Affairs
decides differences between private individuals
and public officials, and the Reichsgericht, or
Court of the Empire, the conflicts of law and
jurisdiction between different authorities.

Bibliography. — Broglie, 'Frederick the Great
and Maria Theresa' ; Coxe, * History of the
House of Austria^ ; Gindely, * History of the
Thirty Years' War' ; Leger, 'History of Aus-
tro-Hungary' ; Lowell, 'Government and Par-
ties in Continental Europe' ; Ranke, 'History of
the Reformation in Germany* ; Slegnobos, 'Po-
litical History of Europe since 1814' ; Whitman,
'The Realm of the Hapsburgs' ; Whitman and
Mcllrath, 'Austria.'

Austrian Succession. See Succession
Wars.

Au'thors, British Society of, an associa-
tion of authors formed in London in 1883, for
social and business purposes. It has a govern-
ing committee of 30 members ; maintains an
attractive club-room and publishes a periodical
called 'The Author.' The late Lord Tennyson
was its president till his death.

Au'thors Club, an American organization
founded in New York in 1882, and incorporated
in 1887. It is governed by an executive com-
mittee without a president. Any person who
is the author of a published book proper to
literature, or of creditable literary work equiva-
lent to such a book, is eligible to membership.
The club holds meetings semi-monthly, and
gives Saturday receptions for ladies in the
winter season. It has a library consisting of
the publications of its members and another de-
voted to literary biography.

Au'thors, French Society of, an organiza-
tion founded in Paris in 1837, for the protec-
tion of authors in their rights, and open to any
man of letters. It is governed by an elective
committee of 24 members, and has a pension
fund which provides for aid in work, for sick-
ness and in old age. Besides publishing a jour-
nal, the 'Chronique,' the society has collected a
large sum of money from pirating publishers.

Au'thors, American, Society of, an organi-
zation founded in New York in 1892, and in-
corporated in 1895, having for its objects the
promotion of a professional spirit among au-
thors and a better understanding between au-
thors and their publishers, and, in general, the
protection of literary property and the advance-
ment of the interests of American authors and
literature. All persons engaged in literary pur-
suits are eligible to membership. The society
has a pension fund for members who may be-
come needy.

Auto de fe, ow'to da fa (Spanish); Auto
da Fe (Portuguese), lit. "act of faith." See
Inquisition.

Auto-intoxication, a poisoning of the body
by its own products. In the complicated pro-
cesses that make up the sum total of human
metabolism many products are formed which if
not modified in some manner would poison and
kill the body. The simplest illustration of this is
seen in the function of respiration, in which the
carbon dioxid in the venous blood is oxidized
m the lungs and thus eliminated. The urine

contains a number of bodies which if prevented
from leaving the body would cause its death.
Thus auto-intoxication may result from the
normal products elaborated in the body if these
are not modified, or are prevented an outlet.
But the problem of auto-intoxication is much
more complicated in many of its manifestations.
Sick-headache, gout, diabetes, many neuralgias,
Addison's disease, myxedema, acromegaly and
many other obscure diseased conditions are
known to be due to some form of perversion
of the normal processes of metabolism and are
instanced as forms of auto-intoxication. The
general organs of defense in the constant play
of these factors may be divided into two general
groups, (i) those that have the function of
transforming by chemical means many of the
poisonous products of the normal metabolism of
the body, and (2) those organs that are chiefly
concerned in the elimination of these products.
To the first group belong the liver, the mucous
membranes, the thyroid, lymphnodes, the adre-
nal glands, the blood cells, the blood serum and
the lymph. In the second group are the kid-
neys, the lungs, the skin, and the intestines.

Classification. — Auto-intoxication may re-
sult (i) from the failure of functions of certain
organs having a definite chemical function.
Pancreatic diabetes, bronze diabetes, pernicious
ansernia, myxedema, acromegaly, cachexia, stru-
mipriva, Addison's disease, these all come in
this class ; (2) by a faulty metabolism wherebv
normal amounts of waste products are not
thrown off. Gout, diabetes, oxaluria, are ex-
amples of this type; (3) through retention of
the normal physiological products in the -organs
themselves. Carbon dioxid poi.soning is a type;
(4) by means of excessive production of physio-
logical or pathological products. Diabetic coma,
cystinuria, acetonuria. uremia are types of this
form. Such a classification is necessarily very
inadequate and will be found to be of service
only as a general framework on which a more
exact systematization of knowledge may take
place. Consult: Herter, 'Chemical Pathology'
(1902) ; Vaughan and Novy, 'Cellulartoxins'
(1902). See Animal Alkaloids; Metabolism;
Ptomaine; Toxicology.

Au'to Sugges'tion. See Hypnotism.

Autocrat of the Breakfast Table, The, a

noted work by Oliver Wendell Holmes, consist-
ing of imaginary conversations around a board-
ing-house table. The characters are introduced
to the reader as the Autocrat, the Schoolmis-
tress, the Old Gentleman Opposite, the Young
Man Called John, The Landlady, the Landlady's
Daughter, the Poor Relation, and the Divinity
Student. It is the most popular of Dr. Holmes'
books ; and in none of them are his ease of
style, his wit, his humor, his kindly sympathy
and love of humanity, more clearly shown.

Automatic Telephony. See Telephony,

Automatic.

Autom'atism, in animals the powder of
movement or of action without any stimulus
independent of. that arising in the protoplasm of
cells and tissues. Thus Descartes regarded ani-
mals (other than man) as "automata," and
declared that they act independently of any voli-
tion, or instinctive or intellectual power or tac-
ulty; in other words, that their so-called mental
acts are involuntary and mechanical — that they

AUTOMATON — AUTOMOBILE

may be compared to machines. In physiology
while automatism is apparently the result of the
internal conditions of the living body, yet strict-
ly speaking, says Loeb, no animal movements
are exclusively determined by internal condi-
tions. The co-ordinated character of automatic
movements, he says, has often been explained
by a "centre of co-ordination,** which is sup-
posed to keep a kind of police watch on the dif-
ferent elements and see that they move in the
right order. "But," he adds, "observations on
the lower animals show that the co-ordination
of automatic movements is caused by the fact
that the element which beats most quickly forces
the others to beat in its own rhythm.** The
swarm-spores of algas, which possess no gan-
glion cells, show spontaneity equal to that of
animals having ganglion-cells, and he concludes
that automatism is due to a chemical cause ;
that is, the pressure or absence of certain
ions, or, in other words, to the chemical consti-
tution of the protoplasm. Consult Loeb,
^Physiology of the Brain* (1901).

Autom'aton, a mechanical contrivance
whose actions are arranged to correspond to
those of a human being. Friar Bacon had the
reputation of having constructed a brazen head
v/hich spoke, and Regiomontanus an iron fly,
v/hich, after making the tour of the room, re-
turned to its master. Albertus Magnus is said
to have spent 30 years in constructing a human
figure which advanced to the door when any-
one knocked, opened it, and saluted the visitor.
In the water-clock presented to Charlemagne
by Harun al-Rashid, 12 doors in the dial
opened respectively at the hour which they rep-
resented ; they continued open till noon, when
12 knights issued out on horseback, paraded
round the dial, and then returning shut them-
selves in again. Camus constructed an in-
genious toy for Louis XIV., consisting of a
carriage drawn by two horses, containing a lit-
tle figure of a lady with a coachman and at-
tendants. The coachman cracked his whip, the
horses moved their legs naturally, and when the
carriage arrived opposite the king's seat it
stopped ; the page stepped down and opened the
door ; the lady alighted and presented a peti-
tion to Louis. The flute-players, the tambour-
player, and the wonderful duck of Vaucanson
are celebrated for the astonishing ingenuity dis-
played in their construction. Among the most
remarkable automata are the whist-playing and
other figures designed by Maskelyne.

Automobile. The word denotes prima-
rily : A vehicle designed mainly for transporta-
tion of persons on highways or over unpre-
pared ground, equipped with an internal com-
bustion, hydrocarbon-vapor engine, which fur-
nishes the motive power and forms a structural
portion of the vehicle. Secondarily, it is used
as synonymous with "motor vehicle,** denoting
a vehicle moved by inanimate power of any de-
scription, generated or stored within it, and
intended for the transportation of either goods
or persons on common highways. As an ad-
jective the word denotes broadly some relation
to mechanically-driven vehicles. Even certain
railway cars used on short feeder lines in
France, Austria, Germany and Italy are known
as "automobile railway cars** because they are
driven by means of engines of types first used
m motor vehicles, and, having passenger or

freight space, also form independent, self-con-
tained transportation units.

The automobile, in the more distinctive pri-
mary sense of the word, consists of :

(i) Fuel tank; (2) Carburetter; (3) Engine,
with 3a, the Mechanism of the Cooling System,
and 3b, the Ignition System; (4) Clutch Mech-
anism; (5) Power Transmission Mechanism,
with 5a, Change-Gear Mechanism, and 5b Dif-
ferential Gear; (6) Vehicle Frame and Springs;
(7) Running Gear; (8) Brake Mechanism; (9)
Steering Mechanism; (10) Carriage Work;
(11) Lubrication System, and (12) Operating
System, including the devices by which the
operation of the vehicle is brought under con-
trol of hand or foot motions of the driver.
These various portions of the automobile form
an organic whole, being more or less interde-
pendent, and sharp lines distinguishing one
portion from another cannot always be drawn.
The classification serves convenience in de-
scription, however.

1. Fuel Tank. — The source of the power de-
veloped by the automobile motor is a liquid
hydrocarbon fuel (see Hydrocarbons), which
may be benzine, benzol, gasolene, naphtha, kero-
sene, crude oil, alcohol (pure or mixed with
other hydrocarbons, or water), a solid hydro-
carbon, such as naphthaline, that can be liquefied
at a low temperature (79° C), or calcium car-
bide (see Acetylene), throwing off hydrocar-
bon gas (acetylene) when moistened. In order
to be utilized, the liquid fuel must be trans-
formed into vapor, the vapor mixed with oxy-
gen or atmospheric air, and the mixture ignited.
Aside from the process of generating an un-
stable gas by vaporizing the fuel, the principle
of the automobile motor is identical with that
of the gas engine operated with illuminating
gas (see Gas Engine).

The fuel tank is usually made of sheet cop-
per and is provided with internal bulkheads to
obviate swashing of the liquid. It should have
as few seams as practicable, the solder should
contain no ingredient soluble in the liquid
the tank is intended to contain, and it should
be mounted on a rigid foundation to obviate
torsion, from which leakage might result. In
most gasolene tanks a small air vent in the
screw cap by which the charging aperture is
closed permits the liquid to be drawn off grad-
ually by gravity through a pipe leading to the
carburetter. But the same air vent, if left open,
causes loss of fuel by evaporation. By a more
modern arrangement a small quantity of ex-
haust gas is piped into the tank at each ex-
haust stroke, supplying sufficient pressure to
feed the fuel, even if the tank is below the level
of the carburetter.

2. Carburetter. — Early carburetters were
spacious and situated at some distance from the
motor, connected by a pipe often 12 to 18 inches
long and containing a diaphragm of wire gauze
to prevent a flame from accidentally striking
back to the vapor and liquid contained in the
carburetter. Air was let into the latter from
the atmosphere and brought in contact with a
considerable area of the liquid (then always
benzine, gasolene or naphtha), from which
vapor was absorbed either by simple surface
evaporation, or by forcing the air through the
liquid, or by passing the air at high velocity
through a narrow channel containing a wick
saturated with the liquid. In all cases the sue-

AUTOMOBILE

tion stroke of the motor piston caused the air
current.

The composition of the mixture drawn into
the cylinder, to be fired, was regulated by an
additional air channel leading direct from the
atmosphere to the induction pipe. In warm and
dry weather the duct leading through the car-
buretter was contracted and the direct air ad-
mission opening was enlarged, while in cold
and damp weather this adjustment was re-
versed. The object was to obtain an explosive
charge of unvarying quantity and composition
for a motor intended for constant speed and
power development, all necessary changes in
vehicle speed being effected through the power-
transmission gearing. In raw weather ice
(from atmospheric moisture precipitated on the
metal cooled by the evaporation of the fuel)

Fig. I. — Simple Modern Carburetter, with Auto-
matic Adjustment According to Throttlk
Opening.
A, Floating plunger. B, Inspection screw to T.
C, Cap carrying float feed adjijstment. EE', Lock nut
to V. F, Gasoline admission pipe. J, Gasoline nozzle.
M, Regulating lever having disks formed with two
openings to accord with S and S', in wall of mixing
thamber. P. Float. R, Float chamber. SS, Air inlets.
T, Induction pipe, to engine.

was frequently formed in the carburetter and
induction pipe, clogging them. By degrees the
method of heating the air, by passing it around
the exhaust pipe, was learned, and all pipes
were shortened. Still, starting a "cold" motor
was an uncertain operation, often requiring pre-
liminary heating of the metal, as it still does
(1904) when the heavier oils are used as fuel.
The evolution of the modern carburetter was
brought about by the necessity of regulating the
force of explosions by a throttling system, to
relieve the operator of frequent mechanical gear
changes. The steps in this evolution were
many and irregular, the most important one
consisting in the employment of a nozzle from
which the liquid fuel is drawn off in a spray by
air suction, to take the place of surface evap-
oration. Thus the quantity of fuel introduced
in each explosive charge is regulated by a me-
chanical factor which is under control, namely,
the air current created by the suction stroke,
and not materially affected by temperature and
atmospheric conditions. This system requires
a modification, however, because an air current
w^ill suck liquid gasolene from a nozzle placed
in its path in proportion to the square of the
velocity of the current (approximately), while
the power developed is in simple proportion to
the velocity of the piston. An automatic device
is therefore required for reducing the air cur-
rent which draws the spray of fuel, while in-
creasing the current of atmospheric air when
the motor speed is being raised, and vice versa.
The difference in devices serving this purpose
constitutes the main difference in carburetters.

Vol. 2 — 9.

3- Engine. — In adapting the gas engine to
the automobile the first requirement, after de-
vising the carburetter, was the reduction of
weight and bulk. The heavy foundation and
heavy fly-wheel were undesirable. A small cyl-
inder with a piston working at high speed was
preferable to a larger cylinder working with
low compression and small piston speed.
When weight was cut down and compression of
the explosive charge was increased, it was found
that the rapid succession of explosions shook
the engine and vehicle in a manner destructive
to the mechanism and disagreeable to the occu-
pants of the vehicle. By lightening recipro-
cating parts of the engine, distributing the
weight of rotary parts equably with relation to
the axis of revolution, by building engines with
two, three or four cylinders instead of one, and
balancing the explosions in one cylinder against
those in an opposed cylinder, but most of all
by learning to graduate the volume of the ex-
plosive charges according to the requirements
for power, excessive shaking and vibration were
in course of years considerably reduced.

Equally good results have been obtained with
cylinders lying horizontally and standing ver-
tically, the former being more readily "bal-
anced," the latter more easily inspected and re-
paired. Automobile motor cylinders are made
of cast iron, seldom of steel. The pistons are
of the trunk pattern, fitting loosely in the cyl-
inders. Circumferential grooves in the pistons
contain split iron rings (usually two or three
at the upper and one at the lower end) suffi-

■2ZZZZZZZZZ2t

Fig. 2. — Complicated Modern Carburetter, with
Automatic Adjustment According to Throttle

Opening and Piston Speed.
I, inlet to induction pipe J to cylinder. F, throttle

Ciston (to uncover aperture I more or less) actuated
y rod H to governor. D, gasoline spray nozzle com-
municating through E with gasoline float chamber (not
shown). A, air inlet. M, additional air ports more
or less uncovered by piston K, held in normal position
by spring N and diaphragm P, rigid, and Q, flexible
S, pinhole vent, moderating action of spring N.

ciently elastic to expand snugly against the cyl-
inder wall. The high temperature produced in
the cylinders by the successive explosions oi

AUTOMOBILE

charges compressed 75 to 100 pounds per square
inch before ignition preclude the use of packed
fits.

Throttling of the explosive charge is ac-
complished by obstructing the induction pipe
between the inlet valve and the carburetter noz-
zle by means of a butterfly valve, or in any
other suitable manner. Excessive speed of the
motor under light load or when running idle is
obviated by a centrifugal governor acting usu-
ally upon the throttle valve, but in some in-
stances upon the exhaust valve. In small
motors the inlet valve is usually automatic,
opened by the suction in the cylinder against
the resistance of a helical spring as in a gas
engine ; in large motors the inlet valve is fre-
quently actuated from the cam shaft, as is the
exhaust valve when opening, and with this con-
struction throttling of the motor is sometimes
effected by shutting the inlet valve before the
suction stroke is completed.

In four-cylinder motors reduction of the

MuMers. — When the burnt gases are ex-
hausted from the cylinder they are still of high
temperature and of high tension and their es-
cape into the atmosphere is therefore accom-
panied by a report-like noise. To subdue this
noise a muffler is employed, consisting of an ex-
pansion box through whicli the gases must
pass and in which the current of the gas is par-
tially obstructed and subdivided. One of the
most efficient mufflers consists simply in a box
filled with parallel plates turned edgewise
against the current of gas.

3a. The Ignition System. — When the mix-
ture of gasolene spray and air (usually heated
by contact with the exhaust pipe) reaches the
inlet valve of each cylinder, the fuel is partially
or wholly vaporized and absorbed in the air cur-
rent. Entering the cylinder, some recondensa-
tion takes place if the cylinder walls and piston
are cold (as at the start), but the next piston
stroke compresses the charge to a small volume
(usually J4 to H of the whole cylinder volume),

Fig. 3. — Longitudinal Section Through Four-Cylinder Mo-
tor AND Flywheel Clutch.

power development was until 1902 commonly ef-
fected, when required, by preventing ignition
in one or two of the cylinders, and also by
shutting the exhaust valve before the exhaust
stroke was completed, thereby setting up inter-
nal resistance and also reducing the volume of
the next explosive charge, while changing its
composition by mixing it with the remaining
exhaust gases. These methods are now (1904)
almost abandoned. The earliest means of re-
ducing the effective power of the motor con-
sisted in retarding the ignition, so that the
combustion would not be finished when the ex-
haust valve was opened. This method is still
generally used, but only as an auxiliary to the
throttling of the explosive charge.

and thereby heats its and prepares it for igni-
tion. The means employed for igniting the
charge consisted at first altogether, and still
occasionally, in a kerosene lamp (later pattern:
an alcohol vapor lamp) over the flame of which
(later: in the flame) a platinum tube was
screwed into the upper end, or combustion
chamber, of the cylinder. The outer- end of the
tube was closed and brought to red heat or in-
candescence by the flame.

By the compression stroke a small portion
of the charge was forced into the tube and fired
back into the cylinder when it reached the hot
portion of the tube. The ignition took place at
the highest compression or slightly earlier or
later, varying according to the piston speed,

AUTOMOBILE MOWING MACHINES.

AUTOMOBILE

but the variation was insufficient to give the
highest power at the highest piston speed and
yet not too early for low speed, because the
whole charge should be aflame and expanding
with maximum force shortly after the power
stroke has begun and, when the piston moves
with high velocity, this cannot be accomplished
unless the ignition begins long before the com-
pression is at its maximum, the time required
for spreading the flame being almost constant
for a vapor mixture of given composition.

The method was also unadapted for a motor
in which the new throttling system introduced

Fig. 4. — Jump Spark Plug.

variations in compression, and the open flame
of the lamp was a source of danger in case of
gasolene leaks or road accidents. So, when the
throttled fuel admission came in vogue, "hot
tube" ignition, despite its reliability, was grad-
ually abandoned in favor of the electric spark,
produced internally in the cylinder head by (i)
a dry battery; (2) an induction coil (see In-
duction), causing a high-tension current; (3)
an interrupter or "trembler," and (4) a switch
turning the current off and on at the proper
time, operated from the same camshaft from
which the exhaust valve is opened. A "spark
plug" contains the two terminal wires, insulated
by porcelain, lava or pressed mica within a hol-
low metal screw plug, and is screwed into the
cylinder head. The terminals are about 1-16
inch part, and this is the length of the "jump

Fig, 5. — Diagram of Magneto System for Igniting

Explosive Vapor Mixture by Primary

Current Jump Spark.

A, permanent field magnets; B, armature of H-sec-

tion; C, armature coil wound in two sections, D and E,

connected in series; F, wire to one terminal of circuit

breaker G, worked by cam H; I, grounding wire from

other terminal of G to metal of armature and thence

on to metal work of motor and vehicle; J, condenser

in parallel with G; K, spark plug, wired from E's outer

terminal.

spark." The metal mass of the vehicle frame
serves to "ground'* the current. The wiring
throughout is insulated. Instead of a jump

spark a "hammer spark" or a "wipe spark" may

be used. '

The main drawback to this arrangement
arises from the fact that the life and potentiality
ot dry batteries vary greatly, so that they often
fail unexpectedly. Storage batteries are used
m their place in many European automobiles,
but these too, eventually give out and must be
recharged. A dynamo, however, driven by the
vapor engine, furnishes a current for ignition
so long as the mechanism remains in order, ren-
^enng the ignition an automatic function.
While the other methods remain in extensive
use, the dynamo driven by belt or gear from the
motor shaft, is fitted to most high-powered
automobiles, especially in the form known as
the magneto.

In the further development it became cus-
tomary to use both the magneto, either high
tension or low tension, and a storage br.ttery,
the latter being required for starting the engine
from the seat by turning on the electric spark in
that one of the cylinders in which an ignitable
charge remained after the last stop.

3b. The Cooling System. — Part of the heat
generated by the explosions is transformed into
the work of driving the piston, but a large por-
tion is absorbed as heat in the piston, cylinder
walls, valves, etc. These, unless artificially
cooled, become so hot as to ignite the lubricat-
ing oil, and also the next explosive charge be-
fore the piston is in position to receive a new
impulse. Such premature ignition drives the
piston back in the direction opposite that de-

Fig. 6. — Horizontal, Two-Cylinder, Air-Cooled Auto-
mobile Engine.

sired and stops the motor. The burning of
lubricating oil also leaves a deposit on walls
and valves which soon interferes with piston
travel, valve action and spark ignition. The
means adopted to keep the motor sufficiently
cool are in brief as follows :

Small cylinders (up to 2 horse-power) may
be ribbed externally, thereby increasing the
metal surface, from which heat is lost by radia-
tion and contact with the atomsphere. Rapid
motion, constantly bringing fresh cool air to
the heated metal, is essential to render this
system efficacious. When the motor works at
full charges while the vehicle is at rest or
moving slowly, renewal of the air must be ef-
fected by a blow fan or equivalent means. A
few automobiles are operated with air-cooled
motors ; some of them are now equipped with
a fan, but until recently the motors were usu-
ally shut down when the cars were at rest, and
the vehicles are not adapted for heavy, slow

AUTOMOBILE

work. The smaller each cylinder, the more ac-
ceptable the air-cooling method, because a small
cylinder has more radiation surface in propor-
tion to the volume of vapor burned than a large
cylinder.

Ordinarily the automobile cylinder is kept
at the proper temperature by means of a *water
jacket'^ surrounding cylinder and valve chamber,
a water circulating pump (driven from the
motor shaft) and a "radiator* consisting of a
nest of coiled tubes. The latter are strung with
metal fins, soldered on, to increase the radiation
area. A water tank is coimected with this sys-
tem. The order of circulation is from water
jacket to radiator, thence to the tank through
pump and back to the water jacket. The pump
is usually of the centrifugal class, sometimes
"rotary" (see Pumps), and in a few automo-
biles is omitted, circulation in that case depend-
ing solely upon the difference in temperature
between the water in the jacket and that in the
radiator, the latter being unusually large.

By increasing the dimensions of the pump,
to produce more rapid circulation, and reducing
the diameter of radiating tubes while increasing
their total radiation surface, the amount of
water to be carried and the capacity of the tank,
have been gradually diminished. With the so-
called "honeycomb*^ coolers the water tank is
almost dispensed with, consisting of only two
small compartments framing a network of flat-
tened tubes erected in front of the motor,
through which air is drawn rapidly by means
of an exhaust fan, usually forming the spokes
of the engine fly-wheel. The air current in this
case is defined within a closed motor hood. In
other cases the hood is provided with slits. In
the winter when water might freeze and burst
water jacket, cylinder or radiator, calcium
chloride or glycerine is admixed to lower the
freezing point, or a special oil distilled from
crude petroleum is used instead of water.

The water jackets were up to 1903 com-
monly cast integrally with the cylinders, cylin-
der heads and valve chambers, but the difficult
cored castings were often faulty, especially
when only cylinder heads and valve chambers
were jacketed. More recently sheet copper has
been secured to flanges on the cylinders, etc.,
so as to form a jacket between the copper and
the plain cylinder casting, and weight reduc-
tion as well as some elasticity (afifording secur-
ity against accidental freezing of the water)
have been gained thereby, while the quality of
castings has been improved.

With reference to sheet copper jackets,
it is now noted, however, that difficul-
ties were experienced in securing the joints
against eventual leakage and in 1906 only
three or four firms continued to employ this
method, while the art of producing sound cast-
ings of complicated design and with integral
jackets and cylinder heads had advanced greatly.

4. Clutch Mechanism. — A vapor engine,
like the gas engine, must be started by hand
power, or auxiliary power of some kind, as no
power is stored in it while at rest. It cannot
be started, therefore, under load without an in-
convenient efifort, and every automobile vapor
engine (excluding those used on motor bicy-
cles and motor boats) is arranged to be started
running idle to be subsequently connected with

its load by a clutch. Often there is a separate
clutch for each rate of gear reduction. In ear-
lier automobiles this was the rule, while now
(1904) it is the exception. AH the various
forms of clutches used in other branches of
mechanical engineering have been tried on auto-
mobiles, all being more or less perfectly adapted
to the requirements : That they shall grip a
motor shaft revolving at high velocity without
sudden seizure ; that they shall be automatic-
ally self-adjusting to wear within a consider-
able range and further adjustable by a screw or
other convenient means ; that the clutch sur-
face shall be large enough and smooth enough
to obviate injurious heating when slipping, and
that the release shall be positive, without re-
quiring much physical effort.

The clutch most commonly used in those
automobiles having the motor shaft disposed
longitudinally of the vehicle, consists of a male
truncated cone (angle 10 to 12 degrees), en-
gaging a corresponding female cone formed in
or attached to the rim of the motor flywheel.
The male cone is leather faced, and is secured,
slidingly, to the transmission gear shaft, a
strong helical spring pressing it forward (or,
in later construction, drawing it back) into the
female cone. To secure concentricity of the
two cones the transmission gear shaft is usu-
ally journaled in the end of the motor shaft
(carrying the flywheel) by a ball bearing, and
end thrust at this point is obviated in modem
design. The engagement of the clutch is ef-
fected by a clutch lever which releases the
spring, permitting the cones to come together.
The same action usually releases one set of
brakes, which is intended to be used only when
the motor is disengaeed from the driving p'ear.
After disengaging the clutch it requires a
further movement of this lever to set these
brakes.

During 1905 and 1906 the cone clutch
yielded its popularity for high-class auto-
mobiles to the internal expansion clutch,
which consists of two segments expanded by
toggle levers or similar means against the
inside of a drum formed upon the flywheel, and
to the multiple-disk clutch, consisting of many
small disks secured to the clutch shaft, alternat-
ing with an equal number of annular disks
secured in the flvwheel ; both series of disks
being keyed against rotation but free to slide.

5. Pozvcr Transmission Mechanism. — In
starting a heavy car from a standstill by clutch-
ing a rapidly revolving motor shaft, there would
be danger of breaking the connections between
the clutch and the rear wheels (which are the
driving wheels in nearly all automobiles, so
far), or of stopping the motor by the resistance,
unless the latter were reduced by gearing per-
mitting the vehicle to move slowly while the
motor shaft revolves at high velocity. As
motor power is proportional to motor speed,
under a given load, the necessity for at least
one gear reduction between motor shaft and
driving wheels remains, even with modern
motors capable of being throttled to low speed,
the power of the higher speed being frequently
required for overcoming the inertia of the ve-
hicle — on hills, for example.

As a matter of fact, most heavy automobiles
have three geared driving connections and one

AUTOMOBILES.

GASOLINE TuLRiNG CARS.

AUTOMOBILE

direct connection for going ahead, and one
geared connection for driving backward, while
lighter vehicles have one gear reduction for
going ahead and one for reverse, besides the
direct drive ahead. In all cases the motor
speed alone determines the power available at
the moment, and the motor speed in conjunc-
tion with the driving gear employed determines
the vehicle speed. The art of driving an auto-
mobile coneists largely in using the smallest
gear reduction (the "highest gear") and the
smallest moior speed that, combined, will pro-
duce the desired vehicle speed. Before motors
could be throttled to give a wide range of power
development, the art of driving consisted largely
in the manipulation of the levers by which the
gear reduction was changed. The development
has been from gear control of the vehicle to
throttle control of the motor; under both meth-
ods the brakes are freely used as an auxiliary,
especially in congested traffic.

Hundreds of transmission systems have
been, and are, in use, and are described in text-
books on the subject. The mechanical elements
of which they are composed are mainly those
well known in machine tool practice : the belt.

principle is the ^^expansion pulley* belt trans-
mission system, which also takes the place of
all change-gear mechanism. Only one belt is
used, which has broad chamfered edges and
transverse reinforcing strips sufficiently rigid to
permit the belt to ride mainly on the edges over
V-pulleys of changeable diameter. When the
driving pulley is expanded the driven pulley is
correspondingly contracted. The gear ratio
may in this manner be altered by insensible
graduations. See Pulley.

Fig. 9 shows one pattern of power trans-
mission in a vehicle with a transverse motor
shaft. Fig. 10 shows the system of bevel-
gear transmission, through change-gear mech-
anism, to a differential gear on a countershaft
and sprocket-and-chain transmission from the
ends of the latter to the rear wheels, the rear
axle being fixed. Fig. ii shows the system of
bevel-gear transmission, through change-gear,
to a differential gear on a divided rear axle
which revolves and turns the wheels keyed to
it. In modern construction of this type the
rear driving axle is relieved of the support of all
weight, being contained within a tubular sup-
porting axle, brazed or bolted to the differential

=i^^^Ms?h~

Fig. 8. — Cone Clutch (to the right), Sliding Gear Mechanism
AND Universal Joint (to the left) to
Bevel-gear Shaft.

spur wheel, bevel gear and shaft, the counter-
shaft, sprocket wheel and chain. From i886 to
1902 belts were employed to transmit power
from a transverse motor shaft to a parallel
countershaft in automobiles evolved from the
model first designed and built by Karl Benz, of
Maniilieim, Germany, in 1886. By a series of
stepped pulleys, any pair of which could Ije
clutched and keyed to the shafts, respectively,
this belt sj'stem served also as engagement
clutch and change-gear device. In cornmercial
competition with toothed-gear transmission, pat-
terned after the vehicle designed by Gottlieb
Daimler, of Cannstatt, German}', also in 1886,
the belt system gradually lost favor, probably
more by reason of the energy and ingenuity ap-
plied to the general improvement of vehicles
equipped with tooth-gear transrriission and
change-gear devices, than owing to any intrin-
sic superiority of the gear drive. For the
present (1904) belt transmission is practically
abandoned. A surviving adaptation of the

gear casing, on the ends of which the wheels
are mounted by ball or rolling bearings, while
the driving-axle-ends are keyed to the external
faces of the wheel hubs.

5a. Change-Gear Mechanism. — The primi-
tive change-gear included a clutch or key for
each gear ratio. With numerous variations, the
general principle is as follows : To the trans-
verse motor shaft, prolonged beyond the fly-
wheel, are rigidly secured spur wheels of vary-
ing diameter. On a parallel countershaft are
mounted other spur-wheels meshing pairwise
with those on the motor shaft, but free to ro-
tate around their own shaft, instead of with it,
unless clutched. To a small spur wheel on the
motor shaft corresponds a large one on the
countershaft, and this combination produces, of
course, the low countershaft speed which can
be still further reduced by transmitting the mo-
tion from a small sprocket wheel at the end of
the countershaft to a larger one on the rear
wheel of the vehicle.

AUTOMOBILE

Suppose the speed is divided by five from
motor to countershaft and further divided by
three by the sprocket chain ratio, the total re-
duction is then from 15 to i ; the wheel re-
volves once for fifteen revolutions of the motor
shaft. The vehicle speed will further depend
upon the diameter of the rear wheels. If this
is about 34 inches, making the circumference
about 9 feet, and the motor shaft revolves 900
times per minute or 15 times per second, the
rear wheels, revolving once per second, will
advance the vehicle 9 feet per second or 540
feet per minute. In ten minutes the car will
have traveled 5,400 feet, or somewhat more
than a mile, corresponding to between 6 and 7
miles per hour. By throttling the vapor ad-
mission the motor speed may be reduced to
200 revolutions per minute, reducing the vehicle

time. Modern developments of this system are
much simplified, mainly by the employment of
epicyclic gears.

The change-gear system which was developed
when the engine was placed in the front portion
of the vehicle with the motor shaft in the plane
of the lengthwise axis, was designed to reduce
noise, wear and waste of power, by having only
one pair of spur wheels in mesh at one time.
It is known as the clash-gear or sliding-gear
system (see Fig. 8). The shaft carrying
the cone clutch has a universal joint coupling
it to a shaft in prolongation of it, the latter
carrying spur wheels of different diameter
rigidly secured. It is journaled in an oil-tight
casing hung in the vehicle frame. Lower in the
same casing is journaled a parallel squared shaft
carrying a slidable sleeve with rigidly secured

Fig. 9. — Plan View of American Automobile " Runabout "
Mechanism.
With Transverse Engine Shaft, Horizontal Single- Cylinder Engine, Change-Gear by Brake Clutches and
Epicyclic Gears and Side-Spring Vehicle Frame. Steering wheel, pillar, and gear not shown.

A Radiator.

B Engine.

C Gasoline tank,

D Muffler.

E Water pump.
F-G Clutches.
H Chain.
I Starting crank.

J-J Side springs.
K Water tank.
L Differential.

speed to i^ miles per hour. In early automo- spur wheels so disposed that, in one position
biles, where throttling was not so effective, the of the sleeve, none of these spur wheels is in
brake served to redi:ce the motor speed by in- mesh with any of those in the fixed, upper shaft,
creasing the resistance. _ But when a fulcrumed fork, acting against a
While one pair of spur wheels drives, the flange of the sleeve causes the latter to slide a
several other pairs are, with this system, in short distance, one pair of gears, say, the lowest
mesh, but revolve idly. This accounted largely gear, are engaged. A further motion in the
for the metallic neise of the earlier models, same or the opposite direction, releases the low
One of the pairs of spur wheels was not gear and engages the second gear. A still
strictly in mesh but a small intermediate pinion further motion releases the second and engages
on a rock shaft transmitted the motion to the the third ; and in the same manner the fourth
spur wheel on the countershaft, thereby re- and the reverse are engaged and released. A
versing its direction and causing the vehicle to small pinion on a special rock shaft produces the
be driven backwards when the clutch was ap- reverse, as in the older system. The edges of
olied to this purpose. Clutch levers and change- the spur teeth are rounded to facilitate mesh-
gear levers were identical, and were so inter- ing, and the cone clutch is automatically re-
locked that only one clutch could be set at one leased while a change of gear is made; yet it

American Touring
Equipment.

Car with Full Road 2.

Automobile Used
Sightseeing.

for Excursions and

AUTOMOBILE

requires rapid and resolute manipulation of the
change-gear lever (or levers) to avoid burring
of the spur wheels.

Ingenious arrangements are made in many
cars to have consecutive motions of the gear
lever produce a consecutive ^^ransition from the
lower to the higher gear, and vice versa. In
some cases the upper shaft is divided into two
portions, the rear one of which, in its foremost
position, grasps the front portion by a hollow
square while all spur wheels are disengaged,
thereby transmitting power direct from the
motor shaft to the differential gear without
speed reduction. The advantage is always
bought at the cost of more gear complications
for the lower speeds.

5b. Differential Gear. — This apportions mo-
tion between the two rear wheels, permitting
one to revolve faster than the other, as at turns,
where the outer wheel describes a longer curve
than the inner one. The dififerential gear used
in automobiles was at first the same as used in
other mechanical constructions (see Differ-

machine portions of an automobile has been real-
ized only by degrees. The small motors of
early vehicles were mounted either in the wagon
'box at the rear of the seat (only one seat), with
'two radius rods running from the motoi shaft
to the rear axle (so as to keep the sprocket chain
at even tension), or on a rieid frame of
angle iron or steel tubes extending from the
rear to the front axle. The latter method sur-
vived in a few instances up to 1900 and is now
observed only in some heavy vehicles intended
for slow hauling of goods, in which the absence
of spring suspension for the motor mechanism
is not so injurious as in fast-moving cars.
Metal reaches between the two axles, serving
merely to brace the construction, survived
longer, but finally disappeared with the general
adoption of a rigid steel frame supported by
four semi-elliptical springs and carrying the
entire mechanism as well" as the vehicle body.
Some notable American exceptions to this rule
have inverted elliptical springs transversely in
front instead of the two semi-elliptical springs,

Fig. 10. — Plan of Automobile "Chassis" of Type Common
FOR " Touring Cars."
With 3-cylinder engine, longitudinal shaft, cone clutch, clash change-gear, sprocket chain drive from
countershaft to rear wheels. Steering wheel, pillar, and gear not shown.

A Radiator.

B Starting handle

C Motor.

D Flywheel.

E Change gear

case.
F Counter-shaft.
G-G Side chains.

H Band brake.
T-J Sides of frame
K Gasoline tank.
L Muffler.

ENTiAL Ge.\r), consisting of two bevel-gear
plates, of equal diameters, mounted on the con-
tiguous end portions of the divided shaft, de-
signed to be revolved, and four bevel-gear pin-
ions journaled radially between the two gear
plates and meshing with them. Motion trans-
mitted to the ring holding the outer ends of the
pinion shafts, cause both bevel-gear plates to
revolve equally, unless one resists more than
the other, in which case the small pinions re-
volve and permit the plate which moves easier
to move farther. In the United States a form
of dififerential gear was developed in connection
with automobiles, in which straight spur wheels
and pinions took the place of bevel-gears.

6. Vehicle Frame and Springs. — The need
of a special metal frame for supporting the

giving the front axle more freedom to oscillate,
as required when traveling over rough ground.
Many popular small American automobiles form
another exception, having the entire frame se-
cured by clips to the inactive middle portions
of two side leaf-springs, whose bent-down rear
and front portions are secured to the rear and
front axles, respectively (see Fig. 9).

At first most frames were made of wood or
drawn steel tubes brazed together (an adaptation
from bicycle construction). Subsequently
greater rigidity was attained bv armoring the
wood with steel flitch plates, or by the use of
structural iron or steel in various shapes, bolted
and riveted together. This was convenient for
experimental work, changes being easily effected.
When the types of vehicles became more defi-

AUTOMOBILE

nilely accepted, frames pressed in one piece
from larg-e blanks of sheet steel made their
apoearance. P ns of sheet steel joined the side
reaches forminfr a protection underneath against
mud and dust and prevented oil drip.

The springs used in automobiles are gen-
erally common carriage leaf springs calculated
for such weights as they are intended to sup-
port. In course of time their length and weight
have been gradually increased, with a view to
combining strength with great flexibility. In
case of side springs extending from axle to axle,
as referred to above, this tendency influenced
and modified the general design of the vehicles.
7. Running Gear. — In this division may be
included axles, wheels and tires. Nearly all
early automobiles (1890 to 1898) were equipped
with wire-spoke wheels, the spokes laced tan-
gentially to the hub on the suspension principle
borrowed from bicycle construction. These
wheels have given way to stout wood wheels,
seldom more than 34 inches in diameter, built
around a metal hub and enclosed in an iron ring
to which a solid or inflated rubber tire is attached.
The pneumatic or air-inflated rubber-covered
canvas tire is used almost exclusively for pleas-

selves readily to traction from one motive centre,
but front wheels are sometimes arranged to re-
volve in a slightly inclined (2°) plane, with a
view to facilitating the steering operation by
bringing the ground contact of the wheel
directly under the pivot pin, a design of special
value on rough ground where slanting impacts
at the wheel rim w^ould otherwise tend to turn
the wheel or strain the steering gear.

The front axle of automobiles is stationary
and frequently bowed down at the middle to
permit a low position of the motor. To each
end, just beyond the spring clips, is brazed a
"knuckle* or fork, in which is journaled a pivot
pin carrying at right angles, or slightly inclined,
the rock shaft around which the front wheel
revolves, usually on ball or roller bearings. The
pivot pin is mounted in end-thrust ball bearings.
Each pivot pin carries, besides the wheel shaft,
a lever arm, projecting either forward and
slightly outward, or rearward and slightly for-
ward. The arms are connected by a rod,
synchronizing the turning of the two wheels.
The steering gear acts upon this rod or upon an
additional arm on one of the pivot pins. The
''fifth wheeP^ device has never been generally

Fig. II. — Side Elevation of Automobile Chassis.
With bevel-gear driving shaft from change-gear to differential gear on special rear driving axle separate
from the rear supporting axle of the vehicle.

ure automobiles, and its maintenance involves
from 25 per cent to 50 per cent of the cost of
operating a vehicle. On the other hand, air-tires
aff'ord a cushioning action, supplementary to
that of the carriage springs, which protects
machinery and wheels, especially against lateral
shocks, in a manner for which no substitute
has been found for vehicles intended for a speed
above 15 or 20 miles per hour. At such and
higher speeds the tire resiliency is characterized
by the avoidance of vertical recoil.

Autoinobile wheels are also made of steel
tubing, locked and brazed in a steel hub; elastic
wheels with S-shaped spokes of tempered metal
leaves have been tried, as well as composite
wheels involving a cushioning medium between
the felloe and the hub. So far (1904) the
wheels have not been dished (to gain strength),
as inclined or «set» axle ends do not lend them-

used in automobiles, being practical only when-
steadied with the leverage of a long pole, as in
horse-drawn vehicles.

The bearings in automobile wheels were first
plain ''parallel bearings,* then mostly ball bear-
ings. Then followed a reaction favoring plain
bearings. Lately ball bearings (in Europe) and
roller bearings (in America) are usually fitted
and, if well made and calculated for their loads,
give satisfaction and reduce traction resistance,
besides being more durable than parallel or
coned shaft bearings.

Rear axles are either stationary (solid, tubu-
lar or H-shaped), carrying wheels revolved by
sprocket wheels and chains, or rotary and di-
vided near the middle by the difi'erential gear,
the wheels keyed to the axle ends and the bear-
ings clipped to the vehicle springs. It was early
found, however, that an axle supporting the

Type of European High-power Touring
Car.

2. American Touring Car 1906, with Air-
cooled 4-cylinder Engine and Dummy
Radiator Front.

AUTOMOBILE

greater portion of the vehicle's weight should
not be subjected to the alternating stresses re-
sulting from rotation, unless it was made much
stronger, theoretically, than a fixed axle. Grad-
ually the divided and revolving axle was there-
fore modified until a design was developed sep-
arating motive power from support, as explained
under Power Transmission.

(8) Brake and (9) Steering mechanism, and
also (10) Carriage work are essentially con-
structed on the same principles in vapor engine
automobiles as in motor vehicles in general and
are referred to under Motor Vehicles.

II. Lubricating System.— The lubrication of
vapor engines presents certain difficulties caused
by the very high temperature of pistons and
cylinder walls, and the liability of fouling valves
and spark points if an excess of lubricant is
used. A thin oil of high flash and ignition test is
required, but it is of still higher importance that
the oil shall not "crack'^ ; that is, split into por-
tions which burn completely when ignited and
other portions which leave a residue. The mer-
cantile method of placing different oils on the
market under the same name, and the same oil
under different names (allowing agents to name
it), has obscured lubricating problems and re-

FlG. 12. — Elev.'^tion of Automobile Front Axle with

Knuckles, Steering Pivot Pins, and Inclined

Wheel Shafts.

A, Front Axle; BB, Knuckles; CC, Pivot pins; D,
Rod connecting arms on pivot pins; E, connection from
arms to steering gear (not shown J.

tarded uniformity in practice. With vertical
cylinders it is customary to place a quantity of
oil in the crank casing and depend upon lubri-
cating the cylinder and connecting rod by the
oil splashed from the casing by the rotation of
the crank. For horizontal cylinders sight feed
drip lubricators regulated by hand have been
extensively used, as they still are for steering
gear, transmission gear and wheel bearings, but
the most approved practice demands a force
feed system operated from the cam shaft of the
engine, so as to proportion the feed to the
engine speed.

It is common practice to stuff the change-
gear box with grease (vaseline and graphite is
a popular mixture) and to use cylinder oil for
all other bearings. Mechanical oilers distribut-
ing the oil from a central reservoir, often placed
on the dashboard, through a svstem of canaliza-
tion and by pressure derived from small positive
plunger pumps within the reservoir, driven by
gear or chain from the cam shaft, are gener-
ally employed.

13. Operating System. — The devices by
which the operator of an automobile controls the
motor, clutch or clutches, the chan"^e-gear,
brakes, steering wheel and the lubrication sys-

tem have undergone many changes and remain
much diversified. The starting device is nearly
alwavs a detachable crank fitting the squared
end of the motor shaft, either in front of the
vehicle or at the side. The motor, when started,
automatically releases the crank, the turning of
the shaft pushing the crank out of engagement
by a screw action supported bv a spring. In
many automobiles a small lug prevents the in-
sertion of the crank if the ignition device hap-
pens to be adjusted to give an early spark which
would start the piston in the wrong direction,
and whereby the crank might be thrown vio-
lently back, injuring the starter.

The spark-timing handle and the throttle
handle are generally placed close to the steer-
ing wheel (or steering lever), while one band
brake (usually acting on the circumferential ring
of the differential gear), and the cone clutch are
actuated by one or more pedals. The change-
gear lever (sometimes two) and the brake lever
(actuating band brakes contracting around, or
expanding into, drums in the rear wheels)
usually extend through slots in the footboards,
or at the side of the vehicle within convenient
reach of the operator's right hand. In a few
cases the operating devices are at the left side,
the operator's seat being there. Automobiles
vary more, perhaps, in the arrangement of oper-
ating devices than in any other feature of con-
struction, and 1 brief general description cover-
inp- established practice is therefore impossible.

In the broadest definition of "automobile,*
which is sanctioned by common usage, the word
may be applied to any mechanically propelled
vehicle, whether the source of power is a vapor
engine, or steam engine, an electric accumulator
or storage batterv. stored compressed air or any
other form of primarv or secondary generator,
but historically the word was not coined or ap-
plied until (about 18S8, it seems) the appearance
in France of benzine vapor engine vehicles, while
steam cars for common highways antedate loco-
motives, having been made, especially in Eng-
land, before the railways were thought of. The
development of electric vehicles also began inde-
pendently of the vapor engine vehicle. If a dis-
tinction should be made between automobiles
and motor vehicles — and the distinction would
be a convenience in nomenclature — the latter
term should be the broader one, including all
forms of power, while "automobile" should be
reserved for motor vehicles equipped with a
vapor-explosion engine and driven by purely
mechanical transmission of power from the en-
gine shaft.

Recent Development. — From 1904 to 1906
the development of the automobile in America
was marked by a very general adoption of four-
cylinder engines, even for vehicles of small size,
and by a wider use of the air-cooling system,
both resulting in a remodeling of the "runabout"
style, with its single-cylinder engine in the mid-
dle portion of the frame. The single-chain drive
to the rear axle was usually replaced by a
bevel-gear shaft. The characteristics of the
"runabout" were thereby removed ; it became
simply a "small car" for two persons, often
equipped with sliding gear transmission. The
epicycle transmission gear, on the other hand,
found extensive employment in delivery wagons
and trucks, being more easily operated by inex-
perienced drivers. Two-cylinder engines, of the

AUTOMOBILE SPEED RECORDS —AUTREFOIS CONVICT

horizontal, ^^double-opposed" type, were com-
monly used for these business vehicles and were
second to the four-cylinder engine in popularity
for pleasure automobiles of medium size and
power.

In general, the development was toward
greater refinement in all details of the vehicles,
but at the same time the increased reliability of
the gasoline engine was seized upon by some
manufacturers as a signal for a return to the
"gasoline buggy" type, a vehicle built as an ordi-
nary buggy or surrey placed on a steel frame,
however with a horizontal, two-cylinder engine
underneath it and a very simple steel cable driv-
ing device to pulleys on the .rear wheels ; the
reverse being operated by a small sheave acting
by direct frictional contact upon the solid tires
of the large dished carriage wheels.

In practically all automobiles the tread pedals,
or piano pedals, used for control of clutch and
brakes and sometimes for the throttle, as well,
were replaced by pedals pushed forward by the
■foot instead of down.

In accordance herewith, information in re-
gard to steam and electric vehicles for common
roads, as well as vehicles propelled through
electric motors deriving their current from
either a steam or a vapor engine, will be found,
together with general information applying to
all types, under Motor Vehicles.

Marius C. Krarup,
Formerly Editor of ^The Automobile?

Automobile Speed Records. The most im-
portant affairs in the world of automobiling,
from the viewpoints of record-making and
breaking, enthusiasm and excitement, are the
Glidden Tour, the Auto Show, and the Vander-
bilt Cup Race. This latter event, inaugurated in
1904, was, for that year, over a 30-mile tri-
angular Long Island course. The records made
and the big attendance, 50,000, stamped this cup
race as certain to become a great national an-
nual affair in the realm of outdoor sport.
George Heath, an American, was the winner, in
a French Panhard. Lytle, also an American,
finished third in an American-made car, a 24-
horse-power Pope-Toledo. The exact distance
was 284.J miles ; time, 5 hours, 26 minutes, 45
seconds ; the average rate of speed being 52.2
miles.

The second Vanderbilt Cup Race, held Octo-
ber 14, 1905, resulted in the triumph of Hemery,
a Frenchman, in a Darracq car. Heath's Panhard
being second. The distance covered was 283
miles ; time, 4 hours. 36 minutes, 8 seconds, the
average rate of speed Ijeing 61.51 miles per hour.

The third Vanderbilt Cup Race, held on
October 6, 1906, was won by Louis Wagner, a
Frenchman. The distance covered was 297.1
miles ; time, 4 hours. 50 minutes, 10 seconds.
The average rate of speed per hour being 61.43
miles. More than 250,000 people witnessed the
event.

Grand Prix, Sanhe Circuit (Prance), 766 miles, 12.14.07.
Flono Cup Contest, Brescia Circuit (Italy), 311. 12 miles,
4.46.47. 1Q05 Ardennes, Ardennes Circuit, 372.8 miles, S-sS.-
3214. 1905 Bennett Cup, Auvergne Circuit, 341.4 miles,
7.10.00. 1906 Ardennes, Ardennes Circuit, 376 miles, 5.38.00.

Auton'omy, the self-government of a state.
This power may reside within limited bodies
of the same people, such as parishes, corpora-
tions, religious sects. These districts or com-

munities may be autonomous, if not absolutely,
yet within certain defined limits. They may be
said to enjoy a partial, limited, or local auton-
omy. Autonomy is often used to designate the
characteristic of the political condition of
ancient Greece, where every city or town com-
munity claimed the right of independent sov-
ereign action. Recently the word is more
specifically used of territories or provinces,
which, while subject in some matter to a
higher sovereignty, are autonomous in other re-
spects. Thus the Treaty of Berlin made eastern
Rumelia an autonomous province ; though sub-
ject to the direct political and military author-
ity of the Sultan, it was to have administrative
autonomy in all its internal affairs. Egypt pos-
sesses a higher autonomy. The self-govern-
ment enjoyed bv the British colonies may be de-
scribed as a modified form of autonomy.

Autoplate, a machine for making and fin-
ishing curved stereotype printing plates for use
in printing newspapers, invented by H. A. Wise
Wood of New York, the first put into use upon
the New York Herald. This machine, after a
flexible papier-mache matrix, made from a type
page, is inserted therein, proceeds to cast print-
ing plates, weighing about 50 pounds each, at
the rate of four a minute, and to dress their
edges and inner surfaces and prepare them for
attachment to the printing cylinders, and
this is done automatically — all within the com-
pass of one machine. Previous to the advent
of the autoplate such work had been inva-
riably done by hand-worked devices, with which
the fastest rate of production attainable was at
the rate of slightly less than one plate per
minute. So great a change did this invention
make in the work of stereotyping upon the
la.ger newspapers, that not only was the
machine generall" adopted, but in every case
the hand apparatus were entirely dispensed
with, and sole dependence placed upon the auto-
plate.

Autran, 6-tran', Joseph, French poet: b.
Marseilles, June 1813 ; d. there, 6 March 1877.
His verse is admired for its purity of form and
refined sentiment. He attracted attention in
1832 v.-ith an ode to Lamartine, 'The Departure
for the East.^ His works include 'The Sea,'
poems (1835) ; 'Milianah,^ an epic (1842) ;
'Rural Life> (1856) ; and 'The Daughter of
^schylus,^ drama (1848), which won a prize
from the French Academy.

Autrefois Convict, 6'tr-fwa' kon-ve', in
criminal pleading, a plea made by a defendant
indicted for a crime or misdemeanor, that he
has formerly been tried and convicted of the
same. This plea is similar in form as the plea
of autrefois acquit, and is based upon the same
general principle, to wit: thj.t no man's life or
liberty shall be twice put in jeopardy for the
same offense. A plea of autrefois convict,
which shows that the judgment on the former
indictment has been reversed for error in the
judgment, is not a good bar to another indict-
ment for the same offense. But a prior convic-
tion before a justice of the peace, and a per-
formance of the sentence pursuant to the
judgment, constitute a bar to an indictment for
the same offense, although the complaint on
which the judgment proceeded was so defective

AUTUMN — AVA

that his judgment might have been reversed for
error. The New York Code of Criminal Pro-
cedure, § 9, expressly prohibits a second prose-
cution for the same crime. At common law it is
necessary, according to the weight of authority
in a majority of the United States, to specially
plead former conviction or acquittal. In many
of the States, however, by statute, the plea of
autrefois acquit may be taken advantage of un-
der the plea of not guilty. The statute adopted
in New York is similar in its terms to that of
many other States. It is provided by the New
York Code of Criminal Procedure, § 322, that a
plea of tormer judgment of conviction or ac-
quittal of the crime charged may be pleaded
with or without the plea of not guilty.

Au'tumn, the season of the year w^hich
follows summer and precedes winter. Astro-
nomically, it is considered to extend from the
autumnal equinox, 22 September, in which the
sun enters Libra, to the winter solstice, 22 De-
cember, in which he enters Capricorn. In
popular speech it includes the months of Sep-
tember, October, and November.

Autun, 6-ten, France (ancient Bibracte), a
town in the department of Saone et Loire, of
considerable interest both from its antiquities
and from its modern edifices. Of the former
the more remarkable are two Roman gates of
exquisite workmanship and in good preserva-
tion, the ruins of an amphitheatre and of sev-
eral temples ; of the latter the most conspicu-
ous is the cathedral of St. Lazare, a Gothic
structure of the nth century. Pop. (1896)
11,873.

Autunite, a beautiful canary-yellow min-
eral, occurring in thin, tabular crystals of ortho-
rhombic symmetry, but closely approaching the
tetragonal mineral torbernite in form. Both of
these minerals are hydrous phosphates of
uranium, but while calcium is an essential
constituent of autunite, whose formula is
Ca(U02)2P208 + 8H20, it is replaced by copper
in torbernite, which is further distinguished
by its green color. Autunite has eminent basal
cleavage, resulting in a pearly lustre on the
basal plane, while on the edges of the crystal
the lustre approaches adamantine. It has a
hardness of 2 to 2.5 and a specific gravity of
about 3.12. Some autunite is beautifully fluor-
escent. Its name is derived from its most noted
locality, Autun, France, where it is found in
closely aggregated masses of crystals. Other
noteworthy occurrences are in Cornwall, Eng-
land, in Saxony, North Carolina and South
Dakota.

Auvergne, ovarn'y, a province of central
France, now included in the departments Cantal,
Puy-de-D6me, and Haute Loire. The moun-
tains of Auvergne are the highest in the interior
of France, the highest of them, Puy-de-D6me,
being 4.805 feet above the sea. It is entirely
composed of volcanic matter, and has a regular
crater 1,000 feet in circumference, and 300 feet
deep. The whole of the cones present the same
general character — well-defined craters en-
closed by regular cones, on whose sides the lava
currents may be traced as easily as on those of
Vesuvius.

Auvergne, Mountains of, a branch of
the Cevennes, chiefly situated in the depart-

ments of Puy-de-D6me and Cantal (France).
The most important peaks are Puy-de-Sancy
(6,185 feet), Plomb du Cantal, and Puy-de-
Dome.

Auwers, Arthur, German astronomer: b.
Gottmgen 12 Sept. 1838. He became assistant
m the observatory at Konigsberg in 1859, and
at Gotha in 1862; in 1866 was made a member
of the Berlin Academy and astronomer to it.
In his capacity of president of the Astronomical
Society he was conspicuously identified with
the preparation of the great co-operative cata-
logue of over 100,000 stars. For his services
to astronomy he was made a foreign member
of the Academy of Sciences at Washington,
from which he also received the Watson gold
rnedal. Among his works are <Neue Reduk-
tion der Bradleyschen Beobachtungen i750-62>
(1882-8), and <Katalog von 9,789 Sternen>
(1896).

Aux Cayes, o-ka', a seaport town of Haiti,
situated on the southwest coast of the island,
about 85 miles west of Jacmel. It has an ex-
cellent harbor, a good export trade, and is the
seat of an American consular agent. Pop.
about 25,000.

Auxerre, 6-sar' (ancient Antissiodurum) , a
town in France, 96 miles southeast of Paris. It
is finely situated on a height above the Yonne,
which here becomes navigable, but is very poorly
built. Its principal edifices are its cathedral of
St. Stephen, a splendid Gothic structure, with
a finely proportioned interior, and windows
containing most beautiful stained glass; the
church of St. Germain, with some curious
crypts; and a magnificent old episcopal palace,
now converted into the Hotel de Prefecture.
The manufactures consist of woolens, hats, wine
casks, leather, red and yellow ochre, earthen-
ware, and violin strings; and the trade is
chiefly in wood and in the wines of the district
Of these wines the most famous is the white
Chablis. Pop. (1896) 15,082.

Auxonne, 6-siin' (Latin Asona or Aus-
soiia), a town in France, 18 miles east-south-
east of Dijon, on the left bank of the Saone,
here crossed by a beautiful bridge of 23 arches.
Auxonne is well built, the seat of a court of
commerce, and has a communal college, and a
public library containing 4,000 volumes; a
castle, an arsenal, and a cannon foundry. Pop.
(1896) 6,700.

Auzout, 6-zoo', Adrian, French mathe-
matician: d. 1691, inventor of the micrometer,
still in use among astronomers to measure the
apparent diameter of celestial bodies. He was
the first who thought of applying the telescope
to the astronomical quadrant.

Ava, a'va, or Aungwa, a town in Asia, the
former capital of Ava or Birmah, on the Irra-
waddy. It has a circuit of about five miles, and
consists of an inner and an outer town, each
surrounded by a brick wall. Pop. (1891)
39,477-

A'va, Arva, Yava, or Kava (Piper methys-
ticum), a plant of the natural order Piper-
acecc, possessing narcotic properties. It is
a shrubby plant, with heart-shaped acumi-
nate leaves, and very short, solitary, axil-
lary spikes of flowers. It is a native
of many of the South Sea Islands, where

AVADHUTA — AVALON

the inhabitants intoxicate themselves with a
fermented Hquor prepared from the upper por-
tion of the root and the base of the stem. The
rhizone is thick, woody, rugged, and aromatic.
The intoxicating Uquor is prepared by macerat-
ing it in water. The narcotic property is
ascribed to an acrid resin, kazvine, present in
the root. The taste is unpleasant to those un-
accustomed to it, and has been likened to that
of rhubarb and magnesia. The intoxication is
not like that produced by ardent spirits, but
rather a stupefaction like that caused by opium.
It is succeeded by a copious perspiration. The
habitual use of ava causes a whitish scurf on
the skin, which, among the heathen Tahitians,
v.'as reckoned a badge of nobility, the common
people not having the means of indulgence re-
quisite to produce it. Ava is, like cocaine, a
local ansesthetic.

Avadhuta, ii'va-d'-hoo'ta, a member of a
mendican sect in southern India addicted to
self-torture.

Av'alanche, a mass of snow or ice which
slides down steep mountain slopes. On lofty
mountains snow would accumulate indefinitely
if the excess were not removed by sudden falls
or by glaciers which bring it into the valleys,
where it melts. Avalanches may occur at any
season of the year, but they are most frequent
in early spring after the snow has begun to
melt from the sun's rays. The water_ which
collects beneath the snow bank loosens it from
the ground, and the whole mass may then be
precipitated to the base of the mountain. Such
avalanches occur regularly in the Alps, where
they are known as grundlazvinen. Another
type (staublazvinen) occurring in the winter
season is characterized by the dry and finely
divided condition of the snow, and results from
the overloading of the snow-fields. A third
class is the ice-avalanche, occurring along the
course of glaciers. Avalanches are often very
destructive, sweeping away trees, houses and
everything in their path. Their destructive ef-
fects are greatly increased by the wind-blasts
which accompany them. Those occurring in
winter usually cause the greatest loss of life,
as they develop suddenly and without warn-
ing; those that take place in spring generally
follow a definite path and are more or less
regular in their occurrence. The planting of
forests on the high slopes sometimes affords
protection from avalanches, but when this is
not feasible, stone structures are employed.
Aval Islands. See Bahrein.
Av'alon, Cal., a summer resort on Santa-
Catalina Island, established for the purpose of
supplying the comforts of life at a minimum
cost. It is owned by a joint stock company,
and was literally built to order when it was
determined to build the town. The sight se-
lected was a desert, with not a tree in sight
and only a few shanties of fishermen along
shore. Water was found in a neighboring
caiion to the north and piped over the hills.
The ground was leveled, the hollows filled, and
small prominences cut down. The surveyor
platted the tract, laid out streets, avenues, walks,
and a central plaza or park with provision for
fountains. This accomplished, the plumbers fol-
lowed, and a system of sewerage and water
pipes was introduced. The aid of the forester

was next called into play, and the streets and
avenues were planted with small Australian
eucalyptus trees. A wharf was .built, a hotel
or restaurant, several cottages for the superin-
tendent, a number of tents erected, and what is
known as the "tent city" was finished. The
tent city is a feature peculiar all along the
southern California coast, for the benefit of
ranchers and others from the inland cities and
towns who desire to escape the heat and enjoy
life at the seashore at a minimum cost.

What is known as the "tent city" is more or
less peculiar to California, and the local papers,
from the heart of the Sierras to the sands of
the ocean, during the summer months, all con-
tain glowing advertisements of the "tent city.*^
Such cities, with a population of several hun-
dred, are found at many points on the Pacific
coast. The equipment of the "tent city® con-
stitutes a business in itself. At Avalon is a
large circus tent which in winter contains fur-
niture of every description. Here, in fact, the
"tent city* was in winter quarters, everything
being classified and arranged with order and
system. In April or May a gang of workrrien
descends upon the winter quarters, and like
magic the vacant lots are filled, and in a day
a city is reared as though by the touching of
the proverbial button. Each tent is neatly and
well furnished, and can be rented for a nominal
cost, the owners of the island giving the
ground rent and free water, each lot being sew-
ered and perfect in its sanitary arrangement.
The visitor can rent a tent for sleeping, a parlor
and kitchen, or he can rent a single room. In
the centre of the "tent city" is a store where
every description of food, carefully prepared
and cooked, can be obtained. Near by the Y. M.
C. A. has opened a reading room and library.

The questions of the physical and moral wel-
fare of such a community would seem an im-
portant and difficult one to manage, but all this
and even the amusements are included in the
plan, and we have a city where every door is
open and where probably the jail is used hardly
once in the season. On the borders of the city
is a large amusement hall, and in the neighbor-
ing grove is a band stand where the finest band
in southern California gives an open-air con-
cert from 7 until g, seats being provided
for 1,200 people. No smoking is allowed with-
in the area of the seats. At the end of the con-
cert the band adjourns to the "pavilion," and
a ball is given free to the inhabitants of the
"tent city" and others. No policeman is in
evidence in the town, though guardians of the
peace are present in citizen's clothes. In fact,
here is a summer municipality of large size,
conducted by a corporation that attends to
everything; keeps the town clean, provides
amusement, sustains a health officer, adminis-
ters justice through a justice of the peace, pro-
vides the government with a post-office, and
maintains two daily boats between the island
and the mainland — an experiment in govern-
ment worthy the attention of the pessimist wha
affects to believe that communities cannot be run
by machinery, as this virtually is, so well ar-
ranged and systematized are the methods. It
might be assumed that a series of stringent and
excessive taxes would be imposed upon each resi-
dent, but investigation shows that each resident
of the tent city of Avalon pays but $2.75 per
capita per season for the privileges, which is the

AVALON — AVELLANED A

•cost of round trip fare from Los Angeles to
the island, a distance of 50 miles, more or less.
This and the rent of tent constitute the sole
tax. The winter population is generally less
than 1,000, but in summer 75,000 persons are to
be found at times living within the corporate
limits.

Av'alon, the legendary elysium of King
Arthur, being his abode after disappearing
from the haunts of men ; called also Avilion.
The name is also identified with Glastonbury,
and has been given to a peninsula of New-
foundland.

Avalos, a'va-los', the name of a noble
Neapolitan family, which included Ferdinand
D' Avalos, IMarquis de Pescara : b. Naples,
1490; d. 1525. He served with distinction in
the army of Charles V., and was taken prisoner
by the French at the battle of Ravenna in 15 12.
He beguiled the hours of captivity by writing a
* Dialogue of Love,^ which he dedicated to his
wife, the beautiful and accomplished Vittoria
Colonna. He soon recovered his libertj'^, and
subsequently displayed extraordinary ability in
the wars of Charles V.

Avancini, Nicholas, an ascetic writer of
the Society of Jesus : b. 1612 ; d. 1686. His lit-
tle book of meditations on the life and doctrine
of Jesus Christ which has been translated into
several languages and is widely used to-day by
members of clergy, first appeared in Vienna in
1665. By reason of its arrangement, its scrip-
tural sources, its pithy suggestiveness, and its
practical character. Cardinal Gibbons states
that it has been his Vade Alecum, his book of
meditations during all the years of his ministry.

Avare, L', la-var' (The Miser), the title of
one of the most famous of Moliere's prose
comedies, first produced 9 Sept. 1668. It is
founded on the 'Aulularia^ of Plautus, and was
paraphrased by Fielding in his comedy of *Tlie
Miser. ^ Harpagon is a sexagenarian miser
who incarnates the spirit of avarice and has
determined to marry a young woman named
Mariane, but ultimately prefers his gold to
matrimony.

Avars, a'varz, or Avares, a nation of Mon-
golian or Turkish origin, who at an early period
migrated to the regions around the Don, the
Caspian Sea, and the Volga. They served in
Justinian's army, and later made themselves
masters of Dalmatia, pressed into Thuringia
and Italy, where they fought with the Franks
and Lombards, and extended their dominion
over the Slavonians dwelling on the Danube
and farther north, as well as over the Bul-
garians on the Black Sea. They were at length
overcome by Charlemagne, and after 827 dis-
appear from history ; but the valley of Erlav, a
small tributary of the Danube in Lower Austria,
was called the "land of the Avars" as late as
the loth century.

The name is also borne by a tribe estimated
to number upward of 100.000, now living in
the Caucasus Mountains, noted for their strug-
gle with Russia, in which they were led by
Schamyl (q.v.). See also Lesghians.

Avatar, iv'a-tar', in Hindu mythology, an
incarnation of the Deity. Ten avatars are pe-
culiarly distinguished, and four of them are the
subjects of Purdnas, or sacred poems. These
ID are among the incarnations of Vishnu, the

supreme God. The Matsya avatar was the de-
scent of the Deity in the form of a fish ; Kach-
yapa or Kurma, in that of a tortoise; Varaha,
as a boar; Nara-sinha, as a monster, half man,
half lion; Vamana, as a dwarf; Parasurama, as
the son of Jamadagni. All these took place in
the Satya Vuga, or golden age. The seventh
incarnation was in the form of the four sons
of King Dasaratha, under the names of Rama,
Lakshmana, Bharata, and Satrughna, in order
to destroy certain demons that infested tht
earth. The achievements of Rama form the
subject of the celebrated epic called the Rama-
yana. The eighth avatar of Vishnu, in the
form of Krishna, is the best known of all, from
the fact that it forms the subject of the great
Sanskrit epic poem, the Mahabharata. Its ob-
ject was to relieve the earth from the Daityas,
and the wicked men who oppressed it. The
ninth was in the form of Buddha. The Kalki,
or tenth avatar, is yet to come at the end of the
Kali Yuga, or the iron age. See Vishnu.

Avatcha, a-va'cha, a volcano and bay in.
Kamchatka. The volcano, 9,000 feet high, was
last active in 1855. The town of Petropavlovsk
is situated on the bay.

Ave Maria, a'va ma-re'a (Latin; hail Mary,
frorn averre) ; among ithe Roman Catholics the
beginning of a prayer to the Virgin, whence
the whole prayer is called Ave Maria. It is the
beginning of the salutation which the angel
addressed to the Virgin, as he announced to
her that she should be the mother of the Sa-
viour (Luke i. 28; "Hail, highly favor»d, the
Lord is with thee : blessed art thou among
women."). See Rosary.

Avebury, a'ber-T, Lord. See Lubboch, Sir
John.

Ave'bury, England, a village in Wiltshire,
occupying the site of a so-called Druidical tem-
ple, which originally consisted of a large outer
circle of 100 stones, from 15 to 17 feet high,
and about 40 feet in circumference, surrounded
by a broad ditch and lofty rampart, and enclos-
ing two smaller circles. On the neighboring
downs are numerous barrows or tumuli, one of
which, called Silbury Hill, rises to the height
of 130 feet, with a circumference of 2,027 feet
at the base, covering an area of more than five
acres.

Avellaneda, a-va'lya-na'da, Alfonso Fer-
nandas de, the pseudonym of the writer of
a sequel to *Don Quixote,^ issued prior to the
sequel by Cervantes. See Don Quixote.

Avel'lane'da, Nicholas, Argentine states-
man: b. Tucuman, i Oct. 1836; d. 26 Dec. 1885.
He was professor of political economy in the
University of Buenos Ayres ; minister of pub-
lic instruction in 1868-74, and president of the
republic in 1874-86. He published several his-
torical and economical works.

Avellaneda y Arteaga, a-va'lya-na'da e
ar'ta-a'ga. Gertrudis Gomez de, distinguished
Spanish poet, dramatist and novelist: b. Puerto
Principe, Cuba. 23 March 1814: d. Madrid. 2
Feb. 1873. Under the pseudonym Peregrina
she contributed to Andalusian journals many
'Lyric Poems* (1851-54), and afterward
wrote a series of spirited novels: 'Two
Women,' 'The Baroness de Joux,' 'Dolores,*
and others. She gained still higher distinction
with the tragedies 'Alfonso Munio,* the hero

AVELLINO — AVERNUS

of which was her own ancestor, and /T^^
Prince of Vianna.^ Her later compositions
had a tone of melancholy; among these are
Biblical dramas, as *SauP and '^Balthasar' ;
the spiritual song, ^At the Cross,' and ^The
Last Ascent of My Harp' (1850). In the later
years of her life she composed 16 plays which
still have a place on the Spanish stage.

Avellino, a'vel-le'no, a town in Italy, 29
miles east of Naples. It has a square adorned
with an obelisk, and possesses several agreea-
ble promenades. Pop. (1901) 23,700.

Ave'na. See Oats.

Avenarius, Richard, German philosopher:
b. Paris 1843 ; d. Ziirich 1896. He studied phi-
losophy at the universities of Ziirich, Berlin, and
Leipsic, and from 1877 to his death was profes-
sor of philosophy at Ziirich. He wrote on
Spinoza's pantheism, published a theory of ex-
perience and contributed many papers to maga-
zines and reviews, upon philosophical subjects.

Avenches, a-vansh', Switzerland, a town
in the canton of Vaud, seven miles northwest
of Fribourg. It is the ancient Aventicum,
capital of Helvetia under Roman rule, and is
noted for its Roman relics, notably the ruins
of an amphitheatre, and a Corinthian column
belonging to a temple of Apollo. In Roman
times it was a city of 20,000 inhabitants. The
population now is about 2,000.

Av'enel, Mary, a character appearing in
Scott's novels, ^The Monastery' and ^The
Abbot.'

Avenel, av-nel', Paul, a French poet and
novelist: b. Chaumont 9 Oct. 1823. He was
active in connection with several periodicals,
and besides several vaudevilles, he wrote ^The
Peasant Woman from the Abruzzi' (1861), a
drama; *^The King of Paris' (i860), a histor-
ical romance; <The Calicoes' (1866), scenes of
real life. Among several collections of poems
may be mentioned "^Alcove and Boudoir,' in-
terdicted in 1855 and re-published in 1885.

Aven'ger of Blood, among primitive peo-
ples the next of kin to a murdered man, upon
whom was laid the duty of avenging the crime
by killing the murderer. In this custom may be
detected the source of the system of criminal
law.

Av'entine, the southernmost of the seven
hills of Rome, on the left bank of the Tiber,
between the river and the Caelian hill. The
Circus Maximus lay to the northeast of
the Aventine, between it and the Palatine, and
the baths of Caracalla were on the southeast.

Aven'turine. See Quartz; Sunstone.

Avenzoar, a'ven-zo'ar, or more correctly,
Abu-Merwan-Mohammed - ben - Abdalmalec -
ben-Zohar, Arabian physician of the 12th cen-
tury: b. Seville, Spain; d. Morocco, 1169.
He became eminent in his profession, traveled
much, and passed through many adventures,
among which was a long imprisonment at Se-
ville. He had the care of a hospital, and com-
posed a work entitled <A1 Theiser,' contain-
ing a compendium of medical practice, and
including many facts and observations not found
m the preceding writers, which was probably
the result of his own experience. The report
of his having lived to the age of 135 is probably
an error arising from his having been corv-

founded with his son, of the same name and
profession, who lived at Morocco, and was
the author of a treatise on the regimen of
health.

Av'erage, in maritime law, is general, par-
ticular or petty. General average (also called
gross) consists of expense purposely incurred,
sacrifice made, or damage sustained for the
common safety of the vessel, freight and cargo,
or the two of them, at risk, and is to be con-
tributed for by the several interests in the pro-
portion of their respective values exposed to
the common danger, and ultimately surviving,
including the amount of expense, sacrifice or
damage so incurred in the contributory value.
Indemnity for general average loss is ordi-
narily stipulated for in policies against the risks
in navigation, subject, however, to divers modi-
fications and conditions. Under maritime poli-
cies in the usual form, insurers are liable for
the contributions, for loss by jettison of cargo,
sacrifice of cables, anchors, sails, boats, delay for
the purpose of refitting, voluntary stranding,
etc. Average particular (also called partial
loss) is a loss on the ship, cargo or freight, to
be borne by the owner of the subject on which
it happens, and is so called in distinction from
general average, and, if not total, it is also
called a partial loss. It is insured against in
marine policies in the usual forms on ship,
cargo or freight, when the action of peril is ex-
traordinary, and the damage is not mere wear
or tear, and on the ship covers loss by sails
split or blown away, masts sprung, machinery
of steamship disabled, planks started, change
of shape by strain, loss of boat, breaking of
sheathing or upper works or timbers, damage
by collision or stranding, by lightning or fire,
or in defense against pirates or enemies, or
by hostile or piratical plunder. Petty average
consists of small charges formerly assessed upon
the cargo, to wit : anchorage, pilotage, beacon-
age, towage, quarantine, etc.

Av'erage Man, An, a society novel by
Robert Grant. It is a story of manners rather
than plot, concerning itself more with types
than with individuals.

A'verell, William Woods, American mili-
tary officer : b. Cameron, N. Y., 5 Nov. 1832 ;
d. Bath, N. Y., 3 Feb. 1900. He was edu-
cated at West Point, and served on the frontier,
and in several Indian campaigns till the
beginning of the Civil War, when he was ap-
pointed colonel of the Third Pennsylvania Cav-
alry, and assigned to the command of the cav-
alry defenses of Washington. During the war
he distinguished himself on numerous occasions
as a cavalry raider and commander, and at its
close was brevetted major-general of volunteers.
He resigned from the regular army while hold-
ing the rank of captain, in 1865,' and, under an
act of Congress, was reappointed captain in
August 1888, and was placed on the retired list
in the same month. He was United States Con-
sul-General at Montreal in 1866-9. He in-
vented a system of asphalt pavement now quite
generally adopted and the Averell insulating
conduits for wires and conductors.

Avernus, a-ver'nus, a small circular lake,
now called Lago d'Averno. in Naples, kingdom
of Italy, between the ancient Cumse and Puteoli.
It is surrounded by hills of a moderate height,
which used to be covered with immense woods,

AVERROES — AVESTA

while the atmosphere was charged with un-
healthy mephitic effluvia, and occupies the cra-
ter of an extinct volcano. By ancient Greek
writers, subsequent to Homer, it was fabled
to be the entrance to the infernal regions, and
to have been the place where Ulysses entered in
his visit to the shades. It was also thought
that the Cimmerians of Homer dwelt on the
banks of this lake. The sibyl of Cumae is said
to have had her grotto here, and Virgil repre-
sents her as guiding ^neas when he made his
descent C-^facilis descensus Averno^^) to the
infernal regions at this place.

Averroes, av-er-ros' (corrupted from
Ebn or Ibn Roshd), a renowned Arabian phi-
losopher: b. Cordova, Spain. 1126; d. about
1 198. He became a cadi or judge first in Se-
ville and afterward in Cordova. He was ac-
cused of rejecting the established religion, and
in consequence deprived of his offices, and fled
to Fez. Here he was condemned by a spiritual
court to recant and undergo a public penance.
Upon this he went back to his own country, but
was latterly restored to his dignities in Maroc-
co. Averroes regarded Aristotle as the great-
est of all philosophers, and explained his writ-
ings, with only a slight deviation from his
views. Besides commentaries on Aristotle and
other philosophical works he wrote also a com-
pendium of physic, called ^Colliget^ (a corrup-
tion of the Arabic ^Kulliyat,^ or summary),
and treatises on jurisprudence, astronomy,
grammar, etc. His commentaries upon Aristotle,
in a Latin translation, were repeatedly printed
at Venice m the 15th and i6th centuries. His
*CoIliget^ also was early translated into Latin,
and several times printed. See Renan, ^Aver-
roes et I'Averroisme^ (i860) ; Miiller, ^Philo-
sophic und Theologie von Averroes^ (1875).

Aversa, a-ver'sa, a town of Italy, nine
miles north of Naples, on a plain covered with
vines and orange trees. It is the seat of a
bishop, and is famed for a kind of almond-
cake, called torrone, in great demand at Naples.
Pop. (1901) 22A77-

A'very, Benjamin Parke, American jour-
nalist and diplomatist: b. New York 1829;
d. Peking, China, 8 Nov. 1875. He went to
California in 1849 and became connected with
several papers on the Pacific coast, among them
the San Francisco Bulletin. In 1872 he was
appointed editor of the ^Overland Monthly.^
From 1874 to 1875 he was United States minis-
ter to China. His chief work is 'Californian
Pictures in Prose and Verse^ (1877).

A'very, Elroy McKendree, American
writer • b. Erie, Mich., 1844. He served m the
Federal army during the Civil War, and has
since been prominent in educational matters.
Among his m.any published works are text-
books in physics and chemistry, * Words Cor-
rectly Spoken> (1887) ; and ^A Popular His-
tory of the United States,^ now in progress of
publication.

Avery, Otis, American dentist: b. Bridge-
water, Oneida County, N. Y., 19 Aug. 1808; d.
Honesdale, Pa., 1904. He then took up the study
of dentistry, and began the practice of his pro-
fession at Honesdale, Pa., where he lived for the
greater part of his life. For some years he was
the only dentist between Honesdale and Utica,
N. Y., and at the time of his death was the old-
est practising dentist in the United States.

A'very, Samuel Putnam, American mer-
chant: b. New York, 17 March 1822; d. there
12 Aug. 1904. He became a copper-plate and
wood engraver, and subsequently an art pub-
lisher and dealer. He was a founder of the
Metropolitan Museum of Art; life member
of the American Museum of Natural History,
American Geographical Society, American His-
torical Society, American Zoological Society;
president of the Grolier Club, and first presi-
dent of the Sculpture Society. In 1891, with
his wife, he created and endowed the Avery
Architectural Library, in Columbia University,
as a memorial of his deceased son; and in
May 1900 presented to the trustees of the
New York Public Library a collection of
etchings, lithographs, and photographs, num-
bermg more than 17,500 pieces, together with
a number of large volumes illustrated bv '■he
same arts.

A'very, Waitstill, American lawyer: b.
Nor\vich, Ct. ; d. North Carolina, 1821. He
practised his profession successfully; wii
appointed in 1777 attorney-general of North Caro-
lina, and was at the time of his death the patri-
arch of the bar of that State. He was promi-
nent in the political affairs of the State, being
a member of the State congress prior to the
Revolution, and of the State legislature after
the establishment of peace. In 1777 he was ap-
pointed one of a commission to treat with the
Cherokee Indians.

A'very's Gores, the name of several tracts
of land in Vermont, granted to Samuel Avery
in 1791. One of them is in Addison County,
nearly on the summit of the Green Mountains,
now forming a part of Granville.

Aves, a'vas, or Bird Islands, a group of
small islands belonging to Venezuela, valuable
for their deposits of guano.

Aves, a'vez, the class of vertebrated ani-
mals which contains the birds. They have
been defined by Dr. Gadow as "oviparous,
warm-blooded, amniotic vertebrates, which
have their anterior extremities transformed in-
to wings. '^ The metacarpus and fingers carry
feathers or quills; there is an intertarsal joint,
and the feet have not more than four toes, of
which the first is the hallu.x. See Birds.

Aves'ta, or Zend-Avesta, the Bible of
Zoroaster, the sacred book of ancient Iran, ^nd
holy scripture of the modern Parsis. The ex-
act meaning of the name "Avesta*^ is not cer-
tain ; it may perhaps signify "law,'^ "text,'^ or,
more doubtfully, "wisdom,** "revelation." The
modern familiar designation of the book as
Zend-Avesta is not strictly accurate ; if used at
all, it should rather be Avesta-Zend, like "Bible
and Commentary," as zand signifies "explana-
tion," "commentary," and Avcsta 11 Zand is em-
ployed in some Persian allusions to the Zoro-
astrian scriptures as a designation denoting the
text of the Avesta accompanied by the Pahlavi
version or interpretation. The story of the re-
covery of the Avesta, or rather the discovery of
the Avesta, by the enthusiastic young French
scholar, Anquetil du Perron, who was the first
to open to the western world the ancient rec-
ords of Zoroastrianism, reads almost like a
romance. Du Perron's own account of his de-
parture for India in 1754, of his experiences
with the dasturs (or priests) during a seven
years' residence among them, of his various

AVESTA

difficulties and annoyances, setbacks, and suc-
cesses, is entertainingly presented in the intro-
ductory volume of his work ^Zend-Avesta,
Ouvrage de Zoroastre^ {^77})- This was the
first translation of the ancient Persian books
published in a European language. Its appear-
ance formed one of those epochs which are
marked by an addition to the literary, religious,
or philosophical wealth of our time ; a new con-
tribution was added to the riches of the West
from the treasures of the East. The field thus
thrown open, although worked imperfectly at
first, has yielded abundant harvests to the hands
of later gleaners.. With the growth of know-
ledge of the language of the sacred texts, we
have now a clear idea also of the history of
Zoroastrian literature, and of the changes and
chances through which with varying fortunes
the scriptures have passed. The original Zoro-
astrian Avesta, according to tradition, was in it-
self a literature of vast dimensions. Pliny, in
his ^Natural History,' speaks of two million
verses of Zoroaster ; to which may be added the
Persian assertion that the original copy of the
scriptures was written upon twelve thousand
parchments, with gold illuminated letters, and
was deposited in the library at Persepolis. But
what was the fate of this archetype? Parsi tra-
dition has an answer. Alexander the Great, —
"the accursed Iskander,'' as he is called, — is re-
sponsible for its destruction. At the request of
the beautiful Thais, as the story goes, he al-
lowed the palace of Persepolis to be burned,
and the precious treasure perished in the flames.
Whatever view we may take of the different
sides of this story, one thing cannot be denied :
the invasion of Alexander and the subjugation
of Iran was indirectly or directly the cause of a
certain religious decadence which followed up-
on the disruption of the Persian empire, and
was answerable for the fact that a great part
of the scriptures was forgotten or fell into
disuse. Persian tradition lays at the doors of
the Greeks the loss of another copy of the origi-
nal ancient texts, but does not explain in what
manner this happened ; nor has it any account
to give of copies of the prophet's works which
Semitic writers say were translated into nearly
a dozen different languages. One of these ver-
sions was perhaps Greek, for it is generally ac-
knowledged that in the 4th century B.C. the
philosopher Theopompus spent much time in
giving in his own tongue the contents of the
sacred Magian books.

Tradition is unanimous on one point at
least: it is that the original Avesta comprised
21 Masks, or books, a statement which there is
no good reason to doubt. The same tradition
which was acquainted with the general charac-
ter of those Nasks professes also to tell ex-
actly how many of them survived the inroad
of Alexander; for although the sacred text it-
self was destroyed, its contents were lost only in
part, the priests preserving large portions of
the precious scriptures. These met with many
vicissitudes in the five centuries that inter-
vened between the conquest of Alexander and
the great restoration of Zoroastrianism in the
3d century of our era, under the Sassanian
dynasty. At this period all obtainable Zoro-
astrian scriptures were collected, the compila-
tion was codified, and a detailed notice made
of the contents of each of the original Nasks
compared with the portions then surviving. The

original Avesta was, it would appear, a sort of
encyclopaedic work ; not of religion alone, but
of useful knowledge relating to law, to the arts,
science, the professions, and to every-day life.
If we may judge from the existing table of
contents of these Nasks, the zealous Sassanians,
even in the time of the collecting (226-380 a.d.),
were able to restore but a fragment of the
archet3'pe, perhaps a fourth part of the original
Avesta. Nor was this remnant destined to es-
cape misfortune. The Mohammedan invasion,
in the 7th century of our era, added a final and
crushing blow. Much of the religion that
might otherwise have been handed dov/n to us,
despite "the accursed Iskander's" conquest, now
perished through the sword and the Koran. Its
loss, we must remember, is in part compensated
by the Pahlavi religious literature of Sassanian
days.

Fragmentary and disjointed as are the rem-
nants of the Avesta, we are fortunate in pos-
sessing even this moiety of the Bible of Zoro-
aster, whose compass is about one tenth that
of our own sacred book. A grouping of the
existing texts is here presented: (i) Yasna
(including Gathas) ; (2) Visperad; (3) Yashts ;
(4) Minor Texts; (5) Vendidad; (6) Frag-
ments.

Even these texts no single manuscript in
our time contains complete. The present col-
lection is made by combining various Avestan
codexes. In spite of the great antiquity of the
literature, all the existing manuscripts are com-
paratively young. None is older than the 13th
century of our own era, while the direct his-
tory of only one or two can be followed back
to about the loth century. This mere external
circumstance has of course no bearing on the
actual early age of the Zoroastrian scriptures.
It must be kept in mind that Zoroaster lived
at least six centuries before the birth of Christ.

Among the six divisions of our present
Avesta, the Yasna, Visperad, and Vendidad are
closely connected. They are employed in the
daily ritual, and they are also accompanied by
a version or interpretation in the Pahlavi lan-
guage, which serves at the same time as a sort
of commentary. The three divisions are often
found combined into a sort of prayer-book,
called Vendidad-Sadah (Vendidad Pure) ; that
is, Avesta text without the Pahlavi rendering.
The chapters in this case are arranged with
special reference to liturgical usage.

Some idea of the character of the Avesta
as it now exists may be derived from the fol-
lowing sketch of its contents and from the il-
lustrative selections presented :

I. Yasna (sacrifice, worship), the chief litur-
gical work of the sacred canon. It consists
mainly of ascriptions of praise and of prayer,
and corresponds nearly to our idea of a prayer-
book. The Yasna comprises 72 chapters ; these
fall into three nearly equal parts.

The greater part of the Yasna book is of a
liturgic or ritualistic nature, and need not here
be further described. Special mention, how-
ever, must be made of the middle section made
up by "the Five Gathas^' (hymns, psalms), a
division containing the 17 sacred psalms, say-
ings, sermons, or teachings of Zoroaster him-
self. These Gathas form the oldest part of the
entire canon of the Avesta. In them the prophet
of the new faith is speaking with the fervor
of the Psalmist of the Bible. In them we feel

AVEYRON — AVIGNON

the thrill of ardor that characterizes a new and
struggling religious band ; we are warned by
the burning zeal of the preacher of a Church
militant. Now, however, comes a cry of de-
spondency, a moment of faint-heartedness at
the present triumph of evil, at the success of
the wicked and the misery of the righteous ; but
this gives way to a clarion burst of hopefulness,
the trumpet note of a prophet filled with the
promise of ultimate victory, the triumph of
good over evil. The end of the world cannot
te far away; the final overthrow of Ahriman
(Anra Mainyu) by Ormazd (Ahura Mazda) is
assured ; the establishment of a new order of
things is certain ; at the founding of this "king-
dom" the resurrection of the dead will take
place and the life eternal will be entered upon.

The Visperad (all the masters) is a short
collection of prosaic invocations and laudations
of sacred things. Its 24 sections form a supple-
tnent to the Yasna. Whatever interest this di-
version of the Avesta possesses lies entirely on
the side of the ritual, and not in the field of
literature. In this respect it differs widely from
the book of the Yashts, which is next to be
mentioned.

Yashts (praises of worship) form a poetical
book of 21 hymns, in which the angels of the
religion, ^<the worshipful ones" (Yacatas,
Izads), are glorified, and the heroes of former
<ia3's. Much of the material of the Yashts is
evidently drawn from pre-Zoroastrian sagas
which have been remodeled ajid adopted,
worked over, and modified, and incorporated
into the canon of the new-founded religion.
There is a mythological and legendary atmo-
sphere about the Yashts, and Firdausi's 'Shah
Nameh' serves to throw light on many of the
■events portrayed in them, or allusions that
would otherwise be obscure. All the longer
Yashts are in verse, and some of them have
poetic merit. There are several translations of
the Avesta. The best (except for the Gathas,
where the translation is weak) is the French
version by Darmesteter, ^Le Zend Avesta,^
published in the ^Annales du Musee Guimet\
An English rendering by Darmesteter and Mills
is contained in the 'Sacred Books of the E^st,^
Vols. IV., XXIIL, XXXI.

Aveyron, a'va-roh', a department in the
south of France. It is extremely mountainous,
and is traversed by five considerable rivers,
the Aveyron, after which the department is
named, the Viaur, the Truyere, the Lot, and
the Tarn. Of these, the only one navigable
within the department is the Lot. It is only
in the west that plains of any considerable ex-
tent are found. Agriculture is in a very defect-
ive state, tjut considerable attention is paid to
sheep-breeding. Cheese of an excellent quality
is made and exported in large quantities. Avey-
ron possesses valuable coal, iron, and copper
mines, besides other minerals. Pop. (1901)
.377o59-

A'viary, a house or enclosure, larger than
an ordinary cage, for living birds. Out-of-door
aviaries are common in the warm countries of
southeastern Europe and in Asia, and are also
quite numerous in England. The freedom of
motion possible for a bird in a good-sized avi-
ary helps to keep them in good condition, and
many species which are unable to bear the close
confinement of a cage flourish in the larger en-
voi. 2 — 10.

closures. In a climate like that of the United
States, where the extremes of temperature are
great, outdoor aviaries are uncommon except in
zoological gardens. In the New York Zoological
Park is an aviary built in igoo, measuring 153
feet long, 72 feet wide, and 55 feet high ; at
present this is the largest in the world. It is
a wire cage, in the shape of a pointed arch, sup-
ported by steel frames. It stands among trees,
and several are enclosed by it. Game birds,
herons, and other large ^ecies live in this
aviary, and many smaller species, which would
suffer out of doors in winter, dwell there dur-
ing the summer months. See C.\ge-Bikds.

Avicebron, ii-ve'tha-bron', Solomon ben
Jehuda ibn Gabriol, Hebrew poet and phi-
losopher: b. Cordova, about 1028; d. about 1058.
Of his poetical works, 'The Royal Crown* is
the most famous; of the philosophical, 'The
Fountain of Life,' written in Arabic, but
known only through a Latin translation (re-
edited in Miinster, in 1895).

Av'icen'na, Arabian philosopher and phy-
sician : b. near Bokhara, 980 a.d. ; d. 1037.
He completed his studies at the early age of
18, and began to practise as a physician. He
settled subsequently at Hamadan, at first as phy-
sician to a noble lady, afterward as vizier of
the emir. On the death of his patron his son
and successor refused to recognize him as
vizier, and accordingly he lived in retirement
at Hamadan. Going in later life to Ispahan,
he passed in quietness the last 14 years of his
life, and composed the greater part of his works
on medicine, logic, metaphysics, astronomy, and
geometry. Avicenna left many writings, mostly
commentaries on Aristotle. Of his medical
works, the principal is called ^ Canon of Medi-
cine,' founded on the Greek writers, and in
some parts of the East is still an authority. It
has been printed in the original Arabic, and
there have been many Latin translations of it.
His other works have also appeared in transla-
tions.

Av'icen'nia, or White Mangrove, a genus
of Vcrbenacca, consists of trees or large shrubs
resembling mangroves, and, like them, growing
in tidal estuaries and salt marshes. Their creep-
ing roots, often standing six feet above the
mud in crowded pyramidal masses, and the
naked asparagus-like suckers which they throw
up, have a singular appearance. The bark of
A. tomentosa. the white mangrove of Brazil, is
much used for tanning. A green, resinous sub-
stance exuding from A. resinifera is eaten by
the New Zealanders. The genus is narned in
memory of the Arabian physician, Avicenna
(q.v.).

Avie'nus, Rufus Festus, Latin descriptive
poet, who flourished about the end of the
4th century after Christ, and wrote 'Descriptio
Orbis Terr?e,' a general description of the earth:
'Ora Maritima,' an account of the Mediter-
ranean coasts, etc.

Avignon, a've-nyori' (ancient Avenio), a
French city, capital of the department Vau-
cluse, on the left bank of the Rhone. It con-
sists generally of large antique houses, in
narrow, crooked, dirty streets. The principal ob-
jects of interest are "the large and very ancient
cathedral : the papal palace, with lofty massive
walls and strong towers, and the chamber of
the Inquisition. The silk manufacture is the

AVILA — AVON

principal source of employment at Avignon,
and the rearing of silkworms is carried on ex-
tensively in the district. The city has also
maiuifactories of velvet, woolen, and other
goods, hats, jewelry, etc., with silk dye-works,
paper-mills, tanneries, etc., and a trade in wnne,
brandy, iron, cotton, wool, grain, and other arti-
cles, of which it is the entrepot for Lower Dau-
phine, Provence, and all Languedoc. Here
Petrarch lived several years ; here he saw his
Laura, who formed the subject of his most beau-
tiful verses, and whose tomb is still to be found
in the Franciscan Church. The fountain of
Vaucluse is five leagues from Avignon. It be-
longed to the papal see from 1348 to 1791, and
from March 1309 to September 1376 seven
Popes in succession, from Clemens V. to Greg-
ory XL, were compelled to reside in this city.
The Catholic historians commonly call this
period the Babylonish captivity of the Popes.
Pop. about 45,000.

Avila, a've-la, Gil Gonzalez d', Spanish
antiquary and biographer: b. 1577; d. 1658.
He was made historiographer of Castile in 1612,
and of the Indies in 1641. Most valuable
works: ^Teatro de las Grandezas de Madrid*
(1623) ; and ^Teatro Ecclesiastico^ (1645-53).

A'vila, Juan de, celebrated Spanish preach-
er, commonly called the *' Apostle of Andalu-
sia'^; b. Almodavar del Campo, 1500; d. at I\Ion-
tilla 1569. His missionary labors in Andalusia
were prosecuted with singular success, until he
arrived at the age of 50, when, with a worn-
out constitution, he was obliged to desist. His
'Spiritual Letters' have been translated into
most European languages.

Avila y Zuniga, a've-la e thoo'nye-ga, Don
Luis d', Spanish general, diplomatist, and
historian ; a favorite of Charles V. : b. about
1490; d. after 1552. His chief work, translated
into five or six languages, was on the war of
Charles V. in Germany.

A'vila, a town of Spain, the capital of the
province of Avila, a modern division of Old
Castile. It is the see of the bishop suffragan
of Santiago, with a fine cathedral, and was
once one of the richest towns of Spain. A uni-
versity founded here in 1482 b}' Ferdinand and
Isabella continued its existence until the begin-
ning of the 19th century. Saint Theresa and
several men celebrated in Spanish history were
born here. Principal employment in the town
is spinning; in the province, breeding sheep
and cattle. Pop. about 12,000.

Av'ison, Oliver R., English physician: b.
Yorkshire, 30 June i860. He removed to Can-
ada in youth, and became professor of ma-
teria medica, instructor of microscopy and dem-
onstrator of materia medica in the University
of Toronto. In 1893 he went to Korea as a
medical missionary ; the same year he w'as ap-
pointed to the charge of the Royal Korean Hos-
pital, and in the following year became physi-
cian to the royal family.

Avi'tus, Marcus Maecilius, an emperor of
the West. He belonged to a Gaulish family in
Auvergne, and gained the favor of Constantius,
the colleague of Honorious, and of Thcodnric,
king of the Visigoths. He served w^'th distinc-
tion under /?£tius, became Prefect of Gaul, and
concluded a favorable treaty with the Goths.

He afterward retired into private life until the
invasion of x\ttila, when he induced the Goths
to join the Romans against the common enemy.
Avitus was proclaimed emperor in 455, took
for his colleague Marcianus, and died the year
following.

Avitus, Saint, bishop of Vienna from 490^
until his death in 523. He was the leading
champion of his day in the conflict with Arian-
ism and Semi-Pelagianism. A signal victory in
a public disputation gained for him the esteem
and confidence of King Gundobald. whose son
Sigismund he received into the Catholic Church
and who was afterward canonized as a saint.
His writings have given him a prominent place
in early Burgundian-Roman literature. His
chief w'ork is a didactic poem in five books, en-
titled *De Spiritalis Historise Gestis,' and deals
with such subjects as the origin of the world,
original sin, etc. Another poem in praise of
chastity, while inferior in literary merit to the
work just mentioned, contains much of value
from a historical standpoint.

Aviz, a'vesh. Order of, a Portuguese order
of knighthood, created in 1147 by Alphonso I.
The knights were then called Knights of Evora,
but took their present title, in 1287, from their
gallant defense of the fortress of Aviz against
the Moors. The order was changed from an
ecclesiastical to a civil institution in 1789. The
king of Portugal is grand master.

Avlona, av-l5'na, a seaport in Albania^
protected by *the island of Sasseno, the ancient
Saso. It is one of the stations of the Austrian
Lloyd steamers, and carries on considerable
trade with Brindisi, etc. The Christian inhabit-
ants, chiefly Italians, are engaged in commerce,
exporting oil, wool, salt, pitch, and especially
some 40.000 tortoise shells yearly. The Turks
are employed in the manufacture of weapons-
and woolen fabrics. Valonia, a material ex-
ported to England for tanning, is the pericarp
of an acorn grown nearby. Up to 1691 the
town belonged to the Venetians. Pop. 6,000.

Avocado (av'o-ka'do) Pear, a tropical
fruit. See Alligator Pear.

Av'ocet, a shore-bird of the limicoline
genus Recurvirostra, remarkable for its very
slender beak, which curves upward toward the
end like a cobbler's awl. It is a near relative
of the stilt sandpiper, and various species occur
throughout the world. The North American
species, Recurvirostra aincricana is found in
summer throughout the temperate parts of the
country, migrating to the tropics in winter. It
is about 17 inches in length, brownish-black
above and white below, with the head, neck, and
chest light cinnamon. Its general habits are
those of sandpipers.

Avoirdupois, av'er-du-poiz' (French avoir
dn poids, to have weight), a system of weights
and measures in which a pound contains 7,000
grains or 16 ounces, w^hile a pound troy contains
1,760 grains or 12 ounces. All larger and
coarser commodities are weighed by avoirdu-
pois weight. The avoirdupois ounce is less
than the troy ounce in proportion of 72 to 79.

Avon, a'von, the name of several rivers in
England, the most important of which are the
following: (i) The Upper Avon, rising in
Leicestershire, runs southwest, and falls inta
the Severn at Tewkesbury. Stratford-on-Avon,.

AVONDALE — AXE

a town on this river, is the birthplace of Shake-
speare; (2) the Lower Avon, which rises near
Tetbury, in Gloucestershire, and falls into the
Severn northwest of Bristol, being navigable as
far as Bath ; (3) in ^lonmouthshire ; (4) in
Wiltshire and Hampshire, enters the English
Channel at Christchurch Bay, in the latter
county.

A'vondale, a parish of Scotland, in the
county of Lanark. At the battle of Drumclog,
fought near this place i June 1679, Grahame of
Claverhouse, the famous Viscount Dundee, was
defeated by the forces of the Scottish Cove-
nant. A graphic description of this battle is
found in Sir Walter Scott's ^Old Mortality. >

Avranches, a-vransh' (ancient Abriticce),
a town in France, about 3 miles from the Atlan-
tic, and 30 miles east of St. IMalo. It is pleas-
antly situated at the end of a long ride, the
summit of which was crowned by a magnificent
cathedral; built in the nth century, and de-
stroyed at the revolution. In this cathedral
Henry II. did penance before two of the Pope's
legates for the murder of Thomas a Becket.
One of its bishops was the celebrated Huet, au-
thor of the 'Demonstratio Evangelica.^ The
manufactures are chiefly lace, white thread, and
wax candles, and there is some trade in agri-
cultural produce. Pop. (1896) 7,600.

Avul'sion (Latin, avulsion, a tearing oflf), a
term denoting the sudden transfer by natural
causes of a portion of one man's land to that
of another, as when the course of a river is
suddenly changed and former boundaries al-
tered, it differs from accretion, which describes
a gradual addition to the property of a riparian
OA\ner by the action of the water. See Alluvi-
on.

Awaji, a-wa'je, one of the islands of Japan,
situated between the main island and Sikokee.
Its area is 218 square miles. Pop. 170,000.

Award' is the judgment or decision of
arbitrators or referees, on a matter submitted
to them. The award should be consonant with
and follow the submission, to be binding. It
must be final and certain. It must be possible
to be performed, and must not direct anything
illegal to be done. At common law an award
could be oral or written, but in some of the
States an award to be valid must be in writing.
The New York Code Civil Procedure provides
that an award to be valid must be in writing.
See Arbitration and Award.

Awata (a-wa'ta) Ware, a yellow faience
called "egg-ware" by the Japanese, manufactured
in the village of Awata, a suburb of Kioto, and
largelj' purchased in the United States.

Awe, a, a narrow Scottish lake in Argyle-
shire, about 28 miles long, and communicating
by the Awe with Loch Etive. It is of great
depth, has sloping and well-cultivated shores,
terminated by ranges of lofty mountains, among
which that of Ben Cruachan, rising to a height
of 3.670 feet, at its northern extremity, is most
conspicuous. A number of islets are scattered
over its surface, and on two of them are some
beautiful ruins.

Axayacat, ax'a-ya-kat, or Axayacatl, a
Mexican fly, the eggs of which, deposited
abundantly on rushes and flags, are collected
and sold as ?. species of caviare. The use of

these as an article of diet was learned by the
Spanish settlers from their predecessors, the
native Indian Mexicans, who called the dish
ahuauliti.

Axayacatl, a'cha-ya-ka't'l, a ]\Iexican em-
peror : d. about 1477. ' He was the father of
Montezuma, whom Cortez conquered, and reigned
14 years. He was already famous as a warrior
when he became emperor of the Aztecs, and in-
augurated his reign by a successful expedition
against Tehauntepec, and in 1467, conquered
anew the cities of Cotasta and Tochtepec. A
little later he repelled the tribes who strove to
get possession of the Mexican capital, and
maintained a vigorous warfare against his
neighbors. The palace of Axayacatl, a gigan-
tic pile of stone buildings, became the bar-
racks of the Spaniards. His treasures were
discovered by Cortez, within a concealed door,
and the chronicler of the conquest e.xclaims that
*it seemed as if all the riches in the world were
in that room.* They consisted of gold and sil-
ver in bars and in the ore, many jewels of value,
and numerous rich and beautiful articles of
curious workmanship, as imitations of birds, in-
sects, or flowers.

Axe (apparently an original Aryan word),
a long-handled tool for wood-cutting. Its es-
sential feature is the helve, though a certain
shape is imposed by the nature of its service.
The chipped flint of the oldest Stone Age was
a tool of all work, to crush, dig, or cut (rather,
bruise off), as occasion demanded, and was too
heavy and shapeless to be used except by hand.
As soon as one was shaped and sharpened to
admit of tying a handle to it for a heavier
stroke, the axe came into being, and was proba-
bly the earliest implement thus dififerentiated. So
natural a device was separately invented by each
race early in its history, and made of the material
at hand : flint in England and America ; whin-
stone or granite in Ireland, and by the lake
dwellers of the Continent ; bone by the Ameri-
can Indians and Eskimos ; while stone axes are
still used by some of the South Sea Islanders.
In all these cases and until the use of metal,
the handle was secured with a thong, as piercing
with an eye was impracticable. The first cop-
per and bronze "celts" were made in the same
way. But when casting had become familiar,
it was seen that there was no difficulty in cast-
ing a hole to thrust the handle in, making a
much surer and heavier stroke : and with this
"eye" the modern axe appeared The bronze
axe was lightened and better shaped, and in its
turn displaced by iron, for which with the pro-
gress of invention has been substituted an iron
butt inset w'ith a steel cutting part. The old hand
forges have for some generations been replaced
by immense establishments with developed ma-
chinery. The American process consists of cut-
ting the butt from a piece of white-hot iron,
punching the eye, then reheating and shaping it
by pressure between concave dies : again heat-
ing, cutting in the edge a groove, into which the
arched steel edge-piece is set, then welding the
two and drawing out the axe to a proper edge
by trip-hammers at a white heat. The next
process is hammering oflf the implement by a
combination of hand and machine work, and re-
storing the shape lost in drawing out. It is
then ground to symmetry, hung on a revolving
table in a furnace, and heated over a small

AXEL — AXOLOTL

coal fire, at a peculiar red heat, determined by
the eye ; cooled in brine and then in fresh wa-
ter, and removed to another furnace, where it
receives the last temper. It is next polished to
a finish that shows every flaw, and enables it
to resist rust and enter wood easily; then
stamped, the head painted to prevent rust,
weighed, labeled, and packed for sale. The
leading axe establishment of the world is the
Collins Company, of Collinsville, Conn., whose
processes are largely special inventions for the
compan)^ It manufactures 5,000 axes and
other edge tools daily, besides other miscel-
laneous goods ; and consumes annually 3,500
tons of iron and 1,200 of steel, and ro,ooo tons
of coal. Nearly 700 men are employed ; 13
water-wheels and four steam engines supply
the motive power.

Ax'el, or Absalon, Danish prelate, arch-
bishop of Lund: b. near Soroe, Zealand, 1 128;
d. 1201. His family name was Axel. In 11 57
he was chosen bishop of Roeskilde or Roths-
child. In that age warlike pursuits were not
deemed inconsistent with the clerical office, and
Absalon was a renowned warrior by sea and
land, as well as a zealous ecclesiastic, his
avowed principle being that "both swords, the
spiritual and the temporal, were intrusted to the
clerg>\** To his exertions as statesman and
soldier Waldemar was largely indebted for the
independence and consolidation of his kingdom.

Ax'elsen, a powerful Danish family who
flourished in the latter half of the 15th century,
and the members of which figured in the wars
of Christian I. and John IV. of Denmark, and
Karl Knutsen and Eric the Pomeranian, kings
of Sweden. Peter Axelsek was the head of
the family. Of his nine sons, the eldest, Olaf,
made himself master of Gothland; the second,
Iver, retained that possession, and became a
corsair; the third, Eric, was governor of Stock-
holm ; and the fourth Aage, became a Danish
councilor of state.

Axholme, an island in Lincolnshire. Eng-
land, formed by the rivers Trent, Don, Idle, and
Vicardyke. Epworth, the home of the Wesleys,
is the principal parish. Its area is 47,000 acres.
The soil is exceedingly fertile.

Ax'il, in botany, the angle between the
upper side of a leaf and the stem or branch
from which it grows. Buds usually grow out
from the stem in axils of leaves, and this posi-
tion is naturally termed axillary. In anatomical
terminology, the axilla is the armpit.

Axim, a-sheng', or axTm, an Important
station and port on the African Gold Coast,
near the mouth of the Ancobrah River. In-
land from Axim, in the basin of that river, and
in_ the district between it and the Prah, gold-
mining operations have been carried on on a
large scale. It was ceded to the English by the
Dutch in 1872.

Ax'inite (Greek, <*like an axe''), a mineral
usually occurring in broad, acute-edged triclinic
crystals, suggestive, in shape, of an axe. It
has a glassy lustre, brown or yellow in color,
and is translucent and strongly pleochroic. It
has a hardness of 6.5 to 7, and a specific gravity
of about 3.28. Its exact composition is still
doubtful, but it may be described as a calcium
and aluminum borosilicate, containing also vary-
ing amounts of manganese and iron. Its most

important occurrences are in Dauphine, France,
Mount Skopi, Switzerland, in Japan and at
Franklin Furnace, N. J.

Axin'oman'cy, a mode of divination much
practised by the ancient Greeks, particularly
with the view of discovering the perpetrators of
great crimes. An axe poised upon a stake was
supposed to move so as to indicate the
guilty person ; or the names of suspected
persons being pronounced, the motion of
the axe at a particular name was accepted
as a sign of guilt. Another method of
axinomancy was by watching the movements of
an agate placed upon a red-hot axe.

Ax'iom (an assumption), a universal prop-
osition, which the understanding must per-
ceive to be true as soon as it perceives the
meaning of the words, though it cannot be
proved. It is, therefore, called a self-evident
truth. In mathematics, axioms are those propo-
sitions which are assumed without proof, as be-
ing in themselves independent of proof, and
which are made the basis of all the subsequent
reasoning. Euclid has assumed 15 axioms as
the basis of geometry. Among these are : *^The
whole is greater than its part* ; "Things that
are equal to the same thing are equal to one
another'' ; "Magnitudes which coincide, that is,
which exactly fill the same space, are equal to
one another in every respect." Bacon calls
axiom a general principle, obtained by experi-
ment and observation, from which we may
safely proceed to reason in all other instances ;
and Newton gives the name of axiom to the laws
of motion, which, of course, are ascertained by
the investigation of nature ; he also terms axi-
oms those general experimental truths or facts
which form the groundwork of the science of
optics.

Ax'is (in crystallography). See Crystal.

Ax'is (Latin, of unknown origin), a white-
spotted deer (Axis axis) of India and the East
Indies, known locally among the Hindus as
"chitra," among the English as the "hog-deer.®
It resembles the European fallow deer in size
and color, and as it is easily domesticated, is a
favorite in European parks. The slender, sharp-
pointed horns are not palmated and only a little
branched, while the female is hornless. It is
timid and usually goes in small herds, in which
females largely predominate. It lives in thick
jungles near water, and usually feeds in the
night. Colored plates, illustrating its varieties,
are given in Lydekker's ^Deer of All Lands'
(1898).

Ax'minster, a market town in Devonshire,
England, 24 miles east of Exeter, on the side
of a hill that rises above the River Axe. The
only public building worthy of notice is the
parish church, a very ancient edifice, contain-
ing some interesting antique monuments. Ax-
minster was at one time celebrated for its woolen
cloth, and carpet manufactures, and gave name
to a special make of carpet having a thick, soft
pile. Brushes are now made here, and there
are flour and other mills. Pop. (1901) 4,100.

Axolotl, ax'o-lofl (Mex., "play in the
water"), a larval salamander regarded as
edible. They are numerous in the lakes about
the City of Mexico, are 6 to 10 inches long,
and are prepared by either roasting or boiling,
and eaten with vinegar or cayenne pepper. The

AXON — AYESHA

most extraordinary thing about them, however,
is the fact that they are the young of a species
of terrestrial salamander {Amblystoma tigri-
nuni), well known over all the warmer parts
of the United States and Mexico, which in these
lakes never transform into adults, but remain
permanently in the larval condition, yet become
sexually mature when about six months old, so
that they are able to breed. This astonishing
fact was long unknown. The axolotl has bushy,
external gills similar to those which perma-
nently characterize the mud-puppy. It was re-
garded as a distinct animal, and named Siredon
lichenoides. The disco\-ery of the truth was
made accidentally in Paris in 1865, when some
axolotls in an aquarium in the Jardin des
Plantes lost their gills and were transformed
into perfected amblystomas. A lady, studying
in the University of Freiburg, Frl. Marie von
Chauvin, then undertook a series of careful ex-
periments with other captives, and worked out
the complete history of metamorphosis, which is
dependent (at least in Europe) on a very narrow
set of favorable circumstances, but differs in no
essential degree from that of other salamanders
(q.v.). Why the change never takes place in
the Mexican lakes is unexplained. The theories
in regard to it, and the detailed history of the
observations above mentioned; are given by Ga-
dow in 'Amphibia and Reptiles^ (1901), with
many references to other books and periodicals.

Ax'on, that part of the nerve cell that
carries the nervous impulses, the axis cylinder
process, or the nerve fibre proper. See Nerve
Cell; Nerve Fibre.

Axum, ax-oom', a town in Abyssinia, once
the capital of a powerful kingdom, and at one
time the great depot of the ivory trade in the
Red Sea. The importance of this city and its
kings was first made known to us by a stone
(A.rumitic marble) with a Greek inscription,
first explained by Salt, w^ho discovered it, and
afterward by Buttmann and Niebuhr. The in-
terest in this inscription was increased by the
explanation which it afforded of the second half
of the Adulian marble. Axum. the place where
it was found, still exhibits many remains of
its former greatness. Among its ruins are shown
the royal throne, and groups of obelisks, origi-
nally 55 in number, one of which Salt declared
to be the most beautiful that he had seen. Pop.
5.000. See Bent, 'The Sacred City of the Ethi-
opians^ (1893).

Ayacucho, a'ya-koo'cho, the name of a de-
partment of Peru and also of its capital. The
department has an area of about 24,000 square
miles, and is traversed by both chains of the
Cordilleras and watered by numerous rivers. It
produces coffee, sugar, cotton, etc. The capital,
situated on the main road from Lima to Cuzco,
has a cathedral and a university. It w^as found-
ed by Pizarro in 1539, and long known as Hua-
manga. A battle took place here, one of the
most celebrated in the history of South Amer-
ica, having been decisive of the independence
of upper and lower Peru. See Ayacucho, Bat-
tle OF. Pop. of town 22,000.

Ayacucho, a'ya-koo'cho. The Battle of, a
decisive engagement in the South American
struggle for liberty; was fought on 9 Dec. 1824,
at and near the Peruvian town of that name.
On the one side was the Spanish viceroy of

Peru with nearly all that remained of the Span-
ish power in its last stronghold upon the con-
tinent ; on the other Gen. Sucre, second in com-
mand to Bolivar (the latter not being present),
with Colombian troops, and Peruvians led by
Gen. Lamar. The viceroy was taken prisoner;
the utter defeat of his army made possible the
independence of Bolivia (realized the following
year), and strengthened the republican govern-
ments in all the neighboring states.

Ayala, a-ya'la, Adelardo Lopez de, a
Spanish dramatist: b. Gaudalcanal, Badajoz,
jMarch 1820; d. 30 Dec. 1879. After studying
law in Seville, he went to Madrid, where he
devoted himself entirely to poetry and speedily
won national fame. His first drama, <A States-
man^ (1851), met with immediate success, and
was followed in the same year by 'The Two No-
blemen,^ and 'Penalty and Pardon.' To the
modern comedy of manners, his specific domain,
he first contributed 'The Glass Roof,' and in
1861 attained to wide reputation with 'Percent-
age.' Of his other works the most noteworthy
are 'The Modern Don Juan' (1863) ; and 'Con-
suelo' (1878), a drama.

Aya'la, Lopez de, Spanish historian and
poet : b. 1332 ; d. 1407. He was a prominent
statesman and warrior during the reigns of the
Castilian kings Pedro the Cruel, Henry II.,
John I., and Henry III., and is known as the
author of a 'Chronicle of the Kings of Castille'
(his contemporaries), in which the crimes of
Pedro the Cruel are detailed and drawn in colors
said to be sometimes overcharged.

Ayamonte, a'ya-mon'ta, a seaport town in
Spain, near the mouth of the Guadiana, which
here forms the boundary between Spain and
Portugal.

Aycock, Charles Brantley, American poli-
tician : b. Mahunta. now Fremont, Wayne Coun-
ty, N. C, I Nov. 1859. He was educated at
the University of North Carolina, studied law
and began the practice of his profession at
Goldsboro, N. C. in i88r. In 1893 he was ap-
pointed United States district attorney for the
eastern district, and in 1900 was elected gov-
ernor of North Carolina by a majority which
was the largest ever given to a gubernatorial
candidate in that State.

Aye-Aye, ai'ai' (native Malagasy name;
from its cry), a lemur (Danbentonia mada-
gascarensis), about the size of a rabbit, and
with teeth like a bat. It is small and brownish,
with a long bushy tail. Arborial and nocturnal
in habit, it lives in bamboo jungles feeding on
vegetables and the larv?e of certain borers. Its
feet, as well as its hands, have opposable
thumbs, and exceedingly long, naked, flexible-
fingers armed with pointed nails, suitable for
extracting grubs out of deep crevices.

Ayeen, ji-yen', or Akbery, a valuable sta-
tistical description of the ^logul empire as it
was in the reign of Akbar. It was compiled by
Abul Fazi. the vizier of the Emperor Akbar.
There is an English translation of it by Gladwin.

Ayesha, a-ye'sha, the daughter of .\bu-
Bekr, the favorite wife of Mohammed : b. 610 or
611 ; d. 677 or 678. After Mohammed's death
she opposed the succession of Ali, raised an
army against him. and was taken prisoner, but
dismissed with that spirit of chivalry which had
already arisen among the Arabians.

AYLESBURY —AYR

Aylesbury, alz'ber-i, a market town in
Buckinghamshire, England, 38 miles northwest
of London, in the centre of the fertile valley of
Aylesbury. There are many old houses, irregu-
larly but picturesquely built. The parish church
of St. i\Iarj' is a fine early English edifice, and
there are various other places of worship ; a
county-hall, market-house, clock tower, and corn
exchange. There are also baths, a large county
hospital, and the only convict prison for women
in England. The chief industries are printing,
making condensed milk, and poultry-raising for
the London market, Ajdesbury ducks being wide-
ly known, and there are several breweries and
flour-mills. Pop. (1901) 9,244.

Ayles'bury Duck. See Ducks.

Aylesford, alz'ferd, a town in Kent, Eng-
land, three miles from Maidstone. In its vi-
cinity is the remarkable monument called Kit's
Coty House, a kind of Druidical cromlech.

Ayllon, i-lyon, Lucas Vasquez de, Span-
ish adventurer: b. about 1475; d. 1526, who, in
1509, occupied the position of counsel at the
supreme court of St. Domingo, and was subse-
quently employed by Fernando Cortes, on a mis-
sion to Velasquez. In 1520, he joined an ex-
pedition to Florida, treacherously captured a
great number of natives, and proposed to found
a new colony, but was unsuccessful, and is sup-
posed to have lost his life while engaged in a
second expedition to Florida.

Aylmer, al'mer, John, English prelate:
b. Norfolk 1521 ; d. 1594. He was tutor to Lady
Jane Grey. On the accession of Mary, he was
forced to leave his country, but when Queen
Elizabeth came to the throne he returned to
England; and in 1576 was made bishop of Lon-
don.

Ayl'mer, Matthew, Canadian military offi-
cer : h. Melbourne, P. Q., 28 March 1842. He
entered the British army in 1864 ; retired from
the imperial service and entered the Canadian
volunteer militia in 1870; and became adjutant-
general of the Dominion militia, the highest
military office in Canada next to that of the
major-general commanding, in 1896.

Ayl'mer-Gowing, Emilia, English poet
and reciter : b. Bath, October 1846. She was
educated partly in Brighton, partly in Paris,
where she received the attention of Lamartine.
After a short career on the stage she success-
fully produced two dramas, *^A Life Race,^ and
^A Crown for Love.^ Her ^Ballads and
Poems, ^ and ^The Cithern^ have become popu-
lar, as well as two novels, ^The Jewel Reputa-
tion,^ and *An Unruly Spirit.^ In 1891 she
published ^Ballads of the Tower and Other
Poems. ^

Ayl'mer, Lake, (i) A Canadian lake, lying
80 miles north of Great Slave Lake on the mar-
gin of the forest area. (2) A Canadian lake in
Quebec, about 70 miles south of the city of
Quebec.

Ay'lofTe, a'lof, Sir Joseph, an English anti-
quary: b. about 1708; d. 1781. He was one of
the first council of the Society of Antiquaries,
a commissioner for the preservation of state
papers, and author and editor of several works,
of which the best known is his ^Calendars of
the Auntient Charters,' etc.

Aymaras, I'ma-raz', an Indian race of
Bolivia and Peru, speaking a language akin to
the Quichua. They are physically characterized
by great chest development, caused by the rare-
fied air of the region they inhabit.

Aymon, a'mon, the surname of four
brothers, called respectively Alard, Richard,
Guiscard. and Renaud, sons of Aymon or Hai-
mon, Count of Oordogne, who figure among the
most illustrious heroes of the chivalric poetry of
the Middle Ages ; but their historic existence
must be considered problematical. Their career
furnished rich material to the romantic narra-
tives of Italy in the 15th and i6th centuries. A
novel, entitled ^The Four Aymon Brothers,'
by Huon de Villeneuve, a French poet of the
age of Philip Augustus, details very minutely
their exploits, and Ariosto conferred a poetical
immortality on the family by the publication of
his '■ Roland,' in which Renaud, the bravest of
the four brothers, plays continually the most
distinguished part.

Ay'oubites, or Ayyubites, the Saracenic

dynasty founded by Saladin, which in Egypt sup-
planted the Fatimite caliphs, about 1171 a.d.
Several of the descendants of Saladin, known as
Ayoubites, afterward ruled in Egypt, Syria, Ar-
menia, and Arabia Felix. In the 13th century
their power was destroyed by the Mamelukes.

Ayr, ar, a town in Scotland, on the river
Ayr, and 34 miles south-southwest of Glasgow.
The principal streets of modern Ayr are spa-
cious and well paved, and many of the buildings
handsome. The most important edifices are sev-
eral churches of the various denominations ; the
town-hall and connected offices, in great part
completed in 1881, surmounted by a fine spire of
older date, 226 feet high ; the county build-
ings ; the academy, a celebrated educational in-
stitute, the buildings of which are handsome and
commodious; the Wallace tower, 115 feet high
on the site of a more ancient tower ; the free
library ; the railway station and hotel ; a hospi-
tal ; etc. There is a handsome esplanade along
the sea front 1,500 yards long. Two bridges
connect Ayr with Newton and Wallacetown,
incorporated in the burgh. One of these, opened
in 1879, occupies the place of the '<New Brig"
of Burns' < Brigs of Ayr,' the «Auld Brig"
(built 1252) being still serviceable for foot traf-
fic. There is now also a third bridge farther
up the river, besides the railway bridge. Ayr
exports manufactured goods, iron, coal, whet-
stones, etc. ; and imports iron-ore, grain, tim-
ber, slates, bricks, etc. The harbor lies within
the mouth of the river, and is enclosed and pro-
tected by a north and a south pier and a break-
water ; there being also a wet dock and a slip
dock. Shipbuilding is carried on, also tanning,
boot and shoe making, the manufacture of car-
pets, lace curtains, etc. The poet Burns, as is
well known, was born in a house which stands
within one and one half miles of the town, be-
tween it and the church of Alloway (^^Alloway's
auld haunted kirk"), and a monument has been
erected to his memory on a height between the
church and the bridge over the Doon. Pop.
(1901) 28,624.

Ayr, a river of Ayrshire, Scotland, which
after a course westward of 18 miles, finally
loses itself in the Frith of Clyde below the town
of Ayr.

AYKEK — AYUNTAMIENTO

Ayrer, i'rer, Jacob, German dramatist:
"b. Nuremberg about 1560; d. there, 26 March
1605. Between 1595 and 1605 he wrote more
than 100 plays, of which the *Opus Theatricum^
(Nuremberg 1618) contains 30 tragedies and
comedies, and 36 Shrovetide plays and vaude-
villes. In his dramas the influence of the Eng-
lish stage is apparent.

Ayres^ arz, Alfred. See Osmux, Thomas
Ermblev.

Ayres, Anne, American author: b. Eng-
land, 1816 ; d. February 1896. She was the
first member of an American sisterhood in
the Protestant Episcopal Church. She wrote
^Evangelical Sisterhood' (1867) ; and ^Life of
Augustus Aluhlenberg. ^

Ayres, Romeyn Beck, American soldier:
b. East Creek, N. Y., 20 Dec. 1825; d. New
York 4 Dec. 1888. He served in the Federal
army during the Civil War, and at its close was
brevetted brigadier-general and major-general
in the volunteer and regular service.

Ayr'shire, an extensive maritime county
of Scotland, about 60 miles in length, with a
breadth varying from 10 to 26 miles. Its coast
line is about 75 miles in length, has several ex-
cellent harbors. The singular rock off the coast,
known by the name of Ailsa Craig, belongs to
the count}', as also do one or two other islets.
The surface has no great elevations, the highest
summits varying from about 1,200 to 1,900 feet.
The principal streams are the Ayr, Stinchar,
Girvan, Doon, Irvine, and Garnock.

The mineral riches are very considerable.
Coal is abundant, especially in the middle and
northern parts of the count}', and there are over
100 collieries. Extensive seams also of black-
band ironstone exist, and are now being actively
worked, Ayrshire having become the great seat
of the iron manufactures of Scotland next to
Lanarkshire. Plumbago is found in some lo-
calities ; and lead, antimony, and copper are also
met with. Limestone and freestone abound.
Millstones, of coarse granite, much esteemed
for their hardness and durability, are quarried
near the north coast, in the district of Cunning-
ham.

The native sheep are bred in great num-
bers ; their wool is coarse and scanty, but the
flesh is excellent. The horses of Ayrshire are
of superior breed, being hardy, strong, and of
large size. The woolen manufactures are ex-
tensive, particularly carpets, bonnets, and wor-
sted shawls, which are produced in great quan-
tities. On the coast is the ancient castle of
Turnberry, in which Robert Bruce, king of
Scotland, is said to have been born, and where
he is known to have spent many of his youthful
years. It was here that a fire, accidentally kin-
dled, was mistaken by Bruce for an appointed
signal, and caused him to cross the sea from
the island of Arran opposite to attempt the de-
liverance of his country. Of the ecclesiastical
ruins the most interesting is the abbey of Cross-
ragruel, founded in 1244. The chief towns are
Ayr, Kilmarnock, Irvine, Troon, Saltcoats,
Largs, and Ardrossan. Pop. (1901) 254,436.

Ayrton, ar-ton, William Edward, Eng-
lish electrician and inventor : b. London 1847.
He entered the Indian telegraph service, having
studied electrical engineering with Prof. William
Thomson ; became electrical superintendent and
introduced throughout India the system of de-

terniining the position of a fault by electrically
testing one end of a line. In 1873-9 he was
professor of natural philosophy and telegraphy
at the Imperial College of Engineering in Japan ;
in 1879 became professor of applied physics in
London Technical College, and, in 1884, chief
professor of physics at the Central Institute,
South Kensington. He was elected president
of the Institute of Electrical Engineering in
1892. With Prof. Perry, he invented the am-
meter, voltmeter, electric power meter, ohmme-
ter, and dispersion-photometer; and, with Profs.
Jenkin and Perry, the system of telpherage. He
has been a voluminous writer and is widely
known for his < Practical Electricity.*

Aytoun, a'toon. Sir Robert, Scottish poet:
b. 1570; d. London, March 1630, and studied
at St. Andrews. He addressed an elegant
panegyric in Latin verse to King James on
his accession to the crown of England, which
had. no doubt, some influence in securing to the
author the favor of that monarch. He was at a
later period of his life honored with the ap-
pointment of secretary to Henrietta Maria, queen
of Charles I. During his residence abroad, as
well as at the court of England, he lived in
intimacy with, and secured the esteem of, the
most eminent persons of his time. The poems
of Sir Robert Aytoun, for the first time pub-
lished together in the Miscellany of the Banna-
tyne Club, are few in number, but are distin-
guished by their elegance of diction. Several
of his Latin poems are preserved in the work
called ^Deliti.-e Poetarum Scotorum' (1637).

Ay'toun, William Edmondstoune, Scot-
tish poet and prose writer : b. Edinburgh, 1813 ,
d. Blackhills, Elgin, 4 Aug. 1865. He studied
at the L^niversity of Edinburgh, and passed as
advocate in 1840. His first independent work
was the "^Life and Times of Richard I.' (1840).
In 1848 he published a collection of ballads en-
titled ^Lays of the Scottish Cavaliers,' which
has continued to be the most popular of all his
works, and has passed through numerous edi-
tions. It was followed in 1854 by 'Firmilian, a
Spasmodic Tragedy' : in 1856 by the poem of
^BothwelP ; and in subsequent years by the
novel called * Norman Sinclair,' and various
other original works. In 1858 he issued a criti-
cal and annotated edition of the 'Ballads of
Scotland.' The translation of the poems and
ballads of Goethe which he undertook in con-
junction with Theodore Martin was less success-
ful than some of his other works. In 1845
he was appointed professor of rhetoric and
English literature in the University of Edin-
burgh — a position which he held till his death.
In 1854 he became editor of "^ Blackwood's
Magazine.'

Ajmntamiento, a-yoon'ta-myan'to, the
name given in Spain to municipal councils.
Firmly established during the struggles with
the Moors, the ayuntamientos acquired great in-
fluence and political power, the nobility being
admitted to them without their class privileges.
The Cortes, in 1812, adopted the leading features
of the former system. On the return of Ferdi-
nand VII., the ayuntamientos were abolished,
but restored in 1837. The ayuntamientos were
empowered to make up the lists of electors and
jurors, to organize the national guards, to com-
mand the police within their ov/n bounds, to di-
rect the apportionment and raising of taxes, and

AZALEA — AZIMUTH

to manage the funds of the commune. The
municipal law of 1870 deprived them of all polit-
ical authority, and regulated them as adminis-
trative bodies, subject in certain respects to the
authorities of the provinces, the law courts, and
the Cortes.

Aza'lea, a genus of about 25 species of
shrubs of the natural order Ericaceae, natives of
the northern hemisphere, principally of eastern
Asia and North America. By some botanists
the genus is united with rhododendron (q.v.)j
as may be seen below. The species have decid-
' uous or ei^ergreen leaves and showy, often fra-
grant flowers, usually in terminal umbel-like
r-acemes. They are commonly divided into two
groups : the Indian azaleas and the hardy de-
ciduous azaleas, including the Ghent hybrid
forms. The Indian azaleas, mostly imported
from Holland and forced in greenhouses, are
propagated by grafts or cuttings, rarely by
seeds. They are planted in loose, moderately
fertile soil ; sheltered from the sun and wa-
tered freely during the summer; repotted in
early autumn ; and, by special attention, brought
into flower as desired from late autumn until
early summer. The leading species of the
group is A: indica (R. indicum), of which two
varieties, amana and koemoferi are fairly hardy
as far north as New Jersey. The members of
the hardy group need some protection in the
north and in exposed situations to prevent in-
jury to the flower-buds due to sudden varia-
tions of temperature. Named varieties are
usually propagated by grafts or by cuttings.
Seedlings are often grown for their own
merits, but are generally used for stocks
upon which to graft choicer varieties. The
following are among the best known species of
ithis group: A. vaseyi (R. vaseyi), an excellent
North Carolina species with spotted flowers
which appear in early May; A. niidiflora {R.
nudiUorum) pinxter-flower, found from Can-
ada to the Gulf of Mexico, has pink, white,
or sometimes purple flowers in mid-spring; A.
calendulacea (R. calendulaceum), found from
Pennsylvania to Georgia, has large orange- or
flame-colored, particularly handsome blossoms
in late spring; A. occidentalis (R. occidentale) ,
a California species, bears fragrant, white,
pinkish flowers in early summer ; A. arborcscens
(R. arborescens), found in the Alleghany
Mountains, has fragrant white or pink flowers
in June; A. viscosa (R. viscosum), clammy
azalea or white swamp honeysuckle, is found
in swamps from maritime Canada to Flonda
and westward to Arkansas, and bears fragrant
white or pink flowers in June or July. Among
the Asiatic members of this group the best
known are probably: A. mollis (R. mollc) ;
A. rhombica (R. rhombicum) ; and A. pontica
^ (R. ponticum). Consult: Halliday, ^Treatise on
the Propagation and Cultivation of Azalea In-
dica)''; Van Geert, <Iconographie des Azalees) ;
Bailey and Miller, (Cyclopedia of American
Horticulture.*

Azari'as, Brother CPatrick Francis Mul-
lany), b. 29 June 1847, near Killenaule, County
of Tipperary, Ireland; d. 20 Aug. 1893, Platts-
burgh, N. Y. (Cliff Haven). His father emigrated
to the United States in 1851, leaving Patrick,
his eldest son, in Ireland a few years on ac-
count of his health. Deerfield, N. Y., a place
near Utica, was the new home, where he at-

tended the public school and later the Christian
Brothers' academy in Utica. At the early age
of fourteen he decided to become a Brother,
and on June 29, 1862, Patrick Francis Mullany
received the black habit and white collar of a
Christian Brother, and henceforth became known
to the world as Brother Azarias. At the age of
seventeen he was put in charge of a large class ;
and at the age of nineteen he was professor of
mathematics in Rock Hill College, near Balti-
more, Md. Ten years later, he was made head of
the college. His first book, <An Essay Contrib-
uting to a Philosophy of Literature) (1874),
won him the respect of scholars. His philo-
sophical articles on literature, published in vari-
ous magazines, were well received, and he was
soon in demand as a lecturer before educational
bodies, Catholic and non-Catholic. When in the
Bo's he went to Europe, he found friends every-
where ; scholars who had read his books, men
like Cardinal Newman greeted him as a friend.
He was a promoter of the Catholic Summer
School of America, and of several other educa-
tional movements. After finishing his course of
lectures at the Catholic Summer School at Cliff
Haven, 1893, he was too ill to go home or to any
of the other meetings where he was expected.
His last days were spent in «Blue Point Hotel,)>
near the Summer School grounds. His published
works are : <Aristotle and the Christian
Church) ; <Books and Reading) ; (Culture of
Spiritual Sense) ; (Development of English Lit-
erature) ; (Development of Old English
Thought) ; (Essays Educational) ; (Essays Mis-
cellaneous) ; (Essays Philosophical) ; (Mary,
Queen of May) ; (Mary, Queen of May and
Essays) ; (Phases of Thought and Criticism) ;
(Philosophy of Literature) ; (Psychological As-
pects of Education.)

Azeglio, ad-za'lyo, Massimo Taparelli,
Marquis d', Italian author, artist, diploma-
tist, and statesman : b. Turin, 1801 ; d. 16 Jan.
1866. In 1816 he accompanied his father to
Rome, and there occupied his time principally
with painting and music. He was already fa-
vorably known as a painter, when, in 18^0,
he went to Milan, married the daughter of
Manzoni, the great novelist, and wrote sev-
eral romances. The earliest of these, (Et-
tore Fieramosca,) was received with great
enthusiasm. His next romance, (Niccolo de
Lapi,) became equally popular, and is esteemed
by Italian critics the best historical novel in
any language. _ Deeply imbued with the spirit
of Italian nationality, in 1842 Azeglio made a
tour through the provinces of Italy, awakening
the revolutionary spirit which troubled the last
years of Gregory XVI. After the revolution
of 1848 he supported the cause of the king of
Piedmont, and, at the head of the papal troops,
fought against the Austrians at Vicenza, where
he was wounded. In 1849 Victor Emmanuel
appointed him president of the cabinet of min-
isters, an office which he resigned in 1852 to
his political adversary. Count Cavour. In 1859,
after the peace of Villafranca, he undertook a
confidential mission as ambassador extraordinary
to England ; and was afterward appointed gov-
ernor of the city of Milan.

Az'imuth, in astronomy, the arc of the

horizon comprehended between the meridian of
the observer and the vertical circle passing
through the star. It is easterly if the s'.ar i&

AZOBENZENE — AZOV

observed before, westerly if after, and zero if
at the time of culmination. It is usual to con-
nect with the quadrant a graduated, horizontal
circle, called the azimuth circle,

Azio, Greece, a village on the gulf of
Arta, in the district and promontory of the same
name. A German archaeologist. Dr. Erlingcr,
succeeded, in 1857, after several years' investi-
gation, in ascertaining the position of the camps
of Antony and Augustus, precisely as it was on
the eve of the battle of Actium. He found the
camp of the latter surrounded by a cincture of
redoubts about sYi miles in extent, which were
constructed in stone, and protected by a ditch.
In advance of the camp were external works,
consisting of several small forts of observation,
one of them serving as a telegraph for commu-
nicating with the fleet. In the ruins of one of
these forts was discovered a tablet in steel, on
which signals are traced, resembling somewhat
those of the aerial telegraphs.

Azkar Tuarik, an African tribe of the
Tuariks, who inhabit the desert country between
Ghat on the north and the tracts of the Kelowi
Tuariks on the south, between lat. 21° and
26° N. They were first visited and made known
to the European world by the British central
African expedition of Barth, Overweg, and Rich-
ardson. The country in the north is a barren
plain, with scarcely any vegetation, and with
isob-ted granite peaks, and few or no animals.
The southern portion, bordering on the Kelowi
Tuariks, is the uninhabited central region of
the great desert. The inhabitants of Azkar, like
the rest of the Tuariks, belong to the Berber
and not to the negro race. Thej' are fanatical
Mohammedans in religion, hating both Pagan
and Christian. They are monogamists. They are
a warlike aristocracj^ divided into 5 tiyiisi, or
clans, and subdivided into 30 divisions or fayas,
each of which has a separate chief.

Azmari, the name applied to a set of va-
grant beggars in Ab3^ssinia, part of whom form
the music bands of the Abyssinian armj', while
the rest exercise their musical voices in the
street, especially on religious holidays.

Azo, or Azzo, or Azzolinus, Fortius, an
Italian law3'^er, d. in 1200. He professed juris-
prudence at Bologna with such eclat that the
college could not contain all his auditors, so
that he had to take to the public square.

Azoben'zene. See Benzene.

Az'o Colors. See Coal Tar Colors.

Azo'ic, the name given to the earliest geo-
logical period, before the appearance of life
on the earth. It includes the oldest rocks, mostly
granites, gneisses, and schists, in which there
are no traces of organic remains. The term is
practically synonymous with Archaean.

Azores, or Western Islands, a Portuguese
archipelago, in the mid-Atlantic, between lat.
36" 55' and 39° 55' N. and between Ion. 25° 10'
and 31° 16' W. Stretching over a distance of
400 miles, their nine islands are divided into
three distinct groups — Sta Maria and Sa5
Miguel in the southeast ; Terceira, Sao Jorge,
Pico, Graciosa, and Fayal in the middle ; and
Flores and Corvo in the northwest. Of these,
Flores lies 1,176 miles west of Cape Rocca in
Portugal, 1,484 miles southwest of Falmouth,
and 1,708 miles east-southeast of Halifax. In
1431-53 the Azores were taken possession of by
the Portuguese. They were at that time unin-

habited; but that they had been visited by the
Carthaginians is proved by Punic coin., round
on Corvo. They seem to have been known to
the Arabian geographer Edrisi in the 12th cen-
tury; and they are marked distinctly on a map
of 1351. The Portuguese colonists called th(
whole group Azores, from acor or acor, a hawk-
and they named two individual islands, Corvo
and Sao Jorge, from Corvi Marini and San
Zorze, which, according to a map of 1375, had
been previously seen in the western ocean. In
1466 Alfonso V. made a life grant of the island
of Fayal to his aunt, the duchess of Burgundy,
and from this circumstance many settlers mi-
grated thither from Flanders.

The total area of the group is 919 square
miles, and the population (1890) 255,594. The
area, population, and the maximum altitude of
the different islands are as follows: Sta Maria
(38 square miles; 5,880; 1,889 feet): Sao !\Ii-
guel (299 square miles; 107,000; 3,854 feet);
Terceira (164 square miles; 45,391; 3,435 feet) ;
Graciosa (24 .square miles; 8,718); Sao Jorge
(91 square miles; 18,000); Pico (173 square
miles; 27,904; 7,613 feet); Faj'al (69 .square
miles; 26,264) • Flores (54 square miles; 10,700;
3,087 feet); Corvo (7 square miles; 1,000).
The capital is Angra, in Terceira ; but Ponta
Delgada, in Sao Miguel, is a larger town. The
Azores are of volcanic origin, and with the
exception of Corvo, Flores, and Graciosa, are
still liable to eruptions and violent earthquakes,
the worst of 21 shocks since 1444 having been
those of 1591, 1638, 1719, and 1841. Hot min-
eral springs are numerous ; and the baths of
Furnas, in Sao Miguel, are much resorted to
by invalids. The coast 'is generally .steep and
rugged ; the interior abounds in ravines and
mountains. Perhaps the greatest want of the
group is a good harbor. The Azores are re-
garded as a province, not a colony, of Portu-
gal, and as belonging to Europe.

Az'ote, a name formerly given to nitro-
gen ; hence substances containing nitrogen and
forming a part of the structure of plants and
animals are known as azotized bodies. Such
are albumen, fibrine, casein, gelatine, urea,
kreatine, etc.

Az'otine, a substance procured by decom-
posing wool by the action of steam at 150° C.
under a pressure of five atmospheres ; the prod-
uct, afterward dried by evaporation, contains
nitrogen completely soluble in water. Azotine
is mixed with dried blood for a fertilizer.

Azov, a-zof, a town in the south of Rus-
sia, on the Don, seven miles from its mouth.
The sand and mud deposited by the river have
choked up the port, so that its trade and
shipping have dwindled away, and the inhabi-
tants depend mostly on fish-curing. Azov was
built nine miles from the site of the ancient
Greek colony of Tanais; and when, in the 13th
century, it was taken possession of by the Gen-
oese, they altered its name to Tana. They
were driven out of it by Timur (Tamerlane) in
1392. In 1471 it was taken by the Turks, and
in 1696 by Peter the Great ; and it was finally
ceded to Russia in 1774. Pop. (1897) 27,500.

Azov', Sea of (ancient Palus Mocotis), an
arm of the Black Sea, with which it is united
by the Straits of Kertch. Its length, southwest
to northeast, is about 168, its breadth about

AZPEITIA — AZTEC CONFEDERACY

80 miles ; greatest depth, near its north side,
not more than 8 fathoms. The western part,
called the Putrid Sea, bordering on the Crimea,
is separated from the main expanse bj' a long
sandy belt, called Arabat, along which a mili-
tary road has been formed. The sea teems
with fish. Of the islands it contains, Benesch,
the largest, has an area of 65 square miles.

Azpeitia, ath-pa'e-tya, a town in Spain,
18 miles southwest of San Sebastian. A mile
from it is the famous convent of Loyola, now
converted into a museum and built by the Ro-
man architect, Fontana, in 1683. It includes
the tower of the Santa Casa, in which St. Ig-
natius of Loyola, the founder of the Society of
Jesus, was born in 1491. Here every 3^ear in
July a great festival is held in his honor, to
which pilgrims flock from all quarters. Pop.
about 7,000.

Azrael, az'ra-el, in Mohammedan mythol-
ogy, the angel of death.

Az'rek, the principal stream of Abyssinia,
which, after a winding course through Abys-
sinia and Sennaar, falls into the Nile above
Gerri.

Az'tec Club, an organization formed to
preserve the memories of the war in Mexico,
established in Mexico in 1847.

Az'tec Confederacy. The name Aztecs
(properly Aztecas) is currently used for all
the Nahua (q.v.) tribes in Mexico at the time
of the Spanish conquest. It belongs at most
only to the seven more closely cognate tribes
which occupied the valley of Mexico, and is
by some restricted to the one tribe which built
Tenochtitlan, or Mexico City, and is so used
for convenience here. The name is from the
unidentified place (generally assumed as north-
ward) whence they came, Aztlan, variously
interpreted as "heron place,'^ "heron-clan place,"
"white place," and "seacoast" ; the best opinion
makes it Jalisco or Michoacan, on the west
coast of Mexico. Apparently some time from
the 9th to the nth century they invaded the
plateau of Anahuac ("waterside," lake district),
where tribes of the same stock were already
living, and took possession of several com-
manding points ; the chief pueblo being that of
the Aztecs or Toltecs at Tollan (now Tula),
some 40 miles north of Mexico City, a leading
pass from the north into the valley of Mexico.
Driven from this by the warfare of the other
natives the Aztecs moved south into the val-
ley, and established themselves in the salt
marshes where the outlet of lakes Chalco and
Xochimilico flows into Lake Tezcuco, amid
which in 1325 (the first absolutely sure date in
their history) they built Tenochtitlan, now the
city of Mexico. They converted it by dikes and
causeways into an island, and gradually made
it another Venice, a stone town intersected with
canals, the strongest position in Mexico. For
more than a century, however, they were trib-
utary to the great pueblo of Azcaputzalco, near
them on the western shore of the lake. Grad-
ually they formed a stable military organiza-
tion and more stable civil society; in 1375 they
elected their first "chief of men," wat; chiej and
priest in one — Acamapichtli, often styled in
books "the founder of the Mexican empire^' ;
and under the fourth chief, Izcoatzin, allied
themselves with Tezcuco on the eastern lake

shore. The two destroyed Azcaputzalco about
1430 and deported the surviving inhabitants to
Tlacopan, near Mexico, which was made trib-
utary to the latter. Tenochtitlan, Tezcuco, and
Tlacopan then formed a league (the Aztec
Confederacy, formerly termed the "Aztec em-
pire"), purely for plunder and tribute, not at
all for government or incorporation. The trib-
ute was not only of food and similar supplies, a
certain amount of land being cultivated for the
benefit of the confederacy, but what was still
more coveted, human victims for their gods,
to be afterward eaten by themselves ; some-
times of warriors for raids on others. The
spoil was divided into five parts, Tenochtitlan
and Tezcuco each taking two and Tlacopan one.
In its less than a century of life, this league
made some 30 pueblo towns tributary, prin-
cipally to the east toward the gulf and south-
east toward the Isthmus of Tehuantepec — a
range of 8,000 or 10,000 square miles out of
the 750,000 in the present Mexico. Even this
was in no sense a military occupation of the
country, much less the foundation of a state.
Within a few dozen miles were great inde-
pendent pueblos such as Cholula and Tlascala,
the latter a strong and warlike settlement of
some 30.000 people, who waged war to the
knife with the Aztec confederacy, defeated their
plundering assaults again and again, and aided
other pueblos in resistance. Montezuma (q.v.),
who acceded 1502, was heavily defeated by them
and b}' the towns in Michoacan, but won success
on the gulf coast ; and when the Spaniards came,
the southern Mexican peninsula was a mass of
seething savage hatreds and feuds, no two
tribes of the natives having any community of
feeling or interest that could prompt them to
unite with one another rather than with the
foreigner. See Cortes ; Mexico ; Montezuma.
The Aztec tribe was divided into 20 clans
or calpullis, each clan occupying several con-
tiguous communal houses, each of which held
several hundred persons : besides a clan office
building where assemblies were held and
strangers entertained. It was governed by an
elected council, with a civil and a military head
as in Rome, the latter being also constable.
Each clan had its special rites, priests, and tem-
ple. It was divided into four phratries, each
having among other duties that of exacting
compensation for murders, and each ward had
its own precinct, constituting four wards or
quarters of the town, its arsenal, and its cap-
tain. These captains were called "darthouse-
man," "man-slasher," "bloodshedder," and "chief
of the eagle and cactus," the latter being chief
executioner, and not eligible for the chieftain- '
ship of the tribe. The supreme government of
the Aztecs was by a council of 20, one from
each clan, who must not be a sachem, but a
member of the clan council ; he was called the
"speaker," and the tribal council the "speech-
place" (parliament, literally). It met every 10
days at least, and oftener if called together.
Once in 80 days there was a special session at-
tended by all the leading clan and phratry offi-
cials and priests, to reconsider unpopular de-
cisions. The tribe, too, had a dual executive,
civil and religious : a sachem who was civil
magistrate and chief judge; and a war chief
called "chief of men," and also some priestly
functions, though there was a high priest also.

AZTEC TREASURE-HOUSE — AZZUBEYDI

He was originally chief only of the xVzlecs ; but
about 1430 (probably on occasion of the de-
struction of Azcaputzalco), was made chief of
the confederate army. He was elected by the
tribal council and the clan war chiefs and
leading priests, and could be deposed bj' them.
His official residence was in the tribal office.
From the time of the first chief, Acamapichtli,
the office remained in a single family, like the
old Aryan kingship.

The social and religious organization was a
peculiar mixture of the lowest barbarism and
the beginnings of civilization. There was no
private property in land or dwellings; each
man could keep a garden plot for his use, but
it was his no longer than he used it. Family
life had emerged from savage promiscuity : de-
scent was reckoned in the male line, marital
infidelity was punished, and remaining unmar-
ried was not permitted except by special dis-
pensation, — contumacy being punished by be-
ing made an outcast, a serf if a man and a
prostitute if a woman. Slavery had thus begun
in a small way ; but the habitual use of pris-
oners of war as slaves had not, it being pref-
erable to sacrifice and eat them. Agriculture
was still primitive; but irrigation was practised
to some extent, and horticulture was beginning
to develop. The roads were only narrow trails ;
but they facilitated collection of tribute, and
served military and trading purposes as well.
The houses were generally of adobe brick, but
many of the great pueblos were of stone, so
that the towns looked like castellated cities.
There were tessellated marble floors, finely
worked and colored tapestries, and beautiful
feather-w'ork, vases, goblets, and censers of
fine marbles and precious metals exquisitely
wrought. There were regular weekly markets,
which, though trade was by barter, indicated
a large development of personal property and
of superfluity above subsistence. There were
elaborate pleasure-grounds, menageries, and
aviaries, baths and fountains, and pleasure per-
formances of dramas and singers, acrobats and
jugglers. Yet the people were cannibals, and
their religion was of the most hideous charac-
ter, albeit with regularly organized priesthood
and temples and altars. On one side the society
touched the South Sea Islands, on the other it
almost rose to ancient Egypt and was above
Homeric Greece.

Az'tec Treasure-House, The, a romance
by Thomas A. Janvier. It purports to be a
narration of the thrilling adventures of a cer-
tain Prof. Thomas Palgrave, Ph.D. ; an archse-
ologist who goes to Mexico to discover, if pos-
sible, remains of the early Aztec civilization.

Azuay, a-thoo-T', a province of Ecuador,
with an area of about 11,150 square miles. The
cinchona tree is found here in abundance.
Pop. (1890) 132,400.

Azulai, a'zoo-ll, Hayim David, i8th cen-
tury Jewish bibliographer: b. Jerusalem. His
life was mainly spent at Leghorn. Of his
numerous works, the best known is *Shem-ha-
Gedolim^ (the names of the great), a bibliogra-
phy containing the names of over 1,300 Jewish
authors and more than 2.200 of their works.

Azuni, ad-zoo'ne, Domenico Alberto, Ital-
ian jurist: b. Sassari, Sardinia, 1749; d.
23 Jan. 1827. He became judge of the tribunal

of commerce at Nice, and in 1795 published a
work in which he endeavored to reduce mari-
time laws to fixed principles, and which ap-
peared in French in 1805, under the title of
^Droit Maritime de I'Europe.' Napoleon ap-
pointed him one of the commissioners for com-
piling the new commercial code.

Az'ure, the heraldic term for the color blue,
represented in engraving by horizontal lines.

Az'urine, a European cockroach, blue iiv
color.

Azurite, one of the commonest ores of
copper, a basic copper carbonate, having the
formula 2CuC0,^.Cu(0H)2. Its hardness is 3.5
to 4 and specific gravity about 3.8. It is a min-
eral of rare beauty, its usual color being a rich
Prussian to azure blue, from which fact its name
is derived. Its color is, however, often so dark
as to appear nearly black, this frequently being
true of its crystallized forms. These are very
varied and complex, and belong to the mono-
clinic system. They are often transparent and
have a most brilliant vitreous to adamantine lus-
tre, and are beautifully striated, while their fre-
quent association with bright green malachite
adds much to the beauty of the specimens. These
two minerals sometimes occur in stalactitic
forms, the one encircling the other. Such speci-
mens have been extensively cut and polished in
cross sections and worked up for various orna-
mental purposes. The finest material of this kind
comes from Morenci, Arizona, this locality also
yielding exceptionally fine crystallized speci-
mens rivaling those from its other most cele-
brated localities, Bisbee, Ariz., and Chessy,
France. Its occurrence at the latter locality,
which has been famous for many years, has led
to the frequent use of the name "chessylite'' for
azurite, especially in Europe. Many other local-
ities yield choice specimens, the copper mines of
the western portion of the United States being
especially celebrated. In New Mexico curious
pseudomorphs of native copper after azurite
<<balls" occur in large numbers, while pseudo-
morphs of malachite after azurite are very
common.

Az'ymites (Lat. asymus, unleavened), a term
applied by the Eastern to the Western Church
because the latter used unleavened bread in the
administration of the Eucharist. In the Western
Church the point has never been regarded as of
vital importance. The matter was considered at
the Council of Florence (1439). The Western
Church, called the Greek schismatics Prozymites.

Azzarkal, az'ar-kal', Arabian mathemati-i
cian and astronomer : b. Cordova in the first'
half of the nth century. He was royal as-
tronomer of Al-Mamoun, king of Toledo. He
invented divers instruments for making obser-
vations, constructed a water-clock of extraor-
dinary dimensions, as well as a planisphere and
an astrolabe, upon new principles.

Azzubeydi, a'zoo-bl'de, Mohammed Ibn el
Hasan, Arabian lexicographer: b. Seville, 927;
d. 982. He was cadi of Seville and preceptor
of Hischeam, son and heir of the Sultan. He
wrote an abridgment of the great biography of
the Spanish grammarians, by Khalil ; a treatise
on grammar, and a work upon the character of
the syntax of the Arabic language.

Bthe second character in our alphabet,
holds the same relative place in the
alphabet of all European languages
except the Russian and two or three
others, as Servian and Bulgarian :
in these alphabets the symbol B holds
the third place, yet it stands not for our mute
B but for a labial (not denti-labial) V or W ;
while in the second place stands a modified
form of B with the same phonetic value as our
B. The Russian alphabet is derived from the
scheme of the monk Cyril, one of the first
evangelists of Bulgaria, who translated into the
language of the Sclavonians parts of the Bible.
To do this it was necessary to contrive new
characters for designation of sounds alien to
the Greek language, and to modify existing
Greek characters. But as in his time, — the 9th
century, — and at a much earlier date, the cur-
rent phonetic value of B was, as it still is,
labial V, Cyril retained the symbol B as repre-
senting that V sound, while for the mute labial

B he devised the symbol B • With this ex-
ception the character B has from immemorial
time held the second place in the alphabets of
all the Aryan languages of Europe, as well as
in Hebrew and Aramaic, Phcenician, Arabic,
and Coptic. The most ancient form of this
symbol, both in Greek and Latin, was i
with two angular loops, which were afterward
rounded. The most ancient form of the sym-
bol B among the Phoenicians was not unlike
the Arabic figure 9, namely, 3 . The Greeks
not only added a second loop but they reversed
the position of the loop by setting it on the
right of the upright stem; and they similarly
transposed the loop of the Phcenician sign T
which they made P (rho, our R). The differ-
ence between the two labials B and P is that
P is an absolute mute, in pronouncing which
the voice is completely obstructed before the
lips are drawn apart, while B is sonant, though
the lips be still compressed : in the effort to
pronounce B the voice is heard even before
the lips are parted ; but in pronouncing P no
sound is heard while the lips are compressed ;
and when they are opened there is emission of
breath but no voice. B and P substitute each
other in words common to two or more lan-
guages and in transmutations of words within
one language. Examples: Latin pila is Eng-
lish and German ball. Bretzel is commonly
pronounced pretzel ; but it is of the same origin
as the English word bracelet, from Latin
brachiale, an armlet, bracelet; and bretzel
means also handcuffs. B is nearlv allied also to
F, Th, V, and W; thus beech (German buche)

is represented in Greek by phegos and in Latin-
by fagus ; whale is from the same source as-
Greek phalaina and Latin balaena ; habere irt
Latin becomes in French avoir ; caballus, Latin,
is French cheval ; German liebe, English love ;
Latin labium, French levre. V and B are little
discriminated in Spanish and we have in one
of the epigrams of Martial proof that in his
day natives of Vasconia (Navarre) pronounced
B as V and vice versa when he wittingly scores
the bibulous habits of that people by saying
that for them not without reason vivere (to
live) is bibere (to drink) : so that one of that
nature might say vivimus ut bibamus, and the
meaning would be either, we live to drink or
we drink to live. In the Roman catacombs in
sepulchral inscriptions of the 2d and 3d cen-
turies of our era, vixit (lived), is in very many
instances written bixit ; and the name of a vir-
gin martyr of that age is written Bibiana, and
that form is retained in the Roman martyrology
instead of the correct form Viviana.

B. A. C, the abbreviation used by astron-
omers in referring to 'The Catalogue of Stars
of the British Association for the Advancement
of Science,' by Francis Baily, London, 1845.

Baader, ba'der, Benedict Franz, Xaver
von, German physician and philosopher: b.
^lunich, 1765 ; d. 1841. He studied engineering,,
became superintendent of mines, and was en-
nobled for his services. He was deeply inter-
ested in the religious speculations of Eckhart,
St. Martin, and Bohme, and in 1826 was appointed,
professor of philosophy and speculative theology
in the University of Alunich. The main pur-
pose of his life as revealed in his lectures, books^
and correspondence, seems to have been a re-
construction of society along ethical religious
lines, not entirely in harmony with conventional
ideas. To the allied princes he addressed a
memorial in 1814 upon the necessity of a closer
union between politics and religion.

Baal, ba'al, a Semitic word denoting lord
or ruler, and used to designate the Supreme
Deity, by the Phoenicians and Chaldfeans, and
most of the Oriental nations, in the time of
the Exodus. Baal seems to have been the sun-
deity and was the same as Bel or Belus of the
Babylonians and Assyrians, whose language was
cognate to the Syriac and Phoenician. Collat-
eral with these, may be placed the Osiris and
Isis of Egypt, and the Gad and Meni, so fre-
quently mentioned in the Scriptures, whom the
jews worshipped in the days of Jeremiah, hav-
ing incorporated them into their own cultus
from that of the Phoenicians or the Cartha-
ginians.

BAAL-ZEBUB — BABBAGE

The Scriptures give us an account of the fa-
cility with which the Jews embraced, and the
tenacity with which they retained, the worship of
Baal, who was identical with Moloch. Manas-
seh, the i6th king of Judah, set up altars to Baal
in groves and high places, prepared for the
purpose, and made his children pass through
the fire to that god. Israel also was no less
involved in this departure from the monotheism
of the Mosaic system, to the duo-theism of
Chaldasa. In Samaria, the capital of Israel, af-
ter the revolt of the lo tribes, Baal was ex-
tensively worshipped, until the time of Jehu,
who destroyed the altars of Baal, and tore
down the high places of his worship. When
the Jews were reproved by the prophet for their
idolatry, they insisted that ever since they had
left off sacrificing to the queen of heaven, they
had been consumed by sword and famine. As
early as the times of the Judges, the whole
Jewish people served Baal and Ashtoreth, and
the vocabulary of Palestine geography attests
the domestication of Baal-worship among the
inhabitants, in the frequency with which
the word Baal appears as a component part of
the names of towns and cities, as Baalath, Baal-
meon, Baal-peor, and Baal-tamar. Remnants
of Baal-worship have descended either through
the Jews or the Gentiles even to our own time,
and exist to-day in nearly all Christian coun-
tries. In Sir John Sinclair's statistical account
of Scotland, he describes a ceremony which
used to be celebrated in Scotland on i Maj-^
(O. S.), in which the inhabitants of a district,
having assembled in a field, dug out a square
trench in which they built a fire and baked a
cake, and cutting it into as many pieces as there
were persons, and blacking one piece over with
charcoal, threw them into some convenient re-
ceptacle, when each one, blindfolded, drew a
piece. He who drew the black piece was sac-
rificed to Baal, to propitiate his favor for the
coming year. The same ceremony was long
observed in some parts of Scotland and Ire-
land, except that the person who drew the black
piece was made to leap three times through the
flames, instead of being sacrificed, a similar
substitution to that instituted by Manasseh,
who *made his sons pass through the fire to
Moloch.^' This ceremony is known by the
name of Beltane, or Baal-tine.

Baal-zebub, ba-al'ze-bub. See Beelzebub.

Baalbek, bal'bek, a locality in Syria, in a
fertile valley at the foot of Antilibanus, 40
miles from Damascus, famous for its magnifi-
cent ruins. Of these, the chief is the temple
of the Sun, built either by Antoninus Pius or by
Septimius Severus ; a rectangular building 290
by 160 feet. Some of the blocks used in its
construction are 60 feet long by 12 thick; and
its 54 columns, of which 6 are still standing,
were 72 feet high and 2.2 in circumference. Near
it is a temple of Jupiter, of smaller size, though
still larger than the Parthenon at Athens, and
there are other structures of an elaborately or-
nate type. Originally a centre of the sun-
worship, it '"ecame a Roman colony under Julius
Caesar, was garrisoned by Augustus, and under
Trajan acquired renown as the seat of an oracle.
Under Constantine its temples became churches,
but after being sacked by the Arabs in 748, and
more completely pillaged hy Tamerlane in 1401,
it sank into hopeless decay. The work of de-

struction was completed by an earthquake in
1759. See Franberger, *Die Akropolis von
Baalbek^ (1892); Baedeker, * Syria and Pales-
tine^ (1894).

Baanites, ba-a-nlts. See Religious Sects.

Baar, bar, a plateau in Germany, in the
province of Baden and Wiirtemberg, formerly
constituting a county of the Furstenberg prin-
cipality. It contains the sources of the Danube.

Bab Ballads, The, a collection of humor-
ous verses by W. S. Gilbert (q.v.) published in
1868. They form the source of several of the
librettos of the Gilbert and Sullivan operas.

Bab-el-Mandeb, bab'el-man'deb (.A.rabic,
the gate of tears, so called from the danger
arising to small vessels from strong currents),
the name of the strait between Arabia and the
continent of Africa, by which the Red Sea is
connected with the Gulf of Aden and the In-
dian Ocean. The Arabian peninsula here
throws out a cape, bearing the same name as
the strait, rising to the height of 865 feet. About
20 miles distant stands the wall-like coast of
Africa, rising in Ras es Sean to the height
of over 400 feet. Within the strait, but nearer to
Arabia, lies the bare, rocky Island of Perim,
since 1857 occupied by the British as a fort ;
its guns commanded the entrance to the Red
Sea. The strait on the east side of this is-
land is called the Little Strait, and that on the
west the Great Strait.

Baba, ba'ba (the old), in Slavonic mythol-
ogy, a thunder-witch (the devil's grandmother),
represented as a little, ugly old woman, with a
monstrous nose, long teeth, and disheveled
hair, flying through the sky in an iron mortar.
By the Czechs she is called now the iron, now
the golden, Baba. It is also a Turkish word,
signifying father, originating, like our word papa,
in the first efforts of children to speak. In Per-
sia and Turkey it is prefixed as a title of honor
to the names of ecclesiastics of distinction, es-
pecially of such as devote themselves to an as-
cetic life ; it is often affixed in courtesy, also,
to the names of other persons, as Ali-Baba. A
cape near the northwest point of Asia Minor is
known as Baba.

Baba Budan, ba'ba boo'dan, a spur of the
West Ghats, Mysore, India, extending east for
15 miles, leaving a narrow opening at its west
end for the passage of the Bhadra, and then
south in an unbroken line for 20 miles, enclos-
ing between itself and the main chain of the
Ghats a rich, but unhealthy valley. To this
spur belong three peaks above 6,000 feet high,
among these Mulaina-giri, 6,317 feet, the highest
in the West Ghats. On the slopes of Kalhatti,
one of these peaks, is a hill station, a resort of
Europeans during the heat. Coffee v/as first
planted in India on another part of this spur
toward the close of the 17th centurj', by a Mo-
hammedan saint named Baba Budan.

Bab'bage, Charles, English mathematician
and inventor of a calculating machine : b.
near Teignmouth, England, 26 Dec. 1792; d. 18
Oct. 187 1. He was educated first at the Totnes
Grammar School, and Peterhouse College, Cam-
bridge, where he became closely associated with
Herschel (afterward Sir John) and Mr._ Pea-
cock, then tutor of Trinity College. Being in
possession of an independent fortune, Babbage
was in a position to devote all his time and

BABBITT — BABCOCK

energies to his favorite studies — mathematics
and mechanics. In 1822 we find him broaching
the idea of a difference engine, by which in-
tricate arithmetical calculations could be correct-
ly and rapidly performed. Through the recom-
mendation of the Royal Society he received, in
1823, a grant from the government of £1.500
for the construction of such a machine. After
a series of experiments lasting eight years, and
an expenditure of £17,000 (£4,000 of which was
sunk by the originator of the scheme, the bal-
ance voted by the government), Babbage aban-
doned the undertaking in favor of a much more
complicated work, an analytical engine, worked
with cards like the jacquard loom. The govern-
ment, alarmed at the probable demands, refused
to support Babbage in his new adventure, and as
a quarrel ensued with his engineer, who with-
drew his tools, the pet project was never com-
pleted. The machine, along with some 400 or 500
plans, was presented in 1843 to the King's Col-
lege Museum, London. Among the many treat-
ises he published on subjects connected with
mathematics and mechanics, the most valuable
and interesting are: *0n the Economy of Ma-
chinery and Manufactures' ; *The Decline of Sci-
ence^ ; and an autobiographic sketch, ^Passages
in the Life of a Philosopher.' In 1828 he was
appointed Lucasian professor of mathematics in
his university, an oflfice he held for 11 years. In
1832 and 1834 he stood for Finsbury in the Radi-
cal interest, but was unsuccessful. He was one
of the founders of the Royal Astronomical So-
ciety, and a Fellow of the Royal Society.

Bab'bitt, Isaac, American inventor: b.
Taunton, Mass., 26 July 1799; d. 26 May 1862.
He learned the goldsmith's trade ; early became
interested in the production of alloys ; and in
1824 manufactured the first britannia ware in
the United States. In 1839, he discovered the
well-known anti-friction metal which bears his
name, Babbitt metal (q.v.). For this discovery,
the Massachusetts Charitable Mechanics' Asso-
ciation awarded him a gold medal in 1841, and
subsequently Congress voted him $20,000.

Bab'bitt Metal, an alloy of copper, tin and
antimony, invented and patented in 1839, by
Isaac Babbitt (q.v.) of Boston. It is soft and
nearly white, and is widely used as an anti-fric-
tion metal. The proportions of the constituent
metals vary considerably in modern practice.
Babbitt's original alloy contained 24 parts of tin,
4 parts of copper, and 8 parts of antimony.
Many engineers prefer a larger proportion of
tin, and the following mixture is recommended
as giving a tough and very serviceable metal :
Tin, 96 parts ; copper, 4 parts ; antimony, 8
parts. Lead is also added, in many cases, on
account of its cheapness. In small amounts it
is not usually objectionable, but the Babbitt metal
that is sold in the market, ready-mixed, usually
contains a considerably larger proportion of lead
than its price would indicate. The alloy is
usually melted and run, while fluid, directly into
the bearings on which it is to be used, a space
from an eighth to half an inch thick being left
for it between the box and the shaft that is to
be supported.

Bab'cock, Earle Jay, American educator:
b. St. Charles, Minn., 11 June 1865. After
working extensively with the United States Geo-
logical Survey he was appointed in 1902 director
of the State School of Mines of North Dakota,

and professor of chemistry and geology' in the
State University. He is the author of many spe-
cial scientific articles and of geological reports.
Bab 'cock, James Francis, American chem-
ist : b. Boston, 23 Feb. 1844 ; d. Dorchester,
Mass., 20 July 1897. He studied at Lawrence
Scientific School, and became an analytical
chemist and chemical expert. He was State as-
sayer and inspector of liquors in Massachusetts,
1875-85, and city inspector of milk in Boston,
1885-89. While state assayer he brought about
the insertion in the liquor statutes of the defi-
nition of the term ^^intoxicating liquor,'' knowa
as the 3-per-cent limit. He is the inventor of
the fire extinguisher which bears his name; a
popular lecturer on scientific subjects; and has
appeared as an expert chemical witness in im-
portant trials. He has published several reports
on sanitation and the chemistry of food.

Bab'cock, Maltbie Davenport, American
Presbyterian clergyman : b. Syracuse, N. Y., 3.
Aug. 1858; d. Naples, Italy, 18 May 1901. He
was graduated from Syracuse University in 1879,
and Auburn Theological Seminary in 1883. He
filled most successful and popular pastorates at
Lockport, N. Y., Baltimore, Md., and at the
Brick Presbyterian Church in New York.
While on a visit to the Levant in 1901 he was
seized with the Mediterranean fever and died in
the International Hospital at Naples. A post-
humous volume of his prose and verse, edited
by his wife, appeared in 1901, entitled ^Thoughts
for Every-Day Living.'

Bab'cock, Orville E., American military
officer : b. Franklin, Vt., 25 Dec. 1835 ; d. 2
June 1884. He served with distinction in the
Civil War, was a member of Gen. Grant's staff,
and was made a brigadier-general of the regular
army at the close of the war. When Grant was
elected President, Babcock became his private
secretary, and the superintending engineer of sev-
eral important public works. He was indicted
in 1876 for taking part in revenue frauds, but on
his trial was acquitted.

Bab'cock, Stephen Moulton, American
educator : b. Bridgewater, N. Y., 22 Oct. 1843.
He was educated at Tufts College, Cornell
University, and at Gottingen, Germany ; and
was graduated from Tufts College in 1866.
He gave special attention to the chemistry
of milk and its products, and was the in-
ventor of the Babcock milk-tester. He was in-
structor of chemistry at Cornell University
in 1875-6; professor of agricultural chem-
istry at the University of Wisconsin : and chem-
ist to the New York State Experimental Station
in 1888-1900. He is the author of numerous ar-
ticles on the composition of milk and butter,
and joint author with G. C. Caldwell of *A
Manual of Qualitative Chemical Analysis.'

Bab'cock, Washington Irving, American
shipbuilder: b. Stonington, Ct., 21 Sept. 1858.
He was graduated at the Brooklyn Poly-
technic Institute in 1876, and at Rensselaer
Polytechnic Institute in 1878. He was em-
ployed at the Roach Shipyard, Chester, Pa., in
1878-85, and with the Providence and Stonington
Steamship Co., New York, in 1885-7 : was su-
perintendent of the Union Dry Dock Co., Buf-
falo. N. Y., in 1887-9 ; manager of the Chicago
Shipbuilding Co., in 1889-99, becoming presi'
dent of the latter in 1900.

BABEL — BABIRUSSA

Ba'bel, Tower of, the name of a structure
in the Plain of Shinar, Mesopotamia. According
to the nth chapter of Genesis, it was begun by
the descendants of Noah subsequent to the del-
uge, but not allowed to proceed to completion.
It has coimnonly been identified with the great
temple of Belus or Bel, one of the chief edifices
in Babylon, and the huge mound called Birs
Nimrud is generally regarded as its site, though
another mound, which to this day bears the
name of Babil, has been assigned by some as its
site. Babel means literally * gate of God." The
meaning "confusion** assigned to it in the Bible
really belongs to a word of similar form. See
' Babylon.

Babenberg, ba'ben-berg, a princely Fran-
conian family, whose castle occupied the site of
the later Bamberg Cathedral. They were most
prominent in the wars of the lOth century. The
Austrian dynasty of 976-1246 was formerly be-
lieved to be sprung from them.

Baber, ba'ber (or "The Tiger**), the his-
torical surname of Zehir-ed-din-Mohammed,
the conqueror of Hindustan and founder of the
so-called Mogul dynasty : b. 14 Feb. 1483 ; d. 26
Dec. 1530. Baber was of mixed Turkish and
Mongol origin, but in feeling, as in personal
characteristics, he was a Tartar (Turk), and of-
ten in his memoirs speaks most contemptuously
of Mongols or Moguls. Yet Hindu ignorance
has designated the throne which he established
in India as that of the Great Mogul. At the
age of 12, on his father's death, he ascended the
insecure thron-e of Ferghana in Turkestan ;
soon after he was attacked on all sides by his
uncles and other neighboring princes, which
obliged him, in his turn, to assume the aggressive.
Accordingly, at the age of 15. Baber seized on
Samarcand, the capital of Timour, but, while
thus engaged, a revolution at home deprived him
of his sovereignty. After many years of an
adventurous and romantic career, he raised an
army, entered Hindustan, and was met by Ibra-
him, the ruling Sultan of that country. The two
armies fought the battle of Paniput, which de-
cided the fate of India, on 21 April 1525. Baber,
with his army of 12,000 men, completely over-
threw that of Ibrahim, numbering 100,000, and
entered Delhi in triumph. Difficulties and fresh
foes had still to be encountered and mastered,
but in the battle of Sakri, in February 1527,
Baber utterly defeated the opposing Hindu
princes, and then proclaimed himself Padishah,
or emperor of Hindustan.

Babeuf, ba-bef, or Baboeuf, Frangois Noel,

French communist, who called himself Caius
Gracchus: b. Saint-Quentin, 1760; d. 28 May
1797. He founded in Paris a journal called the
* Tribune of the People * (1794), in which he ad-
vocated his system of communism, known as
Baboeuvism, and contemplating absolute equality
and commimity of property. His followers were
called Baboeuvists. Betrayed in a conspiracy
against the directory, aiming to put his theories
into practice he was guillotined in Paris. His
principal works were * Perpetual Rt'gister of the
Survey of Lands* (1780). and 'Ol the System
of Population (1794). See Adviell^, ^Histoire
de Babeuf et du Babouvisme* (1884).

Babi, ba'be, the name of a modern Persian
sect, derived from the title, Bal>ed-Din (gate of
the faith), assumed by its founder, Alirza Ali

Mohammed, a native of Shiraz, who, in 1843
undertook to establish a new religion from a
mixture of Mohammedan, Christian, Jewish, and
Parsee elements. His controversies with the
mollahs shortly led to his confinement to his
own house, where he formulated his doctrines,
privately instructed his disciples, and increased
his pretensions. The sect soon became numer-
ous ; but on the accession of Nasir-ed-Din in
1848, apprehending persecution, they took up
arms, proclaiming the advent of the Bab as uni-
versal sovereign. The insurgents were reduced
by famine, and most of them executed (i849r-
50). The Bab had held aloof from the revolt,
but was arrested and put to death, after a long
imprisonment, in 1850. His successor was rec-
ognized in the youthful son of the governor of
Teheran, who retired to Bagdad, where he af-
terward lived quietly. An attempt of three be-
lievers to assassinate the Shah, in 1852, led to a
persecution of the sect ; numbers were tortured
and burned, among them Gurred-ul-Ain. Bab-
ism is at present widely diff^used in Persia ; its
members live in apparent conformity to orthodox
Mohammedanism, but privately holding the Bab's
doctrines, which are contained in an Arabic
treatise, 'Biyan* (the exposition), written by the
founder himself. They form es.sentially a sys-
tem of Pantheism, with Gnostic and Buddhistic
additions. All beings are emanations from the
Deity, by whom they will ultimately be reab-
sorbed. Babism enjoins few prayers, and those
only on fixed occasions; encourages hospitality
and charity ; prohibits polygamy, concubinage,
and divorce ; discourages asceticism and men-
dicancy ; and directs women to discard the veil,
and share as equals in the intercourse of social
life. See Andreas, ^Die Babis in Persien*
(1896) ; Browne, *A Traveler's Narrative Writ-
ten to Illustrate the Episode of the Bab* (1892).

Bab'ington, Anthony, English Roman
Catholic gentleman : b. Dettrick, Derbyshire,
1561 ; d. 20 Sept. 1586. He associated with
others of his own persuasion to deliver Mary,
Queen of Scots, but the plot being discovered,
the conspirators were executed.

Bab'ington, Churchill, English philologist:
b. Leicestershire. 1821 ; d. 13 Jan. 1889. He was
educated at St. John's College, Cambridge, and
was Disney professor of archaeology there in
1865-80. He was a voluminous writer on orni-
thology, botany, archaeologj', numismatics, etc. ;
and a contributor to Smith's ^Dictionary of
Christian Antiquities.*

Bab'ingtonite, a native, anhydrous silicate
of calcium, iron and manganese, associated
with an iron silicate having the composition
Fe2(Si03)3. It is greenish-black in color, with a
vitreous lustre, and crystallizes in the triclinic
system. It occurs in Norway, Italy, and the
British Isles, and in the United States has been
found at Gouverneur. N. Y.. and perhaps also
at Athol, Mass. Its hardness varies from 5.5
to 6, and it has a specific gravity of about 3.36.
The mineral was named for Dr. William Bab-
ington.

Babirussa, bab'T-roo'sa, a wild hog of the
East Indies, remarkable for the long, exposed,
canine teeth of the male. The upper tusks, in-
stead of growing downward in the usual vvay,
turn and grow upward through the skin on each
side of the snout and curve backward until, in
old animals, they may be 8 or 10 inches long.

BABISM — BABYLONIA

and reach nearly to the eye. These hogs, which
inhabit Celebes and Bouru, are almost hairless,
long-legged, and active, and feed upon fallen
fruits instead of rooting in the ground. One
cannot see that the great tusks are of any pres-
ent use, but Wallace suggests that they were
useful to the ancestors of these pigs under dif-
ferent conditions, and were then kept worn
down by service.

Babism, bab'izm. See Babi.

Babe, ba'bo, Josef Marius von, German
poet: b. Ehrenbreitstein, 14 Jan. 1756; d. 5 Feb.
1822. He was professor of fine arts at Munich
in 1778, and of aesthetics at Mannheim, and later
became director in the Munich Military Acad-
emy, and superintendent of the theatre. He was
the author of *Otto of Wittelsbach,* a tragedy
(1781); 'Oda> (1782); <Dagobert, the Prankish
King' (1787) ; <The Pulse,' a comedy (1804),
etc.

Baboo, ba'boo, or Babu, a Hindu title of
respect equivalent to Sir or Mr. It is usually
given to wealthy and educated native gentlemen,
especially when of the mercantile class.

Baboon, bab-oon', a large, long-haired,
terrestrial monkey of Africa or Arabia, belonging
to the genus Cyiwcephalus, of the family Cerco-
pithecidce. All are of large size, have elongated,
blunt muzzles, with nostrils at the extreme end,
and great canine teeth which together give the
face, when seen in profile, a dog-like aspect.
The naked parts of the face, as well as the great
callosities upon the buttocks, are often brilliantly
colored. Some also have shaggy manes, and all
add to their repulsive appearance a fierceness of
disposition which makes them more feared than
perhaps is necessary, for they rarely, if ever,
have attacked human beings. All of the species
go about in troops under the guidance and pro-
tection of several old males. They are rare in
wooded regions, preferring rocky and bushy dis-
tricts, like those in northern Africa, in Arabia,
and in southeastern Africa. As their fore and
hind limbs are of nearly equal length, and very
stout, they go mostly on all fours, galloping
swiftly and climbing rocks with agility. Their
food is principally vegetable — fruits, berries,
young sprouts, etc ; but they also eat insects,
worms, snails, and such young birds or small
animals as they are able to catch. They do great
damage to the plantations of the native Afri-
cans, ruthlessly spoiling much more than they
are able to eat. The ancient Egyptians seem to
have trained them to pick fruits, but within re-
cent times their confinement in menageries,
where they live and breed well, is the extent
of their domestication. There is nothing attrac-
tive about any of them, either in appearance or
disposition.

Among the best known is the great Arabian
Of sacred baboon, or hamadryad {Cynoccphalus
hamadryas) , the one represented upon Egyptian
monuments, and venerated by the primiitive
Egyptians. It is supposed that their habits of
noisy activity at sunrise, as though adoring the
sun-god, is the basis of this very ancient form
of worship. Mummies of baboons are commonly
found in tombs in the Nile valley ; and the spe-
cies itself is still abundant from the Sudan to
southern Arabia. It is ashy gray in color, and
has a heavy mane. The great baboon of South
Africa, common in the wilder mountains of Cape

Colony, is the chacma (Cynocepliahis porca^
rius), which is dark-brown and has long hair
but no mane, and a tail about half the length
of the body, terminated by long, black tufts.
This is the one most commonly seen in menag-
eries. The mandril (Cynocepliahis mormon)
is still larger, exceeding a mastiff in size. It has
short legs, a mere stump of a tail, and an enor-
mous head, with a crest of greenish hair upon
the forehead, and a beard which is orange-
yellow ; while the naked parts of the face consist
mainly of a huge nose, light-blue in color, the
skin of which is folded into ridges. The naked
buttocks are bright scarlet. This ugly brute is
one of the most ferocious and justly dreaded
animals of the Congo forests. In the same re-
gion lives a second similar species called the
drill (Cynoceplialiis leiicophcciis), which differs
mainly in lacking the bright colors and ribs of
the nose of the mandril. Several other baboons
live in West Africa, but are not well known,
although one reddish-brown species, the Guinea
baboon (Cynocepliahis sphinx) is commonly
seen in the hands of showmen. A large monkey
of southern Abyssinia, looking like a black,
clipped Prench poodle, is substantially a true
baboon, although it belongs to another genus ; it
is the gelada (TJicropithecus gelada). Consult
^Cassell's Natural History,' Vol. I. (1885).

Ba'brius, a Greek fabulist whose fables in
verse are variously referred to the time imme-
diately preceding the Augustan age, and to the
3d century of our era ; his name also shows va-
riants, as Babrias, Gabrius. Till 1842 only a
few fragments of Babrius were known to be
extant ; but in that year, in the Laura of Mount
Athos was discovered a manuscript containing
123 of his fables. In 1846 Sir George Cornewall
Lewis published them together with the pre-
existing fragments, and in 1859 or i860 ap-
peared a good English version by James Davies.
The fables have also been edited by W. G. Ruth-
erford (1883) and by Crusius (1897).

Babuyanes, ba'boo-3^an'ez, or Madjicosi-
ma Islands, a number of islands lying about
30 miles north of Luzon, and generally consid-
ered the most northern of the Philippines. The
chief islands are Kamiguin, area 54 square miles ;
Babuyan Claro, 36 square miles ; Calayan, 37
square miles ; Puga, 21 square miles ; and Dalu-
piri, 20 square miles. They are subject to the
Loo-Choo Islands ; aggregate population about
12,000.

Bab'ylans or Babyllus, Saint, a bishop of
Antioch between 237 and 250. He declined to
admit to public worship the Emperor Philip, who
had murdered his brother Gordianus in order to
gain the throne. In the Roman calendar his
day is celebrated on 24 January; in the Greek
on 4 September.

Bab'ylon, See Babylonia.

Babylon, N. Y., village in Suffolk County,
Long Island, zy miles east of New York; popular
as a summer resort on account of its fine beach,
and as a rendezvous for sportsmen by reason of
its opportunities for fishing. Pop. (1900) 2,157.

Babylonia. Discoveries of the recent
decades seem to confirm the idea that Babylonia
is the cradle of civilization. The country, which
is nearly enclosed by the Tigris and Euphrates
from Bagdad to the Persian Gulf, is bounded on
the north by Mesopotamia ; on the east by the

BABOONS.

1. Bearded Ape (Cynocephalus silenus).

2. Chacma (Cynocephalus porcarius).

3. Tufted Baboon (Cynopithecus niger).

4. Hamadryad (.Cynocephalus hamadryas).

5. Gelada (Cynocephalus gelada).

6. Mandrill (.Cynocephalus mormon).

BABYLONIA

plain of Elam ; on the south by the Persian Gulf;
and on the west by the Arabian desert. It con-
stitutes the largest portion of the country now
known as **Iraq el Arabi.*' A considerable part
of this alluvial plain has been made through de-
posits by the river. This land-making process
continues at the present time at the rate of
about 70 feet per year.

At one time the plain was covered with a
perfect network of canals which carried agricul-
tural prosperity to every part of the land. The
neglect of these has changed the conditions of
the country so completely that instead of a
fertility which was once the wonder of the an-
cient world, a cheerless waste now presents it-
self. Some months of the year the country is
partially covered with swamps and marshes,
while the remaining portion is a desolate plain.

Here and there throughout the land are to
be seen mounds of debris, every one of which
covers the remains of a long-forgotten civiliza-
tion. About the middle of the last century a
number of English explorers, Loftus, Layard,
and Taylor, visited the ruins of some of the im-
portant cities. Through their tentative investi-
gations Nuffar (Nippur or Calneh), Warka
(Uruk or Erech), Senkera (Larsa), Muqayyar
(Ur), Abu Shahrain (Eridu), besides Babylon,
Borsippa, and other cities were located. A few
decades later Rassam, also an Englishman, dis-
covered that the ruins known as Abu-Habba rep-
resented the ancient Sippara ; and decided defi-
nitely also that Tell-Ibrahim was Kutha (Cutha).
The ancient names of most o-f these cities were
known through the Old Testament.

The first methodical and extensive excava-
tions in the country were begun by the French,
under De Sarzec, at Tello (Shir-pur-la), in
1876. These were followed in 1889 by those
of the Americans, representing the University
of Pennsylvania, under Peters, for about six
months, followed by Hilprecht and Haynes.
For a few months in 1894 Scheil, a Frenchman,
in the interest of the Turkish government, exca-
vated at the ruins of Abu-Habba (Sippara).
The Germans under Koldewey and Moritz devot-
ed several months to the exploration of two
sites known as El-Hibba and Surghul ; but in
1900 Koldewey began systematic excavations
among the mounds of ancient Babylon. It is
expected that the Germans at Babylon, the
French at Tello, and the Americans at Nuffar
will continue their operations for many years.

The excavations at Tello and Nuffar have
been exceptionally fruitful in important results,
especially those conducted at the latter place
by the University of Pennsylvania. At Tello
Vi'ere uncovered the remains of an ancient civi-
lization of the 3d and 4th millenniums B.C.,
representing the Sumerian people. The Nippur
excavations yielded antiquities of the Semitic
race as well as the Sumerian. At this city the
excavators were able to examine the remains
of the longest period of occupation known up
to the present time. The lowest stratum of
debris yielded antiquities which belong to the
7th m.illennium B.C., while the city continued to
be inhabited until about 1000 a.d.

The earliest inhabitants of the country, which
was known in the early period as Shumer (Bib-
lical Shinar), are called Sumerians. By the aid
of the statues and inscriptions discovered, the
physiognomy and customs of this people be-
come comparatively well known. The remains

\'ol. 2 II.

of their civilization as regards sculpture, en-
graving, etc., are of an exceptionally highly
developed character as revealed by the antiqui-
ties, some of v\?hich are remarkable for their
beauty and the fineness of their execution. They
show that the flower of art in this country be-
longs to about the 4th millennium B.C. Their
writing also, instead of being primitive, is so far
removed from the original hieroglyphs that in
many instances the pictorial outline can no
longer be recognized. These things demonstrate
the fact that back of that which is now known
as the earliest there must be a long period of
development covering many centuries.

The Sumerians spoke an agglutinative tongue
which belongs to that great unclassifiable group
of languages known as Turanian. Clay was
principally used as their writing material. The
impression made by the stylus upon the soft clay
has the appearance of a wedge, for which the
Latin word cuncus is used ; hence cuneiform
writing. The characters, having ideographic and
phonetic values, are made up from one to a doz-
en or more wedges. There are over 500 char-
acters, some of which have many values. For
the different characters and combinations of two
or more, about 20,000 values are already known.

It has not been ascertained whence the Su-
merians or Semites came. In 4500 B.C. the latter
had already entered the land. They gradually
conquered their predecessors, the Sumerian peo-
ple, and adopted their script for their own
language. Side by side these two people lived
in the country until the amalgamation known to
us as Babylonian was more or less complete ;
at least the Semitic population succeeded in su-
perseding the Sumerian, whose identity seems
to be practically lost in the later period. The
Sumerian language, however, continued to be
used by the Babylonians until the close of their
history, especially for official, legal and litur-
gical purposes.

The number of inscriptions, small and large,
discovered in Babylonia up to the present time,
number fully 150,000. At Tello, De Sarzec un-
earthed a library containing about 30,000 tablets
belonging to the time of Gudea 3000 B.C. The
temple library at Nippur, although only one
twelfth part excavated, has yielded to Prof.
Hilprecht over 20,000 tablets belonging to the
3d millennium B.C. It contained mathematical,
astronomical, medical, historical, linguistic, re-
ligious, etc., texts, arranged and classified ac-
cording to subjects. Besides the clay tablets,
cylinders, and prisms, most important documents
in stone have been found, which have furnished
the data upon which the knowledge of the early
period is largely based.

Through other sources, particularly the Baby-
lonian duplicates found in Ashurbanapal's li-
brary at Nineveh, considerable is known con-
cerning the literature of this people. Notably
might be mentioned the Creation and Nimrod
epics, the Deluge story, which greatly resemble
the Biblical accounts ; Ishtar's descent into
Hades ; the Etana legend ; Adapa and the South
Wind, etc. Here properly should be mentioned
also the codes of laws upon which the decisions
of the kings and judges were made, particularly
the code of Hammurabi (Amraphel, Gen. xiv.),
discovered by the French, in Susa, under De
Morgan. It consists of 282 laws written on a
stela which stands over seven feet high. This
had been carried away by the old national enemy

BABYLONIA

of Babylonia, the Elamites. Very extensive also
is the knowledge of the customs and manners
of the people gained through the thousands of
contract tablets dated in the reigns of kings
of all periods. Practically every kind of legal
and domestic contract imaginable, mortgages,
deeds of sale, promissory notes, guarantees, etc.,
the archives of business firms, notably the Egibi
House of Babylon, and the Murashu Sons of
Nippur have been found. Most valuable for the
decipherment of the inscriptions have been the
syllabaries, or sign lists, in which the different
values of characters are given. Commentaries ;
lists of gods, names, places, temples, animals,
stones, etc. ; incantations, hymns, penitential
psalms, prayers, etc., are included among the
tablets discovered.

The earliest inscriptions reveal a polytheism
in a developed state. Most of the gods have
Sumerian as well as Semitic names. Until the
religion of the Sumerians, or of the Semites,
prior to their occupation of this country is
known, it will be impossible to ascertiain with
which people the different gods and religious
conceptions originated. The pantheon, which
was practically different in every period of
Babylonian history, is exceedingly large. Some
of the gods mentioned most frequently in the
inscriptions are : Anu, Bel, and Ea, the impor-
tant triad of the early perioJ; Merodach, Sha-
mash. Sin, Ishtar, Nergal, Nebo, Nusku, Ninib,
Gula, etc.

Each city had its temple, which was dedi-
cated to some particular god : for example, Ekur,
at Nippur, was sacred to Bel ; Esaggil, in Baby-
lon, to Merodach. In addition to the patron
deity, shrines to other gods were found in each
sanctuary. At Nippur, besides Bel. 24 other
gods were worshipped, for whom shrines were
set up within the temple precincts. Through the
researches of Prof. Hilprecht in the trenches at
Nippur, and in connection with the inscriptions
discovered, the real conception of a Babylonian
temple and its tower is made known for the
first time. The temple had an inner and outer
court, both of which were nearly square, the
latter being somewhat smaller than the former.
The prominent feature of the temple architecture
was the ziggurrat, or storied-tower, which occu-
pied nearly one third of the area of the inner
court. In close proximity to the tower stood
the temple proper, where the sacrifices were
offered. The ziggurrat consisted of quadrangu-
lar platforms, one superimposed upon the other,
on the top of which was to be found the shrine.
The number of platforms varied according to the
period and ability of the builder. In the 3d
millennium B.C. the number generally appears to
have been three. The ziggurrat had its origin
in the earliest pre-Semitic period, when it was
regarded as the tomb of the god. At that time
it was the central feature of a fire necropole,
or cemetery. The Sumerians cremated their
dead. In an early stratum at Nippur one of
their crematoriums was found. The remains
of the incineration were placed in jars, thou-
sands of which were found buried around the
ziggurrat. It is not known what the Semites
did with their dead, but when they became the
dominant people of the land the conception of
the temple and ziggurrat seems to have been
changed, for thereafter no burials are found
within the courts of the temple.

In their cosmology the Semitic Babylonian
conception of the earth was a mountain over
which the god Bel ruled. This they believed
extended down into Ea's region (subterranean
waters), and also that it reached up unto that
of Anu (Heaven). They regarded the zig-
gurrat as symbolical of the earth, the dominion
of Bel. In their inscriptions, therefore, concern-
ing the building or restorations of these towers,
the following expression is repeatedly found :
H laid the foundations of the ziggurrat in the
breast of the earth and built it up that its head
was in the heavens * (compare the story of
Babel, Gen. xi.), thus showing that the ziggur-
rat was a representation of Bel's kingdom, the
earth.

In connection with the temple library at Nip-
pur a school or department of instruction was
found. Within its rooms were discovered text-
books, and exercises of the students. At Sip-
para a school similar in character was also
found. The complete excavation of all impor-
tant Babylonian cities will doubtless bring to
light a temple, a library, and a school in each.

Recent investigations show that in a general
way the Babylonian chronology coincides fairly
well with the Hebrew from about the time of
Abraham. A great many rulers prior to Ham-
murabi (Abraham's co-temporary, about 2200
B.C.) are known through their inscriptions. King
Nabonidus, the historian and archaeologist (556-
538) stated that Naram-Sin had founded the
temple of Shamash at Sippara 3,200 years before
his time. This in round numbers would make
his father, Sargon's date 3800 B.C. Sargon was
a powerful ruler ; having conquered all the city
kingdoms of his land, he extended his con-
quests as far as the Mediterranean. Many pre-
Sargonic rulers are also known, of whom notably
may be mentioned Lugalzaggisi, about 4500 B.C.,
who conquered the ancient world from the Per-
sian Gulf to the shores of the Mediterranean.
A number of important rulers of Tello also be-
longing to this period are known. Between Sar-
gon and Hammurabi several dynasties are more
or less completely filled out. Among the im-
portant rulers whose names are known should
be mentioned Gudea about 3000 B.C., who held
sway over the whole of Babylonia ; Ur-Gur
about 2700 B.C., who erected temples in Ur, Nip-
pur, Erech, and other cities; and also his
son Dungi, who extended his rule over parts of
Elam and Syria. Hammurabi about 2200 b.c.
inherited a throne which was subject to Larsa.
but this mighty sovereign overthrew its king and
also Elam's, and succeeded not only in uniting the
petty principalities under one rule, but he reor-
ganized them in such a way that the kingdom had
an uninterrupted history for several centuries.
Hammurabi was the sixth king of the first dy-
nasty of Babylon. This was followed by the
so-called second dynasty of Babylon ; the foreign
dynasty of Cassite rulers; 1580-1180 B.C., the
dynasty of Pashi 11 77-1043, and other rulers.
During the period which followed. Babylonia
was subject to Assyria until the powerful Neo-
Babylonian rule began with the Chaldsean Nabo-
polassar, 626-605, and his son Nebuchadrezzar
II. 605-562. These were succeeded by Evil-
Merodach, 562-560 ; Neriglissar, 560-556 ; Labo-
soarchod, 556; and Nabonidus, 555-538. With
the overthrow of the latter and his son Belshaz-
zar, the Achaemenian rule began, which contin-
ued until the time of Alexander the Great. This

BABYLON.

[/pper— Excavating the entrance of the Temple of B61, at Xippur, 4500 B C.
ix>wer— Mounds covering the Temple of Bel.

BABYLONIAN EXILE : BACACAY

great conqueror was followed bj' the Seleucid
and Arsacid kings. Under the Parthians all
that remained of Babylonian culture died out,
when the knowledge of the language and writ-
ing was entirely lost. Jews continued to live
on some of the mounds of Babylonia until about
looo A.D., when finally the country was given
up to the Bedouin and the Arab.

Bibliography. History. — Maspero: I. *The
Dawn of Civilization^ ; II. "^The Struggle of Na-
tions^ ; III. ^The Passing of the Empires.^ Rog-
ers. 'History of Babylonia and Assyria* (1900).

Explorations. — Hilprecht, 'Explorations in
Bible Lands During the 19th Century* (1903) ;
Kaulen, 'Assyrien und Babylonien nach den
Neuesten Entdeckungen* (1899).

Relation to Old Testament. — 'Die Keilin-
schriften und das Alte Testament* (1902);
Price, 'The Monuments and the Old Testament*
(1900).

Religion. — Zimmern, 'Die Keilinschriften
und das Alte Testament* ('1902) ; Sayce, 'His-
tory of the Babylonian and Egyptian Religion*
(1902).

Translations. — Schrader (editor), 'Keilin-
schriftliche Bibliothek,* 6 vols. (1902) ; Harper
(editor), 'Assvrian and Babvlonian Literature*
(1901). A. T. Clay,

Assistant Professor, Department of Archae-
ology, University of Pennsylvania.

Bab'ylo'nian Exile, or Captivity. It seems
to have been part of the statecraft of the ancient
Assyrians to remove the people of conquered
nations and plant them in unoccupied parts of the
dominion, as far distant as possible from the
home country of the victims. This custom grew
out of civil and geographical conditions. The
degree of national intercourse requisite for main-
taining a proper ascendency over the subjugated
nation could not be maintained if they were al-
lowed to remain in their own land. Conse-
quently, deportation was necessary — a process
which has come to be designated in our lan-
guage by the word captivity. Anciently, deport-
ed nations were not treated with that cruelty
we are in the habit of associating with the
captive. The captivity of the Jews, who are
more especially to be treated in this article,
demand the preceding remarks in order to aid
in a proper understanding of the frequent no-
tices we find in the Scriptures of the conse-
quence to which these people attained in their
foreign residences. There are two Babylonish
captivities of the Jews, having their beginnings
at different times, although their endings were
synchronous. In the civil dissensions following
the death of Saul, and culminating at the death
of Solomon, the tribes north of the mountains of
Ephraim, and those east of Jordan, separated
from the rest, leaving Judah and Benjamin in
the naturally fortified province of the south. To
the north of the revolted tribes lay the king-
dom of Syria, then powerful and extensive.
Syria had an old feud with Israel, ever since
David had made Damascus, the Syrian capital,
tributary to himself. Rezon had regained the city
under Solomon, but was "an adversary to Israel
all the days of Solomon.** The attention of
Syria was now turned to the defenseless condi-
tion of the revolted tribes. They had no longer
the fortifications and fastnesses from which
David had sallied forth to the northern plains
at the foot of the Anti-Lebanon. Judah had,

meanwhile, made a treaty, in the reign of Asa
her third king, with the Syrian power, who, by
his counsel and stratagem, had been induced to
break a former league with Israel (i Kings
XV.). Judah also, fearing inroads from the
north, had built two new fortifications in the
passes of Benjamin (Geba and Mizpeh), and
used all her arts to keep herself in favor with
Syria, and on the other hand turned her pam-
pered ally against the revolted and unprotected
tribes at the north. Israel, tired at length of the
continual exposures to Syrian invasion, and
exasperated at the immunity and prosperity
of the rival Judah, formed a conspiracy with
Syria (during the reign of Pekah in Israel and
Ahaz in Judah) against her southern antagonist.
In the emergency Judah appealed to the Assyrian
power, and Tiglath Pileser came against Israel,
carried captive a portion of its inhabitants, and
then marched upon Syria, slew its king, subdued
its capital, and absorbed it into the Assyrian
em.pire, from which it reappears only in the
time of Alexander the Great. The successor of
Pileser, exasperated by an attempted conspiracy
of Hoshea with the king of Egypt, took Sa-
maria, and subdued Israel to a tributary relation,
taking away to Babylon the people whom Pileser
had left in the first deportation. Thus was ac-
complished the first captivity of the numerically
most powerful branch of the divided house of
Israel (721 B.C.). They were first in the subju-
gation to foreign power from purely geographi-
cal considerations. A little more than a hun-
dred years after, Judah, from her mountain
fastnesses, followed Israel into the Assyrian em-
pire, in the second great Babylonish captivity.
Disregarding some chronological differences. Ju-
dah seems to have been progressively carried into
captivity, like Israel, by at least two, and per-
haps three successive deportations. The first
was 598 B.C., and was probably made with the
direct object of colonizing the city of Nineveh,
which the Assyrian monarch was then endeavor-
ing to restore. The second was in the reign of
Zedekiah. Judah had for three successive reigns
been heavily tributary to Assyria. Zedekiah
rebelled against the tribute, and, like Israel,
further exasperated her master by calling upon
Egypt in her extremity. In revenge, Nebuchad-
nezzar burnt the temple and city, put out the
eyes of Zedekiah, and led away the people to
Babylon, and so ended the Jewish kingdom (588
B.C.), never again to be restored to a national ex-
iste^.ce ; for when, 70 years after the second cap-
tivity, the permission to return was given, only
a very small part of the Jewish people were in a
condition to desire a removal, having become
thoroughly naturalized in their foreign dwell-
ings ; and even if they had desired it, it would
have been only a return to a Medo-Persian
satrapy, not to the glory of their ancient king-
dom and temple-worship. They remained by
the rivers of Babylon and wept. See Daniel;
EzEKiEL ; Ezra ; Jews.

The term "Babylonish Captivity** is frequent-
ly applied by writers of Church history to the
residence of the Popes at Avignon for nearly
70 years.

Bibliography. — Ewald, 'The History of Is-
rael,* translated by Martineau ; Piepenbring,
'History of the People of Israel.*

Bacacay, ba-ka'kl, Philippines, a town in
the province of Albay, Luzon Island. It is sit-
uated on the Gulf of Albay. Pop. 10,550.

BACALAO — BACCHUS

Bacalao, ba'ka-la'o. See Cod.

Bacara, ba-kar'ra, Philippines, a town of
Luzon in the province of Ilocos Norte. Pop.
13,735-

Baccanarists. See Jesuits.

Baccarat, ba-ka-ra', a town of France, in
the department of Meurthe-et-Moselle, having
the most important plate glass works in France.
Pop. (1900) 6,772.

Baccarat', a game of Italian origin played
with ordinary playing cards ; very simple in
details and freer from complications than most
games at cards. Any number of players may
participate, and as many packs of cards may be
used as necessary, the number being increased
to correspond with the number of players. The
member of the party selected to act as banker
deals out the cards from a box, after they have
been shuffled. The face cards each count 10,
and the others according to the numbers of
their spots. After the bets have been made,
the banker deals two cards to each of the
players, including himself, but the other play-
ers must receive their cards before the banker
is served. The aim of the players is to make
the numbers 9, 19, 29, or as nearly those as
possible, as 8, 18, and 28. Any player is at
liberty either to "stand" or to be "content* with
the two cards at first dealt, or to call for more,
at the risk of exceeding 29, when his stake is
forfeited to the dealer. If, after the first dis-
tribution of two cards to each, any player
has a " natural," — that is, a sum making 9, or
next in value, 19, — he declares it wins, and
the banker pays all who hold superior hands to
his own, and claims from those holding inferior
hands. The players stake their money separate-
ly, there being, in fact, as many separate games
in progress as there are players, and the spec-
tators may wager their money on any one of
them, all of which must be accepted by the
banker. Prior to the banker making a start,
he names the amount of the bank. Any one sit-
ting down at the table has the right to call the
whole of the bank, selecting the left or the right
on which to pick up the cards. Previous to the
banker dealing the cards, it is the duty of
two croupiers, one on the right and the other
on the left, to count up the stakes deposited on
either side, and then make up the bank. Thus
the banker knows, to the smallest coin, the
exact amount of his liabilities.

Bacchanalia, bak'ka-na'li-a, feasts in honor
of Bacchus, or Dionysos, characterized by licen-
tiousness and revelry, and celebrated in ancient
Athens. In the processions were bands of Bac-
chantes of both sexes, who wandered about
rioting and dancing. They were clothed in
fawn skins, crowned with ivy, and bore in their
hsnds thyrsi, that is, spears entwined with i\^,
or having a pine cone stuck on the point. These
feasts passed from the Greeks to the Romans,
who celebrated them with still greater dissolute-
ness till the Senate abolished them, 186 B.C.

Bacchante, bak-kan'te, a person taking
part in revels in honor of Bacchus.

Bacchiglione, bak'ke-lyo'ne, a river of
northern Italy. It rises in the Alps, passes
through the towns of Vicenza and Padua, and
enters the Adriatic near Chioggia, after a course
of about 90 miles.

Bacchus, bak'kus, or Dionysos, the god of

wine. His history is one of the most perplexing
in the Greek mythology. Semele was pregnant
with him by Zeus, but became a victim of the
craft of Hera. Zeus hastened to save the un-
born fruit of his embrace, and concealed it till
mature in his own thigh. He afterward com-
mitted the infant to Hermes, who carried him
to the nymphs of Nysa in India, where he grew
and prospered. His teacher was Silenus, after-
ward his constant companion.

In the vales of Nysa Bacchus invented the
preparation of a beverage from grapes, and
taught the planting of vines. To spread the
knowledge of his invention he traveled over
almost the whole known world, and received in
every quarter divine honors. Drawn by lions
he began his march, which resembled a triumphal
pomp, with a great suite of men and women,
Sileni, Satyrs, and Masnades. Inspired by the
presence of the god, rejoicing, brandishing the
thyrsus, and crowned with vines and ivy, they
danced around him, shouting, ^'^Evoe! Eleleus!^^
over hill and valley, accompanied by the tones
of Phrygian flutes and timbrels. The Thebans
would not acknowledge his divinity, and Pen-
theus armed himself against him. Bacchus re-
solved to punish the crime, and inspired the
women with a fury which drove them from their
dwellings to wander on Mount Cithseron. Pen-
theus himself was torn in pieces by his own
mother and her sisters, to whom he appeared
a wild beast. Bacchus punished the daughters of
Mynias, who derided his feasts, with frenzy and
transformation. At Naxos some Tuscan sail-
ors attempted to carry him off to Italy, sup-
posing him from his purple robe to be the son of
a king. They fettered him ; but the fetters fell
off, vines and ivy entwined the vessel, and kept
it fixed in the midst cf the sea : the god trans-
formed himself to a lion, and the seamen, seized
with madness, leaped into the waves, where they
were changed into dolphins. On the other hand,
he rewarded such as received him hospitably and
rendered him worship, as, for instance, Midas,
who restored to him the faithful Silenus.

His love was shared by several ; but Ariadne,
whom he found deserted upon Naxos, alone was
elevated to the dignity of a wife, and became
a sharer of his immortality. To confer the same
favor on his mother, Semele, he descended into
the realms of Pluto, and conducted her to Olym-
pus, where she was henceforth called Th3'one.
In the dreadful war with the giants he fought
heroically, and saved the gods from impending
ruin. During the rejoicing for victory Zeus
joyfully cried to him, ^^Evan, evoeP^ (Well
done, my son!), with which words Bacchus
was afterward usually saluted. We find him
represented with the round, soft, and graceful
form of a maiden rather than with that of a
young man. An ornament peculiar to him is the
tiara. His long waving hair is gathered behind
in a knot, and wreathed with sprigs of ivy and
vine leaves. He is usually naked ; sometimes
he has an ample mantle hung negligently round
his shoulders; sometimes a fawn skin hangs
across his breast. The earlier bearded Bacchus
is properly of Indian or Egyptian origin. His
head is sometimes shown with small horns (the
symbol of invincible force). In his hand is
borne a thyrsus, or a drinking cup. The bull,
panther, ass, and goat were symbolically asso-
ciated with this god.

BABYLON.

/>/'«r— Excavating around the Ziggurrat of the Temple of Bel to virgin soil, 6500 P.. C.

o^er— Excavations in the Temple area. Pavement of Ur-Gur. 2700 B. C. Pre-Sargonic strata in the for

Lower — Excavations in the Temple

ground

BACCHYLIDES — BACH

The feasts consecrated to Bacchus were
termed Bacchanalia, Dionysia, or in general Or-
^ia. They were celebrated with peculiar solem-
nity in Athens, where the j'ears were universally
reckoned by them, and during their continuance
the least violence toward a citizen was a capital
crime. The great Dionysia were celebrated in
spring. The most important part of the cele-
bration was a procession representing the tri-
umph of Bacchus. This was composed of a
train of Bacchantes of both sexes, who were
masked, clothed in fawn skins, crowned with
ivy, and bore in their hands drinking cups and
rods entwined with ivy (thyrsi). Amidst this
mad crowd marched in beautiful order the dele-
gated bodies of the /'/u-a/n'a (corporations of citi-
zens). They bore upon their heads consecrated
baskets, which contained first-fruits of every
kind, cakes of different shape, and various mys-
terious symbols. This procession was usually
in the night-time. The day was devoted to
spectacles and other recreations. At a very
early hour they went to the theatre of Bacchus,
where musical or dramatical performances were
exhibited. Thespis, known as the inventor of
tragedj^ is said to have introduced into the
Bacchic performance an actor who carried on
a dialogue with the coryphaeus (leader) regard-
ing the myths narrated of Bacchus or some other
divinity. The chorus surrounding its leader,
stood on the steps of the altar of Bacchus,
while the actor occupied a table. Some regard
this as the origin of the stage. The vintage
festivals in rural districts were celebrated by
Bacchic processions, ruder in form than those
of Athens, but characterized by the same wild
license and ribaldrj'. Coarse ridicule of individ-
uals was a marked feature of these occasions.

Bacchylides, bak-kil'i-dez, Greek poet who
flourished about 470 B.C. ; a native of Julis,
a town on the Island of Cos. He was a cousin
of the still more famous lyric poet Simonides,
with whom he remained for some time at the
court of Hiero in Sicily. He traveled also in the
Peloponnesus, and is said to have been a rival
of Pindar. Until recently, this poet was known
to the modern world only in fragments of beau-
tiful versification. In 1895, however, a well-pre-
served text was discovered and published, and
Bacchylides has now taken permanent place as a
master of Greek verse. An English translation
of the poems appeared in 1897.

Bacciocchi, ba-chok'ke, Felice Pasquale,

Corsican captain : b. Corsica, 18 May 1762 ;
d. Bologna, 27 April 18.41. In 1797 he married
Maria Elisa Bonaparte. In 1805, when Napo-
leon made his sister Princess of Lucca and Piom-
bino, Bacciocchi was crowned with his wife.
After the emperor's fall, he lived quietly and in
reduced circumstances at Bologna.

Bacciocchi, Maria Anna Elisa Bonaparte,

the eldest sister of Napoleon Bonaparte : b. Ajac-
cio, Corsica, 1777 : d. 7 Aug. 1820. She married
Felice Bacciocchi, and was created by her brother,
in 1805, Princess of Lucca, Piombino, Massa,
and Carrara, and in 1809 Grand Duchess of Tus-
cany She shared her brother's fall and spent
her ia=.t years in Austria, dying on her estate
near Trieste. Her only son died in 1833, and
her only daughter, the Countess Camerata, in
i86q.

Bach, ban, Alexander von. Austrian
statesman: b. Loosdorf, 4 Jan. 1813: d. 15 Nov.
1892. He was minister of justice in 1848, of the
interior in 1849-59; and, subsequently, am-
bassador to Rome. In 1855, he negotiated the
concordat with the papacy which brought Aus-
tria into submission to the Roman Church.

Bach, Heinrich, German musician : b. 16
Sept, 1615; d. 10 July 1691. He was the
father of Johann Christoph and Johann Michael
Bach ; organist at Arnstadt.

Bach, Johann Christian, German musi-
cian : b. Erfurt, 1640, d. 1682. He was a son
of Johannes Bach, the great uncle of Johann
Sebastian Bach.

Bach, Johann Christian, German musi-
cian: b. Leipsic, 1735; d. 1782. He was a son
of Johann Sebastian Bach, and was organist in
the Cathedral of Milan 1754-9, and in London,
I759~82, from which residences he was sur-
named "the Milanese" and "the English." He
composed operas, masses, Te Deums, etc.

Bach, Johann Christoph Friedrich, Ger-
man musician : b. Leipsic, 1732 ; d. 1795. He was
a son of Johann Sebastian Bach, and was for a
long period music master to Count Schaumburg
at Biickeburg.

Bach, Johann Michael, German com-
poser and instrument maker: b. 1648; d. 1694.
He was a son of Heinrich Bach and the father-
in-law of Johann Sebastian Bach.

Bach, Johann Sebastian, German musician
and composer: b. Eisenach, 21 Mar. 1685; d.
Leipsic, 28 July, 1750. Bach was the most pro-
found and original musical thinker the world
has ever seen. He is the master of masters;
from him most of the great composers have
drawn inspiration. When Mozart heard one of
his pieces at Leipsic, in 1788, he exclaimed :
"Thank Heaven ! here at last is something new
that I can learn from." "Not Bach (brook)
but ^Ocean^ should be his name." Beethoven ex-
claimed. Mendelssohn made enthusiastic efforts
to revive the interest in Bach. Schumann
helped to found the Bach Society and urged
students, if they would become thorough musi-
cians, to make Bach their daily bread. Chopin
confessed that before giving a concert he locked
himself up a fortnight with nothing but Bach
to play. Franz devoted a great part of his life
to adapting this master's works for use in
modern concert halls. Liszt and Rubinstein
adored and played him. Wagner, as he grew
older, played Bach miore and more; his vocal
compositions he pronounced the most perfect
ever written; and he said that the proper inter-
pretation of them was the noblest task for con-
temporary musicians. The only dissenting voice
in this chorus of praise was that of Berlioz ;
but, as Saint-Saens (one of the principal wor-
shipers), has pointed out, this was due solely
to the fact that Berlioz was not familiar with
the works of Bach. His pre-eminence is the
more remarkable when we remember that he
was born as early as 1685 ; but it seems perhaps
a trifle less astonishing when we bear in mind
that Johann Sebastian inherited the accumulated
musical gifts of a long line of ancestors.
"Throughout six generations." says Foikei.
"there were hardly two or three members of
this family who did not inherit a natural talent

BACH

for music, and make the cultivation of this art
the principal occupation of their life.** For
more than a century there were so many repre-
sentatives of this widely-scattered family that
in one place, at any rate (Erfurt), town musi-
cians came to be called *'Bachs," even when
that family did not happen to be represented
among them. After the culmination had been
reached, however, in Johann Sebastian, the
family-tree soon withered, although some of his
sons play a quite considerable role in musical
history.

At the age of lo, Johann Sebastian was left
an orphan, in care of his older brother, John
Christoph, who appears to have been jealous of
the boy's musical gifts. Christoph had got to-
gether a collection of the best German organ
music of the time, which Sebastian was very
eager to get at and study. Denied access to it,
he managed to smuggle it into the garret, where,
for six months, he busied himself making a
copy of it on moonlit nights. But the brother
at last discovered his secret and took away
from him both the copy and the original. This
is only one instance of many showing how
Sebastian was determined to educate himself
in face of all obstacles. Several times he went
on foot to Hamburg — a distance of twenty-five
miles — to hear the famous organist Reinken ;
subsequently he made a similar trip to hear the
illustrious organist Buxtehude at Liibeck. This
happened when he himself was already busy as
organist and choirmaster at Arnstadt. Previ-
ously to that he had, as a boy, helped to support
himself by joining a choir of boys who sang at
funerals and weddings, as well as in church and
in the street. He missed no chance to practice
on the violin^ the organ, and the piano — or,
rather, the harpsichord and clavichord, which
were the predecessors of the pianoforte. To
these tasks, and to his efforts at composition, he
often devoted whole nights. He got his first
salaried position (as violinist) in 1703 at Wei-
mar, but left this post after a few^ months for
that of organist at Arnstadt. It was thence
that he made the trip (a foot tour of over 200
miles) to Liibeck, already referred to, to
hear Buxtehude. He had obtained a four
weeks' leave of absence, but was so delighted
with his opportunities for improvement at Lu-
beck that he remained four months, until per-
emptorily called back. The church consistory
of Arnstadt took this occasion to reprimand
him, not only for prolonging his leave cf ab-
sence, but for neglecting rehearsals, going to a
wine cellar during the sermon, allowing a
strange rnaiden to make music in the choir, and
for "having made extraordinary variations in
the chorals, and intermixing many strange
sounds, so that thereby the congregation were
confounded." Yet, with all his faults, they loved
him still and allowed him to remain at his post,
till he left of his own accord, having secured a
position as organist at Miihlhausen. Here, too,
however, he did not remain long, as still better
opportunities presented themselves to him at
Weimar, where the Duke Wilhelm Ernst had his
court. This duke was deeply interested in the
religion of the German Protestant Church and
was glad to avail himself of the services of
Bach, who was destined to become the chief
representative of the music of that church, as
Palestrina was of the Catholic Church. Here

Bach remained nine years, during which time
he wrote many of his master works for organ
and church choir. In 1717 he accepted a posi-
tion in Kothen which involved a complete
change in his activity. Instead of havmg an
organ and a choir to occupy his time he had the
duty, as Kapellmeister, of writing and rehears-
ing works for the orchestra as a whole or for
groups of orchestral instruments (chamber
music). In 1720 he was a candidate for the post
of organist at the Jacobi Kirche in Hamburg;
but, although he was at this time already famous
as an organist, he failed to get the place, an
obscure j'oung man having secured it after pay-
ing $1,000 for the office. Three years later Bach
became the cantor of the Thomasschule at
Leipsic and director of the music in the two
principal churches ; this position he held twenty-
seven years, till his death, 28 July 1750, at the
age of 65.

Bach was twice married and became the
father of 20 children ; 5 sons and 5 daughters
died before him, while 6 sons and 4 daughters
survived him. His first wife was also a Bach
— a cousin ; she died in 1820, while he was on
a concert tour. Eighteen months after her
death he married a girl of 21 who was also
musical ; yet none of the 13 children by this
second marriage attained as high a rank as
some of the seven by the first wife. The sec-
ond wife helped him copy his MSS. (which he
was constantly revising) and in course of time
her handwriting came to resemble his so closely
that the two were hard to distinguish. In no
way did Bach differ more widely from his great
contemporary, Handel, than in his family life;
Handel died a bachelor. There were times
when Bach found it difficult to bear the mate-
rial burden of his large family, but he was not
so poor in his lifetime as is usually supposed.
His income from various sources was, it is true,
only about $500 at the best; but the purchas-
ing power of that sum was equal to $3,000 in
our day. It was after his death that the pinch
of poverty was felt ; his widow died in an alms-
house ; he himself was buried in a pauper's
grave. For more than a century no one knew
the exact place of this grave ; the circumstances
of its discovery read like a detective story.
Some years ago it became necessary to rebuild
the old Johannis Church in Leipsic, and, in
connection with this, to remove the bones from
that part of the adjoining cemetery in which
Bach was believed to have been buried. The
director of the archives, Wustmann, took this
opportunity to search for Bach's grave. He had
found in the books of the Johannis Hospital an
item stating that $4 had been paid for Johann
Sebastian Bach's oak coffin, which gave him
his principal clue, for oak coffins were seldom
used in those days. Near the place where Bach
was believed to have been buried he' found two
oak coffins, one containing the remains of a
j'oung woman, the other the bones of a man,
whose skull was so unique as to arouse the
suspicion at once that it was Bach's. It was
placed in the hands of the famous anatomist.
Prof. His, who, after a long series of compara-
tive investigations, came to the conclusion that
there could be no doubt whatever that the skull
was Bach's. He embodied his argument in a
brochure, "Forschungen iiber Bach's Grab-
stette und Gebeine." The fact that Bach's con-

BACH

temporaries thus took no note of his burial place
is disgraceful evidence that they never dreamed
he was destined to rank as the greatest of all
musical geniuses. Further evidence of this lies
in the circumstance that he really brought about
his death by his efforts to save some of his
unappreciated MSS. from destruction by en-
graving them on copper plates. This led to
serious trouble with his eyes ; two operations
by an English surgeon were followed by total
blindness, which made it impossible for him
to complete his great work^ "The Art of
Fugue". He dictated for its final number a
choral, "When we are overwhelmed by Woe,**
and died not long afterward.

The thematic catalogue of his works con-
tains 1,110 instrumental and 1,936 vocal num-
bers. All of them combined probably never
brought him in as much as the $1,175 paid at
a Berlin auction sale a few years ago for three
■of his MSS. Until 1829, when Mendelssohn,
after overcoming a good deal of opposition, suc-
ceeded in producing the wonderful 'Saint Mat-
thew's Passion* in Berlin, for the first time
since its composer's death, the great Leipsic
Cantor was looked on, in INIendelssohn's words,
as "a mere old-fashioned big-wig stuffed with
learning.** That work opened the eyes of the
musicians to their colossal stupidity, and from
that year to the present time Bach's fame has
been growing in a steady crescendo. In 185 1
a Bach Society was formed at Leipsic for the
printing of a monumental edition of Bach's
works by Breitkopf and Hartel. For nearly
half a century (up to 1896) a huge folio vol-
ume was issued every year, and after its com-
pletion the Bach Society began to make efforts
for multiplying performances of these works,
the majority of which constitute even now an
vmsurveyed Klondike. Bach himself does not
appear to have been chagrined by the neglect
of his works during his lifetime. "We find in
him,** writes Abdy Williams, "little of that de-
sire for applause, for recognition, which is usu-
ally one of the strongest motives in an artist.
He was content to labor as few men have la-
bored, in a remote corner of Germany, simply
for art and art alone.** To cite Bach's own
words: "The sole object of all music should
be the glory of God and pleasant recreation.**
At the same time, it is obvious that he would
have been gratified if he had won, as composer,
some of the honors which fell to him abund-
antly as player. Of the esteem in which he was
held as organist and clavichordist, two anecdotes
give the best illustration. In 1717. while on one
of his concert tours, he happened to be in Dres-
den at the same time as the famous French
organist and harpsichord player Marchand. The
Dresdeners thought this was a good chance for
an international contest, and Bach was induced
to offer the Frenchman a challenge. It was
accepted, and all the details had been arranged;
but when the hour arrived there was no Mar-
chand. He had taken " French leave " that
morning on the fast coach ! IMany years later,
in 1747, Bach accepted a repeatedly given in-
vitation to visit Frederick the Great at Pots-
■dam. The king was delighted to see him. With-
out allowing him to take off his traveling clothes,
he made him improvise on all his pianos and
organs in his palace, and again and again he
.exclaimed : "There is only one Bach !**

It has been said of Bach that music owes
almost as much to him as a religion does to its
founder. This is true especially of two branches
— the organ and choral music. Both as a writer
for the organ and a player he has had no equal.
The best account of this phase of his art is con-
tained in Pirro's <Bach, the Organist, and his
Works for the Organ;* the author's aim being
to make it easier to play Bach "in the Bach
spirit.'* He refers to the great composer as
"the man who suddenly surpassed all that had
been done before him while at the same time
anticipating all that was to be written in the
future.'* The organ works are contained in
vols. XV, XVII, XXXVIII, and XL of the
Breitkopf and Hartel edition. Some of them
are best known to music lovers through their
superb arrangements for pianoforte by Liszt,
Eusoni. and others. Quite as striking is Bach's
pre-eminence in choral music. The vocal works
make up more than 30 vols. ; among them
there are 4 of chamber music with voice, 9 of
passions, oratorios, and masses; and no fewer
than 17 of church cantatas. It is known that
he wrote 5 complete sets of these cantatas for
all the Sundays and holidays in the year; prob-
ably there were about 350 in all, but of those
only al^out 200 have been preserved. The great-
est choral works in existence are Bach's * Saint
Matthew Passion* and his Mass in B minor.
Schumann preferred the 'Saint John Passion*
even to the Saint Matthew. Three other pas-
sions written by Bach are lost. Concerning this
class of works Wagner exclaimed : "What opu-
lence, what fullness of art, what power,
clearness, and withal simple purity, speak to us
from these unrivaled masterworks !" They are
made up of arias, recitatives, chorals, and other
choruses, beside the instrumental accompani-
ment. The arias are sometimes embroidered
after the fashion of the time, but usually they
are simple, chaste, and delightfully melodious.
Indeed, Bach was so full of melody that it over-
flows into his recitatives, which are, at the same
time, often highly dramatic and emotional, fore-
shadowing Wagner's. If Bach had written
operas they would have been more dramatic
than Handel's; but the opera was (apart from
the Lied, or lyric art song, which had not yet
been created), the one form of music which
Bach avoided. As for the choruses in his
works, they are of incomparable grandeur, and
at the same time of great difficulty. All the
parts are melodious ; indeed there is in these
works little practical difference between the
chorus singers and the soloists. jNIany of the
choruses are stately chorals — the hymns in-
troduced into the Church by Luther and per-
fected by Bach. These were sung by the trained
choir, the harmonies being too elaborate for the
congregation. In his own churches Bach found
the means of execution lamentably inadequate.
The singers and students could barely master
the technique ; of the inner spirit they had no
conception.

Of Bach's orchestral scores, also, it may be
said that all the players are, in turn, soloists.
His harmony is "a manifold melody;** it forms
the bridge between the mediaeval polyphonic
and the modern harmonic styles. In his or-
chestral accompaniments, a favorite device is an
obligatfl part for some string or wind instru-
ment playing a duet with the solo voice. His

BACH — BACHE

•works for orchestral instruments alone com-
prise three overtures and six concertos. Among
his compositions for violin there are three suites
and three sonatas that are unique, inasmuch as
they have no pianoforte accompaniment but are
complete in themselves, the polyphonic or har-
monic accompaniment being played together
with the melody by the violinist; for the yio-
lincelio, also, there are six sonatas and suites
of this kind. While it is true that in all of his
works the organ style prevails more or less,
there is nevertheless a keen instinct (far ahead
of the time in which he lived) for what is idio-
matic, or peculiar to each instrument. This is
particularly true in regard to the pianoforte
compositions. In these, Bach is more modern
than Haydn, Mozart, or even Beethoven. While
writing for the imperfect clavichords and harp-
sichords of his time he had in his mind a pro-
phetic vision of the modern grand piano; on
that alone can justice be done to his superb
compositions of this class. His preludes and
fugues, his inventions, suites, toccatas, fantasias,
etc., are the fountain head of modern music.
Of special importance is the ^Well-tempered
Clavichord,' a collection of 48 preludes and
fugues, two in each key, arranged in the order
of chromatic ascent. Hans von Biilow called
this "the Old Testament in music.*' It is in-
dispensable to every student; but it is infinitely
more than a group of studies. "We find these
fugues,'' wrote Rubinstein, "of a religious, he-
roic, melancholy, grand, serious character; in
one respect only are they all alike — in their
beauty! And then the preludes, whose charm,
variety, perfection, and splendor are simply in-
comparable ! That the same composer who wrote
those organ compositions of overv-helming
grandeur could also write such delightfully hu-
morous gavottes, bourrees, gigues, such melari-
choly sarabandes, short piano pieces of such
charming simplicity, transcends belief. These
remarks refer to his instrumental works alone,
but if we add to them his gigantic vocal compo-
sitions, we are led to the conclusion that the
time will come when it will be said of Bach as
of Homer: *This was not written by one man
but by several.' " Rubinstein's reference to the
gavottes, etc., calls attention to the fact that
Bach was not above writing dance music; a
great deal of it, in fact. He also did much to
improve the technique of pianoforte playing, es-
pecially in the matter of fingering (use of
thumbs). He would have been the first to
adopt all modern improvements, and in playing
him, therefore, the pedal, for instance, should be
used as freely as in playing Chopin. And while
it was not customary in Bach's day to write
expression marks, it is idiotic to suppose that
he played his pieces without changes in loud-
ness and pace. Here students should follow the
guidance of Liszt and Biilow. The more Bach's
works are studied from this point of view, the
more does he seem a modern romanticist, and
his works music of the future, even more than
music of the past.

Bibliography. — Spitta's ^Bach,' in 2 vols.
(English by Bell & Maitland) is the most elabo-
rate and authoritative work. Of shorter books
the most serviceable is that by Abdy Williams,
which also contains a classified list of Bach's
works and a bibliography. Consult also Parry:
'The Evolution of the Art of Music;' Ap-
thorp: 'Musicians and Music Lovers;' and

vol. IV of the 'Oxford History of Music ;>
'The Age of Bach and Handel' by Fuller
]\Iaitland. Henry T. Finck,

Musical Critic ^Evening Post,* New York.

Bach, Karl Philipp Emanuel, Germaa
musician: b. Weimar, 14 March 1714; d- U Dec.
1788. He was the son of Johann Sebastian
Bach and was court musician in the service of
Frederick the Great in 1740-67. He wrote on
the theory of piano playing and was a volumi-
nous composer of piano music, oratories, etc.

Bacharach, ban'a-raH, a town of Germany,,
situated on the Rhine, 12 miles south of Coblenz.
The vicinity produces excellent wine, which was
once highly esteemed. The view from the ruins
of the castle is one of the sublimest on the Rhine.
Pop. (1900) 1,904.

Bache, bach, Alexander Dallas, Ameri-
can scientist : b. Philadelphia, Pa., 19 July 1806 ;
d. 17 Feb. 1867. He was graduated from the
United States Military Academy, at the head of
his class, in 1825 ; became professor of natural
philosophy and chemistry at the University of
Pennsylvania in 1828; was the organizer and
first president of Girard College, 1836, where he
established a magnetical and meteorological ob-
servatory, and was appointed superintendent of
the United States Coast Survey, in 1843. In
the last office he performed services of lasting
and invaluable character. He was regent of the
Smithsonian Institution in 1846-67; an active
member of the United States Sanitary Commis-
sion during the Civil War; and president of the:
National Academy of Sciences in 1863. Besides
a long series of notable annual reports of the
United States Coast Survey, he published a
report on 'Education in Europe' (1839), and
'Observations at the Magnetic and Meteorolog-
ical Observatory at the Girard College' (3 vols.
1840-47).

Bache, Benjamin Franklin, Aincrican
surgeon: b. 1801 ; d. 1881. He was great grand-
son of Benjamin Franklin. He established a
laboratory in New York which during the Civil
War was of great service to the Federal army.

Bache, Franklin, American chemist : b.
Philadelphia, 25 Oct. 1792; d. 19 March 1864.
He was appointed professor of chemistry at the
Philadelphia College of Pharmacy in 1831, and
at the Jefferson Medical College in 1841. He
published 'System of Chemistry for Students of
Medicine' (1819), and was one of the authors
of Wood & Bache's 'Dispensatory of the United
States' (1833).

Bache, George M., American naval offi-
cer: b. in the District of Columbia, 12 Nov.
1840; d. II Feb. 1896. He was graduated at the
United States Naval Academy, in i860, and com-
manded the ironclad Cincinnati in the various
engagements on the Mississippi River, until she
was sunk by the Vicksburg batteries, 27 May
1863. He was highly commended by Admiral
Porter, Gen. Sherman, and Secretary Welles
for his conduct in the last engagement. Subse-
quently, he took part in both attacks on Fort
Fisher, and, in the second one, 15 Jan. 1865,.
led the naval assault on the fort. He was re-
tired with the rank of commander, 5 April
1875.

Bache, Hartman, American military en-
gineer: b. Philadelphia, Pa., 3 Sept. 1798; d.
8 Oct. 1S72. He entered the United States.

BACHE — BACHIAN

Topographical Corps ; and for 47 years was con-
stantly employed on surveys and on works of
hydrographic and civil engineering. On 13
March 1865 was appointed brigadier-general,
and 7 March 1867 was retired. His most not-
able achievements were the building of the
Delaware breakwater and the application of iron-
screw piles for the foundation of lighthouses
upon sandy shoals and coral reefs. He retired
from active service, 1867.

Bache, Sarah, American philanthropist :
b. Philadelphia, Pa., 11 Sept. 1744; d. 5 Oct.
1808. She was the only daughter of Benjamni
Franklin, and the wife of Richard Bache. Dur-
ing the Revolutionary War she organized and
became chief of a band of patriotic ladies who
made clothing for the soldiers, and in other ways
relieved their sufferings, especially during the
severe winter of 1780.

Bache, Walter, English pianist : b. Birming-
ham, 19 June 1842 ; d. London, 26 March 1888.
In 1S58 he studied music in the Leipzig Conser-
vatorium under Hauptmann, Richter, Plaidy,
and Moscheles. In 1862 he went to Rome, and
from that time till 1865, when he returned to
London, studied with Liszt, of whose style and
compositions he became an ardent admirer and
advocate. Upon his return to London he insti-
tuted annual concerts, at which he put forward
Liszt's music, and lived long enough to see the
indifference of the public toward his master
change to open admiration. For several years
prior to his death Bache was professor of the
pianoforte at the Royal Academy of Music, and
it was mainly due to his efforts that the Liszt
scholarship was established in that institution.

Bachelder, Nahum Josiah, American
statesman ; b. Andover, N. H., 3 Sept. 1854.
Educated at Franklin Academj-, Taunton Hill
School, Andover; and became prominent
farmer. Was nominated by the Republicans and
elected governor of New Hampshire in 1902.

Bacheller, Addison Irving:, America nov-
elist : b. Pierpont, Saint Lawrence co., N. Y.,
26 Sept. 1859. He was graduated at the Saint
Lawrence University in 1882, from 1882-3 ^vas
a member of the staff of the Daily Hotel Re-
porter of New York city, and in 1884 became
a reporter for the Brooklyn Times. In the lat-
ter year he established the Bacheller Syndicate
for the purpose of supplying literary matter to
periodicals, and for 14 years was a director of
that syndicate. He was for a short time editor
of The Pocket Magazine, and subsequently
joined the editorial staff of the Nczv York
World, but remained in that capacity for a short
time only. His novels, the scenes of which are
laid in northern New York, include: ^The
Master of Silence^ (1890) ; 'The Still House of
O'Darrow' (1894) ; 'The Unbidden Guest;'
<Eben Holden' (1900): 'D'ri and P (1901);
'Darrel of the Blessed Isles' (1903); 'Candle-
light' (1903); 'Virgilius' (1904) ; etc.

Bach'elor, a term anciently applied to a
person in the first or probationary stage of
knighthood who had not yet raised his standard
in the field. A knight bachelor is one who has
been raised to the dignity of a knight without
being made a member of any of the orders of
chivalry such as the Garter or the Thistle. It
also denotes a person who has taken the first de-
gree in the liberal arts and sciences, or in

divinity, law, or medicine, at a college, or uni-
versity ; or a man of any age who has not been
married, the most usual meaning of the term.
Taken as a class in a community, bachelors have,
from the earliest times, been the subjects of
much and varied legislation. In nearly every
country, at some period in its history, penalties
have been imposed upon male celibates through
the legislative branch of the government, the
general basis for such legislation being the prin-
ciple that the citizen was under moral obligation
to the State to rear up a family of legitimate
children, at least should he be capable, morally,
physically, and financially. The old Jewish
command to "be fruitful and multiply" was
faithfully carried out by the Hebrews who re-
garded marriage as a duty.

In such nations as Sparta, where individunl
interests were always subservient to those of
the State, the laws were more severe, and crimi-
nal proceedings were instituted, under the laws
of Lycurgus, both against those who for any
unreasonable excuse failed to marry, and against
those who through marriage in late life made
probable children of unhealthy constitution. At
Athens, though formerly regarded as a crime
by the laws of Solon, celibacy was not severely
punished, and later, though the practice was dis-
couraged, interference with the inclinations of
individuals in this respect gradually became of
little practical value, and the laws finally fell
into disuse.

In Rome, the imposition of heavy penalties
upon male celibates was instituted at a very
early period, and later even women were sub-
jected to the same rigid laws. According to the
Lex Julia et Papia Poppcra, penalties were im-
posed on those who failed to marry after a
certain age, and an unmarried person could
not come into possession of a legacy un-
less he be married within a hundred days
after the testator's death. The provisions
of the law allowed widows a year in which
to comply, and divorced women six months
from the date of divorce, but these pe-
riods w^ere later changed and extended to two
years, a year and six months, respectively.
This law did not apply, however, to men above
60 years of age, and women above 50 years. In
cases of childless persons (males from 25 to 60
years of age, and females from 20 to 50 years)
who should become beneficiaries under a legacy,
one half of the value of such legacy was for-
feited. In later years, especially in England,
France, and the United States, taxes upon
bachelors have been imposed more for purposes
of State revenue than to compel marriage, but
though such legislation has been pushed in some
instances with great vigor, the success of the
movement in later years has not been marked.

Bach'elor, a local name in the Mississippi
valley for the small bass, more usually called
crappie (q.v.).

Bachelor's Button, the double yellow but-
tercup (Ranunculus acris). Similar forms, as
R. aconitifolius, are often called white bachelor's
buttons. The name is also given to Centaurea
cyanus (see Cornflower) and to Goniphrena
globosa.

Bachian, bach-yan', one of the Molucca.
Islands, immediately south of the equator, and
southwest of Gilolo ; area. 800 square miles. It
is ruled bv a native sultan under the Dutch.

BACHMAN — BACKUS

Bachman, bak'man, John, American cler-
gyman and naturalist: b. Dutchess County,
N. Y., 4 Feb. 1790; d. 25 Feb. 1874. He became
pastor of a Lutheran church in Charleston, S.
C, and published among other works, 'Charac-
teristics of Genera and Species as Applicable to
the Doctrine of the Unity of the Human Race*
(1854). He is best known by reason of his
association with Audubon in the making of the
* Quadrupeds of North America,^ he writing the
principal part of the text, which Audubon and
his sons illustrated.

Bachmut, bach-moot', a town of southern
Russia, in the government of Ekaterinoslav,
with a trade in cattle and tallow. It has coal
mines and salt wells, and soda is extensively
manufactured. The salt produced here is of a
very high grade of excellence. Pop. (1897)
19,400.

Bacil'lus. See Bacteria.

Back, Sir George, English explorer: b.
Stockport, 6 Nov. 1796; d. London, 23 June
1878. He entered the British navy in 1808, and
in 181 7 was in the expedition to Spitzbergen.
He accompanied Sir John Franklin to the Arctic
regions in 1819 and again in 1825, and in
1833 led a party in search of Sir John Ross,
then in the Arctic Ocean, and in 1836, in com-
mand of the Terror, made his last trip to the
north. The Geographical Society awarded him
a gold medal in 1837, and in 1839 he was knight-
ed. He became admiral in 1867. Among his
works are *A Narrative of the Arctic Land
Expedition^ (1836) ; a 'Narrative of the Expe-
dition in Her Majesty's Ship Terror' (1838).

Back Bay, a fashionable residential dis-
trict in Boston, made by filling in an enlarge-
ment of the Charles River, formerly called the
Back Bay. See Boston.

Back Land, name applied to the region
around the Arctic Circle, in British North Amer-
ica. It was explored by Capt. Back in 1831.

Back-Staff, an instrument invented by
Capt. Davies, about a.d. 1590, for taking the
altitude of the sun at sea. It consisted of two
concentric arcs and three vanes. The arc of the
longer radius was 30°, and that of the shorter
one 60° ; thus both together constituted 90°.
It is now obsolete, being superseded by the
sextant.

Back'bite, Sir Benjamin, an evil-minded,
sharp-tongued character in Sheridan's comedy,
'School for Scandal.'

Back'gam'mon is a game in which two op-
posing players move symbolic men into or out
of each other's territory on a board, according
as they are respectively entitled to do so by the
throw of a dice. Without question a game of
that nature was played among the Aztecs of
Mexico centuries before the landing of Cortez,
and it is probable that it was brought from Asia
to the Pacific coast by the original immigrants.
Francisco Lopez de Gomara described it in
1552, and Joan de Torquemada in 1616 gave ad-
ditional details of the game, mentioning that
the httle stones of each contestant varied in
color. The Iroquois Indians had a dice game
of a somewhat similar sort.

Modern backgammon is played by two play-
ers who have between them a board, each side
of which has alternate black and white angular

marks projecting like rays from the rim. Each
player has 15 flat tablets (similar to those with
which drafts is played) called men. One play-
er's men are black, the others are white. Each
player has a dice box for his own use but the
two dice are used alternately by them both.
Each dice has a number on each face numbered
from one spot to six. Each player throws the
dice in turn on to the centre of the board : and
moves two men, one man according to the dis-
tance indicated by one of the dice and the other
according to the number on the second dice.
So the game proceeds in the usual manner, the
players throwing and moving their men alter-
nately into and out of each other's territory,
until one player has carried all the men from
the opposite home (or inner table) into the
outer table : and thence into his own outer table
and finally into his own home or inner table.
The simplest text-book on the subject is that of
A. Howard Cady.

Backhuysen, bak'hoi-zen, or Bakhuysen,
Ludolf, celebrated painter of the Dutch
school, particularly in sea pieces : b. Emden 18
Dec. 1631 ; d. 1709. His most famous picture
is a sea piece which the burgomasters of Amster-
dam commissioned him to paint as a present to
Louis XVI., and which is still at Paris.

Backstrom, bek'strem, Per Johan Edvard,

Swedish dramatist and lyric poet : b. Stock-
holm, 27 Oct. 1841 ; d. 13 Feb. 1886. His prin-
cipal work is 'Dagvard Frey' (1876), a tragedy;
besides this, the dramas 'A Crown' (1869) ;
'Eva's Sisters' (1869), and 'The Prisoner of
Kallo' (1870), met with success. His lyrics
were published in three collections (i860, 1870,
1876).

Back'us, Azil, first president of Hamilton
College, Clinton, N. Y. : b. Norwich, Conn., 13
Oct. 1765 ; d. 9 Dec. 1817. After graduating at
Yale in 1787, he served the Church at Bethlehem,
Conn., until he became president of Hamilton
College in 1812.

Back'us, Isaac, Baptist clergyman and au-
thor : b. Norwich, Conn., 9 Jan. 1724; d. 20
Nov. 1806. He was ordained 13 April 1748 and
became pastor of a Congregational church in
Middleborough, Mass. Some of his congrega-
tion sympathizing with the Baptists he united
with them and formed a Baptist church in
1756. Throughout his life he was a persistent
advocate of the widest religious freedom, hold-
ing open communion for many years. For 34
years he was a trustee of the present Brown
University, then Rhode Island College. As a
delegate to the convention that adopted the
Federal constitution, he voted in its favor. Of
his numerous writings the most important is
'A History of New England with Special Refer-
ence to the Baptists' (3 vols. 1777-96; new ed.
by D. Weston, 2 vols. 1871), a partisan but
valuable work. His 'History of Middleborough*
is in Massachusetts Historical Society Collec-
tions (Vol. III., 1st Series, 1794; repr. 1810).

Backus, Truman Jay, American educator:
b. Milan, N. Y., 11 Feb. 1842; was grad-
uated at the University of Rochester in 1864;
was professor of English literature at Vas-
sar College, 1867-83 ; then became president of
the Packer Collegiate Institute in Brooklyn,
N. Y. After going to Brooklyn, he served op

BACON

several state commissions. His publications in-
clude ^ Great English Writers,^ * Outlines of
English Literature,' and a revised edition of
Shaw's * History of English Literature.''

Ba'con, Alice Mitchell, American educa-
tor: b. New Haven, Conn., 26 Feb. 1858; was
•educated privately and took the Harvard ex-
aminations in 1881 ; taught at the Hampton
Normal and Agricultural Institute in 1B83-8,
and in Tokio, Japan, in 1888-9; returned to the
Hampton Institute in 1889, and founded the
Dixie Hospital for training colored nurses in
1890. In 1900 she again began teaching in
Tokio. She published ^Japanese Girls and
Women,^ ^Japanese Interior,' etc.

Bacon, Augustus Octavius, American
legislator : b. Bryan Count)', Ga., 20 Oct. 183Q.
He was graduated from the University of
Georgia in 1859, from the law department of the
university in i860; entered the army of the
Confederate States at the beginning of the Civil
War, and was adjutant of the 9th Georgia regi-
ment in the Army of Northern Virginia, and
later promoted captain and assigned to general
staff duty; and in 1866 began the practice of
law at Macon, Ga. In 1880 he was president
of the State Democratic convention, and in 1884
a delegate from the State at large to the na-
tional Democratic convention. He was a mem-
ber of the Georgia house of representatives in
1871-82, 1892, and 1893, and for the greater
part of the time its speaker. Elected to the
United States Senate in November 1894, he
was re-elected in 1900.

Ba'con, Benjamin Wisner, American edu-
cator : b. Litchfield. Conn., 15 Jan. i860; stud-
ied in Germany and Switzerland; and was grad-
uated at Yale College in 1881 ; held several
Congregational pastorates ; and in 1896 became
professor of New Testament criticism and exe-
gesis in Yale University. Author of "^Genesis
of Genesis' ; ^Triple Tradition of the Exodus' ;
^Introduction to the New Testament' ; ^The
Sermon on the Mount' (1902) ; ^The Story of
Saint Paul' (1904) ; etc.

Ba'con, Delia Salter, American author :
h. Tallmadge, O., 2 Feb. 1811 ; d. 2 Sept. 1859.
She was eminent in her day as a teacher, and
■wrote several stories, but is now remembered
only as an eloquent advocate of the theory that
the plays of Shakespeare were written by Lord
Bacon. She herself did not originate the idea,
but was the first to give it any currency, in
her < Philosophy of the Plays of Shakespeare
Unfolded' (1857). The book had the honor of
a preface from the pen of Nathaniel Hawthorne,
and the theory has been accepted by a few
persons in both England and the United States,
who have wasted not a. little ingenious reasoning
in its advocacy.

Ba'con, Edwin Munroe, American author :
h. Providence. R. I., 20 Oct. 1844- He re-
ceived an academical education ; was on the
staff of several Boston papers; and wrote
<King's Handbook of Boston' ; ^Boston Illus-
trated' ; < Historic Pilgrimages in New Eng-
land' ; ^Literary Pilgrimages in New England' ;
^Boston of To-day'; ^Bacon's Dictionary of
Boston' ; <Walks and Rides in the Country

Round About Boston'; <Walks on the Norfh
Shore'; *^Iassachusetts Bay' (1903); etc.

Bacon, Francis, English statesman, philoso-
pher, and essayist: b. London, 22 Jan. 1561 ;
d. Highgate, London, 9 April, 1626. Bacon was
commonly called Lord Bacon in accordance with
long literary tradition, though his exact titles
in the peerage were Baron Verulam and Vis-
count Saint Alban. He was the youngest of
eight children of Sir Nicholas Bacon, the Lord
Keeper, six of whom were by a former mar-
riage. His mother was Ann, daughter of Sir
Anthony Cooke, and her sister married Sir
William Cecil (Lord Burghley). The family
thus stood in a position of exceptional influence
at the court of Elizabeth, but Bacon profited
little by the fact in his official career. He
entered Trinity College, Cambridge, in 1573 and
was admitted to Gray's Inn in 1575. In 1576
he went to France as a member of the embassy
of Sir Amias Paulet, and remained there until
the death of his father in 1579. It then became
necessary for him to return to England and
take up his legal studies with a view to pro-
fessional practice. In 1582 he was admitted
utter barrister. Already before this time he had
entertained hopes of a political career and had
made unsuccessful appeals to Lord Burghley
for support ; and in 1584, being elected to Par-
liament from Melcombe Regis, he began a long
and conspicuous service in the House of Com-
mons. He produced at once a political docu-
ment, entitled *A Letter of Advice to Queen
Elizabeth,' in which the religious situation, and
particularly the Catholic question, was discussed
with wisdom and moderation. In 1589 he w-rote
a second paper, 'An Advertisement Concerning
the Controversies of the Church of England,'
reiterating his policy of moderation with more
especial reference to Puritanism. Bacon's nat-
ural instinct, in both religious and political
controversies, was conciliatory, and he e.xerted
himself in favor of moderate measures through-
out Elizabeth's reign and after the accession of
James. He manifested also, at the beginning of
his career, some power of acting with disinter-
ested independence, — a capacity which was less
evidently displayed in his later life. In 1593
he led the opposition of the Commons to the
proposal of the Lords for a joint settlement of
a question involving subsidies and thus falling
within the prerogatives of the Lower House.
In his prolonged resistance to the subsidy legis-
lation he earned the disfavor of both Burghley
and the Crown. His opposition, which was ap-
parently conscientious, may have been the cause
of his failure to obtain the vacant attorney-
generalship in 1594 and the solicitor-generalship
in 1595. though in the former instance his claim
was urged by Essex and in the latter by both
Essex and Burghley. The attorney-generalship
was given to Sir Edward Coke, who was repeat-
edly a rival and enemy of Bacon's in later years.
Bacon's association with Essex, which con-
stituted one of the most important of his per-
sonal relations, began in 1591. He attached
himself to the rising young nobleman in the
hope of obtaining political advancement. But
it is not necessary to deny him all sentiment of
personal attachment or all real belief in the
availability of Essex for the public service. He
received from Essex earnest patronage, as has
been already shown, and when recommendations

BACON

failed, Essex gave his follower a valuable estate
by way of consolation. In 1597 Essex tried to
arrange a marriage between Bacon and Lady
Hatton, but Coke again proved a successful
rival. Bacon, on his side, undertook to advise
Essex and to manage his career at court. In
1598 he appears to have urged him (though he
afterward denied it) to attempt the suppression
of Tyrone's Irish rebellion, — an undertaking
which led to the dismissal of Essex from office
in disgrace. Bacon's conduct in the investiga-
tion is hard to trace, but he may perhaps be
granted to have acted in the interests of Essex,
though he was formally one of his prosecutors.
Later, however, in 1601, when Essex rebelled
openly against the throne, Bacon helped to
secure his conviction, and after his execution
prepared the official declaration of his treasons.
For this active, and apparently unnecessary,
participation in the prosecution of his friend
Bacon has probably received more blame than
for any other act of his life. It may be urged
in extenuation that Essex was actually a dan-
gerous person to the state, and that Bacon
steadily warned him that he would not prefer
the claims of friendship to the public good. It
is true, too, that Bacon's position was difficult
as between such a reckles , friend and the jealous
and imperious queen whose favor he desired
both for his friend's interest and his own. Yet
in the last analysis there is little defence to be
made for Bacon's willingness to profit by the
ruin of Essex.

After the accession of James I. Bacon con-
tinued his active service in Parliament. He
published papers on the religious situation and
on the union of the English and Scottish
crowns, and he served on a commission to ar-
range the terms of the union. In 1603 he was
knighted, and in 1604 given a pension of I60.
In 1605 he offered to King James the
very important treatise; on the ^Advancement of
Learning,^ which will be more particularly dis-
cussed below among Bacon's writings. In 1606
he married Alice Barnham, a London alder-
man's daughter, who brought him a substantial
dowry. He had no children. Little is known of
his domestic life except that it ended unpleas-
antly. In his last will he revoked "for just and
grave causes'^ such provisions as he had made
earlier for his wife's benefit. In June, 1607,
Bacon's long-deferred advancement came and
he was made solicitor-general. At this period
the unfortunate estrangement between the King
and the Commons was steadily progressing, and
Bacon, who clearly saw the danger that attended
upon this breach of sympathy, took an earnest
part in the struggle. Quite apart from his per-
sonal aims, he seems to have been genuinely
distrustful of the governmental capacity of the
Commons and consequently to have espoused
the cause of the monarchy, becoming, as he
described himself, a "peremptory royalist.* His
policy was doomed to failure; but it is only just
to recognize that it had elements of moderation
and statesmanship, contemplating to be sure the
royal prerogative, yet aiming at religious tolera-
tion, the amelioration of the lot of the humbler
-lasses, and a friendly relation with parliament.
After the death of Salisbury in 1612 he under-
took to manage the King's interests, and in the
parliament of 1614 he continued his efforts to

reconcile the crown and the people by the policy
to which in his 'Commentary^ he gives the name
"e Gemino." But his attempt was unsuccessful;
the parliament was dissolved, and the King and
the people took different courses. From this
time forth Bacon seems on the whole to have
relinquished his higher political aims and to
have given himself over to the struggle for per-
sonal advancement. In politics, as in friendship,
he was incapable of serious self-sacrifice; or at
least he always persuaded himself that he could
best serve the public good by having due regard
to his own interests.

In 1613 he had been promoted to the attorney-
generalship. In 1615 he prosecuted Saint John
for denouncing benevolences, and in the same
year he consented to the torture of Edmund
Peacham, who was charged with having written
a treasonable sermon. He came in the latter
case into conflict with his old enemy. Coke, who
denied Peacham's guilt, and who also objected
to the separate consultation of the judges by the
attorney-general. In 1617 Bacon helped to secure
Coke's removal from the King's Bench for in-
sufficient subserviency to the Crown. Coke's
personal independence throughout the contro-
versy has been often praised, and stands in
favorable contrast with Bacon's self-seeking
policy. At the same time it should be remem-
bered that there was involved a real issue be-
tween the legal and the political powers, and that
Bacon, in resisting Coke's effort to make the
court an arbiter of the constitution, was fighting
for the principle which actually prevailed, though
under changed conditions, in English govern-
ment.

Bacon took part in 1616 in the prosecution of
the Earl of Somerset for the murder of Sir
Thomas Overbury, and after Somerset's fall he
attached himself with ardor to George Villiers,.
the King's new favorite, in whom he seemed,
along with many others, to be for the time genu-
inely deceived. Through Villiers (afterwards
Earl and Duke of Buckingham) Bacon received
a succession of royal favors. In 1616 he was
made Privy Councillor, in 1617 Lord Keeper,
and in 1618 Lord Chancellor. In July 1618 he
was elevated to the peerage as Baron Verulam,
and in 1621 he was made Viscount St. Alban.
But his adherence to Buckingham, who was
growing steadily unpopular, led at last to dis-
aster. In 1621 the Commons, led by Coke, would
have called Bacon to account for defending
Buckingham's increase of monopoly patents, if
the King had not interfered. Thereupon they
sent to the Lords a formal accusation that Bacon
had taken bribes from suitors in his court.
Bacon at first treated the charges with uncon-
cern. Then, when he found that the Lords
meant to investigate them seriously, he collapsed
and offered no defense. He was fined £40,000,
imprisoned, and banished from parliament and
the court. In June, 1621, he was released from
the Tower, and retired to his family residence
at Gorhambury; and in September of the same
year the King pardoned him, though without
restoring him to parliament and the court. Bacon
begged both James and Charles without avail
for a further remission of his penalty. While
admitting the justice of his condemnation, he
protected that there had been no juster judge
in England for 50 years; and there is of cours?

FRANCIS BACON.

BACON

an important difference between corruption and
perversion of justice. Although he constantly
accepted gifts from suitors while their cases
were pending, it does not appear that he ever
perverted justice for money, and some of the
cases urged against him were those in which the
suitors had lost after giving him gifts. But this
record is not so clear in cases where Bucking-
ham interposed to ask favor for his friends, and
in at least one instance he allowed a decision of
his court to be practically set aside at the Favor-
ite's request.

Forbidden to re-enter the field of politics.
Bacon devoted the last years of his life to the
literary and scientific labors which had always
divided his time and which he had professed to
regard as his real and proper work; and he met
his death as a result of a scientific experiment.
In March, 1626, he caught cold while stuffing a
fowl with snow in order to observe the effects
•of refrigeration on the preservation of meat. On
9 April he died of what is now known as bron-
chitis at the house of Lord Arundel, where he
had been carried at the time of his attack. He
was buried in Saint Michael's church, Saint
Albans.

Bacon's Writings. — From early youth, if tra-
dition can be trusted. Bacon showed extraordi-
nary mental powers and a keen interest in philo-
sophical pursuits. Throughout his life his labors
in authorship kept pace closely with his political
work, and prone as he was to yield to the temp-
tations of wealth and power, he seems really to
have accorded the first place in life to what he
called his "contemplative aims." His strictly
philosophical writings may therefore properly
claim first attention among his works. At the
age of 2S he produced an essay which bore the
ambitious title, <The Greatest Birth of Time, or
the Great Renewal of the Empire of Man Over
the Universe.' The work is now lost, but the
title shows that the young author had already
conceived some notion of a ^'great instauration.*
The ^Partus Masculus Temporis* ("The Male
Birth of Time''), a fragment which is also of
early date, is perhaps a modification of previ-
ous work. It contains little more than an attack
on the false fancies ("idols") of the older
philosophies, and is Bacon's first plea for a law-
ful wedlock between the mind of man and the
universe. The 'Conference of Pleasure' (writ-
ten for Essex in 1592), 'Gesta Grayorum'
(1594), and the <^Device on the Queen's Day'
(1595) are not primarily philosophical works,
but they contain many expressions of Bacon's
intellectual ideals; and in the <Gesta Grayorum'
there is an elaborate proposal for the endovv-ment
of libraries, museums, and establishments of re-
search. 'Valerius Terminus, of the Interpreta-
tion of Nature, with the Annotations of Hermes
Stella' (written about 1603) is a fragmentary
treatise anticipating some of the most familiar
matter in the later philosophical works. In it
Bacon defends the study of science from the
charge of impiety, urges the importance of an
encyclopaedic survey of human knowledge, and
mentions for the first time (though without ox-
plaining them) the four classes of "idols" which
were afterward discussed in the 'Novum Or-
ganum.' In 160.S Bacon presented to King
James an English treatise of enduring value,
'The Advancement of Learning.' This was a

splendid attempt to defend and magnify the pur-
suit of learning and then to survey the existing
state of human knowledge. Part of the argu-
ment of the first part has lost its cogency, or
even its relevancy, to-day. But in breadth of
view and fertility of suggestion the work is
extraordinary. As a statement of intellectual
ideals, and a programme, or even a prophecy, of
their accomplishment, it stands among the most
significant productions of the Renaissance. When
Bacon sketched a few years later the plan of
his 'Great Instauration,' he designated the
'Advancement of Learning,' as a temporary fill-
ing of the first place on the "partitiones scicn-
tiarum," and in his last years he made a greatly
amplified Latin translation of it ('De Aug-
mentis et Dignilate Scientige') to be incor-
porated in the great work. In 1606-7 he pub-
lished the 'Outline and Argument' ('Delincatio
et Argumentum') of the second part of the
Instauration, giving a brief general account of
his new induction. In 1607 the 'Cogitata et Visa
de Interpretatione Naturae, sive de Scientia
Operativa* were published as an introduction to
some investigations on motion. The 'Cogitata'
cover most of the ground afterwards traversed
in the first book of the 'Novum Organum.' The
'Redargutio Philosophiarum' (1609), one of the
best specimens of Bacon's Latin style, contains
an imaginary speech of a French philosopher to
his disciples, and sets forth anew the author's
ideas about the fruitlessness of the older philoso-
phies. The 'De Sapientia Veterum,' though it
lies outside the immediate scheme of the 'Instau-
ration' and might perhaps be mentioned rather
among Bacon's literary works, is a very char-
acteristic production containing an exposition of
his theory of ancient mythology as an allegorical
embodiment of moral and scientific wisdom.
This primitive wisdom he was fond of extolling
to the disparagement of the later philosophy of
Aristotle, against which he was in revolt. In
161 1 and 1612 fall a number of scientific treatises
of less importance. Not until 1620, after his
long struggle to political power and on the eve
of his fall, did Bacon publish the 'Novum Or-
ganum,' though much of its material had been
anticipated in his earlier writings. Prefixed to
the work is a "distributio operis" for the whole
'Instauration,' which was planned to contain
the following parts: i. Partitiones Scientiarum
(represented temporarily by the English 'Ad-
vancement of Learning'); 2. Novum Organum
(the new instrument or inductive method) ; 3.
Phasnomena Universi ; 4. Scala Intellcctus (by
which fanciful title he meant to indicate the
operation of the new method in passing gradu-
ally from less general to more general principles
"per scalam veram") ; 5. Prodromi Philosophise
Secundae (to contain such tentative discoveries
as Bacon had made without using the new
method) ; 6. Philosophia Secunda, sive Scientia
Activa (a final embodiment of the results of the
new philosophy). The first book of the 'Novum
Organum' was still introductory in character,
discussing the uselessness of the older philoso-
phies, the traditional errors of mankind, and the
grounds of hope in the future of science. Bacon's
optimistic devotion to science has been not in-
eptly compared with that of the young Renan.
His classification of the "idols" (phantasms or
delusions) of the tribe, the cave, the market-

BACON

place and the theatre, has become a literary
commonplace. In the second book the new
induction itself is finally expounded and illus-
trated by a study of the nature of heat. The
exposition is incomplete and falls short, as in
the nature of things it was bound to, of what
Bacon himself apparently hoped to achieve,
namely a mechanical method of invention. Bacon
never pursued the theory further, and in his
later works he turned from the new method, or
instrument, toward other parts of his great
scheme. Ihe *Parasceue ad Historiam Natura-
lem' (.1620) is a brief and incomplete prepara-
tion for the third part of the Instauration, and
was followed in 1G22 by the 'Natural and Ex-
perimental History for the Foundations of Phi-
losophy, or Phenomena of the Universe, being
the ihird Part of the Great Instauration.' This
treatise which was to take up winds, density and
rarity, gravity, sympathy and antipathy of things,
and a variety of other topics, was also left
in a fragmentary state. In 1623 appeared the
<De Augmentis,' which was to supersede the
English ^Advancement of Learning' as the first
portion of the Instauration. Probably about
1624 Bacon wrote the 'Syl a Sylvarum' (pub-
lished in 1627), an ill-classified collection of
materials for natural history. Its contents belong
in considerable degree to the realm of folk-lore
and superstition, and Bacon's detractors have
found in the work some of their best grounds of
attack on his character as a man of science. It
was his belief, however, stated in the ^Advance-
ment of Learning,' that a collection and com-
parison even of the erroneous opinions of man-
kind might give useful guidance in the pursuit
of truth. Under the titles ^Scala Intellectus'
and ^Prodromi sive Anticipationes Philosophise
Secundae' Bacon wrote at a later, but uncertain,
date two mere prefaces which filled the fourth
and fifth gaps in the 'Instauration.' They were
his last philosophical writings.

Bacon's position in the history of science and
of philosophy has been very diflFerently esti-
mated. He constructed no philosophical system,
and one would search his writings in vain for
much discussion of the great problems which have
divided the schools of metaphysics since Des-
cartes. As a man of science his shortcomings
are still more notable. He was commonly un-
successful in his own investigations and ill-
informed about the best work of his contem-
poraries. He was hardly possessed at all of
what is now understood by the scientific mind.
Yet there is much justification for the traditional
view of him as the father of modern philosophy
and the primary instigator of modern scientific
progress. If not the originator, he made himself
at least the leading exponent of the revolt against
the .Aristotelian, or more properly the scholastic,
tradition, and he profoundly influenced the Eng-
lish realists of the next generations. In ethics
his distinction between ^'individual or self-good'*
and "good of communion" points forward to the
doctrine of the later utilitarians. And science
certainly owed him a large debt for the formu-
lation _ and urgent presentation of the *new
induction.'* No one, of course, will maintain
that Bacon invented induction. Macaulay, in
his familiar account of the plain man and the
minced pies, has made some sport of his claims
to originality in this matter. But a more judi-

cious estimate would recognize the high and
lasting educational value 01 the 'iN'ovum Ur-
ganum.' And Bacon's broad outlook and fertile
imagination enabled him to lay down the lines
of scientific progress and to win recruits for the
work. He furnished his followers not only with
an improved method, but also with a more vital
aim, — that of practical service. In his revolt
against Aristotle ami the schoolmen he con-
stantly dwelt upon th fruitlessness of the
earlier 'philosophies, and one of the most elo-
quent passages in the 'Advancement of Learn-
ing' sets forth the ideal of human service as the
goal of scientific effort. This aim has come to be
called Baconian, so much so that Bacon is often
charged with having ignored or denied the more
purely intellectual purposes. But the charge is
extreme. He thought it wise, in view of the
sentiment of his time to emphasize particularly
the practical aim ; but he recognized Veritas and
utilitas ('Novum Organum' I, Ap. 124) as co-
ordinate ends of study. Finally, in spite of his
deficiencies in investigation, Bacon made some
noteworthy discoveries in pure science. His
explanation of heat as a mode of motion is
quoted by Tyndall as a striking anticipation of
the modern doctrine. On the whole, however,
it was as a prophet or leader, rather than as a
productive scholar that Bacon served learning
best.

By far the greater part of Bacon's writings
(apart from his state papers, legal works, and
copious personal memoranda) dealt with phi-
losophy and science, and bore directly or indi-
rectly upon the construction of the 'Great In-
stauration.' Some of his more important state
papers have been already mentioned in the
account of his life. His strictly professional
writings (treatises on English law) will be found
in the seventh volume of the Spedding and Ellis
edition of his collected works. His personal
memoranda, which permit an intimate view of
his life and character, are published in Sped-
ding's 'Letters and Life' (the highly character-
istic 'Commentarius Solutus,' of the year 1608,
in the fourth volume). Besides all these pro-
ductions of his scholarship and his professional
life he made eminent contributions to history
and to pure letters. His 'History of Henry
VII.' (1621), which has been accepted by later
scholars as essentially sound, ranks with the best
historical writing of its age in England. Bacon
wrote also a memorial of Elizabeth ('In Felicem
Memoriam Elizabethse' (1607), another of
Henry, Prince of Wales, who died in 1612, and
fragments on the reign of Henry VIII. and on
the accession of James I.

In pure literature Bacon's reputation rests
chiefly on three works: the 'Advancement of
Learning' (which has been already discussed),
the 'Essays,' and the 'New Atlantis.' The first
two of these, curiously enough, he translated, or
had translated, into Latin in order to secure
them a wider and more permanent public. The
'New Atlantis' (first published by Rawley in
1627, but probably written between 1622 and
1624), is a fragmentary sketch of an ideal com-
monwealth, and in particular of an ideal "palace
of invention" called "Solomon's House," — a
great establishment of scientific research such as
Bacon longed to see founded. The book, which
expresses the idealistic spirit of the Renaissance,

BACON

shows Bacon at his best. The description of
Solomon's house is said to have led to the es-
tabhshment of the Royal Society. The 'Es-
says,* which were designed to "come home to
men's business and bosoms," are better known
than anything else that Bacon wrote. They
deal with many subjects and are characterized
by ripe reflection and consummate mastery of
style. Bacon had them in hand during the
greater part of his mature life. He published
the first edition in 1597, and twice revised and
enlarged the collection (in 1612 and 1625). The
title is supposed to have been suggested by the
'Essais* of Montaigne, and there are occasional
resemblances between the two works in sub-
ject-matter; but Bacon was not largely in-
debted to any source, and his conception of the
essay was totally different from the personal
and leisurely discourses of Montaigne. "Brief
thoughts, set down rather significantly than cu-
riously,*' was his own characterization of them
in the dedication of the second edition ; and al-
though some of the later essays contain pas-
sages of adorned and sustained eloquence such
as were lacking in the earlier ones, the general
type was maintained to the end.

A small number of religious works, in ele-
vated thought and style, remain to be mentioned :
the 'Meditationes Sacrse' (published in 1597),
the 'Confession of Faith* (written before 1603),
several prayers, and Bacon's only accredited
verse, 'A Translation of Certain Psalms into
English Verse' (1624). A poem on 'The
World,' — "The world's a bubble, and the life of
man less than a span.*' — is sometimes ascribed
to him, but is of doubtful authorship.

Bibliography. — The dates of Bacon's chief
works have been mentioned in the body of the
article. The standard collected edition is that
of Spedding, Ellis and Heath (London 1857-59).
Single works have in several cases been pub-
lished separately with more elaborate annota-
tion ; among the best of such editions being the
'Novum Organum' by T. Fowler (Oxford
1878), the 'Advancement, of Learning' by W.
A. Wright (O.xford 1896), the 'Essays' by
Archbishop Whately (London 1856), E. A. Ab-
bott (London 1896), and S. H. Reynolds (Ox-
ford 1890), and the 'New Atlantis' by G. C.
Moore Smith (Cambridge 1900). A useful
reprint of the three editions of the 'Essays'
has been published by Edward Arber, English
Reprints, No. 27 (1871). For the life of Bacon
the great source of original materials is Sped-
ding's 'Letters and Life of Bacon' (7 vols.,
1861). A brief digest of the material was is-
sued in two volumes, 'The Life and Times of
Francis Bacon' (Triibner 1878). Short biog-
raphies of value have been written by R. W.
Church, 'Francis Bacon' (London 1884),
Thomas Fowler. 'Francis Bacon' (New York
1881), E. A. Abbott, 'Francis Bacon, an Ac-
count of His Life and Works' (London 1885),
S. R. Gardiner (in the 'Dictionary of National
Biography'), and John Nichol, 'Francis Bacon,
His Life and Philosophy' (London 1898-9).
Macaulay's essay on Bacon furnishes a brilliant
though by no means just or satisfactory esti-
mate of the man and his work. On Bacon's
philosophical doctrines and influence one shouM
consult, besides the standard histories of phi-
losophy, Ellis's general introduction to the phil-

osophical works, Kuno Fischer's < Francis
Bacon of Verulam : Realistic Philosophy and
Its Age'^ (Engl, translation by John Oxenford
1857), Fowler's elaborate commentary on the
'Novum Organum' and his 'Francis Bacon.'
The history of Bacon's reputation and influence
is treated with some fulness in Dr. Fowler's in-
troduction to the 'Novum Organum.' An idea
of the arguments of Bacon's adverse critics can
be derived from Joseph de Maistre, 'Examen de
la Philosophic de Bacon' (Paris, 1836), Sir
David Brewster, 'Memoirs of the Life, Writings,
and Discourses of Sir Isaac Newton' (Edin-
burgh, 1855), and Justus von Liebig, 'Ueber
Francis Bacon von Verulam und die Methode
der Naturforschung' (Munich, 1863).

Fred N. Robinson,
Professor of English, Harvard University.

Ba'con, Henry, American painter: b. Hav-
erhill, Mass., 1839. He served in the Civil War,
studied art in Paris under Cabanel and Edward
Frere, and painted, among others, ' Boston
Boys and Gen. Gage' (1875) ; 'Paying the Scot'
(1870); and 'The Farewells' (1878).

Ba'con, John, English sculptor: b. South-
wark. 24 Nov. 1740; d. 4 Aug. 1799. In early
life he was employed in modelling small por-
celain ornaments, and while yet an apprentice
he formed a project for making statues of arti-
ficial stone. In 1763 he began to work in mar-
ble ; and shortly afterward, invented an instru-
ment for transferring the form of the model
to the marble. In 1768 he became a student of
the Royal Academy, and next year he obtained
the first gold medal for sculpture given by that
society, the following year he was chosen an
associate, and in 1778 was made a full member.
His chief works are two groups for the interior
of the Royal Academy, the statue of Judge
Blackstone for All Souls' College, Oxford ; an-
other of Henry VI. for Eton College ; the monu-
ment of Lord Chatham in Westminster Abbey;
and the statues of Dr. Johnson and the pliilan-
thropist Howard in Saint Paul's Cathedral.

Ba'con, John Edmund, lawyer : b. Edge-
field, S. C, 3 March 1832; d. Columbia, S. C,
19 Feb. 1897. Graduated at South Carolina Col-
lege, 185 1 ; Litchfield (Conn.) Law School, and
admitted to the bar, 1854. He was secretary of
the United States legation at St. Petersburg, and
married a daughter of ex-Gov. Pickens, then
minister to Russia. He resigned in i860, entered
the Confederate army, and rose to the rank of
major. He was one of the negotiators for the
restoration of South Carolina to the L'nion.
1866; and to him was chiefly due the reopening
of South Carolina College by act of the legisla-
ture in 1873. In 1886 he was appointed charge
d'affaires in LVuguay and Paraguay.

Ba'con, John Mosby, American military
officer: b. Kentucky, 17 April 1844; served in
the Union army through the Civil War: was
appointed captain in the 9th L'^nited States
Cavalry, in 1866, and colonel of the 8th cavalry
in 1897. On 4 May 1898, he was appointed
brigadier-general of volunteers and placed in
command of the Department of Dakota. Sub-
sequently, he was assigned to duty in Cuba,
till 8 May 1899. He was retired in 1902.

BACON

Ba'con, Leonard, American clergyman : b.
Detroit, Mich., 19 Feb. 1802; d. 24 Dec. 1881 ;
graduated at Yale in 1820, after which he stud-
ied theology at Andover, Mass. In 1825 he be-
came pastor of the First Congregational Church
in New Haven, a post wdiich he held officially,
though not always actively, until his death. He
was professor of didactic theology in Yale
(1866-71). He was throughout his life an ac-
tive opponent of slavery. In 1847 he joined with
Drs. Storrs and Thompson to found the New
York Independent, in the joint editorship of
which he continued for 16 years. Besides a
vast number of reviews and pamphlets, he pub-
lished <Views and Reviews^ (1840); ^Slavery
Discussed in Occasional Essays^ (1846); and
< Genesis of the New England Churches.^

Ba'con, Nathaniel, American insurrection-
ary leader: b. Friston Hall, Suffolk, Eng-
land, 2 Jan. 1647; d. 26 Oct. 1676. His great-
grandfather was cousin to Lord Bacon ; his
mother, a Brooke, was daughter of a Suffolk
knight. He entered St. Catherine's College,
Cambridge, in 1660; took M.A. 1667; studied
law at Gray's Inn, London, and traveled on the
Continent. He found life too straitened in
England on the income his father allowed him,
and the latter gave him ii.Soo outright to emi-
grate to Virginia, where his cousin, Nicholas
Bacon, had been living since 1650. He arrived
in the latter part of 1673 with a young wife,
daughter of Sir Edward Duke, and soon became
a member of the governor's council, as was his
cousin ; and settled on a plantation some 20
miles below Richmond, on the James, called
"Curie's Wharf.*^ He also had another on a
part of the site of Richmond, the attack on
which by the Indians was part of the raid that
brought on the imbroglio known as "Bacon's
Rebellion," which see for his career and fate.

Ba'con, Roger, English monk and philos-
opher: b. near Ilchester, about 1214; d. 1294.
He first entered the University of Oxford, and
afterward went to that of Paris, where he seems
to have distinguished himself much by success-
ful study and teaching, and received the degree
of doctor of theology. About 1250 he returned
to England, where he entered the order of
Franciscans, fixed his abode at Oxford, and de-
voted himself to his studies, chiefly in natural
philosophy. Means were furnished him by gen-
erous friends of science, whose contributions
enabled him to purchase books, to prepare in-
struments, and to make the necessary experi-
ments. In examining the secrets of nature he
made discoveries and deduced results which
appeared so extraordinary to the ignorant, that
they were believed to be works of magic. There
is clear evidence in his writings that he accepted
the Aristotelian theory of stellar influence on
the minds and wills of men, not indeed directly,
but through the medium of the body. Such
views brought him into conflict with the teach-
ings of the Church on free will, and in 1257 he
was sent to Paris, where he was kept in confine-
ment for the long period of 10 years. In 1267,
Bacon wrote a work under the title of 'Opus
Majus,^ giving a connected view of the different
branches of human knowledge, supplemented
soon after by two other works, namely, 'Opus
Secundum^ and 'Opus Tertium.^ Under Clem-
ent's successor, Nicholas III., the general of

the Franciscans, Jerome of Ascoli, declared
himself against Bacon, forbade the reading of
his writings, and issued an order for his im-
prisonment, which was confirmed by the Pope.
This new confinement lasted 10 years; and
when Jerome of Ascoli was elected pope, under
the name of Nicholas IV., Bacon vainly en-
deavored to convince him of the innocence and
utility of his labors, by sending him a treatise
'On the Means of Avoiding the Infirmities of
Old Age.^ After the death of Nicholas IV. he
regained his liberty, and returned to Oxford,
where he wrote a 'Compendium of Theology.*

Though an extraordinary man. Bacon could
not entirely free himself from the prejudices
of his time. He believed in the philosopher's
stone and in astrology. There are to be found
in his writings new and ingenious views on op-
tics ; for example, on the refraction of light,
on the apparent magnitude of objects, on the
magnified appearance of the sun and moon
when in the horizon, etc. He describes very
exactly the nature and effects of convex and
concave lenses, and speaks of their application
to the purposes of reading, and of viewing dis-
tant objects, both terrestrial and celestial; and
it is easy to prove from his writings that he
was either the inventor or improver of the tele-
scope. He also gives descriptions of the camera
obscura, and of the burning-glass. He made,
too, several medical discoveries. The discovery
of gunpowder has been attributed to him. His
writings contain the chemical formula for it,
but it is generally supposed that he obtained it
from the Arabs, from whose writings he de-
rived other suggestions. He was acquainted
with geography and astronomy, discovered the
errors of the calendar and their causes, and
made a corrected calendar. In moral philoso-
phy also. Bacon laid down some excellent pre-
cepts.

Ba'con, Roger, his Opus Majus (1267
A.D.). Newly edited and published, with intro-
duction and full English analysis of the Latin
text, by J. H. Bridges (2 vols. 1897). An ade-
quate publication, after 630 years, of one of the
most remarkable productions of the human
mind.

The work is an exhortation addressed to
Pope Clement, urging him to initiate a reform
of Christian education, in order to establish the
ascendancy of the Roman Catholic Church over
all nations and religions of the world. Its cen-
tral theme was the consolidation of the Roman
Catholic faith as the supreme agency for the
civilization of mankind. Its author wished to
see recognition of "all the sciences,* since all are
parts of one and the same complete wisdom.
He first gave experiment the distinct and su-
preme place which was later revived by Des-
cartes, and carried out in modern science. He
formed a clear conception of chemistry, in his
day not yet separated from alchemy'; and of a
science of living things, as resulting with
chemistry from physics. In the part of his work
dealing with moral philosophy. Bacon makes
the first attempt ever made at the comparative
study of the religions of the world. His pro-
tests against the intellectual prejudices of the
time, his forecasts of an age of industry and
invention, the prominence given to exoeriment,
alike as the test of received opinion and the
guide to new fields of discovery, render compari-

BACON — BACON'S REBELLION

son with Francis Bacon unavoidable. In wealth
of words, in brilliancy of imagination, Francis
Bacon was immeasurably his superior. But
Roger Bacon had the sounder estimate and the
firmer grasp of that combination of deductive
with inductive method which marks the scien-
tific discoverer.

Ba'con, Thomas Scott, American theo-
logical writer : b. Saratoga, N. Y., i Feb. 1825.
Originally a lawyer, he became an Episcopal
clergyman (1854). Besides sermons, addresses,
reviews, etc., he has written 'Both Sides of the
Controversy Between the Roman and the Re-
formed Church' (1858); <The Reign of God,
not the Reign of Law' (1879) ; "^The Begin-
nings of Religion' (1887) ; < Primitive and
Catholic Doctrine as to Holy Scripture' ; "^It
is Written.'

Ba'con, Philippine Islands, a town in the
province of Albay, Island of Luzon. Pop. about
13,000.

Ba'con, the name given the sides of a pig
which have been cured or preserved by salting
with salt and saltpetre, and afterward drying
with or without wood smoke. By the old pro-
cess of rubbing in the saline mixture, the curing
occupied from three to four months. The
method now adopted on a larger scale is to
place the prepared flitches in a fluid pickle. The
pickling, -drying, and smoking now occupy not
more than six weeks. Bacon may be called the
poor as well as the rich man's food. By the
former it is prized as a necessary of life ; by
the latter, for its exquisite flavor. The nitro-
genous. Of flesh-forming matter in bacon is
small, one pound yielding less than one ounce
of dry. muscular substance, while the amount
of carbon compounds, or heat givers, is large,
exceeding 60 per cent. Its digestibility, how-
ever, owing to the large proportion of fat it
contains, is not less than that of beef or mutton.

Ba'con Bee'tle ( Dermestes lardarius), an
insect, the larva of which destroys bacon, lard,
and furs.

Baco'nian Philos'ophy, the inductive phi-
losophy of which it is sometimes said that Lord
Bacon was the founder. This, however, is an
exaggerated statement. What Lord Bacon did
for this mode of ratiocination was to elucidate
and systematize it ; to point out its great value,
and to bring it prominently before men's no-
tice ; lending it the support of his great name
at a time when most of his contemporaries were
satisfied with the barren logic of the schools.
The triumphs of modern science have arisen
from a resolute adherence on the part of its
votaries to the Baconian method of inquiry.

Ba'con's Rebel'lion, in Virginia, 1676.
The English Navigation Acts of 1651 and 1660,
restricting colonial trade to English vessels, had
produced universal distress in Virginia, forcing
it to buy and sell to the home monopolists at
their own price ; tobacco, not only the chief
product, but the chief currency, became almost
worthless. In 1667 the smaller landholders
were reported on the brink of rebellion, and in
1673 there were meetings to refuse payment of
taxes. Meantime the corrupt civil service of
the colony, place-hunters sent over by Charles
II. to be rid of them, were plundering the
planters by means of the export dues, in col-
lusion with the governor. Sir William Berkeley
Vol. 2 — 12.

(q.v.) ; and the latter was fattening on a fur
trade with the Indians. To save himself from
the opposition or criticism of the masses, whom
he hated and despised, and perpetuate the
oligarchy of the small group of rich planters
who formed his council, he kept his legislature
of 1662, — strongly royalist from the enthusiasm
of the Restoration,— in office till 1676 by an-
nual adjournments without new elections ; he had
also abolished universal suflfrage and substi-
tuted a property qualification. This built up a
strong opposition, including some of the solidest
citizens. In 1675 a terrible Indian war broke
out, wrapping the frontier in fire and blood ; 36
whites were murdered in one day of January
1676. Berkeley, implored to protect the settle-
ments, ordered out a force under Sir Henry
Chicheley, then suddenly dissolved it, recalled
Chicheley's commission, and refused to do any-
thing more till the Assembly met in March.
The result was frightful : within 17 days 60 of
the 71 plantations in Rappahannock parish were
destroyed, and by the time of the March meet-
ing, over 300 victims had perished, a large part
by fiendish tortures. Even then, under Berke-
ley's orders, the «Long Assembly" (so called
in allusion to the Long Parliament) merely
committed another outrage: instead of author-
izing an army, they authorized frontier forts, to
have a garrison of 500 soldiers (from the sea-
board counties, not the frontier one which suf-
fered from the Indians, and hated the governor).
No attack on the Indians was to be permitted
except under specific orders from the governor.
Two million pounds of tobacco more were
added to their taxes for this mockery of pro-
tection, and most of that was embezzled and
the forts built so as to be worthless, even for
the little service they could do. The people
petitioned for leave to form expeditions at their
own charge under any leader Berkeley might
appoint ; he forbade any further petitions of the
sort under heavy penalties. It was the univer-
sal belief that his one solicitude was to save
his Indian trade monopoly from harm. Finally
the people of Charles City County petitioned
once more for leave, in face of actual ravages
then g:oing on ; and once more the obstinate and
avaricious old man refused it. Men could bear
no more ; they raised 300 volunteers on their
own risk, and by acclamation placed at their
head Nathaniel Bacon (q.v.), a planter of 29,
recently from England, and one of the govern-
or's council. He accepted it and wrote to
Berkeley for a commission ; Berkeley returned
an evasive answer, and Bacon started on his
expedition without it. Berkeley hearing of it,
sent an order for the company to disperse ; all
but a few, however, kept on and dispersed the
Indians. Berkeley collected a troop of horse-
men, and set out to arrest Bacon, when he heard
that the colony was all in revolt behind him;
and he hurried back to Jamestown, dissolved
his 14-year-old Assembly, and issued writs for
a new one. Despite his suflfrage restriction,
there was a heavy majority against him. Ba-
con being one of the new members. As the
latter approached Jamestown, he was arrested
and brought before Berkeley, who, in view of
the uprising, did not dare proceed to extremi-
ties, but paroled him, and on Bacon's making
submission for attacking the Indians without
license allowed him to take his seat, with a tacit
agreement to give him his commission to finish

BACOOR — BACTERIA

the Indian war. The new legislature, besides
restoring universal suffrage and making other
reforms very distasteful to Berkeley, provided
for raising an army of 1,000 men for Indian
service. But Bacon, still refused the commis-
sion, and privately warned that his life was in
danger, fled, shortly returned with 600 men,
and forced Berkeley to sign his commission as
major-general for the Indian campaign, and also
a memorial to the king in his favor and recit-
ing the colonial grievances. This later was sent
off with a secret note from Berkeley, disavow-
ing it. Bacon within a month had nearly put
down the Indian outbreak, especially by a crush-
ing victory at Bloody Run (near Richmond),
when he heard that the covernor had pro-
claimed him and his party rebels, and to escape
popular wrath had fled across the peninsula to
Accomac. Bacon marched back to Middle Plan-
tation (the site of Williamsburg), launched a
manifesto against Berkeley, and drew around
him a gathering of some prominent men and a
vast number of penniless ones (for the movement
was largely a democratic revolt against an over-
weening aristocracy). They agreed to stand by
him even against a royal army ; feeling that they
were compromised beyond retreat at best, and
hoping to hold out till the king could be cor-
rectly informed and pardon them. Bacon car-
ried on the Indian campaign till September,
thoroughly stamping out the danger to the
colony ; meantime sending an expedition to cap-
ture Berkeley, which was itself captured.
Berkeley gathered about 1,000 militia by prom-
ising them the confiscated estates of the rebels,
and reoccupied Jamestown ; Bacon marched
against him, drove him to Accomac once more,
and burnt Jamestown to the ground. But he
had taken malaria there, and while invading
Gloucester County to attack Major Brent, was
stricken down, and died i October. The re-
bellion at once collapsed, and Berkeley
wreaked a frightful vengeance upon Bacon's
adherents. See Berkeley, Sir William. For
authorities, besides new documents published in
^Virginia Magazine of History^ (1893-8), see
the 'Century Magazine,' Vol. XL., under "Na-
thaniel Bacon,*' by Edward Eggleston ; and
John Fiske's "Old Virginia and Her Neigh-
bors,» 1897, Vol. II.).

Bacoor, ba'ko-or', Philippine Islands, a
town of the province of Cavite, on the Island of
Luzon. Pop. about 14,000.

Bacsanyi, bo'chan-ye, Janes, Hungarian
poet: b. Tapolcza, 11 May 1763; d. 12 May
1845. His first work, published in 1785, pro-
cured him an appointment in a public office, but
a liberal poem cost him this in 1793, as well
as his liberty the year after. In 1796 he went
to Vienna, and there he married a few years
later the German poet, Gabrielle Baumgarten —
an unhappy match. In 1809, Bacsanyi trans-
lated Napoleon's proclamation to the Hun-
garians, and was afterward obliged to take
refuge in Paris. After the Peace of Paris, he
lived at Linz, where he died. His collected
poems appeared at Budapest in 1827.

Bacterae'mia, a form of poisoning due to
bacterial products. This poisoning is usually
due to the absorption of toxins from bacteria
situated either on the surface of the body, the
intestinal canal, or in some confined space. See
Pyemia.

Bacteria. Literally the word bacterium,
bacteria being its plural, means a tiny rod or
stick. As understood, however, by biologists,
bacteria constitute a genus of lowly organized
microscopic plants having forms other than that
indicated by the literal meaning of the word.
Briefly defined, bacteria are unicellular vegeta-
bles that multiply by the simple process of
transverse division — they are, therefore, schiz-
omycetes. In size they are all of microscopic
dimensions requiring in most cases to be magni-
fied from 600 to 1,000 diameters before becom-
ing visible and even then they appear in many
instances as scarcely more than tiny points.
As encountered in nature they assume a variety
of forms which may be conveniently arranged
into three principal groups, namely: the spheri-
cal, the rod-like, and the spiral. To the spherical
forms the name cocci or micrococci {coccus,
singular) is given, and, according to the man-
ner in which these tiny spheres develop and
their progeny adhere to one another, they are fur-
ther severally designated as staphylocci, that is,
cocci clustering irregularly together like grapes
in a bunch; streptococci, that is, cocci adher-
ing together like beads or pearls in a strand ;
diplo-cocci, that is, cocci occurring in pairs;
tetracocci, that is, cocci clustered in fours, etc.

To the rod-like group — that is, those which
are straight, having one diameter longer than
another — the designation bacilli (bacillus, shi-
gular) is given. While the structure and mode
of multiplication of many of the bacilli is as
simple as is that of the micrococci — that is, one
cell divides into two, two into four, and so on
ad infiiiitiDii, without variation, it is neverthe-
less in the group of bacilli that we encounter a
ntimber of species provided by nature with a
more highly organized and complicated means
for propagation and perpetuation. It is here
that we encounter species in the course of whose
life cycle there develops within each rod a single
tiny, oval, highly resistant body, a spore as it is
called, which may be fairly compared to the
seeds of higher plants and which, like the seed,
may be gathered and kept for almost indefinite
periods, without losing their power of germina-
tion. Since such spores of bacteria are marked-
ly tenacious of life even under the most un-
favorable of circumstances it is obvious that
the power to form spores is an important pro-
vision for the preservation of the species. It
is of passing interest to know that the ability
to form spores is possessed by some, but not
all, of the disease-producing bacteria, a fact
that serves to explain in part the difficulties
experienced by the sanitarian in eliminating cer-
tain types of infection. For it must be remem-
bered that the infective species capable of enter-
ing the spore stage are by virtue of that property
much less vulnerable to the action of disin-
fectants and disinfecting processes than are the
species not so endowed.

The spiral forms, spirilla, spirochaeta, as they
are called, comprise those bacteria having one
or more curves in their long axis, that is, those
that are twisted like a corkscrew. They are
sometimes seen as homogeneous, long spiral
threads without segmentations, while again they
may consist of short curved segments adhering
end to end. Spore formation is not a charac-
teristic of the spiral bacteria.

In structure bacteria are non-nucleated
masses of protoplasm surrounded by an en-

BACTERIA

veloping zone appearing in some instances
to be but a condensation of the central
protoplasm, while in others it partakes some-
what of the nature of mucin. Many of the
bacteria exhibit no evidence of independent mo-
tility, while others, by virtue of special locomo-
tive apparatus {Hagc'Ua) move themselves about
in fluids in a most energetic manner. As their
structure is exceedingly simple, in so far as
formed elements are concerned, their mode of
nutrition is, physically speaking, corresponding-
ly simple — that is, the nourishment is absorbed
and their waste products discharged directly
through their enveloping membranes by the pro-
cess of osmosis. This being the case it is ob-
vious that bacteria can multiply and perform
their physiological functions only under condi-
tions of moisture. Unlike the more highly or-
ganized plants bacteria are apparently without
special provisions for gaseous exchange, that is,
they are devoid of chlorophyl. They obtain
their oxygen as such from the free air or from
easily decomposable oxygen compounds. In the
course of his early investigations in this field
Pasteur discovered a group of bacteria that have
ever proven to be of the greatest interest — a
group that, paradoxical as it may seem, not
only does not require free oxygen for its life pro-
cesses but to the growth of which free oxygen
is actually prohibitive. To these species he gave
the designation anaerobic to distinguish them
from the majority, the aerobic varieties, to which
free oxygen is essential. In their relations to
higher life bacteria may be regarded as allies or
as enemies, according to the nature of the spe-
cies under consideration. Contrary to notions
that have been more or less prevalent the ma-
jority of bacteria have nothing to do with
disease production. Their natural role is that
of scavengers. They are concerned in nature's
great laboratory, the soil, in working over dead
organic matters into forms appropriate to the
nourishment of growing vegetation. Since in
the course of this conversion dead bodies that
would otherwise encumber the earth are caused
to disappear they must from both the aesthetic
and economic standpoints be regarded as, in the
main, benefactors. In this group of sapropJiytic
bacteria, as they are called, that is, those that
live on dead matters, we encounter species of the
greatest interest and importance. It is here
that we perceive the omnipresent forms con-
cerned in the reduction of dead animal and
vegetable tissues into such simple forms as car-
bon dioxid, ammonia and water to be used by
higher plants. It is in this group that we find
the ever-present nitrifying species — that is,
those peculiar ferments that assist the legumi-
nous plants in assimilating free atmospheric ni-
trogen ; that oxidize the ammonium of decom-
position to the nitrous and nitric acids so essen-
tial to plant life; that convert the objectionable
organic matters of sewage and polluted waters
into an inert inorganic form and that, through
their specific activities supply, where circum-
stances are favorable, the entire commercial
world with its supply of saltpetre.

The saprophytic group also comprehends
many species used in the arts and industries —
such, for instance, as those concerned in the
production of certain organic acids ; those em-
ployed m the manufacture of indigo by the
fermentation process and in the preparation of
hemp ; and those utilized in the manufacture of

cheese and butter. In the study of this large
group one constantly encounters other species
presenting most engaging characteristics — some
of these, the chromogcnic varieties, have the
property of producing during the course of their
growth pigments of great beauty — brilliant
reds, delicate pinks, rich purples, yellows ran-
ging from the palest lemon to the deepest orange,
are those most often encountered. In another
group, the pliotogenic, we meet with species
having the emission of light as their most singu-
lar peculiarity. When growing these forms glow
with a peculiar phosphorescence, and it is signi-
ficant to note that these luminous varieties have
been most frequently encountered in the sea
and upon articles from the sea. The evil odors
of putrefaction are the results of saproph3-tic
bacterial development. In the parasitic group
of bacteria we encounter those species that ex-
ist always at the expense of a living host, either
animal or vegetable, and in doing so not only
appropriate materials necessary to life, but give
off in return waste products that may act as
direct poisons to the host. Fortunately this is
a much smaller group than is the saprophytic
mentioned above. In no particulars, save for
their ability to exist at the expense of a living
host and cause disease, are the disease-producing
bacteria distinguishable from the innocent varie-
ties. The essential difference between the dis-
ease-producing and the innocent bacterial spe-
cies is that the former possess as their most
striking physiological peculiarity the power of
elaborating poisons, toxins, technicallj^ speak-
ing, that have a direct destructive action upon
the tissues of their host. In some cases the poi-
sons may be properly regarded as secretions of
the bacteria, and, under artificial conditions of
cultivation, may easily be separated from the
living bacteria elaborating them. This is es-
pecially true of the poisons of diphtheria and
of tetanus or lock-jaw. When thus separated
such poisons, entirely independent of the living
bacteria, retain the specific property of causing
the symptoms and many of the pathological
changes that characterize the growth of the liv-
ing bacteria in the tissues. In other cases the
poisons cannot be so readily separated ; they
appear to be an integral constituent of the proto-
plasm of which the bacteria are composed. This
is especially the case with the toxins of bacillus
typhosus, bacillus dysentcrice, and spirillum
cholercc Asiaticcc — the organisms concerned in
the causation of typhoid fever, epidemic dysen-
tery, and Asiatic cholera, respectively. In the
case of still other pathogenic species there is lit-
tle doubt that specific intoxicants are in one
way or another elaborated during infection, but
as yet they have not been satisfactorily demon-
strated. Nevertheless, it may be said that, in
general, infection by bacteria is to-day regarded
as essentjally a chemical phenomenon — that is,
as a reaction between the poisons elaborated by
the bacteria and the tissues with which they come
in contact ; the result of the reaction being the
partial or complete death of the host in which
the phenomenon is in operation.

Bibliography. — A. Fischer, ^ Vorlesungen
iiber Bakterien* ; W. Migula, 'System der Bak-
terien^ ; Slater and Spitta, 'An Atlas of Bacte-
riology' ; G. Sim's Woodhead, M.D., 'Bacteria
and Their Products.'

A. C. Abbott,

Bacteriologist, University of Pennsylvania.

BACTERICIDE; BACTERIOLOGY

Bactericide, any agent capable of killing
bacteria. The older terms, antiseptic, germicide,
etc., cover too broad a field, and the word bac-
tericidal has come to mean .something more
definite and exact than the older terms. Heat
is one of the best bactericidal agents. Cold is
not bactericidal. Even the lowest temperatures
do not destroy the life of these plants. The
metallic salts and the phenols are the bacteri-
cidal agents most in use. The aldehydes, for-
maldehyde, benzyaldehyde are also efficient.
See Antiseptic ; Germicides.

Bacteriology. Though generally consid-
ered a modern science, and perhaps properly as
regards certain of its most important develop-
mental aspects, bacteriology in reality dates
from the observations of the Dutch investi-
gator Leeuwenhoek in the latter part of the 17th
century. With simple lenses ground by himself,
Leeuwenhoek discovered in the mouth, in the
excreta, in water, and in other matters exam-
ined by him, the presence of countless bodies
of smaller dimensions than anything hitherto
seen. These ^'animalcules,'^ as he called them,
were often observed to move themselves about
in a remarkably energetic manner, and, judging
from his text and illustrations, they were doubt-
less the bodies we now recognize as bacteria.
Leeuwenhoek's observations were immediately
seized upon by the philosophers of the day as
offering an explanation for many hitherto unex-
plained phenomena. So general became the be-
lief in a causal relation between the "animal-
cules'' and all manner of disease conditions that
for a time, we are told, there prevailed almost a
*^germ mania."

To the investigators of the time the question
of greatest fascination in connection with this
newly-discovered world was as to its origin.
Many believed and stoutly maintained that the
^^animalcules" were the products of metamor-
phosis of either living or dead tissues of more
highly organized beings ; others that they arose
de novo in '^putrescent atmospheres" ; many sus-
pected them of spontaneous generation in some
other mysterious way ; while a few maintained,
on experimental evidence, that they were prob-
ably the descendants of pre-existing creatures
of the same kind. Singular as it may seem it
took nearly two centuries to close finally that
debate and to prove that the dictum of Harvey
^'■omne viinim ex ovo^^ or better, its appropriate
modification ^'■ovme vivuin ex vivo''* was as ap-
plicable to the microscopic as to the world of
higher beings. In its modern aspect bacteriology
dates from the epoch-making investigations es-
pecially of Koch and of Pasteur conducted dur-
ing the eighth decade of the 19th century. Dur-
ing that period observations were made and
methods of work devised that went far toward
starting the subject on its career as a science.
In the study of bacteria, as of all other forms of
life, it is essential to a correct interpretation of
form and physiological function that the obser-
vations be made upon isolated species. Prior
to the period mentioned this was not possible,
for the methods in vogue were insufficient for
the separation of these minute creatures from
one another. For the development of the science
probably the most important step was, therefore,
the introduction by Koch of trustworthy meth-
ods for the separation of individual bacterial
species from mixtures of them, and for the
more or less complete determination of their

specific morphological and physiological pe-
culiarities ; that is, for the isolation and study of
bacteria in "pure cultivation,'* as it is technically
called. Up to the time of Koch's classical re-
search upon the methods of investigating bac-
teria, their study had been conducted in fluid
materials ; that is, in infusions of either vegeta-
ble or animal matters, in which most bacterial
species develop with remarkable activity. Since
many totally distinct species are indistinguish-
able from one another by their size, shape, and.
general appearance, it was obviously impossible,
by the older methods of study, either to be cer-
tain if one were dealing with one or more spe-
cies in the fluids in which they were growing, or
to separate the one from the other in case of
confusion. Koch appreciated this defect and
suggested the use of solid materials as culture
media, hoping thereby to reproduce the condi-
tions so often seen when such organic matters
as^ bread, potato, cheese, etc., become moldy on
exposure to air. Here one sees the mold not
always as an inextricable mixture of different
species, but often as sharply isolated islands of
beginning growth — as mold colonies — so to
speak. These, on examination, are usually
found to consist of single species, and on a slice
of moistened bread one may often observe sev-
eral colonies of distinct species growing side
by side without, for a time at least, encroach-
ing one upon another. By appropriate methods
it is easily possible to transplant such colonies,
free from admixture with other forms, and
study them as "pure cultures." But such sub-
stances as bread, potato, etc., are not in general
as well adapted to the study of bacteria as to
that of molds. Appreciating this Koch demon-
strated that the addition of gelatin to the in-
fusions employed for the successful cultivation
of bacteria converted them into practically solid
culture media without robbing them of any of
their useful properties ; and that by the appro-
priate employment of such solid media it was
easily possible to separate as pure cultures the
individual species composing the mixtures of
bacteria that one desired to analyze. Thus, for
example, if a tube of gelatinized beef tea, freed
from all living bacteria by heat, be gently
warmed until liquefied, and be then in-
oculated with a mixture of several spe-
cies of bacteria, growth at once begins, and
if left in the test-tube progresses in about
the same manner as if the beef tea did not con-
tain gelatin ; but if while still warm and fluid
the contents of the tube be poured out upon a
flat, cold surface, the increased area causes the
bacteria to become more widely separated from
one another and the lower temperature results
in the solidification of the gelatin, so that each
bacterium is fixed in its new position. It at
once begins to germinate, and presently a
"colony" results ; the surface ultimately becom-
ing studded with such colonies. As the colonies
from the different species differ from one an-
other in many ways — in outline, texture, color,
effect of their growth on the gelatin, etc. — it is
easily possible, after a little practice to distin-
guish them by the naked eye, and by trans-
planting them to tubes of sterile culture media
to study them without the disturbing presence
of other species ; that is, in pure culture.

The introduction of this method for the
isolation and study of bacterial species in pure
cultivation certainly constitutes the most impor-

BACTERIOLOGY

tant stimulus to the development of modern
bacteriology. By it results were placed upon a
more secure basis than ever before, and a con-
fidence in the work such as had never existed
was awakened in the minds of all students of
the subject.

The studies that had been made by
Pasteur upon fermentation ; upon the souring
of wines ; upon the maladies of silk worms, and
upon certain fatal epizootics of fowls and do-
mestic cattle ; together with Koch's fundamental
studies upon the infections of wounds and the
appropriate methods of analyzing them were
rich in suggestion to the pioneers in this new
field. Within a comparatively brief period af-
ter the adoption of the new methods our know-
ledge of the exciting causes of many nitherto
obscure diseases was greatly extended ; it was
shown to be possible to determine the modes of
their transmission and the channels through
which infection occurreti. The conditions most
favorable to the successful action of a host of
substances employed for the purpose of disin-
fection were accurately determined. And early
in the work observations were made that indi-
cated the possibility of successful vaccination
against disease through the use of attenuated
(weakened) living cultures of specific disease-
producing bacteria. One of the most important
outgrowths of modern bacteriology has resulted
from its application to the problems of the sani-
tary engineer. As a result of these studies we
know that sewage, polluted waters, and polluted
soils tend naturally to revert to a state of purity
if their pollution be checked and that this pro-
gressive purification is due in large part to the
activities of the bacteria located within them. It
has been found that by the appropriate adjust-
ment of conditions the normal activity of the
bacteria may be so greatly accentuated as to
constitute them the most important factors in
the purification of polluted waters and sewage.
The utilization of these facts is conspicuously
illustrated in the purification of water by the
process of natural sand filtration and in the
purification of sewage by irrigation ; by the sep-
tic tank process, etc. In these methods the liv-
ing bacteria, and they alone, are the instru-
ments through which the results are attained.
The sand grains in the filters and the particles
of soil in the irrigation fields serve only as ob-
jects to which the bacteria can attach themselves
and multiply. By the normal life processes of
the bacteria the polluting organic matters in the
fluids to be purified are used up and inert mat-
ters given off as a result.

In the study of agricultural phenomena from
the bacteriological standpoint knowledge has
been equally extended. J^t one time it was
taught that atmospheric nitrogen — represent-
ing roughly 80 per cent of the air by volume —
was of no direct biological significance. This
view has in late years been entirely revised. We
have learned that the leguminous plants when
assisted, symbiotically, by certain soil bacteria,
are enabled to make up their nitrogen deficit in
large part from the free nitrogen of the air ; a
fact that sheds important light upon the signifi-
cance of plants of this type in the practice of
^rotation of crops.'' Under normal conditions
instead of impoverishing the soil, the legumens
• — clover, peas, beans, etc., — with the aid of the
bacteria attached to their roots, may actually
enrich it. The application of bacteriological

methods to the study of dairy processes has re-
vealed the interesting fact that the delicate
flavors to which butters and cheeses owe their
commercial value are directly due to the pro-
ducts of growth of certain species or groups of
species of bacteria and more highly organized
molds. A number of such species have been
isolated and are kept in pure cultivation — so
that by purposely inoculating the fresh cream
with them butter of uniform flavor may with
comparative ease be produced.

Probably the most important results of ap-
plied bacteriology are those in connection with
preventive medicine. Early in the course of the
work it was discovered by Pasteur that certain
virulent pathogenic bacteria when kept under
particular conditions gradually lost their dis-
ease-producing power, wholly or in part, with-
out their other life properties being conspicu-
ously disturbed. If injected into animals when
in this attenuated state the result was a mild,
temporary, and modified form of infection usu-
ally followed by recovery. With recovery the
animals so treated were immune from the ac-
tivities of the fully virulent bacteria of the same
species ; in other words, they had been protected
from the fatal injection by vaccination with an
attenuated species. The subsequent develop-
ments growing out of this observation have re-
sulted in the annual saving of millions of money
through the successful vaccination of sheep,
horses, and bovines against the fatal infection
known as splenic fever or anthrax, and, though
less successfully, of other domestic animals
against other infections also. In the closer
analysis of the means by which infective bac-
teria cause disease it soon became evident that
it is through the elaboration of specific poisons ;
sometimes easily separated from the bacteria,
at others so intimately associated with the bac-
terial tissues as to make their separation diffi-
cult or impossible. The question arose as to the
effect of the poisons, separated from the living
bacteria, upon the animals susceptible to infec-
tion by the bacteria themselves, and it was found
that fatal intoxications often accompanied by the
same constitutional symptoms and pathological
lesions followed the use of the poisons, just as
would follow inoculations with the bacteria by
which they were produced. In pursuance of
this topic it was discovered that if very small,
only mildly intoxicating doses of these specific
poisons of bacterial origin were repeatedly in-
jected into susceptible animals that after a
while the latter acquired not only a sort of tol-
erance to them, but a tolerance that was accom-
panied by the presence in the circulating blood
of an antidote for these poisons — an "anti-
toxin," as it is called. This reaction has been
shown to be possible for a number of specific
infections, and in the case of diphtheria has met
with such practical success as to be deservedly
regarded as the triumph of modern medicine.

Bibliography. — Fliigge, ^Die Mikroorganis-
men' ; Koch, *Zur Untersuchung von pathogen-
en Organismen,' Mittheilungen aus dem Kaiser-
lichen Grundheitsamte 1881, Band, I. S. i ;
Koch, <Untersuchungen iiber die Aetiologie der
Wundinfections-Krankluiten' ; Lofifler, ^Vorles-
ungen iiber die geschichtliche Entwickelung der
Lehre von den Bakterien' ; ^Arcana Naturae,'
detecta ab Antonio von Leeuwenhoek (1695) I
Mason, ^ Water Supply from the Sanitary

BACTERIOLYTIC — BAD LANDS

Standpoint' ; < Purification of Sewage and Wa-
ter/ Report of the Massachusetts State Board
of ' Heahh (1890); ^Bacterial Purification of
Sewage/ Second Report of the Sewerage Com-
mission of the City of Baltimore (1899);
Metchnikoff, ^L'lmmunite dans les Maladies
Infectieuses' (1901); Park, < Bacteriology in
Medicine and Surgery > ; Vallery-Radot, ^Life of
Pasteur' ; Russell, < Outlines of Dairy Bacteriol-
ogy' (1899); Tyndall, ^Essays on the Floating
Matter of the Air.'

A. C. Abbott,

Bacteriologist, University of Pennsylvania.

Bacteriolytic, an agent cap. ble of destroy-
ing bacteria and usually applied to some product
of the human body, or of an animal body, nota-
bly blood serum, which when injected into an
animal is capable of destroying some form of
micro-organism in that animal. The produc-
tion of specific bacteriolytic sera is one of the
great advances in modern medicine and its ex-
tension promises much hope for the future
treatment of many of the bacterial diseases.
Bacteriolytic sera have been made for a num-
ber of micro-organisms. See Immunity.

Bacterium, a genus of bacteria of the fam-
ily Bacillariacece, characterized by rod-shaped
forms and absence of flagella. They are thus
non-motile. A large number of pathogenic bac-
teria belong to this genus. See Bacteria; Ba-
cillus.

Bac'tria. See Bactriana.

Bactriana, bak-tri-a'na, or Bactria, a coun-
try of the ancient Persian empire, lying north of
the Hindu Kush Mountains, on the Upper Oxus.
It corresponded pretty nearly with the modern
Balkh. Here many scholars locate the original
home of the Aryan or Indo-European family of
nations. Its capital, Bactra, or Zariaspa, was
also the cradle of the Zoroastrian religion.
Originally a powerful kingdom, it maintained its
independence until its subjugation by Cyrus
about 540 B.C., when it became a satrapy of the
Persian empire. It was included in the con-
quests of Alexander, and formed a part of the
kingdom of the Seleucidse until the foundation,
about 256 B.C., by Diodotus, of the Greek king-
dom of Bactria, which extended to the Indus,
and which, after a long struggle, was over-
thrown by the Parthians. Numerous coins with
Greek legends have been found in the topes
or burial places to the northeast of Kabul.

Bac'trian Cam'el. See Camel.

Bac'tris, a genus of American palms,
numbering more than 50 species. The genus is
of commercial importance, a tough thread used
for net weaving, being made from the fibres of
Bactris acanthocarpa, and walking-sticks are
manufactured from the long slender stems of
Bactris maraja. The fruit of the latter is con-
sidered a delicacy.

Bactrites, bak-tri'tez, a genus of fossil
ammonites, with a straight shell, and indented,
but not ramified septa. The genus ranges from
the lower Silurian to the Devonian.

Bac'trus, the ancient name of a river in
the province of Balkh, central Asia, upon which
Bactria was situated.

Baculites, bak'u-li'tez, a genus of fossil
ammonites, characteristic of chalk formations,
having a straight, tapering shell.

Bacup, bak'iip, England, a town of Lanca-
shire, 18 miles north from Manchester. There
are a number of churches, chapels, and schools,
a mechanics' institute, court-house, market-hall,
large co-operative stores, etc. The chief manu-
facturing establishments are connected with cot-
ton spinning, and power-loom weaving; there
are also iron and brass foundries and machine-
shops, dye-works, etc., and in the neighborhood
coal-pits and vast stone quarries. Its charter
of incorporation was granted in 1882. Pop.
(1901) 22,505.

Baczko, bats'ko, Ludwig von, German
historian and scholar : b. Lick, Prussia, 8 June
1756; d. 27 March 1823; was educated at
Konigsberg, studying philosophy, medicine, and
law, but became blind in 1777, through an at-
tack of small-pox. In 1816, he was appointed
director of the Institute for the Blind at
Konigsberg. He is the author of 'A History
of Prussia,' a ^History of the French Revolu-
tion,' and ^Concerning Myself and My Com-
panions in Misfortune, the Blind' (1807).

Bad Lands, a name applied to the arid re-
gions of the west, where are districts present-
ing wide areas of hills and ridges of moderate
height, bare of sod and intricately broken by
numerous gullies and ravines. The principal
areas are in the western Dakotas and cen-
tral Wyoming, and smaller examples of bad-land
topography are of frequent occurrence in the
arid regions in various portions of the world.
In the Big Bad Lands of western South Dakota,
east of the Black Hills, there is an area of
about 2,000 square miles, which consists largely
of bad lands occupying extensive basins cut in
a plateau along the White and Cheyenne rivers.
They present wonderfully weird scenery, but
are rarely visited by the average sight-seer.
An extensive area in the valley of the Little
Missouri River is crossed by the Northern P.
R.R. in the vicinity of Medora, and many bad-
land features are visible near the railroad. Typi-
cal bad lands present ridges and mesas from
200 to 400 feet high in greater part, eroded into
fantastic shapes and cut by ravines and gullies
into an endless variety of rugged buttresses
and pinnacles. The materials are mainly light-
colored, sandy clays, and soft sandstones in
nearly horizontal strata, and their bare slopes
are dazzling in the bright sunlight. Most bad
land regions were table-lands originally, and
areas of the old surface remain in level-topped,
grass-covered mesas of various sizes, with bad
land slopes extending to flat-bottomed valleys
of greater or less width. Bad lands exhibit
clearly the close relations of topographic form
to rock texture, tjie homogeneous clays being
carved into regular slopes, in which sandstone
layers give rise to benches, or protect columns
and pinnacles of clay. Bad lands are developed
in soft rocks where a region has been so uplifted
that there is rapid erosion, under arid or semi-
arid climatic conditions. The occasional rains
cut gullies which eventually are deepened into
ravines, and, as the rocks are soft, the erosion
progresses more rapidly than vegetation can
establish itself. In regions of abundant rainfall,
vegetation is so vigorous that it usually forms
a protective mantle on all but the steeper slopes,
but in arid lands, a thin sod is the principal
growth, and it is quickly removed by the rapid
run-off of the torrential rains. The Big Bad

BADLANDS.

Typical views in Big Badlands of South Dakota, showing pinnacles of hard clay capped by sandstone,
the sodless slopes, and in the distance a remnant of the original plateau out of which the Badlands are
eroded.

B ADAGRI — BADEN

Lands of South Dakota have yielded large num-
bers of fossil animals of late Eocene age, which
have made the region famous as a collecting
ground. N. H. Darton,

U. S. Geological Sitn'ey.

Badagri, ba'da-gre, or Badagry, a British
seaport on the Bight of Benin, in the extreme
southwest corner of the British Niger Territory,
Africa. Early in its history it was a noted slave
mart ; contained important manufactories ; and
had a population of 10,000. It was from this
place that, in 1825, Clapperton and Lander
started to explore the African interior.

Badajoz, ba'da-hoth', the capital of the
Spanish province of Badajoz, on the left bank
of the Guadiana, which is crossed by a stone
bridge of 28 arches. It is a bishop's see, and has
an interesting cathedral. During the Peninsular
war, Badajoz was besieged by Alarshal Soult,
and taken in March 181 1. It was twice attempt-
ed by the English, on 5 and 29 May 181 1; was
besieged by Wellington on 16 March, and taken
6 April 1812. Pop. 22,860.

Badakhshan, ba'dakh-shan', a territory of
central Asia, tributary to the ameer of Afghan-
istan. It has the Oxus on the north and the
Hindu Kush on the south ; and has lofty moun-
tains and fertile valleys ; the chief town is Faiza-
bad. The inhabitants profess MohammedanisiTU
Pop. 100,000.

Badalona, ba'da-lo'na, a seaport of Spain,
on the Mediterranean, five miles from Barce-
lona. Pop. 19,200.

Baddeck', a fishing village and summer
resort on Cape Breton Island.

Bad'derlocks (alaria esculenta), an olive-
colored sea weed which grows on rocks in deep
water on the shores of Europe and Iceland. It
has a short cylindrical stem with lateral spore-
bearing process, and a membranous olive-green
frond of 2 to 12 feet long, with a stout midrib.
This midrib, together with the fruits, is eaten
by the inhabitants of the sea coasts of Iceland,
Denmark, Scotland, Ireland, etc., and is said to
be the best of the esculent algae. The name is
supposed to be a corruption of balder-locks.

Badeau, ba-d5', Adam, American military
officer: b. New York, 29 Dec. 1831 ; d. 19
March 1895 ; was educated at private schools.
He served with gallantry in the Union army
during the Civil War ; was on the staff of Gen.
Sherman in 1862-3, and secretary to Gen. Grant
in 1864-9 ; and in the latter year was
retired with the rank of captain in the regular
army and of brevet brigadier-general of volun-
teers, and was appointed secretary of legation in
London. He was consul-general in London,
1870-81, and during this period was given leave
of absence to accompany Gen. Grant on his tour
around the world (1877-8). In 1882-4 he was
consul-general in Havana. After the death of
Gen. Grant he brought suit against his heirs for
payment of services rendered in the preparation
of Gen. Grant's < Memoirs, > which was satis-
factorily settled out of court. His publications
include: ^The Vagabond^ (New York 1889);
< Military History of Ulysses S. Grant' (3 vols.
1867-81) ; ^Conspiracy; A Cuban Romance'
(18185) ; < Aristocracy in England^ (1886) ; and
<Grant in Peace' ('1886).

Baden, ba'den, a grand duchy in the Ger-
man empire. The Rhine separates it from Al-

sace on the east, and Wurtemberg bounds it on
the west. It has an area of 5,823 square miles,
with a population of 1,866,584 in 1900, an in-
crease of 121. 120 over the census of 1895, or a
gain of 1.58 + per cent each year. The country is
mountainous, being traversed by the lofty pla-
teau of the Schwarzwald, or Black Forest, which
attains its highest point in the Feldberg (4,904
feet). The nucleus of this plateau consists of
gneiss and granite. In the north it sinks down
toward the Odcnwald, which is, however, of
different geological structure, being composed
for the most part of red sandstone. The whole
of Baden, except a small portion in the south-
east, in which the Danube takes its rise, belongs
to the basin of the Rhine, which bounds it on
the south and west. Numerous tributaries of
the Rhine intersect it, the chief being the
Neckar. Lakes are numerous, and include a
considerable part of the lake of Constance. The
climate varies much. The hilly parts, especial-
ly in the east, are cold and have a long winter,
while the valley of the Rhine enjoys the finest
climate of Germany. The principal minerals
worked are coal, salt, iron, zinc, and nickel.
The number of mineral springs is remarkably
great, and of these not a few are of great celebri-
ty. The vegetation is peculiarly rich, and there
are magnificent forests. The cereals comprise
wheat, oats, barley, and rye. Potatoes, hemp,
tobacco, wine, and sugar beet are largely pro-
duced. Several of the wines, both white and
red, rank in the first class. Baden has long
been famous for its fruits, also. Of the total
area, 42 per cent is under cultivation, ^j per
cent under forest, and 17 per cent under
meadows and pastures. The farms are mostly
quite small. The manufactures are important.
Among them are textiles, tobacco, and cigars,
chemicals, machinery, pottery ware, jewelry (es-
pecially at Pforzheim), wooden clocks, confined
chiefly to the districts of the Black Forest,
musical boxes, and other musical toys. The cap-
ital is Carlsruhe, about five miles from the
Rhine; the other chief towns are Mannheim,
Freiburg-im-Breisgau, with a Roman Catholic
university ; Baden, and Heidelberg. Baden has
warm mineral springs, which were known and
used in the time of the Romans. Heidelberg
has a university (Protestant), founded in 1386,
the oldest in the present German empire. The
railways have a length of 850 miles, and are
nearly all state property.

In the time of the Roman empire, southern
Baden belonged to the Roman province of Rhse-
tia. Under the old German empire it was a
margravate, which in 1533 was divided into
Baden-Baden and Baden-Durlach, but reunited
in 1771. The title of grand duke was conferred
by Napoleon in 1806, an 1 in the same year
Baden was extended to its present limits. The
executive power is vested in the grand duke,
the legislative in a house of legislature, consist-
ing of an upper and a lower chamber. The
former consists partly of hereditary members;
the later consists of elected representatives of
the people. The revenue is mainly derived from
taxes on land and incomes, and the produce
of crown-lands, forests, and mines. The reve-
nue in 1901 was $37,723,000. Baden sends three
members to the (German Bundesrath, or Federal
(Touncil, and 14 deputies to the Reichstag. Two
thirds of the population are Roman Catholics,
the rest Protestants.

BADEN — BADGER

Ba'den, a town in Switzerland, canton
Aargau. The town {Ober-Baden, or Baden-
im-Aargau) is 12 miles northeast of Aarau,
on the left bank of the Limmat. It has a town-
hall, a handsome Roman Catholic church, a
convent, monastery, hospital, etc., and is cele-
brated for its hot sulphurous baths, which are
employed in gout, rheumatism, and cutaneous
diseases. The hottest springs have a tempera-
ture of 116° F. The Romans were well ac-
quainted with the baths here ; and between the
15th and i8th centuries they were the most cele-
brated in Europe. Pop. (1900) 6,100.

Ba'den-Ba'den (anciently, Civitas Aurelia
Aquensis), a town and watering-place in the
grand-duchy of Baden, 18 miles south-southwest
of Carlsruhe. The older part of the town is
built on a spur of the Black Forest, overhang-
ing the valley of the little stream Oosbach. The
houses here are in general old and high ; the
streets mostly narrow and crooked, and nearly
all steep. The new and larger portion of the
town lies below, and is rich in fine hotels, ele-
gant villas, and handsome private dwellings.
The edifices most deserving of notice are the
New Palace, standing on an isolated height
above the town, and surrounded by fine gardens ;
the town or parish church, containing the tombs
of 14 margraves of Baden ; the Protestant
church, the English church, and the new town-
hall. Baden has been celebrated from remote
antiquity for its thermal baths, which made it
a favorite resort of the Romans. The season
lasts from i May to 31 October, and 60,000
visitors arrive annually. Pop. (1900) 15,700.

Baden-Powell, ba'den-pow"l. Sir George
Smyth, English politician and political writer.
b. Oxford, 24 Dec. 1847; d. 20 Nov. 1898.
He became a member of various impor-
tant commissions, among others that on United
States and Canadian fisheries (1886-87) ; the
new Malta Constitution (1887) ; the Bering Sea
inquiry (i8gi) ; the Joint High Commission
(Washington, 1892) ; and the Paris j^rbitra-
tion (1893). He was author of ^New Homes
for the Old Country^ (1872), a storehouse
of information about Australia; "^Protection and
Bad Times^ (1879) ; 'State Aid and State In-
terference^ (1882) ; 'The Truth About Home
Rule' (1888) • <The Land Systems of India>
(1892) ; etc. He was a member of Parliament
from Liverpool from 1885 till his death.

Ba'den-Pow'ell, Robert Stevenson Smyth,

British military officer ; b. London, 22 Feb.
1857 ; was educated at the Charterhouse School ;
joined the 13th Hussars in 1876; was adjutant
in India, Afghanistan, and South Africa; As-
sistant Military Secretary on the staff in South
Africa in 1887-9; took part in the operations
in Zululand, for which he was highly com-
mended, in 1888; assistant military secretary in
Malta in 1890-3 ; on special service in Ashanti,
commanding the native levies, 1895, for which
he was brevetted lieutenant-colonel ; chief staff
officer in the Matabeleland campaign, for which
he was brevetted colonel, and became lieutenant-
colonel, commanding the 5th Dragoon Guards,
in 1897. In the war in South Africa in 1899-
1900, he signally distinguished himself by his
grand defense of Mafeking, Cape Colony, hold-
ing the town with a small force against repeated
attacks, under an almost continuous bombard-
ment, from 15 Oct. 1899, to 16 May 1900. Three

relief columns were started, the last only being
successful. In recognition of this heroic de-
fense, the queen promoted Baden-Powell to be
a major-general. Gen. Baden- Powell has pub-
lished several works, including 'Reconnaissance
and Scouting' (1890) ; 'Vedette' (1890) ; 'Cav-
alry Instruction' (1895); 'The Downfall of
Prempeh' (1896) ; 'The Matebele Campaign*
(1896), etc.

Baden-bei-Wien, ba'den-bi-ven, a watering
place of lower Austria, about 15 miles south-
southwest of Vienna. It was the Aquae Pan-
nonise, or Cethise of the Romans, and is still
famous for its warm mineral springs, which are
frequented during the season by from 12,000 to
15,000 persons, chiefly from the Austrian cap-
ital. Season from July to September. Pop.
(1900) 17,700.

Badeni, ba'den-e. Count Cassimir Felix,
Austrian statesman: b. Poland, 14 Oct. 1846.
His father, though poor, was a man of in-
tellect, and was made a count by the king of
Poland just before the birth of Cassimir. He
also fell heir to a fortune, and his two sons re-
ceived a university education. Cassimir entered
the Austrian civil service; became district chief
at Zolkiew in 1871 ; minister of the interior
in 1873; governor of Galicia in 1888; and prime
minister of Austria-Hungary, 15 Sept. 1895.
In April 1897, because of inability to maintain
a Liberal majority in the newly elected Reichs-
rath, he resigned with his cabinet, but the em-
peror declined to accept his resignation, and he
remained in office until 28 November, when he
again resigned and a new cabinet was organized.
The principal feature of his administration and
the one which not only caused his fall, but a
long period of political agitation, was his intro-
duction of what is known as the "language ordi-
nance," which allowed the official use of the
Czech language in Bohemia and Mcravia. This
measure alienated the Germans and provoked
a racial conflict of a most bitter character be-
tween them and the Czechs.

Badenweiler, ba'den-vi-ler, a watering
place in the grand duchy of Baden, near Miill-
heim. Its mineral springs are now rated among
the indifferent waters, and it is of interest chief-
ly for the ruins of Roman baths that were dis-
covered in 1847. The foundation of the town
is referred to the time of Hadrian, and the re-
m.ains of the vapor baths, of which there are
excellent specimens, are supposed to be of the
same period. The ruins show a division for
men and for women, each having a large outer
court opening into a dressing-room ; there is
the hot-air bath, the warm bath, and the cold
bath. The walls and steps are in their original
position. The whole structure is 318 feet by 90
feet.

Badge, a distinctive device, emblem, mark,
honorary decoration, or special .cognizance,
used originally to identify a knight or distin-
guish his followers, now worn as a sign of
office or licensed employment, as a token of
membership in some society, or generally as a
mark showing the relation of the wearer to any
person, occupation,, or order.

Badg'er, George Edmund, American states-
man : b. Newbern, N. C, 13 April 1795; d.
13 April 1866; was graduated at Yale College
in 1813; became a lawyer at Raleigh; and was
judge of the North Carolina Superior court

BADGER — BADGLEY

in 1820-5. He was appointed secretary of the the dry plains, where it is still numerous al-
navy, 14 March 1841, resigning after the death though not often seen, because it rarely comes
of President Harrison, and was elected to the abroad except in the night. It dwells in deep
United States Senate in 1846 and 1848. In burrows which it digs for itself and feeds
1853 he was nominated for justice of the United upon gophers, ground-squirrels, such ground-
States supreme court, but was not confirmed, building birds and their eggs and young as it
He serv'ed in the State convention called to pass is able to catch, and, in times of scarcity, upon
on the question of secession, although opposed small reptiles and insects. Badgers abound in
to such measure, and after making a strong the vicinity of prairie-dog towns, whose under-
speech in defense of the Union, was afterward ground homes they can enter or dig out with-
known as a member of the Conservative party, out difficulty. This species is found as far
Badg'er, Joseph, American clergyman, one north as Hudson Bay and south to central
of the earliest missionaries to the country Mexico, where the local variety is called
northwest of the Ohio River: b. Wilbraham, ^'tejon.» When by rare chance a badger is sur-
Mass., 28 Feb. 1757; d. 5 May 1846. He re- pnsed durmg the day too far away from his
ceived his early instruction chiefly from his hole to escape mto it before being observed,
parents, and at the age of 18 joined the "^ squats down, withdrawing nose and feet
Revolutionary army. He remained in service beneath his body, and remains absolutely still,
for four years, then determined to obtain an when his grizzled back looks so much like a
education and engage in the Christian minis- mere hillock of earth that he is likely to escape
try. Entered Yale College in 1781, where he being seen altogether. The extraordinary
maintained himself and his scholarship by al- breadth and fatness of his form is one of his
ternately studying and teaching. He remained strongest characteristics. During the coldest
a few years in Connecticut, then in 1800 was P^rt of the winter he retires to his den and
selected by the missionary society of that State passes the time when no food is to be had
to visit the unsettled parts of Ohio. His work ^ deep sleep The best account of this am-

.1, V- r __i.^i i i_ -_..i.i t _ri, mal IQ tn np fniinH in Dr Pmipc'c < TTnrKoarinfr

rivers w'iVhouVbddgesT^ Duririg"Vhr War of }^97)- The European badger (Meles taxus)
1812 he was appointed by Gen. Harrison chap- '-s very similar in general appearance but dif-
lain to the army in that district, and his lers m anatomical details. Its general habits
knowledge of the countrv was of great service and food are like those of the American badger
to that commander-in-chief ; but he resumed except that in the absence of open plains it
his missionary fun-tions at the close of the dwells in wooded regions and has a fondness
war and continued them till 1835, when he re- for honey, digging it out of the nests of bum-
tired and lived with his onlv daughter. Dur- b'ebees and others which make their homes in
ing the latter years of his 'life he received a pe ground This is the animal formerly used
pension from the United States. |" ,the cruel sport of badger-baiting. A captive

■r, J r r\ T \ ■ 1 cc badgcr was placed in an overturned barrel or

K ^^^^r^fu' ^^""^r ' ^"^^'"'^1" naval officer: ^^^^ similar place, and dogs were set upon it

b. Windham, Conn., 12 Aug. 1823 ; d. for the amusement of seeing the fighting that

20 June 1899; entered the United States navy, resulted. It required a powerful and active

9 Sept. 1841; became lieutenant-commander, dog to overcome the little animal. Frequently,

16 July 1862; commander, 2, July 1866; cap- however, the badger was given no fair chance

tain, 25 Nov. 1872; commodore. 15 Nov. 1881 ; ^ut was compelled to face in the open two o;

and was retired 12 Aug. 1885. He served on ^^ree dogs. From this unmanly sport is de-

the steamer Mississippi during the Mexican ^.-^^^^ ^^e verb «to badger.» Many references

war taking part in the attack on Alvarado ^^^ ^^ ^ ^^^^^^ -^ ^^^] ^ ^^^^ literature to

1846; led the party that attacked and destroyed ^^is amusement, and to the animal itself under

the village of "V utia, Fiji Islands while on the ^j^e old terms «grey» and «brock.» the latter

soop John Adams 1855-6; and m he Civil ,^5,1 -^ common use in northern England and

War commanded the Anacostia, of the Poto- Scotland. Various closely related species and

mac flotilla, 1861-2 and the ironclads Patapsco ^^j-ieties of the badger are to be found in

and Montauk, in the operations in Charleston northern Asia, and other relatives exist in In-

harbor in 1863 : and was acting fleet cap am on . ^ ^ ^ ^ ^^ ^^^.^^ P^^ ^^^^^ ^^^

the flagship Weehawken in the attack on Fort s^^j^.^^oger ; Honey Badger; Ratel; Teledu;

Sumter, i Sept. 1863. Zorilla

Bad'ger a stout burrow-ing carnivorous Bad'ger State, a nickname given to the

mammal of the fur-bearing family AUisteliace, state of Wisconsin

related to the skunks and weasels, species of -n ■,,•,,- > • , c
which inhabit various parts of the northern Badghis, bad-gez , a region north of
hemisphere. Badgers have short legs, elongat- Herat, comprising the cpuntry between the Mur-
ed feet with powerful toes adapted to digging, gjab and the Harirud rivers, as far north as the
heavv jaws with big teeth, and great strength, edge of the desert It lies J"st to the south of
courkge, and cunning. They wear coats of the boundary line between Afghanistan and the
thick fur usually grizzled in brown and gray, Russian territories, as defined in 1887.
the face is striped and the paws are blackish. Badg'ley, Sidney Rose, Canadian archi-
The fur is of considerable value. The Amer- tect : b. near Kingston, Ont.. 28 May 1850. He
ican badger (Taxidea amcricana) was formerly studied architecture in Toronto, and, after prac-
distributed all over the western part of the tising some time in St. Catharines, established
United States from the prairie districts of himself in Cleveland, O. He has made a special-
Ohio and Wisconsin to the Pacific coast, but ty of the architecture of churches and public
has been exterminated by civilization east of buildings, and has planned and erected churches

BADHAM — BAER

in almost all parts of Canada and the United
States, and, among other structures, the Massey
Music Hall, Toronto; the Slocum Library and
Perkins Observatory, in Ohio; Wesleyan Uni-
versity, in Delaware, and the Medical College,
Cleveland. He published an ^Architectural
Souvenir' (1896).

Badham, bad'am, Charles, English educa-
tor: b. Ludlow, 18 July 1813; d. 26 Feb. 1884;
was considered one of the most eminent classical
scholars of his day ; and after serving for sev-
eral years as head master of King Edward
VL's Grammar School at Louth, he became
professor of classics and logic in the University
of Sydney, Australia, 1867. While in Sydney he
established a system of teaching by correspond-
ence, similar to the present university exten-
sion scheme. He published a number of works
on Greek classics, and 'Criticism Applied to
Shakespeare^ (1846).

Badia y Leblich, ba-de'a e la-blech',
Domingo, Spanish traveler: b. 1766; d. 1818;
he visited in 1803 and the four following years
the Mohammedan countries bordering on the
Mediterranean. During the whole of his tour he
professed to be a Mussulman, and traveled under
the denomination of "AH Bey el Abbassi.'' He
was so skilful in carrying out his part that he
deceived Moslem rulers and scholars, and was
at one time in great favor in the court of
Morocco. It is now admitted that he was em-
ployed as a political agent by the Prince of
Peace, at the instigation of Napoleon. His pe-
culiar situation and religious profession gave
him opportunities for making many observations
which could not occur to other travelers, and he
published an account of his travels, with the
title 'Voyages d' AH Bei en Afrique et en Asie.^

Badinguet, ba'daii-ga', afterward Radot, a
Moor, as whom Napoleon HL masqueraded to
escape from the fortress of Ham in 1846; after-
ward a nickname for Napoleon HL He died in
1883.

Badius, ba'de-us, French printer and writ-
er: b. 1462; d. 1535. About 1500 he founded
his printing establishment at Paris, and publish-
ed a number of the classics. He annotated
these himself and wrote also a life of 'Thomas
a Kempis.*

Bad'lam, Stephen, American military offi-
cer: b. Milton, Mass., 25 March 1748; d. 24
Aug. 181 5; entered the Revolutionary army in
1775; became commander of the artillery in the
Department of Canada. On the announcement
of the adoption of the Declaration of Independ-
ence, he took possession of the heights oppo-
site Ticonderoga and named the place Mt. In-
dependence. Subsequently he rendered good
service at Fort Stanwix, and in 1799 was made
brigadier-general.

Bad'man, The Life and Death of Mr., an
allegory by John Bunyan, published in 1680. It
gives a vivid picture of the life of the common
people during the time of Charles II.

Bad'minton. The game now called Bad-
minton is in reality a modification of the very
ancient game of battledore and shuttlecock ; but
it is played on a court 44 feet long by 20 wide
over a net strung across the centre not less than
18 mches deep, with its lower edge five feet from
the ground. The bat is strong, like a racquet
bat, and weighs about five ounces. The shuttle-

cock is feathered after the old fashion. The
service line is drawn six and one half feet from
the net on either side. A line drawn down the
centre, joining the service and base lines, forms
two courts at each end. The game can be
played by two or four, six or eight players.
Each striker scores, or is penalized, according
to the result of the rules. See 'The Ency-
clopcedia of Sport> (N. Y. 1898).

Bad'minton, a special, sweetened claret,
named for the Duke of Beaufort (of Badmin-
ton). As he was a patron of pugilists, the term
came to mean, in the prize ring, blood, for which
claret was previously a slang term.

' Badoc, ba-dok', Philippine Islands, a town
of the province of IHcos Notre, on the Island
of Luzon. Pop. 11,000.

Badoura, ba-doo'ra, the daughter of the
king of China, who falls in love with the sleep-
ing prince in the story of Prince Camaralzaman,
in the 'Arabian Nights' Entertainment.^

Badrinath, ba'dri-nath', a peak of the main
Himalayan range, in Garhwal district. North-
western Provinces, India; 23,210 feet above the
sea. On one of its shoulders, at an elevation
of 10,400 feet, stands a celebrated temple of
Vishnu, w^hich some years attracts as many as
50,000 pilgrims.

Badrulbudar, ba-drool'boo-door', the wife
of Aladdin, in the 'Arabian Nights' Entertain-
ment,^ story of Aladdin and the lamp.

Baebia Gens, be'bi-a jenz, a plebeian clan
of ancient Rome. The first member of the fam-
ily to obtain the consulship w^as Cn. Baebius
Tamphilus (182 b.c.). The other distinguished
ones are known under their family names. Dives,
Herennius, Sulca. etc.

Baedeker, bad'e-ker, Karl, German pub-
lisher: b. 1801 : d. 1859; originator of a cele-
brated series of guide-books for travelers.

Baele, ba-a'le, an African tribe dwelling
northeast of Lake Tchad. It is nomadic, half
heathen and half Mohammedan, and owns large
herds of cattle, camels, goats, and sheep.

Baena, ba-ya'na, Antonio, Portuguese-
Brazilian historian and geographer : b. Portugal
about 1795; d. 28 March 1850; waa an officer in
the Portuguese, afterward in the Brazilian, army.
He studied the geography and history of the
Amazon valley. His principal works were 'The
Ages of Para (1838). a historic compend stop-
ping in 1823, and 'Chorographic Essay on the
Province of Para' (1839), a geographical and
statistical work, giving the details of explora-
tions made by himself. The.^e are still standard
authorities on that region.

Bae'na, Spain, a town in province of An-
dalusia, 24 miles south-southeast from Cordova,
on the Marbella. It has two principal and two
smaller squares, four parish churches, a town-
and court-house, several well-attended schools,
two hospitals, a prison, numerous convents, and
manufactures of linen, woolen and cotton fab-
rics. Large quantities of grain ^nd oil are ex-
ported to Malaga Pop. (1897) 11,994.

Baer, bar, Karl Ernst von, Russian natu-
ralist: b. Piep, Esthonia, 28 Feb. 1792; d.
28 Nov. 1876 ; was professor of zoology at Ko-
nigsberg (1819), and librarian of the Academy
of Sciences at St. Petersburg (1834). His princi-
pal works were 'History of the E)evelopment of

BAER — BAFFIN BAY

Animals^ (2 vols. 1828-37), and 'Researches Bae'yer, Johann Jakob, Prussian geometri-

Into the Development of Fishes* (1835). The cian : b. Muggelsheim, 5 Nov. 1794; d- 10 Sept.

writings of Baer are distinguished for their 1885 ; was an army volunteer in the campaigns

philosophical teachings. of 1813 and 1814; joined the army in 1815;

Baer, William Jacob, artist: b. Cincin- a"d became a lieutenant-general in 1858. He

nati, 29 Jan. i860. He studied at the Munich ^ad charge of a number of geodetic surveys:

Royal Academy, 188(^4, receiving four medals was elected president of the Geodetic Institute

there, and one of his works being purchased '" ^erlm in 1870; and was the author of nu-

by the Academy. Between 1885 and 1892 he "^^^""^ treatises on the refraction of light m

painted portraits and pictures, the latter chiefly the atmosphere, the size and form of the earth,

in the genre style. He then devoted himself ^ '~'

almost exclusively to miniature painting, of Baez, ba'ath, Buenaventura, Dominican

which he became a pioneer of the modern statesman: b. Azua, Haiti, about 1810; d. 21

school. ^A.urora,> <The Golden Hour,' 'In IMarch 1884; aided in the establishment of the

Arcadia, > and 'The Madonna with the Auburn Dominican Republic; was its president in 1849-

Hair> are among his best-known miniatures. 53; was then expelled by Santa Ana and went

Baert, ba-ar', Alexandre Balthazar Fran- to New York; was recalled in 1856 on the

5ois de Paule, Baron de, French writer: b expulsion ot Santa Ana, and again elected

Dunkirk about 1750; d. 23 ^larch 1825; became president; and was re-elected president in 1865

a deputy in the General Assembly of 1789. and 1868. During his last term he signed

When the Revolution became the Reign of Ter- treaties with the United States (29 Nov. 1869)

ror, he fled to the United States, remaining for the annexation of Santo Domingo to the

there some years. He returned to France in United States, and for the cession of Samana

181 5, and once more became deputy, maintaining Bay. The treaties failed of ratification in the

his old position as a moderate reformer. He United States Senate, and caused the downfall

published two historical works, one on Great of Baez.

Britain and her colonies, the other 6n the Baeza, ba-a'tha, Spain, a towm of Andalu-

country between the Black and Caspian seas. sia, 22 miles east-northeast from Jaen. It is

Baert', or Bart, Jean, French sailor: b. pleasantly situated on a height amid rich and

Dunkirk. 1650; d. 1702. He raised himself, un- well-watered plains, and from a distance pre-

der Louis XIV., to the rank of commodore, and sents a very striking appearance wth its old

made the French navy what it was, at that time, walls, churches, and steep-roofed houses. It

The Dutch, English, and Spanish called him the has several good streets and three squares, one

«French Devil.» Bart brought into port a num- of which is lined by a range of porticoes. I he

ber of Dutch and English vessels, burned others, principal edihces are the cathedral the old

landed at Newcastle, and laid waste the neigh- Aliatares tower, the town-hall with a fine fagade,

boring country. In 1694, when there was a and an old monastery, now a theatre. Fop.

scarcity of corn in France, he succeeded several (1902) about 14,300.

times, notwithstanding the watchfulness of the Baffa, baf'fa, a seaport on the southwest

English, in bringing into the harbor of Dunkirk coast of Cyprus. It occupies the site of New

ships loaded with this article. Once he delivered Paphos, which, under the Romans, was full of

a number of such vessels, in the boldest manner, beautiful temples and other public buildings,

from the Dutch, into whose hands they had fall- Baffin, William, English navigator: b.

en, and received, m consequence, letters of nobil- about 1584; d. 23 May 1622. He visited west

ity In 1695 he was taken prisoner by the Eng- Greenland as a pilot in 1612, again in 1615, and

hsh and brought to Plymouth, but managed to j^^je voyages to Soitzbergen in 1613 and 1614.

make his escape. In 1696 he met the Dutch j^ 1616 he ascertained the limits of that vast

fleet froni the Baltic and captured the escort inlet of the sea since distinguished by the ap-

with 40 ships ; but on his return to Dunkirk 13 pellation of Baffin Bay, and also discovered

Dutch ships of the line appeared, and to avoid g^d named Smith's Sound, Lancaster Sound,

a very unequal combat he was obliged to burn ^^^ j^ 1617-22 he was in the emplovment of

the greater part of his captures. From the ^^e East India Companv, and on board vessels

Peace of Ryswick to the breaking out of the belonging to them in the Indian seas. He was

war of the Spanish succession he lived at Dun- j^jUg^i ^^ the siege of Ormuz, on the Persian

^irk. _ G,,lf.

Baetica, be'ti-ka, the central division of Baffin's Bay, an inland sea or gulf in North
ancient Spain under Roman rule, famed for its America, between Greenland and the lands or
fertility, its mines of iron, gold, and silver, and islands north of Hudson Bay, extending from
Its delightful climate. These advantages gave 68° to 78° N., and 55° to 80° W. It communi-
rise to a number of fabulous stories, which ^ates with the Atlantic Ocean by Davis Strait
made it the home of Geryon, an assailant of o^ the south, with the Arctic Ocean by Lancas-
Hercules, and placed there the Elysian Fields, ter Sound and Jones Sound on the west, and
It passed into the hands of the Vandals, and ^ith the Polar Sea by Smith Sound and Robe-
it was the first province conquered by the son Channel on the north. Depth, 200 to 1,050
Moors. fathoms. The tides do not rise more than 10

Baeyer, ba'yer, Adolf von, German chem- feet. The surface of the sea is covered with

ist: b. Berlin, 31 Oct. 1835; son of Johann ice during the greater part of the year, which

Jakob Baeyer; became professor of chemistry extends from shore to shore in winter, though

at Strasburg in 1872, and at Munich, in 1875, possessing a slow, southward movement. In

succeeding Liebig at the latter. He made many spring and summer, the great mass, knov.-n as

important discoveries in organic chemistry, es- the middle ice, begins to move less slowly

pecially cerulein, eosin, and indol. southward, leaving navigable passages on th,e

BAFFIN LAND — BAGDAD

side of Greenland and America, and occasional
channels, or crossings, between these coasts.
The coasts are mountainous, barren, and deeply
indented with gulfs. Whale and seal fishing is
followed. This sea was discovered by the Eng-
lish navigator, Baffin (q.v.), in 1616, while in
search of a passage to the Pacific.

Baffin Land, an island in the Arctic re-
gions west of Greenland. Its area is not exactly
known.

Bafulabe, ba'fii-lab, a town of the French
Sudan, at the junction of two head-streams of
the Senegal, connected by railway with Kayes
on that river.

Bagamoyo, ba'ga-mo'yo, a seaport and
commercial centre of German East Africa op-
posite Zanzibar, and north of Dar-es-Salaam.
Though it has no harbor, and its coast is often
swept by hurricanes, it has a considerable trade
in ivory, copra, caoutchouc, etc. It has a fort,
government house, custom-house, post-office and
telegraph building, station of the German East
African Association, government school, etc.
The climate is unhealthy for Europeans. Fop.
about 18,000.

Bagasse, ba-gas', the name given to sugar
cane in its dry, crushed state, as delivered from
the mill, and after the main portion of its juice
has been expressed ; used as fuel in the sugar
factory, and called also cane trash.

Bagatelle, bag'a-tel', a table ball game of
the class of billiards, played on a table semi-
circular at the top end. The tables vary from
6 to 7 feet in length and are usually about
3 feet 6 inches wide. The game is played by
two or more, one against the other. There are
nine balls, eight white and one black, and nine
holes sunk in the far end' of the table in a
diamond shape, numbered respectively I, 2, 3,
4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9.

The black ball is placed on a spot * in front
of the foremost hole. The player then takes
one of the white balls, and placing it within a
balk line at the lower end of the table, strikes
it with the cue in such a manner that it strikes
the black ball ; both balls go on their courses
and fall, or not, into one or other of the open
cups. Whichever cup the black ball falls into
counts double the number of points normally
allotted to it. Then the player, in like manner,
plays the remaining seven balls up the table.
For so many cups as he fills he counts up his
dots, and that is his score. The highest wins.

Bagau'dae, or Bagaudi, a body of Gallic
insurrectionists of the rural class, who revolted
against the Romans 270 a.d., headed by one
Victoria, called by the soldiers Mother of Le-
gions. Claudius temporarily quelled them, and
Aurelian, by a remission of their taxes in ar-
rears, and by granting them a general amnesty,
made peace with them. Under Diocletian, 280
A.D., they rose again, and their two leaders as-
sumed the title of emperor ; but they were soon
compelled to capitulate, though they retreated
to an island formed by the confluence of the

Marne and Seine, and made a desperate stand
for the victory. The place of this sanguinar
contest was long known as the Fosses do,
Bagaudcs. From this period, the Bagaudse may
be considered as gradually transforming their
activity into a kind of brigandage, which in-
fested the forests and fastnesses of Gaul until
the end of the Western Empire.

Bag'by, George William, American physi-
cian and humorist : b. Buckingham County,
Va., 13 Aug. 1828 ; d. 29 Nov. 1883 ; educated at
Delaware College ; wrote under the pseudonym,
Mozis Addums. He was editor of the Lynch-
burg Express (1853), and ^Southern Literary
Messenger* (1859); State Librarian of Vir-
ginia (1870-8), and contributor to various
magazines. He wrote ^John M. Daniel's Latch-
key > (1868) ; <What I Did With My Fifty Mil-
lions* (1875) ; and ^Meekins' Twinses* (1877).

Bag'dad, a town in Tamaulipas, Mexico,
near the mouth of the Rio Grande, the port of
Matamoras. It was of great importance during
the Civil War to Confederate blockade runners.

Bag'dad, capital of the Turkish vilayet of
lad, situated on the Tigris. The old Bag-
dad, the residence of the caliphs, said to have
had 2,000,000 inhabitants, was situated on the
western bank of the river. The modern city lies
mostly on the eastern bank of the river and is
surrounded with a brick wall about six miles in
circuit, partly in a ruinous condition, and with,
a ditch from five to six fathoms deep, intended
to be filled with water from the Tigris. The
houses, mostly built of brick, are but one story
high, the streets unpaved, and so narrow that
two horsemen can scarcely ride abreast. The
houses of the wealthy are distinguished by a
better architecture. Of the mosques, about 100
in number, only a few attract much notice, and.
many are in ruins. Their architecture is in
general inferior to that of other Mohammedan
cities, but they have a gaudy appearance from
the glazed tiles covering their domes and min-
arets, and arranged in a kind of mosaic work
in various colors. The bazaars are spacious
and well stocked with goods. That built by
Daoud Pasha still ranks as one of the most
splendid in the world. Bagdad long com-
manded a large part of the traffic between Eu-
rope on the one hand, and Persia and India on
the other. The Persian and Indian trade is
still considerable, as also that with Europe, a
large portion of it being carried on by steamers
up and down the river. The trade with Europe
was formerly more largely by land, passing
through the Syrian Desert to Damascus, or by
way of Armenia northward. Since the open-
ing of the Suez Canal the sea routes are of far
more importance. Wool is the chief export to
Europe, others being wheat, gum, galls, dates,
etc. The heat of the summer is oppressive in
Bagdad, but the winter is cold enough to make
a fire necessary. The climate is on the whole
agreeable and healthy, though sometimes the
plague prevails. Bagdad is inhabited by Turks,
Arabs, Persians, Kurds, Armenians, Jews, and
a small number of Christians. The Turks com-
pose three fourths of the whole population. The
Jews are confined to a certain district of the
city, and are in a very oppressed condition.
The population of the city, according to the most
recent estimate, amounts to between 175,000 ancL
200,000.

BAGE— BAGEHOT

Bagdad was founded in •](i2 by the Caliph
Almanzor, and was raised to a high degree of
splendor in the Qth century by the famous
Harun al-Rashid, who figures so often in the
'Arabian Nights.' It then became the chief
city in the Moslem world and a great centre of
culture and learning. In the 13th century it
was stormed by Hulagu (Holagou), grandson
of Genghis-Khan, who caused the reigning
caliph to be slain and overthrew the caliphate.
The descendants of the conqueror were expelled
in 1392 by Tamerlane. In the 15th century Shah
Ismael, the first sovereign of Persia of the
house of Soft, took possession of the city. From
that time it was a perpetual subject of contest
in the wars between the Turks and Persians.
After a memorable siege in 1638 it w^as con-
quered by the Turkish emperor, Murad IV.,
and Nadir Shah endeavored in vain, in the iStli
century, to wrest it from the Turks.

Bage, Robert, English novelist : b. Bar-
ley, Derbyshire, 29 Feb. 1728; d. Tamworth, i
Sept. i8or. He began to write at the age of 53.
Among his works were: 'Mount Henneth'
(1781); 'Barham Downs' (1784); 'Herrn-
sprong, or Man as He Is Not' (1796), etc. The
French social theories then prevailing were em-
bodied in his novels.

Bagehot, Walter, English economist, jour-
nalist, and critic ; b. Landport, Somersetshire,
England, 3 Feb. 1826; d. Landport, 24 March
1877. Bagehot's career was in an uncommon
degree marked for him ?'■ the outset. His father,
Thomas Watson Bagehot, was vice-chairman
of the Somersetshire bank, founded by Samuel
Stuckey in the i8th century. His mother,
a niece of Stuckey, a woman of much char-
acter and lively mind, had, through an earlier
marriage, been brought into an e.xcellent intel-
lectual atmosphere from which, says Hutton,
"she greatly profited." Bagehot, a boy of nat-
urally keen mind and with a habit of reading,
was educated with much good judgment. He
first attended school in Bristol, whence, in 1842,
he entered University College, London, grad-
uating B.A., in 1846, and M.A., with much
honor in philosophy and political economy, two
years later. He was also distinguished as a
mathematician and was widely read in poetry,
metaphysics, and history. Then he took to
reading law, but, though very fond of the study
and though called to the bar in 1852, he never
practised. Instead he entered the banking busi-
ness under his father in Landport. He had pre-
viously, in 1851, spent some time in Parts dur-
ing the exciting days of the coup d'etat of Na-
poleon III. His first essays in journalism were
accounts of the afifairs of France contributed to
a little weekly newspaper, the Inquirer. Herein
Bagehot astounded his friends by a somewhat
youthfully cynical support of the cause of Na-
poleon, on the paradoxical ground that the
French were too clever to be successful as a
self-governing people. Stupidity, according to
his views at that time, was, says Hutton, essen-
tial to political freedom.

_ While in business. Bagehot contributed to re-
views, — first to the Prospective Rez'ie:i' and after
1855 to the National Rczneiv. — various biograph-
ical and critical articles. These, and also sev-
eral sketches originally published as 'Estimates

of Some Englishmen and Scotchmen' (1858),
were collected after his death in 'Literary
Studies' (2 vols., 1878), and 'Biographical
Studies' (1880). In time they extend from
1852 to Bagehot's death. The essays "which
best represent his peculiar genius" (so Hutton)
are 'Tiie First Edinburgh Reviewers,' 'Hart-
ley Coleridge,' and 'Bishop Butler,' but such
essays as those on Gibbon, Shelley, Clough,
Dickens, and Wordsworth, Tennyson, and
Browning, are among the most vigorous pieces
of English criticism. All are distinguished by
a dash and keenness of phrase and an uncom-
mon faculty for sane and broad generalization.
In 1858 Bagehot married Miss WiLson, eldest
daughter of the Right Hon. James Wilson, who
had founded the London Economist during the
anti-corn law agitation to represent free-trade
sentiment. In i860 Bagehot became editor, and
there remained till his death. His practical
knowledge of men, his great experience in busi-
ness, and extensive studies enabled him to win
success in this field, and also to write the books
on which his fame as an economist chiefly rests.
These are 'The English Constitution' (1867),
which is extensively used as a text-book and has
been translated into French, German, and Ital-
ian; 'Physics and Politics' (1872), which has
been even more widely translated; and 'Lom-
bard Street' (1873), a study of the money mar-
ket. Besides the books already named there
anpeared after Bagehot's death 'Economic
Studies,' a collection of earlier work, and
'The Depreciation of Silver.' Bagehot's coun-
sel was much sought for in financi-al and
economic questions. He tried on several occa-
sions, with honesty rather than zeal, to be
elected to Parliament, but never succeeded.

Bagehot, both as a student of institutions and
of men, is entitled to high rank. To this study
he brought, in spite of some natural prejudice
in favor of the institutions and men of his na-
tive land, a mind of thoroughly scientific bent
and much detachment. As a student he is in-
terested in fundamental questions rather than
in minutiae. His broadest book, 'Physics and
Politics,' is an example of this, and may be re-
garded as an exposition of his main methods
and interests. It is an at'.empt to show how the
principle of the survival of the fittest apphes
to the formation of states. The thesis is that
in earliest times and even down nearly to the
present, the people who had the faculty of or-
ganization and obedience, whether in family,
tribe, or nation, were bound to prevail over
those less organized, and that hence obedience
to laws, or rulers of whatever sort was necessary
to political success, until the habit of legality
became ingrained. Hence the nation with the
best militarj' power could seize the best parts
of the earth. If, however, the process stopped
with organization, the nation would in time pre-
sent a case of arrested development, and would
no longer progress ; for the principle of varia-
tion, or originality, is also necessary to com-
plete progress. The best instrument for the
cultivation of variation is free discussion. Hence
arises the explanation of the fact that the west-
ern nations of Europe are far in advance of the
rest of the world, in that they have tempered
the rule of custom with discussion, which has,
historically, been practically limited to peoples

BAGGAGE — BAGLEY

of Greek and Germanic origin. And in general,
on the other hand, discussion is useful in check-
ing the impulse to hast}' action, a relic of prim-
itive civilizations. Bagehot's other longer works
are really exemplifications of this principle :
'The English Constitution^ is substantially an
examination of the means of discussion in Eng-
land and a comparison of it with that in other
states; 'Lombard Street' is an analysis of one
of the phenomena of variation with a view to
expounding and criticising it as an efficient
means of progress.

Bagehot's criticism of literature is likewise
distinguished by breadth and a fondness for the
analysis of causes. It is the criticism, not of
taste or of morals, of the beautiful or the good
and bad, but of types. The manner in which the
mind of his author worked, the type of person
he was, are the fundamental questions of inter-
est with Bagehot. The title, for example, of his
excellent essay on certain famous poets illus-
trates this : ''Wordsworth, Tennyson, and
Browning; or. Pure, Ornate, and Grotesque Art
m English Poetry." These poets are treated as
examples of the three different types of mind
and expression named in the title. Dickens is
an example of the "irregular" genius. Hartley
Coleridge of the whimsical and wayward mind
with a gift for self-revelation, Shakespeare,
arnong other attributes, of the experiencing
mind. Bagehot's criticism 13, in all these es-
says, never formal or academic, but is based on
a wide practical knowled,?re of men. His point
of view he maintains with great consistency,
but always enlivens his criticism with such an
abundance of keen and witty observations that
his criticism is unsurpassed in vigor and is
never dull He, however, founded no school as
certain other critics have done ; for his criticism
Is essentially that of a lively personality and the
impressionism of a scientific and detached mind.

Bibliography — The chief authority for Bage-
hot, besides his own work, is R H. Hutton
('Memoir> prefixed to 'Literarv Studies,' and
'Dictionary of National Biography').

William T Brewster,
Professor of English, Columbia University.

Bag'gage, probably from the old French
word baguc. meaning bundle. As ordinarily
used it includes trunks, valises, portmanteaus,
etc., which a traveler carries with him on a
J0urne3^ In a military sense the word includes
tents, furniture, utensils, etc.

Baggara, biig'ga-ra, an Arabic-speaking
Hamitic tribe of the Upper Nile valley. They
occupy this valley as far east as the territory
of their neighboring negro tribesmen, the Shil-
luk. They are nomads, Egyptian soldiers,
hunters, etc.

Baggesen, Jens, Danish poet, who also
wrote much in German: b. Korsor, 15 Feb. 1764;
d. Hamburg, 3 Oct. 1826. He traveled exten-
sively in Europe, and on his return received
an appointment from the Danish government.
He possessed great sensibility and imagination,
and his works are said to present a singular
mixture of contradictory qualities. His best
productions are his smaller poems and songs,
several of which are very popular with his
countrymen. His 'Seasons' in Danish, are
much esteemed. The 'Labyrinth' is his most
famous work.

Baghelkhand, ba-gel-kund', a tract ot
country in central India, occupied by a collection
of native states (Rewah being the chief, under
the governor-general's agent for central India) ;
area, 11,323 square miles; pop. 1,512,595.

Bagheria, ba'ga-re'a, or Bagaria, a town
of Sicily, eight miles east by south of Palermo
by rail. It is beautifully situated at the base
of the isthmus which separates the Bay of
Palermo from that of Termini and is surround-
ed by groups of palatial villas of the Sicilian
nobility. Pop. 12,650.

Bagimont's (baj'i-monts) Roll, a rent-roll
of Scotland, made up in 1275 by Baiamund or
Boiamond de Vicci, vulgarly called Bagimont
who was sent from Rome by the Pope, in the
reign of Alexander III., to collect the tithe of all
the Church livings in Scotland for an expe-
dition to the Holy Land. It remained the statu-
tory valuation, according to which the benefices
were taxed, till the Reformation. A copy of it,
as it existed in the reign of James V., is in the
Advocates' Library, Edinburgh.

Bagirmi, ba-ger'me, a Mohammedan ne-
gro state in central Africa, situated partly be-
tween Bornu and Wadai, to the southeast of
Lake Chad, and watered by the Shari, which
falls into Lake Chad, and by its tributaries. It
has an area of about 65,000 square miles, and
about 1,500,000 inhabitants ; but both its area and
population fluctuate according as it encroaches
on or is encroached on by its neighbors. The
whole country is a plain 900 feet above the level
of the sea, well suited for the cultivation of
sorghum, which is accordingly the principal
breadstuff. Sesame, beans, cotton, and indigo
are also cultivated. The government is an abso-
lute monarchy, but the ruler pays tribute to
Wadai. Bagirmi was formerly included in one
state with Bornu and Wadai. An inexhaustible
supply of slaves is found in the heathen negro
states to the south, at the expense of whom
also Bagirmi, when pressed by its Mohamme-
dan neighbors, extends its territory. The cap-
ital is Masena, situated about the centre of the
state. By Great Britain and Germany Bagirmi
has latterly been recognized as within the
French sphere of influence, and in 1897 a treaty
was concluded between the French government
and the Sultan. There is a French resident in
the capital.

Bag'ley, "Worth, American naval officer:
b. Raleigh, N. C, 6 April 1874; d. 11 May
1898. He was graduated at the United States
Naval Academy in 1895 ; promoted to ensign, i
July 1897, and was detailed as inspector to the
new torpedo-boat, Winslow, in November fol-
lowing. This boat went into commission the
next month, and he was appointed her execu-
tive officer. In April 1898 the Winslow was
assigned to the American fleet off the coast of
Cuba, and on 9 May, while on blockading duty
at the harbor of Cardenas, with the Wilmington
and Hudson, drew the fire of several Spanish
coast-guard vessels. All the American vessels
escaped untouched. Two days afterward the
three vessels undertook to force an entrance
into the harbor, when they were fired on by
Spanish gunboats. The Winslow was disabled,
and with difficulty was drawn out of the range
of the enemy's guns. The Wilmington then
silenced the Spanish fire, and as the action
closed, Ensign Bagley and four sailors on the

BAGLIONI — BAGOT

Winslow were instantly killed by a shell, he
being the first American naval officer to fall in
the war with Spain.

Baglioni, ba-lyo'ne, a historical family of
Perugia in Italy. Perugia contained two parties
— an aristocratic and a democratic one. The
Baglioni belonged to the former. In the 12th
century Ludovico Baglioni was appointed im-
perial vicar of Perugia by Frederic Barbarossa,
who styles Baglioni his relative, as coming, like
himself, from the ducal house of Swabia. In
I393> 70 Perugian gentlemen, and among them
tn-o Baglionis, were killed in a street fight by
the populace, and the whole aristocratic party
was expelled from the city. Braccio Baglioni,
in the service of the Pope, defeated Francesco
Sforza. near Lodi, in 1453, and was made lord
of Spello by Sixtus IV. Gian Paolo Baglioni
began life as a condottiere; then availing him-
self of the dissensions of his native state he ob-
tained supreme power over it and made alliance
with Pandolfo Petrucci, ruler of Sienna. He
was driven out of Perugia by Csesar Borgia in
1502. Returning in 1503, after the death of
Alexander VI., he was banished again, in 1506,
by Julius II. He then entered the service of the
Venetians in the war of the league of Cambray.
He resumed his old position as ruler of Perugia
in 1513. Here he created so much scandal that
Leo X., who at first passed over his usurpa-
tion, summoned him to Rome, threw him into
the castle of St. Angelo, had him tried, and he
was beheaded at Rome in 1520. Malatesta and
Orazio, his sons, recovered possession of Peru-
gia after the death of Leo. Orazio turned con-
dottiere in the seivice of France, and was
killed in the Neapolitan expedition of 1528. Ma-
latesta remained in Perugia until 1529, when he
was driven out by the papal and imperial troops.
He died at Perugia in December 1531. In the
i6th century Astorre Baglioni served Charles
V. in Italy and on the coast of Tunis, and rose
high in the favor of Pope Paul III., who re-
stored to him his paternal estates. He then
entered the Venetian service, and was governor
of Famagosta in Cyprus when the Turks be-
sieged it in 1570. After a brave defense he was
obliged to capitulate on condition of being sent
home to Venice with his garrison. But Musta-
pha Pasha, disregarding the terms, caused Bag-
lioni and the other Venetian officers to be be-
headed.

Baglivi, ba-lye-ve, Giorgio, Italian phy-
sician: b. Ragusa, Sicily, 1669; d. Rome, 1707.
He became a disciple of the celebrated physiol-
ogist and anatomist, Malpighi ; was appointed
professor of medicine in the College de Sapien-
za, Rome, by Pope Clement XL, and afterward
became professor there of anatomy. In op-
position to the system known as Galenism, in
medicine, he founded that of solidism, which
locates all disease in the solid portions of the
human anatomy. His principal writings were
published under the title of ^ Opera Omnia Med-
:co-Practica et Anatomica^ (1704).

Bagnacavallo, ba'nya-ka-val'lo, Bartolom-
meo Ramenghi, Italian painter: b. 1484;
d. 1542; called Bagnacavallo from the village
where he was born. At Rome he was a pupil of
Raphael and assisted in decorating the gallery
of .the Vatican. His best works are: ^Dispu-
tation of St. Augustine^ and ^A Madonna and
Child,' both in Bologna.

Bagnferes de Bigorre, ba'nyar' de be-gor'
anciently Aquensis Vicus, Aqucs Bigerronum),
a celebrated watering-place of France, in the de-
partrnent of Hautes Pyrenees, capital of the ar-
rondissement of the same name, at the entrance
of the valley of Campan, on the left bank of the
Adour, 13 miles south-southeast from Tarbes.
Its site is one of the most romantic in the Pj'-
renees. Well-cultivated slopes surround it on
all sides, and are terminated in the distance by
a mountain range, the most conspicuous summit
in which is the Pic du Midi. The town is well
built and contains several good squares and
numerous spacious, handsome streets. Bagneres
owes its chief celebrity to its baths, which are
sulphurous and saline. The bathing establish-
m.ent, called Fracasti, is very complete, and is
the largest and most handsome building of the
town. It stands at one of its extremities, imme-
diately under Mount Olivet, and is approached
by a long avenue of poplars winding through a
verdant valley. The inhabitants depend chiefly
on the baths, almost every house receiving
lodgers ; but the manufactures are of some im-
portance. The chief of these are a kind of
crape and a fine woolen gauze woven into
shawls and scarfs. The springs here were
known to and used by the Romans, and various
ancient remains are still in existence. Pop.
6,907.

Bagneres de Luchon, ba'nyar' de lU-shoh',
a town of France, in the department of Haute-
Garonne, one of the principal watering-places of
the Pyrenees, having sulphurous thermal waters
said to be beneficial in rheumatic and gouty
complaints, nervous ailments, skin diseases, etc.,
and used chiefly as baths. The town is situated
in the picturesque valley of Luchon, surrounded
by hills covered with wood. The main street
forms a splendid avenue, at the west end of
which the large bathing establishment is placed.
There is also a large and splendid casino build-
ing of recent erection, comprising a theatre,
concert and ball rooms, etc., and containing a
large-scale model of the Pyrenees, giving an
excellent idea of the configuration of the range.
The neighborhood exhibits some of the most
interesting scenery of the Pyrenees. Visitors
number from 30,000 to 40,000 annually, and
are most numerous in the months of July and
August. Resident pop. 4,000.

Bagni, ba'nye (Italian for "baths*), a
name in Italy for various places which possess
natural baths or thermal springs, distinctive ap-
pellations being appended to mark the particu-
lar locality. Thus there are Bagni San Giu-
liano, in the province of Pisa, and some four
miles northeast of the citj' of that name; and
Bagni di Lucca, in the province of Lucca, and
about 13 miles northeast of the city of Lucca,
one of the most frequented of the bathing places
of Italy.

Bagot, Sir Charles, British diplomatist:
b. 23 Sept. 1781 ; d. Kingston, Canada, 18 May
1843. He was the second son of William, first
Lord Bagot. In 1807 1 •. was appointed under-
secretarj' of state for foreign affairs in the
Canning administration ; in 1814, minister to
France ; in 1820, ambassador at St. Petersburg ;
and in 1824. ambassador in Ho"and. On the
death of Lord Sydenham he was made governor-
general of the Canadas, which office he held till
his demise.

BAGOT — BAHAMA BANK

Bagot, Richard, English bishop, brother
of the preceding: b. 22 Nov. 1782; d. 15 May
1854. In 1829 he was made bishop of Oxford,
and in 1845 he was promoted to the bishopric of
Bath and Wells. During the Tractarian con-
troversj' he was violently assailed for his Pusey-
ite predilections, and for his induction of the
Rev. M. Bennett into the living of Frome. This
had such an effect on Bishop Bagot that his in-
tellect became disturbed.

Bag'pipe, a well-known wind instrument,
of high antiquity among various nations, and
so long a favorite with the natives of the High-
lands of Scotland that it may now be considered
as their national instrument. The peculiarity
of the bagpipe consists in the fact that the air
producing the music is collected into a leathern
bag, from which it is forcibly pressed into the
pipes by the arm of the performer. The chanter,
a pipe into which is inserted a reed for the
production of the sounds by the action of the
air from the bag, is perforated with holes like
the German flute, which are stopped with the
fingers. The other parts of the instrument, in
the common Highland form, are three tubes or
drones, which are also furnished with reeds.
Two of the drones are in unison with D on
the chanter, which corresponds with the lowest
note of the German flute. The third drone, which
is the longest, is an octave lower. The tuning
of the bagpipe is accomplished by lengthening
or shortening the tubes or drones, as may be
required. Its compass is from the G of the
treble stave to the A above it, but its scale is
imperfect. The Highland bagpipe is a power-
ful instrument, and calls for great exertion of
the lungs, the air being forced into the bag by a
pipe held between the lips. The Irish bagpipe
is smaller, softer in its notes, and is always
played with bellows that force the air into the
bag. It has a number of keys on the chanter
and drones, and is a much more perfect instru-
ment musically than the Highland. A Low-
land Scotch form of the bagpipe is also played
with bellows. It is not known when the bagpipe
first found its way into Scotland, but it is prob-
able that the Norsemen first introduced it into
the Hebrides, which islands the}-^ long possessed.
In England it was common from Anglo-Saxon
times, and is familiarly referred to by Chaucer
and Shakespeare. The bagpipe is indeed of very
ancient origin, as representations of it are to be
found on Grecian and Roman sculptures ; and it
has long been well known among various east-
ern nations. In Italy to this day, or at least in
certain parts of it, the bagpipe is still a popu-
lar instrument among the peasantry, but the
Italian form of it is more simple than the
Highland and Irish.

Bagratidae, bag-ra'ti-de, or Bagratians, a
line of kings and princes of Armenia that ruled
in that country from the year 885 to the nth
century. After the seizure of Asia Minor by
the Seijuks, some of the princes retained power
as independent lords, holding the possession of
mountain fastnesses. The dynasty ended with
Leo IV., who was assassinated in 1342.

Bagration, ba-gra'te-6n', Peter, Prince,
Russian general, of the Georgian Bagradite
family: b. about the year 1762; d. 7 Oct. 1812.
He entered the Russian army in 1782 as a com-
mon soldier; and in a long military career rose
to the highest grades, and gained a place among

those Russian generals the most celebrated for
their stubborn, unyielding bravery. Having been
created a lieutenant-general, he commanded the
vanguard of the Austrian army at Austerlitz,
under Prince Lichtenstein. In the Prussian
campaign of 1807, his resistance made the battle
of Eylau so terrible that even Napoleon shud-
dered at its bloody results. The same is said
of him at the battle of Friedland. In 1808 he
overran Finland, western Bothnia, and the
Aland isles ; in 1809 he fought at Silistria, and
destroyed the Turkish force brought up from
Adrianople to relieve that fortress. In 1812 he
fought an unsuccessful battle with Davoust at
Mohileff, but succeeded, nevertheless, in join-
ing the Russian main army. He was mortally
wounded at the battle of ]\Ioja'isk or Borodino,
7 Sept. 1812, just a month before he died.

Bag'shaw, Edward, English author: date
of birth unknown; d. 1G62. He espoused at
first the cause of the Puritans, but later be-
came a Royalist, and sat in the parliament that
Charles I. convened at Oxford ; was taken
prisoner by the Parliamentary army, and, during
his detention, composed various books, the most
important of which is *The Right of the Crown
of England as Established by Law.'

Bagshot Heath, a level tract in England,
now -used as a field for military manoeuvres. It
is famous as the site of many highway rob-
beries in the i8th century.

Bag'stock, Major Joe, an apoplectic, glut-
tonous character in Dickens' novel, ^Dombey
and Son.'

Bagworm, or Basketworm, a common
caterpillar of a moth (Thyriadopteryx ephe-
merccforniis) , found in large numbers through-
out the northern part of the LTnited States.
The male has a dark body and light wings, but
the egg-laying female is wingless. The larva
lies head downward in a sac or case covered
with bits of leaves (so that it looks like a bas-
ket), where it finally transforms, the worm-like
female remaining in its case, while the male
flies sluggishly about, and may be known by its
hairy body and small transparent wings. When
the young hatch (in May), they crawl on a
leaf, gnawing little bits from the surface and
fastening them together with a thread. They
present a comical sight when the baskets are
partly completed, walking about, tail in the air,
with the body hidden in the case. As they
grow older the body is entirely protected by
the sac, which they drag about when in motion.
These insects frequent the trees in city parks,
especially junipers, in great numbers, and are
apt to be detrimental to foliage unless destroyed
by scraping off the cocoons. Certain small spe-
cies occur on the orange in Florida, and others
in the tropics. See Faggotworm.

Bahadur, ba-ha'door, the last Great Mogul
from the house of Tamerlane: b. 1767; d. 1862.
When the British captured Delhi, he was taken
prisoner, and sent to Rangoon. He was also
a poet and wrote a number of songs.

Baha'ma Bank, Great and Little, shoals
among the West India Islands; the former be-
tween 22° and 26° N., 75° and 79° W., having
south and west the Bahama old and new chan-
nels. On it are the islands of Providence, An-
dros, and Exuma. The Little Bank, northwest
of the foregoing, between 26° and 27° N., 77°

BAHAMA CHANNEL ; BAHAMAS

and 79° W., has on it the Great Bahama and
Abaco Islands.

Baha'ma Channel, Old and New, two

channels of the West Indies ; the former sep-
arates the Great Bahama Bank and Cuba ; the
latter, also called the Gulf of Florida, is be-
tween the Great and Little Bahama Banks and
Florida, and forms a part of the channel of the
great Gulf Stream, which tiows here at the r^te
of from two to five miles an hour.

Bahamas, The, or The Bahama Islands,

■were formerly known as the Lucayos, from
the name of a tribe of aborigines inhabiting
them at the time of their discovery by Colum-
bus in 1492. The scene of the first landing was
an island on the outer or Atlantic side of this
group to which Columbus gave the name San
Salvador. By the natives that island was
called Guanahani, and it is now known as Wa-t-
ling Island. The total habitable area of the is-
lands is small, but the extent of the group, in-
cluding cays and rocks rising from banks near
the surface of the water, is very great — nearly
six degrees of latitude, and more than six de-
grees of longitude. Stretching through a total
distance of 780 miles, these islands and banks
form a barrier between the Atlantic and the
eastern entrance to the Gulf of Mexico. To
reach the Florida Strait, a large vessel must
follow one of three channels : the Old Bahama,
north of Cuba ; the Florida, and the Providence.
The last passes through the group above Nas-
sau, the capital and only important city, an
attractive place with about 10,000 inhabitants.

The researches of Prof. Agassiz have shown
that the Bahamas are essentially different in
geological formation from the Greater and Less-
er Antilles, being ^Svind-blown piles of shell
and coral sand, — once much more extensive
than now, — whose areas have been restricted by
a general regional subsidence of some 300 feet,
so that much of their former surface now oc-
curs as shallow banks beneath the water. Mr.
Robert T. Hill says : <*The islands are merely
the exposed tips of a great submerged ridge,
having an outline and configuration which would
be crudely comparable to the island of Cuba if
the latter were so submerged that its highest
points merely reached the surface.''

The Indian population having been carried
away to the pearl fisheries of Panama, or to
labor in the fields and mines of other Spanish
colonies, the Bahamas remained deserted un-
til, in 1629, an English settlement was begun
in the island of New Provide.ice. Twelve
years Ikter, Spain asserted her claim, based upon
discovery without occupation. The English
were expelled, but again attempted colonization ;
and Charles II., in 1680, actually granted
the islands to six English noblemen and gen-
tlemen. Early in the i8th century New Prov-
idence was twice raided by French and
Spanish forces ; and again it became a desert.
Buccaneers of all nations made themselves at
home, and held undisputed possession, until
another English settlement was planted in 1718,
and British troops assigned to its defense. Tory
emigrants from the English colonies on the
mainland at the time of the Revolution intro-
duced slave labor and the cultivation of cotton —
v/hich did not thrive. New Providence was
captured and held for a short time by the Amer-

\'ol. 2 13.

icans under Commodore Hopkins in 1776; six
years later it fell into the hands of the gov-
ernor of Cuba, but was retaken by the loyalist
Col. Deveaux before 12 months had passed. The
rights of the old lord proprietors were pur-
chased in 1787, the Bahamas becoming a pos-
session of the British Crown, administered by a
colonial government.

During the Civil War in the United States
an enormous blockade-running trade swelled the
imports of the islands from a little more than
$1,000,000 to upward of $26,000,000; the ex-
ports from about $800,000 to more than
$23,000,000 — a period of prosperity both brief
and unique. Violent storms and droughts have
more than once brought ruin to the natural in-
dustries ; the cultivation of small fruits, vege-
tables, oranges, pineapples, cocoanuts, etc., has
been carried on at a disadvantage, owing to the
tariff laws of the United States, and the re-
moteness of other market-s. Other forms of
agriculture have been attempted, with moderate
success. Sponge-fishing is carried on extensive-
ly. At the eastern end of the group are the
Turks and Caicos islands, which were sep-
arated politically from the Bahamas, and made
a dependency of Jamaica in 1848. Grand Turk
is the capital, and there the chief executive of-
ficer, or commissioner, resides. From these is-
lands 1,500,000 bushels of salt are exported
annually, and a large number of sponges are
also gathered and exported. The total value
of imports to all the islands is about $825,000,
the United States supplying nearly three fourths
of that amount. Besides Turks and Caicos, the
principal inhabited islands are : New Provi-
dence, with about 15,000 inhabitants; Abaco,
Harbor Island, Eleuthera, Mayaguana, Ragged
Island, Rum Key, Exuma. Long Island, Long
Key, the Biminis, Great Bahama, Crooked, Ack-
lin. Cat, Watling. Berry, and the Andros Is-
lands. The inhabitants of Great Abaco are
chiefly descendants of the American Tories, re-
ferred to above. Harbor Island has about 2,000
Inhabitants, who are descendants of the buc-
caneers. Largest and most densely wooded are
the Andros Islands.

From November to May the temperature
ranges between 60° and 75° F. ; in the summer
months it varies from 75° to 85°. The cli-
mate, though subject to greater extremes of
heat and cold than that of other groups in the
West Indies, is agreeable and health-giving;
and Nassau is a favorite resort for tourists in
winter. The population (about 54,000), includes
a large proportion of negroes, the natural in-
crease among the descendants of former slaves
being greater than among the descendants of
the white settlers. There is little immigration.
Good schools are maintained by the govern-
ment, and by the Church of England. The ad-
ministration of the islands is conducted by a
governor, and an executive council. Members
of the representative assembly, 29 in number,
are elected by suffrage. There is a legislative
council. From Nassau cables run to Florida
and the Bermudas. A line of steamers connects
the capital with London, and there is regular
mail connection with New York and Florida. _

Authorities. — Xuba and Porto Rico, with
the Other Islands of the West Indies,^ by
Robert T. Hill; 'Amerika,> by Rudolf Cronau.
M.\RRioN Wilcox,
Authority on Latin-America.

BAHAR — BAHRAICH

Bahar, ba-har', province in India. See
Behar.

Bahar, ba-har', or Barre, the name of cer-
tain weights used in several places in the East
Indies. They have been distinguished as the
great bahar, with which are weighed pepper,
cloves, nutmegs, ginger, etc. ; and the little
bahar, with which are weighed quicksilver, ver-
milion, ivory, silk, etc. But this weight varies
much in different parts of the East, being in
some places not much above 400 pounds, in
others considerably over 500.

Bahawalpur, ba-ha'wal-poor', India, town
and capital of a state of the same name in the
Punjab, two miles from the Sutlej. It is sur-
rounded by a mud wall and contains the exten-
sive palace of the Nawab, a vast square pile
with towers at the corners. It has under-
ground rooms, which afford a more comfortable
temperature in the warm season than the upper
rooms. Silk goods are manufactured. Pop.
about 14,000. The state has an area of 17,285
square miles, of which 10,000 is desert, the
only cultivated lands lying along the Indus and
Sutlej. Cultivation largely depends upon irriga-
tion, which has been considerably extended in
recent times, with a great increase to the state
revenue. The chief crops are cereals, cotton,
and indigo. The political relations between the
British government and the state are regulated
by a treaty concluded in 1838. No tribute is
exacted from the Nawab. Pop. 720,700.

Bahia, ba-e'a, or Sao Salvador da Bahia,

so named because it is situated on a large har-
bor or bay, ranks, in population and importance
among the cities of Brazil, next to Rio de Ja-
neiro. It lies about 740 miles north of Rio, in
lat. 13° i' S., and Ion. 38° 32' W. Amerigo
Vespucci visited this port on his voyage of ex-
ploration in 1503. Before 1763 Bahia was the
capital of Brazil, and in the i6th century it
was the scene of frequent conflicts between the
Portuguese and the forces of other European
nations (see Brazil). At present it is the
capital of the state of Bahia, which has
great natural resources in its mines and for-
ests, as well as in fertile lands devoted largely
to the cultivation of sugar-cane. The location
of the city is picturesque, its upper portion being
built on high ground several hundred feet above
the sea-level. On the upper terraces stand
churches, the cathedral, convents, a great the-
atre, the mint, and the governor's palace. Be-
low, bordering the port, which has a fine light-
house and is defended by several forts, are
docks and warehouses where the products of
the country, — coffee, sugar, cotton, dye-woods,
tobacco, rum, hides, horns, and tallow, — are
collected, to be shipped to all parts of the world.
Bahia has an excellent public library, which was
founded in 181 1; its manufactures have received
attention in recent years, and formerly it was
the headquarters of the diamond trade before
the mines of South Africa and southern Brazil
were developed. The population is somewhat
more than 200,000, with an annual increase of
nearly 6,000.

Marrion Wilcox.

Bahia Blanca, ba-e'a blan'ka, Argentina,
an important seaport town in the state of Buenos
• Ayres. The town has an excellent harbor and

is the seat of a considerable foreign trade. The
United States is represented by a consular agent.
Pop. (1903) 11,600.

Bahia Honda, ba-e'a on'da, a seaport of
Cuba, on the coast of the Gulf of Mexico, and
lying' on a small bay, bearing the same name,
which affords one of the best harbors on the
island. The town and bay are about 50 miles
west of Havana, being commanded by a small
fort. There are mines of coal and copper in the
vicinity. A short distance to the south are the
sulphur springs of Aguacate.

Bahr, bar, Johann Christian Felix, Ger-
man philologist: b. Darmstadt, 13 June 1798;
d. 29 Nov. 1872; educated at Heidelberg Gym-
nasium and University, of which last he became
ordinary professor of classical philology in
1823. His chief work is his 'History of Ro-
man Literature^ (1828; 4th ed. 1868-70), which
is noted for its clearness and comnrehensive-
ness. Three supplements to this work deal with
the 'Christian Poets and Historians of Rome*

(1836) ; the 'Christian-Roman Theology^

(1837) ; and the 'History of Roman Literature
in the Carlovingian Period' (1840). His edi-
tion of 'Herodotus' (2d ed. 1855-61) is also
noteworthy.

Bahr, bar, an Arabic word signifying sea
or large river ; as in Bahr-el-Huleh, the Lake
Merom in Palestine ; Bahr-el-Abiad, the White
Nile, Bahr-el-Azrek, the Blue Nile, which to-
gether unite at Khartum.

Bahr-el-Ghazal, bar'el-ga-zal', name of two
rivers in central Africa: one flows from Lake
Chad through a desert region ; the other is
formed by the union of several streams near the
Congo Free State, and flows eastward through
a very swampy region, an^ shortly after leav-
ing Lake No unites with the Bahr-el-Jebel to
form the White Nile. Its banks are apt to be
very indefinite owing to inundations. In 1869
Schweinfurth explored the greater part of its
basin. The head of steam navigation on the
river is Meshra-er-Rek. The basin of these two
rivers is a province of the same name. A set-
tled government was established there on behalf
of Egypt in 1878, but the Mahdist rebellion
temporarily severed its connection with that
country. Since the reconquest of the Egyptian
Sudan by the British and Egyptian forces un-
der Kitchener, however, the Bahr-el-Ghazal has
been again brought under a settled administra-
tion. It is said to be rich in ivory, rubber, and
timber, and suited for cotton growing. The
Ubangi district of the French Congo lies to
the west of the Bahr-el-Ghazal.

Bahr Yusuf, bar yoo'suf, or Bahr el Yusuf,

an artificial irrigation channel from the left
bank of the Nile below Sint, to the Fayum ; 270
miles long. According to Coptic traditions it
was constructed during Joseph's administration.

Bahraich, ba-rlch', a town of Hindustan,
capital of Bahraich district, Faizabad division,
Oudh. The town is in a flourishing state ; it is
drained and lighted, and carries on a good local
trade. The chief edifice of interest is the shrine
of Musand, a warrior and saint of the nth
century, which attracts both Hindu and Moham-
medan pilgrims to the number of 150,000 an-
nually. The American Methodist mission has
a station and a school here. Pop. about 24,000.

BAHRAL — BAIKIE

Bahral, ba'ral, or Burrel, a wild sheep
(Ovis naliura) of the high plains of Tibet, which
resembles a goat in appearance, although it
has no beard. The rams carry large flattened
and nearly smooth horns, which curve outward
and backward, but do not curl. The general
color is brown, becoming gray in winter, while
the abdomen and insides of the legs and tail
are white ; a stripe along the sides and on each
side of the face, the throat, and the front of
the legs, are black, interrupted by white patches
at the knees and above the hoofs. The fe-
males are plainer and have small horns. This
animal, which is a favorite object of sport in
Tibet, passes its whole time above the limit of
forest growth, and clambers about the rocks in
the manner of a goat rather than of a sheep.
It is believed that these animals, which are of-
ten kept captive by the mountaineers, have in-
fluenced the Asiatic races of domestic sheep.
Consult Lydekker, ^Roval Natural History,^
Vol. II. (London 1895)'.

Bahrdt, bart, Karl Friedrich, German
theologian : b. Bischofswerda, Saxony, 25 Aug.
1741 ; d. Halle, 22, April 1792; studied in Schul-
pforte and Leipsic, where he first showed
his great talents. In 1762 he was appointed
professor in the University of Leipsic. His
works and his talents as a preacher pro-
cured him many admirers, but in consequence
of immoral conduct he was obliged to quit that
city in 1768. From this time he led an un-
settled life. He was successively professor of
theolog}^ and preacher in Erfurt (where he was
made doctor of theolog>-), in Giessen, Switzer-
land, and in Diirkheim, but was obliged to leave
each of these places on account of his severe
attacks on the clergy and the heterodox views
manifested in his writings and sermons, as well
as on account of his irregular life. The Aulic
Council declared him disqualified to preach or to
publish unless he would revoke the religious
principles advanced in his works. In 1779 he
went to Halle, where he published his creed.
It is thoroughly deistical. denying the miracles,
and not insisting on the immortality of the
soul. He lectured in Halle, but soon became
involved in difficulties with the clerg}^ ; upon
which he left the city, and established, in a
neighboring vineyard, a public-house, where he
had many customers, whose vitiated tastes and
depraved habits he made no scruple of gratify-
ing. Ultimately, in consequence of two works
which he wrote, the patience of government was
exhausted. He was brought to trial, con-
demned, and confined in the fortress of Magde-
burg. Here he wrote his life. At the end of a
year, having regained his liberty, he again
opened his public-house at Halle, where he died.

Bahrein, ba-ran', or Aval Islands, a
group of islands lying on the south side of the
Persian Gulf, since 1867 under British protec-
tion. The principal island, usually called Bah-
rein, is about 27 miles in length and 10 in
breadth. It is in general very flat and low,
a mere shoal hardly 20 feet above sea-level ;
though in the centre there are hills 400 feet
high. The soil is not fertile except in some
places, and is often cultivated by means of ir-
rigation. Excellent dates are produced. Fish-
ing is an important industry, and the pearl-
fishery here is famous. The inhabitants are a
mixed race. The principal town is ]\Ianameh or
Manama ; pop. 25,000. The island of Moharrek.

separated from Bahrein by a strait two miles
broad and only about three feet deep at ebb, is
much smaller than it ; but contains a town called
also Moharrek, w-hich is the present seat of gov-
ernment, and has a population of 22,000. The
islands are governed by a sheikh. The total
population is estimated at 70,000.

Baiae, bi-e, iiaiy, a piace where wealthy
Romans had their summer homes, the favorite
abode of the dancing-girls and the buffoons. It
is now deserted, and mteresting to the stranger
only for the ruins of old baths, which are shown
as temples, and for the remains of former
palaces, visible beneath the waves of the sea.
Baiae owes its fame to its hot baths, and its
situation on a most charming bay, secured by
surrounding hills from the violence of the winds.
The life of the Romans 'there was particularly
luxurious and dissolute. It has now entirely lost
its ancient position of importance.

Baidyabati, bad'ya-ba'te, a town of Ben-
gal, situated on the river Hugli, about 15 miles
from Calcutta, with an important market for
jute and other produce. Pop. about 18,400.

Baif, ba-e, Jean Antoine de, French
poet: b. 1532; d. 1589; one of the literary league
known as the * Pleiade,^ and the chief advocate
of its plan of reducing French poetry to the
metres of the classic tongues ; also a spelling
reformer, in favor of the phonetic system. His
most meritorious works were translations of
Greek and Roman dramas.

Baikal, bl-kal', a lake of Siberia, 360 miles
long from southwest to northeast, and from 20
to 53 in breadth, interspersed with islands ; Ion.
104° to 110° E. ; lat. 51° 20' to 55° 20' N. It
contains seals and many fish, particularly stur-
geons and pikes. In the environs are several
sulphurous springs, and in one part, near the
mouth of the river Barguzin, it discharges a
kind of pitch which the inhabitants purify. The
water is sweet, transparent, and appears at a
distance green, like the sea. It receives the
waters of the Upper Angara, Selinga, Barguzin,
and other rivers ; but the Lower Angara is the
only one by which it seems to discharge its
waters. It is enclosed by rugged mountains,
and the scenery is unusually magnificent. In
summer the lake is navigated by steamboats, but
it is frozen from November to April, and trade
is carried on over the ice.

Baikie, ba'ki, William Balfour, English
naturalist and traveler: b. Kirkwall, Orkney,
1825 ; d. 12 Dec. 1864. He studied medicine
at Edinburgh, and after receiving his degree
entered the royal navy as assistant surgeon.
He served in the Mediterranean, was assist-
ant surgeon at Haslar Hospital in 1851-4,
and was then appointed surgeon and naturalist
to the Niger expedition, w-hich was about to
start for the exploration of this river. The
death of the captain of the exploring vessel the
Pleiad, left him in chief command, and he suc-
ceeded in reaching a point 250 miles higher up
the river than had previously been attained. On
a second expedition he was able to establish
a settlement at the confluence of the Niger and
Benue. and in a few years did much to spread
civilization among the natives of the neighbor
ing regions. He was author of 'Observations
on the Haussa and Fufulde Languages,^ and
joint author with R. Heddle of 'Mammalia and
Birds Observed on the Orkney Islands.^

B AIKTASHI — BAILEY

Baiktashi, bik-ta'she. See Dervishes.

Bail, in law, is the delivery of a person to
another for keeping, and is generally used in
reference to one arrested, or committed to prison,
upon a criminal process, such person being
said to be bailed when he is delivered to another
(or is supposed to be so, but is simply set free
from custody), who becomes his surety (to a
greater or less amount according to the crime
with which he is charged) for his appearance at
court to take his trial. The person who thus be-
comes surety is said to become bail, and the
amount itself is also called bail. Bail may gen-
erally be granted except in the case of treason.
The word is not used as a plural.

When the punishment by the law of the
United States is death, bail can be taken only
by the supreme or circuit court, or by a judge
of a district court of the United States. The
proceedings attendant on giving bail are sub-
stantially the same in England and in all States of
the United States. An application is made
to the proper officer, and the bond or the names
of the bail proposed filed in the proper office,
and notice is given to the opposite party, who
must except within a limited time, or the bail
justify and are approved. If exception is taken,
notice is given, a hearing takes place, the bail
must justify, and will then be approved unless
the other party oppose successfully ; in which
case other bail must be added or substituted. A
formal application is in many cases dispensed
with, but a notification is given at the time of
filing to the opposite party, and unless excep-
tions are made and notice given within a limited
time, the bail justify and are approved.

Bail'ey, Gamaliel, American journalist:
b. Mount Holly, N. J., 3 Dec. 1807; d- 5 June
1859; was editor of the Methodist Protestant
at Baltimore ; with J. G. Birney founded the
anti-slavery journal, the ^Cincinnati Philanthro-
pist^ (1836), the office of which was destroyed
by a mob, though it continued to be published
till 1847 : after 1843 was also editor of a daily
paper, The Herald. He established the well-
known newspaper, the Washington National
Era (1847), in which the famous novel, ^Uncle
Tom's Cabin, ^ appeared first.

Bail'ey, Jacob Whitman, American scien-
tist : b. Auburn, Mass., 29 April 181 1; d. 26
Feb. 1857 ; was graduated at the United States
Military Academy in 1832 ; and from 1834 till
his death was professor of chemistry, mineralogy
and geology at the Military Academy. He was
the inventor of the Bailey indicator and of
many improvements in the microscope, in the use
of which he achieved high distinction ; and he
is regarded as the pioneer in microscopic in-
vestigation. He was president of the American
Association for the Advancement of Science in
1857 ; and was author of numerous papers on the
results of his researches.

Bail'ey, James Montgomery, American
humorist: b. Albany, N. Y., 25 Sept. 1841 ; d. 4
March 1894; served in the 17th Connecticut
regiment during the Civil War; returned to
Danbury, founded the Danbury News in 1870.
He wrote 'Life in Danbury^ (Boston 1873) ;

< Danbury News Man's Almanac* (1873) ; 'They
All Do It> (1877); 'The Danbury Boom>

(1880) ; etc.

Bail'ey, Joseph, American military offi-
cer : b. Salem, O., 28 April 1827 ; d. 21 March
1867 ; entered the Union army as a private in
1861, and signally distinguished himself in the
Red River campaign under Gen. N. P. Banks,
in 1864 by building a dam and deepening the
water in the channel, which enabled Admiral
Porter's Mississippi flotilla to pass the Red
River rapids in safety and so escape the perilous
situation. For this engineering feat, Bailey,
who before entering the army was a plain
farmer, was brevetted brigadier-general, pro-
moted colonel, voted the thanks of Congress,
and presented by the officers of the fleet with
a sword and a purse of $3,000. Subsequently,
he was promoted to full brigadier-general, and
was engaged on engineering duty till his resig-
nation 7 July 1865.

Bailey, Joseph Weldon, United States
senator for Texas : b. Copish County, Mo., 6
Oct. 1863. He studied for the legal profession,
graduated as a lawyer in 1883, and, entering
politics, in 1884 served as a district elector on
the Cleveland and Hendricks ticket. The fol-
lowing year he removed to Gainesville, Texas,
and in 1888 served as elector for the State at
large on the Democratic ticket. He was elected
to the Fifty-second, Fifty-third, Fifty-fourth,
Fifty-fifth, and Fifty-sixth Congresses, and was
the Democratic nominee for speaker of the
House of Representatives on the organization
of the Fifty-fifth Congress, 15 March 1897. He
was chosen to succeed the Hon. Horace Chilton
as United States senator for Texas, 23 Jan.
1901, and was re-elected 22 Jan. 1907.

Bail'ey, Liberty Hyde, American horti-
culturist: b. South Haven, Mich., 15 March
1858; graduated at the Michigan Agricultural
College in 1882 ; was associate to Dr. Asa Gray
at Harvard University in 1882-3 ; professor of
horticulture and landscape gardening in the
Michigan Agricultural College in 1883-8 ; in the
last year became professor of horticulture in
Cornell University ; and in 1903 was appointed
director of the College of Agriculture at Cor-
nell. He was an associate editor of the revised
edition of 'Johnson's Universal Cyclopaedia*
(1892-6), and editor of 'American Gardening.*
. He has published a large number of technical
works, including 'Annals of Horticulture,*
'Evolution of Our Native Fruits,* 'Text-book
of Agriculture,* etc.

Bail'ey, Loring Woart, chemist and geolo-
gist: b. West Point, N. Y., 28 Sept. 1839. He
graduated at Harvard in 1859, and in 1861 was
appointed professor of chemistry and natural
history in the University of New Brunswick,
Fredericton, N. B., since which date he has
also been connected with the geological survey
of Canada. Besides his official reports he has
published: 'New Species of Microscopical Or-
ganism from the Para River, South America*
(1861); 'Mines and Minerals of New Bruns-
wick* (1864) ; 'Geology of Southern New
Brunswick* (1865) ; 'Elementary Natural His-
tory* (1887).

Bail'ey, Nathaniel (or Nathan), English
lexicographer: d. 1742. He was the author of
an English dictionary, the best before that
of Dr. Johnson. The first edition appeared in
1721 under the title of 'An Universal Etymo-
logical English Dictionary,* by N. Bailey; and

BAILEY — BAILIWICK

it was soon republished in an enlarged form.
Altogether some thirty editions of it appeared
up to 1802. Dr. Johnson made use of an inter-
leaved copy of it when drawing up his own
dictionary. Bailey also published a spelling-
book: 'All the Familiar Colloquies of Erasmus,
Translated^ ; 'The Antiquities of London and
V estminster' ; 'Dictionarium Domesticum,^ etc.

Bail'ey, Philip James, English poet: b.
Nottingham, 22 April 1816; d. 6 Sept. 1902. He
was educated first in his native city and after-
ward at Glasgow University ; was called to the
bar, but never practised. His best known poem,
*Festus,^ was first published in 1839, and has
passed through a very large number of editions,
both in Great Britain and the United States. He
is author of a few other poems and of one prose
work; among the former are 'The Age'
(1858), a satire, and 'The Angel World>
(1850), now incorporated with 'Festus.'

Bail'ey, Samuel, English banker and writer
on political and mental philosophy : b. Shef-
field 1791 ; d. 18 Jan. 1870. His first work
was a volume of 'Essays on the Formation and
Publication of Opinions' (1821), in which he
ably defended the proposition that a man's opin-
ions are independent of his will. His 'Essays
on the Pursuit of Truth and on the Progress of
Knowledge' (1829) are only less valuable.
His many controversial books on questions of
political economy are already almost forgotten,
though these, as well as his pamphlets and
treatises on political representation, primogeni-
ture, and the like, are characterized alike by
terse exposition and vigorous style. Not less
interesting are his 'Review of Berkeley's The-
ory of "Vision' (1842) ; 'Theory of Reasoning'
(1851) ; and 'Letters on the Philosophy of the
Human Mind' (1855-63). The third series of
the last contains an able defense of utilitarian-
ism, in which the author avows himself a thor-
ough determinist.

Bail'ey, Solon Irving, astronomer: b.
Lisbon, N. H., 29 Dec. 1854. He graduated
from Boston University, 1881 ; and Harvard
(A.M.), 1887. In 1889 he was sent to Peru
to determine the best location for a southern
station of the Harvard Observatory. Arequipa
was selected, an observatory was built, and as
associate professor of astronomy Prof. Bailey
has had charge of the work there for eight years.
In 1893 he established a meteorological station
on the summit of El Misti, by far the highest
scientific station in the world. His scientific
writings have been issued in the 'Annals of
Harvard College Observatory.'

Bail'ey, Theodorus, American naval of-
ficer: b. Chateauguay, N. Y., 12 April 1805; d.
ID Feb. 1877; entered the navy in 1818; served
on the western coast of Mexico during the
Mexican war ; commanded the frigate Colo-
rado, of the western Gulf blocking squadron,
m 1861-2; and in the last year commanded the
right column of Admiral Farragut's squadron
in the passage of forts St. Philip and
Jackson, and led the fleet at the capture of the
Chalmette batteries and the city of New Or-
leans. In 1862-5 he commanded the east Gulf
blockading squadron. He was commissioned
rear-admiral and retired in 1866.

Bail'ey, Vernon, American scientist: b.
Manchester, Mich., 21 June 1863 ; received a
university education and in 1900 was chief field
naturalist of the United States Biological Sur-
vey. Among his publications are 'Spermophiles
of Mississippi Valley,' 'Revision of Voles of
the Genus Evotomys,' 'Mammals of District of
Columbia,' etc.

Bail'ey, William Whitney, American bot-
anist: b. West Point, N. Y., 22 Feb. 1843.
He was educated at Brown and Harvard, having
been a pupil of Prof. Asa Gray. In 1867 he
was botanist of the United States Geological
Survey of the 40th parallel ; in 1867-9 assistant
librarian of the Providence Athenaeum. He was
appointed instructor in botany at Brown Uni-
versity in 1877, and became professor there in
1881. He has published 'Bot.mical Collector's
Handbook' (1881), and contributed to several
periodicals.

Bailey, Willis T., American statesman: b.
Carroll County, 111., 12 Oct. 1854. He was edu-
cated at the University of Illinois. In 1873 he
removed to Nemaha County, Kan., and engaged
in farming and stock-raising. In 1888 he was
elected to the State legislature and was sent to
Congress in 1899. He was elected governor of
Kansas on the Republican ticket in 1903.

Bail'ie, or Baillie, a municipal officer or
magistrate in Scotland whose jurisdiction ex-
tends to breaches of the peace, drunkenness,
petty thefts, and like offenses. They sit and
vote in the city councils, like other members, and
are subject to the ordinary rules of retirement.

Bail'iff, a name which was introduced into
England with William I., and came to be ap-
plied to various officials representing or acting
for the king. He is essentially a person in-
trusted by a superior with power of superin-
tendence. In the United States the word bailiff
has no precise meaning. The term is most fre-
quently used to denote a court officer whose
duty it is to take charge of juries and wait upon
the court. In England: an officer appointed for
the administration of justice in a certain baili-
wick or district. The sheriff is the Icing's bail-
iff, whose business it is to preserve the rights
of the king within his "bailiwick" or county,
(i) The governor of a castle belonging to the
king. (2) A sheriff's officer. Bailiffs are
either bailiffs of hundreds or special bailiffs,
(a) Bailiffs of hundreds are officers appointed
by the sheriff over the districts so called, to col-
lect fines, summon juries, to attend the judges
and justices at the assizes and quarter sessions,
and to execute writs and process, (b) Special
bailiffs are men appomted for their adroitness
and dexterity in hunting and seizing persons lia-
ble to arrest. They assist the bailiffs of hun-
dreds in important work for which the latter
have no natural aptitude or acquired skill.
Special bailiffs being compelled to enter into an
obligation for the proper discharge of their
duty are sometimes called bound bailiffs, a
term which the common people have corrupted
into a more homely appellation. (Blackstone's
'Commentaries,' book I., chapter ix.)

Bail'iwick, the jurisdiction of a bailiff,
from bailie and nnck (vicus), a town or vil-
lage. In the United States it generally referr, to
a county, or in a jocular way is applied to any
territory or place in which a person has au-
thority.

BAILLAIRGE — BAILIE

Baillairge, ba-yarzh', Charles P., Cana-
dian architect and civil engineer : b. Quebec,
27 Sept. 1826. Among his best known works
as an architect are the Laval University, the
asylum and churches of the Sisters of Charity
and Good Shepherd, the Music Hall, the new
jail, Dufferin Terrace, the aqueduct bridge over
the St. Charles, and the Monument aux Braves
de 1760, all in the city of Quebec. In 1863-5
he was joint architect and engineer with Messrs.
Fuller and Page, of the parliamentary and de-
partmental buildings in Ottawa. He is a mem-
ber of the Royal Academy of Arts, Fellow of
the Royal Society of Canada, and a past
president of the Quebec Association of Arch-
itects. He has received many honors and di-
plomas from his own and other governments,
and has published a large number of important
works, including ^ Plane and Spherical Geome-
try and Trigonometry^ (1863) ; *Key to the
Stereometrical Tableau^ (1870) ; ^Homonymes
Francais^ (1891) ; ^English Homonyms' (1891),
etc.

Baillarger, ba'yar-zha', Jules Gabriel,

French physician: b. 1809; d. 1891. He made
a specialty of mental and nervous diseases and
in 1843 joined with Longet and Cerise to es-
tablish a review especially devoted to these sub-
jects, known as the ^Annales Medico-psycholog-
iques du Systeme Nerveux.' In 1849 he received
the medal of the Legion of Honor; in 1842 he
received a prize from the Academy of Music
for his essay on ^Des Hallucinations.'

Baillet, ba-ya', Adrien, French writer: b.
Neuville, 13 June 1649; d. 21 Jan. 1706. He
was ordained priest in 1675, and his love for
learning was so intense that after discharging
for five years the duties of a parish priest, he
accepted the position of librarian to Lamoignon,
president of Parliament. His first publication
was entitled ^Judgments of the Learned upon
the Principal Works of Authors,' a book of
criticism which taught better rules than it illus-
trated. He also produced a book on ^Devotion
to the Holy Virgin,' the lives of the saints,
which extended to four volumes, and a life of
Descartes.

Bailleul, ba-yel', a French town, in the
department of the Nord, near the Belgian fron-
tier, about 19 miles west of Lille. It has man-
ufactures of woolen and cotton stuffs, lace,
leather, etc. Population, about 13,600. A vil-
lage of the same name in the department of
Orne gave its name to the Baliol family.

Bail'lie, Lady Grizel, Scotch poet: b. Red-
braes Castle, 25 Dec. 1665; d. 6 Dec. 1746;
daughter of the first Earl of Marchmont ; mar-
ried George Baillie in 1692; published a large
number of songs in Ramsay's < Miscellany,' and
other collections; the best known is ^Werena
My Heart Licht, Isvad Dee.'

Bail'lie, Harry, the proprietor of the
Tabard Inn, who acts as chairman of the meet-
ing of the pilgrims in Chaucer's < Canterbury
Tales.'

Bail'lie, Joanna, Scotch author: b. Both-
well, near Glasgow, 11 Sept. 1762; d. 23 Feb.
1851. She removed in early life to London,
where in 1798 she published the first volume
u- u Y^""^"own < Plays on the Passions,' in
which she attempted to delineate the stronger
passions by making each passion the subject

of a tragedy and a comedy. These plays were
not well adapted for the stage, but gave Miss
Baillie a very extended reputation. Her first
volume was followed by a second in 1802,
a third (of miscellaneous plays) in 1804,
and a fourth in 1812. Other plays appeared in
1836, and a complete edition of her whole dra-
matic works in 1850. The only plays per-
formed on the stage were a tragedy entitled the
^Family Legend,' which was brought out at
the Edinburgh Theatre in 1810 under the patron-
age of Sir Walter Scott, and had a run of 14
nights, and one of the plays on the passions en-
titled *De Montfort,' which was brought out
by John Kemble, and played for 11 nights,
though an attempt to revive it at a later period
failed. Miss Baillie also wrote songs and mis-
cellaneous poems. All her productions are full
of genius. The language is simple and forcible,
the female portraits are particularly beautiful,
and great knowledge of the human heart is dis-
played in the delineations of character. She
was an intimate friend of Sir Walter Scott, who
greatly admired her writings, and her home
was frequented by many of the prominent au-
thors of the day.

Bail'lie, Matthew, Scotch physician
and anatomist : b. Lanarkshire, Scotland, 2"]
Oct. 1761; d. 23 Sept. 1823; brother of Joanna
Baillie ; educated at the University of Glas-
gow and Oxford. While at Oxford he be-
gan his medical and anatomical studies under
his maternal uncles, the celebrated William and
John Hunter, then lecturers in London. In
1787 he was elected one of the physicians of St.
George's Hospital, and held that office for 13
years. In 1789 he took the degree of M.D.,
and was admitted a fellow of the College of
Physicians. He very soon stood at the head
of his profession, and in 1810 was made physi-
cian to the king by George III. He published
•^The Morbid Anatomy of Some of the Most
Important Parts of the Human Body' ; also
wrote II essays in the ^^Transactions of the So-
ciety for the Promotion of Medical and Chirur-
gical Knowledge," and 7 papers in the Medical
Transactions, published by the London College
of Physicians.

Bail'lie, Robert, Scotch Presbyterian cler-
gyman : b. Glasgow, 1599; d. 1622; educated
at the University of Glasgow. In 1638 he sat
in that famous general assembly which met in
Glasgow to protest against the thrusting of
Episcopacy on an unwilling people. In 1649
he was chosen hy the Church to proceed to
Holland, and to invite Charles II. to accept the
covenant and crown of Scotland. He performed
his mission skilfully; and, after the Restora-
tion, through Lauderdale's influence, he was
made principal of Glasgow University.

Bail'lie, Robert, of Jerviswood,. Scotch
patriot of the reign of Charles II. : d. 24 Dec.
1684. He first came into notice in 1676 through
his rescue of a brother-in-law, the Rev. Mr.
Kirkton, from the clutches of Archbishop
Sharp's principal informer. In 1683 he took a
prominent part in a scheme of emigration to
South Carolina, as he saw no other refuge
from the degrading tyranny of the govern-
ment. About the same time he corresponded
with Monmouth's supporters in London, Rus-
sell and Sidney, and subsequently repaired
there to concert measures for securing ade-

BAILLIE OF JERVISWOOD — BAIN

quate reforms. On the discovery of the Rye-
house plot, he was arrested and sent to
Scotland. Accused of conspiring against the
king's Hfe, and of hostihty to monarchical gov-
■ernnient, he was tried at Edinburgh and con-
demned to death upon evidence at once insig-
nificant and illegal. The sentence was carried
into execution on the very day that it was
passed.

Bail'lie of Jerviswood. See Baillie, Robert.

Baillot, ba-y5', Pierre Marie Frangois de
Sales, French violinist: b. Passy, 1771; d.
15 Sept. 1842. He was a professor in the
conservatory ; traveled in Russia, Belgium, Hol-
land, and England, and was considered without
a rival. His style was severely classical, as
■distinguished from that introduced by Paganini.

Baillou, ba-yo', Guillaume de, French
physician: b. 1538; d. 1616; became physician to
the Dauphin in 1601 ; was author of several
"works, including ^Adversaria Medicinalia,^ and
is considered the first exponent of the nature
of croup.

Bailly, ba-ye', Antoine Nicolas, French
architect: b. 6 June 1810; d. i Jan. 1892; was
appointed to an office under the city government
of Paris in 1834; in 1844 was made architect
to the French government, and received the
cross of the Legion of Honor in 1853. The
Moliere Fountain and the Tribunal of Com-
merce in Paris, and the reconstruction of the
Cathedral of Digne, are his work.

Bailly, ba-j-e'. Jean Sylvain, French as-
tronomer, statesman, and historian : b. Paris,
15 Sept. 1736; d. 12 Nov. 1793. Leaving the art
of painting, to which he was educated, he pur-
such poetry and belles-lettres, until his acquaint-
ance with La Caille, when he turned his atten-
tion to astronomy, and calculated the orbit of
the comet of 1759. In 1763 he was admitted to
the Academy of Sciences; in 1766 he published
his treatise on Jupiter's satelites, which also con-
tains a history of that section of astronomy.
In 1771 he published a valuable and interest-
ing treatise on the light of the satellites. Later
he wrote also a history of astronomy. In 1784
lie was chosen secretary of the academy, also
admitted to the French academy, and the next
year admitted to the Academy of Inscriptions ;
a rare thing for one person to belong to the
three academies. He espoused the democratic
cause in the Revolution, was elected from Paris,
in 1789, first deputy of the tiersctat, and was
chosen president of the assembly. In July 1789
he was chosen mayor of Paris and discharged
liis duties during 26 months of a most trying
and dangerous period with great firmness and
wisdom. Losing his popularity by repressing
riots and defending the queen, he gave up pub-
lic life, and lived in retirement, till seized by
the Jacobins and brought to Paris, where he
was condemned as a conspirator and executed.
Several posthumous works of his have appeared ;
the most noted are an ^ Essay on the Origin of
Fables and Ancient Religions,^ and his < Me-
moirs of an Eye-witness from April to October
1789.^

Bailly, ba-ye', Joseph A., French sculp-
tor: b. Paris, 1825; d. 15 June 1883; removed
to Philadelphia, Pa., in 18.^0; and produced
"*Adam and Eve,' ^Eve and Her Two Children,'

and the marble monument of Washington in
front of the State house (1869).

Bail'ment, in law, is the delivery of a chat-
tel or thing to another to keep, either for the
use of the bailor or person delivering, or for
that of the bailee or person to whom it is da-
livered. A bailment always supposes the sub-
ject to be delivered only for a limited time, at
the expiration of which it must be redelivered
to the bailor ; and the material inquiries in cases
of bailment, relate to the degree of responsi-
bility of the bailee in regard to the safe-keeping
and redelivery of the subject of the bailment.
This responsibility will depend, in some degree,
upon the contract on which the bailment is
made. If a thing is delivered to the bailee to
keep without any advantage or use to himself,
or any compensation, but merely for the benefit
of the bailor, he is answerable only for gross
negligence; but if the bailment is for the mu-
tual benefit of both parties, the thing must be
kept with the ordinary and usual care which a
prudent man takes of his own goods; but if it
be delivered for the benefit of the bailee only,
he must exercise .strict care in keeping it, and
will be answerable for slight negligence. A
special agreement is made in many cases of
borrowing or hiring, specifying the risks as-
sumed by the borrower or hirer; and in such
case his obligations will be determined by his
stipulations.

Bail'y, Edward Hodges, English sculp-
tor: b. Bristol, 10 March 1788; d. 22 May 1877.
He was brought up with a view to a mercantile
career; but ere long gained considerable suc-
cess as a modeler in wax. He became a pupil
of Flaxman in 1807. gained the academy gold
medal in 181 1 for his < Hercules Ilestoring Al-
cestis to Admetus,' and was elected a member
of the Royal Academy in 1821. His principal
works are ^Eve at the Fountain' ; Eve Listening
to the Voice'; Maternal Affection'; <Girl Pre-
paring for the Bath^ ; ^The Graces' ; etc. The
bas-reliefs on the south side of the marble arch,
Hyde Park, the statue of Nelson on the Tra-
falgar Square monument, and many statues of
distinguished men, were executed by him. In
1863 he was placed on the honorary retired list
of the Royal Academy.

Bail'y, Francis, English astronomer: b.
Newbury, in Berkshire, 1774; d. 1844; entered
a London house of business, and traveled two
years in America ; then settled in London as
a stockbroker and published several works on
the doctrine of life annuities and insurance. On
retiring from business with an ample fortune in
1825 he turned his attention particularly to as-
tronomy, and became one of the founders of
the Astronomical Society ; improved the nauti-
cal almanac, and investigated and described the
phenomenon called Bailj^'s beads (q.v.). Be-
sides many astronomical papers he wrote a
^Life of Flamsteed.'

Bail'y's Beads, a phenomenon attending
eclipses of the sun, the unobscured edge of
which appears discontinuous and broken imme-
diately before and after the moment of com-
plete obscuration. It is classed as an effect of
irradiation and defraction.

Bain, Alexander, Scottish electrician: b.
Watten, Caithness, 1810: d. 1877. He went to
London and began a series of electrical experi-

BAIN — BAINES

inents in 1837; and invented electric fire-
;ilarm and sounding-apparatus, and the auto-
matic chemical telegraph, by which high speed
telegraphy was for the first time made possi-
ble.

Bain, Alexander, Scotch writer on mental
science and education; b. Aberdeen, 1818; d. 2
Jan. 1887; educated at Marischal College and
University there. In 1840 he became deputy
teacher of the moral philosophy and natural phi-
losophy classes in Alarischal College; between
1845 and i860 he was professor at the Anderso-
nian College, Glasgow, assistant secretary to the
Metropolitan Sanitary Committee and the general
board of health, and examiner in mental and
moral science in the University of London, and
for the India civil service examinations. From
i860 till 1880 he occupied the chair of logic
and English in the University of Aberdeen
(formed by the union of the two universities of
Marischal College and of King's College), and
in 1881, also in 1884, was elected its lord rec-
tor. He is the author of numerous works on
mental and moral philosophy, the two most
important being *^The Senses and the Intellect^
(1855), and ^The Emotions and the WilP
(1859). These contain a comprehensive exam-
ination of mental phenomena from the stand-
point of the experiential school, and have run
through several editions. Among his other
works are ^The Study of Character^ (1861) ;
'Mental and Moral Science^ (1868); 'John
Stuart Mill : a Criticism, with Personal ReC'
ollections^ (1882) ; 'Logic, Deductive and In-
ductive^ (1870) ; 'Higher English Grammar'
(1863) ; 'Manual of English Composition and
Rhetoric' (1866) ; 'Education as a Science'
(1879).

Bain'bridge, Edmond, English military
officer: b. 1841. He was educated at the Royal
Military Academy, joined the army in i860,
and became colonel in 1893. Since 1876 he has
been connected with the ordnance branch of
the military service, serving also as instructor
in the School of Gunnery ; and, becoming, in
1899, director-general of the English ordnance
factories.

Bain'bridge, John, English astronomer
and mathematician : b. Ashby-de-la-Zouch, in
Leicestershire, 1582; d. 1643. He studied at
Cambridge; set up a grammar-school in his
native place, and at the same time practised
physic, devoting his leisure to the science of
mathematics. His 'Description of the Comet
of 1618' was the means of introducing him to
Sir Henry Savile, who had founded an as-
tronomical lecture at Oxford, and who in 1619
appointed Dr. Bainbridge to the professorship.
He died while engaged in publishing corrected
editions of the works of the ancient astrono-
mers, an _ undertaking which was one of the
duties enjoined on him as Savilian professor.
His other published works are 'Procli Sphsera
et Ptolemsei de Hypothesibus Planetarum,' to-
gether with 'Ptolemsei Canon Regnorum'
(1620); and 'Canicularia: A Treatise on the
Dog Star' (1648).

Bain'bridge, William, American naval
officer: b. Princeton, N. J., 7 May 1774; d. 28
July 1833. He entered the merchant service and
became captain within four years. In 1798,
when the United States navy was organized, he

was made lieutenant and given command of the
schooner Retaliation. He was captured by the
French and kept a prisoner for several months,
and on his return to the United States was
placed in command of the Norfolk and sub-
sequently appointed to the command of the
frigate George Washington, which was ordered
to take tribute to Algiers. The dey of Al-
giers demanded that Bainbridge convey an
Algerian ambassador and valuable presents to
Constantinople, and Bainbridge was forced to
comply to avoid war and the destruction of the
unprotected trade in the Mediterranean. The
United States government fully approved the
course he had pursued. He was soon employed
in the Mediterranean again in command of the
frigate Essex, and afterward upon the decla-
ration of war against the United States by Tri-
poli, was appointed to the frigate Philadelphia,
one of the vessels of the squadron sent against
that power, under the command of Commo-
dore Edward Preble. On 26 Aug. 1803, he cap-
tured the Moorish frigate Meshboa, but was
himself taken prisoner with his officers and
men in October of that year. While pursunig
one of the enemy's vessels, the Philadelphia ran
aground ; every possible effort was made to
float her, but she was soon surrounded by gun-
boats from Tripoli, about three miles distant,,
and Capt. Bainbridge was compelled to sur-
render, having first taken such measures as it
was thought would ensure the final loss of the
ship. He remained with his associate prisoners
in Tripoli until the conclusion of peace, which
took place 3 June 1805. On his return a court
of inquiry for the loss of the Philadelphia gave
him honorable acquittal. His next service afloat
was in the War of 1812, when he was appointed,,
with the rank of commodore, to the command
of a squadron, consisting of the Constitution
(his flagship), Essex, and Hornet, and sailed
from Boston 25 Oct. for a cruise. On 26 Dec.
off San Salvador, while separated from the rest
of his squadron, it was his good fortune tcv
fall in with and capture H. B. M. frigate Java.
In 1815 he was appointed to the command of a.
squadron of 20 sail, intended to act against Al-
giers, then at war with us, but peace was con-
cluded before it reached the Mediterranean.
In 1819 he again commanded in the Mediter-
ranean, and returned from this, his last service
afloat, in 1821. From this time until his death
he was almost constantly employed in impor-
tant shore service, commanding at different
times the navy yards at Boston and Philadel-
phia, and holding the position of president of
the board of navy commissioners. Af an offi-
cer he had few superiors. Though ardent in
his temperament, he was cool in danger, and
always had the confidence of those under his
command. His system of discipline, though
rigid, was always consistent and just, and he
was remarkable for paying the greatest atten-
tion to the formation of his young officers.

Bainbridge^ Ga., a town and county-seat
of Decatur County, situated on the Flint River,
236 miles west of Savannah. It is in a cotton
and tobacco region, and has various manufac-
tures : turpentine distilleries, lumber mills, etc»
It is the seat of the Georgia Southern Military
College. Pop. (1904) 5,000.

Baines, Thomas, English artist and
explorer: b. Norfolk, 1822; d. 8 May 1875. In

BAINI — BAIRD

1842 he went to Cape Colony, whence he ac-
companied the British army in the Kaffir war
as artist. He afterward went with Gregory's
party to explore northwest Australia ; with
Livingston to the Zambesi ; with Chapman's ex-
pedition to the Victoria Falls ; and finally head-
ed an expedition to the gold fields of Tati,
Everywhere he made large numbers of sketches.
A handsome folio of colored lithographs from
his drawings at Victoria Falls was published
in 1865. His last journey among the Kaffirs
was very carefully mapped out and sketched.
His writings are ^Explorations in Southwest-
ern Africa^ (1864) ; <The Gold Regions of
Southeastern Africa^ (1877).

Baini, ba-e'ne, Giuseppe, Italian musician:
b. Rome, 1775 ; d. 1844. He was director of
the Pope's choir from 1814 till his death. The
severe gravity and profound science of his com-
positions contrasted strongly with the careless
style and shallow dilettanteism of most of his
compeers ; but it was by his historical researches
that Baini secured for himself a prominent place
in musical literature. His principal work is his
* Life of Palestrina' (1828).

Bairaktar, bi'rak-tar' (more correctly,
B.\irak-dar), signifying **standard-bearer,'* the
title of the Grand Vizier Mustapha : b. 1755 ,
d. 15 Nov. 1808. When he was pasha of
Rustchuk in 1806, he fought with some success
against the Russians, and after the revolt of
the Janissaries in 1807, by which Selim HI. was
deposed from the throne in favor of Mustapha<
IV., he marched his troops to Constantinople,
deposed Mustapha IV., and proclaimed the
brother of this prince, Mahmoud II., sultan on
28 July 1808. Bairaktar was now appointed
grand vizier, and endeavored to carry out
Selim's reforms, and to strengthen the regular
army. His chief object was the annihilation of
the Janissaries ; but they rebelled, and, with the
support of the fleet, attacked the seraglio 15
Nov. 1808, and demanded the restoration of
Mustapha IV. Bairaktar defended himself
bravely; but when he saw that flames threat-
ened to destroy the palace, he strangled Mus-
tapha, threw his head to the besiegers, and
killed himself.

Bairam, bi-ram' or Beiram, bi'ram, a
Mohammedan feast, immediately following the
Ramadan or Lent (a month of fasting), and
last three days. This feast begins, like the
Ramadan, as soon as the new moon is announced
by the persons appointed for that purpose, and
during the course of 33 years makes a complete
circuit of all the months and seasons, since the
Turks reckon by lunar years. It is the custom
at this feast for inferiors to make presents to
their superiors, a custom formerly extended even
to the Europeans. Seventy daj^s after this first
great Bairam begins a second — the lesser
Bairam. They are the only two feasts whose
celebration is prescribed by the Mohammedan
religion.

Baird, Absalom, American military officer :
b. Washington, Pa.. 20 Aug. 1S24: d. near
Relay, Md., 14 June 1905. He was gradu-
ated from the United States Military Academy
and assigned to the artillery in 1S49. He
was commissioned brigadier-general of volun-
teers, 28 April 1862, and brevetted major-gen-
eral, I Sept. 1862, for his conduct in the At-

lanta campaign. On 13 March 1865, he was
brevetted major-general, United States army,
for meritorious services in the field during the
war. He was continually in the field from the
Manassas campaign, in 1861, till after the sur-
render of Gen. Johnston's army in 1865. He
was staff inspector-general from 1885 to 1888,
when he was retired.

Baird, Andrew Wilson, English mili-
tary engineer : b. Aberdeen, Scotland, 26 April
1842. He became a colonel in the Royal En-
gineers Corps in 1893 ; was special assistant en-
gineer of the harbor defenses of Bombay, in
1864; assistant field engineer of the Abyssinian
expedition in 1868, and, for nearly 20 years
thereafter, employed on the great trigonometri-
cal survey of India. His services were re-
warded with numerous official commendations,
medals, and decorations; and he has published
a number of important works on his labors in
India.

Baird, Charles Washington, American
historian and religious writer, son of Robert
Baird : b. Princeton, N. J., 28 Aug. 1828 ; d. 10
Feb. 1887. He was a graduate of Union The-
ological Seminary, and pastor in Brooklyn in
1859, and in Rye, N. Y., 1861. Besides works
on the Presbyterian liturgies (which he was the
first to collect and investigate) and local his-
tories, he wrote 'History of the Huguenot Em-
igration to America* (2 vols. 1885), a work
especially interesting to the genealogist.

Baird, Sir David, British general: b. New-
byth, Scotland, 6 Dec. 1757; d. 18 Aug. 1829.
He entered the English army in 1772, and go-
ing to India distinguished himself at a disas-
trous engagement at Peramboucum, 10 Sept.
1780, in which the small British force engaged
was nearly cut to pieces after surrendering.
His life was spared, but he was kept prisoner
for four years. He attained the rank of major
in 1787, and in October 1789, obtained leave of
absence and returned to Britain. In 1791 he
joined the army under the Marquis Cornwallis,
and as commander of a brigade of Sepoys he
was present at the siege of Seringapatam, in
1791 and 1792; and likewise at the storming of
Tippoo Saib's lines in the Island of Seringapa-
tam. In 1793 he commanded a brigade of Eu-
ropeans, and was present at the siege of Pondi-
cherry. On 9 May 1799, he commanded the
storming party at the assault of Seringapatam;
when, in requital of his brilliant services, he
was presented by the army, through the com-
mander-in-chief, with the state sword of Tip-
poo Saib. In 1800 he had a command in Egypt,
and with the increased rank of lieutenant-
general commanded an expedition which sailed
in October 1805, for the Cape of Good Hope,
where he defeated the Dutch army and received
the surrender of the colony. After a short
period of service in Ireland Sir David sailed in
command of an armament of 10,000 men for
Corunna to assist Sir John Moore. Moore
was killed in the battle of Corunna and Sir
David succeeded to the chief command ; he re-
ceived for the fourth time the thanks of Parlia-
ment, and was created a baronet. In 1814 he
was promoted to the rank of general, and in
1819 became governor of Kinsale, next year
commander of the forces in Ireland, and in
1827 of Fort George in Scotland. See Hook,
<Life of Sir David Baird* (1832).

BAIRD — BAJAZET

Baird, Henry Martyn, American author:
b. Philadelphia, Pa., 17 Jan. 1832; d. Yonkers,
N. Y., II Nov. 1906. He was graduated from
New York University in 1850, and later took a
course in theology at Union and Princeton. In
1859 he was appointed professor of the Greek
languages and literature in the New York Uni-
versity. He wrote: ^History of the Rise of the
Huguenots > (1879) ; ^The Huguenots and Henry
of Navarre> (1886); and <The Huguenots and
the Revocation of the Edict of Nantes > (1895) ;
^Theodore Bcza, the Counsellor of the French
Reformation' (1899).

Baird, Julian William, American chem-
ist : b. Battle Creek, Mich., 14 Feb. 1859. He
was graduated from the University of Michigan
in 1882; was instructor in chemistry and in
charge of the qualitative analysis and assaying
in Lehigh University, 1883-6; and became pro-
fessor of analytical and organic chemistry in
the Massachusetts College of Pharmacy, Bos-
ton, in 1886, and its dean, in 1887.

Baird, Robert, American historian, b. Fay-
ette County, Pa., 6 Oct. 1798; d. Yonkers, N.
Y., 15 March 1863. He was graduated from
Jefferson College; and published 'History of
the Waldenses, Albigenses, and Vaudois,^
^History of the Temperance Societies' (1836) ;
^Religion in America' (1844) ; < Protestantism
in Italy' (1845) ; etc. He was corresponding
secretary of the American and Foreign Chris-
tian Union (1849-55, 1861-3).

Baird, Spencer Fullerton, distinguished
American naturalist: b. Reading, Pa., 3 Feb.
1823 ; d. 19 Aug. 1887. He became professor of
natural sciences at Dickinson College, Carlisle,
Pa., 184s ; assistant secretary Smithsonian In-
stitution, 1850; United States commissioner of
fish and fisheries, 1871 ; secretary of the Smith-
sonian Institution, 1878; and founder of the Na-
tional Museum. Among his more important
works are a ^Catalogue of North American Rep-
tiles' (1853) ; 'Birds of North America' (with
Cassin and Lawrence, i860) ; 'Mammals of
North America' (1858); 'History of North
American Birds'' (with Brewer and Ridgeway,
1874-84), etc. His work had a beneficent influ-
ence on natural history in the United States.

Baireuth, bl-roit. or Bayreuth, a city of
Bavaria, on the Red Main, 41 miles northeast of
Nuremberg. The principal edifices are the old
palace now occupied by public offices, the new
palace, with garden and park open to the pub-
lic ; the opera house, a gymnasium, and the na-
tional theatre, constructed after the design oi
the composer Wagner, and opened in 1876 with
a grand performance of his 'Ring of the
Nibelungen.' Baireuth fell to the burgrave of
Nuremberg in 1248, and after many vicissitudes
was ceded to Bavaria in 1810. The chief indus-
tries are cotton-spinning, and weaving, sugar-
refining, brewing, etc. Pop. (1900) 29,000.

Baiter, bi'ter, Johann Georg, Swiss philol-
ogist: b. Zurich, 31 May 1801 ; d. 10 Oct. 1877.
He was professor in the University of Zurich,
and from 1849 to 1865, director in the gymna-
sium there. He published, alone and with oth-
ers, various editions of the classics, 'Panegyrics
of Socrates,' 'Ciceronis Scholistae,' 'The Attic
Oratoris' (1839-50), etc.

Ba'ius, or De Bay Michael: b. 15 13, at

Melin, near Ath, in Hamaut ; educated at Lou-
vain, in 1551 ; made professor of Scripture at
this university in 1563, sent by the king of Spain
to the Council of Trent, was one of the greatest
theologians of the Roman Catholic Church in
the i6th century. He founded systematic the-
ology directly upon the Bible and the Christian
fathers, leaving the scholastic method. He
studied specially the writings of St. Augustine
and had his own interpretations of that father.
The doctrines that the human will, when left
to itself, could only sin ; that even the mother
of Jesus was not free from hereditary and ac-
tual sin ; that every action which did not pro-
ceed from pure love of God was sinful ; and that
no penance was effectual for the justification of
the sinner, but everything was to be attrib-
uted solely to the grace of God, through Christ,
caused the superior of the Franciscan Order
in Belgium to submit 18 of his propositions
to the Sorbonne in Paris. The Sorbonne fac-
ulty condemned 3 of the propositions as
false and 13 as contrary to Catholic teach-
ing. Baius disavowed the condemned sen-
tences, claiming that some of them had not
been taught by him and that others had been
presented incorrectly. After his return from
Trent, he published theses which contained doc-
trines that were rejected by the Spanish and
Italian universities to which they had been
submitted. Finally 76 sentences taken from
his works were condemned by Pius V. in
1567 and some dispute arising about the mean-
ing of this bull, it was confirmed by Gregory
XIII. and entrusted to the Jesuit Cardinal To-
letus to deliver to Baius. Baius submitted ; yet
the opposition still continued, as did also his
defense of some of his interpretations of Augus-
tine in his lectures ; and as the theological fac-
ulty at Louvain was entirely in his favor, he
not only remained in the quiet possession of his
dignities, but was also appointed dean of St.
Peter's in 1575, and in 1578 chancellor of the
university. He died in 1589, and left the rep-
utation of great learning, pure morals, and a
rare modesty. His interpretations of Augus-
tine, which were called Baianism, were adopted
by the Jansenists and were defended by them
against their Jesuit opponents. His doctrine of
pure undivided love to God has also been
adopted by the Quietists. His writings, mostly
polemical, were published at Cologne (4to
1696).

Bibliography. — Duchesne, 'Historic du Bay-
anism.' ; Linsenmann, 'Bayus und die Grundle-
gung des Jansenismus.'

Baja, bo'yo, a Hungarian market town
situated on the Danube, 90 miles south of Buda-
pest. It has important manufactures of alcohol
and shoes and is celebrated for its annual swine
fair, and its trade in grain and wine. Pop.
(1890) 19,500.

Bajada Del Parana, ba-ha'da del pa'ra-na'.
See Parana.

Baj'azet' I., or Bayazid I., a Turkish sul-
tan: b. 1347; d. 1403. In 1389 he succeeded his
father, Murad of Amurath, who fell in the bat-
tle of Kossova against the Servians, and caused
his brother Jacob, his rival for the throne, to
be strangled. He made great and rapid con-
quests, in three years conquering Bulgaria, part

BAJAZEl — BAKER

of Servia, Macedonia, Thessaly, and subjecting
the states of Asia Minor. In order to save
Constantinople, King Sigismund of Hungary
(afterward emperor of Germany) assembled a
great army, but Bajazet met them at Nicopolis
and obtained a decisive victory over the allied
Hungarians, Poles, and French in 1396. He
would probably have now overturned the whole
Greek empire if Timur had not overrun Asia
Minor in 1400 and defeated him in a battle at
Angora. He himself fell into the power of the
conqueror and died in Timur's camp, in Cara-
mania. His successor was Soliman I. Bajazet
n., b. 1447; d. 1512, succeeded his father, Mo-
hammed II., Sultan of the Turks, in 1481. He
increased the Turkish empire by conquests on
the northwest, and in the east, took Lepanto,
!Modon, and Durazzo, in a war against the Ve-
netians, and ravaged the coasts of the Christian
states on the ]\Iediterranean, to revenge the ex-
pulsion of the Moors from Spain. At home he
had to contend against his rebellious son Selim,
to whom he at last resigned the empire. It has
been supposed that he was put to death by the
order of his son. He was a man of great tal-
ents, and did much for the improvement of his
empire and the promotion of the sciences.

Baj'azet', the title of a tragedy by Racine,
in which the chief character is Bajazet, the
brother of the Sultan Amurath, whose choice
between the throne and the woman he loves
forms the theme of the drama.

Baj'azet', Mosque of, a mosque at Con-
stantinople, built in 1505 by Bajazet II. It is
one of the finest specimens of Mohammedan
architecture, and displays excellent proportions
and great richness of detail in decoration.
There are four Persian doorways and an octag-
onal foundation in the centre of the court.

Baj'imonts' Roll. See Bagimonts' Roll.

Bajocco, bayok'ko, or Baiocco, a papal
state copper coin, whose value is about one
cent. A Neapolitan coin, value about 83 cents,
was also called Bajocco in Sicily.

Baj'ree. See Guinea Corn.

Bajura, ba-joo'ra, the banner of Moham-
med.

Bajza, boi'zo, Joseph, Hungarian poet
and critic : b. 1804 ; d. 1858. He devoted him-
self to history, and edited a ^Historical Li-
brary^ (1843-5) and the *^New Plutarch^
(1845-7). He was also editor of two critical
journals, which exerted a strong influence on
Hungarian literature. From 1831 he was a
member of the Hungarian Academy, and from
1836 of the Kisfaludy Society. He ranks among
the best lyric poets of Hungary. His ^Po-
ems' appeared in 1835, and his ^Collected
Works > in 1861.

Bakacs, bd'koch, Thomas, Hungarian
statesman, son of a peasant : b. about the
middle of the 15th century; d. 1521. He held
several bishoprics in succession, became chan-
cellor of the kingdom, and finally archbishop
and cardinal. He preached a crusade against
the Turks ; but his army of peasants and vaga-
bonds turned their arms against the nobility,
and a fierce civil war ensued.

Bakairi, ba-ka-T-re, or Baccahiry, a Carib-
bean tribe of central Brazil, remarkable for their
light complexion. The men have assembly

houses, where they spend most of their time,
which women are forbidden to enter.

Bakarganj, bak'ar-ganj, an English dis-
trict in India, under the lieutenant-governor of
Bengal. It contains 3,649 square miles, is fer-
tile, and is watered by the lower streams of
the Ganges and the Brahmaputra. In the south
of the district are the forest tracts of the Sun-
derbunds. Barisal, the headquarters, on the
west bank of Barisal River, is the only town
with more than 5,000 inhabitants. Bakarganj.
the former capital, situated near the junction of
the Krishnakati and Khairabad rivers, is now
in ruins. Pop. 2,153,695.

Bake, ba'ke, Jan, Dutch philologist: b.
Leyden, i Sept. 1787; d. 28 March 1864. In 1817
he became professor of Greek and Roman lit-
erature at the University of Leyden, holding the
position till 1857. Here he edited and published
valuable editions of Posidonius, and of the as-
tronomer Cleomedes, and assisted in the large
and original work entitled 'Bibliotheca Critica
Nova.^ He published a series of philological
articles, edited some of the works of Cicero,
and wrote an excellent essay upon the Greek
tragedians.

Baker, David Augustine, Benedictine ascet-
ical writer; b. 1575; d. 1641. The most original
and ablest spiritual writer among English Cath-
olics during the first half of the 17th centurj'.
Having finished his studies at Oxford, he de-
voted himself to law at Clifford's Inn, and later
at Inner Temple. In his 40th year he became a
convert to the Catholic faith, and a few years
later was ordained priest and was subsequently
received into the Benedictine Order. Dugdale
and Dodsworth are indebted to his historical
l^ibors for much of the data found in their
monumental works. It was Father Baker who
discovered that the old English Benedictine
monastery of Saint Peter at Westminster was
legally continued in the person of an old priest,
Dom Sigebert Buckley. By this sole survivor
David Baker was professed into the monastery
of Westminster, and thus became the connecting
link between the old and the new congregation
in England. It was as spiritual director at
Douai and Cambrai that he composed his ad-
mirable treatises on the spiritual life. Consult:
Wood, 'Athense Oxoniensis' : Taunton, ^Eng-
lish Black Monks of Saint Benedict.^

Baker, Sir Benjamin, English engineer: b.
near Bath, 1840 ; d. Pangbourne, Berkshire, 19
]\Iay 1907. In 1877 he superintended the re-
moval of Cleopatra's Needle from Egv-pt to Lon-
don and was consulting engineer on the As-
souan dam. In conjunction with Sir John Fowler
he planned the bridge over the Firth of Forth.
He wrote *Long Span Iron Bridges*: 'Suspen-
sion Versus Cantilever Bridges* , <The Strength
of Beams': and 'Transportation and Re-erection
of Cleopatra's Needle.*

Bak'er, Benjamin W., American educator:
b. Coles County, 111., 25 Nov. 1841. He
served in the Union army through the Civil
War; became a Methodist Episcopal clergyman
in 1874 ; and was financial secretary of the Il-
linois Wesleyan University in 1883-93 ; president
of Chaddock College in 1893-8: and subse-
quently became president of the Missouri Wes-
leyan College in Cameron.

BAKER

Bak'er, Charles Whiting, American civil
engineer: b. Johnson, Vt., \^ Jan. 1865. He
was graduated at the engineering department
of the University of Vermont and became
managing editor of 'Engineering News^ in 1900.
He is the author of "^Monopolies and the Peo-
ple' ; etc.

Bak'er, Edward Dickinson, American sol-
dier and pohtician : b. London, England, 24
Feb. 181 1 ; d. 21 Oct. 1861. He came to the
United States in youth, was elected to the Il-
linois legislature in 1837, became a State sena-
tor in 1840, and was sent to Congress in 1844.
He served under Gen. Scott in the war with
Mexico, and was elected United States senator
from Oregon in i860. He entered the Federal
army at the outbreak of the Civil War, and was
killed at the battle of Ball's Bluff.

Bak'er, Frank, American zoologist: b.
Pulaski, N. Y., 1841. He was professor of
anatomy in the University of Georgetown ; and
in 1900 was superintendent of the National Zoo-
logical park, in Washington, D. C. He is a
Fellow of the American Association for the Ad-
vancement of Science, and a member of the
Academy of Science, and the Anthropological
and the Biological Societies, all in Washington.

Bak'er, George Augustus, American paint-
er: b. New York. 1821 ; d. 2 April 1880. He
studied at the National Academy of Design in
New York, and in Europe, and was elected to
the National Academy in 1851. He was espe-
cially celebrated as a portrait painter, and re-
produced flesh-tints very accurately. His prin-
cipal works, aside from his portraits, are ^Love
at First Sight' ; <Wild Flowers^ ; <Faith^ ; and
^The May Queen.'

Bak'er, George Augustus, American w^ri-
ter of verse and stories : b. New York, Aug-
ust 1849. He wrote * Point Lace and Diamonds,-*
light society verse (New York 1875) 'Bad
Habits of Good Society' (1876); <Mrs. Hep-
hsestus and Other Stories' (1887) ; and several
comedies.

Bak'er, Harriette Newell (Woods) (pseu-
donyms Madeline Leslie and Aunt Hatty),
American writer of juvenile stories: b. 1815;
d. 1893. A very voluminous writer, several of
her works have been translated into French and
German. She has written 'Tim, the Scissors-
Grinder' (1861, sequel in 1862), her most popu-
lar work; 'Up the Ladder' (1862); 'The Two
Homes' (1862); 'The Organ-Grinder' (1863);
'White and Black Lies' (1864); 'Worth and
Wealth' (1864) ; 'Tim's Sister' (1864) ; 'Wheel
of Fortune' (1865) ; 'Courtesies of Wedded
Life' (1869) 'Paul Barton' (1869); 'Fashion
and Folly' (1869) ; 'Lost but Found' (1869) ;
'Ingleside' (1886); 'This and That' (1887);
etc. She was a daughter of Leonard Woods,
the theologian, and wife of Rev. Abijah R.
Baker.

Bak'er, Henry, English naturalist: b. 8
May 1698; d. 25 Nov. 1774. In 1740 he was
chosen a Fellow of the Royal and Antiquarian
societies, and in 1744 obtained the Copley medal
for his microscopical discoveries on crystalliza-
tion. _ He contributed many papers to the 'Philo-
sophical Transactions' ; was an active member
of the Society for the Encouragement of Arts.
He wrote 'The Microscope Made Easy' ; 'Em-
ployment for the Microscope' ; many scientific
papers, and several poetical works.

Bak'er, Ira Osborn, American educator:
b. Linton, Ind., 22, Sept. 1853. He became
professor of civil engineering in the University
of Illinois in 1880, and has published 'Engi-
neers' Surveying Instruments' ; 'Treatise on
Masonry Construction' ; and 'Brick Pave-
ments.'

Bak'er, James Hutchins, American edu-
cator: b. Harmony, Me., 13 Oct. 1848. He was
principal of the Denver High School in 1875-
91 ; and in the last year became president of the
National Council of Education, and also of the
University of Colorado. He has published nu-
merous lectures and monographs, and a work
on 'Elementary Psychology.'

Bak'er, John Gilbert, English botanist:
b. Guisborough, Yorkshire, 13 Jan. 1834, and
was appointed assistant curator at the herbarium
at Kew in 1866. He was for many years lec-
turer on botany to the London Hospital, and in
1882 received a like appointment from the
Apothecaries' Company; he is also a member of
the Royal and Linnaean Societies. His vol-
uminous writings include works on the flora of
districts so diverse as the north of England,
Madagascar, and Brazil ; and popular mono-
graphs and scientific catalogues of high value.

Bak'er, Lafayette C, American detec-
tive : b. Stafford, N. Y., 13 Oct. 1826 ; d. 2 July
1868. He was chief of the Secret Service Bu-
reau during the Civil War; and reached the mil-
itary rank of brigadier-general. He superin-
tended the pursuit of Wilkes Booth, President
Lincoln's assassin; and published a 'History of
the United States Secret Service' (1868).

Bak'er, Marcus, American cartographer:
b. Kalamazoo, Mich., 23 Sept. 1849. He be-
came connected with the United States Coast
and Geodetic Survey in 1873, and with the Unit-
ed States Geological Survey in 1886 ; and in
1900 was secretary of the United States Board
on Geographic Names. He was cartographer to
the Venezuela boundary commission, and after
spending many years surveying and exploring in
Alaska, and along the Pacific coast, prepared,
with William H. Dall, the 'Alaska Coast
Pilot.'

Bak'er, Moses Nelson, American civil en-
gineer : b. Enosburg, Vt., 26 Jan. 1864. He was.
editor for several years of the 'Manual of Amer-
ican Waterworks' ; and in 1900 was associate
editor of 'Engineering News.' He has pub-
lished 'Sewage Purification in America' ; 'Sew-
erage and Sewage Purification' ; etc.

Bak'er, Osmon Cleander, American clergy-
man: b. Marlow, N. H., 30 July 1812; d.
20 Dec. 1871. He was educated at Wesleyan
University ; spent several years in teaching, and
was one of the founders of the system of Metho-
dist Episcopal theological schools. He was pro-
fessor in the Biblical Institute in Concord, N.
H., 1847-52, and in the last named year was
elected a bishop. His work, 'Guide-Book in the
Administration of Discipline of the Methodist
Episcopal Church' (1855), is a standard au-
thority.

Bak'er, Sir Richard, English historian: b.
Kent, 1568; d. 1645. He was educated at Ox-
ford, and knighted in 1603 by James I. ; in 1620
he filled the office of high sheriff of Oxford-
shire, having estates in that county. Shortly
afterward he was thrown into Fleet Prison be-^

BAKER — BAKER'S DOZEN

catise of having given security for a debt con-
tracted by his wife's family, which he was unable
to pay. During his imprisonment he wrote
^Chronicle of the Kings of England,^ first pub-
lished in 1641, and afterward continued by Ed-
ward Phillips, the nephew of Milton, and others,
a work popular at the time, but not of perma-
nent value. He died in prison.

Bak'er, Sir Samuel White, English ex-
plorer : b. London, 8 June 1821 ; d. 30 Dec. 1893.
He was trained as an engineer, and at the age
of 24 went to Ceylon, where he founded an
agricultural settlement at Nuwara Eliya in 1847.
In the early part of 1861, accompanied by his
"wife, he set out for Africa on a journey of ex-
ploration. When he had ascended the Nile as
far as Gondokoro he met Speke ar^d Grant re-
turning after their discovery of the Victoria
Nyanza Lake, and learned from them that an-
other large lake in the district had been spoken
of by the natives. This lake he determined to
•discover, and after many adventures he and his
wife beheld the Albert Nyanza, on 14 March
1864. On his return home he was received with
•great honor, and was knighted. In 1869 he re-
turned to Africa as head of an expedition sent
by the Khedive of Egypt to suppress the slave
trade, and to annex and open up to trade a
large part of the newly explored country, being
raised to the dignity of pasha. Returning in
1873, he was succeeded by the celebrated Gor-
don. In 1879 he explored the island of Cyprus,
and subsequently traveled in Asia and America.
His writings include: <The Rifle and the
Hound in Ceylon^ (1854) ; < Eight Years' Wan-
derings in Ceylon' (1855) ; <The Albert Ny-
anza' (1866) ; "^The Nile Tributaries of Abys-
sinia' (1867) ; "^Ismailia, a Narrative of the
Expedition to Central Africa' (1874) ; 'Cy-
prus as I saw It in 1879' ; ^Wild Beasts and
Their Ways' (1890) ; also, ^Cast up by the
Sea,' a story published in 1869.

Bak'er, Thomas, English antiquary: b.
1656; d. 1740. His ^Reflections on Learning'
(1709-10) went through seven editions. He
left in manuscript 42 folio volumes of an ^Athe-
nae Cantabrigiensis,' from which a ^History of
St. John's College' was edited by Prof. Mayor
in 1869.

Bak'er, Valentine, English military officer,
also known as Baker Pasha : b. 1825 ; d.
Tel-el-Kebir, 1887. He was a brother of Sir
Samuel White Baker. For his services in the
Crimean war he was made colonel of the loth
Hussars. In the Russo-Turkish war of 1877
he was in the Turkish service, and subsequent-
ly served in Egypt. He wrote < Clouds in the
East' (1876) ; and <The War in Bulgaria'
(1879).

Bak'er, William Bliss, American artist:
b. New York, 1859 ; d. Ballston, N. Y., 1889.
He studied at the National Academy, and is
especially noted for his landscapes. Among his
works are ^In the Old Pasture' ; 'October
Morning' ; and *^Under the Apple-Tree.'

Bak'er, Sir William Erskine, Scottish
military and civil engineer : b. Leith, Scotland,
1808; d. 16 Dec. 1881. He served in the first
Sikh war, and afterward held many offices in
the public works department of India. His en-
gineering work in Scinde was very valuable, as
the scheme of irrigation which he carried

through has imparted fertility to a barren ter-
ritory. He became a member of the council of
India in 1861 ; major-general in 1865; a K. C. B.
in 1870; and retired from public life in 1875.

Bak'er, William Henry, American gy-
naecologist: b. Medford, Mass., 11 March 1845.
He was graduated at the Harvard Medical
School, and became professor of gynaecology
there. His publications include 'The Treatment
of Cancer of the Uterus' ; 'Diseases of the Ure-
thra and Bladder' ; etc.

Bak'er, William Mumford, American
novelist and clergyman: b. Washington, D. C,
27 June 1825; d. South Boston, Mass., 20 Aug.
1883. He was graduated at Princeton 1846, and
held Presbyterian pastorates in Texas for 15
years, when he returned to the north and ac-
cepted a charge in South Boston. As a writer,
one of his most important books was 'Inside: A
Chronicle of Secession' (1866), secretly written
during the war, and giving an illuminating pic-
ture of Southern sentiment. Other works are:
'Life and Labors of Rev. D. Baker' (1858) ;
'The Ten Theopanies' (1883). His novels,
several of which appeared serially, include:
'Mose Evans' (1874); 'Carter Quarterman'
(1876) ; 'Colonel Dunwoodie' (1878) ; 'The
Virginians in Texas' (1878): 'His Majesty
Myself (1879) ; and its sequel, 'The Making
of a Man' (1884); 'Blessed Saint Certainty'
(1881).

Bak'er, and the Baker's Wife, The, names
popularly given to Louis XVI. of France, and
Marie Antoinette, because they gave bread to
the starving mob at Versailles, 6 Oct. 1789.

Bak'er City, Ore., a city and county-
seat of Baker County, situated on the east fork
of the Powder River, 360 miles east of Port-
land, on the Oregon R.R. It is the centre of
an extensive farming, gold-mining and stock-
raising region, and has a considerable export
trade. It is governed by a mayor, biennially
elected, and a city council, and operates the
waterworks. It was settled in i860 and incor-
porated in 1872. Pop. (1900) 6,663.

Bak'er, Mount, an occasionally active vol-
cano in Whatcom County, Wash., belonging to
the Cascade Range; elevation, 10,827 feet.

Bak'er University, a co-educational insti-
tution in Baldwin, Kan. It was founded in
1858, under the auspices of the Methodist Epis-
copal Church, and at the end of 1905 had 40
jirofessors and instructors, and 1,000 students.
Its library contained 14,000 volumes, and the
grounds and buildings were valued at $80,000;
graduates, 1.200; productive funds, $50,000; in-
come $40,000.

Bak'er's Antelope, a large antelope (Hip-
potragus Bakcri) of equatorial Africa, dis-
covered by Sir Samuel Baker. It is pale
brownish-ri;d with black stripes on the shoulders,
and has massive horns.

Bak'er's Dozen, a familiar phrase sup-
posed to have originated in an old practice of
bakers who, when a heavy penalty was inflicted
for short weight, used to give a surplus number of
loaves, called the inbread, to avoid all risk of in-
curring the fine. Thirteen, therefore, became a
baker's dozen, and 13 also is assumed to be the
number of witches who sat down together at
dinner on the Lord's Day, even as it was the

BAKERSFIELD — BAKUNIN

number who were at that last Passover supper
which immediately preceded the betrayal of Christ.
Thirteen was also called the "devil's dozen.^^

Bak'ersfield, Cal., a town and countj'-seat
of Kern County, situated on the Kern River and
on the Southern Pacific railrgad. It is the
centre of an oil region and of a stock-raising
and fruit-growing industry; therefore has a
good trade and some manufacturing interests as
w^cll. Pop. (1900) 4,836.

Bake'well, Robert, English agricultu-
rist: b. 1725; d. 1795. He succeeded his father,
in 1760, as occupier of the Dishley farm in
Leicestershire, and then began experiments for
the improvement of cattle (introducing the cele-
brated long-horned breed), and also of horses,
pigs, and sheep. He also introduced into Eng-
lish agriculture the practice of flooding mead-
ows. He never contributed anything to litera-
ture, but Arthur Young, in his annals of
agriculture, fully described and praised his
plans and improvements.

Bakhmut, bakh-moot'. See Bachmut.

Bakhtchissarai, bak'che-sa-ri', a town of
Russia, the capital of the government of Tau-
rida; situated on the Tchoorook, 15 miles south-
west of Simferopol. It consists of a single
street, built along the banks of the Tchoorook,
and lined in Oriental fashion with bazaars and
workshops. It contains also several mosques,
whose tall minarets rise high above the neigh-
boring houses. Here also is the ancient palace
of the khans who ruled over the Tauridian
state before the rise of Russian power. The
inhabitants are chiefly Mohammedans. Pop.
(1900) 13,000.

Bakhtegan, bakk-tc-giin, a salt lake in
Persia, 47 miles east of Shiraz : 74 miles long
and from 4 to 13 miles wide. Large quantities
of salt are gathered from its basin.

Bakhtiari, bakh'te-a're. (i) A range of
mountains of Persia extending parallel to the
Arva and Laristan ranges. (2) A half-civilized
tribe living in the above mountains, estimated
to number 232,800.

Baki, ba'ke, the greatest lyric poet of Tur-
key: died about 1600. His <Divan^ contains
almost exclusively odes in praise of the Sultan.

Baking Machinery. See Bread and Bread-
making.

Bak'ing Pow'der, a chemical preparation
used in the place of yeast to give lightness to
bread and other similar articles of diet. Yeast
induces a kind of fermentation, accompanied by
the generation of bubbles of the gas known
to chemists as carbon dioxid ; and it is the de-
velopment of these bubbles within the dough
that causes it to swell (or "rise*) and become
light. When baking powder is used in the
place of yeast, the action is similar, except that
the gas is generated by direct chemical action,
instead of by fermentation. The best baking
powders contain bicarbonate of soda or bicar-
bonate of ammonia as their alkaline constituent,
intimately mixed with tartaric or phosphoric
acid, or an acid tartrate or phosphate. So long
as the powder is kept dry, its acid and alkaline
constituents do not combine with each other;
but when moistened, combination takes place,
and carbon dioxid is generated, just as in the
case of yeast. Owing to the cost of tartrates

and phosphates, alum is not infrequently used
as the acid constituent in the cheaper powders;
but health authorities almost universally con-
demn this substitution.

Bakkebakke, bak'ke-bak'ke, a tribe of Af-
rican pigmies dwelling in the Fren*;h Congo
territory.

Bakonywald, bo'kon-y'-valt, a mountain
range in Hungary, between the Raab and Lake
Balaton, separating the great and little Hunga-
rian plains. Average elevation, 2,000 feet. It
is covered with forests, on the mast of which
large herds of swine are fed. There are fine
quarries of marble in the mountains.

Baksheesh, bak-shesh', or Bakshish, an
Eastern word, denoting a present or gratuity.
In Egypt and other parts of the Turkish em-
pire the traveler has scarcely set foot on shore
before clamors for baksheesh, on the most friv-
olous pretexts, or in simple beggary, without
pretext at all, assail his ears from every quar-
ter. Baksheesh is the first Arabic word with
which he becomes acquainted, and he acquires it
unwillingly.

Baku, a Russian towai in Georgia, on the
Caspian Sea. The rocky peninsula upon which
it is built and the islands in the bay are com-
posed of Tertiary strata, abounding in fossil
shells. Through these strata numerous springs
of naphtha and petroleum issue, together with
streams of inflammable gas, and eruptions of
mud from so-called mud volcanoes. These
phenomena give to the region the name of
the Field of Fire, and formerly miade Baku
the sacred city of the Guebres or Fire Worship-
pers. Naphtha is so abundant as to be an arti-
cle of commerce. The chief product of the re-
gion, however, is petroleuni. Over 500 oil wells
are operated, producing large quantities of pe-
troleum, much of which is carried by pipes di-
rectly to the refineries. Baku has a large trade,
exporting besides the oil, grain, salt, etc. It has
grown very rapidly in recent years, its prosperity
being due to the petroleum industry which is
chiefly in the hands of foreign capitalists "See
Marvin, 'The Region of Eternal Fire' (ic«83) ;
Louis, 'The Baku Petroleum District^ in the
'Engineering Magazine, No. XV.^ (1898). Pop.
about 119.000.

Bakunin, ba-koon'yen, Michel, Russian
anarchist: b. 1814; d. i July 1876. He was edu-
cated in a military school at St. Petersburg,
and served for a time in the artillery of the
guards. In 1841-3 he was in Germany, en-
gaged in philosophical study. In 1843, he went
to Paris, and entered into relations with the
Polish emigration, and shortly afterward to
Switzerland, where he participated actively in
various socialist and communist associationc.
The Russian government ordered him to return
home. Bakunin refused, and his estate was
confiscated. In 1847, during the excitement pro-
duced in Paris by the question of parliamentary
reform, he made a speech invoking the fusion
of Poles and Russians, for the better and easier
revolutionizing of Russia, on account of which
the Russian government demanded his expul-
sion from France. For the next two years he
was active in the revolutionary movement at
Prague, at Berlin, and at Dresden. He was
taken prisoner and condemned to death ; hut
the sentence was commuted to life imprisonment

BALA — BALAKLAVA

and he was sent to Siberia. In i860, he escaped
to Japan, and from there went by way of the
United States to London. Here he joined the
work of the revolutionary sociaHst movement,
and in 1869, founded the Social Democratic
Alliance, which later joined the International
Workingmen's Association. His views were
thoroughl}' anarchistic and when he tried to im-
pose them upon the Association he was expelled
by the Hague Congress in 1872. In 1873 Ba-
kunin stopped active work and lived for the
rest of his life in Switzerland.

Bala, ba-la, a town of North Wales, at the
north end of the Bala lake, county of Merion-
eth. The town and its neighborhood have long
been famous for the manufacture of knitted
stockings, and gloves of strong and soft tex-
ture. At the south end of the town is a large
artificial mound, supposed to be of Roman ori-
gin. This mound was ancientlj' occupied by the
Welsh as a fort to prevent the incursions of the
English.

Bala Beds, a local deposit in North Wales,
near Bala, which form a group in the Lower
Silurian of ]\Iurchison. They consist of a
few beds, rarely more than 20 feet in thick-
ness, and chiefly composed of hard crystalline
limestone, alternating with softer argillaceous
bands, which decompose more freely, and leave
the limestone like a cornice molding, affording
a characteristic by which, at a considerable
distance, the Bala Beds can be distinguished
from the rocks of hard, gritty slate above and
below. Trilobite and cystidse are the predomi-
nant fossils of the group.

Balaam, a Biblical personage, the son of
Beor, and a native of Pethor. The children of
Israel had reached, in their journey, the plains
of -\Ioab. Balak, the king, terrified at seeing
so great a host invading his territory, sent,
therefore, to Balaam, a well-known prophet
and soothsayer, to come and curse these hosts
for him, so that, peradventure, he might then
smite them and drive them out of the land.
Balaam, warned of God in the night, refused
to go with the messengers, and sent them away.
Balak sent yet others. He at first also refused
them, but in the morning he went, with the
divine injunction to speak what the Lord should
tell him. The angel of the Lord met him
in the way, gave the ass he rode a vision in
three several instances, and each time Balaam
angrily smote the beast for her involuntary
manifestations of terror. After the third beat-
ing an interlocution ensued between the ass and
the master, when the Lord opened the eyes of
Balaam, and, seeing the angel, he conversed
with him instead of the ass. As the result of
the conversation, Balaam was permitted to go
on, and the charge repeated to speak only that
v.-hich the Lord should tell him. Coming unto
Balak, he informed him that he could only speak
that which God shall put into his mouth. Ba-
laam refused to curse Israel, but pronounced a
blessing upon them, in the three several places
to which Balak brought him in the vain hope of
securing his purpose. This is the Old Testament
history of the transaction, given in Numbers
xxii.-xxiv. In Numbers xxxi. 8, 16, and Joshua
xiii. 22, Balaam is mentioned as advising Balak
to lead the children of Israel into idolatry,
which, according to his directions, they did, and
hence arose a war with Aloab.

Barachong, an Oriental condiment, com-
posed of small fishes, or shrimps, pounded up
with salt and spices and then dried.

Bal'aena, the genus including the Green-
land or right whale, type of the family Balce-
nidcs, or whale-bone whales. Hence baleen =^
whalebone.

Bal'aeniceps 0'whale-head*0, a genus of
African wading birds belonging to the region of
the Upper Nile, intermediate between the herons
and storks, and characterized by an enormous
bill, broad and swollen, giving the only known
species {B. rex), also called shoe-bird. It feeds
on fishes, water-snakes, carrion, etc., and makes
its nest in reeds or grass adjoining water. The
bill is yellow, blotched with dark brown, the
general color of the plumage dusky gray, the
head, neck, and breast slaty, the legs blackish.

Balaguer, ba-la-gar', Victor, Spanish his-
torian: b. Barcelona, 11 Dec. 1824. He be-
came keeper of the archives at Barcelona, pro-
fessor of history in the university there ; and
was an active Liberal politician, and, in 1888,
chief of the council on the Philippine Islands.
He wrote ^The Troubadours of Montserrat*
(1850) ; ^Political and Literary History of the
Troubadours' (1878-80); <Poems> (1874);
'Don Juan de Serravalle' (5th ed. 1875), etc.

Balahissar, ba'-la-his-sar', a village in the
southwestern part of the province of Angora,
Asia Minor. It is on the site of the ancient
Pessinus, famous for its worship of Cybele.
Among fragments of marble columns, friezes,
etc., rise the ruins of her gorgeous temple, and
remains of a theatre in partial preservation, a
castle, and a circus.

Balakireff, ba-la'ke-rygf. Mill Alexeyevich,

Russian composer: b. Nizhni-Novgorod, 1837;
he is ranked as the founder of the young
Russian school of music. At 18 he is said
to have known by heart nearly all of the
musical classics. With other musical enthusiasts
he strove to impart a flavor of nationalism into
music, his especial works in this direction being
'Songs' (1858-60) : three overtures on Russian
themes; three on Chekh themes (1867); 'Forty
National Songs' (1866) ; 'Islamey,' a fantasy
(1869). His most important compositions are
'Tamora,' a fantasy for orchestra and a sym-
phony in C major. His extended works illus-
trate programme music of the Berlioz Liszt
school. See Cui, 'La Musique en Russie'
(1880) ; Pongin, 'Essai Historique sur la Mu-
sique en Russie' (1897).

Balaklava, ba-la-kla'va, or Balaclava, a

small seaport of Russia, in the Crimea, eight
miles south-southeast of Sebastopol. It con-
sists for the most part of houses perched upon
heights, and it has an old castle, built by the
Genoese. The harbor has a very narrow en-
trance, and, though deep, is not capacious. In
1854 Balaklava became the principal landing-
place of the British after the battle of the
Alma. The battle of Balaklava fought 25 Oct.
1854, when the Russians in overwhelming force
were repulsed by a small body of British troops,
is one of the most heroic achievements of
modern times, the "charge of the light brigade"
being the most glorious incident in the conflict.
(Kinglake, 'Invasion of the Crimea' ; Paget,
'The Light Cavalry Brigade in the Crimea.')

BALAMBAN — BALANCE

Balamban, ba-lam'ban, a small town on
the west coast of Cebu, on Tanon Strait, Phil-
ippines. It was occupied by a garrison of Unit-
ed States infantry after a battle with Filipino
insurgents early in January igoo. It has a na-
tive population of some thousands, and a public
school in which English is taught.

Balan, ba-liih. (i) A French poem, an early
version of *Fierabras.' of which there was also
an English version, "^The Sowdan of Babylon. >
(2) The brother of Balin, in Arthurian legends.

Bal'ance (Latin, bis, ^^ twice," and lanx, a
<'dish-," or "pan''), an instrument for determin-
ing the mass of a body by comparison with a
series of other bodies (called "weights") whose
masses are known. The term is often applied,
though somewhat incorrectly, to the familiar in-
struments in which the weight of a body is
determined by observing the extension that it
can produce when acting upon a spring whose
extensibility has been previously determined by
direct experiments with known weights. The
"spring balance" is useful in the ordinary affairs
of life, where high precision is not essential ;
but it is seldom employed in accurate scientific
work, since it is liable to errors that cannot be
eliminated or allowed for — errors that are
small enough to be neglected in commercial
transactions, but quite intolerable in refined
laboratory work.

The "lever balance* consists essentially of a
lever (q.v.) having arms of known lengths.
The mass to be determined is suspended at the
extremity of one of the arms, and the known
masses (or weights) are suspended from the
extremity of the other one, their number and
size being varied until, after repeated trials,
a perfect equilibrium, or "balance,* is attained.
If the two arms of the lever are equal, the
mass of the body under examination is then
equal to the sum of the masses of the weights
that are balanced against it. In many cases (for
example, in the familiar "platform scales") the
arms of the lever are intentionally made very
unequal, the object to be weighed being sus-
pended from the short arm of the lever, while
the weights are suspended from the long arm.
To determine the mass of the object it is then
necessary to multiply the sum of the masses
of the weights by the ratio of the long arm
to the short one ; but in practical work this cal-
culation does not need to be performed, because
the instrument is graduated by the maker so that
all necessary allowance for the difference in the
arms has been made, and the readings give the
corrected mass directly. In many cases the bal-
ances (or "scales") used in commerce are con-
structed so that equilibrium is attained by vary-
ing the length of the lever-arm rather than by
varying the load at the extremity of that arm ;
but the fundamental principles involved are the
same in all cases, and are set forth in detail in
the article Lever (q.v.).

In the "precision balance* of the chemist and
physicist, the lever (called the "beam") con-
sists of a light but strong and rigid framework,
usually made of brass or bronze, and having a
shape somewhat like that shown in Fig. i. It is
supported by means of a wedge-shaped piece
of steel, technically known as a "knife-edge,"
which is hardened and ground to a sharp and ac-
curately straight edge, and which rests, when
the balance is in use, upon a fiat slab of agate,

or other hard, smooth substance, in such a
manner as to leave the beam free to tip one
way or the other, with practically no frictional

Fig. I

resistance. (The agate slab is suggested by the
dotted contour, k, in the figure ; the pillar that
supports k being omitted for the sake of clear-
ness.) Knife-edges similar to the central one,
but with their edges directed upward instead
of downward, are provided at the respective ends
of the beam (as shown at A and B) for the
support of the pans (only one of which is
shown) in which the masses to be compared are
placed. The three knife-edges. A, B, and C,
must be made with great care, and must be set
in position so that they shall be accurately
parallel to one another. They must, moreover,
have their edges all in the same plane, so that
a straight line joming any two points in the
edges of A and B will likewise pass through the
edge of C. The two arms of the beam should
also be precisely equal, so that C is exactly half
way between A and B. P is a pointer whose
free end travels over a graduated scale, so as
to indicate the extent of the oscillations of the
beam as it swings to and fro on the central
knife-edge C. When the beam is horizontal,
its centre of gravity (G in Fig. 2) should lie in

y.-.-

Fig. 2

the same vertical line, ab, with the central
knife-edge. Whether this condition is fulfilled
or not is easily shown by removing the scale-
pans and allowing the beam to come to rest. It
can only be in equilibrium when its centre of
gravity is directly below the knife-edge C;
so that if it comes to rest in a horizontal posi-
tion it is evident that the condition specified
above is sensibly realized. If. on the other
hand, the beam, when freed from the pans,
comes to rest with its right-hand end lower than
the left-hand one, it is evident that the centre
of gravity of the beam is too far to the right,
as is indicated by the point g. The better makes
of balance are provided with an adjustment to
correct an error of this sort. This adjustment
may take the form of a fine screw-thread carry-

BALANCE

ing a nut, as suggested at E. If the nut be
caused to approach B, the centre of gravity of
the beam (considering the nut as a part of the
beam) will thereby be shifted toward the left,
■and after a number of trials the point g may be
made to coincide with G, so that the beam,
when free from the pans, comes to rest in a
perfectly horizontal position. If it does not re-
main horizontal when the pans are suspended in
their proper places, then it follows that one of
the pans is heavier than the other ; this defect
is easily remedied by the use of a light counter-
poise in connection with the lighter pan, or by
removing a small portion of the material of the
heavier one.

The centre of gravity of the beam being
properly adjusted, and the equality of the two
pans being assured, it is evident that the beam
•will set itself in a horizontal position when the
pans are empty. The balance may still be de-
fective, however, through the arms not being of
precisely equal length. The equality of the arms
may be tested in the following manner : Let
a mass, P, be placed in one of the pans, and
suppose that w is the mas? that has to be placed
in the other pan in order to secure a perfect
balance. Let L be the length of the arm from
which P is suspended, and / be the length of the
arm from which w is suspended, as indicated in

'\V

Fig. 3

Fig. 3. Then, by the principle of the lever, v/e
have —

PXL = 'wXl.
Next, let P be placed in the other pan, con-
nected with the arm whose length is /, and yet
IV be the mass that must be suspended from
the arm of length L, in order to secure a perfect
balance. We then have the equation —

PXI = JV XL
Now, if P be eliminated between these two
equations, we have the relation —

and since W and zu are both known, it follows
that the ratio of the two arms of the balance
is also known. If this ratio does not come out
sensibly equal to unity, its value may be care-
full}'- determined, and allowance made for the
inequality of the arms after a v/eighing has been
performed. The effect of inequality in the arms
may also be eliminated by a double weighing,
such as has been supposed to be performed,
above. For if we eliminate L (instead of P)
from the foregoing equations, we find —

P=V IV Xw;
that is, the true weight is the geometric mean
between IV and w. In practice the arms of a
good balance are so nearly equal that the simple
arithmetic mean of JV and w is a sufficiently
close approximation to the geometric mean re-
quired by theory.

The sensitiveness of a balance depends large-
ly upon the position of the centre of gravity of

\'ol. 2 14.

the beam relatively to the central knife edge.
Thus, if the arms of the balance are precisely
equal, and the beam hangs perfectly horizontal
with a weight P in each pan, the angle, x,
through which the beam turns when the weight
in the left-hand pan is increased to P + p, may
be taken as a measure of the sensitiveness of the
balance. Let S be the weight of the beam itself,
and let the centre of gravity of the beam be at a
distance, /;, below the central knife-edge when
the beam is horizontal. Then, if x is the angle
that the beam makes with the horizontal when
it comes to rest with P + p in the left-hand
pan and P in the right-hand pan, the theory of
the lever gives the equation (see Fig. 4) —

(P + p).L.cos x^=P.L.cos x-\-h.S3m x,
from which we easily obtain —

LXp
tan X = .

hXS

Fig. 4

It is evident that x will be increased as h is
decreased, so that the sensitiveness of the bal-
ance becomes greater the nearer the centre of
gravity of the beam is caused to approach
to the centre of support. The balance should
be provided with a thread and nut, D (see Fig.
l), to facilitate the vertical adjustment of the
centre of gravity, in the same way that E is used
in adjusting the horizontal position of that point.
The centre of gravity of the beam must always
remain below the centre of support, because
when it is above that point the beam is unstable,
and when it coincides with the centre of support
the instrument will remain in equilibrium in any
position. When a balance is made very sensi-
tive, by bringing the centre of gravity close to
the point of support or by increasing the length
of the arms of the beam, the period of oscil-
lation of the beam grows very long, so that
the instrument is tedious to use. The experi-
enced chemist or physicist therefore selects a
balance whose sensitiveness and period of os-
cillation can be best adapted to the work he
has in hand.

The ^'precision balance^' is a delicate instru-
ment, and should be kept in a glass case, for
protection, when not in actual use. The weigh-
ings are also performed wnth the balance en-
closed in like manner, in order to avoid error
from the effect of air-currents upon the beam.
The knife-edges should be kept away from their
bearings, and provision is always made for rais-
ing the pans from the ends of the beam, and the
beam itself from the central support, by means
of a system of stops and levers (not here
shown) actuated by a conveniently situated lever
or wheel. The beam and pans should always

BALANCE OF POWER

be raised in this manner when changing the
weights in the pans, in order to avoid giving the
least shock to the knife-edges; for when these
are dulled or otherwise injured the accuracy and
sensitiveness of the balance are materially les-
sened.

Weighings may be eiTected by two general
methods. In the first method the position of
the pointer, P (in Fig. i), is noted on the
scale at its extremity when the balance is at
rest with the pans empty. The position so
recorded is called the "zero'^ of the balance.
The object to be weighed is then placed in one
of the pans, and weights are added to the other
pan until the balance will come to rest with
its pointer at the same spot, or zero, as before.
The weighing is then complete.

In the second method of conducting the ex-
periment (known as the ^'method by oscilla-
tions") the balance is not brought to rest at all,
the necessary readings being taken while the
beam is oscillating. The zero reading of the
pointer is first obtained (with the pans empty)
in the following manner : The empty balance is
allowed to oscillate freely for a short time,
and then the position attained by the pointer at
one of its extreme positions toward the right is
noted. The reading of the next following ex-
treme position to the left is then taken, and so
on, observing the positions attained at the alter-
nate right and left swings, just as the pointer
pauses and begins to return toward the mean
position. The last reading is taken on the same
side as the first, so that there is an odd num-
ber of observations on one side of the zero, and
an even number on the other side. The read-
ings on the right are then averaged together,
and those on the left are also averaged in the
same way ; after which the mean reading on the
right is averaged with the mean reading on the
left, and the result is taken as the position of
the zero of the balance. The object to be
weighed is then placed in one pan, and the
weights in the other, the process of guess and
trial being followed here just as in the preceding
method until an almost exact balance has been
attained. The- method of oscillations, with al-
ternate readings to the right and left, is next
repeated in precisely the same manner as when
the pans were empty, and the reading obtained
by the final averaging of tliese observations is
taken as the reading of the balance for the
loads that are in the pans at the time. A very
small weight is next added to one of the pans,
and the oscillations are again observed, under the
new conditions, precisely as before. The weight
of the object under examination can then be
determined by simple proportion. Thus, sup-
pose that the original zero reading of the point-
er, with the pans empty, was 11.6. The object
to be weighed being placed in one pan, and
weights having a combined mass of W in the
other, let the reading of the pointer (as deduced
from the oscillations) be 10.4. The small mass,
%v, being then added to W , let the final reading
of the pointer be 12.2. The following facts are
now known : With empty pans the pointer
reads 11.6. With the unknown mass (which
may be denoted by F) in one pan, and a mass,
W\ in the other, the pointer reads 10.4. Finally,
with P in one pan and W + w in the other,
the pointer reads 12.2. The mass zv has dis-
placed the reading of the pointer by 1.8 divi-
sions. If it be assumed that a mass x, when

added to W, would have made the read.iig of
the pointer precisely 11.6, as it was with the
empty pans, we have the additional fact that a
mass X would alter the reading of the pointer
by 1.2 divisions. Hence the simple proportion — -
X : w : : 1.2 : 1.8;

whence .r = , and therefore the concluded

mass of P is IV -] .

The method of oscillations is favored by
many physicists, in the belief that a better value
of the zero of the balance can be obtained
by studying the free swings in this way than by
allowing the instrument to come to rest. In-
stead of adding very small weights to secure the
last adjustments, the "rider*' is often used. This
consists of a tiny weight made of wire, and
suspended on the beam of the balance, as.
indicated at R in Fig. i. The beam is gradu-
ated when a rider is to be used, and the final
step in the weighing consists in observing what
position the rider must have in order to make
the balance perfect. The effect of moving the
rider one division on the beam being known by
previous experiment, the correction to be ap-
plied for any given position of the rider is
easily calculated. Obviously the rider can be
used with equal advantage whether the weighing
is conducted by the method of oscillations or
not.

The weights used in connection with preci-
sion balances must be accurately compared
among themselves if refined work is to be done,
and a table of corrections prepared, by means
of which the proper allowances may be readily
found, for any minute inconsistencies that may
exist among them. Reference must be made
to the standard works on experimental phycics
for the details of the process by which these cor-
rections are obtained. Crookes' classical paper
on the atomic weight of thallium ^Philosophical
Transactions,^ (1873, p. 277) may also be con-
sulted with advantage, as it contains full de-
tails on this point, as well as on many others in
connection with accurate weighing. (For fur-
ther information on the theory and use of the
precision balance, see Stewart & Gee, ^Lessons
on Elementary Practical Physics,^ Vol. I, and
Glazebrook & Shaw, ^Practical Physics.' Much
advanced information may also be had in the
^Travaux et Memoires' of the International Bu-
reau of Weights and Measures.) See also
Chronometer; Induction B.'s.lance; Torsion
Balance.

Balance of Power, is the system by which
greater states are withheld from absorbing-
smaller ones. Vattel, in *Law of Nations,' thus
defines it : "By this balance is to be understood
such a disposition of things, as that no one
potentate or state shall be able absolutely to pre-
dominate and prescribe to the others.'' The sys-
tem of the balance of power is entirely the out-
growth of the modern political system of
Europe, as it began to shape itself in the 15th
century; not that it was entirely unknown to
the ancients before the irresistible progress of
Roman arms put any idea of balance out of
the question, but these early efforts after the
balance of power were not sustained for a suffi-
ciently long period, from generation to genera-

BALANCE OF POWER

tion, from century to century ; were too transi-
tory and casual to entitle them to be elevated
into a system. They must be regarded as ap-
proaches and tentatives, interesting, but in the
end fugitive and unsuccessful. During the latest
centuries of the Middle Ages, the kings of
France and the emperors of Germany were too
much engaged in their domestic struggles with
their great vassals, to spare the concentrated
attention and energy upon international affairs
necessary to originate and sustain a system of
balance in Christian Europe. In Italy, then so
for m advance of the rest of Europe in intel-
lectual, social, and political development, the
princes, podestas, and republics of that penin-
sula, from an early period of the 15th century,
had built up the institution of an equilibrium
for their mutual regulation. But this was too
local and on too small a scale to be deemed the
parent of our modern system. Not until Louis
XL of France had repressed the Dukes of Bur-
gundy and Brittany, not until Ferdinand of
Castile and Aragon had united almost the whole
of modern Spain under his sway, not until Max-
imilian in Germany, and Henry VII. in England
and Ireland had consolidated the monarchical au-
thority, was the time ripe for the application of
this idea. The invasion of Italy by Charles VIII.
of France, and his claim to the kingdom of
Naples, in 1494, gave rise to the first great
European combination of otherwise hostile pow-
ers for the repression of the ambition of one.
Almost all the Italian states, Maximilian, the
German emperor, and Ferdinand of Aragon, sus-
pended their animosities, and drove the French
out of Italy. The Emperor Charles V. of Ger-
many, Spain, Burgundy, the Netherlands, and
a vast transatlantic empire, 1519-56, caused the
jealousy of Europe. Francis I. of France, ac-
tually went so far as to ally himself with the
sultan, Solyman the Magnificent, against
Charles. The Turks at one end of Europe, the
kings of France and England at the other, and
the opposition of the Protestant princes in the
centre, prevented Charles from realizing his
ambitious schemes. The misfortunes of Philip
IL, the son of Charles V., in the Dutch Nether-
lands and in the expeditions against England
and the English power in Ireland, effectually
dissipated the fears Europe entertained con-
cerning the overgrown power of the Spanish
branch of the house of Llapsburg. The idea
of a European equilibrium had now become suf-
ficiently definite for Henry IV. of France to
propose to Elizabeth of England, at the com-
mencement of the 17th century, a scheme for
a federative congress, whose purpose it should
be to maintain the peace of Europe in the same
manner as the great powers do now. The
idea was impracticable in those days, and was
entirely abandoned even as a project, on the
assassination of that liberal and high-minded
prince. The next potentate whose power gave
general alarm and caused a coalition against
him in the general interest, was the emperor
Ferdinand II. of Germany (reigned 1619-37).
Gustavus Adolphus, of Sweden, appealing to the
Protestant princes of Germany, subsidized by
Richelieu, the French minister, and supplied
with men by England and the united provinces
of the Netherlands, achieved the task of hum-
bling the power of the house of Austria. After
the death of Gustavus, Oxenstiern of Sweden,
and Richelieu of France, together forced upon

the German emperor the celebrated Treaty of
Westphalia (1648), which relieved Europe froir
the fear of the house of Austria, and put ar
end to the Thirty Years' war. The next gen
eral danger came from France. The invasion
by Louis of the Dutch Netherlands (1672),
brought about a coalition of Holland, the em-
peror of Germany, the elector of Brandenburg,
and the king of Spain, against the French king.
William, prince of Orange, was the hero of this
war; but the Peace of Nimeguen (1678) sealed
the supremacy of Louis XIV. The will of the
king of Spain nominating the second son of the
French dauphin as his successor (1700), thu^
putting the powerful monarchies of France and
Spain into the same hands and utterly destroying
the European equilibrium, created the grand al-
liance and the war of the Spanish succession.
The emperor of Germany, the Duke of Savoy,
the king of England, and the states-general of
the United Provinces, united in this grand al-
liance. The king of Portugal afterward joined
the anti-French confederacy. Marlborough and
Prince Eugene of Savoy were the great mili-
tary leaders in behalf of the balance of power.
The Peace of Utrecht (1713), by which the
union of the French and Spanish crowns was
prevented, and the territorial conquests of France
almost wholly surrendered, re-established the
influence of the equilibrium doctrine, and se-
cured Europe from danger on this side until the
era of the French republic. The Empress Eliza-
beth, of Russia, was the first Russian potentate
who took part in wars in which she had only
a remote general interest. Prussia and Russia,
celebrated their entry into the rank of first-class
powers by dealing the most terrible blow to the
balance of power which it has ever suffered.
The first partition of Poland (1771-72) is ad-
mitted by every writer on this subject to be at
war with the fundamental principles on which
the equilibrium rests. The achievement of
American independence (1783), though not gen-
erally reckoned by European writers as belong-
ing to the history of the international balance,
may well be included therein, inasmuch as it put
an end to the overgrowth of British colonial
power and British naval preponderance. At
the Congress of Vienna (1814-15), it was the
leading wish of Lord Castlereagh, the British
plenipotentiary, to restore the kingdom of Po-
land, as included in the European equilibrium,
in which he was seconded by Metternich for
Austria, and Talleyrand for the French legiti-
mate sovereign, but opposed by the representa-
tives of the Russian and Prussian monarchies.
The return of Napoleon from Elba put an end
to this difference, and in the renewed conferences
after the battle of Waterloo, the western pow-
ers did not insist upon the point. From 1815 to
1853, the world was substantially preserved from
any war of importance by the five great powers
who then presided over the destinies of Europe,
namely, France, Great Britain, Russia, Austria,
and Prussia. In 1853. the invasion of the trans-
Danubian provinces of the Turkish empire by a
Russian army was declared by a congress of the
great powers at Vienna to be a breach of the
political equilibrium. In this declaration France,
Great Britain, Austria, and Prussia agreed. An
Anglo-French alliance was made (1854) to repel
the aggression, and the confederation of Turkey,
Great Britain, and France, was reinforced by
the king of Sardinia in the spring of the year

BALANCE OF TRADE — BALANOGLOSSUS

1855. After a war of three campaigns, the
Treaty of Paris was signed (30 March 1856),
by which Russia abandoned her claims, and
the principle of the balance of power was anew
vindicated. The Congress of Berlin in 1878, act-
ing in the interests of the balance of power,
deprived Russia of many benefits gained through
the Treaty of San Stefano. Within a genera-
tion, the principle of nationalism has arisen in
opposition to that of the balance of power.
This is exhibited in United Italy, United Ger-
many, and the spread of Pan-Slavism in Russia,
but as a set-off to this may be mentioned the ex-
tension of European influence in Asia and Afri-
ca as regards colonization and trade. Thus the
balance of power has become a world question
and such nations as Germany and Italy are de-
sirOuS of acquiring colonies to balance the colo-
nial possessions of Russia and England. At
present the balance of power in Europe is held
by the six nations of Great Britain, France,
Germany, Austria, Russia, and Italy.

Balance of Trade. The so-called balance
of trade is a theory arising from the apparent
relation of exports to imports. The protection-
ist school of political economy holds that ex-
cess of exports over imports constitutes what
is termed a ^favorable balance,^' which rnust be
returned to us in gold and silver, this being the
profit to the nation on its foreign trade. Ac-
cording to this theory the one desirable thing in
foreign commerce is the exportation of mer-
chandise. It should be said that all protection-
ists do not share in a belief in this theory.

In a great measure, and in its more exag-
gerated form, this doctrine is a survival of the
old mercantile theory, which down to the time
of Adam Smith controlled most of the legisla-
tion relating to commerce, and which held that
gold and silver were the only wealth. It still
retains a firm hold on the popular mind, but it
may be said that the full weight of the teachings
of orthodox political economy is against the
notion that excess of exports constitutes a
favorable balance.

The argument of the latter is that if the
theory is true there cannot be too great an ex-
cess of exports, and that our imports should
therefore consist only of gold and silver. In
this "reduction to absurdity^^ (since a country
has no more need of an excessive supply of the
metals than of any other commodity) the free-
trade school of political economy rejects the con-
clusions based upon the apparent excess of ex-
ports over imports.

Opponents of the theory hold that such trade
as exists between two countries, exclusive of
what is paid as interest, rent, or tribute, must
show a mutual profit, and represent to each a
corresponding excess of the value of importa-
tion. For illustration : A commodity costing
in one country $75 will be bought in another
for $T00, in exchange for a commodity costing
$75 in the country of its exportation and $100
in the importing country, such difference rep-
resenting the degree of desirability of these par-
ticular commodities to each country. It will
be observed that this precisely reverses the
"balance of trade'^ theory.

Countries may be able to show a favorable
balance from two causes, neither of which con-
tributes to their prosperity. It may result from
an actual drain, as in the case of Ireland, which

is being sapped of its wealth by absentee land-
lords, and in India, where the same phenomenon
is caused by a similar drain in the form of
tribute, official salaries spent outside the coun-
try, pensions, etc. But in these instances it is
clear that there is a condition unprofitable to
both countries. Or, on the other hand, it may
result, as in the United States, which has the
same favorable balance, by reason of the large
sums annually paid as interest on loans that en-
tered originally into railroad building, indus-
trial improvements, etc. Most of the royal fam-
ilies of Europe, not to mention less exalted
individuals, draw large dividends from Ameri-
can investments. Money spent by American
tourists abroad helps to swell this favorable
balance.

For proof that this theory has no such rela-
tion to national prosperity as its friends con-
ceive, its opponents point to England, whose
commercial greatness is rivalled by this country
alone, and which has a prevailing '^unfavorable*^
balance, because she has been the money-lender
of the world, and her excess of imports repre-
sents the return received by her people for
moneys invested in foreign lands.

It is impossible to account for the growing
increase of our own export balance wholly on the
explanation that such excess is rent or interest
upon loans. Much of such excess is indeed
fictitious, and is to be accounted for by under-
valuation of imports and overvaluation of ex-
ports. In the latter case there is a strong in-
ducement to overvalue, in order to conceal the
fact that many of our exporters are selling
goods cheaper abroad than at home. The in-
ducement to undervalue imports is quite as
strong. In short, customs statistics, with every
desire on the part of the treasui^y department
to be accurate, are of necessity unreliable.

Balanga, ba-lan'ga, Philippines, in the
province of Bataan, on the western coast of
Manila Bay, in the Island of Luzon. It has a
post-office and telegraph station. Pop. about
9,000.

Balani'tis, an inflammation of the mucous
m.embrane of the foreskin. It is a common
condition and is due to uncleanliness. Quacks
and charlatans magnify its importance, declare
it to be a fearful malady, and promise miracu-
lous cures. Ordinary cleanliness will cause a
balantis to disappear in a few days. This can-
not happen if the local trouble is of a venereal
nature.

Balanoglos'sus, a worm-like marine ani-
mal, the chief representative of the most primi-
tive class of chordate animals, Enteropneusta or
Adelocephala. This remarkable creature, the
type of its class, combines characters peculiar to
itself, with features reminding us of the nemer-
tcans, annelids, tunicates, and the vertebrate om-
phioxus, while its free-swimming larva was
originally supposed to be a young echinoderm.
From the fact that the central nervous system
lies above a notochord, Bateson placed it next
to the vertebrates.

One American species, Balanoglossus auran-
tiacus, is a long, cylindrical, soft, fleshy worm,
footless, without bristles, but with a large, soft,
whitish, tongue-shaped proboscis in front aris-
ing dorsally within the edge of the collar sur-
rounding the mouth. The surface of the body
is ciliated. At the beginning of the digestive

BALANTIDIUM — BALAWAT

canal is a series of sac-like folds of which the
upper or dorsal portion is respiratory and sep-
arated by a constriction from the lower, which
is digestive, and leads directly to the intestine
behind This pharj'ngeal respiratory portion of
the digesL^.e canal has on each side, in each seg-
ment, a dorsal sac, the two communicating along
the median line of the body. The dorsal respira-
tory sacs each bear in their walls a delicate
chitinous gill-support or -arch. Between the gill-
arches, forming numerous lamellae, are a series
of slitS; leading on each side to openings (spira-
cles), situated dorsallj'. The water passes
through the mouth into each gill-sac, and out
by the spiracles. The nervous system lies above
a short sac regarded as a notochord. There
is a dorsal blood vessel, which sends branches
to the respiratory sacs, and a ventral vessel.
The worm lives in sand at low-water mark
from Cape Ann to Charleston, S. C, also in the
Mediterranean.

The life-history of this worm is most inter-
esting. The young, originally described under
the name of Tornaria, was supposed to be an
echinoderm larva, though it resembles the lar-
val Gephyrca and Annelida. It is a transparent,
surface-swimming, minute, ciliated, slender,
somewhat bell-shaped form, with black eye-
specks. When transforming to the worm con-
dition, a pair of gills arise on sac-like outgrowths
of the oesophagus, and afterward three additional
pairs, with their external slits, arise, somewhat
as in ascidians. The entire Tornaria directly
transforms into the \vorm, the transitional pe-
riod being very short. The body lengthens, the
collar and proboscis develop, afterward the body
lengthens, the end tapering and becoming much
coiled.

Consult: A. Agassiz, ^The History of Ba-
lanoglossus and Tornaria^ (* Memoirs of the
American Academy of Arts and Sciences,^ Vol.
IX, Boston, 187,3) : ^The Later Stages in the
Development of Balanoglossus Kowalevskii, etc.-*
('Quarterly Journal of the Microscopical Soci-
ety,^ London, 1885-6.)

Balantidium, bal-an-tid'i-um, a genus of
Infusoria, some members of which, notably B.
coli have been found in the large intestine, where
they cause sj-mptoms of intestinal derangement,
anaemia, peevishness, and other symptoms of an
intestinal parasite. The diagnosis is made by
means of the microscope. Quinine enemas, five
grains to the pint, are usually curative. See
Intestine — Intestinal Parasites.

Bal'anus ("acorn-shells^O, a genus of ses-
sile cirripeds, family Balanidcc, of which col-
onies are to be found on rocks at low water, on
submerged timbers, crustaceans, shells of mol-
lusks, etc. They differ from barnacles in hav-
ing a symmetrical shell and being destitute of
a flexible stalk. The shell consists of six plates
with an operculum of four valves. They pass
through a larval state in which they are not
fi.xed, moving by means of swimming-feet which
disappear in the final state. All the Balanidce
are hermaphrodites. A South American species
(5. psittacus) is eaten on the coast of Chile,
the B. tintinnahidum by the Chinese. The old
Roman epicures esteemed the larger species.

Balao, ba-la'6, a West Indian name, among
Spanish-speaking fishermen, for the half-beaks
(q.v.).

Balard, ba-lar, Antoine Jerome, Brench
chemist: b. Montpellier, 30 Sept. 1802; d. Paris,
31 March 1876. He was professor of chemistry
at the College de France, Paris, and discoverer
of bromine; also of a process of extracting sul-
phate of soda directly from sea-water. In 1868"
he was made Inspector-General of Superior
Instruction.

Balas Ruby, a variety of ruby spinel.

Balashov, bal-a-shof, a Russian town in
the government of Saratov, situated on the
Don, 170 miles west of the city of Saratov.
It has a considerable export trade of grain, etc.
Pop. about 13,000.

Balasore, bal-a-s6r', a city of Bengal,
British India, capital of the district of Balasore.
It is situated near the coast and has dry docks
and a considerable coasting trade. Pop. about
20,000.

Bal'ata, bal'a-ta, a rubber-like exudate de-
rived from the milky juice of Mimusops balata
and M. schombiirgkii. The gum is used widely
in the arts, and is sometimes confused with gum
chicle, from which much of the chewing-gum
of commerce is derived.

Balate, ba-la'ta, the Philippine name for a
kind of trepang (Holotliuria atra).

Balatka, ba'lat-ka, Hans, musician: b.
Hoffnungsthal, Moravia, 1828. After studying
music in Vienna he settled in Milwaukee, Wis.,
where he founded the Musikverein in 1851,
which he conducted for nine j'ears. He then
removed to Chicago, where he organized the
Liederkranz. the Mozart Club, and conducted the
Philharmonic Society and the Symphony Soci-
ety.

Balaton, bo'lo-ton, or Flatten See, a lake
in the southwest of Hungary, extending from
lat. 46° 45' to 47° 5' N., and from Ion. 17° 14'
to 18° 10' E. ; area about no square miles, or,
including the marshy shores, about 138 square
miles. It receives the waters of more than 30
small streams. It discharges through the Sio,
which empties into the Sarviz, an affluent of
the Danube. The Balaton is constantly in a
state of motion, sufficient to cause waves. Its
waters are perfectly transparent and abound with
fine fish, notably one called fogas. frequently 20
pounds in weight, and with delicious flesh of
snowy whiteness. Another kind, resembling the
herring, swarm in the lake during the winter
in such shoals that fishermen sometimes haul
50 cartloads from under the ice in a single
day.

Balauang, ba-low-ang', Philippines, a town
in the province of La Union, Luzon, north of
San Fernando. Pop. about 25,000.

Balau'stion's Adven'tures, a poem by Rob-
ert Browning, describing a Greek girl of Rhodes.
'Aristophanes' Apology^ is a continuation of this
poem.

Balawat, ba-la-wat', a ruined city of Asia-
tic Turkey, 10 miles from Nimrud. Excavations
there have resulted in the finding of the ruins of
the palace of Shalmaneser II. The bronze gates
that opened into the vestibule of this palace are
especially interesting and valuable, and have
been placed in the British Museum.

BALAYAN — BALBOA

Balayan, ba-Ia'yan, Philippines, a town of
Batangas province, Luzon, situated on the Gulf
of Balayan, northwest of the town of Batangas.
Pop. about 25,000.

Bal'bec. See Baalbek.

Balbi, bal'be, Adriano, famous geogra-
pher: b. Venice, 25 April 1782; d. Padua, 14
March 1848. In 1808 his first work on geog-
raphy procured his appointment as professor
of that science in the College of San Michele, at
Murano, and in 181 1 he became professor of
natural philosophj^ in the Lyceum at Fermo.
Having married an actress, he went in 1820 to
Portugal, where he became acquainted with the
leading scholars and statesmen. He had free
access to the government archives, and from the
documents he collected, composed two inter-
esting works entitled *Essai Statistique sur le
Royaume de Portugal et d'Algarve, Compare
aux Autres fitats de TEurope,* and ^Varietes
Politiques et Statistiques de la Monarchie Por-
tugaise,* which he published at Paris in 1822.
He followed his scientific pursuits in that me-
tropolis, and four years later produced the first
part of his ^ Atlas Ethnographique du Globe, ou
Classification des Peuples Anciens et Modernes
d'apres leurs Langues,' a work of superior
arrangement, in which he spread before the
French public the result of the researches and
disquisitions of the German philologists. He
published afterward, in concert with several sci-
entific men, statistical tables of Russia, France,
the Netherlands, etc. He now gave all his at-
tention to his ^Abrege de Geographic Redige
sur un Plan Nouveau,^ a summary of geographi-
cal science which appeared in 1832 and has been
translated into nearly all the European lan-
guages. Then he retired to Padua, where he
published, in 1835, his ^Essai sur les Biblio-
theques de Vienne.^ Beside the works above-
cited mention may be made of ^La Monarchie
Frangaise Comparee aux Principaux fitats de
I'Europe^ (Paris, 1828) ; "^Balance Politique du
Globe^ (1828) ; ^L'Empire Russe Compare aux
Principaux Etats du Monde' (1829) ; ^The
World Compared with the British Empire'
(1830) ; *^Statisque Comparee de I'lnstruction et
du Nombre des Crimes' (1829). Balbi was also
a contributor to many important publications,
'L'Encyclopedie de^ Gens du Monde' and ^Le
Dictionnaire de la Conversation.' His works
show a great amount of knowledge, thorough
research, and skilful arrangement of material ;
but, being utterly deficient in style, they are
heavy and of difficult reading; however, they
may always be advantageously and safely con-
sulted.

Bal'bi, Gasparo, Venetian dealer in pre-
cious stones, who lived in i6th century. He
traveled first to Aleppo and thence down the
Euphrates and Tigris to the Malabar coast,
sailing finally for Pegu, where he remained
two years. His <Viaggio all' Indie Orientale,'
published on his return to Venice in 1590, con-
tains the earliest account of India beyond the
Ganges.

Balbi, Giovanni, called De Janua or
Januensis, from his birthplace, Genoa, a Do-
minican friar, who lived toward the end of the
13th century. He composed a kind of encvclo-
psedia, which he called the ^Catholicon.' This
book owes its celebrity principally to the fact

that it has become one of the earliest inuna-
ments of the art of printing. The original edi-
tion is to be found under the title, *Summa
Grammaticalis valde Notabilis quoe Catholicon
Nominatur' (Moguntise, per Johannem Faus-
tum, 1460, fob). It was reprinted at Augs-
burg, 1469 and 1472, by Schoefifer ; at Nurem-
berg, 1483, by Koburger ; at Venice, 1487,
revised and improved, by Pietro Gilles.

Balbi'nus, Decimus Caelius, Roman sen-
ator and poet. After the death of the two Gor-
diani, killed by the soldiers of Maximinus, he
was elected emperor by the Senate, concurrently
with Clodius Pupienus Maximus, in opposition
to the usurper ■Maximinus. The two emperors
reigned little more than one year, and were
assassinated by their soldiers 238 a.d.

Bal'bo, bal'bo, Cesare, Count, Italian
statesman and author: b. Turin, 21 Nov. 1789;
d. 3 June 1853. Through the favor of Napoleon
he was appointed auditor to the French privy
council in 1807, and afterward became secre-
tary to the French commissioners charged with
the organization of Tuscany and the Papal
States. In 1812 he was promoted to the office
of commissioner of Illyria, and after the down-
fall of Napoleon became secretary of the Sar-
dinian ambassador in London until the out-
break of the Sardinian revolution in 1821, when
he returned to his native town in order to de-
vote himself to literary pursuits. He wrote a
history of Italy up to the time of Charlemagne,
^nd translated Heinrich Leo's ^Exposition of
the Municipal Institutions of Lombardy,' from
German into Italian, under the name of
^Coniuni Italiani.' His reputation was not
firmly established, however, until the latter
year, when his ^Speranze dTtalia' made its ap-
pearance. His appeal in favor of a national
independence found a powerful echo in the
popular heart, and paved the way for the revo-
lution in which he was destined to play a
prominent part as a champion of the moderate
party. His next work, printed at Bastia, in
1849, ^Della Storia d'ltalia, dall' Origine Fino
al 1814' (History of Italy, from the Beginning
to 1814), was not only inspired by the same
patriotic spirit, but also distinguished by his-
torical merit. But although in 1848 and 1849
he had strenuously opposed the democratic par-
ty and unwaveringly adhered to a more con-
servative policy, he threw the entire weight of
his political influence into the scale of patriot-
ism as soon as the war against Austria began.
He supported the different cabinets which gov-
erned Sardinia after the promulgation of the
constitution of 4 March 1848, and, though for a
very short time, was personally connected with
the government. He became a regular contrib-
utor to the Risorgimento, a leading paper of
Turin, and in it gave a constant support to
D'Azeglio's administration.

Balboa, bal-bo'a, Vasco Nufiez, the discov-
erer of the Pacific Ocean : b. Jerez de los
Caballeros, Spain, 1475; d. 1517. At the age of
25 he went to America to seek his fortune, join-
ing the expedition of Rodrigo de Bastidas (see
CENTR.A.L America), and returned to Espahola,
(Haiti), after exploring with Bastidas a part
of the southwestern coast of the Caribbean Sea.
At the town of Salvatierra in Espanola he be-
came a planter, but with such indifferent suc-
cess that, when he resolved to attach himself

BALBRIGGAN — BALCONY

to Alonzo de Ojeda's new colony on the main-
land of South America, he found difficulty in
escaping from his creditors. To elude their vigi-
lance, he hid in a large cask, and thus was car-
ried from his plantation to the landing, and
thence on board one of Ojeda's vessels, as a
part of the cargo. It is probable that when he
emerged from his place of concealment he
would have been handed over to the authori-
ties on shore if the expedition had not stood in
need of every available fighting-man. Admit-
ted to membership reluctantly, and as a common
soldier, Balboa showed his talent for leadership
when the undertaking seemed on the point of
failure. He suggested transferring the colony
to Darien, describing the more favorable condi-
tions there, as he had seen them on his previous
voyage. His advice was taken, and the name
Antigua (Santa Maria de la Antigua del Dari-
en) was given to the new settlement. Here the
Spaniards were somewhat more successful and
Balboa assumed command.

In the year 1513 he received a letter from
a commissioner whom he had sent to Spain, in-
forming him that he might expect to be sum-
moned to court to answer grave charges. Re-
solving to win back the royal favor by some
striking service, he selected 190 men, the best
of his soldiers, and with these and 1,000 native
v/arriors and carriers, and a pack of blood-
hounds, sailed from Antigua, i September 1513,
following the Darien coast westward until he
reached a point opposite the Gulf of San
Miguel. This gulf extends far into the south
coast from the Pacific, narrowing the isthmus
to a width of 50 miles. Accurate information
in regard to the southern coast, the ocean that
lay beyond, and the superior civilization of the
Incas of Peru, whose country was to be reached
by way of this ocean, had been obtained from
the Indians, especially through Balboa's fa-
vorite Indian mistress, Fulvia.

The march began 6 September. On the 24th
reaching an elevated plateau, the Spaniards re-
pulsed an attack by 1,000 Indians and found
supplies in the village of Quarequa. The fol-
lowing day, 25 September 1513, Balboa gained
the summit of a mountain from which the wa-
ters of Mar del Sur (southern sea) were visi-
ble. The name, Pacific, was not applied to this
ocean until seven years later, when it was be-
stowed by Magellan. On 2Q September Balboa
took formal possession of the "Southern Sea"
by marching into the water, and, in the names
of the king and queen of Castile, claiming
*these seas and lands."

The warning received from the Spanish
court was justified in the event. Balboa had
already been superseded by Pedrarias. The re-
ward of the former was an empty title of
Adelantado of the Southern Sea ; while on
shore he was made the subordinate of his rival
and bitter enemy. Governor Pedrarias. Three
years later a South Sea expedition was in pros-
pect, and Balboa, instead of Pizarro, might
have been the conqueror of Peru ; but the gov-
ernor's jealousy was aroused, and Balboa was
executed at Ada. Marrion Wilco.x,

Authority on Latin-America.

Balbrig'gan, a watering place in County

Dublin, Ireland, 21 miles north of Dublin. It is

a seat of linen, cotton, calico, and stocking

manufactures. The cotton stockings made here

are remarkable for fineness of texture and beau-
ty of open work. Many women are employed
in embroidering muslin.

Balbus, Lucius Cornelius, Roman officer,
sometimes surnamed Major, to distinguish him
from his nephew (see below) : b. Gades, Iberia,
in the ist century. He served his first cam-
paign under Q. ]Metellus Pius and Pompey. tor
his conduct in this war the privileges of a Ro-
man citizen were conferred on him, his
brother, and his nephews. In 72 B.C. Balbus re-
moved to Rome, and soon became an intimate
friend of Caesar. He was consul in 40 B.C., and
is supposed to have been the first adopted citi-
zen to fill that office. He wrote a diary in
which he described the chief events in his own
and CfEsar's life.

Balbus, Lucius Cornelius (Minor), nephew
of the above, a Roman officer, who in ac-
knowledgment of a victory gained in Africa,
was awarded the honor of a triumph, the first
ever paid to one not born in Rome.

Balch, George Beall, American rear-ad-
miral: b. Tennessee, 3 Jan. 1821. He was ap-
pointed to the navy from Alabama 1837, was
promoted passed midshipman 1843, and served
through the Mexican war. He was with Com-
modore Conner's squadron in the first attack
on Alvarado, with the mosquito fleet under
Commodore Tatnall, and at the bombardment
and surrender of Vera Cruz. As a lieutenant
on the Plymouth he was with the Asiatic squad-
ron 185 1-5, and received a hip wound in a
fight between the rebels and imperialists at
Shanghai, China. During the Civil War he
commanded the Pocahontas and Pawnee, tak-
ing part in numerous engagements with the
Confederate batteries, chiefly in South Carolina.
He became captain, 25 July 1866; commodore,
13 Aug. 1872; rear-admiral, 5 June 1878; and
was retired in 1883.

Balcony, a gallery or framework of wood,
iron, or stone, projecting from the front of a
house, generally on a level with the floors of
rooms, and supported on cantilevers or brackets,
and sometimes on columns of wood or stone.
Balconies are often surrounded by iron rail-
ings or stone balustrades. The etymology of
the word has been frequently traced to the
Greek ^aWeiv, to throw. This rests upon the
presumption that balconies were built origi-
nally for purposes of defense, the enerny being
attacked with missiles thrown upon him from
the balcony. The Latin word is balctis or />a/-
ctis, the Italian balcone, also balco or palco, the
Turkish bala-khaneh, the German balcon. The
use of balconies is comparatively modern, al-
though there is no doubt about their existence
in times of antiquity. Winckelmann, the great
German writer upon art, refers to the fact that
in Greece every private dwelling-house had con-
trivances which, although then designated un-
der diff'erent terms, would be called balconies
in our day. In Spain, Italy, and South Amer-
ica, they are used for sitting, walking, chat-
ting, and flirting, in warm summer evenings;
but they are less common in northern countries,
where the nature of the climate does not call
for such romantic contrivances. They are, how-
ever, often used as miniature gardens for potted
plants. Upon Boccaccio and Bandello, the great
Italian novelists of the i6th century, the poetical
utility of balconies was not lost, and entertain-

BALD CYPRESS — BALDUNG

ing balcony scenes abound in their stories.
Shakespeare took his plot of Romeo and Juliet
from one of Bandello's novels, and the balcony
scene exhibits, with that power of genius of
which the great English dramatist alone was
capable, the beauty of a balcony when two
young lovers like Juliet and Romeo make it
the witness of their passion.

In modern theatres the term is applied to
the first or second gallery or tier of seats above
the pit.

Bald Cypress. See Cypress.

Bald Eagle, the American white-headed
eagle. See E.\gle.

Bald Mountain, the name of several emi-
nences in the United States, of which the fol-
lowing are the principal: (i) In Colorado,
height, 11,493 feet; (2) in California, 8.295
feet; (3) in Utah, 11,975 feet; (4) in Wyo-
ming, in the Wind River Range, 10,760 feet;
and, (5) in North Carolina, 5,550 feet. The
last named was the cause of much excitement
in May 1878, because of inexplicable rumblings
which lasted for about two weeks. The moun-
tain shook as if in the throes of an earthquake,
immense trees and rocks were hurled down its
sides, and for a time fears were entertained lest
a volcanic eruption should follow. A subse-
quent examination showed that a large section
of the mountain had been split asunder, but no
further disturbance occurred.

Baldachin, bal'da-chin. See Altar.

Balde, Jakob, bal'da, ya'cdb, German Latin
poet: b. Ensisheim, Alsace, 1604; d. Neu-
burg, on the Danube, 1668. He was court-
chaplain to the prince electoral of Bavaria, and
distinguished himself by the excellence of his
Latin poetry. Herder called attention to the
beauty and genius of his lyrical productions,
many of which he translated.

Balder, bal'der, or Baldur, in Norse myth-
ology a divinity, represented as the son of Odin
and Frigga, beautiful, wise, amiable, and be-
loved by all the gods. His mother took an oath
from every creature, and even from every in-
animate object, that they would not harm
Balder, but omitted the mistletoe. Balder was
therefore deemed invulnerable, and the other
gods in sport flung stones and shot arrows at
him without harming him. But the evil god,
Loki, fashioned an arrow from the mistletoe
and got Balder's blind brother Hoder to shoot
it, himself guiding his aim. Balder fell dead,
pierced to the heart, to the deep grief of all
the gods. He is believed to be a personification
of the brightness and beneficence of the sun.

Balderstone, bal'der-ston, Caleb, the old

butler of the master of Ravenswood, in Scott's
* Bride of Lammermoor.^

Baldi, bal'de, Benardino, Italian scholar
and poet: b. I553; d. 1617. He was an accom-
plished linguist and a very prolific writer, and
was abbot of Guastalla for 25 years. Among
his numerous works are "^Cronica dei Mate-
matici^ ; ^La Nautica,^ a poem on navigation;
an Arabic grammar ; and a translation of the
*Targum of Onkelos.^

Baldness. Under the title Alopecia the
general types of baldness have been considered.
Premature alopecia, or the general afiFection
of the young and middle-aged, deserves greater

consideration. Alopecia presenilis, or prema-
ture baldness, is recognized as of two distinct
varieties, the idiopathic and the symptomatic.
In the idiopathic variety that occurs before the
age of 45 there does not seem to be any disease
of the scalp or of the general nutrition to ex-
plain it. It is a gradual and progressive loss
of hair, thinner and thinner hairs replacing
those that have fallen out, until the follicle will
not produce hair. It is usually symmetrical,,
beginning at the tonsure or running back from
the temples. The skin is usually left thin and
hard.

In the symptomatic form some general dis-
order, or a definite disease of the scalp is the
cause. This latter is usually a scaly dandruff ;
the general causes may be syphilis, tuberculosis,
fevers or local destructive conditions. Dan-
druff (q.v.) is the most frequent accompaniment
and cause of baldness. Dandruff is really at
least three different diseases of the skin, but
the general character is that of a general
seborrheal dermatitis ; that is, a mild inflamma-
tion with excessive fatty secretions. This is
frequently due to digestive disturbances, and
is closely dependent upon the general health
of the entire body. The hair falls out as in the
idiopathic form. The dandruff usually con-
tinues until the hair is gone, and then ceases.

Treatment should be begun early, particu-
larly in those whose families have tended to
baldness. The details of treatment require pro-
fessional advice. The large number of hair-
tonics in the market speaks well for the general
inutility of all of them. Cleanliness, frequent
dry-brushings, and shampoos once in every two
or three weeks, are safe measures, and tend to
keep up the general hygiene of the scalp. Con-
sult Jackson, ^Diseases of the Skin^ (1900).
See Dandruff.

Baldo, Monte, a mountain in Lombardy,
Italy, near Lake Garda, with an elevation at its
highest peak of 7,275 feet.

Baldovinetti, bal'do-ve-net'te, Alessio»
Florentine artist : b. 1422 ; d. 1499. Few of his
works remain except a ^ Nativity^ in the Church
of the Annunziato, and two altar-pieces in the
gallery of the Uffizi and the Academy of Arts,
Florence.

Baldpate, or Baldhead, the name of sev-
eral different birds having a white head, as an
eagle, one of the widgeons, a kind of domestic
pigeon, a West Indian dove, a fruit-crow, etc.

Baldric, bal'drik, a belt or sash worn over
the right or left shoulder diagonally across the
body, often highly decorated and enriched with
gems, and used not only to sustain the sword,
dagger, or horn, but also for purposes of orna-
ment and as a military or heraldic symbol. The
fashion of wearing a baldric appears to have
reached its height in the 15th century. In the
United States it now forms a part of the imi-
form of Knights Templar and other fraternal
organizations.

Balducci, bal-do'che, Francesco, leading^
Italian Anacreontic poet : b. Palermo ; d. Rome,
1642. He wrote ^Sicilian Songs^ in the Sicilian
dialect, etc.

Baldung, bal'dung, Hans, or Hans Griin^
German painter and wood engraver : b. Suabia,
1470; d. Strasburg, 1522. His work, though
inferior to Durer's, possessed many of the came

BALDWIN

characteristics, and on this account he has been
sometimes considered a pupil of the Nurem-
berg master. His principal paintings are the
series of panels (of the date of 1516) over the
altar in Freiburg Cathedral ; others of his works
are to be found at Berlin, Colmar, and Basel.
His numerous and often fantastic engravings
have the monogram H. and B., with a small G.
in the centre of the H.

Bald'win I., king of Jerusalem. He was
the son of Eustace. Count of Bouillon, and ac-
companied his brother Godfrey of Bouillon into
Palestine, where he gained the sovereignty of
the state of Edessa. He succeeded his brother
on the throne of Jerusalem in iioo, and for 18
years waged war against the Turks, the x^rabs,
^he Persians, and the Saracens. He took many
iowns and secured for the Christians the coast
of Syria from the Gulf of Issus to the confines
of Eg3'pt. He died at Laris, in the desert in
ni8, and was buried on Mount Calvary. In
the first canto of Tasso's 'Gerusalemme Liber-
ata,^ the poet has depicted the character of
this monarch as well as that of his brother,
Godfrey.

Bald'win I., the first Latin emperor of
Constantinople, son of Baldwin VIII., Count of
Flanders and Hainault : b. Valenciennes, 1170.
In 1200 he joined the crusaders with his brother,
Thierry, and in 1202 aided the Venetians in
their attack upon Constantinople, of which city
he was crowned emperor 16 May 1204. In the
next year Baldwin was taken prisoner by the
king of Bulgaria, and, it is said, died in cap-
tivity in 1206. He was much esteemed by the
Greeks for his charity, temperance, and justice.

Bald'win II., king of Jerusalem, son of
Hugh, Count of Rethel. He was crowned in
1 1 18, after Eustace, brother of Baldwin I., had
renounced all claim to the vacant throne. In
1 120 he gained a great victory over the Sara-
cens, but in 1 124 he was taken prisoner by
them, and was ransomed only by giving up the
city of Tyre. In 1131 he abdicated in favor of
his son-in-law, Foulques of Anjou, and retired
to a monastery, where he died in the same year.
The military and religious order of the Tem-
plars, for the defense of the Holy Land, was
instituted, it is thought, in the reign of this
monarch.

Bald'win IL, the last Frank emperor of
Constantinople: b. 1217; d. 1273. He was the
son of Pierre de Courtenay, and succeeded his
brother Robert in 1228. He was twice besieged
in his imperial city, and, being too weak to de-
fend his dominions, repaired to Italy to seek
aid from the Pope. At the court of France
Baldwin was favorably received by the king,
St. Louis, to whom he presented a crown of
thorns which was held by all Christendom to be
the genuine relic. Baldwin, in 1239, set out for
Constantinople with a body of crusaders, who,
however, soon quitted him and took the route
to Palestine. He succeeded, ultimately, in rais-
ing new forces in the West, and regained his
capital ; but in 1261 Michael Paleologus in-
vested it and entered Constantinople on the
29th of July. Baldwin fled to Sicily, where he
died in obscurity.

Bald'win III., king of Jerusalem: b. 1130;
d. Antioch, 11 62. He was son of Foulques of
.Aniou, whom -he succeeded in 1142 under the

guardianship of his mother. He took Ascalon
and other places ; but under his reign the Chris-
tians lost Edessa. He was succeeded by his
brother, Amaury I.

Bald'win IV., king of Jerusalem: d. 1185.
He was son of Amaury, and succeeded to the
throne on the death of his father in 1174; but
as he was leprous, Raymond, Count of Tripoli,
governed the kingdom for him. He afterward
resigned the throne to his nephew, Baldwin V.,
in 1 183.

Baldwin V., king of Jerusalem: b. 1178;
d. 1186. He was son of Sibylla, sister of Bald-
win IV., and was called to the throne when
five years old. He died of poison, supposed to
have been administered by his mother in order
that her second husband, Guy de Lusignan,
might enjoy the throne. The following year,
1 187, the Christians lost Jerusalem, which was
taken by Saladin.

Baldwin, Abraham, American statesman:
b. Guilford, Ct., 6 Nov. 1754; d. 1807. He was
graduated at Yale in 1772, and was tutor there,
'^77~)~79- Durmg the American Revolution he
was a chaplain in the army, and. at the sugges-
tion of General Greene, settled in Savannah,
Ga., 1784, where he was admitted to the bar.
His efforts as a member of the legislature se-
cured a charter and endowment for the Uni-
versity of Georgia, which was established ac-
cording to his own plans and ideas, and of
which he became president. He took part
in the Constitutional Convention of 1787; was
a delegate to the Continental Congress 1785-88;
member of the House of Representatives 1789-
99 ; United States senator 1799, until his death.

Baldwin, Charles H., American naval oflS-
cer : b. New York city, 3 Sept. 1822; d. 17
Nov. 1888. He entered the navy as a midship-
man in 1839. Serving on the frigate Congress
during the war with Mexico, he figured in sev-
eral sharp encounters near Mazatlan. He com-
manded the steamer Clifton at the passage of
Forts Jackson and St. Philip in 1862. and at
the first attack on Vicksburg. He became rear-
admiral in 1883, receiving the command of the
Mediterranean squadron, and was retired in
1884.

Baldwin, Evelyn Briggs, arctic explorer:
b. Springfield, Mo., 22 July 1862. He was
graduated from Northwestern College, Naper-
ville, 111., and engaged chiefly in teaching until
1892, when he entered the United States Weath-
er Bureau service. He is now an inspector-at-
large of the signal corps of the United States
army. He accompanied, as meteorologist,
Peary's North Greenland expedition, 1893-4;
joined the Wellman Polar expedition. 1898-99,
as second in command, built Fort McKinley,
and discovered Graham Bell Land. Securing
the co-operation of Mr. William Zieglcr of
New York he organized and commanded the
Baldwin-Ziegler expedition of 1901. He has
written 'The Search for the North Pole,*
< Auroral Observations, Franz-Joseph Land,^
'Meteorological Reports of the North Green-
land Expedition* (1893-4). and meteorological
publications in government reports.

Bald'win, Frank D., American military
officer: b. Michigan, 26 June 1842. He entered
the volunteer army in 1861 and the regular army
in 1866; became colonel of the 4th United

BALDWIN

'States Infantry, 26 July 1901 ; and was pro-
moted brigadier-general, United States army,
9 June 1902. He was awarded a Congressional
medal of honor for service at the battle of Pine
Tree Creek, Ga., 20 July 1864, and another for
gallantry in an action against Indians in Texas.
He greatly distinguished himself in the Philip-
pines in the early part of 1902.

Bald'win, Henry, American jurist and author :
b. New Haven, Conn., 14 Jan. 1780; d. Phila-
delphia. Pa., 21 April 1844. A graduate from
Yale College in 1797, he studied law, became a
barrister, and settled in Pittsburg, Pa. In 1817,
and twice subsequently, he was elected a Fed-
eral member of Congress. He was appointed
justice of the United States Supreme Court in
1830, and in the same year received the de-
gree of LL.D. from his alina mater. He wrote
*A General View of the Origin and Nature of
the United States' (1837).

Baldwin, Henry Porter, American politi-
cian : b. Coventry, R. I., 22 Feb. 1814 : d. De-
troit. Mich., 31 Dec. 1892. He went to Michigan
in his youth and from 1869 to 1873 was governor
of the' State. From 1879 to 1881 he sat in the
United States Senate. He was very prorn-
inent in the affairs of the Episcopal Church in
Michigan.

Baldwin, James, American author : b.
Hamilton County, Ind., 15 Dec. 1841. Very
largely self-taught, he was engaged in teaching
from 1865 to 1887. He filled an editorial posi-
tion with Harper & Bros. 1887-93, when he
became editor of school books for the American
Book Co. He has written: ^Storv of Sieg-
fried> ri882); <Story of Roland' (1883); <Six
Centuries of English Poetry' (1892); <01d
Greek Stories' (1895), etc.

Baldwin, James Mark, American psychol-
ogist: b. Columbia, S. C, 12 Jan. 1861. He was
educated at Princeton College, Leipsic, Berlin,
and Tubingen universities ; was instructor of
German and French at Princeton 1886-87; pro-
fessor of philosophy in Lake Forest University
1887-89, and in the University of Toronto
1889-93 ; and professor of psychology at Prince-
ton University since 1893. He was vice-presi-
dent of the International Congress of Psychol-
ogy at London 1892; honorary president of the
International Congress of Criminal Anthropol-
ogy at Geneva 1896; president of the American
Psychological Association 1897-98; judge of
award at the World's Columbian Exposition
1893 ; was awarded a gold medal by the Royal
Academy of Arts and Sciences of Denmark,
in 1897, for the best work on the general ques-
tion of social ethics ; and was elected a member
of the Institut International de Sociologie 1898.
He is author of * Handbook of Psychology' (2
vols., 1889-91); a translation of Ribot's ^Ger-
man Psychology of To-day' (1886); 'Elements
of Psychology' (1893) ; < Social and Ethical
Interpretations in Mental Development' (1897),
etc. He was also one of the founders of the '■ Psy-
chological Review,' editor-in-chief of the 'Dic-
tionary of Philosophy and Psychology,' and a
contributor of articles on psychology to 'John-
son's Universal Cyclopaedia' (1892-95).

Baldwin, John Denison, American journal-
ist, politician, poet, and writer on archseology:
b. North Stonington. Conn., 28 Sept. 1809 ; d.
8 July 1883. After studying law and theology
he entered journalism, was long editor and

proprietor of the Worcester Spy, and was a
member of Congress 1863-69. He wrote 'Ray-
mond Hill, and Other Poems' (1847); 'Pre-
historic Nations' (1869), and 'Ancient Amer-
ica' (1872).

Baldwin, Joseph G., American jurist: b.
Sumter, Ala. 1815; d. 30 Sept. 1864. He was a
judge of the superior court of California in
1857-63; chief justice of the State from 1863
till his death, and author of 'Party Leaders'
and 'Flush Times in Alabama and Mississippi.'

Baldwin, Maurice Scollard, Canadian cler-
gyman : b. Toronto, 21 June 1836. He was
graduated at Trinity College in that city 1862;
became rector of St. Luke's Church in Mon-
treal; was dean of Montreal 1882-83; and in the
last year was made Bishop of Huron. He
published 'Break in the Ocean Cable' 'Life in
a Look,' etc.

Baldwin, Robert, Canadian statesman:
b. Toronto, 12 May 1804; d. there, 9 Dec. 1858.
He began to practise law in 1825, and four
years later became a member of the Assembly
of Upper Canada. He was solicitor-general
in 1840 and premier and attorney-general of Up-
per Canada 1842-43. He was long prominent
as a Reform leader in Canada, but retired from
office in 1851.

Baldwin, Simeon Eben, American jurist:
b. New ^ Haven, Conn., 5 Feb. 1840. He is a
great-grandson of Roger Sherman, a signer of
the Declaration of Independence, and great-
great-grandson of President Clap, of Yale. His
father was a United States senator and gover-
nor of Connecticut. Judge Baldwin graduated
from Yale 1861, and from the Harvard Law
School 1863. Settling in New Haven he rapidly
acquired a large general practice, in which he
continued until 1893. Since 1872 he has held
a professorship in the Yale Law School, and
since 1893 he has been an associate justice of
the Connecticut supreme court of errors. As a
legal writer he has a wide reputation in the
United States and abroad, through his contri-
butions to leading law journals. He is the
author of 'Digest of Connecticut Reports' (2
vols. 1871-82; revision, 2 vols. 1900): 'Illus-
trated Cases on Railroad Law' ; and 'Modern
Political Institutions' (1899).

Baldwin, Stephen Livingston, American
missionary: b. 1835; d. 1902. He went to
China as a missionary under the auspices of the
Methodist Episcopal Church, and on his return
to the United States he held several pastorates.
While in China he translated a large part of
the Bible into Chinese, and, it is said, printed
the first copy of the Bible in that language.

Baldwin, Theodore A., American military
officer : b. New Jersey, 21 Dec. 1839. He en-
tered the army as a private 3 May 1862, and
served in that grade and as quartermaster-
sergeant in the 19th U. S. Infantry till 31 May
1865, when he became first lieutenant. He was
promoted captain 23 July 1867; major, 7th
Cavalry, 5 Oct. 1887; lieutenant-colonel, loth
Cavalry, 11 Dec. 1896; and colonel, 7th Cavalry,
6 May 1899. From 6 Oct. 1898 till 31 Jan. 1899
he served as a brigadier-general of volunteers.

Baldwin, Thomas, Baptist minister: b.
Norwich, Conn., 23 Dec. 1753 ; d. 29 Aug. 1825.
His early culture was very limited ; yet he ac-
quired a reputation for scholarship. At an

BALDWIN — BALESTIER

early age he removed to Canaan, N. H., where,
becoming converted, he joined the Baptist
Church in 1781 and became one of the most
energetic supporters of its tenets, and one of
the ablest advocates of its civil rights. In
1782 he was licensed to preach, and in 1783 was
ordained pastor of the church in Canaan, serv-
ing for seven years. In 1790 he was called to
the Second Baptist Church of Boston and
served there till his death. He took a prominent
part in the establishment of Waterville College,
Me., and of Columbian College, Washington,
D. C. He was several times elected to the
State legislature and was a member of the
convention of 1821 to revise the Massachusetts
Constitution. He published a volume in defense
of Baptist tenets.

Baldwin, William Henry, American cap-
italist and philanthropist : b. Boston, Mass., 5
Feb. 1863 ; d. Locust Valley, L. I., 2 Jan. 1905.
He was graduated at Harvard College in 1885,
and studied for a year at the Harvard Law
School. He then entered the Omaha auditor's
office of the Union Pacific Railway as a clerk ;
in less than a year he was promoted general
traffic manager at Omaha ; in 1888 he became
assistant general freight agent for the Union
Pacific ; in 1889-90 he was president of the
^Montana Union Railroad ; and in 1890 was
elected assistant vice-president of the Union
Pacific. In 1891 he entered the service of the
Flint & Pere Marquette Railroad as general
manager; and in 1894 became third vice-presi-
dent of the Southern Railway, and in 1895 sec-
ond vice-president and general traffic manager
of the same road. In 1896 he was chosen
president of the Long Island Railroad; his ad-
ministration was particularly efficient and
marked by a rapid growth of the road, and the
completion of a number of improvements. He
was actively interested in reform movements
in New York city, and served as chairman of the
Committee of Fifteen appointed in 1900; and
was also a leader in the Southern educational
movement, being president of the General Edu-
cation Board, a member of the Southern Educa-
tion Board, and a trustee of Tuskegee Insti-
tute.

Bale, John, an English ecclesiastic: b.
Suffolk, 1495. Although educated a Roman
Catholic, he became a Protestant, and had to
take refuge in the Netherlands. On the acces-
sion of Edward VI. he returned to England,
was presented to the living of Bishop's Stoke.
Southampton, and soon after was nominated
Bishop of Ossory, in Ireland. Here, on preach-
ing the reformed religion, popular fury reached
such a pitch that in one tumult five of his
domestics were murdered in his presence. On
the accession of Mary he lay some time con-
cealed in Dublin. After enduring many hard-
ships he was enabled to reach Switzerland,
where he remained till the death of Mary. On
his return to England he contented himself with
the calm enjoyment of a prebendal stall at
Canterbury, where he closed his stormy life in
1563. He was so bitter a controversialist that
he earned the title of "Bilious Bale.» The only
work which has given him distinction arnong
-authors is his ^Scriptorum Illustrium Majoris
Britanise Catalogus^ ; or 'An Account of the
Lives of Eminent Writers of Britain.' This
account, which, according to the title, com-

mences with Japhet the son of Noah, reaches
to the year 1557, at which time the author was
an exile on the Continent. It is compiled from
various writers, but chiefly from the antiquary
Leland.

Bale, bill. See Basel.

Balearic (bal-e-ar'ik) Crane. See Cr.\ne.

Bal'earic Islands, a group of five islands,
southeast of Spain, including Majorca, Minorca,
Iviza, and Formentera. The popular derivation
of the ancient name Baleares (Greek ballein,
to throw), has reference to the repute of the
inhabitants for their skill in slinging, in which
they distinguished themselves both in the army
of Hannibal and under the Romans, by whom
the islands were annexed in 123 B.C. After be-
ing taken by the Vandals under Genseric, and
in the 8th century by the Moors, they were
taken by James I., king of Aragon, 1220-34. and
constituted a kingdom which in 1375 was united
to Spain. The islands now form a Spanish
province, with an area of 1,860 square miles.
Pop. (1897) 306,926.

Balechou, ba-la-shoo, Jean Jacques Nico-
las, celebrated French engraver: b. Aries,
1715; d. Avignon, 18 Aug. 1765. His full-length
portrait of Augustus, king of Poland, has been
proclaimed the masterpiece of the kind in the
i8th century. But Balechou dishonestly sold
the best proofs for his own benefit, and was
consequently expelled from the Academy of
Fine Arts.

Baleen', See Whalebone.

Baleen Whales, the group of whales whose

mouths are furnished with a growth of baleen
or whalebone (q.v.). They form a sub-order
Mysticeti of the Cetacea, which includes the
families Balanopteridcc or rorquals, and Bal-
cenidce, the right whales. Tliese whales are
known in all oceans and form an important
object of the chase. See Humpback; Right
Whale; Rorqual; Whale; etc.

Bal'er, Philippines, a town in the north-
east part of Luzon. The population is several
thousand, mostly natives. The most conspicu-
ous edifice is a native Catholic church. The
town is noted for the heroic defense of a Span-
ish garrison in 1899, during a siege by the
Filipinos, lasting 11 months. The Spaniards
were commanded by Lieut. Saturnino Martin
Cerezo, who refused to surrender the town,
even when directed to do so by his superiors
in Manila. He entrenched himself in the
church and heroically resisted the besiegers
until his supplies gave out, when he surrendered
with all the honors of war, 2 July 1899. Baker
was occupied by the American troops and gar
risoned with two companies of the 34th Volun-
teer Infantry, under Major Shunk. in March
1900.

Balestier, bal-es-ter'. Charles Wolcott,
American novelist: b. Rochester. N. Y., 13 Dec.
1861 ; d. 6 Dec. 1891. He studied at Cornell
University, and became connected with a New
York publishing house. His writings, which
deal largely with frontier life in Colorado, in-
clude <The Naulahka,' written in collaboration
with Rudyard Kipling, his brother-in-law;
'Benefits Forgot' (1892), and a 'Life of JameS
G. Blaine.'

BALESTRA — BALFOUR

Balestra, ba-les'tra, Antonio, an Italian
painter: b. Verona. 1666; d. there, 21 April 1740.
He became a pupil of Belucci, in Venice, and
subsequently studied in Rome under Carlo Ma-
ratti. He executed the ^Defeat of the Giants,^
which took the prize at the Academy of St.
Luke in 1694. In 1695 he left Rome for Venice,
where he became the head of a school, and
counted many distinguished names among his
pupils. His works are found in many of the
galleries and churches of northern Italy.
Among his paintings are *^ Saint Theresa,' at
Bergamo, a 'Virgin,' at Mantua; and a por-
trait of himself, at Florence. He was among
the last of the Venetian school of artists.

Balfe, half, Michael William, British com-
poser: b. Dublin, 15 May 1808; d. 20 Oct. 1870.
He received his first instructions in music from
his father and Charles Horn. In his 7th year
he performed one of Viotti's concertos before
the public ; at 16 he performed the part of the
Wicked Huntsman in 'Der Freischiitz' at Dru-
ry Lane. In 1825 he went to Italy, wrote the
music for a ballet, 'La Peyrouse,' for the Scala
at Naples, and in the following year fulfilled
an engagement to sing at the Theatre-Italien,
Paris, with moderate success. He returned to
Italy, and at Palermo (1830) his first opera,
'I Rivali,' was produced. For five years, with
somewhat careless haste, he continued singing
and composing sundry operas for the Italian
stage, which are now forgotten. In 1835 he
came to England and had his 'Siege of Ro-
chelle' brought out at Drury Lane. It hit the
popular taste, and was quickly followed by
others equally successful in this respect. Part
of this success was no doubt due to the great
artistes who took the leading characters. Mali-
bran, Grisi, Lablache, Rubini, and other stars
of that time ; but the works had high merits
of their own, being marked by brilliancy, mel-
ody, and fertility of invention. In 1846 he was
appointed conductor of the London Italian
Opera. If Balfe was wanting in depth and
dramatic force, he had a very thorough know-
ledge of efifects and command of orchestral re-
sources; and his compositions are distinguished
by fluency, facility, and melodic power. His
operas continue popular in England and else-
where, among the chief being 'The Bohemian
GirP (the most popular of all), 'The Rose of
Castile' ; 'The Daughter of St. Mark' ; and
'Satanella.' His posthumous opera, <The
Talisman,' was brought out in London in
June 1874, with great success.

Balfour, bal'foor, or bal'fer, Alexander,
Scottish novelist and poet : b. Monikie, i March
1767; d. 12 Sept. 1829. He was a frequent con-
tributor to periodicals, and was author of
'Campbell; or the Scottish Probationer'
(1819) ; 'Contemplations, and Other Poems'
(1820); 'Farmer's Three Daughters' (1822);
'The Foundling of Glenthorn ; or the Smug-
gler's Cave' (1823) ;' Highland Mary' (1827), etc.

Balfour, Sir Andrew, Scottish botanist
and physician: b. Fifeshire, 1630; d. 1694. Af-
ter completing his studies at St. Andrews and
London, and traveling on the Continent, he
settled at Edinburgh, where he planned, with
Sir Robert Sibbald, the Royal College of Phy-
sicians, and was elected its first president.
Shortly before his death he laid the foundation
of a hospital in Edinburgh, which, though at

first narrow and confined, expanded into the
Royal Infirmary. His familiar 'Letters' were
published in 1700.

Balfour, Right Hon. Arthur James, Eng-
lish statesman: b. Scotland (son of Mr. Bal-
four of Whittinghame, Haddingtonshire, and
a daughter of the second Marquis of Salis-
bury) 25 July 1848. He was educated at Eton
and Trinity College, Cambridge, where he took
his M.A. degree in 1873. He entered Parlia-
ment in 1874, sitting for Hertford from that
time till 1885, since which he has represented
East Manchester. He acted as private secre-
tary to his uncle the Marquis of Salisbury at
the Foreign Office during the period to which
the Berlin Treaty belongs (1878-80), and ac-
companied him to Berlin. He was president of
the Local Government Board from June 1885
till the beginning of the following year, and
from July 1886 till March 1887 he discharged
the duties of secretary for Scotland. He
showed much ability as chief secretary for Ire-
land 1887-91, passing the Crimes Act and the
Law Act, securing a free grant for railways,
and creating the Congested l3istricts Board, but
resigned this post in order to succeed Mr. W.
H. Smith, who had lately died, as leader of the
House of Commons and first lord of the treas-
ury. On the defeat of the Unionist party at the
general election in 1892 he relinquished this
office, but returned to it when the Unionists
again came into power in the autumn of 1895.
On the resignation of Lord Salisbury 12 July
1902 Mr. Balfour became prime minister, but
resigned with his Cabinet on 4 Dec. 1905. He
was returned to Parliament from London on 27
Feb. 1906, by a majority of 11,340. In 1886 he
was elected lord rector of St. Andrew's University,
in 1890 the Glasgow students did him similar
honor and in 1888 he became a Fellow of the
Royal Society. He acted as chairman of Lhe
commission on the subject of bimetallism in
1887. In 1879 he published <A Defense of Philo-
sophic Doubt'; in 1893 a volume of < Essays and
Addresses'; and in 1895 'The Foundations of
Belief, being Notes Introductory to the Study of
Theology. >

Bal'four, Francis Maitland, embryologist:
brother of the foregoing, b. 1851. He studied
at Harrow and Trinity College, Cambridge.
Articles on his special study gained him a high
reputation while still an undergraduate, and
after further work at Naples he published in
1874, in conjunction with Dr. M. Foster. 'Ele-
ments of Embryology, a valuable contribution
to the literature of biology. He was elected a
fellow of his college; fellow and member of
council of the Royal Society ; lecturer on, and
finally, in 1882, professor of, animal morphology
at Cambridge, a chair specially instituted for
him. The promise of his chief work, 'Com-
parative Embryology' (1880-1) was- unfulfilled,
as 19 July 1882 he was killed by a fall on Mont
Blanc.

Balfour, Right Hon. Gerald William, Eng-
lish statesman : b. 1853 (brother to the two pre-
ceding). He was educated at Eton and
Trinity College, Cambridge, entered Parliament
in 1885, and was chief secretary for Ireland in
the Unionist ministry from 1895-1900; and
President of the Board of Trade, 1900-1905.
He piloted the Irish Local Government Bill o£
1898 through the House of Commons.

ARTHUR T. BALFOUR.

BALFOUR — BALILING

Balfour, Isaac Bayley, Scottish botanist:
b. Edinburgh, 31 March 1853. He was profes-
sor of botany in the University of Glasgow
1879-84. at Oxford University 1884-88, and
since 1888 at the University of Edinburgh. He
explored the island of Socotra in 1880, in behalf
of the British Association and of the Royal
Society of Edinburgh. He is Kiag's botanist
in Scotland and keeper of the Royal Botanic
Garden in Edinburgh.

Balfour, Sir James, Scottish lawyer, ana
a conspicuous actor in the civil wars which
■ended in the dethronement of Mary, Queen of
Scots : b. Fifeshire, Scotland, about the begin-
ning of the i6th century; d. 1583. Originally
brought up in the Roman Catholic Church, he
had espoused the Protestant cause, and in 1547,
for his share in the conspiracy against Cardinal
Beaton, he was, with Knox and other reformers
condemned to the galleys. After his escape
and return to Scotland, the cause of Protestant-
ism was apparently declining, and Balfour ab-
jured his heresies and returned to his former
faith. His abilities and tact gained him ap-
pointments and he was high in office on the
arrival of Mary in Scotland, and was with the
queen at Holyrood on the night of Rizzio's
assassination. Popular rumor assigned to Bal-
four a prominent share in the murder of Lord
Darnley, Mary's husband, but he contrived to
outlive all suspicion. In 1567 he was appointed
captain of Edinburgh castle. A change in Bal-
four's convictions was forced upon him, for he
saw that a powerful party had been formed
against Mary and the policy of an alliance
with them overcame all scruples. He held the
castle of Edinburgh against the queen, and was
the means of delivering up Mary's letters into
the hands of her enemies. He afterward sur-
rendered the castle for various considerations.
On the breaking out of the civil war Balfour
sided with the regent Murray, but after Mary's
imprisonment in England he took part in con-
spiracies for her restoration, although at the
time professing adherence to the regents Mur-
ray and Morton. His last public act was fur-
nishing the evidence of Morton's guilt in the
murder of Darnley, for which Morton was con-
demned and executed. The ^Practicks of
Scots Law^ attributed to him, continued to be
used and consulted in manuscript for nearly a
century until it was supplanted by the ^Insti-
tutes of Lord Stair.*

Balfour, James, Canadian architect: b.
Hamilton, Ont., 1852. He acquired his educa-
tion in Canada and Edinburgh and began the
practice of his profession in his native city.
Among notable buildings of his designing are
the Boys' Home and City Hall, in Hamilton;
Alma Ladies' College, St. Thomas ; and the
Museum of Art, Detroit, Mich.

Balfour, John (of Kinlock, or of Bur-
ley), one of the chief actors in the assassination
•of Archbishop Sharp in 1679, for which his es-
tate was forfeited and a price set on his head.
He fought at Drumclog and Both well Bridge,
and is said afterward to have escaped to Hol-
land. According to one account he died on a
homeward voyage to Scotland ; by another he
never left the country, but settled in the parish
of Roseneath, Dumbartonshire. He is described
by Scott in <OId Mortality. > Balfour of Kin-
lock is quite a difterent personage from Lord

Balfour of Burleigh, who succeeded to the title
in 1663, spent his youth in France, and died in
1C88.

Balfour, John Hutton, Scotch botanist: b.
Edinburgh, 15 Sept. 1808; d. 11 Feb. 1884. He
graduated at Edinburgh University in arts and
in medicine; in 1841-5 was professor of botany
in Glasgow University ; and in the latter year
removed to Edinburgh to occupy a similar post,
resigning his chair in 1879. He wrote valuable
botanical text-books, including 'Elements,*
'Outlines,* 'Manual,* and 'Class-book,* beside
various other works.

Balfour, Nesbit, British military officer:
b. Dunbog, Scotland, 1743; d. same place, Oc-
tober 1823. He was promoted lieutenant-gen-
eral 1798 and general 1803; distinguished him-
self during the American Revolution ; was
wounded in the battle of Bunker Hill; fought
at the battles of Elizabethtown, Brandywine,
Germantown, and Long Island ; and was pres-
ent at the capture of New York. He was ap-
pointed commandant at Charlestown in 1779.

Balfrush, bal-froosh', or Barfurush ("mart
of burdens"), a town in the Persian province of
Mazanderan, on the river Bhawal, 12 miles
from the Caspian Sea. Balfrush is a centre of
trade between Russia and Persia, exporting
large quantities of silk, rice, and cotton, while
the Russians supply iron and naphtha. It has
excellent bazaars, numerous caravanserais, and
several Mohammedan colleges. Pop. about
50,000.

Balg, balg, Gerhard Hubert, philologist: b.
Scandinavia, about 1850. He graduated at the
University of Wisconsin, and resides at May-
ville, in that State. He has translated W.
Braune's 'Gothic Grammar, with Selections and
Glossary* (1883) ; edited 'The First Germanic
Bible, and Other Remains of the Gothic Lan-
guage with Introduction and Glossary* (1891);
and compiled 'A Comparative Glossary of the
Gothic Language, with Especial Reference to
English and German* (1887-9).

Bali, ba'le, or Bally, an island of the Indian
Archipelago, belonging to Holland, and lying
east of Java. Its greatest length is 85 miles ;
breadth, 55 miles ; area, about 2,260 square
miles. It consists chiefly of a series of volcanic
mountains, of which the loftiest, Agoong
(11,326 feet), became active in 1843 after a long
period of quiescence. Principal products, rice,
cocoa, coffee, indigo, cotton, etc. The people
are akin to those of Java and are mostly
Brahmins in religion. It is divided into eight
provinces under native rajahs, and forms one
colony with Lombok, the united population
being estimated, in 1807. at 1.044,757.

Balikesri, ba-le-kes're, Balu-kissar, or
Balik-Shehr, a town of Anatolia, 75 miles
southwest from Brusa. It is built of unburnt
bricks and contains the tomb of a celebrated
Mohammedan saint and a manufactory of felt
cloth for military clothing. It has considerable
trade in silk fabrics. Pop. over 12,000.

Ba'liling, a principality of the island of
Bali ; pop. 130.000. The exports are rice and
bullocks, and the chief trade is with the Bughis
of Celebes. In 1847 the Dutch were signally
defeated in an attack upon the fort of Djaga
Raga in this principality.

BALINAG — BALKAN PENINSULA

Balinag, ba-le-nag', Philippines, a town of
the province of Bulacan, Luzon. Pop. (i8g8)
14,122.

Baliol, ba'li-61, Edward, a king of Scot-
land, son of John Baliol of Scotland ; d. Don-
caster, 1363. In 1322 he made a successful in-
vasion of Scotland and on 24 September of that
year was crowned king of Scotland at Scone.
Having privately rendered homage to Edward
III. of England, he was routed by a party of
Scottish nobles and dispossessed of his crown
after a reign of three months. He regained it
the next year, but was henceforth an instrument
of Edward.

Baliol, or Balliol, John, king of Scot-
land: b. about 1249; d. 1315. On the death of
Princess Margaret of N.)rway, grandchild of
Alexander III., in 1290, Baliol claimed the
vacant throne by virtue of his descent from
David, Earl of Huntington, brother to William
the Lion, king of Scotland. Robert Bruce
(grandfather of the king) opposed Baliol ; but
Edward I.'s decision was in favor of Baliol,
who did homage to him for the kingdom, 20
Nov. 1292. Irritated by Edward's harsh exer-
cise of authority, Baliol concluded a treaty with
France, then at war with England ; but, after
the defeat at Dunbar, he surrendered his crown
into the hands of the English monarch. He
was sent with his son to the Tower, but, by
the intercession of the Pope in 1297, obtained
liberty to retire to his Norman estates, where
he died.

Baliol, or Balliol, John, father of King
John Baliol, an English baron in the reign of
Henry III. : d. 1269. In 1263 he laid the foun-
dation of Balliol College (q.v.), Oxford, which
was completed by his widow, Devorguila or
Devorgilla. She was daughter and co-heiress
of Allan of Galloway, a great baron of Scot-
land, by Margaret, eldest daughter of David,
Earl of Huntington, brother of William the
Lion. It was on the strength of this genealogy
that his son, John Baliol, became temporary
king of Scotland.

Baliol, Martha Bethune, the imaginary
narrator of several of Sir Walter Scott's
* Chronicles of the Canongate.^

Baliol College. See Balliol College.

Balisarda, ba-le-sar'da, a magic sword in
Ariosto's ^Orlando Furio'so,' stolen from Or-
lando by Brunello, and afterward given to
Rogero.

Balisaur, bal-T-sa'oor (Hindu, halloo-
soor), the sand-badger of India, called by Hin-
dus the pig-like badger or «sand-hog,» on ac-
count of its long snout. See Sand-Badger.

Balis'ta, or Ballista, a machine used in
military operations by the ancients for hurling
heavy missiles, thus serving in some degree
the purpose of the modern cannon. The motive
power appears to have been obtained bv the
torsion_ of ropes, fibres, catgut, or hair. They
are said to have sometimes had an effective
range of a quarter of a mile, and to have thrown
stones weighing as much as 300 pounds. Balis-
tce differed from catapults, m that the latter
were used for throwing darts.

Balize, ba-lez'. See Belize.

Balkan bfil-kiin', or bal'kan, Mountains,
(anciently called Hccmus), a lofty and rugged
mountain range, extending from Cape Em-
ineh Burum on the Black Sea. in eastern
Roumelia, in a westerly direction to the
borders of Servia, and forming the south-
ern boundary of the basin of the Dan-
ube. In the west it is connected with the
much ramified mountain-system of the south-
eastern peninsula of Europe. Its length is over
200 miles ; the average elevation is about 3,000
feet, but the group of the Khoja Balkans in
the west have a mean height of 6,500 feet.
The highest summit is Jumrukchal, 7,786 feet.
The Balkan forms the watershed between the
streams flowing northward into the Danube, and
these flowing southward to the ^Egean. The
chief of the latter is the Maritza. The range,
which has a gradual descent on the north, pre-
sents on the south a somewhat steep escarp-
ment, and has always been considered the great-
est natural bulwark of the Ottoman empire
against enemies on the European frontiers.
Yet in the Russo-Turkish war of 1877-8 the
Russian troops managed to cross it without
any great difficulty, although they had to en-
counter a stubborn resistance at Shipka Pass
(4,370 feet). Here a Turkish army of 32,000
men surrendered to the Russians. The range
now forms the southern frontier of Bulgaria,
dividing it from eastern Rumelia. The whole
of the southeastern peninsula of Europe is
known as the Balkan Peninsula.

Balkan Peninsula, a region thus named
after the Balkan (Turkish "high ridge"), the
ancient Hasnius (Greek 6 AI/jlos) an import-
ant mountain range in southeastern Europe. It
is the southeasternmost of the three great
southern peninsulas of Europe, each of which is
named after the central mountain system form-
ing its backbone ; namely, the Tyrenean, the
Apennine, and the Balkan peninsulas. The
northern boundary of the latter is not as clearly
defined as that of the other two great peninsulas
separated from central Europe by the gigantic
mountain barriers of the Pyrenees and the Alps.
Assuming that rivers also form a natural bound-
ary, the Balkan Peninsula ends on the right
bank of the Danube and her tributaries, the
Save and the Una ; it is bounded on the west by
the Adriatic and the Ionian seas, on the east
by the Black or Euxine and the ^^igean. In a
broader designation, however, the northern
boundary is assumed to be the parallel of 45° N.,
adding to the peninsula more than one half of
Rumania (Wallachia and Dobrudja) and a part
of Austria (Dalmatia and a section of Croatia).
Excluding the territory between 45° N. and
the Danube, the peninsula comprises an area of
about 175,000 square miles, which contains Eu-
ropean Turkey proper with Novibazar, a Turk-
ish district under Austrian military control. Bos-
nia, and Herzegovina (temporarily occupied by
Austria ; Montenegro, Servia, Bulgaria, an au-
tonomous and tributary principality, with east-
ern Rumelia, under the suzerainty of Turkey
and Greece. No other country in Europe is so
richly provided with gulfs and excellent har-
bors of commercial and naval strategic value.
An archipelago of numberless islands, the Cy-
clades and Sporades of ancient fame, forms a
continuous bridge between the Balkan Peninsula
and Asia Minor. The Black Sea is connected
with the Sea of Marmora through the Bosporus,

BALKH

a channel about 20 miles long, and so narrow
that Constantinople, at the southwest extremity
of the Thracian Bosporus, is but one mile dis-
tant from the Asiatic city of Scutari, eastward
across the Bosporus. The Sea of Marmora is
linked with the yEgean by the Dardanelles with
an average width between three and four miles.
The Balkan Mountains, a continuation of the
Carpathian Mountain system, extend in a varied
formation from the Adriatic to the Euxine,
breaking up in their advance eastward into sev-
eral parallel chains with many more or less,
strong spurs north and south ; several ranges
extend southward almost to the ^gean : the
Perim Dagh and the ancient Rhodope Moun-
tains or Despoto Dagh. They are frequently
broken by defiles or passes of a different de-
grees of serviceableness as routes. The princi-
pal passes are the Nadir-Derbend, Karnabad,
the Basardshik-Sophia, the Trajan, Rosalitha,
and Shipka, the latter famed by the heroic
struggles between the Russians and Turks in
1877. The principal range of the Balkans is
thus divided into several sections, like the
Etropol, Kodja, and Shipka Balkans, and forms
the boundary between Bulgaria and Rumelia.
The main elevation of the chain is from 4,000 to
5,000 feet, but it rises much higher in various
parts, the loftiest elevation of 9,700 feet above
sea-level being reached by Mount Scargus in the
Char Dagh. The Balkans are rich in minerals,
especially rock salt, lead, iron-ore, copper, sil-
ver, but the treasures of the soil are yet very
imperfectly known in spite of the geological re-
searches, undertaken by German, French, and
other travelers and scientists. The mountains
are mostly of a granite formation, but the
mountain system is very complicated, and its
geologic and geostratic connections are hard to
determine. There are numerous thermal and
sulphurous springs, some of which are renowned
and utilized as sanitary watering places. The
mountains form the watershed separating the
tributaries of the lower Danube and those of the
Vardar and Maritza rivers, or, in other words,
the watershed between the Black Sea and the
./Egean. On account of the broken and irregu-
lar character of the peninsula the rivers are
short and little navigable. The westernmost
section of Turkey, Albania, separated from
Montenegro and Novibazar by the North Al-
banian Alps, is a mass of parallel mountain
ranges, irregularly traversed by the winding
rivers, Boyana, Drin, Loum, Vo'iutza, and Arta,
which flow into the Adriatic and Ionian seas.
In the Turkish provinces of Scutari, Monastir.
and Saloniki, there are a number of large and
deep lakes, pre-eminently those of Scutari,
Ochrida, Janina, Prespa, and Kastoria. The
climate of the peninsula is exceedingly varied ;
it is rigorous with heavy snowfalls in the north
and in the central plateau between Serajevo
(Bosnia) and Sofia (Bulgaria), and the table-
land of Janina, but becomes mild and sunny
toward the south and east, tempered by the
breezes of the ^gean. There is hardly any
country in the world inhabited by such a num-
ber of different peoples as the Balkan Peninsula.
Surviving there are all the races recorded at the
beginning of history, with their national lan-
guages and distinct racial consciousness. They
do not form, however, the whole people or even
the great majority of their particular race in any
one district, but are intermingled and live side

by side, without ever blending together, so that
the process of disentangling their various and
conflicting aspirations, tendencies, and racial as
well as religious distinction.s, is well-nigh im-
possible. In eastern Rumelia (ancient Tlirace)
and Macedonia, there may be found a Greek, a
Bulgarian, a Turkish, an Albanian village side
by side. The Greeks or Byzantines, the Daco-
Rumanians, who speak a distinctly Romance
or neo-Latin language, and proudly derive their
origin from the legionaries of Emperor Tra-
janus stationed in Dacia, yet undoubtedly from
Dacian or Thracian mothers, — and the Al-
banians of Illyrian stock are the most ancient
historic races of the Balkans. The Slavs
are late-comers by migration and conquest.
They became neither Greek nor Roman in
speech or customs, political character or na-
tional proclivities, but remained distinctive in
language and racial characteristics. At periods
historically well determined, after the Gothic
invaders in those regions had been defeated or
absorbed or started on their world-stirring ca-
reer, after the Turanian Avars had lost their
overwhelming power, the Slavic tribes moved in
great numbers into central and southeastern
Europe. About 630 a.d. the Croats began to
occupy the present Croatia, Slavonia, northern
Bosnia. In 640 the Servians of the same race
and language conquered the Avars and peopled
Servia, South Bosnia, Dalmatia, Montenegro,
v/hose inhabitants are pure Serbs in blood and
language, only deriving their name from their
national hero, Ivo the Black (Tsernoi), who
gave the name of Tsernogora (Montenegro) to
those desert rocks, a safe retreat to the Servians,
after their defeat at Kossovo in 1389 inflicted by
the Turks. The ethnic situation of to-day
dates from that epoch. The origin of the Bul-
garians is not quite clear. They appear to be of
Finnish-Ugrian stock, and therefore related to
the Turks and the Hungarians, but were Slavic-
ized early in history. The great apostles of the
Slavs, Methodius and Cyrillus, themselves Bul-
garians, even brought Byzantine culture and
the Greek-orthodox religion to the other Slavic
races on the peninsula. The battle of Kossovo,
already mentioned, made an end to the independ-
ence of the highly developed Slavic States, and
with the fall of Constantinople in 1453, the last
bulwark of the crumbling Byzantine empire, the
Turkish sway over the entire Balkan Peninsula
became a reality. Four centuries of racial strife
between the Turkish conquerors and the various
Greek, Rumanian, and Slavic races under their
sway ended in the formation of the Danube
States and the Hellenic kingdom, more or less
according to races and nationalities, so far as
this was possible at all in the case of peoples
which are at least as far removed in sympathy
and political aspirations from one another as
they are from the Turks. The racial antago-
nisms are grievously accentuated in the at-
tempted solutions of racial, political, and re-
ligious problems. Herm.a.nn Schoenfeld,
Columbian University, IVasliington, D. C.
Balkh, brilkh, a district of Afghan Turke-
stan. It corresponds to ancient Bactria, and is
bounded on the north by the river Oxus, on the
east by Badakhshan. on the south by the Hindu
Kush, and west by the desert. Its length is 250
miles ; its breadth, 120. Its situation was once
important during the overland commerce be-
tween Indian and eastern Europe before the

BALKH — BALL BEARING

sea route by the Cape of Good Hope was fol-
lowed. The soil has the general characteristics
of a desert land ; only a few parts are made fer-
tile by artificial irrigation ; and such are the
vicissitudes of climate that where grapes and
apricots ripen in summer, and the mulberry-
tree permits the cultivation of silk, in winter
the frost is intense and the snow lies deep on
the ground. The natives are Uzbegs, whose
character differs in different districts.

Balkh, the capital of the district of the same
name, situated in a district intersected by canals
and ditches. It is surrounded by a mud wall ;
but though bearing the imposing title of
^Mother of Cities," it has not in recent times
had any of the grandeur of ancient Bactra, on
the site of which it is built. It was twice de-
stroyed by Genghis Khan and Timur. A ter-
rible outbreak of cholera in 1877 caused the
capital of Afghanistan Turkestan to be trans-
ferred to Mazar, west of Balkh ; since which
Balkh has been an insignificant village.

Balkhash, bal-kash', a great inland lake,
near the eastern border of Russian Central
Asia. Lying about 780 feet above sea-level, it
extends 323 miles west-southwest ; its breadth
at the west end is 50 miles ; at the east from
9 to 4 miles ; the area is 8.400 square miles.
The water is clear but intensely salt. Its prin-
cipal feeder is the river Hi. It has no outlet.
The northern edge is well defined ; but the south
shores of the lake are labyrinths of islands,
peninsulas, low sandhills, and strips of shallow
water. Here grow masses of enormously tall
reeds in which wild swine shelter. To the
south, stretching toward the base of the Ala-
tau Mountains, is a vast steppe almost devoid
of vegetation. Balkhash seems to have at one
time included in its immense area the smaller
lakes Sossik-kul and Ala-kul, now far to the
southeast.

Bal'kis, the Arabian name of the queen of
Sheba who visited Solomon. She is the central
figure of innumerable Eastern legends and tales.

Ball, Ephraim, American inventor : b.
Greentown, O., 12 Aug. 1812; d. Canton, O., i
Jan. 1872. He was brought up as a carpenter,
but in 1840 he established a foundry for making
plow castings ; invented a plow, a turn-top
stove, the Ohio mower, the World mower and
reaper, and the New American harvester ; and
for many years before his death was president
of an extensive manufacturing plant at Canton,
Ohio.

Ball, John, English priest of the 14th
century. He was a disciple of Wycliffe. upon
whose religious doctrines he engrafted some
political theories resembling the ^'liberty, equal-
ity, and fraternity" of later ages. He was inti-
rnately concerned in the Wat Tyler insurrec-
tion of 1381. and for his part in the affair was
executed at St. Albans, 15 July 1381. See Mor-
ns, *The Dream of John Ball.'

Ball, Sir Robert Stawell, distinguished
English astronomer: b. Dublin, i July 1840. In
1865 he was appointed Lord Rosse's astrono-
mer at Parsonstown. He has held many posts
in connection with astronomy and mathematics,
including those of professor of applied mathe-
matics and mechanism at the Royal College of
Science for Ireland; Andrews professor of as-

tronomy in the University of Dublin ; astrono-
mer-royal of Ireland ; and Lowdean professor
of astronomy and geometry in the University of
Cambridge, and director of the Cambridge ob-
servatory since 1892. The Royal Society elected
him a Fellow in 1873, and in 1886 he was
knighted. His numerous works include : 'The
Story of the Heavens' (1885) ; *Time and Tide*
(1889) ; 'Star- Land' (1889) ; 'The Story of the
Sun' (1893); 'Great Astronomers' (1895); 'A
Treatise on the Theory of Screws' (1900) ;
'The Earth's Beginning' (1901) ; 'Popular Guide
to the Heavens' (1905) ; etc.

Ball, Thomas, American sculptor : b.
Charlestown, Mass., 3 June 1819. He studied in
Italy; engaged in painting, 1840-52; adopted
sculpture exclusively in 185 1 ; resided in Flor-
ence, Italy, 1865-97 ; and afterward in Montclair,
N. J. His best-known works are the equestrian
statue of Washington in Boston ; the Web-
.ster statue in Central Park, New York; and
'Emancipation' in Washington, D. C. He pub-
lished 'My Threescore Years and Ten, an
Autobiography' (1891).

Ball, as an article of ammunition, see Gun-
nery ; Ordnance; Projectiles; Shot.

In connection with sports and games the ball
in various sizes has been in universal usage
since ancient times. The Greeks regarded ball-
games as of much value in adding grace to the
figure and giving elasticity to the muscles of
the body, and the Romans also played a game of
ball in connection with their baths for the same
purpose. Several of the games then played
resembled modern handball, football, and polo.
Modern tennis and rackets undoubtedly had
their beginnings in the jeu-de-paume of the
Middle Ages, and lacrosse was originally played
by the North American Indians, though the
historical data concerning these and other games
are meagre and new customs and rules have so
changed games that their true history cannot
be told with exactness. Of varieties of balls
for use in the different sports there are many.
The baseball is made of a sphere of rubber, 2^2
ounces in weight, which is wound with yarn and
covered with leather. The basket-ball is an in-
flated rubber ball, enclosed in leather and from
30 to 32 inches in diameter. The tennis ball is
of rubber covered with white flannel, about 2V2
inches in diameter and 2 ounces in weight. The
lacrosse ball is made of india-rubber and is 8
or 9 inches in diameter. The polo ball is of
wood and 4 or 5 inches in diameter. The foot-
ball is a prolate spheroid in shape and consists
of a rubber bladder encased in a leather cover.
Billiard balls are of ivory and from 2yV to 2f^
inches in size. See Baseball ; Football ;
Basket-ball; Lawn Tennis; Rackets;
Cricket ; Handball ; Lacrosse ; Polo ; Bil-
liards ; etc.

Ball and Socket, a joint used in machinery
and piping. It consists of a spherical end of a
rod or pipe fitting into a hollow sphere of the
same size on a like piece. The object of this
joint is to provide a close, movable connection,
and to prevent leakage in pipes.

Ball Bearing, a mechanical bearing, con-
sisting of a cup against the inner circumference
of which steel balls are placed. A cone fitted
to the steel bears against these balls. It is used

BALL CLAY — BALLAD

to a great extent in bicycles and light carriage
wheels, and to a less extent in light machinery
and wagon bearings. Its object is to reduce
friction and the use of lubricants.

Ball Clay. See Clay.

Ball Cock, a self-acting stop-cock, opened
and shut by means of a hollow metallic sphere
attached to the end of a lever connected with
the cock. Its use is principally to regulate the
supply of water to cisterns. The ball floats
by reason of its buoyancy, and rising and sink-
ing as the water rises and sinks, shuts off the
water in the one case and lets it on in the other.

Ball Flower, an architectural ornament
resembling a ball placed in a circular flower,
the three petals of which form a cup around it ;
usually inserted in a hollow molding, and gen-
erally characteristic of the Decorated Gothic
style of the 14th century.

Ball Nozzle. See Hydrodynamics.

Ballad, a short narrative poem in stanzas,
originally intended for singing. The name,
which is derived from the Latin ballarc, to
dance, is frequently used very loosely, and ap-
plied to a variety of songs and verse-tales with
no real bond of association. But in the stricter
sense it belongs to a comparatively small body
of anonymous traditional poetry, the production
of which has practically ceased in English-
speaking countries, though literary imitations of
the type are still composed. Its most character-
istic quality is impersonality. Not only is the
author unknown, but in the pure ballad there is
no trace of his individuality. The material of
the poem is usually popular in origin, and the
sentiment and point of view are those, not of a
single person, but of the whole people. ^'Peo-
ple.'' in the sense here used, has reference not to
the lower classes but to society in a period when
in the matter of culture the community was
homogeneous. Thus the origins of the kind of
poetry of which the ballad is a survival are to
be looked for in a comparatively primitive stage
of society, before the ^'poetry of art*^ came into
existence, when the tribal community could still
express itself in simultaneous utterances ac-
companying the rhythmic movements of dance
or march.

This view of the origin of ballad poetry is
not universally accepted. Over against it there
is placed the apparently simpler theory that the
ballads are the production of minstrels, from the
fifteenth century down, who derived from
romances and other sources in artificial litera-
ture stories which they threw into crude stanzas,
to chant sometimes in the houses of the great,
sometimes at fairs and other popular gatherings.
But the objections to this view are serious.
First, minstrel ballads such as are here described
were manufactured and still exist in abundant
broadsides and chap-books, but they are uni-
versally lacking in precisely those qualities of
impersonality and unconsciousness which con-
stitute at once the mark and the charm of the
true popular ballad. Second, the minstrel theory
ignores the existence of a large mass of
ethnological evidence, showing the indubitable
and well-nigh universal existence of the prac-
tice of communal song, and the development in
this song of a narrative element. Third, it is a
matter of definite proof that the genuine ballads

Vol. 2 — IS.

which have been collected during the last two
centuries have come, with rare exceptions, not
from the mouths or wallets of minstrels, but
from humble unprofessional people, "the spin-
sters and the knitters in the sun," who have in
so many branches of folk-lore proved the best
conservators of the heritage of the people. A
minstrel's addition to his stock of an occasional
piece of more or less degraded popular verse in
no wise overthrows the significance of this fact.
There is no reason to believe that, in the cen-
turies before ballad-collecting began, the medium
of transmission was substantially different.

The argument on the other side has already
been partly indicated. First, there exists the
evidence of the wide-spread practice of accom-
panying communal activity — in labor, ceremonial,
or festal dance — with rhythmic utterances ; the
gradual growth of these utterances in definite-
ness of form ; the practice of making them the
medium of narrating some episode known to
all — e. g., the story of some great deed accom-
plished by the hero whose death is being la-
mented, or the manner of the victory which is
being celebrated, or some ludicrous incident in
the season's labor happily finished, — the contri-
bution of a new line or stanza now by this, now
by that member of the dancing throng ; the
recurrent refrain sung by all ; the final creation
of a narrative song for which no one individual
is responsible, but which is the expression of the
thought and feeling of all. Second, the un-
individual element is intensified by the method
of transmission. Before any extant ballad came
into the form in which we find it, it had been
handed down from mouth to mouth through
many generations, modified endlessly in detail,
but by this very process losing whatever indi-
vidual elements might at any stage appear in it,
and keeping, with whatever change of matter or
modernization of dialect, just those qualities of
impersonality and unconsciousness of literary
effect which have been noted as its characteristic
traits. Third, the theory suggested by these
facts receives corroboration from the refrain and
from the characteristic narrative method of the
ballad, the so-called "incremental repetition. '>
The phrase is used to describe the method of
telling a story by the repetition in a set of
stanzas of the same words with just enough
change to advance the narration one step. Thus
the motive for the murder of the Bonnie Earl
of Murray is gradually insinuated by this method
in these stanzas :

He was a braw gallant.

And he rid at the ring;
And the bonny Earl of Murray,

Oh he might have been a king!

He was a braw gallant,

And he played at the ba;
And the bonny Earl of Murray

Was the flower amang them a'.

He was a braw gallant.

And he played at the glove:
And the bonny Earl of Murray,

Oh he was the Queen's love!

A moment's reflection will show how suitable
such a device is to communal improvisation, and
how naturally it is derived from it. As for the
refrain, the part played by the crowd in the
singing of it does not need to be argued.

It is not implied that all ballads showing
incremental repetition and preserving refrains
were thus composed by a throng. For most,

BALLAD

perhaps for all, of our extant ballads it is
probably safe to assume a single original author,
whose name and circumstances are now hope-
lessly lost, but who first gave each ballad a
definite form. But even when making this as-
sumption, we must bear in mind the fact that he
worked after models which went back ultimately
to communal products, that he worked in a
period when it was still possible to compose in
the communal spirit, that he used for the most
part popular material, and, finally, that his
product has been transmitted orally through
generations who altered and modified till what-
ever of personal existed in the first form has
been obliterated. Thus if the famous phrase,
"das Volk dichtet,* can not be used of the
ballads we read to-day in the sense in which it
was true of the earliest communal chants, it still
holds to this extent that, in so far as a given
specimen approaches the pure ballad type, it fails
to exhibit the marks of any handiwork but that
of the folk.

The ballad thus stands at the remote end of
that line of development at the hither end of
which we find the modern subjective lyric such
as the sonnet. The curve which lies between
shows the tendency running through the history
of poetry to have been to emphasize more and
more the individuality of the author, to relegate
the people more and more to the place of mere
audience. We are prepared to find, then, many
features in the history of ballads highly dis-
similar and even contradictory to those of
modern literature. Thus the life of a modern
poem begins when it is committed to paper: a
ballad then begins to die. It lives only while it
is still being transmitted orally from generation
to generation, receiving from each its stamp. A
modern poem has one authentic text : a ballad
may have many texts, varying in number with
the extent of territory over which it was sung,
but no single authoritative text. A modern
poem avoids explicit borrowing: the ballad ab-
sorbs and assimilates freely numbers of **com-
monplaces,'' — phrases, lines, and even sets of
stanzas that appear with equal appropriateness
in half a dozen different ballads, and are the
exclusive property of none. Such are the
formulas for sending a messenger,

O whaur will I get a bonny boy, etc.;
for ordering a horse,

O saddle me the black, the black,
O saddle me the brown;

for describing a journey,

They hadna' gaen a mile, a mile,
A mile but barely three;

for concluding a romantic tragedy.

The tane was buried in .Mary's kirk,

The tither in Mary's quire,
And out of the ane there grew a birk,

And out of the ither a brier, etc.

A modern poet seeks novelty of epithet : the
ballad clings to the traditional description ; the
gold is red, the lady is fair, her dress is grass-
green, her hair is yellow, her tears are salt, the
moon's light is clear, the porter is proud,
brothers are bold, a bower is «bigly,» and so on.
Equally characteristic is the treatment of
incident and plot in the ballad. There is seldom
any introduction : we plunge at once into the
midst of the action. The stanzas leap from peak
to peak of the narrative, with no attempt to
supply the less important links, yet seldom with

any real sacrifice of clearness. The events in
the imcontaminated ballad are unmoralized and
imsentimentalized ; the bald fact is left without
comment or criticism from the singer. Con-
scious figures of speech are rare, and the back-
ground is seldom filled in. Thus the general
result is that of rapidity of motion, directness
and unconsciousness of effect, an absence of
artistic suggestion. Whenever we find a moral
drawn, or a dwelling on the pathetic, interpola-
tion by a modern would-be artist is to be sus-
pected.

From what has been said of origins, it is clear
that little can be guessed as to the date of com-
position of ballads. Some, notably those simple,
highly typical stories like 'The Twa Sisters,'
written in a two-line stanza with a refrain, with
stress upon situation rather than upon succes-
sion of events, may in some form be of almost
any age. Others have an upper limit of date
fixed by the historical event which occasionally
forms the basis of the plot. The dates of ballad
manuscripts, which are, of course, an entirely dif-
ferent thing, and a date of death rather than of
birth, are more easily fixed. The earliest is
'Judas' (No. 23 in Child's collection) from a
13th century MS.; the next, 'Riddles Wisely
Expounded' (Child, i) about 1445; a little later,
'Robin Hood and the Monk' (Child, 119),
'St. Stephen and Herod' (Child, 22), and
'Robyn and Gandelyn' (Child, 115) ; two exist
in copies of about 1500; two others about 1550.
Less than a dozen are preserved in MSS. before
1600. The most important single MS. is the
Folio which Bishop Percy used as a basis for
his famous "Reliques of Ancient English
Poetry," and it is in a handwriting of about 1650.
A few appear in early printed forms. *A Lytell
Geste of Robyn Hode' was printed about 1500,
and broadside versions, usually in very degraded
form, appeared frequently in the 17th and i8th
centuries. The most important sources after
the Percy Folio are the collections made directly
from the mouths of the people, such as those of
David Herd (1776), Mrs. Brown of Falkland
(1783-1801), Sir Walter Scott (1783-1830), C. K.
Sharpe (c. 1823). Motherwell (1825-7), Kin-
loch (1826), Buchan (1828), MacMath and
Child (second half of the igth century).

Ballads on historical occurrences apart, most
of the plots belong to the mass of folk-tale
which is the exclusive possession of no one
nation or language. Many ballads tell stories
versions of which are found in almost every
known tongue. The explanation of this world-
wide diffusion of story-material is one of the
standing problems of folk-lore ; but whatever
theory of its cause be adopted, the fact that it is
largely from this international treasury that the
ballads derive their plots, is a strong reason for
regarding them as essentially "popular" in mat-
ter as well as in manner.

Turning now to the nature of these stories,
we find that by far the largest class is concerned
with romantic love and its consequences. Many
are tragic, the interference of fathers, mothers,
or brothers being perhaps the commonest cause
of the fatal issue. Both in these and in the
romantic ballads with happy endings the
.sympathy of the audience with the lovers is in
general assumed, and in cases of illicit love no
moral judgment is passed or suggested. Some
of the best are ballads of war by land or sea ;

BALLADE — BALLANTINE

and the irregular warfare of the Borderland
between England and Scotland has given birth
to a number justly famous. The largest group
connected with a single personality is that of
the Robin Hood ballads. Of these, some like *A
Lytell Geste' and 'Robin Hood and the Monk'
represent not only the finest of the outlaw
group, but rank with the best of all ballads.
The later members of this group, however, show
serious deterioration, and they finally sink into
the degradation of broadsides manufactured by
printers' hacks. The 'Geste' itself is of especial
interest as showing a significant stage in the
process by which ballads are combined in the
formation of the popular epic. In it four or
more distinguishable ballad plots are woven to-
gether to form a miniature epic, the interweav-
ing being clearly the work of a conscious artist
who at the same time was in full sympathy with
the popular .spirit. The supernatural also plays
an important part in the ballads, and it is possi-
ble to gather from them much information as to
popular belief on such themes as fairies, witches,
the return of the dead, transformation by en-
chantment, and the like.

The number of extant ballads in English may
be gathered from the great final collection of
Professor Child. Here, ignoring variants, we
have three hundred and five, most of which are
popular in the sense which has been defined,
i. e. they fulfil these conditions, that even if
written each by an individual author, that author
belonged to the people, drew his material from
the common stock of folk-tales, wrote in the
popular spirit, and used the traditional method,
had his product accepted by the folk and passed
on and modified by them through centuries of
oral transmission. Some few such as 'The Boy
and the Mantle,' 'King Arthur and King Corn-
wall,' and 'The Marriage of Sir Gawain,' are
closely associated with metrical romances, and
are usually regarded as written by minstrels for
more courtly audiences, but are yet enough in
the popular style to justify their inclusion as
ballads. More are traditional ballads corrupted
for the printing press and represented by broad-
side versions because no purer form has sur-
vived. And in the case of almost every ballad
surviving in several versions, some versions
show a higher degree of purity from literary
editing than others.

The localities from which the ballads have
been gathered are widely scattered, versions of
several having been picked up in America. But
Scotland claims about two-thirds of the whole.

Bibliography. — The completion of F. J.
Child's exhaustive 'English and Scottish Popular
Ballads' {5 vols., Boston 1882-98), with its
bibliographies and full account of the sources,
makes unnecessary a list of previous less com-
prehensive collections. Every known version of
every extant ballad in any English dialect was
intended to be included by the editor, and little
or nothing has escaped him. The introductions
give an account of parallels and analogues
throughout the world. An abridged collection
has been edited by H. C. Sargent and G. L.
Kittredge (i vol., Boston 1904). On the ques-
tion of origins, consult F. B. Gummere. 'Old
English Ballads' (Boston 1894), 'The Begin-
nings of Poetry' (New York 1904), 'The
Popular Ballad' (Boston 1907) ; T. F. Hender-
son's edition of Scott's 'Minstrelsy of the

Scottish Border* (Edinburgh 1902), and his
* Scottish Vernacular Literature,' chap, xi
(London 1898) ; and vol. i of Courthope's 'His-
tory of English Poetry.' An excellent con-
densed statement of the whole matter by G. L.
Kittredge forms the introduction to the one-
volume edition of Child's collection.

William A. Neilson,

Professor of English, Harvard University.

Ballade, ba-lad' the earlier and modern
French spelling of "ballad," but now limited in
its use to a distinct verse-form introduced into
English literature of late years from the French
and chiefly used by writers of vers de societe.
It consists of three stanzas of eight lines each,
with an "envoy" or closing stanza of four lines.
The rhymes, which are not more than three,
follow each other in the stanzas, thus : a, b, a,
b ; b, c, b, c, and in the envoy, b, c, b, c ; and
the same line serves as a refrain to each of the
stanzas and to the envoy. There are other va-
rieties, but this may be regarded as the strictest,
according to the precedent of Villon and IMarot.

Ballagi, bol'lo-ge, Maurice, or Moritz,
Bloch, a Hungarian philologist and Protestant
theological author, most widely known for his
grammars and dictionaries of the Hungarian
language : b. Inocz, of Jewish parents. 18 March
1815; d. I Sept. 1891. He was educated at
Budapest and Paris ; was converted to Protes-
tantism in 1843 ; studied theology at Tiibingen ;
and was professor of theology at Szarvas from
1844 to 1848 and from 1851 to 1855, and at Buda-
pest from 1855 to 1878. His first large work was
the translation of the Bible into the Hungarian
language for the purpose of Magyarizing the
Jews, but of this work only the Pentateuch and
the Book of Joshua were published (Budapest
1840-43). The most important of his philo-
logical works are : 'Ausfiihrliche theoretisch-
praktische Grammatik der ungarischen Sprache'
(1843; 8th ed. 1881); 'VoUstandiges Worter-
buch der ungarischen und deulschen Sprache'
(2 vols., 1854-7; 6th ed. 1890); 'Sammlung der
magvarischen Sprichworter' (2 vols., 1850; 2d
ed. i855).

Ballanche, ba-lansh', Pierre Simon, French
philosopher: b. Lyons, 4 Aug. 1776; d. 12 June
1847. His great work is the 'Palingenesie
Sociale' (1828), in which he seeks to illustrate
the workings of God in history and sketch how
human society may and will be reconstructed
so as to attain its highest development. His
works are a strange mi.xture of mysticisrn,
socialism, and the philosophy of history. His
'Vision d'Hebal* (1832) is a prophetic forecast
of the world's history, Hebel being a second-
sighted chief of a Scottish clan. He also wrote
'Le vieillard et le jeune homme' (1819) ; etc.

Bal'lantine, James, Scottish artist and poet :
b. Edinburgh. 11 June 1808; d. 18 Dec. 1877.
He was brought up as a house-painter, but
afterward learned drawing under Sir William
Allen and was one of the first to revive the
art of glass-painting. He was commissioned
to execute the stained-glass windows for the
House of Lords, and in 1845 published a treatise
on glass-staining, which was translated into
German. Two prose volumes, 'The Gaberlun-
zie's Wallet' (1843). and 'The IMiller of Dean-
haugh' (1845), contain some of his best-known
songs and ballads. He was author of 'Poems'

BALLANTINE — BALLESTEROS

(1856 and 1865) ; ^One Hundred Songs with
Music* (1865) ; <Life of David Roberts, R. A.>
(1866) ; and <LiIias Lee* (1871).

Ballantine, William Gay, American edu-
cator : b. Washington, D. C, 7 Dec. 1848. He
was graduated at Marietta College 1868, and at
the Union Theological Seminary 1872; spent a
year in study in Leipsic ; was attached to the
American Palestine Exploring Expedition of
1873 ; professor of chemistry and natural science
in Ripon College 1874-6 ; professor of Greek
and Hebrew in the University of Indiana 1878-
81 ; professor of Old Testament language and
literature at Oberlin Theological Seminary
1881-^1 ; and president of Oberlin College
1891-6. Dr. Ballantine was one of the editors
of the ^Bibliotheca Sacra* (1884-91).

Bal'lantyne, James, Scottish printer: b.
Kelso, 1772; d. Edinburgh, 1833. Successively
a solicitor and a printer in his native town, at the
suggestion of Sir Walter Scott he removed to
Edinburgh, where the high perfection to which
he had brought the art of printing, and his con-
nection with Scott, whose works he printed, se-
cured him a large trade. The firm of James Bal-
lantyne & Company included Scott, James Ballan-
tyne, and his brother John (who died in 1821).
For many years he conducted the Edinburgh
Weekly Journal. His firm was involved in the
bankruptcy of Constable & Company, by which
Scott's fortunes were wrecked, but Ballantyne
was continued by the creditors' trustee in the
literary management of the printing-house. He
survived Scott only about four months.

Ballantyne, James Robert, Scottish Ori-
entalist: b. Kelso, Scotland, 1813; d. 1864.
After receiving an education at Hailey Tury
College he was sent to India, where he was
placed in charge of the Sanskrit College at
Benares. On his return to England he was
made librarian of the East India office. Among
his writings are "^The Practical Oriental Inter-
preter* (1843) ; 'Catechism of Sanskrit Gram-
mar* ; 'Synopsis of Science in Sanskrit and Eng-
lish, reconciled with the Truths to be found
in the N3'aya Philosophy* (1856) ; 'Christianity
Contrasted with Hindu Philosophy* (1859).

Ballantyne, Robert Michael, Scotch writer:
b. Edinburgh, 1825 ; d. Rome, Italy, 8 Feb. 1894.
He spent his youth in Canada in the service of
the Hudson Bay Company, but in 1856 adopted
literature as a profession. He became very
popular in England as a writer of stories for
iDoys. Among the best known are 'Deep Down,*
'The Coral Island,* 'The World of Ice,* 'Un-
gava,* 'The Dog Crusoe,* and others.

Ballarat', or Ballaarat, an Australian town
in the colony of Victoria, the chief centre of
the gold-mining industry of the colony, and the
place next in importance to Melbourne, from
which it is distant west-northwest 74 miles by
rail. It owes its present importance and pros-
perity to its being the centre of one of the rich-
est gold-yielding districts of the world. It con-
sists of two distinct municipalities, Ballarat
West and Ballarat East, which are separated by
Yarrowee Creek. The town is well lighted with
gas, abundantly supplied with water, and con-
tains many handsome public edifices, among
which may be mentioned the city hall, council-
chamber, two town halls, a spacious hospital,
an orphan asylum, a benevolent asylum, a lying-

in hospital and refuge, public baths, a jail, me-
chanics' institute (with 22,500 volumes), a free
library (with 15,000 volumes), a theatre, and
several other places of amusement, post-office,
extensive railway premises, forty churches, two
cathedrals, the palaces of the Anglican and
Roman Catholic bishops, two colleges, four
grammar and various other schools, a school of
mines, many banks, numerous fine hotels, etc.
There are several iron-foundries, breweries and
distilleries, flour-mills, woolen-mills, and other
factories. Gold was first discovered at Ballarat
in June 1851, and the extraordinary richness of
the field soon attracted hosts of miners. When
the surface diggings became exhausted it was
discovered that richer deposits of the precious
metal lay at greater depths, and now there are
mines as deep as some coal-pits. They are
worked by steam-pumping and other machinery,
and give employment to over 6,000 men, about
1,000 of whom are Chinese. One of the largest
nuggets ever found anywhere was discovered
here, and was sold for $52,000. The surrounding
district is also eminently suitable for farming
and sheep-breeding. In addition to the line to
Melbourne, Ballarat has railway connection
with Geelong, Ararat, Maryborough, Castle-
maine, etc. Pop. (1897) 46,137.

Ballast, (i) Heavy matter, as stone,
sand, iron, or water placed in the bottom of a ship
or other vessel, to sink it in the water to such a
depth as to enable it to carry sufficient sail
without oversetting. (2) The sand placed in
bags in the car of a balloon to steady it and to
enable the aeronaut to lighten the balloon by
throwing part of it out. (3) The material used
to fill up the space between the rails on a rail-
waj' in order to make it firm and solid.

Bal'lentyne, or Bal'lenden, John, Scot-
tish poet, and translator of Boece's 'Latin His-
tory,* and of the first five books of Livy into the
vernacular language of his time: b. Lothian
toward the close of the 15th century; said to
have died at Rome, 1550. He was in the service
of James V. from the king's earliest years, and
at his request he translated Boece's 'History,*
which had been published at Paris in 1526, the
translation being printed in 1536. As a reward
he was made archdeacon of Moray and a canon
of Ross. He was a bitter opponent of the Ref-
ormation.

Balleny (bal'la'ne) Islands, a group of five
small volcanic islands, discovered by Balleny, in
the Antarctic Ocean in 1839, nearly on the Ant-
arctic Circle, and in Ion. 164° E. One of the
islands, Young Island, contains a very lofty
mountain, about 12,000 feet high.

Ballesteros, biil-yes-ta'ros, Francisco,
Spanish general: b. Saragossa, 1770; d. Paris,
22 June 1832. He first served in Catalonia
against the French during the campaigns of
1792 and 1795, and was appointed to a- captaincy.
Discharged in 1804 on account of embezzlement,
he was nevertheless entrusted by the all-powerful
Godoy, "prince of the peace,** with one of the
most productive offices in the custom-house, the
direction of the resgnardo at Oviedo. When
the French army invaded Spain in 1808, Balles-
teros was promoted to a colonelcy by the pro-
vincial junta of Asturia, and joined the Castilian
army under Castanos and Black. The regency
of Cadiz promoted him to the rank of lieutenant-
general and put him in command of the army of

BALLESTREM — BALLISTIC GALVANOMETER

Andalusia. He had then to fight against some
of the most skilful chiefs of the French army,
and succeeded in avoiding their pursuit by pe-
culiar tactics. When Wellington was entrusted
in 1812 with the general command of all the
armies in the Peninsula, Ballesteros showed such
violent opposition that he was arrested as guilty
of treason and sent as a prisoner to Ceuta. A
few months later he was restored to liberty, but
was not allowed to re-enter the military ser-
vice. On the return of Ferdinand VII. to Spain
Ballesteros made such a show of devotion to
monarchical principles that he was appointed sec-
retary of war, but was soon dismissed and sent
to Valladolid, where he was placed under the
strictest surveillance. When the struggle be-
tween the royalists and the constitutionalists
commenced, he managed so artfully that each
party thought Ballesteros was acting in con-
cert with them. Commissioned by the chiefs
of the latter to obtain the assent of the king to
the constitution, he succeeded beyond their an-
ticipations and became a member of the council
of state, while he was at the same time admit-
ted in the ccmmuncros association. This
double-dealing seemed to be perfectly successful,
for in 1823, on the entry of the French into
Spain he was appointed to the command of the
army ; but instead of showing fight he concluded
a capitulation with the Duke of Angouleme,
which became the occasion of accusations of
such a character that Ballesteros thought it im-
prudent to stay any longer in his own country,
and took refuge in France, where he died a
forgotten exile.

Ballestrem, bal'les-stram, Franz Xaver,
Count von, German statesman: b. Plawnio-
witz, in Upper Silesia, 1834. Entering the Prus-
sian army he served during the Austro-Prussian
campaign of 1866 and the Franco-Prussian war
of 1870-1. At the close of the latter he was
elected to the Reichstag, where he soon became
prominent in the Centre party. Pius IX. ap-
pointed him a papal chamberlain for his activity
in the Culturkampf, and he was first vice-presi-
dent of the lower House, 1890-3.

Ballet, bal'la, or bal'let, (from hal; from the
French bailer, and the Italian ballare, to dance),
a kind of dance now usually constituting an
interlude in a theatrical performance. In its
widest sense a ballet is the representation of a
series of passionate actions and feelings by
means of gestures and dancing. In a more con-
fined sense we call ballets musical pieces, the
object of which is to represent by mimic move-
ments and dances, actions, characters, senti-
ments, passions, and feelings, in which several
dancers perform together. According to the
analogy of lyrical poetry those which rather
represent feelings may be called lyrical ballets ;
those which imitate actions, dramatic ballets.
The lyrical and dramatic ballets, together, con-
stitute the higher art of dancing, in opposition
to the lower, the aim of which is only social
pleasure. Dramatic ballets are classed as his-
torical, the subject of which is a real event;
mythological, in which the subject is some fa-
bulous action ; and poetical, founded on poetical
fiction, to which belong also the allegorical, ne-
cessarily the most imperfect. A ballet is usu-
ally divided into several acts, each of which
has several entrees. An entree, m a ballet, con-
sists of one or several quadrilles of dancers,

who, by their steps, gestures, and attitudes, rep-
resent a certain part of the action. In criticising
a ballet we must consider, first, the choice of the
subject, which must have unity of action or
of passion, and be capable of being represented
in an intelligible manner by means of mimic
movements and dancing; secondly, the plan
and execution of the single parts, which must
have due proportion to each other; and, finally,
the music and decorations, which must supply
whatever dancing cannot bring before the eye.
The ballet is an invention of modern times.
Baltazarini, director of music to Catherine de'
Medici, probably gave its form to the regular
ballet, though pantomimic dances were not un-
known to the ancients. The ballet owes much
to the French, and particularly to Noverre.

Balliet, Thomas M., American edu-
cator : b. I IMarch 1852. He was educated at
Franklin and Marshal College (Lancaster, Pa.)
and at Yale, was appointed superintendent of
public schools in Springfield, Mass., and also
became associate editor of the * Pedagogical
Seminary.^ His writings include 'Some New
Phases of Educational Thought *

Balliol (bal'yol) College, Oxford, an im-
portant college founded between 1263 and 1268
by John Balliol (q.v.). The original founda-
tion consisted of 16 poor scholars, and the rev-
enue for their maintenance amounted for many
years to only 8d. per week for each. From 1340
to 1830 the college was greatly enriched by
various benefactions. The society consists of
a master, 13 fellows, and 24 scholars. The num-
ber of members on the books is about 600. The
master and fellows enjoy the privilege of elect-
ing their own visitor. John Wyclif was master
of this college in 1361 ; among its scholars have
been John Evelyn, Bradley the astronomer,
Mathew Arnold Swinburne, and the late Arch-
bishop Temple. The Snell exhibitions for stu-
dents of Glasgow University attract annually
to this college a few distinguished Scottish stu-
dents.

Ballis'tic Galvano'meter, a galvanometer
(q.v.) designed or used for the measurement
of electric currents of very short duration. It
does not necessarily differ in any essential par-
ticular from other galvanometers, except that
the natural period of oscillation of its needle
must be long in comparison with the duration
of the transient currents that are to be mea-
sured. If C is the intensity of the current that
is to be measured, and ; is the time during
which it passes, the general theory of the instru-
ment is as follows : The magnetic moment
tending to deflect the needle is proportional to
C, and the angular velocity that such a mag-
netic moment can produce when acting upon a
freely suspended body like the needle is pro-
portional to t. Hence the angular velocity ac-
tually communicated to the needle is propor-
tional both to C and to t; or, in other words,
it is proportional to the product Ct. But an
electric ^'current* (such as is here denoted by
C) is defined as the quantity of electricity pass-
ing per second ; and hence Ct is the quantity of
electricity passing in the time t. The angular
velocity actually communicated to the needle
(which is inferred by observing the extent of
the swing) is therefore proportional to the total
quantity of electricity passed through the gal-
vanometer during the short time t, and not to

BALLISTICS — BALLOON

the intensity of the current. This constitutes
the chief peculiarity of the instrument. The
ballistic galvanometer measures the total quan-
tity of electricity passed through the instrument,
and its readings are in coulombs ; while other
galvanometers measure the intensity of the cur-
rent passing, and their readings are in amperes.
If the needle of the instrument moves sensibly
during the passage of the current, the magnetic
movement exerted upon the needle will also
vary, even though the current itself remains
constant. It is for this reason that the period
of free swing of the needle must be long if the
instrument is to be used ballistically.

Ballis'tics. See Ordnance.

Bal'listite. See Explosives.

Balloon', a bag-like receptacle filled with
hydrogen, coal-gas, or other light gaseous mat-
ter, and designed to rise in the air. The first
balloon was constructed by Stephen and Joseph
Montgolfier, sons of Peter Montgolfier, a well-
known paper-maker of Annonay, France. Ob-
serving the suspension of clouds in the air, they
conceived the idea of filling a light bag with
some substance of a cloud-like nature, and try-
ing it to see if it would not ascend. After experi-
menting on a small scale with paper bags filled
with smoke, they constructed a linen bag about
30 feet in diameter and inflated it with hot air
from a fire fed with chopped straw. The at-
tempt was entirely successful, and on 5 June
1783, the balloon rose to a height of about a mile
and a half in the presence of a considerable
number of amazed spectators.

As might be expected, an experiment of so
novel a nature attracted a great deal of atten-
tion, and only two months later a balloon was
constructed on more scientific principles by M.
Charles, of Paris. The bag used by M. Charles
was made of thin varnished silk, and inflated
with hydrogen gas generated by the action of
sulphuric acid upon iron filings. Some difficulty
was found in filling the bag satisfactorily, but
the task was completed at the end of four days,
and on 27 Aug. 1783, the balloon rose from the
Champ de Mars to a height of 3,000 feet, re-
maining in the air for about three quarters of
an hour and eventually falling in a field about
15 miles away, where it was torn to shreds by
terrified peasants. The excitement in Paris was
very great, and plans were laid to build balloons
large enough to sustain human beings. After
several trials with a captive balloon of the hot-
air or Montgolfier type, M. Frangois Pilatre de
Rozier, satisfied that there would be no difficulty
in maintaining a fire under the balloon while
in the air, made an ascension from the Bois de
Boulogne on 21 Nov. 1783, accompanied by the
Marquis d'Arlandes. They remained in the air
about 25 minutes, during which time they rose
to a height of 500 feet and traversed a horizontal
distance of over five miles. Ten daj^s later, on
I Dec. 1783, MM. Charles and Robert made a
similar ascension in a balloon filled with hydro-
gen. They rose to a height of 2,000 feet, and
returned to the earth, after about two hours, at
Nesle, about t."] miles from their starting-point
at Paris. M. Robert then left the car, and M.
Charles made a second ascent alone. Owing
to an error in the amount of ballast taken in to
compensate for the weight of M. Robert, the
balloon, when freed, rose rapidly to a height of

about two miles, but no accident resulted, and
M. Charles returned to the earth safely.

One of the most famous balloon ascents was
that made by Glaisher and Coxwell on 5 Sept.
1862, its avowed object being to ascend to as
great a height as possible. The balloon left the
ground at 1.03 p.m. and at 1.49 it had attained
an altitude of no less than five miles. The
temperature then observed was 2° F., the tem-
perature at the earth's surface being 59° F.
Mr. Glaisher's own account is as follows :

Up to this time I had taken observations with com-
fort. I had experienced no difficulty in breathing, wliile
jMr. Coxwell, in consequence of the necessary exertions
he had to make, had breathed with difficulty for some
time. At 1.5 1 the barometer reading was 10.80 inches
... I could not see the column of mercury in the wet-
bulb thermometer; nor afterward the hands of the
watch, nor the fine divisions on any instrument. I
asked Mr. Coxwell to help me read the instruments, as
I experienced a difficulty in seeing. In consequence,
however, of the rotatory motion of the balloon, which
had continued without ceasing since the earth had been
left, the valve-line had become twisted, and he had to
leave the car and mount into the ring above to adjust
it. At this time I looked at the barometer and found
it to read 9^4 inches, implying a height of 29,000 feet,
and it was still falling fast. Shortly afterward I laid
my arm upon the table, possessed of its full vigor, and
on being desirous of using it I found it powerless. I
tried to move the other arm and found it powerless
also. I then tried to shake myself and succeeded in
shaking my body. I seemd to have no limbs. I then
looked at the barometer, and while doing so my head
fell on my left shoulder. I struggled and shook my
body again, but could not move my arms. I got my
head upright, but for an instant only, when it fell on
my riglit shoulder, and then I fell backward, my back
resting against the back of the car, and my head on
its edge; in this position my eyes were directed toward
Mr. Coxwell in the ring. When I shook my body I
seemed to have full power over the muscles of the
back, and considerable power over those of the neck,
but none over either my arms or my legs; in fact, I
seemed to have no arms or legs. As in the case of the
arms, all muscular power was lost in an instant from
my back and neck. I dimly saw Mr. Coxwell in the
ring and endeavored to speak, but could not;
and in another instant intense black darkness came; the
optic nerve finally lost power suddenly. I was still
conscious, with as active a brain as at the present
moment while writing this. I thought I had been
seized with asphyxia, and that I should experience no
more, as death would come unless we speedily de-
scended ; other tho'.ights were actively entering my
mind when I suddenly became unconscious as on going
to sleep. I cannot tell anything of the sense of
hearing; the perfect stillness and silence of the regions
six miles from the earth (and at this time we were
between six and seven miles high) is such that no
sound reaches the ear. My last observations were
made at 1.54, at 29,000 feet. I suppose two or three
minutes, fully, were occupied between my eyes becom-
ing insensible to seeing fine divisions and 1.54, and
then that two or three minutes more passed till I was
insensible; therefore I think this took place at about
1.56 or 1.57. While powerless I heard the words
"temperature" and "observation," and I knew Mr.
Coxwell was in the car speaking to me and endeavor-
ing to arouse me; therefore consciousness and hearing
had returned. I then heard him speak more em-
phatically, but I could not see, speak, or move. I
heard him again say, "Do try — now do." Then I saw
the instruments dimly, then Mr. Coxwell; and very
shortly I saw clearly. I rose in my seat and looked
around, as though waking from sleep but not refreshed
by sleep, and said to Mr. Coxwell, "I have been
insensible." He said, "You have; and I too, very
nearly." I then drew up my legs, which had been
extended before me, and took a pencil in my hands
to begin observations. _ Mr. Coxwell told me that he
had lost the use of his hands, which were black, and
I poured brandy over them. I resumed my observa-
tions at 2.07, recording the barometer reading at 11. 2S
inches and temperature — 2° F. I supposed that three
or four minutes were occupied from the time of my
hearing the words " temperature " and " observation "
till I began to observe. If so, then returning con-
sciousness came at 2.04, and this gives seven minutes
for total insensibility. Mr. Coxwell told me that
while in the ring he felt it piercingly cold; that hoar
frost was all around the neck of the balloon; that on
attempting to leave the ring he found his hands
frozen, so that he had to place his arms on the ring

BALLOON

and drop down; that he thought for a moment I had
lain back to rest myself; that he spoke to me without
eliciting a reply; that he then noticed my legs pro-
jected and my arms hung down by my side; that my
countenance was serene and placid, without the earnest-
ness and anxiety he had noticed Ijefore going into
the ring, and then it struck him I was insensible. He
wished to approach me, but could not, and he felt in-
sensibility coming over himself; that he became anxious
to open the valve, but in consequence of his having
lost the use of his hands he could not, and ulti-
mately did so by seizing the cord with his teeth and
dipping his heaci two or three times until the balloon
took a decided turn downward. Xo inconvenience
followed this insensibility, and when we dropped it
was in a country where no conveyance of any kind
could be obtained, so that I had to walk between
seven and eight miles. The descent was at first
very rapid; we passed downward three miles in nine
minutes; the balloon's career was then checked, and
it finally descended in the centre of a large grass
field at Cold Weston.

Another extremely high ascension was made
on 4 Dec. 1894, by Prof. Berson, from Berlin.
Germany. His last reading showed a barometric
height of 9.12 inches, and a temperature of
— 54° F. The temperature at the surface of the
earth was 2)7° F-) ^"d the barometric height
30.02 inches. The calculated height attained
was 28.750 feet.

The balloon, strictly speaking, is not a flying-
machine, nor is it ordinarily under control, so
far as its horizontal direction is concerned. It
moves with the wind, and (to the aeronaut) is
in a calm at all times. The first step in advance
of the drifting balloon is to be found in one
fitted with soine form of propelling machinery,
by which the movement is controlled and the
balloon navigated and made to move to a cer-
tain extent independently of the direction and
velocity of the wind. The difficulties lying in
the w-^y of a satisfactory solution of the prob-
lem of controlling the motion of a balloon are
very great. The bulk of the balloon is neces-
sarily vast, and a correspondingly large area is
exposed to the action of the wind. Also, the
motor that is used must combine great power
with extreme lightness.

In working this problem out, France has
maintained the lead that her early experiments
gave her. A regular balloon corps is attached
to the army, both in France and in Germany ;
and for many years special attention has been
directed to the design and construction of
■dirigible balloons. The details of the mechan-
isms employed, as well as of the exact con-
tour of the gas envelope, are guarded as mili-
tary secrets, but enough is known about them
to give a general idea of what has been done.
Attention was first publicly directed to the suc-
cess attained with the dirigible balloons of the
French army in 1893, by an article in the Me-
vioircs dc la Socicte des [nffcnirttrs Civils. The
true progenitor of the dirigible balloon was Gen.
Meusnier, who, in a series of papers published
in 1783, set forth a scheme for a balloon of this
sort. It was not until 1852, however, that
Henri Giffard made a rational attempt to con-
struct one. His balloon was spindle-shaped
and measured about 144 feet from point to point.
His motor was, however, too weak to permit
of making any headway against even a moderate
breeze, though the balloon could be steered and
made to describe circles while drifting. His
general form of envelope-construction has been
followed by all experimenters since that time.

In 1870 M. Dupuy de Lome undertook the
task of constructing a dirigible balloon. The
propeller used was two-armed, 19 feet 8 inches

in diameter and was turned by eight men. The
spindle shape was used for the envelope. A
trial was made at Vincennes in 1S72, where in
a breeze of 39 feet per second a deviation of
12° was obtained. The .stability was perfect
despite the exertions of the eight men at the
crab ; still the balloon was a drifting one, and
was dirigible only in the sense that it could be
made to deviate to a slight extent from the true
course of the wind. To an outside observer
the problem seemed as far from solution as
ever ; but when taking into consideration the
insufficiency of the motor, the committee ap-
pointed to be present at the trial said: "It
serves as a starting-point for all who wish to
continue in this direction.^*

Others have endeavored to continue the im-
provement, and the first to achieve resuhs that
even approached success was M. Gaston Tis-
sandier, who, with his brother Albert, in 1884,
constructed a balloon that was fitted with a
Siemens motor driven by a bichromate of soda
battery, very ingeniously arranged so as to min-
imize the weight and at the same time produce
the greatest possible effect. The motor weighed
121 pounds and the cells weighed 496 pounds,
and contained liquid enough to work for
2^4 hours, generating during that interval
lYi horse-power. The screw had two arms
and was a little over nine feet in diame-
ter. Several ascensions were made with this
balloon. In one, undertaken in 1884, the motor
developed lYz horse-power and was sufficient
to propel the structure through the air at a rate
of 13 feet per second. After having practically
followed the direction of the wind, which had a
velocity of about 10 feet per second, during which
the rudder turned it aside a little, the balloon
was made to describe a semi-circle, and brought
up with its head into the wind, where it was
navigated for about 10 minutes directly above
Grenelle, and the same evolution was repeated
above the observatory. Through the exhaustion
of the battery it became impossible to return to
Paris. These experiments were quickly fol-
lowed by the work of Commandant Renard of
the French balloon corps. With a spindle-
shaped balloon, but with a more powerful motor,
and the screw placed at the front instead of at
the rear, he succeeded in making several ascents
and returning to the point of departure. The
motor developed 8.5 horse-power, with a weight
of 220.5 pounds. In an ascension made on 2^
Sept. 1885, the balloon started from Chalais-
Meudon against the wind, and went to Paris,
where it was easily handled, afterward return-
ing to Chalais.

This work has been continued by the French
balloon corps until now the army is pos-
sessed of a dirigible balloon that may be
considered controllable in light airs. The
problem has not been left solely to the mili-
tary departments of the several nations of the
the earth for solution, however, for private in-
vestigators have been constantly at work upon
it. In 1901 a young Brazilian named Santos
Dumont made a series of brilliant experiments
in France, constructing several balloons, one
after another, each being an improvement on
its predecessor. In striving for a prize of
$20,000 offered by M. Deutsch for the first dirigi-
ble balloon that should start from the Pare d'
.Aerostation at St. Cloud and be sailed around
the Eiffel Tower in Paris and brought back to

BALLOON VINE; BALLOT

the starting-point in thirty minutes, Santos Du-
mont succeeded in covering the ground in but
40 seconds above the stipulated time. The total
distance is a little less than nine miles. This
balloon (his sixth) had a length of 108 feet
and a diameter of 19 feet 6 inches, and was
driven bj' a 4-cylinder petroleum motor weigh-
ing 216 pounds and developing 20 horse-power.
The screw was a little more than 13 feet in
diameter, and was turned at a speed of 300 rev-
olutions per minute. Instead of the old-fash-
ioned network, the basket and machinery were
suspended directly from the envelope by strong
piano wire. Japanese silk was used for the en-
velope itself, and was made impervious to the
gas by four coats of linseed oil. See also
Aerial Locomotion ; Flying-machine.

Balloon Vine (Cardiospeniium Helicaca-
butn), a tropical American and East Indian
climbing annual herb of the natural order Sapin-
dacece, with racemes of small white flowers fol-
lowed by bladder-like seed-vessels from which
the plant is named. It is a general favorite of
easy garden culture.

Ballot ("little balP') : essentially, a secret
as distinguished from an open vote, to secure the
voter from previous intimidation or subsequent
revenge. Recent methods of ballot-reform,
therefore, are only devices to obtain the re-
sult inherent in its very nature, a non-secret
ballot being a contradiction in terms and
the same as viva voce voting. The various
forms of ballot reduce to two in essence: bal-
lots themselves indicating choice, — as colored
balls, printed tickets, or mechanical devices
showing names, — and depositories indicating the
choice. The former is universal in modern
times and most general in ancient.

The ballot must be nearly as old as the prac-
tice of voting by unprotected bodies of citizens ;
but our first knowledge of it is in classic
Greece, where the dikasfs (popular courts and
juries) voted "yes" or "no" by balls of stone or
metal (white or unpierced meaning acquittal,
black or pierced indicating condemnation), by
marked shells (ostrakoi, whence "ostracism" or
banishment of an unpopular leader), or by olive
leaves ("petalism"). In the assemblies the
common voting was by show of hands, to se-
cure public responsibility ; in cases of privilege
or ostracism it was by ballot. In Rome the first
ballot law (though far from the first balloting)
was the Gabinian, 139 b.c.^ and the machinery is
Very modern : tabellce, or tickets, with candi-
dates' names, or "yes^' and "no" ballots for
changes in the laws ; boxes, inspectors, and
check-lists ; but in case of a tie the candidates
drew lots. In the mediaeval republics the ballot
was a regular machinery ; but it has been bitterly
fought and slow of introduction in all non-
republican countries, the governments and the
privileged classes being loth to weaken their
power of dragooning their officials or the lower
classes into obedience. In Scotland it was used
in 1662 under the name of "billeting,* to banish
political opponents (ostracism) ; but the Eng-
lish government disallowed the act. In England
it was first put forward to protect members of
parliament against government revenge for vot-
ing against its bills, not the electors against
the classes which furnished the members of
parliament; in 1710 the House of Commons
passed a ballot law, but the Lords threw it out.

In the modern world the American colonies
of England were by far the first to make the
ballot (voting "by papers") the foundation of
the governmental system : they used it from the
first, and it was made obligatory in several of
the State constitutions adopted in 1776. New
York, with its great landed aristocracy, was
slower, using it only for the governor and lieu-
tenant-governor in 1778, and not extending it
to the legislature till 1787. The southern States
held to the viva voce system for many years
after, and Kentucky till 1891, its constitution
providing for it, though the United States stat-
utes compelled it to use written or printed bal-
lots for Congressional elections. All the State
constitutions now provide for elections by bal-
lot

In Great Britain it was not only fought by
the privileged classes as overthrowing their lead-
ership of the tenants and artisans, but by a large
part even of the Liberals as undermining th**
manliness of the English character. The van-
guard of the movement were the Benthamites,
and it stood foremost in the programme of re-
form put forward by the more radical Whigs
early in the 19th century. It was in the first
draft of the Reform Bill of 1832; in 1833
Grote the historian introduced it, and repeated
the attempt every year till 1839 with a fresh
speech of immense force and learning. It was
supported by Macaulay with his usual effective-
ness, but was sneered at by so good a Liberal
as Sydney Smith, and heartily supported by none
but the Chartists, whose support alone would
have killed it. They made it one of the "six
points" of their "People's Charter." In 18.SI
it was carried in the Commons by 51 majority
against Lord John Russell and his Liberal gov-
ernment, but went no further. In 1869 it was
tried at Manchester as a test, and worked well ;
was adopted at school-board elections in 1870;
and the same year a select committee of the
House, headed by Lord Hartington, reported in
its favor as a means of lessening corruption,
"treating," and intimidation. In 1872 Mr. W.
E. Forster's ballot act made printed ballots com-
pulsory at all national and municipal elections
except those of university candidates for parlia-
ment. This put an end to the drunken riots at-
tending the previous public nominations at the
hustings, so keenly satirized by Dickens and
others.

In France, Spain, Belgium, Switzerland, and
Cisleithan Austria the ballot is now used ; in
Hungary it was formerly employed in all elec-
tions, but in 1874 was restricted to municipal
councils.

The interest of governments and privileged
classes in aristocratic countries to defeat the se-
crecy of the ballot is replaced in democratic
ones, of which the United States is chief, by the
interest of party managers, who wish either to
prevent independent voting through fear of loss
of employment or favor, or to make sure of
purchased votes being given as promised ; they
have therefore devised various methods of
evading the nominal secrecy of the vote, such
as ordering the voter to write his name or some
understood sign on the ballot before depositing
it, holding it in sight of the party watcher while
casting it, having a "friend" accompany him to
the polls on pretense of his illiteracy and inabil-
ity to go through the legal forms without help,
etc. These enforce as constant a struggle from

BALLOU

the guardians of political honesty to circumvent
them : the first has been stopped by throwing out
as illegal all ballots with distinguishing marks
on them ; the second by compelling them to be
cast in sealed official envelopes , and by forbid-
ding any but the official registrars to come with-
in a certain distance of the polls for any purpose
but to vote, and later by providing booths in
which each voter prepares his ballot in privacy ;
the third is practically confined to certain States
and cities with a large percentage of real illit-
eracy under which the feigned article can cover
itself and cannot well be directly reached by
law, but on'iy by the vigilance of each party in
exposing the fraudulent practices of the other.
The ballot itself also has brought in many
frauds for which the viva voce system gave no
opportunity, which are reducible to three kinds :
(i) counterfeiting, either by printing the name
of one party over the candidates of another, or
by substituting one or more names on the oppo-
site party's ticket; (2) ^'stuffing" the ballot-box
by folding two or more ballots, all but one being
sometimes of tissue paper, to look like one; (2)
^'repeating,'' one man voting at different polling-
places more than once or at the same one
under different names. The first must be de-
feated bj' partj^ vigilance ; the second is used
only where one party has the control of ballot
inspection, though the law usually provides that
both the chief parties shall have a share in this ;
the third and second are punishable by law.

Another evil, as diminishing individual re-
sponsibility for votes and building up unprin-
cipled and corruot party dominance, though not
direct fraud like the others, is the "party ballot."
This is due to the great multiplication of candi-
dates to be voted for at one time, and the
consequent cost of printing and distributing the
ballots to voters, which has led to the aban-
donment of the candidates themselves doing this
work, and the forming of party organizations
for it, which, in return for their efforts insist on
subservience and are apt to have slight scruples
about gaining their ends. All these evils to-
gether — the misuse of ballot methods to per-
vert their intent, the only partial secrecy, and
the supremacy of party in the voting — have
latterly built up a great body of opinion that
some better methods should be devised, the gen-
eral movement being known as "ballot reform.®

The party ballot has in many States been
set aside by some form of the so-called "Aus-
tralian ballot** (from its first use in South Aus-
tralia), or oflficial ballot, furnished by the State.
The essential feature of the plan is that all
candidates in the field for any office shall be
placed on one ballot, and the voter compelled
to indicate his preference by a mark against
one ; thus forcing him to think personally con-
cerning each one, inviting to independence of
judgment, breaking down the tyranny of the
party vote, and putting some intelligence into
the "brute vote *^ even though the name of the
party of each candidate is added. The first
States to adopt the system were Massachusetts
for the whole State, and Kentucky for Louisville,
in 1888; and in 1895 every State in the Union
except Georgia, Louisiana, ^nd North and South
Carolina had adopted some modification of the
system. But the modifications were important;
they were due to struggles of the local party
organizations for one of two objects, or both, —
to defeat the secrecy of the new regime and keep

track of the purchased votes, or to prevent
"scratching** and ensure that their voters should
cast "straight tickets*' ; in other words, to
emasculate the system of its vital principle.
The ideal and typical form is the "blanket bal-
lot,** wherein all candidates are given in the
alphabetical order of the offices without regard
to party; but this is strongly opposed on the
nominal ground that the illiterate voters, and a
large part of those not technically such, do not
wisTi to vote an>i:hing but the straight party
ticket, and should not be hindered in their
choice, much less deprived of it. In concession
to this useful element of citizenship, most of the
States group the names and offices by parties.
In general there is a blanket ballot with all
parties on it, but each party given a column
by itself, with some conspicuous device, like an
eagle or a star, at its head, which the illiterate
can be taught to recognize; the voter, in order to
vote the straight ticket, making a cross in the
circle under the emblem, while for a scattered
or split vote he makes the cross in the space
before the desired name. In New York and
New Jersey this is carried further still, each
party having a separate ticket and pasters being
allowed ; which is in fact the old-fashioned
sort, the modifications having taken all the dis-
tinctive features out of the system, except the
State supply.

A newer feature of ballot reforrn is the sub-
stitution for the ballot paper, which is folded and
deposited by hand, of voting-machines, which
are contrivances that both record the votes and
count them, enabling the inspectors to see at
any moment how many votes have been cast,
and for whom. Several States have authorized
the use of machines, and others are consider-
ing the matter. Three varieties of the voting-
machine have been legally sanctioned: (i) The
Myers, in which the single ballot is placed in a
frame having a push-knob for each candidate,
the voter indicating his choice by pushing the
knob opposite his candidate's name, when the
machine indicates the vote on a dial at the back
of the frame, and locks the knobs of all other
candidates for the same office (before a second
voter is ready, all knobs are unlocked) ; (2)
the McTammany, which contains on its face a
slot for each office, beneath which is a card
bearing the names of the candidates for the
office seen through the slot, the voter's choice
being indicated by turning a wheel till the name
of his candidate appears, when he pushes a
knob which punctures the tally-sheet; and (3)
the Rhines, in which the names are arranged as
in the Myers, by parties and offices. Slip names
are inserted in the push buttons; and separate
tally-sheets for each candidate, with vertical
serial numbers, are placed beneath the face, the
voter pushing a button which places a punch
in such a position for each name that when the
lid of the machine is closed the next number on
each tally-sheet is punctured. See United
St.\tes, Beginnings of P.\rty Organiz.\tion

IN THE.

Ballou', Hosea, American clergyman and
author: b. Richmond. N. H., 30 April 1771 ; d.
Boston, Mass., 7 June 1852. His boyhood was
spent in the greatest poverty, but at 21 he
began to preach, having adopted the Universalist
doctrines. He was successively pastor of con-
gregations in Dana, Mass. ; Barnard, Vt. ; Ports-

BALLOU — BALMEZ

mouth. N. H., and Boston, Mass., in which lat-
ter place he held his pastorate for more than
35 years. He founded the ^Universalist Maga-
zine,^ subsequently called ^The Universalist
Expositor,' and again the <Universalist Quar-
terly Review.' A voluminous writer, his chief
works are: <Notes on the Parables' (1804);
'Lecture Sermons' (1831); ^Examination of
the Doctrine of Future Retribution' (1834), his
most important contribution to theological lit-
erature. His published works would make more
than a hundred i2mo volumes.

Ballou', Maturin Murray, American jour-
nalist, son of Hosea Ballou : b. Boston, 14 April
1820; d. 27 March 1895. Besides editing <Bal-
lou's Pictorial,' 'The Flag of Our Union.' 'Bal-
lou's Monthly,' etc., and making a valuable com-
pilation of quotations, he wrote 'History of
Cuba' (1854) ; 'Biography of Hosea Ballou,'
<Life Work of Hosea Ballou.' Becoming in la-
ter life an extensive traveler, he wrote a num-
ber of books of travel, including *Due West,'
'Due South' (1885) ; 'Due North,' 'Under the
Southern Cross,' 'Footprints of Travel,' etc.
In 1872 he became one of the founders and the
editor-in-chief of the Boston Globe.

Ball's Bluff, Va., a point on the Potomac
River, about 33 miles above Washington, where
the bank rises about 150 feet above the level of
the river. It is noted as the scene of a battle
between a Union force under Col. Edward D.
Baker, and a Confederate force under the com-
mand of Gen. Evans, 21 Oct. 1861. The battle
resulted in the serious defeat of the Union force
and the instantaneous death of Col. Baker.

Ballston Spa, N. Y., county-seat of Sara-
toga County, on the Delaware & Hudson R.R.,
seven miles south of Saratoga Springs. It is
noted for its mineral springs, which rank
among the best acidulous chalybeate springs
in the country, and was formerly a popular sum-
mer resort, but is now most important for its
manufactories, which include one of the largest
tanneries in the world ; extensive pulp and paper
mills, and agricultural implement factories. It
has two national banks, several churches, public
high school, and daily and weekly newspapers.
Pop. (1900) 3,923.

Ballyme'na, a market town in County An-
trim, Ireland, on the River Braid, 25 miles
northwest of Carrickfergus. It has a cotton-
spinning mill, a distillery, numerous bleaching-
grounds, a church, chapels, large public schools,
several branch banks, and a United States con-
sular agency. Pop. (1900) g,ooo.

Balm (Melissa officinalis), a perennial herb
of the natural order Labiatcc, native of southern
Europe, cultivated for culinary use and found
wild as an escape in many countries. It at-
tains a height of about 18 inches, is much
branched, has ovate leaves and whorls of white
or yellowish axillary flowers rich in nectar, for
which the plant is sometimes cultivated as bee-
forage. Its foliage, which has a lemon-like
odor and slightly aromatic taste, is used to fla-
vor wine and to a small extent in domestic medi-
cine. Some other members of the Labiata are
called balm — for instance : Bastard balm {Me-
httis melissophylhitn), a handsome member of
the same family, often dried for its long-endur-
ing fragrance. Moldavian balm (Dracocepha-
ium moldavica) , a Siberian annual of less pleas-

ant qualities than true balm, largely used in
Germany for flavoring. Horse balm (Collin-
sonia canadensis) and tea balm {Monarda didy-
ma) are American species of little importance.
A variety of catnip {Nepeta cataria) so closely
resembles true balm as often to be mistaken for
it. For cultivation see Herbs {Culinary).

Balm of Gilead, a liquid resinous balsam
highly reputed in the East since Bible times for
its fragrance and supposed medicinal properties,
believed to be derived from Cominipliora opo-
balsanium, a small Abyssinian and Arabian tree.
Balm of Mecca, or opobalsam, is a specially high
grade of balm of Gilead obtained from incisions
in the bark. The wood and fruit are boiled to
obtain the inferior grades. The balm of Gilead
of the United States is a variety of poplar (Pop-
ulus balsannfera, var. candicans). See Poplar.

Balmaceda, bal-ma-sa'da, Jose Manuel,
Chilean statesman: b. Santiago, 1840; d. 18 Sept.
1891. He was educated at the Seminario Con-
ciliar in Santiago ; early became noted as an ora-
tor, urging radical reforms in the Constitution
of 1833 ; and was a founder of the Reform
Club in 1868. As deputy for five terms. 1870-
85, he urged the separation of Church and State
and became the leader of the Progressives. He
was Chilean minister at Buenos Ayres in the
early part of the Chile-Peru war, 1879-83, and
secured the neutrality of Argentina. In 1882
he was made minister of the interior, and intro-
duced liberalizing bills, as for civil marriage,
etc. In 1885 he was elected senator and ap-
pointed minister of foreign aflfairs. Elected
president in 1886, he carried out large schemes
of reform and democratization ; popular educa-
tion was extended, civil marriage carried in
1888, railroads and other internal improvements
forwarded. But both his measures and men in-
volved war against the clerico-oligarchy which
not only ruled the state but monopolized the
offices, and comprised the bulk of the property
and influence ; and when he tried to prevent the
ruin of his work by "influencing" the election of
a like successor, his opponents blocked the ad-
ministration. He appointed a ministry of his
own stripe and dissolved Congress, virtually
making himself dictator ; but the Congressional-
ists, having the naval officers on their side, be-
gan war 7 Jan. 1891, secured the nitrate prov-
inces, and, using their revenues to buy the
best arms and munitions, utterly routed Balma-
ceda's. forces in a decisive battle near Valparai-
so, 7 August. He took refuge in the Argentine
legation at Santiago, and committed suicide there
a few weeks later.

Balme, bam. Col de, an Alpine pass, form-
ing the boundary between Savoy and the Valais,
7.218 feet above sea-level. It is much visited,
and has a travelers' refuge.

Balmerino, bal-mer-e'no, Arthur Elphin-
stone, Lord, Scottish Jacobite: b. 1688; d. 1746.
He took part in the rebellion of 1715, and fought
at Sheriffmuir. Having joined the Young Pre-
tender in 1745, he was taken prisoner at Cullo-
den, tried at Westminster, found guilty and
beheaded. His title was from Balmerino, in
Fife,

Balmez, bal'meth, or Balmes, bal'mes,
Jaime Luciano, Spanish priest and author: b.
Catalonia, 28 Aug. 1810: d. 9 July 1848, His
works include 'Protestantism Compared with

BALMORAL — BALSAMS

Catholicism in Its Relation to European Civili-
zation^ (3 vols. 1848) ; ^Filosofia Fundamental/
* Letters to a Sceptic*

Balmoral (bal-mor'al) Castle, the favorite
Highland residence of the late Queen Victoria,
beautifully situated on the south bank of the
Dee, 48 miles west of Aberdeen, and in the
county of the same name. The site on which it
stands is almost completely hemmed in by ma-
jestic mountains, and the views from the castle
are magnificent. Balmoral was originally a
shooting-lodge of the Earl of Fife, but was
leased to, and greatly enlarged by. a brother of
the Earl of Aberdeen, and in 1848 the reversion
of the lease was purchased by Prince Albert.
The accommodation furnished by the old build-
ing was very inadequate, and accordingly, the
property having been purchased in 1852, the
present mansion was erected shortly afterward.
It underwent some enlargement in 1888. It is
tuilt of gray granite, in the Scottish baronial
style, and has a massive and imposing appear-
ance in the distance. It consists of two blocks
connected by wings, and has a massive tower 80
feet high, with a turret of 20 feet high. The
estate, which was the queen's private property,
comprises some 40,000 acres, three fourths being
deer-forest.

Balnaves, bal-nav'es, Henry, Scottish re-
former: b. Kirkcaldy, 1520; d. 1579. He was
educated at St. Andrews, and though at first
a Roman Catholic he became a Protestant and
made open profession of his faith in 1542; join-
ing the English against Gov. Arran. He was
accused of connection with the conspiracy to
murder Cardinal Beaton, and was declared a
traitor and excommunicated. In 1547 he was
one of the prisoners taken in the Castle of St.
Andrews and exiled to France, where he wrote
his 'Confession of Faith. ^ Recalled in 1559,
he busily engaged in the establishment of the
reformed faith, assisted in revising the 'Book
of Discipline.^ and accompanied Murray to Eng-
land in connection with Darnley's murder.

Balneorogy. See Baths ; Hydropathy ;
Hydrotherapy.

Balolo, ba-l6'l6, a large Bantu nation in
the Equatorial Province of the Congo Free
State, inhabiting the forests on the banks of
the Chuapa, Bussera, and Lomami. Its settle-
ments are interspersed with the villages of the
Batwa dwarfs. The principal tribes of the Ba-
lolo are the Boruki, Bangombe, Dulingo, Im-
balla, and Kimoma. Agriculture exists among
them to a certain extent, but they follow no
pastoral pursuits. According to V. Frangois all
Balolo tribes are addicted to cannibalism. The
territories inhabited by the Balolo belong to the
most promising of Equatorial Africa, especially
as the climate is more favorable to Europeans
than it is in many other parts of the Congo
Free State.

Balsa, bal'sa, a kind of raft or float, of the
nature of a catamaran (q.v.), used on the coasts
and rivers of Peru and other parts of South
America for fishing, for landing goods and
passengers through a heavy surf, and for other
purposes where buoj'ancy is chiefly wanted. It
is sometimes formed of two inflated hides con-
nected by a sort of platform on which the fish-
erman, passengers, or goods are placed ; and
sometimes of a very light wood.

Balsam {Impatiens balsamina) , an East In-
dian herb of the natural order Gcraniaccce, cul-
tivated in gardens for more than 300 years.
The plant is an erect free-branching annual
sometimes 30 inches tall ; bears axillary, diverse-
ly tinted yellow, white, or red single or often
double flowers, the latter of which are called
camellia-flowered varieties. The plant is a gen-
eral favorite of easiest culture.

Balsamo, Joseph. See Cagliostro.

Balsamodendron, bal-sa-mo-den'dron, a
genus of trees or bushes of the order Amyrida-
ccce, species of which yield such balsamic or res-
inous substances as balm of Gilead, bdellium,
myrrh, etc. See Balsam.

Balsams, mixtures of resins in volatile
oils, the term, however, being popularly applied
to any aromatic compound with volatile oils.
Balsams are very widely distributed through-
out the plant kingdom. They are particularly
abundant in the members of the pine family.
The araucarias yield a copal that is almost a
pure resin ; many species of pine yield turpentine
and resin; Canada balsam is derived from Abies
balsamea; the balsam-like sandarach is from a
cypress. The Hamamelis family gives balsam
of styrax, and balsam of copaiba is derived from
a large number of the legumes and from the
Dipterocarpecc. Styrax benzoin is from the Sto-
rax family. The resins and balsams of com-
merce are very closely allied. They may be di-
vided into three groups: gum resins, such as
asafoetida and ammoniacum ; balsams, and resins,
such as turpentine, resin, copaiba, mastic, elemi,
copal, dammar, and sandarach ; and the balsams
and resins that contain cinnamic or benzoic acids,
from which they derive their aromatic odor.
It is to this latter group that the word balsam is
popularly applied. These are balsam of toiu,
balsam of Peru, storax, benzoin, dragon's-blood
and xanthorrhea resin.

These various bodies are for the most part
secreted in special passages in the plants. Some-
times they are formed in the leaves, but for the
most part the resinous solution collects in soe-
cially designed portions of the stem, usuallv in
the woody portion. It is obtained in a variety
of ways from simple incision to boiling chips
of the wood with water.

In medicine most of these bodies are active.
They are energetic oxidizers, — hence the tradi-
tions about ozone and pure air in pine-clad hills,
— and several of the hydrocarbons in the vola-
tile oils are stimulating to the skin and mucous
membranes, turpentine being an excellent exam-
ple. It is an excellent external antiseptic, and
manifests similar properties on the respiratory,
intestinal, and genito-urinary tracts. Those res-
inous or balsamic mixtures containing cinnamic
and benzoic acids — notably balsam of tolu
(from Toluifera pereircc) and balsam of Peru
(from Toluifera balsamum) possess similar an-
tiseptic and stimulating properties. They are
more powerful in proportion to the aromatic
acids contained. Balsam of storax is derived
from a tree, Liquidainbar styraciflua. It has
similar properties to the balsam of Peru.

The chrism (see Sacramexts) used for con-
secration and sacramental services should be
made of balsam from Syria or Mecca ; when this
is difficult to obtain, balsams from Brazil or
Peru may be used.

BALTA — BALTIC SEA

Balta, bal'ta, Jose, Peruvian statesman: b.
Lima, 1816; d. 26 July 1872. He retired from
the army with the rank of colonel in 1855 ; was
minister of war in 1865 ; one of the leaders in
the insurrection which overthrew the unconsti-
tutional president, Prado, in 1868; and was
president of Peru, 1868-72. He was murdered
in a military mutiny in Lima.

Balta, a town of Russian Poland, on the
Kodema, one of the tributaries of the Bug, in
the government of Podolia, 132 miles east-south-
east of Kamieniec. Pop. about 32,000.

Baltard, bal-tar, Louis Pierre, French
architect and engraver : b. Paris, 9 July 1765 ; d.
22 Jan. 1846. He was appointed architect of the
Pantheon and of the Paris prisons, and de-
signed the chapels of the houses of detention of
St. Lazare and St. Pelagic. The great hall of
justice in Lyons, founded in 1834, was devised
and almost completed by him. He also acquired
fame as an engraver and as the author of many
superb works descriptive of monuments and
illustrated by his own plates. Among his most
notable works in this line are ^ Paris and Its
Monuments' ; *^La Colonne de la Grande Ar-
mee' ; and illustrations in Denon's ^Egypt.-*

Baltard, Victor, French architect: b. Paris,
19 June 1805 ; d. 14 Jan. 1874. He was son of
Louis Pierre Baltard, and became government
architect of France and a member of the Acad-
emy of Fine Arts. He built the church of St.
Augustine and other beautiful edifices, and was
author of *^ Monographic de la Villa Medius^
(1847), etc.

Balthazar, bal-tha'zar, (i) one of the wise
men of the East who came to worship
Jesus at Bethlehem. (2) A character in Eich-
berg's opera, ^The Doctor of Alcantara.' (3)
Chaucer's name for Belshazzar in ^'The Monk's
Tale." (4) The name assumed by Portia in
Shakespeare's *^ Merchant of Venice' ; also the
name of minor characters in several of Shake-
speare's plays.

Baltic (bal'tic) and North Sea Canal, or
Kaiser Wilheim Canal. See Canals.

Baltic, Battle of the, a poem by Thomas

Campbell, celebrating the victory of Lord Nel-
son over the Danish fleet, 2 April 1801. In his-
tory this action is generally known as the battle
of Copenhagen.

Baltic Lake Plateau, a low plateau extend-
ing from East Prussia to Schleswig-Holstein
and Jutland, parallel to the south coast of the
Baltic Sea; 750 miles long. In its eastern part
the highest points are the Thurmberg, near Dant-
zig (1,086 feet), and the Kernsdorf Mountain
(1,027 feet) ; more to the west, in Mecklenburg
and Schleswig-Holstein, the altitudes decrease
and the elevations become less defined, but even
the last offshoots of the plateau in Schleswig
and Jutland are of importance, as they form the
watershed between the basins of the Baltic and
North Sea. A characteristic feature of the re-
gion is the large number of lakes and ponds,
some with very irregular outlines, others occupy-
mg wide basins or narrow river-like channels.
The largest of these lakes are the Miiritz-See
(93 square miles) in Mecklenburg, and the Spir-
ding-See (46 square miles) in East Prussia.
Many of these lakes (mostly very small) in the
eastern section (Pomerania and West Prussia)
are without visible outlet. According to the

most recent investigations the lake basins date
from the glacial period, when a massive sheet of
ice covered North Germany, the ridges and
hollows of this plateau being due to the action of
the ice.

Baltic Provinces (in Russia), a term gen-
erally given to the five Russian govern-
ments bordering on the Baltic, namely,
Courland, Livonia, Esthonia, Petersburg, and
Finland ; in a restricted sense it often
designates the first three. The Baltic prov-
inces once belonged to Sweden, except
Courland, which was a dependency of Poland.
They came into the possession of Russia partly
in the beginning of the i8th century, through
the conquests of Peter the Great, partly under
Alexander in 1809. No pains have been spared
to Russianize them, and since 1876-7 they have
lost their remaining privileges and been thor-
oughly incorporated in the Russian empire.
They form, however, a borderland between the
Germanic and Slavonic areas, and have been a
frequent cause of difficulty between Germany
and Russia. The bulk of the population is
composed of Esths and Letts ; the Germans
number above 200,000, the Russians only 65,000.
The five provinces combined have an area of
191,526 square miles, and a population (1897)
of 7,015,126.

Baltic Sea, an inlet or gulf of the North
Sea, with which it is connected by the Skager-
rack and Kattegat. It washes the coasts of
Denmark, Germany, Courland, Livonia, and
other parts of Russia and of Sweden, and ex-
tends to lat. 65° 30' N. It is nearly 900 miles
long, from 40 to 200 broad, and its superficial
extent, together with the contents of the gulfs
of Bothnia and Finland, amounts to 160,000
square miles. Its small breadth; its depth,
amounting on an average to from 40 to 50 fath-
oms, but in many places hardly half so much ;
its shallowness toward the Prussian shores,
and the rugged nature of the Swedish coasts;
but above all, the sudden and frequent changes
of the wind, accompanied by violent storms, ren-
der this sea dangerous for navigators, although
its waves are less powerful than those of the
North Sea. A chain of islands separates the
southern part from the northern, or the Gulf of
Bothnia. In the northeast the Gulf of Fin-
land stretches eastward and separates the prov-
ince of Finland from Esthonia. A third gulf
is that of Riga or Livonia. The Kurisches Haff
and the Frisches Haff are inlets or lagoons on
the Prussian coast. The water of the Baltic is
colder and clearer than that of the ocean ; it
contains a smaller proportion of salt, and ice
obstructs the navigation three or four months
in the year. The ebb and flow of the tide are
inconsiderable, as is the case in other inland
seas, the difference between high-water and low-
water mark being only about a foot ; yet the
water rises and falls from time to time, prob-
ably owing to the varying rainfall and evapora-
tion. In stormy weather amber is often found
on the coasts of Prussia and Courland, which
the waves wash upon the shore. Many streams
empty themselves into the Baltic ; among them
are the Neva, Dwina, Oder, Vistula, Niemen,
and a number of Swedish rivers. Between the
Kattegat and Baltic are the large Danish is-
lands Zealand and Funen : others in the sea it-
self are Samsoe, Moen, Bornholm, Langeland,

BALTIMORE; BALTIMORE FAMILY

Laaland, which belong to Denmark ; the Swedish
islands — Gottland and Oeland (besides Hveen
in the sound, with the ruins of Oranienburg, the
observatory built by Tycho Brahe) ; Riigen, be-
longing to Prussia ; the Aland Islands at the en-
trance of the Gulf of Bothnia, and Dagoe, to-
gether with Oesel, on the coast of Livonia, all
of which belong to Russia. The sound, the
Great and the Little Belt lead from the Katte-
gat into the Baltic. The Baltic and North Sea
are now connected by the great ship canal con-
structed between the Elbe, near its mouth, and
Kiel Bay, and opened in 1895. The canal is a
work of the German government, and is intend-
ed for the use of war-vessels as well as trad-
ing-ships, many of which, bound to or from
Baltic ports, will be able to effect a great sav-
ing by means of this water-way. The chief sea-
ports of the Baltic are St. Petersburg, Kron-
stadt. Riga, Revel, Narva, Libau, in Russia ;
Stockholm, Gefle, Karlskrona, in Sweden;
Memel, Konigsberg, Danzig, Stettin, Liibeck,
and Kiel, in Germany; Copenhagen, in Den-
mark.

Bartimore, Barons of, or Lords Balti-
more. See Baltimore Family.

Baltimore Family, founders and proprie-
tors of Maryland, consists of seven successive
lords of the barony of Baltimore in the Irish
peerage, and a cadet who was governor has
been added.

George Calvert, the first lord: b. 1580, Kip-
ling, near Bolton Castle, Yorkshire; d. 15 April
1632. He graduated from Trinity College, Ox-
ford, 1597; traveled abroad, and after his re-
turn became secretary to Sir Robert Cecil
(afterward Lord Salisbury), clerk of the Crown
in Ireland, 1606, and clerk of the Council, 1608.
He assisted James in his controversial writings,
had charge of the Spanish and Italian corre-
spondence during the secretary of state's ab-
sence in 1613, was on a committee to investigate
Irish Catholic grievances the same year, was
knighted 1617, and in 1619 was made secretary
of state by Buckingham's favor. He repre-
sented Yorkshire jointly with Sir Thomas
Wentworth (afterward Lord Strafford) in the
parliament of 1621, and in the stormy times that
followed was a mediator between Parliament
and king, with the usual fate of being thought
a spy by the one and lukewarm by the other.
The French ambassador styled him an honest,
sensible, well-intentioned man and zealous pa-
triot, and therefore without influence. He had
principal charge of the foreign negotiations
while James was chasing the will-o'-the-wisp of
the Spanish marriage and making England a
nullity in the Thirty Years' war; Calvert's
later Catholicism made him suspected as favor-
ing the latter policy, but in fact he wished a
more energetic one. On 14 Jan. 1624 he was
one of the nine councilors who opposed a
breach with Spain. In January 1625 he an-
nounced himself a Roman Catholic; his con-
version is credited to Gondomar, the famous
Spanish ambassador, and Lord Arundel of
Wardour, his son's father-in-law. On 12 Feb-
ruary he resigned his office and was given the
barony of Baltimore ; which, as James hated
"apostasy,^^ measures his esteem for Calvert.
On the accession of Charles I., in 1625, Balti-
more refused, from conscientious scruples, to
take the oath of supremacy and abjuration, and

Charles gave him a handsome letter to the Lord
Deputy of Ireland. In 1627 he was summoned
to court to consult on the peace with Spain, but
thenceforth took no part in public business, de-
voting himself to colonization. Already in
1621-2 he had planted a colony in Newfound-
land, chartered in 1623 as Avalon ; in 1627 and
i628-;9 he visited it, but the severe climate dis-
appointed him and he begged for a grant in a
milder one. Without waiting for a reply he at-
tempted to explore Virginia for a settlement ;
but the Jamestown officials of the old Virginia
Company refused permission unless he would
take the oath above. The region satisfied his
ideal, however, and he persisted in asking a
grant there against the dissuasions of Charles,
who finally assigned him a northeastern tract,
now the States of Maryland and Delaware ;
but the same interests delayed the proceedings,
and before the charter was signed. 20 June, Bal-
timore died. The usual assumption that he
intended the colony for a Roman Catholic es-
tablishment is not only absurd in itself, as pub-
lic feeling would not have allowed it to be
thought of, but is answered by the fact that
the charter established the Church of England
and did not even specify toleration for other
creeds, which was not made a provision of law
till 1649, though of course intended, and pro-
claimed at once on the establishment of the
colony. Baltimore thought — wrongly, as it
turned out — that the proprietary's power and
the religion of the chosen colonists would pre-
vent the persecution of his own faith, and had
neither wish nor power to persecute others.
That he meant it as an asylum and breeding-
ground for his religion is a matter of course.
It was also to be a feudal aristocracy, but with
an assembly of freemen whose consent was
necessary to the validity of laws. In a word,
Baltimore was a conservative of high princi-
ples and moderate temper.

Cecilius, or Cecil Calvert, the second
lord : b. about 1605 ; d. 30 Nov. 1675. He mar-
ried Anne Howard, daughter of Lord Arundel
of Wardour (after whom Anne Arundel Coun-
ty of Maryland is named), about 1623. The
charter of Maryland granted to his father was
transferred to him as heritor ; but he never
visited it during the 43 years of his life there-
after, sending deputies in his place, and manag-
ing its business and political affairs judiciously
from England, settling disputes of natives or
colonists sensibly and placably, and esteemed
a worthy successor to his father. Down to the
civil war of 1642 he had little to do but sup-
port his brother, Leonard, as governor ; but his
policy then became difficult. He tried to steer
a middle course, and avoid either for himself
or the colony any pronounced declaration of
sympathies or allegiance which might expose
it to confiscation; but Ingle's upset of the co-
lonial government (see Leon.\rd Calvert),
and the parliamentary triumphs at horne,
showed him at last that this could not be main-
tained, and that with the Puritans at the head,
the Roman Catholic supremacy, though used
only to preserve themselves from persecution,
must be given up. On 9 June 1647 Leonard
died, after appointing as his provisional suc-
cessor an ardent Churchman and loyalist,
Thomas Green; but Lord Baltimore in 1648
appointed Capt. William Stone and had him
settle some 500 Puritans, harried by the Vir-

BALTIMORE

ginia Cavaliers, in Maryland. When the news lieutenants, who was put to death for piracy
of the king's death arrived, Green, in Stone's and murder in the former troubles. Calvert
absence, proclaimed Charles II. king, as did now undertook to introduce the feudal system
Virginia ; on which William Claiborne (q.v., contemplated by his father's charter ; but as the
and below), the treasurer of Virginia, joined freemen's consent was necessary to this, and
the Parliamentary party, obtained a commis- they refused to give it their own abasement, the
sion to reduce the two rebellious provinces, scheme was blocked and in fact never was car-
and, after overthrowing the Virginia govern- ried out. The civil war of 1642 having bro-
ment, forced Gov. Stone to renounce his al- ken out, cautious steering was needed to avoid
legiance to Lord Baltimore and give it to the risking confiscation from one side or the other,
"keepers of the liberties of England." When and Calvert went to England to consult his
Cromwell dispersed the Long Parliament Stone brother, leaving one Brent as deputy ; who
repudiated the agreement ; Claiborne marched brought on the verj^ catastrophe dreaded, by
against him, deposed him, and appointed a Puri- seizing a Parliamentary vessel and imprisoning
tan government which at once most ungrate- the captain, Richard Ingle. Ingle escaped, ob-
fully disfranchised all Catholics and repealed tained letters of marque from Parliament, allied
the colonial toleration act of 1649. In January himself with Claiborne, who had been made
1654 Cromwell himself intervened, and forbade the treasurer of Virginia for life by the king,
the Virginia authorities to molest Lord Balti- but had no politics except for his own hand,
more or his officers in Maryland. Baltimore and bj'' the time Calvert returned with a new
thereupon ordered Stone to overturn the Puri commission in 1644 had possession of the colony
tan government, but Stone's force was defeated and was plundering right and left. Calvert, in
and himself captured. Baltimore, however, an attempt at repossession, was defeated and
kept his favor with the Puritan administration ; fled to Virginia, which had remained loyal to
the commissioners of plantation decided that the the king, and appealed to the colonial govern-
province was his, and in 1658 it was restored ment for help; they refused to give it; finally
to him. Claiborne's influence was at an end, he got a force together, and in December 1646
and Baltimore had no further troubles over returned and drove Ingle out — one of the fly-
Maryland, ing rebels, however, carrying off all the early

Leonard Calvert, younger brother of Ce- records of the colony, which have never re-
cilius, was sent out by the latter as first gov- appeared. He died the next j'ear, leaving an
ernor of the new colony: b. about 1606; d. June unfortunate provisional appointment of a suc-
1647. He set sail 22 Nov. 1633, in the Ark and cessor, which made even worse trouble for the
the Dove, with about 200 Roman Catholic set- colony than the last deputy,
tiers of good families ; arrived 24 Feb. 1634, at John, the third lord ; Charles, the fourth ;
Point Comfort, landed 25 March on an island Benedict, the fifth ; Charles, the sixth ; and
in the Potomac, which they named St. Clem- Frederick, the seventh and last, complete the
ent's, and founded on the site of an abandoned roll. Frederick was a foolish and worthless
Indian village a town. St. Mary's, long since rake, and perhaps worse. Born in 1731, he died
deserted. He met an Englishman, Capt. Henry 14 Sept. 1771, leaving no legitimate heirs, but
Fleet, who had lived some years among the apparently a natural brood of some ability.
Indians, and helped him to gain their consent The proprietary^ rights in Maryland were be-
to the settlement. But he found Kent Island in queathed to a child, Henry Harford, but four
the Chesapeake, the great island opposite An- years later were rendered worthless by the
napolis, settled by one William Claiborne (q.v.), Revolution.
under a grant from the dissolved Virginia Com-
pany, effectively enough to have a representative Baltimore, ]Md., the chief city of the State,
in the Virgmia legislature. Calvert claimed the sixth in population of the United States,
right of property and political jurisdiction over and the commercial head of the Atlantic sca-
the island. Claiborne denied both, and Virginia board south of New York: on the Pennsvl-
upheld him: and the warfare that ensued em- vania (P.. W. & B.), Baltimore & O., W. Marv-
broiled the two colonies for many years, com- land, Baltimore & P., Northern Cent., and other
phcating itselt with the issue of Churchmen r.r/s. ; ^8 miles n.e. of Washington, 97 s.w. of
against Catholics, then (by the oddest irony of Philadelphia

fate) with Cavaliers in Virginia against 'the Totograplix.— The citv is most admirably

Funtans who had overborne the Catholics in situated at the head of t'ide-water on an arm

Maryland^ and finally with a rankling boundary of the great Chesapeake Bav, of most ample

dispute, ^laiborne poisoned the Indians mmds proportions and in former 'times known as

against the Marylanders as a set of treacherous «Patapsco Bay,» and that designation is fullv

Spaniards: Calvert sent an expedition against justified bv its dimensions; 12 miles long bv an

him, which captured two boats with mutual averaee of 3 miles wide, forking at the peninsula

oss of life, in April and May 1635. , Claiborne on which Fort McHenry stands, and therebv

had further losses and became bankrupt, but creating the land-locked harbor known as the

A I .u "u" ^ , ^'^ Indians Palmer s Is- Northwest Branch. This celebrated harbor is

^.nd. at the head of Chesapeake Bay, as beyond noted for the ease with which ships of great

Baltimore s grant, and petitioned for an injunc- burden may be docked or moored at anv stage

tion agamst Baltimore s interfering with him. of the tide, the tidal movement being onl'v from

ine commissioners of plantation refused him i foot to i foot 6 inches. The ship channel

the grant, despite his purchase, on the ground from this inner harbor to the sea has been for

tnat he had only_ a trading license. IMeantime manv vears of sufficient depth to permit the

Kent Island continued insubordinate, and Cal- passage of ships drawing 31 feet of water and

vert had to make an expedition against it in over •'to the docks and elevators of the Balti-

person, reducing it and occupying Palmer's Is- more & Ohio Railroad on the western side as

land also, and capturing one of Claiborne's you enter, and the Pennsylvania Railroad sys-

BALTIMORE

tem on the eastern side of the harbor. South
of the above mentioned peninsula is another
wide fork of the greater harbor, known as the
Middle Branch, on which are located the great
terminals of the Wabash Railroad system; this
again forks, receiving the waters of the small
Patapsco River and Gwynn's Falls, on either
hand.

Through the centre of the city flows a
stream which, rising some distance north of
the inner harbor, has its fountain-head at springs
which flow 500,000 gallons per day. It is known
as "Jones' Falls, '^ after David Jones, who built
himself a house on its banks about 1680. . Over
this stream in the city proper have been erected
23 bridges, of which may be mentioned those
over Eager, Calvert, North, and Saint Paul
streets and Cedar avenue, as beautiful and
costly. But the great white marble bridge which
spans not only the stream and its valley but
crosses over three railroads and carries the
roadbed of North avenue is one of the great
engineering triumphs of the times, its western
abutment embracing the entrance of the Balti-
more Railroad to Washington and the South.
Massive walls of white marble confine the water
of this small Tiber in its passage through the
city. On its banks are located the union station
of the Pennsylvania Railroad Company, whose
grounds bordering on the stream are embellished
with tasteful gardens, and the city has beauti-
fied the other shore by constructing "sunken'*
gardens.

The land area of the city in 1888 was 13,202
square acres, of property annexed in 1888 was
16,939 square acres, of the harbor 1,507 square
acres, making the total area of the present city
31,648 square acres.

The total mileage of streets and alleys in the
city is 546.7, of which 495.8 miles are paved and
50.9 unpaved ; of the total miles of paved streets
71.9 miles are paved with cobblestone, 43 with
belgian block, 9 with sheet asphalt, 13.5 with
asphalt block, 6.1 with vitrified block, 1.8 with
mosaic block, 0.6 with wooden block and 49.9
with macadam.

Monuments and Statues. — The first monu-
ment erected in Baltimore was in memory of
Christopher Columbus and was dedicated 12
Oct. 1792, the 300th anniversary of his landing.
It stands in the grounds of the Ready Asylum,
on Boundary avenue. One of the grandest mon-
uments in the world stands at the intersection
of Mount Vernon and Monument squares — the
Washington monument, the erection of which
was conceived in the year 1809, the design fur-
nished by Robert Mills, and the cornerstone
laid on 4 July 1815. It rises above these squares
about 200 feet, and is of the Greek Doric inspi-
ration. The figure of Washington is by Causici.
The next in importance is the "Baltimore
Monument," known as the "Battle Monument."
It was erected to the memory of those who fell
at the battle of North Point in 1814, and is the
w^ork of Maximilian Godefroy. It is 52^ feet
high. The principal column represents a fasces,
upon the bands of which are placed in bronze
letters the names of those who fell, the whole
being crowned by a female representing the city,
holding in her hand a wreath of laurels, capel-
lano.

The Thomas Wildey monument on North

Broadway is dedicated to him as the founder
of the Order of Odd Fellows, and may be de-
scribed as a Grecian Doric column 52 feet
high, on which stands a figure of Charity.
Other monuments are the Wells and McComas
monument at Ashland square; that on Federal
Hill erected to the gallant soldier Armistead
who defended Fort Mcllenry at the same time,
1814; the monument to the Marylanders who
fell in Mexico, located in Mount Royal avenue;
the monument at the intersection of Mount
Royal avenue and Cathedral street, recording
the deeds of the Maryland Line, the only troops
who fought from Bunker Hill to Savannah dur-
ing the Revolution ; and the monument, by
Ruckstuhl, erected by the Daughters of the Con-
federacy, to the Confederate soldiers of the
state.

Mr. William T. W^alters has given the city
the famous bronzes of Barye including the great
lion, and the masterful bronze by Dubois, "Mili-
tary Courage'* ; the sitting statue of Chief Jus-
tice of the United States, Roger Brooke Taney
(q.v.) in his official robes; and the equestrian
statue of John Eager Howard (qv.).

Public Buildings. — Fi''st in municipal im-
portance, though possibly not in the cost or
beauty of design, is the city hall, built of Mary-
land white marble, the style of architecture be-
ing the Renaissance. Cost of construction $2,-
271,135.64; cost of furnishing $104,264.79. The
new court-house is 200 feet front by 325 feet
depth. The material is white Maryland marble,
and the architectural style is a free Renaissance
treatment of the Ionic order. The cost of this
building completed was $2,753,003.18. The post-
office, located opposite the court-house, is also
a recent erection, Italian in general treatment.
The building contains the United States and
District courts. The cost was $2,011,835. The
new custom-house is not yet completed, but will
be a most beautiful addition to the great public
buildings. Its cost will be several millions dol-
lars.

Educational Institutions^ Art Galleries, Li-
braries, etc. — The Maryland Institute of Ar:
and Design, which was for many years in the
heart of the commercial centre of the city, was-
incorporated in 1826. The library contains 20,-
000 volumes, relating to the arts and sciences.
The new home of this school is located or>
Mount Royal avenue. It has been most liber-
ally endowed by the Jenkins family of Balti-
more, and Andrew Carnegie. The Academy of
Sciences, located in the fine old mansion of ex-
Governor and ex-Senator Thomas Swann, on
West Franklin street, contains a large collection
of the bird life of this country, and a large col-
lection of Indian remains. The Peabody Insti-
tute (q.v.), a white marble building standing
within the shadow of the Washington monu-
ment, is a donation from the philanthropist
George Peabody (q.v.). It contains a large
reference library, an academy of music and a
gallery of art. The entire building is 170 by
150 feet. The library room accommodates about
300,000 volumes.

The Walters Art Gallery, located within 100
yards of the last named institution, contains the
finest private collection of paintings and cerain-
ics in the United States, and also a special col-
lection of ancient arms and armor and lacqr.er

BALTIMORE

work of the Japanese. In the same block, south-
east of the original gallery and on the corner
of Centre street and Washington place, is now-
being erected an art gallery for the Walters
Collection of Old Masters, recently purchased
by Air. Harry Walters, at a cost of $1,000,000.

The Enoch Pratt Free Libraries, of which
the city has six, were the free gift of Enoch
Pratt (q.v.). The central library is located on
West Mulberry street, near the centre of the
city. It has six branch libraries and some sub-
stations. Other libraries are the Maryland His-
torical, the Peabody reference library, those of
the Maryland Institute, the Maryland Episcopal
Diocese, the Bar Association, the Archbishop's,
Odd Fellows, New Mercantile, Baltimore &
Ohio Employees' Free Circulating, and others.

The Johns Hopkins University (q.v.) makes
no pretensions in the way of architecture, Mc-
Coy hall being possibly the most imposing edi-
fice so far erected. The new home of this great
school will leave nothing to be desired. Placed
at an elevation of some 300 feet and occupying
the estate of one of the Carroll family, known
as *'Homewood Park,*^ it overlooks the city and
harbor. On North Broadway, facing the west,
stands the group of buildings known as the
Johns Hopkins Hospital. The architectural ap-
pearance of the central group of buildings is ma-
jestic, standing 114 feet above tide. The cost of
the original buildings was $2,250,000, which has
been very largely added to since the founding.
Other medical schools are those of the Univer-
sity of Maryland (1807), the College of Physi-
cians and Surgeons, and the Baltimore Medical
College. The oldest dental college in the world
is the Baltimore College of Dentistry and Sur-
gery, chartered 1839. The chief law school is
that of the University of Maryland.

The W^ Oman's College (Methodist Episcopal,
1888) is another institution of which the citizens
are proud. The buildings are throughout in the
Romanesque style, of the Lombard variety, with
adaptations from that order to which Vitruvius
gave the name Tuscan. They are built of dark
undressed granite and are surmounted by roofs
of Roman-red tiles. The church is the most
southern member of the group of buildings, its
massive tower the most conspicuous object in
the northern part of the city. This tower is al-
most an exact counterpart of a campanile to be
seen just outside of the city of Ravenna, Italy.
There are also many other colleges and prepar-
atory schools of good rank, making the city a
leading educational centre. Among these are
Morgan College (Methodist Episcopal, 1876) ;
Baltimore City College; Bryn Mawr School
{1885) ; and four Roman Catholic institutions—
St. Mary's (Seminary of St. Sulpice, 1791);
Loyola (1852), under Jesuit management; Notre
Dame of Maryland (1873) ; St. Joseph's (1888).
The public school system has about 118 schools,
1.750 teachers, and 75,000 pupils, and about $1,-
200.000 is annually expended in its support. The
first manual-training schools for white or col-
ored pupils were established here. There is also
a State Normal School and an institution for
training colored teachers.

Parks and Cemeteries. — The beautiful Druid
Hill Park consists of 671.2 acres. Other parks
are: Clifton Park, 252.07 acres; Clifton Lake,
44 acres; Patterson Park, 106 acres; Car-

roll Park, 83 acres; Riverside Park, 17.02
acres; Federal Hill Park, 8.02 acres; Wyman
Park, 132.08 acres; Swann Park, 11.03 acres;
Latrobe Park, 10.05 acres; Gwynn's Falls, 57
acres, besides 32 small squares dispersed all
over the city, containing 58.12 acres, making a
grand total of about 1,450 acres. In natural
beauty Druid Hill Park is unsurpassed by any
in the world. It is filled with springs of pure
water, some of which are medicnial. A great
artificial lake, a part of the city's waterworks,
with a depth of more than 80 feet, occupies
many acres, and around it has been constructed
a fine drive. Near the head of this lake on the
driveway stands the colossal statue of the Scot-
tish hero. Sir William Wallace. In the rear of
this is the full-length marble statue of W^ash-
ington, executed by Bartholomew. A short dis-
tance from the latter is a costly and graceful
pedestal surmounted by a life-size figure of
Christopher Columbus, by Achille Canessa.

Patterson Park, on the eastern rim of the
city, contains 106 acres, overlooks the harbor
and still retains some of the earthworks thrown
up by the American Army in the defence of the
city 1812-14, some of the guns being still in po-
sition.

The various churches maintain 62 cemeteries,
many of them on the outskirts of the city
proper, but on various lines of electric car serv-
ice. Nine of these cemeteries are Hebrew and
four negro. The largest is Baltimore cemetery,
in the extreme northeast near Clifton Park; the
most beautiful are Greenmount in the north
centre, containing the McDonough monument,
and Loudon Park in the extreme west. Near
the latter is Mount Olivet. Saint Peter's (Ro-
man Catholic) is on the northwest.

Churches. — There are some 489 church build-
ings in the city, many of great beauty both ex-
ternally and internally ; notably the First Pres-
byterian church on Madison street, with its
wonderful Gothic spire 300 feet high ; the Mount
Vernon Alethodist Episcopal church within the
shadow of the Washington monument, and the
Roman Catholic cathedral commenced in 1800.
The style and decorations of the last named
are of the Grecian-Ionic order. The great dome
is 207 feet in circumference internally, and 231
feet externally. The side aisles in the church
are terminated by two pictures. That on the
right is the "Descent from the Cross, ^^ painted
by Pauline Guerin — a present from Louis XVI.
to the archbishop — and that on the left, *'St.
Louis Burying his Officers and Soldiers Slain
Before Acre,^' the work of Steuben, and pre-
sented by King Charles X. of France. There
are also the stately Methodist church described
with the Woman's College ; the beautiful white
marble synagogue, Oheb Shalom, on Eutaw
Place, oriental in style, and a short distance
away the great Har Sinai temple on Bolton
street, and the Byzantine temple on Madison
avenue. The Episcopalians have many fine
churches, among them Saint Paul's on (Zharles
street, and Grace church on Monument street.

The following is a list of the churches of
the various denominations: Baptist, 59; Chris-
tian Science, 2; Congregational, 4; Disciples of
Christ. 7; Evangelical Ass'n, 4; Evangelical
Lutheran, 57; Friends, 2; Orthodox, 2; Inde-
pendent Roman Catholics, i ; Independent Ger-

BALTIMORE.

BALTIMORE

man, i ; Jewish Synagogues, 22 ; Methodists of
various kinds and color. 119; New Jerusalem,
I ; Ark of the Covenant, i ; Presbyterian, ^,2) ;
Protestant Episcopal, 45; Reformed Church, 14;
Reformed Episcopal, 43 ; Roman Catholic, 55 ;
Seventh Day Adventists, 2 ; Swedenborgian, 3 ;
Union Evangelical, 3 ; Unitarian, i ; United
Brethren in Christ, 7; Universalist, i; total 489.

Clubs. — Baltimore cannot be called a club
city; however, the time-honored Maryland Club
is a great social organization occupying a su-
perb new building on Charles and Eager streets.
There are also the younger Baltimore Club, on
Charles street, opposite, composed largely of
the sons of members of the Maryland Club ;
the Catholic Club; the Charcoal Club; Ger-
mania Club, for German merchants ; the Mer-
chants' Club and the Phoenix Club, a refined
Jewish organization.

Charitable Institutions. — The city has a body
of gentlemen, known as Supervisors of City
Charities, who serve without pay, and who look
into every form of charity and direct to a large
extent its distribution. There is also a State
Board of Charities, non-paid. Among the insti-
tutions to aid suffering humanity are Johns
Hopkins Hospital (alreadj^ mentioned). Mary-
land Hospital for the Insane ; Female House of
Refuge; Springfield State Hospital; House of
Refuge (male) ; Aged Men's Home; All Saints
Home for Children ; Augusburg Home ; Balti-
more Association for the Improvement of the
Condition of the Children of the Poor; Balti-
more Orphan Asylum (more than 100 years
old); Boys' Home Society; Briska Help Asso-
ciation; Charity Organization Society; Chris-
tian Tribune Home for Young Ladies ; Dolan
Children's Aid Society ; Egenton Female Or-
phan Asylum and School ; Female Christian
Home ; and Free Summer Excursion Society.
The various charitable institutions are too
numerous to mention all by name, but among
them are the blind asylum, a fine white marble
building; and the city almshouse, accommo-
dating 1.300 inmates.

Water and Fire Departments. — The city owns
its waterworks system, which is self-sustain-
ing. There are 645 miles of water mains in the
city. The water comes from two sources: (i)
the Big Gunpowder River, average daily flow
170.000.000 gallons; (2) Jones' Falls, 35,000,000
gallons. The service has two impounding reser-
voirs — Loch Raven on the Gunpowder River,
capacity 410.000,000 gallons, and Lake Roland
in the bed of Jones' Falls, capacity 400.000,000
gallons. The department has two stand pipes
with a maximum capacity of 300.000 gallons.
The expenses of the fire department are about
$600,000 per annum. Equipment : 29 engine
companies, 14 hook and ladder companies (one
of the engine companies is double — two engines
and one tower; one is a powerful fireboat).

Transportation.-T-'Ediitimort has a very mod-
ern and excellent street car service; it can
boast of the fact that it had the first electric
sreet railway and the first electric elevated
railway in the world. The street railways have
about 400 miles of rails now being operated on
the streets and suburban points within the ra-
dius of its operations. More are contemplated.
The Delaware and Chesapeake ship canal, across
the narrow strip of Delaware, gives it a direct
Vol. 2—16.

water outlet to Philadelphia. The Baltimore &
Ohio Railroad system (q.v.) follows almost
without change the route of the old national
pike, which extended from Baltimore to Saint
Louis; it was the first road to the Atlantic sea-
coast and the corner stone was laid 4 July 1828.
The facilities provided by this road are the
great terminals located at Locust Point, consist-
mg of freight sheds, elevators, and the proper
loading docks with a depth of 30 feet in 1906
but now being enlarged to 35 feet, connecting
with the ship channel to the sea of the same
depth Within the last two years they have
erected an emigration pier and necessary build-
ings.

The terminals of the Pennsylvania Railroad
?/"^ °n the opposite side of the harbor from the
B. & O. terminals, or, in other words, the east-
ern side. They have the same depth of water
in the freight shps and have direct communica-
tion with the 35-foot channel. The principal
road of this system passing through this city is
the Philadelphia, Baltimore & Washington Rail-
road, and Its branches. Running a little west
of south from this city is still another import-
ant feeder, the Baltimore & Potomac Railroad,
which passes through Washington, terminates
at Quantico, Va., branching at Bowie, Md. The
Board of Trade had much to do with the intro-
duction of another great railway svstem into
this city, in the matter of the sale of the city's
interest in the Western Maryland Railroad to
what was known as the "Fuller Syndicate" to-
gether with the purchase of the Pittsburg and
West Virginia Central and the acquisition of the
Wabash system. The Baltimore & Potomac
has a tunnel 7.400 feet long through the west
side of the city ; the Northern Central one 3,500
feet long through the northeast; the Baltimore
& Ohio one i 2-3 miles long through the city
north to south. The Baltimore & Ohio road
draws its trains through by electric motors.
Twentj'-one steamship lines use the docks and
piers of the Baltimore & Ohio Railroad or the
Pennsylvania Railroad Co. These lines run
to Europe and South America and other ports.
Besides these there are steamship lines to Bos-
ton, Halifax, Providence, New York, Wilming-
ton, N. C, Charleston, Savannah, New Orleans,
etc. ; and steamboat lines to Philadelphia, W'ash-
ington, Norfolk, Richmond, and other points on
the "bay and its tributaries. There are 8 or 10
coasting lines on the bay alone, chief of them
the Old Bay Line to Norfolk.

Commerce. — The report of R. L. Hoxie,
L'nited States engineer in charge of the harbor
improvements, speaking of the year 1905, says
that there was an increase of imports over the
year previous of $852,440, and that 249,376 tons
of grain, 266,109 tons of coal, 272.421 tons of
iron and steel, and 120,000 tons of oils were ex-
ported. Exports from the port of Baltimore
during the fiscal year from i July 1904 to 30
June 1905, were valued at $91,172,888; during
the fiscal year from i July 1905 to 30 June 1906.
$109,801,118. Imports for the same period 1905,
free, $12,488,992; dutiable $8,692,247; total $21,-
181,239; 1906, free $14,318,075; dutiable $16,336,-
942; total $30,655,017; total increase $9.473-778.

Baltimore is the foremost corn-exporting
port in the country, handling an average of 40,-
000,000 bushels a year, with 20,000,000 of other

BALTIMORE

grain; one of the first in flour, handling about
3,500,000 barrels ; it also sends out enormous
amounts of other provisions, live stock, tobacco,
boots and shoes, coal, naphtha, drain-pipe, cop-
per, etc. Its imports are copper (mainly to be
re-exported), iron and manganese ores, cotton,
coffee. West India products, etc.

During the year 1905 there were 80 sailing
vessels of 42,502 tons, and 638 steam vessels of
1,182,458 tons entered at the port, and the clear-
ances comprised 63 sailing vessels of 27,228 tons
and 627 steam vessels of 1,222,470 tons.

Manufactures. — The ofilicial figures for Bal-
timore in 1905 were as follows : total number of
establishments, 2,162; capital, $148,106,726; num-
ber of salaried officials, clerks, etc., 6,766; sal-
aries, $7,001,232; number of wage-earners, 65,-
013 ; wages, $25,548,343 ; miscellaneous expenses,
$18,855,372; cost of materials used, $80,184,704;
value of products, including custom work and
repairing, $150,248,021. Among the numerous
industries in which the city stands in the front
line of the big cities of the United States, the
ready-made clothing business shows one of the
greatest increases since the big fire of 1904.
The business has increased, according to promi-
nent manufacturers, at least 25 per cent, and is
now worth about $18,000,000 to the city. There
are about 40 factories in Baltimore manufacturing
men and youth's clothing. They employ from
10,000 to 12,000 hands, and pay out in salaries
j'early from $5,000,000 to $6,coo,ooo. Other im-
portant industries are besides bread, shirts, car-
penter and mason work, etc., tobacco products,
canning of fruits and vegetables, canning of
oysters, foundry and machine-shop work, slaugh-
tering and meat-packing, fertilizers, malt
liquors, furniture, confectionery, lumber and
planing-mill products, etc.

Finances, Ba>iking, etc. — The estimated basis
of taxation for 1906 was $548,522,063; addi-
tional real estate assessments involving ease-
ments, $23,350,000. The funded debt of the
city I Jan. 1906 was $43,313,182.95; productive
assets, $25.^86,690.45; unproductive assets, $20,-
000,000. T!ie clearing house transactions aver-
age about $1,200,000,000, the total for 1905 being
$1,249,411,909. On 18 June 1906 there were 18
National banks, with a capital of $12,590,700,
surplus $6,510,800, undivided profits $2,204,-
426.85, and total deposits of $74,404,338.37.
There are also a large number of state and pri-
vate banks and loan and trust companies. Bal-
timore is the great United States centre of the
fidelity and security business ; its trust, bond-
ing and surety companies have an aggregate
capital of $15,531,250, surplus and undivided
profits of nearly $25,000,000 and deposits of
about the same amount.

Government. — The charter provides that "the
executive power of the mayor and city council
of Baltimore shall be vested in the mayor, the
departments, sub-departments, and municipal
officers not embraced in a department herein
provided for, and such special commissioners
or boards as may hereafter be provided for by
laws, or ordinances not inconsistent with this
article. ^^ The mayor holds office for four years ;
he has a veto which can be overridden by a
three-fourths vote of the council, which is com-
posed of two branches ; the lower, of 22 mem-
bers, one from each ward; the upper, of 11

members, each from two contiguous wards.
The bulk of the city officers are appointed by
the mayor with the consent of the higher branch.
The council has the right to appoint the city
register and public printer ; and the comptroller
and surveyor are elected by popular vote.

The principal city officials are the comptrol-
ler (head of department of finance) ; city regis-
ter ; board of estimates ; commissioners of
finance ; city collector ; collector of water rents
and licenses. The chief departments are public
safety (fire, health, buildings, and street clean-
ing), public improvements, parks, and squares,
education, charities, and corrections, and review
and assessments.

Population. — The city stands sixth in popula-
tion among the cities of the United States, the
growth being as follows: (1775) 5,934; (1790
first U. S. census) 15,530; (1800) 26,514;
(1810) 46,454; (1820) 62,738; (1830) 80,620;
(1840) 102,513; (1850) 169,054; (i860) 212,-
418; (1870) 262,854; (1880) 332,313; (1890)
434,439; (1900) 508,957. The police census of
March 1906 makes the population 543,034, with
two large cities only separated by a curb line
on the eastern boundary, containing about 50,-
000 inhabitants. They cannot, however, be
counted because they are part of Baltimore
county.

History. — The first settlement of land in-
cluded in the present site of Baltimore was
made in 1662. Charles II. was King of Eng-
land, and Charles Calvert Governor of the
province. The English people had been making
history very fast, and among their most bril-
liant achievements was the planting of success-
ful colonies in various parts of the world, no-
tably the Virginia colony, the Massachusetts
plantations and the province of Maryland,
founded in 1634. So that the first actual settle-
ment on land, within the present city limits,
was made only 28 years after the landing of the
first colonists at Saint Mary's.

During the 17th century we find statute books
burdened with many laws creating town after
town on paper, as many as 33 having been cre-
ated, three of them being within the boundary
of what was then called Baltimore county. By
the act of the General Assembly of 1706 a town
was to be established on Whetstone Neck on
the Patapsco river. No name was given to
the town in the act. Another town, called Bal-
timore, was located near the mouth of Bnsh
river on its eastern side. This town is shown
in the map made by Augustus Herrman, the Bo-
hemian, in 1670, and some 14 years after the
actual founding of the present city, the Gen-
eral Assembly ordered another Baltimore to be
laid out on Indian river in Worcester county.
Nothing was ever done in regard to this last
town, the county surveyor refusing to proceed
with the work.

Then came the true founding of the city of
Baltimore, by the passage of an act entitled
"An act for erecting a town on the north side
of Patapsco, in Baltimore county, and for lay-
ing out in lots of 60 acres of land in and about
the place where one John Flemming now lives.*
(1729, chapter 12.) About two years after the
founding of Baltimore town an act was passed
entitled ".\n act for erecting a town on a
creek, divided on the east from the town lately

BALTIMORE.

1. Washington Monument.

2. Johns Hopkins Hospital.

BALTIMORE

laid out in Baltimore county, called ^Baltimore
Town/ on the land whereon Edward Fell keeps
a store. >^ (1732, c. 14.)

The next step for the enlargement of the
original town was the passage by the General
Assembly of the act of 1745, c. 9, 15 years after
the founding. This act was passed on the joint
petition of the inhabitants of Baltimore and
Jones's Town, that the two towns be incorpo-
rated into one entire town, and for the future to
be called and known by the name Baltimore
Town and by no other name. The town was
again enlarged two years later by the act of
1747, c. 21, on petition of the inhabitants by
the addition of 18 acres, which were not in-
cluded in Jones's Town nor in Baltimore Town.
In 1765 another addition to the town was made
on petition of Cornelius Howard and other per-
sons, consisting of 35 acres on the west and
south sides of the town. The town was again
enlarged by the act of June 1773, by the addi-
tion of 80 acres on the east and southeast.

The Revolution brought it prosperity by
crippling its rivals, and it was a great seat of
privateering. For a couple of months in 1776-7
Congress held session in one of its taverns,
having fled from Philadelphia in fear of the
English. About this period the energy and re-
sources of a couple of immigrant Scotch-Irish-
men, the brothers John and Henry Stevenson,
began to push the place forward ; new stage and
packet lines were established, the roads im-
proved and turnpikes laid out, and Jones's Falls
diked and part of its course filled in. The Eu-
ropean wars of the French Revolution and later
threw a large part of the world's carrying-trade,
till Napoleon's downfall, into American hands ;
the "Baltimore clippers" were famous every-
where. In 1792 a large body of French refu-
gees from Haiti came in. On 31 Dec. 1796 the
old settlement of Fells' Point w-as united with
it, and it received a city charter, it having
previously been governed from Annapolis. In
the War of 1812 it again became a seat of pri-
vateers, in revenge for which the British at-
tempted its capture in 1814. but the attack was
repulsed 12 Sept. To it we ow^e the "Star-
Spangled Banner'^ (see Key, Francis Scott)
and the Battle Monument. The end of the
Napoleonic wars in 1815, restoring to England
her old carrving trade, was a heavy blow^ to
Baltimore. In 1828 the public-school system
was established. In i860 all three anti-Republi-
can parties held their national conventions
there: and on the outbreak of the Civil War
the Union troops passing through there were
mobbed by the citizens, and the first blood of
the war was shed in its streets, 19 April 1861.
On 23 May Federal Hill was occupied by a
Union force, and the city remained under mar-
tial law till the end of the war. The conven-
tion of 1864, which renominated Lincoln, was
held here. In 1888 "The Annex* was annexed
to the city, extending its limits two rniles north
and west, and nearly doubling its size. Since
1890 Roland Park and Walbrook have also
been annexed.

The greatest disaster which Baltirnore has
experienced was the conflagration which com-
menced on Sunday 7 Feb. 1904. and continued
to burn until the 9th. Some fire was not ex-
tinguished for a year. It commenced in the

largest wholesale dry goods establishment in
the city— Messrs. John E. Hurst & Co.— the
buildnig having three fronts. According to the
statement of the Baltimore Sun "A strong wind
was blowing from the southwest, and within
about an hour, eight or ten buildmgs on Hop-
kins Place in the neighborhood were in flames.
Ihe fire spread to the north and east, rapidly
devourmg block after block of buildings. As
many as ten blocks were in flames by nightfafl,
notwithstanding the extreme exertions of the
firemen. By 8 o'clock the wind shifted and
blew the fire, which had at that time acquired a
volume of its own, straight down Lombard,
German, Baltimore, and Fayette streets. In the
effort to stay the progress of the flames, dyna-
mite was used in ten places, or more, but the
blowing up of houses had no good effect. Land-
mark after landmark went down. The lofty
^sky-scrapers' on Charles, Saint Paul, Calvert,
and Baltimore streets and the solid brick struc-
ture, the B. & O. Central building, and the
Equitable and Calvert buildings burned like
great torches high up in the air. A fortunate
change of the wind about midnight, helped to
save the magnificent row of public buildings on
the north side of Fayette street, from Saint
Paul street to Holliday street — the court-house,
the post-office and the city hall, but before the
change occurred flying embers set fire to blocks
on the south side of Baltimore street below Gay
street, and to the Maryland Institute and the
Marsh Market. The change carried the flames
towards the water and the docks on the south,
while on Baltimore street the fire stopped at
Jones' Falls." The loss was estimated at about
$70,000,000.

Throughout the whole period of acute dis-
tress there was no looting and no undue excite-
ment ; perfect order was maintained and the
business firms and companies resumed opera-
tions in temporary quarters with comparatively
little or no interruption, while the city and
State governments addressed themselves, active-
ly and intelligently, to the ways and means of
speedy rehabilitation.

In addition to the local fire-fighting force,
companies from other cities came to their aid
as follows : Washington, D. C, 5 ; Baltimore
Co., 4; Sparrows Point, i; Annapolis, i; Phila-
delphia, 7; York, Pa., 2; Harrisburg, Pa., i;
Chester Pa., i ; Altoona, Pa., i ; New York
City 10; Wilmington, Del., 4. There was thus
engaged in fighting the Baltimore fire an aver-
age of 62 well equipped modern fire organiza-
tions and they all had abundant water from the
city's sources of supply.

In the banking and financial centres of the
fire-swept area the greatest anxiety prevailed
for several days in regard to the safety of the
securities and books in the vaults of these in-
stitutions. Time locks prevented the opening of
the vault doors on Sunday night and the next
morning when the bank buildings were in ruins
it was known that in ten of the National banks
and in one other, there were values of $53,000,-
000 including loans and discounts, securities,
clearing-house exchanges, and cash. These
banks represented about $50,000,000 of deposits.
In addition to this, the Savings Bank of Balti-
more, at the corner of Gay and Second streets,
had in its vaults in jeopardy about $25,000,000;

BALTIMORE AND OHIO RAILROAD

The Hopkins Savings Bank $6,000,000, and others
equally large sums. But the vaults stood the
fire te'st for which in part they were designed.
As one by one they were opened it was found
that their contents were preserved and this fortu-
nate circumstance encouraged them all around,
and enabled them to give the necessary aid in
the great work of rehabilitation plans which
were immediately begun. There were also a
number of private banking houses and many
brokers involved in the fire, but in all cases it
is believed the fire did not reach their valuables.
There were thousands of depositors in the sav-
ings banks, and financial anxiety extended to
nearly every home in the city until the glad
news was spread abroad that the bank vaults
held good. This was also the case with many
safes in commercial and business houses, though
for weeks after the fire the streets were strewn
with wrecks that failed in the fire and were
valueless even as scrap-iron. Consult Love,
'Baltimore: The Old Town and the Modern
City^ (Baltimore 1895) ; Scharf, 'The Chroni-
cles of Baltimore^ (Baltimore 1874) ; Thomas,
'The City Government of Baltimore,) in 'Johns
Hopkins University Studies, Historical and Po-
litical Science ) (1896).

William H. Love,
Secretary of the Board of Trade.

Baltimore Councils. See Catholic Church.

Baltimore and Ohio Railroad, The. His-
tory. — The fact that the only use of rails for
locomotion in 1827 on either side of the Atlan-
tic was for coal carrying, renders the more
remarkable the action of the coterie of merchants
and bankers of Baltimore, gathering at Philip
Thomas' house on the evening of 18 February
of that year, in deciding to proceed forthwith
to build a railroad for general purposes. The
Ohio, at Wheeling, was made the objective
point; the intervening Blue Ridge and Alleghany
mountains evidently suggesting no difficulties
that could not be surmounted. But a week
elapsed from the time of the initial meeting to
the second, at which the committee appointed
at the first reported the resolution, namely :
"That immediate application be made to the
Legislature of Maryland for an act incorporating
a joint stock company, to be styled the Baltimore
and Ohio Railroad Company, and clothing such
company with all powers necessary for the con-
struction of a railroad with two or more sets
of rails from the City of Baltimore to the Ohio
River.)) The capital stock was fixed at $5,000,000.

The Baltimore and Ohio's charter, granted
of date 28 Feb. 1827, was the first anywhere
coming into existence defining and authorizing
procedure to completion. Under it the Balti-
more and Ohio Railroad Company is still acting,
being the only enactment of the character of
the pioneer days of the railroad in this country
or Europe remaining fully operative ; the B. & O.
being the single railroad company of those
times yet retaining, unchanged, its original name
and organization.

On 23 April 1827 the Baltimore and Ohio
Railroad Company was formally organized,
Philip E. Thomas elected president, and
George Brown treasurer. Preparations were
immediately inaugurated to secure a survey of
the proposed line, the measures to which end

were begun on 2 July. In this the United
States governmental authorities were induced
to co-operate to the extent of relieving Colonel
Stephen H. Long, of the Topographical Corps,
from his regular duties, who, with Jonathan
Knight, a Quaker civil engineer of repute, forth-
with proceeded with the actual work, the date
of its formal commencement being 20 Novem-
ber. On 5 April 1828 they submitted the result
of their labor to that period ; and the line west
to the Patapsco and thence via its valley to
Point of Rocks on the Potomac was decided
upon as the first section to be undertaken.

But persistent, bitter, and vehement opposi-
tion by the canal authorities was encountered
and this was even carried to legislative cham-
bers and the courts, but despite this trouble
and a few adverse decisions by the courts, the
Baltimore and Ohio pushed on from Baltimore
west, and three miles were completed and ex-
perimented upon early in 1829. On 22 May
1830 the first section of the Baltimore and Ohio
• — that from Baltimore to Ellicott City, a dis-
tance of 14 males — was formally opened for
public use. Horse-power was the standard
means of locomotion pending development of
the locomotive to a more assuring stage than
then reached anywhere from whence reliable
information could be obtained. (See Locomo-
tive, The.) "Brigades of cars') were an-
nounced to run three times each way daily, the
fare named at 25 cents and business commenced
in earnest. This was four months in advance
of the formal opening of the Liverpool and
Manchester, the first railway abroad for general
purposes, its date being 15 Sept. 1830.

Many difficult problems in the mechanics of
railroading were decisively solved. Car wheels
were first made with the flange on the inside
edge, but their causing so many derailments
and so frequently breaking led to the change
of the flange to the outer edge. But this in-
creased the difficulty on the curves and the
conical flange was invented. The anti-friction
box on the axles and the practice of placing
on the outside instead of the inside of the wheels
were both first introduced by Winans ; as was
also the eight-wheel car. When the main line
of the Baltimore and Ohio was completed its
roadbed embodied the highest engineering skill
of the period in the traversing of mountain
ranges ; was the longest continuous railroad in
the world, with the greatest bridges, trestles and
tunnels. Its track construction throughout, and
especially its manner of meeting the curvature
and providing against slides from the environing
mountain sides were lessons in line construction
and operation the whole world availed oi.

The Baltimore and Ohio was completed to
Frederick, 61 miles, i Dec. 1831 ; to Point of
Rocks, 69 miles, i April 1832; and to Harper's
Ferry, 81 miles, i Dec. 1834. The initial move
toward Washington was the letting of the con-
tract in May 1833, for the construction of the
Thomas Viaduct spanning the Patapsco at Relay.
This remarkable granite structure, designed and
erected under the personal supervision of Ben-
jamin H. Latrobe. was built for the carrying
of six to seven ton engines drawing from 15
to 20 ton trains, and meets with equal safety
the demand of 170 ton locomotives at the head
of 12 to 15 hundred ton trains. It was the
marvel in the world's railway circles when con-

BALTIMORE AND OHIO RAILROAD

structed. The longest, higliest, and generally
rnost imposing railroad crossing known, it was
the first on a curve and regarded, therefore, as
the boldest of departures from the rule.

Two years were required to complete the
Washington branch, and it was not until 25
Aug. 1835 that the echoes of the national cap-
ital resounded back the locomotive's shrill
awakening. With the opening of the branch,
the railway postal service came into being, its
earliest form the boardcd-up end of a baggage
car, the two keys to which were held by the
postmasters of Washington and Baltimore.
The declaration of the first railroad dividend in
history, a semi-annual of the Baltimore and
Ohio, was made simultaneously with the open-
ing of the Washington branch, and the securities
of the latter were the first of American railway
issue marketed abroad.

The greatest of eventualities, however, with
which the Washington branch's history is linked
was the birth of the telegraph. "What Hath
God Wrought," the first four words transmitted
by wire over a public line, were sent from Bal-
timore to Washington via the roadbed of the
Baltimore and Ohio branch.

Hancock, 123 miles from Baltimore, was
reached by the Baltimore and Ohio on i June
1842; Cumberland, 178 miles, on 5 Nov. 1842;
Piedmont, 206 miles, on 21 July 1851 ; Fairmont,
302 miles, on 22 June 1852; and the last spike,
finishing the great undertaking from Baltimore
to Wlieeling, 379 miles, was driven on 24 Dec.
1852. The formal opening of the road was
marked by a notable demonstration 10 Jan. 1853.
There being no rail connection beyond, and the
prospects bright for Cincinnati and Louisville
business in the one direction and Pittsburg in the
other, a company was organized and a daily
steamboat service established, "superior to any-
thing floating upon western waters.^^

With the completion of the Parkersburg
branch from Grafton — or the mouth of Three
Forks, as it was then known — to Parkersburg,
I May 1857, the Ohio was reached at another
point, and a very important one, as through rail
connection had been perfected thence to Cin-
cinnati, 10 days before, 20 April. The opening,
of the Parkersburg bridge, 7 Jan. 1871, was
the last link in the continuous rail from the
Chesapeake to the Mississippi.

The old Marietta and Cincinnati, the Ohio
and Mississippi and other railways, jonce sep-
arately conducted companies, long since became
component parts of the Baltimore and Ohio
System, which, with the finishing of the Chicago
division, 10 Nov. 1874, has been of the foremost
in the metropolis of the northwest, as, through
being the pioneer into Cincinnati and Saint
Louis from the east, it has ever been in those
centres of the southwest.

At Pittsburg, as well, the Baltimore and
Ohio's position is a commanding one. Reaching
the great central point from Cumberland in July
i860, later building and acquisitions led to radi-
ating lines to Cleveland, Chicag'o, Cincinnati,
Wheeling, and other points of traffic concentra-
tion. Eastward from Baltimore the construction
of the extension to Philadelphia and its opening,
19 Sept. 1886, together with security holdings in
lines through to New York, assured important
place among the railways centring in the coun-
try's leading city.

Mileage— On 30 June 1905 the Baltimore
and Ohio Railroad proper consisted of the fol-
lowing' lines:

DIVISION MILES

Baltimore and New York 5.34

Main Line System (excluding Valley Railroad

of Virginia) 1,052.18

Wheeling System (excluding Wheeling Termi-
nal and Valley and Branches; Cleveland,
Lorain _& Wheeling and I?ranchcs; Ohio &
Little Kanawha; and Ravenswood, Spencer

& Glenville) 75::. 60

Pittsburg System 947-73

Chicago Division 282.47

Baltimore & Ohio Southwestern System 985.66

4,025.98

The lines controlled by or affiliated in interest
with the Baltimore and Ohio System were as
follows :

MILES.

Valley Railroad of Virginia 62.12

Ravenswood, Spencer & Glenville Railway 32-40

Cleveland Terminal & Valley Railroad 92.72

Cleveland, Lorain & Wheeling Railway 194.28

Ohio & Little Kanawha Railroad 74-26

455-78

Making a total of 4,481.76 miles for the en-
tire S3'stem. By divisions this mileage is as
follows :

miles total

Grand Division — New York 5.34

New York Division 5.34

Main Lixe System 1,114.3a

Philadelphia Division 125.14

Baltimore Division 227.98

Cumberland Division 257.42

Shenandoah Division 1 12.55

Monogah Division 391.21

Wheeling System 1,146.3^

W'heeling Division 143.39

Ohio River Division 326.14

Cleveland Division 244.68

Newark Division 432.05

Pittsburg System 947-2-^

Connellsville Division 308.01

Pittsburg Division 356.93

New Castle Division 282.79

Grand Division — Chicago 282.47

Chicago Division 282.47

B. & O. Southwestern System 985.66

Ohio Division 336.40

Indiana Division 254.53

Illinois Division 394-73

Grand total for entire B. & O. System.. 4,481.76

Equipment. — The total equipment for the
entire system, valued at $50,662,723.98, as of
30 June 1905 was as follows:

rolling stock

Locomotives and Spare Tenders 1,798

Passenger Cars 1,206

Freight Cars 80,338

Service Cars i,950

marine

Steam Lighters and Tugs 12

Barges, Floats and Scows 106

Pile Drivers 3

Wharf Boat i

Traffic Statistics. — For the year ending 30
June 1905 the total number of tons of freight
carried by the B. & O. System was 56,322,085,
divided as follows: B. & O. lines, 47,285,183,
and affiliated lines 9,036,902. The total ton
mileage was 9,637,865,455. The number of
passengers carried was 16,581,666, or 728,748,125
passengers one mile, divided as follows : B. &
O. lines, 15,518,372, and affiliated lines 1,063,294.
The freight earnings for the B. & O. lines were
$50,607,087.44 and the passenger earnings were
$i3.8i7,i4i-.38.

Finances. — The general income account of
the B. & O. Railroad Company (including the

BALTIMORE ORIOLE — BALUCKI

B. & O. S. W. R.R.) for the year ending 30
June 1905, was as follows :

Gross earnings $67,689,997.13

Operating expenses 44,710,603.58

Net earnings from operations $22>979. 393-55

Other income 2,976,998.44

$25,956,391-99
Total payments 20,289,197.74

Surplus $ 5,667,194.25

The operating results of the lines controlled
or affiliated in interest with the B. & O. Sys-
tem were as follows :

Gross earnings $4,849,449-03

Operating expenses 3,729,191.43

Net earnings $1,120,257.60

The capital stock (preferred and common)
outstanding on 30 June 1905 was $184,258,524.31 ;
the funded debt was $234,395,430; and the capital
liabilities assumed were $11,211,043.83; making
the total capital liabilities $429,864,998.14. The
capital assets of the company were $373,325,909.03,
consisting of the following: Cost of road,
$144,974,687.40; bonds and stocks held by trus-
tees, $164,662,516.29; real estate, $12,315,832.78;
gas and electric plants, $710,148.58; equipment,
$50,662,723.98. The company also owned bonds
and stocks of railroad and other corporations
to the value of $43,548,658.87.

Baltimore Oriole. See Oriole.
Baltimore, Woman's College of. See
Woman's College of Baltimore.

Baltistan, bal-te-stan', or Little Tibet, an
elevated plateau through which the upper Indus
flows. It lies below the Kara-Korum Moun-
tains and the Himalayas, with a mean elevation
of 11,000 feet, and contains the nameless peak
marked K", 28,278 feet high, next to Everest,
the highest on the globe. It is politically a part
of Kashmir.

Baluchi, ba-loo'che, the language of Balu-
chistan, one of the Iranian group of languages.
There are two dialects, the North Baluchi, and
the South Baluchi, or Maprani • the latter shows
more ancient features.

Baluchistan, ba-loo'che-stan', a country in
the south of Asia, lying between Persia and the
valley of the Indus, having the former on the
west, Afghanistan on the north, Scinde on the
east, and the Arabian Sea on the south ; area,
about 134.000 square miles. It is wholly under
British influence and partly under British rule,
while the Khan of Kelat is ruler of a consider-
able portion, and certain tribes are independent.
The general surface of Baluchistan is rugged
and mountainous, with some extensive intervals
of barren sandy deserts. In the case of the
principal ranges, the general parallelism and
uniformity of their formation are somewhat re-
markable, one system having an inclination
from north to south, another from east to west.
]\Ta.ny of these mountains are of great height
and are covered with snow. There are several
broad and high table-lands, extremely cold in
winter and extremely hot in summer. Mekran
in the south, the ancient Gedrosia, is one of the
hottest regions of the globe. Some of the
mountain chains are of compact limestone, en-
closing marine shells and corals identical with
similar objects picked up on the sea-shores at

this day. Excepting fragments of quartz fourd
in Lus, primary formations have not been ob-
served in any part of the Baluchistan Moun-
tains. The mineral wealth of the country is
believed to be considerable, including gold, sil-
ver, lead, iron, copper, many kinds of mineral
salts, and saltpetre. Throughout Baluchistan
there is a great deficiency of water, particularly
in summer. In the northeast part are the rivers
Bolan and IMula, the courses of which form
the celebrated passes bearing their names, lead-
ing from the valley of the Indus to Baluchistan
and Afghanistan. The soil js not in general
fertile, but by patient industry the plains and
valleys can be made productive in wheat, bar-
ley, and millet. The other chief crops are mad-
der, cotton, particularly in Cutch Gundava, rice,
indigo, and tobacco. Vegetables are abundant,
and excellent fruits are produced in the gardens
and orchards in the neighborhood of the towns.
Fine camels are bred in large numbers.

The inhabitants are divided into two great
branches, the Baluchis and the Brahuis, differ-
ent in their languages, figures, and manners,
and each subdivided into a number of minor
tribes. The Brahuis have greater physical
strength than the Baluchis, and are less addicted
to predatory violence. Both races are hospita-
ble, brave, and capable of enduring much fa-
tigue. Many of them live in rude tents made of
black felt or coarse cloth of goat's or camel's
hair stretched over a frame of wickerwork.
Both Baluchis and Brahuis are very ignorant
but zealous Mohammedans. The Baluchi lan-
guage resembles the modern Persian, the Bra-
hui presents many points of agreement with the
Hindu. The manufactures are mostly confined
to coarse fabrics and a few matchlocks and
other weapons, and the trade is unimportant.
The khan, so far as his rule extends, has unlim-
ited power over life, person., and property. He
usually resides at Kelat, and his rule is almost
confined to the country around it. Quetta is
the largest town. It is occupied by a British
garrison and strongly fortified.

About the middle of the i8th century Balu-
chistan was made tributary by Nadir Shah, who
bestowed it, with the title of bcglerbeg, or com-
mander-in-chief, on Nasir Khan, who proved
himself the ablest ruler that ever governed the
country. On his death in 1795 he left the coun-
try in a comparatively prosperous condition, but
it has since suffered greatly from intestine wars,
and its boundaries have been curtailed. During
the Afghan war in 1839 a British force was
detached to assault Kelat, which was taken by
storm after a siege of a few hours, 13 Novem-
ber the same year. The British again occupied
it in 1840, but in the following year they left the
country. Latterly a British protectorate over
the whole of Baluchistan has been established,
and the town of Quetta (which is now reached
by railway from India) and a part of the coun-
try have been absolutely annexed. The khan
receives an annual subsidy from India. The
population is estimated at about 800,000.

Balucki, ba-loots'ke, Michael. Polish au-
thor, known under the pseudonym Elipiron :
b. Cracow, 29 Sept. 1837. He is most popular
as a story-teller of satirical tendency, ridiculing
the shortcomings and prejudices of Polish so-
ciety Of his novels may be mentioned *^The
Awakened' (1864;) <The Old and the Young'

BALUSTER — BALZA(

(1866); <Life Among Ruins> (1870); <The
Jewess' (1871) ; 4- or Sins Not Committed'
(1879); <250,ooo' (1883). The best among his
comedies are: <lhe Chase After a Man'
(1869) ; <The Emancipated' (1873) ; 'Ama-
teur Theatre' (1879); 'The Open House'
V1883). He also wrote lyric poetry and essays
on Polish literature.

Bal'uster, or Ballister, a kind of short
column, sometimes in the form of an ancient
bow, sometimes made after the model of Greek
and Roman columns, employed in the construc-
tion of balustrades.

Balustrade, a series of balusters sur-
mounted by a rail, and placed as an ornament
on large buildings, above the cornice, or as a
protection to enclose bridges, stairs, balconies,
altars, and the like.

Baluze, bii-liiz, Etienne, French scholar
and historian: b. Tulle, 24 Dec. 1630; d. Paris,
28 July 1718. He early acquired distinction by
his varied and thorough knowledge, and was
called to Paris by the celebrated Colbert, who
commissioned him to make up his private li-
brary. In 1707 he was appointed to the super-
visorship of the royal college, and dismissed
from that office in 1709, being suspected of
having in his 'Histoire Genealogique de la Mai-
son d' Auvergne,' designedly established, by
documentary evidence, that the princes of Bouil-
lon were descended from the ancient dukes of
Guienne, counts of Auvergne, and therefore
owed no allegiance to the king of France. Such
an offense could not be forgiven ; and Baluze,
deprived of nearly all his income, was compelled
to reside successively at Rouen, Blois, Tours,
and Orleans, and not until after the conclusion
of the Peace of Utrecht was he permitted to
return to Paris. He was of the most amiable
temper, and his wit was equal to his cheerful-
ness.

Balvany, the Magyar name for idol, found
in mediaeval Latin documents of Hungary, and
also in Hungarian geography, applied to vari-
ous heights which were the last strongholds of
paganism in the nth century.

Balvas, Antonio, Spanish poet : b. Segovia
in the middle of the i6th c. ; died 1629. He
wrote <Elpoeta Castellano' (1627), a work
highly praised by Lopez de Vega.

Baly, William, English physician : b. King's
Lynn, 1814; killed in a railway accident near
Wimbledon, 28 Jan. i86r. He studied at Uni-
versity College and Saint Bartholomew's Hos-
pital, London, in Paris, Berlin, and at Heidel-
berg, where he received his M.D. degree in
1836. He commenced practice in London, and
in 1841 was appointed physician to ]\Iillbank
penitentiary, where he attained a reputation as
an expert in the hygiene of prisons, on dysen-
tery and cholera. He was appointed lecturer at
Saint Bartholomew's Hospital ; became a fellow
of the Royal Society in 1847; in 1859, was
chosen as one of the physicians to the royal
familj-, and later, became censor to the College
of Physicians; and crown representative in the
Medical Council. He wrote: < Diseases of
Prisons* : 'Gulstonian Lectures on Dysentery'
Ct847) ; .tran'^lated from the German Miiller's
'Elements of Physiology,* and 'Recent Ad-
vances in the Phj'siology of Motion, the Senses,

Generation and Development' ; and with Gull,
wrote 'Epidemic Cholera' (.1854).

Balzac, Honore de, French novelist: b.
Tours, 16 May 1799; d. Paris, 17 Aug. 1850.
His famdy was of no account, and the aristo-
cratic «de" (adopted perhaps in good faith),
dates from 1830 or thereabouts. The surname
Itself seems to have been properly spelled Balsa,
or Balsas, the first to alter it being the novelist's
father, whose parents were peasants in Lan-
guedoc. Little is known of the elder Balzac's
career, except that he was at one time a lawver
and later an officer in the commissariat ; 'he
married past middle age, and at the time of
Honore's birth filled certain municipal offices in
the city of Tours. He is represented as a man
of whimsical character, caustic but indulgent,
with a wonderful memory, and full of schemes
for making millions and reaching the age of
100. His wife, whose name was Sallambier,
had good looks and a fortune; she is said to
have been pious and imaginative, and devoted
to her children's welfare, but by no means out-
wardly tender to them. At any rate Honore
and his favorite sister Laure (afterward Mmc.
Surville). if not her two younger children also,
were brought up very strictly.

He was sent to school early with the Ora-
torians of Vendome and was as miserable there
as his Louis Lambert. All he learned was by
desultory reading, and that in books too deep
for his age. His masters thought him dull and
lazy, and his absent-mindedness having devel-
oped into a sort of daze, he was withdrawn by
his parents and became a day-scholar for a time
at the College de Tours. Neither there nor at
a boarding-school in Paris, to which city the
family removed in 1814, was he bv any means a
brilliant pupil ; and at home not only his talents
but the ambition to write which had already
seized upon him remained quite unsuspected.
In 1816 he was put into a lawyer's office and 18
months later began to work with a notary, both
his chiefs being intimate friends of the family;
at the same time he attended various lectures at
the Sorbonne, and was becoming familiar with
the great writers of his country. His mind was
made up to devote himself to literature, when in
1819, M. de Balzac, who had recently lost money
in speculation and was about to retire, an-
nounced to Honore that his friend the notary
cfifered to take him into partnership with the
prospect of succeeding to his practice. Honore
resisted, and begged for a chance to show his
literary gift; after some discussion his father
gave him his way and, while the family made
its own home at Villeparisis, he was installed in
an attic near the Arsenal Librarv on a two vears'
trial of his powers, with an allowance barely
sufficient to keep him from starving. Here in
cold and hunger and solitude, but supported by
his unconquerable gaiety and self-confidence, he
set to work first on two tales which were soon
to be finished, then a comedy, lastly a tragedv
in verse, 'Cromwell,' which he firmly believed
to be a masterpiece. He brought it home with
him in the spring of 1820: the family yawned
when he read it, and a friend to whose judgment
this first comnosition was submitted. Andricux
the academician and professor, recommended
the young man to try his hand at an^nhing in
the world but literature. He had only spent 15
months of his probation, but his mother insisted

BALZAC

that he should now live at home ; privations had
already told upon his vigor, and he was obliged
to recruit in Touraine before settling down at
Villeparisis. There, nothing discouraged, in the
next five years he wrote, with different collabo-
rators, no less than 31 volumes of fiction, and
found publishers for them. Of the entire worth-
lessness of this early work he was perfectly
aware; it appeared under various pseudonyms
(^Horace de Saint- Aubin^ was the favorite),
and when long afterward in great distress for
money he allowed it to be republished, he would
never acknowledge the paternity.

It was at this time that he became acquainted
with the Berny family, then resident at Ville-
parisis, and formed with Madame de Berny — a
woman more than 20 years older than himself —
a close friendship which lasted until her death
in 1836, and to which he owed, perhaos the
most generous and disinterested sympathy that
he ever received from man or woman.

In 1824, determined to win his independ-
ence, young Balzac returned to Paris and set
up business as a publisher on borrowed capital.
He had a great scheme — the first of many —
for making a fortune by bringing out one-vol-
ume editions of the French classics, and began
with Moliere and La Fontaine; but chiefly for
want of proper advertising the venture failed.
He next became a printer, having induced his
father to advance him the sum necessary to buy
the stock and a printer's license, and seeing a
type-foundry offered at a bargain he presently
acquired that also. It was a mosc disastrous
speculation ; bankruptcy was only averted by the
help of his mother and of Mme. de Berny, and
this was the beginning of his life-long indebt-
edness.

Before his business was wound up Balzac
was already at work, in a room in the Rue de
Tournon, upon the first novel to which he signed
his name. *^Les Chouans^ was finished during
a visit to Fourgeres, in the district which is the
scene of the historical events it describes, and
published in 1829 with some success. The
rather cynical manual called ^La Physiologic d'u
Mariage' followed; then a number of shorter
stories, and, in 1831, <La Peau de Chagrin^ — with
which book his reputation became fairly estab-
lished. Publishers and editors now sought for
his work, and the curiosity and interest his
writings already excited are attested by the
anonymous correspondence which began at this
time to pour in upon him. It was in this way
that in 1830, he made the acquaintance of two
women, the Marchioness de Castries and Mme.
Hanska, whose names cannot be omitted from
any account of his life. For Mme. de Castries
Balzac conceived a transient, but certainly strong
passion, which seems to have only gratified the
vanity of a rather heartless but very intelligent
great lady ; she made a plaything of him ; but
he owed to her his most genuine insight into
the manners, traditions, and ideals of the close
society of the Faubourg Saint-Germain. Her
portrait, it is conjectured, may be found in <La
Duchesse de Langeais.^ Mme. Hanska, a Polish
lady of birth, married to a Russian in the
Ukraine, was the object of his deepest and
most enduring affection, and eventually became
his wife. His letters to this *Etrangere" have
in recent years been published; they are discreet,
frequent, and voluminous, for these friends or

lovers were seldom together, even after the
death of M. Hanska, until the last two years of
Balzac's life. His biographers have little tender-
ness for Mme. Hanska; hers was certainly an
inexpansive nature ; her love for her only child,
the Countess Anna (afterward Mme. Mniszech),
seems to have almost excluded other affections ;
she cared excessively for her rank and her com-
fort; tortured the great man by long deferring
to fulfil her secret engagement with him, and in
his last illness appears to have shown herself
incredibly callous. Mme. Honore de Balzac
lived until 1882.

Balzac's story, from 1830 onward, is mainly
the story of his herculean industry ; and the most
memorable dates in his life are doubtless those
of the production of such masterpieces as ^ Louis
Lambert^ (1832), ^Le Medecin de Campagne*
and 'Eugenie Grandet' (1833), 'La Recherche
de I'Absolu,^ and 'Le Pere Goriot^ (1834),
'Cesar Birotteau^ (1837), 'Illusions Perdues*
(1835-1841), 'Les Paysans> (1844-1845). 'La
Cousine Bette (1846), 'Le Cousin Pons' (1847).
Between 1830 and 1842 he wrote no less than 79
novels, besides much other literar}'- work. After
that date his literary activity slackened some-
what as his health began to fail. But during
a considerable number of years, for long inter-
vals together, he never worked less than 12
hours each day, often worked for 15 hours, or
even for 20 at a stretch, supporting himself on
a lean diet in which fruit was always an import-
ant element, and drinking as much coffee as the
philosopher Kant. But he was never out of
harness, even during his frequent absences from
Paris — whether staying with friends in the
French provinces, or art collecting in the north
of Italy, or mine-prospecting in Sardinia (one
of his most extraordinary ventures), or visiting
Mme. Hanska at Geneva, Vienna, Berlin, or
Saint Petersburg. These travels, a short-lived
journalistic enterprise — 'La Chronique de Pa-
ris' — several excursions into drama, more than
one attempt to force the doors of the French
Academy, and many quarrels with the press — a
lawsuit with the 'Revue de Paris' made some
stir in 1836 — are the chief outward events of
Balzac's maturity. Throughout his career the
money question is distressingly prominent, and
the history of Balzac's liabilities is long and
queer and complicated. The sums he made by
his pen were very considerable ; but his op-
timism was at least as great as his acquisitive
faculty. No man was more capable of penuri-
ous living; none loved luxury better; but decent
comfort and regularity were beneath or beyond
him. Spells of asceticism were succeeded by
fits of extravagance ; the story of his suburban
property Les Jardies, of his famous walking-
stick, of the financier Goujon's house in
the Rue Fortunee (now the Rue Balzac), which
he bought for his future wife and spent half a
million in filling with works of art — the very
works described in 'Le Cousin Pons' — balances
the story of his sacrifices, privations, and his
games of hide-and-seek with creditors. He was
a born speculator; he was also the most gener-
ous of men, and sometimes unfortimate in the
objects of his generosity.

The strain entailed by Balzac's way of living
and by his constant mental agitation was such
as no constitution — and his was extraordinarily
robust — could resist very long. From 1842, or

HONORE DE BALZAC.

BALZAC

thereabouts, he began to suffer from time to
time with heart and lung troubles, and from
1845 onward he was rarely well. It was during
his second stay at Vierzschovnian, Mme. Han-
ska's property in the Ukraine, that his health be-
gan to give serious anxiety. For a time he im-
proved ; but the climate, the uncertainty in which
he was kept as to the reward of his long devo-
tion, certain material obstacles to his marriage,
the necessity of conducting his literary and other
transactions by proxy, the anxieties of the politi-
cal situation in France, misunderstandings with
members of his own family, and the effort to
force himself to work when work was beyond
his failing physical powers, all hastened his end
His marriage was solemnized at last in March
1850, at Berditchef, in Poland ; rather more than
two months later, Balzac arrived in Paris with
his bride. He was a dying man, though he
clung almost to the last to the hope of living to
finish *^The Human Comedy, > and extinguish
what was left of his debts. Victor Hugo was
among those who visited his deathbed, and the
same great poet it was who paid a splendid
tribute to his friend and peer at the graveside
in Pere Lachaise. Occurring in the midst of a
grave political crisis, his death was less noticed
than might have been expected ; but though
widely read and fervently admired among his
contemporaries — more especially perhaps in
foreign countries — it wanted at least another
generation to assure his fame; nor (thanks to
a combative spirit and an ingenuous vanity) did
he lack enemies ; though the mere dedications of
his novels are enough to show that his friends
were among the elect of his age, and it is im-
possible to read his correspondence without a
feeling of respect, and even of affection, for a
personality so rich, so valiant, so tenacious, and
so kindly.

It is best, in so slight an estimate of Balzac's
colossal achievement as can be attempted here,
to leave out of account not only the worthless
fiction of his nonage but also his plays, of
which only one, *Mercadet,^ first called ^Le
Faiseur,* and produced with considerable
changes after its author's death, can be said to
have won or deserved success. An exceptional
place belongs to the ^Alerry Tales, > not so
much in virtue of .their notorious, guileless, and
jovial salacity as because, while the form is
more essential there than in anything else he
wrote, they are among the very few skilful
pastiches in literature — for the lapses they con-
tain from either the language or the atmosphere
of the early French Renaissance are astonish-
ingly few — in which the mere erudition does
not replace or overshadow other merits. They
are memorable for their genuine zest, inventive
vigor, and shrewd humanitv.

Balzac's glory, of course, is that unfinished
series of masterpieces called 'The Human
Comedy,' which it is necessary to consider as
one work in order to appreciate the audacity
and breadth and steadiness of aim which are
essential titles to his rank, not merely as the
father of the modern novel and the supreme
master of the craft, but as a genius of the uni-
versal order. In its most obvious bearing, it is
an imaginative reconstruction of French society
in every part and aspect, with all the vicissitudes
and variations that afifected it between the
Revolution and the middle of Louis Philippe's

reign : an heroical design, less comprehensive
in regard to time and space than that of the
Waverley novels, but more consistently and co-
herently executed out of more copious material.
The picturesque, however, was subordinate to
the philosophical interest, as he conceived it, of
Balzac's undertaking. He intended his work for
nothing less than a natural history of civilized
man, which should illustrate the war between
the passions of the individual and the social
instinct or the common interest, the differentia-
tion of types by the action of gregarious life, the
reflection of personality in matter, and the stamp
of habits and calling upon character. The
theory outlined by Buffon and bequeathed by
Geoffroy Saint Hilaie to the first evolutionists,
which supposes a single original pattern of
organic creation varied by the mere effects of
environment, fascinated Balzac by a partly
chimerical but, at any rate, suggestive analogy,
with human existence. "Does not society," he
asked in his general preface of 1842, "make of
man, according to the sphere in which his activ-
ity develops, as many different men as there
are species in zoology?** This conception is
enough to explain one great characteristic of
his novels — the importance attributed in them
to atmosphere, to local influences, to material
conditions, to all that the elder novelists had re-
garded as accidental and accessory. It is Balzac
who set the example of bestowing as much care
upon things as upon moi in works of fiction.
The description of streets, houses, furniture and
works of art, of implements and equipages, of
dress and pastimes, of customs and offices, busi-
ness and procedure and, in particular, of all
that pertains to money, is, throughout 'The
Human Comedy,* not only exact and elaborate
(sometimes to the point of tediousness and dis-
proportion), but above all significant. Sechard's
printing-press and Gaudissart's advertisements,
the laboratory of Balthazar Claes, the aroma of
Maman Vauquer's dining-room, ar° part and
parcel of those famous personages.

The French imagination had tended for some
time to desert that psychology in abstracto which
had been at once the glory and the limitation of
the great classical authors, and to pay more at-
tention to the setting and the background of
fictitious characters. Diderot particularly, who
on several grounds might be called a herald of
Balzac (and resembled him in vitality, variety
of knowledge, fertility, hasty and unequal exe-
cution), had done much to carry into pure litera-
ture a spirit of curiosity about the common
things of life, a new multiplicity of interests and
concern for reality, and some of the results of
natural science. But the romantic contempor-
aries of Balzac, most of whom were irresistibly
allured by the prestige of the old and the dis-
tant, used the extension of imaginative matter
to enhance the picturesque value of descriptions,
rather than to enrich the definition of human
types ; for their interest in characters is gener-
ally insuflficient. being dependent upon an intro-
spection distorted as often as not by a morbid
vanity. Balzac is unique in this, that with a
searching modernity of outlook which omits
none of the sensible elements of life from his
imaginary world, he is yet essentially the re-
storer of the old. patient, constructive psychol-
ogy and of the drama of internal action. It is
remarkable how much of the spirit of the

BALZAC

grand siccie survives in his work; how much
of La Bruyere in the brilliant pages of moral
analysis, of Corneille in some of his heroes of
the will of Moliere in the smiling sanity of his
attitude toward a necessarily imperfect society,
of Racine in the sympathetic presentment of
absolute passions and their victims ! Balzac's
personages — even the secondary figures — are
at once individuals and types. They live with
the intense life of living men and women; and
we accept them as great moral symbols. They
are highly differentiated, particularized with an
unsurpassable sureness of detail ; but they are
also, one and all, informed by an idea — so that,
though there is only one Goriot, he sums up
all the tragedy of a primal affection run to seed
and despitefully entreated ; and there is only
one Baron Hulot, but he contains all the shame
of elderly profligacy, bringing disaster on whole
families ; and Cesar Birotteau is inimitable, but
lie stands for all that is sterling as well as all
that is ridiculous in the middle class.

In the vitality of his creatures Balzac is not
inferior to Shakespeare himself. But we be-
lieve not only in the people he made, but in the
whole world of 'The Human Comedy,^ and ac-
cept it as a rival of reality. This mastery of
illusion, the very highest virtue in a writer of
fiction, does not depend upon veracity or exacti-
tude of detail (a test which upon the whole he
sustains triumphantly), but is simply the power
to imagine strongly. It is true that in this case
a system of composition which discarded chap-
ters, or rather made of each novel (by the con-
tinual reappearance of old friends among the
characters) a chapter in the whole work, is a
powerful help to illusion ; so of course are the
accumulation of circumstances, and especially
perhaps the variety and distribution of interests,
in which Balzac's astonishing invention seems
to play the part of chance.

The work of Balzac displays at one view the
whole capacity of the form of literature called
fiction, its scope and possibility of content. The
ordinary tone of the French novel had once
been heroic and pastoral ; then it had tended to
caricature and to the parodying of court mem-
oirs ; and later the ideal had been to amuse
one class by showing the manners of another.
The picturesque romance had been succeeded
by ^'realistic" satires upon society and, with the
advent of the philosophes, the novel became a
pamphlet, a vehicle of moral or political doc-
trines. Perhaps all these phases are repre-
sented in <La Comedie Humaine' : the novel
according to Balzac is simply a universal instru-
ment like Homer's epic or Shakespeare's
drama. The ineffaceable mark of his achieve-
ment upon his successors is that, since Balzac,
the novel in France is not a toy but a serious
art. Balzac indeed would not have been con-
tent with the qualification; half the preface
already referred to is an apology for the novel
considered as a work of science and a means of
propaganda, and to him — to his precept rather
than to his practice — must be traced the arro-
gant pretensions of some modern writers of fic-
tion, their sermons and sociology and what
Flaubert so disdainfnilv called their manic de
conclure. A work of imagination does not need
the protection of a political creed or a scientific
■h->-r)othesis : it is Balzac's weakest side that,
while he sinks what we call his personality al-

most always, he frequently obtrudes fallible
opinions — matter for argument — into the do-
main of the imagination. His royalism is an
interesting fact, but in his novels it is irrele-
vant; the same is true of. many of his political
prophecies. It should be added that he seldom
intervenes directly in the discussion of scien-
tific theories (which hold a somewhat important
place in his novels), though with characteristic
credulity he identifies himself expressly with the
speculations of the phrenologists ! There was a
mj'Stic in Balzac, and that section of his work,
'Philosophical Studies, > which deals with the
solitary adventures of the mind in regions be-
yond the world of sense, is strangely original
and fascinating.

He was, in some degree reluctantly, an
artist — a prodigious though an imperfect
artist. His defects of form have been exagger-
ated. His style, like Saint-Simon's, is vigorous
and vivid in default of correctness, and full of
fortunate phrases ; but he was wanting in the
sense of idiom, and the effort to condense his
thought often produced a clumsy syntax and
obscurity. Haste no doubt accounts for some
base coinage, repetition, and inadequate expres-
sions. As of other writers of his stature it may
be said of him that his fecundity was necessarily
wasteful, so that a part of his work is greater
than the whole. This exuberance, a certain w-or-
ship of the excessive, a stupendous confidence
for which no design is too large, and a prefer-
ence for the expressive over the symmetrical, for
colour over draughtsmanship, are character-
istics which he shares with several great French-
men of his generation — the generation con-
ceived in camps and lulled by the guns of Aus-
terlitz, which grew up haunted by a vision of
heroical accomplishment. Honore de Balzac
stands beside Victor Hugo and Jules Michelet
and Hector Berlioz and Eugene Delacroix — a
giant among giants, a perennial force among
the intellectual forces of the world.

Bib'iography. — The best edition of the com-
plete works of H. de Balzac is the 'Edition Di-
finitive^ in 24 volumes (Paris, \SCg-76). TJni-
form with it are the letters to Mme. Hanska,
'Lettres a I'Etrangere,' posthumously published
in 1899. There exist numerous English trans-
lations of insulated novels. Prof. G. Saints-
bury in the general edition of a complete Eng-
lish translation of a 'Human Comedy,^ by vari-
ous hands, in JO volumes (London, 1895-98).
The letters to Mme. Hanska have been trans-
lated by D. F. Hannigan — 'Love Letters of
Balzac^ (London, 1901). Among biographical
and critical studies of Balzac the more valuable
are the following: L. Gozlau. 'Balzac chez lui^
(1862); E. Bire, 'Balzac' (1897); Le Breton,
'Balzac, I'homme et I'oeuvre' (1905) ; F. Bru-
netiere, 'H. de Balzac' ; Vicomte Spoelberch
de Lovenjoul, 'Histoire de3 oeuvres de Balzac'
(1880) ; 'La Genese d'un roman de Bal-
zac' — 'Les Pavsans' (1901) ; 'Un pays per-
du d'H. de Balzac' (1003). The short life of
her brother by Mme. Surville (Laure de Bal-
zac), first published in 1858. is included in the
volume of the 'Edition definitive' containing
Balzac's general correspondence. In English
Mr. Frederick Wadmore has written a 'Life of
Balzac' ; and a better-informed study by Miss
M. F. Sandars appeared in 1904.

F. Y. EccLES.

BALZAC — BAMBOO

Balzac, Jean Louis Guez de, French essay-
ist and letter writer : b. Angouleme, 1597 ; d. 18
Feb. 1654. In his youth he was secretary to
Cardinal La Valette at Rome. He returned to
Paris, devoted himself to literature, and under
Richelieu became councilor, and historiographer
of France, and was one of the most influential
members of the Academy from its foundation,
likewise a sort of oracle of the Hotel Rambouil-
let. Flis influence on French prose is ranked
with that of Malherbe on poetry. Besides his
<Letters^ (1624), which are elaborate epistles'
with a definite attempt at style, he wrote <The
Prince' (1631), a glorification of absolute mon-
archy; <The Dotard' (1648); -The Christian
Socrates' (1652); and <Aristippus' (1658), the
latter intended to portray the ideal statesman.
His "^Letters' were edited by Larroque (1874).

Balzico, bal-tse'ko, Alfonso, Italian sculp-
tor: b. 1825. He was educated at the Academy
of Naples, and in Rome. Among his works are :
'John the Baptist' ; 'Cleopatra' ; 'The Free' ;
'Vincenzo Bellini' ; 'Duke Ferdinand of Ge-
noa' ; and 'Victor Emmanuel.'

Bambarra, biim-bar'ra, a negro kingdom
of western Africa, lying at the point where 5°
W. Ion. and 12° N. lat. cross. It was first vis-
ited by Mungo Park. In the east the country is
flat and swampy ; but in the west there are low
chains of granite hills. The climate in some
parts is intensely hot, but is generally healthy.
The land is well watered and fertile. The
rainy season is from Tune to November. Cot-
ton, maize, and yams are raised. The inhabi-
tants, a branch of the Mandigoes, number about
2,000,000 and are superior to their neighbors in
intelligence. The principal towns are Sego,
Sansandin, Yamina, and Bammako. Many local
merchants are very wealthy, and a quite exten-
sive trade is carried on, the natives working
articles in gold, ivory, and iron. In 1881 a
treaty with the sultan of Sego opened up the
country to French traders.

Bamberg, bam'berg, a town of Bavaria, in
Upper Franconia, on the navigable Regnitz
(which here divides into two), three miles above
its junction with the Main, partly on a plain,
partly on hills, amid vineyards and gardens.
Its chief edifice is the Roman Catholic Cathe-
dral, built in the 12th century, and forming one
of the finest examples of the transition from
the Romanesque to the Gothic style, with four
towers, a noteworthy portal, and interesting
sculptures and monuments. Other buildings in-
clude the, old palace or residence ; another
palace, formerly occupied by King Otto of
Greece ; the former castle of the prince-bishops
of Bamberg, etc. The educational institutions
include a college or lyceum, an old and a new
gymnasium, a Roman Catholic seminary, an
observatory, etc. There is a library containing
300.000 volumes, with valuable ]\IMS. and early
printed books. There are manufactures of cot-
ton and woolens, besides other industries, such
as market-gardening and seed-growing, brewing,
etc The United States is represented by a resi-
dent consul. Pop. (1902) 42,300.

Bamberger, bam'berg-er, Heinrich von,
Austrian pathologist : b. Prague, 1822 ; d. 1888.
He was graduated in medicine in 1847, and be-
came professor of special pathology and thera-
peutics, first in the University of Wiirzburg,
and in 1872 in the University of Vienna. Of

his numerous publications, two have been held
in particularly high esteem, 'On the Diseases
of the Chylopoietic System' (1855), and 'Trea-
tise on Diseases of the Heart' (1857).

Bamberger, Ludwig, German statesman:
b. Mainz, 1823; d. 1899. He was educated at
Giessen, Heidelberg, and Gottingen ; took part
in the revolution of 1849; and was a member
of the German Reichstag 1873-80. He was an
advocate of free trade, and on account of his
opposition to Bismarck's economic policy, he left
the National Liberal party and joined the "Se-
cessionists," a group which later became part
of the German Liberal party. His publications
include 'Monsieur de Bismarck' (of which
there is an English translation ; 'The Five Mil-
liards' ; 'Germany and Socialism' ; etc.

Bambino, bam-be'no, the figure of our
Saviour represented as an infant in swaddling
clothes. The 'Santissimo Bambino' in the
Church of Ara Cojli at Rome, a richly decorated
figure carved in wood, is specially venerated,
and is often the object of impressive religious
demonstrations.

Bambocciades, bam-boch-i-adz', paintings
generally grotesque, of common, rustic, or low
life. The name is derived from the nickname
of Peter Van Laer, a Dutch painter of the 17th
century, who, on account of his deformity, was
called bamboccio (cripple). Teniers is the
great master of this style.

Bamboo, the common name of more than
200 species of about 20 genera of perennial,
mostly tree-like, tropical and sub-tropical grasses
unevenly distributed throughout the world, but
miost abundant in southern Asia, where 160 or
more species are found from sea-level to alti-
tudes of 10,000 feet or slightly more in the
Himalayas; and next most plentiful in America,
where there are about 70 species, some of which
reach elevations of 15,000 feet in the Andes. Oc-
casional specimens of the larger species attain
a height of 120 feet and a girth of 3 feet. From
the jointed root-stock the numerous jointed,
usually straight and erect, but sometimes
crooked or creeping stems grow without
branches until the full height is reached, when
a more or less dense thicket of horizontal limbs
is developed, and the great panicles of flowers
appear.

The number of uses to which these plants
are put rivals that of the palms. In fact the
various species can be utilized for man's everj
purpose. The light, elastic hard stems, hollow
or slightly pithy, except at the joints, which
are strong partitions, are used for bridges,
masts, poles, joists, fishing-rods, etc. ; when the
partitions are removed, for waterpipes ; when
sawed in sections, for pails (the natural parti-
tions serving as bottoms), cooking-utensils, life-
preservers, bows, arrows, quivers, walking-
canes, flutes, and smoking-pipes ; when split, for
nets, hats, fishing-rods, wicker-work, and um-
brellas. Parts of the leaves of some species are
used for paper-making, thatch, and hats ; the
young shoots of some are used as food, either
boiled or pickled ; the seeds, for food and for
making a kind of beer ; some of the spiny spe-
cies are planted as hedges for defense against
foes, animal and human.

Some species yield "Indian honey" (so called
by the Greeks), the air-dried saccharine exuda-
tions from the nodes. Sometimes this sub-

BAMBOO RAT — BANANA

stance is called tabaris or tahashcer (q.v.),
•which is properly a phosphorescent substance ob-
tained from other species and from related
grasses. Many of the species are of exceed-
ingly rapid growth ; even in greenhouses speci-
mens have been known to attain a height of 20
feet in two months or even less time. In arid
climates the bamboos are often of great value,
since they are among the few plants that will
grow in such places. Many species are culti-
vated for ornament, not only in warm countries,
but in greenhouses. Some species are hardy in
climates where the thermometer does not fall
much below the freezing-point. In general the
hardy species do best in deep, rich soil, and
warm situations protected from severe winter
winds. The roots should be given a protective
mulch of litter in autumn, and this should be
allowed to remain during the summer as a
moisture conserver. For an account of orna-
mental bamboo culture in greenhouse and out of
doors, and of the ornamental species grown in
America, consult Bailey & Miller, < Cyclopedia
of American Horticulture.^

Bamboo Rat, a name given to several
species of mole-rats,, of the genus Rhisomys,
found in the bamboo jungles of India.

Bamborough (bam'biir-6) Castle, an an-
cient English castle on the coast of Northum-
berland, formerly with its connected estate the
property of the Forsters, and forfeited to the
Crown in 1715, both being purchased by Lord
Crewe, Bishop of Durham, and bequeathed by
him for charitable purposes.

Bam'bouk, or Bambuk, a region in west
Africa, in the French colony of Senegal, be-
tween the Faleme and Senegal rivers, between
lat. 12° 30' and 14° 30' N. ; Ion. 10° 30' to 12°
15' W., and estimated to be about 140 miles in
length by 80 to 100 in breadth. Besides the
Senegal, its tributaries, the Faleme and the Baf-
ing (or Upper Senegal), form its natural boun-
daries. A considerable part is somewhat rug-
ged, though not very elevated, the highest points
seldom exceeding 600 feet. The valleys and
plains are remarkably fertile. The baobab, cala-
bash, tamarind, with a variety of acacias and
palms, reach the utmost limit of their fruitful-
ness ; maize, millet, cotton, and a multitude of
leguminous plants grow almost without culture,
and rice is produced in the lowlands, which are
subject to inundation. Its unhealthiness, how-
ever, makes it almost uninhabitable by Euro-
peans. The animals comprise lions and ele-
phants, _ wild cattle, crocodiles, etc. Gold is
found in abundance. It is carelessly worked,
and is given to traders in exchange for salt,
an article in great demand, and various other
goods. Bambouk is more sparsely inhabited
than formerly. The natives are Mandingoes
and form a considerable number of communities
or confederations more or less hostile to each
other. The country has latterly been fully ex-
plored by the French, who are developing its
resources and have constructed a railway along
the Senegal from Kayes to Bafulabe. In the
iSth century the Portuguese, allured by the
fame of its gold, invaded Bambouk, but ultimate-
ly perished almost to a man, partly through in-
testine dissensions and debauchery, and partly
by the weapons of the natives.

Bamian, ba-me-iin', a valley and pass of
Afghanistan, the latter at an elevation of 8,496

feet, the only known pass over the Hindu Kush
for artillery and heavy transport. The valley
is one of the chief centres of Buddhist wor-
ship and contains two remarkable colossal
statues and other ancient monuments.

Bammako, ba-ma'ko. See Bambarra.

Bampton Lectures, a course of lectures
established by John Bampton, canon of Salis-
bury, who bequeathed certain property to the
University of Oxford for the endowment of
eight annual divinity lectures to be annually
delivered. The subjects prescribed are, the Con-
firmation of the Christian faith and the confuta-
tion of all heretics and schismatics ; The divine
authority of the Scriptures ; The authority of the
primitive Fathers in matters of Christian faith
and practice ; The divinity of Christ ; The divin-
ity of the Holy Ghost ; The Apostles' and Nicene
creeds. The lecturer must have taken the degree
of M.A. at Oxford or Cambridge, and the same
person may not lecture twice. The first course
of lectures was delivered in 1780, and they have
been delivered every year since, with the excep-
tions of 1834, 1835, and 1841. A list of the lec-
tures will be found in the yearly ^Historical
Register of the University of Oxford.-*

Ban, the title of the governors of certain
military districts in the eastern part of Hun-
gary, corresponding to the German title of mar-
grave. The ban is nominated by the king, ren-
ders an oath to the Diet, and formerly had very
extensive powers, exercising an almost absolute
authoritjr in the political, judicial, and military
affairs of his district. The progress of Turkish
conquest after the unfortunate battle of Mohacs
in the i6th century extinguished the most of
the banats, and there remains now only the banat
of Temesvar, the ban of which is the third great
dignitary of the Hungarian kingdom and has
the title of ban of Croatia.

In Teutonic history the ban was an edict of
interdiction or proscription : thus, to put a prince
under the ban of the empire was to divest him
of his dignities and to interdict all intercourse
and all offices of humanity with the offender.
Sometimes whole cities have been put under the
ban; that is, deprived of their rights and priv-
ileges.

Bana, ba'na, in Hindu mythology, a thou-
sand-armed demon or giant who was the enemy
of Vishnu, but the friend of Siva.

Ban'ak, or Ban'nock, an Indian tribe of
Idaho. Its territory formerly extended over
southern Idaho and eastern Oregon ; but the
tribe is now concentrated on the Fort Hall and
Lemhi reservations, Idaho. Those of the latter
reservation are confederated with the Shoshoni.

Banana, ba-na'na, an island in west Africa,
north of the mouth of the Kongo ; also a seaport
of the Kongo Free State, situated on the island.
A few years ago the town was an important
commercial station, but after the building of the
railroad from Matadi, and the establishment of
an ocean steamship line direct to that place,
Banana began to declirt^e, and, at last lost all its
trading importance when the extensive Dutch
firms formerly established there removed their
headquarters to Kabinda and Kisanga, in Portu-
guese territory.

Banana (Mtisa sapientium) , a tropical herb
of the natural order Scitaminacea, apparently
native of India, but unknown in a wild state;

BAMBOO GROVE IX JAVA.

BANANA-BIRDS — BANCROFT

valued somewhat for its fibre and decorative ap-
pearance, but n)ostly on account of its fruit, for
which it is widely cultivated in warm climates.
For a large part of the human race it ranks
as high as cereal grains among northern peoples.
Though considered less nutritious than an equal
weight of potatoes, the banana is said to produce
more food upon a given area and to be capable
of sustaining a larger number of persons than
wheat. From its perennial rootstocks suckers
are thrown up to a height of from 8 to 40 feet
or more. They bear a whorl of paddle-like
leaves, from among the bases of which, in about
two years, a large heart-shaped scaly bud ap-
pears. As the bud grows it becomes pendant,
the scales separate and disclose groups of
upward-pointing flowers sometimes to the num-
ber of 150. The fruit is gathered while still
green, the stem being cut at the same time. Of
the suckers that quickly appear, one, two, or
three are allowed to remain for the succeeding
crop. When once established the plants should
bear a bunch every year. Since the plants rarely
or never bear seeds, suckers are usually relied
upon for propagation. Propagation by means
of root-cuttings is a more rapid means of mul-
tiplying the number of plants, but is used only
when large numbers are desired. The plants
are set in the field 8 to 12 feet apart when two
or three feet high ; when full grown they com-
pietel)'- shade the ground. Since 1870, when only
a few hundred bunches were imported into the
United States, the banana has become increas-
ingly popular : in 1899 $5,600,000 wprth was im-
ported, mainly from the West Indies and Cen-
tral America. California, Florida, and Louisiana
produce a small quantity, but these States can-
not be expected to compete with warmer cli-
mates. Banana flour, produced in the tropics
from ripe bananas, is growing in popularity
wherever introduced, and dried bananas seem
to promise an outlet for excessively heavy crops.
The botanical name, Miisa sapientium, which
means ^^of the wise muse,^' alludes to Theo-
phrastus' statement that the wise men of India
used a certain fruit for food, which seems to
have been the banana or the plantain.

Banana-birds, any of several small West
Indian insect, and honey-eating birds that fre-
quent the banana groves, especially the banana-
quit {Certhiola Aavcola) of Jamaica, whose
pretty ways are described at length by Gosse
in his books on the natural history of that
island. One species '(C. hahamcnsis) occasion-
ally visits Florida. All these birds are bril-
liantly plumaged, usually rich blue with yellow
markings, and represent the sun-birds (q.v.) of
the Eastern tropics.

Banana-fish. See Lady-fish.

Bananal, ba-na-nal', also called Santa
Anna, an island in Brazil, formed by the River
Araguaya, in the province of Goyaz. Its length
is 200 miles; breadth 35 miles. It is covered
with dense forests, and has in its middle an ex-
tensive lake. Soil, fertile. Also the name of
several small villages in Brazil.

Banas, ba-nas', a common name for rivers
in India. The most important are: (i) a
river of Shutia Nagpur, Bengal, having a north-
west course of about 70 miles, and falling into
the Sone, near Rampur; (2) a river which
rises in the Aravulli Mountains, and, after a
southwest course of 180 miles, is lost in the

Runn of Cutch; (3) a river of Rajputana, also
rising in the Aravulli Mountains, flowing north-
east through Mewar for 120 miles, then south-
east, and falling into the Chambal, after a total
course of 300 miles.

Ban'at, a term applied to any district ruled
by a ban (q.v.). Specifically a large and fertile
region in Hungary, consisting of the counties
of Temesvar, Torontal, and Krisso; principal
town, Temesvar. The region originally be-
longed to Hungary; was occupied by the Turks
in 1652-1716; and was reunited to Hungary in
1779. The population exceeds 1,500,000.

Ban'bridge, Ireland, a market town in
County Down, 22 miles southwest of Belfast,
situated on the Bann. It has an Episcopal
church in the Gothic style, and several other
churches. _ The principal manufacture is that of
linen, which is carried on to a great extent.
Pop. (1901) 5.376.

Ban'bury, England, a municipal borough
and market town of Oxfordshire, on the Oxford
Canal, 23 miles 'north of Oxford, and 78
northwest of London by rail. Its strong cas-
tle, built about 1125, was demolished during the
Great Rebellion, when Banbury was noted for
Puritanical zeal. In 1469 the Yorkists were de-
feated in the vicinity. The town is still fa-
mous for its cakes and ale, as in Ben Jonson's
day ; and it manufactures webbing and agricul-
tural implements. Among the buildings are the
parish church (1797) and the town hall (1854).
Pop. (1901) 12,967.

Banc (Lat. Bancus, Ger. Bank, a bench),
legally a seat or bench of justice, and in this
sense has given rise to the expression in courts
of common law, " sitting in banc,** or in banco
— that is, sitting together on the bench of the
respective courts.

Banca, ban'ka, Banka, or Bamgka, an is-
land of the Malay Archipelago, belonging to
the Netherlands, between Sumatra and Borneo ;
area, 5,000 square miles. It possesses several
considerable bays and is hilly. It is celebrated
for its excellent tin, obtained in black alluvium
in the north end of the island, about 25 feet
below the surface, and of which the annual
yield is about 4,000 tons. Banca likewise yields
iron, copper, lead, timber, sago, nutmegs, ben-
zoin, etc. Trie population is about 100,000, of
which a large proportion are Chinese.

Banca, a boat used in the Philippines,
made from a single log and furnished with an
out-rigger.

Ban'co, a term designating the money in
which the banks of some countries keep or kept
their accounts in contradistinction to the current
money of the place, which might vary in value
or consist of light and foreign coins. The term
was applied to the Hamburg bank accounts be-
fore the adoption (in 1873) of the new German
coinage. The mark banco had a value of 35.43
cents ; but there was no corresponding coin. :

Ban'croft, Aaron, Unitarian clergyman:
b. Reading, Mass., 10 Nov. 1755; d. 19 Aug.
1839. He was graduated at Harvard in 1778;
became pastor in Worcester in 1785, where he
remained nearly 50 years. Besides a great num-
ber of sermons, his works include a 'Life of
George Washington^ (1807). He was the
father of the historian, . George Bancroft.

BANCROFT

Bancroft, Cecil Franklin Patch, educator:
b. New Ipswich, N. H., 25 Nov. 1839. He
graduated from Dartmouth in i860; at Andover
Theological Seminary in 1867; and at the Uni-
versity of Halle, Germany. He was ordained to
the Congregational ministry in 1867, but has
never held a pastorate. In 1873 he was made
principal of Phillips Academy, Andover, Mass.,
and since then has sent more boys to colleges and
scientific schools than any other American sec-
ondary school teacher. He has frequently con-
tributed religious and educational articles to
periodicals.

Bancroft, Edward, American physician:
b. Westfield, Mass., 9 Jan. 1744; d. 8 Sept. 1820.
Early in life he ran away from home ; became
a practising physician in Guiana ; and passed
the latter part of his life in England. During
the Revolutionary war he is believed to have
been a spy for the British. His publications in-
clude a ^Natural History of Guiana^ (1769)
and ^Researches Concerning the Philosophy of
Permanent Colors' (2 vols. 1794-1813).

Bancroft, George, American historian: b.
Worcester, Mass., 3 Oct. 1800; d. Washington,
D. C, 17 Jan. 1891. He was the son of Rev.
Aaron Bancroft (q.v.), a Unitarian clergyman,
and Lucretia Chandler Bancroft. He fitted for
college at Phillips Academj', Exeter, N. H., en-
tered Harvard College at the age of 13, and was
graduated before reaching his 17th birthday.
Edward Everett, then professor of Greek, hav-
ing proposed that some young graduate of prom-
ise be sent to Germany for purposes of study
in order that he might afterward become one
of the corps of instructors, Bancroft was chosen,
and in the summer of 1818 went to Gottingen,
where two years later he received his degree of
Ph.D. At Gottingen he studied German litera-
ture under Benecke ; Italian and French lit-
erature under Artaud and Bunsen ; Oriental
languages and New Testament Greek under Eich-
horn ; natural history under Blumenbach ; and
the antiquities and literature of Greece and
Rome under Dissen, an enthusiastic admirer of
Plato, with whom he went through a thorough
course of Greek philosophy. But his chief at-
tention was given to history, which he studied
under Heeren. the greatest historical critic of
that day, and one of the most scientific of all
historians. In choosing this special branch, Ban-
croft gave as a reason his desire to see if facts
would not clear up theories and assist in get-
ting out the true one. For a time he also
studied at Berlin, where he was warmly re-
ceived by the leaders in the academic world,
notably, Wolf, the editor of Homer; Schleier-
macher, and Hegel, to whom he brought tidings
of their fame in the New World. In an extend-
ed tour through Germany and other countries
he met Goethe at Jena, studied for a time with
Schlosser at Heidelberg, formed an acquaint-
ance with Manzoni at Milan and a life friend-
ship with Chevalier Bunsen at Rome, where he
also met Niebuhr. At Paris he was kindly re-
ceived by Cousin, Benjamin Constant, and Alex-
ander von Humboldt. Returning to America in
1822 he served for a year as tutor in Greek at
Harvard. In 1823, in conjunction with J. G.
Cogswell, he established the famous Round Hill
School at Northampton, Mass., a preparatory
school far in advance of its time as to systems
of studv and class-books. The teachers were

good, the instruction inspiring, and the students
led a happy, healthy life, but the undertaking
proved a failure financially. Bancroft withdrew
in 1830, and Cogswell two years later. Many
of their students afterward became men of na-
tional reputation or prominence, among them
being J. L. Motley, Ellery Channing, G. E. Ellis,
and Theodore Sedgwick. Henceforward his
career is best separated into political and lit-
erary. During the Round Hill years he had
cut loose from the political traditions of the
Harvard circle. In a public speech in 1826 he
had avowed his principles to be for universal
suffrage and uncompromising democracy, and at
once became foremost in the councils of the
Democratic party, though twice declining nom-
ination or election to the State legislature. Van
Buren appointed him collector of the port of
Boston (1838-41), and his administration of the
office won the praise of his political opponents.
While collector he appointed Nathaniel Haw-
thorne and Orestes Brownson to offices within
his jurisdiction. In 1844 he was defeated as the
Democratic candidate for governor of Massa-
chusetts, although he received more votes than
any previous candidate of his party. In 1845
he became secretary of the navy under Polk.
It was he who planned and established the Naval
Academy at Annapolis, Md. ; he gave the first
order te take possession of California ; and
while acting secretary of war ordered Gen.
Taylor to march into Texas, thus ultimately
leading to the annexation of that State. During
1846-9 he was minister-plenipotentiary to Great
Britain, and there successfully urged upon the
British ministry the necessity of adopting more
liberal navigation laws. His reputation as a
man of letters put the manuscript treasures of
the great English families at his disposal, and
he combined his public duties with ardent his-
torical researches. From 1849 to 1867 he lived
in New York city, absorbed in literary work.
During the Civil War he was a patriotic War
Democrat, and delivered a powerful speech ef-
fectually demolishing the Constitutional plea
for slavery. Before both Houses of Congress
he delivered a masterly eulogy on Lincoln. Ap-
pointed minister to Prussia in 1867 he achieved
a diplomatic triumph in bringing about the
adoption of treaties in which England and Ger-
many finally recognized the right of expatriation
and abandoned their doctrine of ^'once a citizen,
always a citizen.'' In the northwest boundary
treaty, negotiated by Polk", there was an am-
biguity concerning a portion of the line. It
was decided to submit the point to the German
emperor for arbitration. Bancroft prepared the
whole American argument and the reply to the
case of the British. The decision was unre-
servedly in favor of the United States.

His first publication was a volume of
^Poems^ (1823), all European in theme. This
was followed by books for the use of his stu-
dents, translations of Heeren's ^Politics of An-
cient Greece' (1824), and Jacobs' ^ Latin Read-
er' (1825). His first article in the < North
American Review' appeared in October 1823,
and was a notice of Schiller's ^Minor Poems'
with numerous translations. Thenceforward he
wrote in almost every volume, but always on
classical or German themes, until in January
1831, he took up <The Bank of the United
States', and in October 1835 ^The Documentary-
History of the American Revolution.' The two

GEORGE BAXCROFT,

BANCROFT

latter indicate the direction his historical studies
had taken. Then came the beginnings of his
great "^History of the United States/ the work
which gave him his greatest fame. The first
volume appeared in 1834, the second in 1837, the
third in 1840, the fourth in 1852, the fifth in
1853 and so onward to the tenth in 1874. The
earher volumes were received with enthusiasm
in America, pirated in England, translated into
Danish, Italian, German, and French, both with
and without the author's permission. The 15th
editions of Vols. I-III was issued in 1853. The
design of the work was as deliberate as Gib-
bon's, and almost as vast, and, like Gibbon, Ban-
croft lived to see his work accomplished. The
history of the United States from 1492 to 1789
is treated in three parts. The first deals with
'Colonial History, 1492-1748.^ The second
part, 'The American Revolution, 1748-82,' is
divided into four epochs called respectively :
'Overthrow of the European Colonial System,
1748-63' ; 'How Great Britain Estranged Amer-
ica, 1763-74' ; 'America Declares Itself Inde-
pendent, I774~5-* ; and 'The Independence of
America Acknowledged, 1776-82.-' The last
part, though published as a separate work, en-
titled 'History of the Formation of the Consti-
tution, 1782-9,' is really a continuation of the
'History.' The work is still the most popular
and widely read of the larger American histories.
Bancroft's materials and facilities for writing it
were better and more extensive than any other
writer on our Anglo-American history has en-
joyed. His private collection of manuscripts
and documents, original and copies (now in the
Lenox Library, New York), was by far the
finest of his day in private hands, and superior
to most institutional collections. His merits as
a historian are positive and incontestable. For
his subject he had a boundless and untiring
enthusiasm, and he was permeated with that
democratic spirit without which the history of
the United States cannot be adequately written.
Though his early style is justly open to the
charge of being pompous, inflated, and over-
ornamented, it is essentially picturesque, and the
earlier defects were greatly remedied by his suc-
cessive revisions of the work. His command of
his resources was masterly, and a far from
favorable critic candidly admits that "one must
follow him minutely through the history of the
war for independence to appreciate in full the
consummate grasp of a mind which can deploy
military events in a narrative as a general de-
ploys brigades in a field. Add to this the ca-
pacity for occasional maxims in the highest de-
gree profound and lucid, and you certainly
combine in one man some of the greatest quali-
ties of the historian." It has been said that he
made no effort to avail himself of the materials
and results of other investigators, but nowhere
does he claim finality for his work, and his later
years were chiefly occupied in weaving into his
narrative what he and no one else had. In 1876
he issued a Centenar>' edition in six volumes,
upon which he had spent a solid year in re-
vision. Again in 1883-5 he published what he
termed the "author's last revision" in six vol-
umes large octavo. In this he made consider-
able changes in arrangement and the subdivi-
sions, all tending to a better ordering of the
narrative. There were frequent omissions and
condensations, and many repetitions and re-
dundancies were cast out. These final changes

have, in the judgment of good scholars, better
fitted the work for permanent favor. It will
remain necessary to the student until another
historian, with equal or better facilities, shall
rewrite the story in a way to gain wider sym-
pathy. Present tendencies and methods in his-
torical study and writing give little evidence
that such another will soon arise. His lesser
w-orks include 'Poems' (1823); 'Literary and
Historical Miscellanies' (1855) ; 'Memorial Ad-
dress on the Life of Lincoln' (1866) ; 'Joseph
Reed: a Historical Essay' (1867); 'A Plea for
the Constitution of the United States Wounded
in the House of Its Guardians' (1886) ; 'Ne-
cessity, Reality, and Promise of the Progress of
the Human Race' (1854) ; 'Oration, 4 July
1826, Northampton, Mass.' ; 'Oration Before the
Democracy of Springfield, Mass., 4 July 1836' ;
'Address at Hartford, Conn., 18 Feb. 1840' ;
'History of the Formation of the Constitutioa
of the United States' (1882) ; 'Oration Deliv-
ered at the Commemoration, in Washington, of
the Death of Andrew Jackson, 27 June 1845.^
To the American Encyclopaedia he contributed
the article on Jonathan Edwards. See Green,
'George Bancroft' (1891) ; Wallis, 'Mr. Ban-
croft as a Historian' (1896) ; West, 'George-
Bancroft' (1900).

Bancroft, Hubert Howe, American histo-
rian : b. Granville, Ohio, 5 May 1832. In 1852
he went to California to establish a book busi-
ness, and began to collect documents, maps,
books and MSS. for a complete 'History of the
Pacific States' from Mexico to Alaska. Ir>
1893 this library num.bered 60,000 volumes, to-
which many additions have been made. His his-
tories are still in preparation. 'Literary In-
dustries' (Vol. XL., San Francisco, 1890) de-
scribes his work.

Bancroft, Marie Effie Wilton, English ac-
tress, wife of Sir Squire Bancroft fq.v.). She
appeared on the stage when a child, and acted
in several places before making her London de-
but. In London she won great popularity in
several plays, particularly in 'The Maid and
the Magpie' at the Strand. In 1865 she became
a partner in the management of the Prince of
Wales' Theatre, and obtained Squire Bancroft
(afterward her husband) as leading man. Since
then she has been associated with him as man-
ager and actress.

Bancroft, Richard, English archbishop: b.
Farnworth, Lancashire, 1544; d. 1610. He
studied at Cambridge, entered the Church, and
rose rapidly during the reign of Elizabeth till
he obtained the see of London in 1597. After
her death James I. made him archbishop of ^
Canterbury on the death of Whitgift. He pos- *
sessed good talents, and was distinguished as a.
controversialist, a preacher, and a politician.
The greatest blot on his memory is the rigor
with which he treated the Puritans.

Bancroft, Sir Squire, English actor: b.
1841. He began his career in Birmingham in
1861, and played at Dublin and Liverpool. In
186; he made his first appearance at the Prince
of \Vales' Theatre, and continued there several
years as leading man in a series of comedies de-
picting modern life, among which are: 'So-
cietv' : 'Caste' ; 'Play' ; 'School' ; and 'M. P.>
In "1880 he moved with his wife to the Hay-
market Theatre, where he continued presenting^
the same line of plays. Since 1885 he has ap-

BANCROFT — BAND SAW BLADES

peared but little, though he took part in ' Diplo-
macy > at the Garrick Theatre in 1893.

Bancroft, Wilder Dwight, American chem-
ist: b. 1867. He was educated at Harvard and
abroad, and obtained the degree of Ph.D. at
Leipsic. He was instructor of chemistry at
Harvard 1894-5; '^^'as appointed assistant pro-
fessor of chemistry at Cornell in 1895. In the
same year he founded the ^Journal of Physical
Chemistry' and became its editor.

Bancroft, William Amos, American rail-
way president: b. Groton, Mass., 26 April 1865.
He was graduated from Harvard University
1878, Harvard Law School 1881, and was ad-
mitted to the Suffolk bar 1881. He was elected
mayor of Cambridge in 1893 and has occupied
many positions of political importance. He is
also director in many educational and financial
institutions.

Band, in music, a number of trained mu-
sicians in a regiment, intended to march in front
of the soldiers and play instruments, so as to
enable them to keep step as they move forward;
also any similarly organized company of musi-
cians, though unconnected with the army; an
orchestra. The word is also applied to the
subdivisions of an orchestra, as string-band,
wind-band, etc.

In architecture, any flat fascia or ornament
which is continued horizontally along a wall, or
by which a building is encircled. Bands often
consist of foliage, quatrefoils, or of simple
bricks. Band of a shaft is the molding or suits
of moldings by which the pillars and shafts are
encircled in Gothic architecture. Several bands
are often placed at equal distances on the body
of the shaft, when it is long, in which case they
are known as shaft-rings.

As vestment, bands are linen pendants from
the neck, forming part of clerical, legal, and
academic costume. It is a moot question
whether they are a survival of the amice, or
immediate descendants of the wide falling collar
which was a part of the ordinary civilian dress
in the reign of James I. In the Anglican Church
they are seldom worn, except by ultra-low
Churchmen ; but they are in common use with
Presbyterian ministers (ordained ministers as
distinguished from licentiates). Foreign Cath-
olic ecclesiastics wear black bands with a nar-
row white border.

Band-fish, a genus in the family
Cepolidce, having the body much elongated and
compressed, and is covered by very small scales.
The dorsal fin is very long, and consists like the
anal of soft rays. The tail vertebrae are very
numerous, and the whole structure of the body
exhibits unusual delicacy, so that specimens are
seldom obtained in an uninjured state. All the
species inhabit quiet depths, and are unable to
contend with waves and currents. The snake-
like form and the beauty of their colors make
them objects of great interest. One species, the
red band-fish (C. rubescens) , not uncommon in
the Mediterranean, is occasionally cast ashore
by storms on the British coasts. It is about 15
inches long. Its brilliant appearance, when seen
moving in the water, has suggested the names
of fire-flame and red ribbon, by which it is
known at Nice. The home of the genus is in
Japanese waters. See Oar-fish.

Band of Hope Union, an association of
the children's temperance societies of Great
Britain, having upward of 15,000 allied associa-
tions, with a membership of 2,000,000.

Band Saw Blades. Owing to the increased
value of timber in America more and more at-
tention has been paid to the economical conver-
sion thereof into the sawn product ready for
market. The methods in use a few years ago
were found to be wasteful and usually crude,
and the product turned out of but an indifferent
quality so far as sawing was concerned.

The attention of the operator being directed
to band saw blades, these have come into quite
general use for various purposes. A test of the
band saw blade has proven its advantages to be
so great that it has displaced not only the small
scroll or ^"^jig* saws for bracket sawing and
ornamental scroll and curved work, but has also
displaced reciprocating saws and circular saws
for heavier work.

A band saw consists of a thin band or ribbon
of steel with teeth cut in one edge, and when in
use it is mounted on two wheels like a belt and
made to travel at a rapid rate of speed by re-
volving the wheels. For scroll work its advan-
tage over the reciprocating and jig saw lies
mainly in the increased and uniform speed at
which the saw blade travels which enables the
operator to better control the work in hand and
to feed the material toward the saw constantly,
and thus to turn out more and better work than
would be possible with a reciprocating saw
cutting on the downward stroke only.

In sawing logs the advantage of a band saw
as compared with a reciprocating saw may be
judged when we state that the band saw blade
travels at a rate of from 8,000 to 10,000 feet per
minute, whereas, a reciprocating saw making
200 strokes of 18 inches to the minute, would
only have a cutting speed of 300 feet per minute.
The band saw traveling more than 20 times as
fast as the reciprocating saw, will naturally per-
form nearly or quite as much work as 20 recip-
rocating saws. The single reciprocating saw,
which evidently was the primitive saw mill,
because of its limited capacity was succeeded by
what is termed in the United States a gang, in
Europe, a log frame, and in Canada a gate.
The gang saw mill for log sawing consists of
a sufficient number of reciprocating saws placed
side by side in a frame to saw completely at the
one operation an entire log. The advantage of
the band log mill over the gang lies in its adapt-
ability to the sawing of each log to the best ad-
vantage ; as but one cut is made at a time, and
as the face of the log is exposed to the view of
the sawyer, he can judge through what portion
of the log the next cut should be made to yield
the best results.

Another form of saw mill is that known as
the rotary mill or circular saw mill. Both the
circular and band log mills are provided with
traveling carriages on which the log is placed,
secured and fed past the saw. The circular
saw has possibly as great a capacity as the band,
but it is very wasteful, because a circular saw
large enough to saw plank from the side of a
log of medium size needs be of such large diam-
eter that in order to support it in the cut the
saw is made very thick, and thus removes an
immense saw kerf. Not only this, but it has
been found impossible to saw with this kind
of mill with sufficient accuracy to meet the pres-

BANDA — BANDAGE

^nt market requirements. The circular saw
while popular in the past is known to have
wasted nearly or quite 25 per cent of the product
of the log in saw kerf and poorly sawn timber.
The band saw, on the other hand, combines
the accuracy of the reciprocating saw with the
capacity of the circular saw. The success of the
band saw is due : first, to the acquired skill of
the saw maker in turning out saw blades of suit-
able temper to retain a good cutting edge and at
the same time flexible enough to pass over the
wheels without cracking; second, to the skill of
the saw filer in fitting his saws. Band saws re-
quire to be ^^tensioned" from time to time when
in use. By the word tension is meant the ex-
panding of the central portion of the saw blade
either by the use of a hammer and anvil or by
the use of what is termed stretching rolls.

The use of the band saw has also brought
forth an extensive line of saw fitting tools such
as saw "swages" which are designed to expand
the points of the teeth, "pressure side dressers*^
or "tooth formers" or "shapers" which are in-
tended to give form to the swaged points of the
teeth, automatic saw sharpeners, etc. With
the use of these improved appliances it was found
that thinner and thinner banci saw blades could
be used, and hence the band saw has come into
general use for "resawing purposes," that is, the
sawing of planks and boards into two or more
thinner pieces. For this purpose it is well
adapted. The plank or boards to be resawn are
fed to the saw by means of rollers. Saws as
thin as .02 of an inch in thickness are success-
fully used. Such saws remove a saw kerf of
practically one thirty-secondth of an inch. The
advantage of the band resaw lies in the fact that
it is practical to use the thinnest and most deli-
cate saw of this type and still have it of prac-
tical use and service as a tool.

Edward C. IMershon',
Of JV. B. Mershon & Company, Saginaw, Mich.

Ban'da, a town of India, in the northwest
provinces, capital of a district of the same name,
on an undulating plain near the Ken River, 95
miles southwest of Allahabad. It is a strag-
gling, ill-built place, but with clean streets, and
contains a large number of mosques and temples.
It was formerly an important cotton market.
There are cantonments about a mile distant
from the town. Pop. (1900) 29,000.

Banda Islands, a group belonging to Hol-
land, in the Indian Archipelago, south of Ceram ;
the largest, Great Banda, being 12 miles long
by 2 broad, while Goenong Api is an active
volcano nearly 8,000 feet high. They have a
rich soil admirably adapted for the cultivation
of the nutmeg, which is their chief product,
others being cocoanuts and sago. The total area
)f the group is about 19 square miles and the
:apital of the group is Banda, the seat of the
assistant resident. Tatti wood is grown on the
island of Rosingen. Pop. about 8,000, of whom
less than 600 are Europeans.

Banda Oriental, a state of South America,
originally settled by Spaniards from Buenos
Ayres, claimed by Brazil, but, after a war, made
in 1825 into the independent State of Banda
Oriental del Uruguay — that is Eastern Bank of
the Uruguay, now usually called simply Uru-
guav (q.v.).

\'ol. 2 17.

Bandage, a surgical wrapper applied to
some part of the body. Bandages are employed
for a variety of purposes. One of their chief
uses is to secure dressings or splints. Another
is to give support to a limb or to restrain its
movements, or to e'xert pressure upon it so as
to aid in restraining bleeding at some point; or a
bandage may be used to promote healing, as in
the case of ulcers, or to aid in the removal of
swelling. In these latter cases the bandage must
be applied with a considerable degree of tight-
ness, and great care must be exercised that it
be evenly put on, and that the tightness with
which it is drawn does not give rise to disturb-
ances of the circulation by undue and irregular
pressure. Suppose, for instance, the arm is
being bandaged from the hand well up over the
upper arm. The arteries which carry the blood
down the limb are for the most part deeply
seated and well protected by muscles, so that
they are practically unaffected by any ordinary
degree of pressure on the surface. But many
of the veins which carry the blood back to the
heart up the limb run immediately under the
skin, and will be pressed upon considerably by
a bandage applied round the arm. If the ban-
dage is made too tight at the elbow, say, the
veins will be compressed and the blood will flow
less easily along them at that point than it does
lower down where the pressure is less. The
consequence will be that the blood will be hin-
dered in passing up from the hand ; and as
blood is all the time being carried down to the
hand in the arteries, which are unaffected, the
veins in the forearm and hand will become
swollen and gorged with blood. The pressure
of blood in the veins will become so great that
fluid will be pressed out of the finer vessels into
the surrounding tissues, and the hand will be-
come swollen, puffy, and dropsical, while much
pain will be experienced. If the tight turns of
the bandage are now loosened, the veins will
again offer a free passage to the blood, and
the swelling and pain will gradually subside.
The proper method in such a case is not neces-
sarily to bandage loosely, but to bandage uni-
formly, beginning with "the requisite degree of
tightness at the ■very extremity of the limb, and
continuing evenly and regularly upward. A
general rule in bandaging a limb, then, is : never
let the bandage be tighter up the limb than it is
at the extremity ; apply it firmly and evenly at
the extremity and carry it up uniformly. To
this may be added, as a second rule, that if a
bandage requires to be tightly applied in the
course of a limb it must be begun at the extrem-
ity. It is specially necessary to follow these
rules when the oandage is applied to secure a
splint, since it must be tight enough to keep
the splint in accurate position, or to keep a pad
firmly applied over a wound for the arrest of
bleeding. Bandages usually consist of strips of
unbleached or bleached calico, linen, flannel,
muslin, etc. Elastic bandages and india-rubber
bandages are also in use for particular cases.
The material should be torn into strips of the
requisite breadth, and the bandages should have
no hem or edging, as this would prevent them
stretching equally in all directions. The strips
should be rolled up for use into firm rollers, a
roller bandage being usually 6 yards long, though
often more. They are of different breadth, most
commonly 2i/4 or 3!/^ inches. For the chest and
abdomen the breadth should be 4^ inches; for

BANDAI-SAN — BANDICOOT

the fingers three-quarters of an inch. The tri-
angular bandage is of all others the one made
use of for rendering temporary aid in cases of
accident, and, through the training aiforded by
"first aid to the injured*^ .associations, is now
familiar to almost everyone. The bandage is
made of a square yard of linen or calico halved
diagonally, each half having of course two sides
36 inches each in length, with a base of fully
50 inches. When it is desired to exert very con-
siderable pressure upon a part for a length of
time, or when it is desired to keep a limb or a
joint motionless for some time, this may be done
without the use of splints by stiffening the ban-
dage with starch or plaster of Paris.

Bandai-San, ban'di-san', Japan, a volcano
on the island of Nippon, 140 miles north of To-
kio. Its summit consists of several peaks, the
highest of which is 6,035 feet above the ocean
and 4,000 feet above the surrounding plain. On
15 July 1888 there was a terrible explosion of
steam which blew out a side of the mountain,
making a crater more than a mile in width, and
having precipitous walls on three sides. The
debris of broken rock and dust poured down
the slope and over an area of 27 square miles,
killing 461 persons and covering a number of
villages.

Bandajan', a pass over a range of the
Himalayas, in Cashmere, 14,854 feet above sea-
level.

Bandan'a, a cotton handkerchief, having
a dark ground of Turkey-red, blue, or purple,
variegated with simple patterns of white or
bright yellow, their bright colors making them
a favorite head-covering for southern negro
women. These handkerchiefs were originally
manufactured in the East Indies ; but the beauty
and durability of their colors caused such a
demand that the manufacture of them was es-
tablished elsewhere. The process is first to dye
the cloth of a dark color, commonly Turkey-red,
which serves as a ground. The white spots con-
stituting the pattern are afterward produced
by discharging the color with a solution of chlo-
rine. In order to confine the discharging fluid
to the exact points to be operated upon, the
pattern is cut out in leaden plates, upon which
the fluid will not act, and as many handker-
chiefs or pieces of cloth as are to be operated
upon are enclosed between pairs of these pat-
terns, and subjected to enormous pressure, the
discharging fluid being run in at the top and
prevented by the pressure from spreading, so
that the pattern is brought out clean on the
spots subjected to the action of the fluid.

Bande Noire, baiid nwar, an appellation
given during the French Revolution to com-
panies of capitalists and speculators who bought
up the forfeited estates of the Church and no-
bility. They were considered by many as
hordes of Vandals bound to destroy the monu-
ments which kings, nobles, and religious orders
had erected all over France ; and thence the
scornful denomination, which was continued
nearly up to 1830. But while the Bande Noire
removed some castles and monasteries which
ought to have been preserved as relics of art and
religion, they did much toward the prosperity
of the country by improving unproductive lands
and disseminating among the people landed
property which previously was concentrated in
'.he hands of privileged classes. The term was

originally applied to a body of German soldiers
who were employed in the Italian wars by Louis
XII. of France, and who received the name
from carrying black colors after the death of a
favorite commander. The appellation was also
assumed for the same cause by different Italian
and French troops in the i6th century.

Ban'ded Peak, or Mt. Hesperus, a summit
of the San Juan Mountains, in southern Colo-
rado ; altitude, 12,860 feet.

Bandel, ban'del, Ernst von, Bavarian
sculptor: b. Ansbach, 1800; d. near Donaworth,
25 Sept. 1876. He studied art at Munich, Nur-
emberg, and Rome; and from 1834 lived chiefly
at Hanover, engaged off "and on, for 40 years, on
his great monument of Arminius, near Detmold,
90 feet high, which was unveiled by the Emperor
Wilhelm 16 Aug. 1875.

Bandelier, ban-de-ler, Adolph Francis Al-
phonse, Swiss-American archaeologist: b.
Berne, 6 Aug. 1840 ; settled early in the United
States, where he has done important work under
the direction of the Arch?eological Institute of
America. His studies have been chiefly among
the Indians of New Mexico and Arizona, Cen-
tral America, and Mexico. He has published
many papers on the subject. He is also the au-
thor of *Art of War and Mode of Warfare'
(1877) ; ^Social Organization and Government
of Ancient Mexicans* (1878) ; ^Tenure of Lands
and Inheritances of Ancient Mexicans* (1878) ;
^An Archaeological Tour into Mexico* (1885) ; a
novel of Pueblo Indian life, ^The Delight Mak-
ers* ; etc.

Bandello, ban-del'o, Matteo, Italian novel-
ist: b. about 1480; d. 1561. He studied at Rome
and Naples and applied himself almost exclu-
sively to polite literature. In his youth, he was
a Dominican monk, and was entrusted with the
education of the celebrated Lucrezia Gonzaga.
After the battle of Pavia he was banished from
Italy as a partisan of the French, and Henry II.
of France gave him in 1550 the bishopric of
Agen. He left the administration of his diocese
to the Bishop of Grasse, and employed himself,
at the advanced age of 70, in the completion of
his novels, of which he published three volumes
in 1554; a fourth was published in 1573, after
his death, which took place in 1561. He also
published some poems. His novels are in the
style of Boccaccio and are characterized by even
greater license.

Ban'deras, Rio de, a river of Mexico, on
the east coast; so called (river of flags) because,
when discovered in 1518 by Juan de Grijalva,
the natives waved white flags at the end of their
spears in token of friendship.

Bandettini, ban-det-te'ne, Teresa, Italian
poet: b. Lucca, 12 Aug. 1763; d. 1837. Begin-
ning life as a danseuse, she discovered her poetic
talent as if by accident, and came to be known
and honored in most parts of her country. She
was especially gifted in improvising verse. She
was called the Amarilla Etrusca. Of her fin-
ished poems there remain *La Morte de Ada-
noide* ; 'II Polidoro* ; 'La Rosmunda* ; and
some shorter pieces.

Ban'dicoot. i. A large dark-colored rat
(Nesokia bandicota) of southern India and Cey-
lon, where it is known as the "pig-rat'*_ on ac-
count of the taste of its flesh, which is a fa-
vorite article of food among the natives of the

BANDIERA — BANFFSHIRE

dry, hilly districts it frequents. As its food is
chiefly grain and roots it does much harm to
gardens ; and it is also destructive to poultry.
It has the habit of storing rice in its under-
ground nests against the famine of the dry sea-
son.

2. In Australia, a small marsupial with a
long, narrow head and muzzle belonging to the
family PcramclidcE. Many species are scattered
throughout Australasia. They live in warm
nests underground, and feed upon insects,
worms, and vegetable food. The hare-like
marsupials ot the closely allied genus Perogale
are known as rabbit-bandicoots, and. like the
other, frequently injure vegetable gardens. Con-
sult Gould, ^Mammals of Australia* (London
1863).

Bandiera, ban-di-a'ra, Attilio and Emilio,
two brothers of a Venetian family, lieutenants
in the Austrian navy, who attempted a rising in
favor of Italian independence in 1843. The at-
tempt was a failure, and they fled to Corfu ; but,
misled by false information, they ventured to
land in Calabria with 20 companions, believing
that their appearance would be the signal for a
general insurrection. One of their accomplices
had betrayed them, and the party was captured
at once by the Neapolitan police. Attilio and
Emilio were shot, along with seven of their com-
rades, in the public square of Cosenza, 25 July
1844.

Bandinelli, ban-de-nel'-le, Baccio, Italian
sculptor : b. Florence, 1493, the son of a
goldsmith; d. 1560. He learned his art under
the sculptor Rustici, but modeled his style
after that of Michael Angelo, whom he vainly at-
tempted to rival and whom he hated with life-
long hatred. He was patronized by the Medici,
and in honor of the presence of Leo X. in Flor-
ence he executed the model of a colossal statue
of Hercules which was intended to surpass the
David of Michael Angelo. Another work of his
was an inferior copy of the Laocoon group for
Francis I. He produced also Hercules and
Cacus (at Florence), a somewhat heavy work, 88
figures of apostles, prophets, and saints in the
choir of the cathedral at Florence, a Bacchus,
an Adam and Eve, etc.

Ban'dit (It. bandito), originally an exile,
banished man, or outlaw ; and hence, as persons
outlawed frequently adopted the profession of
brigand or highwayman, the word came to be
synonymous with brigand. Of all European
countries Italy has perhaps been most infested
with banditti. They used to form a kind of so-
ciety of themselves, subjected to strict laws, and
living in open or secret war with the civil au-
thorities. Peter the Calabrian, the most terrible
among these robbers, in 1812 named himself, in
imitation of the titles of Napoleon, "emperor of
the mountains,** *' king of the woods,** "protector
of the conscribed,** and "mediator of the high-
ways from Florence to Naples.**, The govern-
ment of Ferdinand I. was compelled to make a
compact with this bandit. One of the robbers
entered the royal service as a captain in 1818
and engaged to take captive his former comrades.
Subsequently adventurers of all kinds united
with them. The Austrian troops which occupied
Naples were obliged to send large detachments
to repress them. The bandits used to exact
from strangers and natives a sum of money for
protection, and give them in return a letter of

security. In Sicily the Prince of Villa Franca
declared himself, from political and other views,
the protector of bandits; he gave them a livery
and treated them with much confidence, which
they never abused. Banditti are still active in
Italy, Sicily, Turkey, and elsewhere.

Bandolier', a large leathern belt or bald-
rick, to which were attached a bag for balls
and a number of pipes or cases of wood or metal
covered with leather, each containing a charge
of gunpowder. It was worn by ancient musket-
eers, and hung from the left shoulder under
the right arm with the ball bag at the lower
extremity, and the pipes suspended on either
side. The name is now given to a similar belt
by which a number of cartridges are convenient-
ly carried.

Bandon, a river of Ireland which rises in
the Carberry Mountains, and at its mouth forms
the harbor of Kinsale. Spenser describes it as
"the pleasant Bandon, crowned by many a
wood.** It has a course of 40 miles, for 15 of
which it is navigable to Innishannon, four miles
below Bandon.

Bandtke, bant-ke, or Bandtkie, Jerzy Sam-
uel, Polish historian: b. Lublin, 24 Nov. 1768;
d. Cracow 11 June 1835. He was author of
< History of the Polish Nation> (1820), and pro-
fessor in the University of Cracow, 181 1-35.

Bane'berry. See Act.t£a.

Baner, ba-nar', Johan Gustafsson, Swed-
ish general in the Thirty Years' war: b. 1596;
d. 1641. He made his first campaigns in Poland
and Russia, and accompanied Gustavus Adol-
phus, who held him in high esteem, to Germany.
After the death of Gustavus in 1632 he had the
chief command of the Swedish army, and in
1634 invaded Bohemia, defeated the Saxons at
Wittstock, 24 Sept. 1636, and took Torgau. He
ravaged Saxony again in 1639, gained another
victory at Chemnitz, and in 1640 defeated Pic-
colomini. In January 1641 he very nearly took
Ratisbon by surprise.

Banez, Dominic, theologian: b. 1528 in the
Spanish province of Biscaya ; d. 1604 at Medina
del Campo. He made rapid progress in philos-
ophy and theology at the University of Sala-
manca, where he had as teachers the famous
Melchior Cano and Peter and Dominic Soto.
In 1 581 he was appointed professor in this uni-
versity, which was then dividing the honors
and prestige of the Sorbonne. He was recog-
nized as one of the clearest and most acute in-
terpreters of the 'Summa* of Saint Thomas,
and his chief works were commentaries on the
same. He took a prominent part in the contro-
versy on Divine Grace, predestination, etc., in
which he opposed the theories of Molina. For
several years he acted as confessor to Saint
Theresa, and at his command she wrote her
spiritual treatise, ^Camino de Perfeccion.^

Banffshire, Scotland, a county in the
north, bounded on the north by the Moray
Firth, on the west by the county of Moray and
part of Inverness, on the south and east by the
county of Aberdeen. The soil is for the rnost
part a rich loam or deep clay. The principal
rivers are the Spey and Deveron, with the Isla,
a tributary of the former, and the Avon and
Fiddich of the latter : besides which there are
many other main and tributary streams. Ihe

BANG — BANGKOK

mountains rise in altitude as they recede from
the sea, the most celebrated being Cairngorm,
which is 4,095 feet high. The principal crops
are barley, oats, turnips, and potatoes, little
wheat being raised. Special attention is paid to
the cultivation of turnips, the chief object of the
farmer being the rearing and feeding of cattle.
The total area of Banffshire is 410,000 acres.
Nearly two fifths of the total surface is under
cultivation, and about one fifth is occupied by
woods and plantations. Since about the middle
of the 19th century large tracts of formerly
waste land have been reclaimed. Fishing is a
staple industry. The salmon caught in the Spey
and Deveron constitute an important article of
traffic, the valued rental of the Duke of Rich-
mond's salmon fishings in the former being over
$60,000 a year. Banffshire possesses several
woolen factories, tanneries, rope and sail works,
ship-building yards, breweries, lime-works, and
many distilleries, the whiskey being generally
known under the name of Glenlivet, after a glen
in the county. Among the natural productions
limestone is the most prevalent. Serpentine
also abounds in several places, especially at
Portsoy, where it is known as ^^Portsoy mar-
ble*^ ; it is wrought into vases and other orna-
ments. Ironstone and manganese also occur,
and Scotch topazes or cairngorm stones are
found on the mountains in the south of the
county. Pop. (1901) 61,439.

Bang, bang, Hermann Joachim, Danish
novelist : b. 1857. He came into notice about
1879, since which time he has published a num-
ber of novels and some poems. 'Hopeless Gen-
erations^ (Haablose Sloegter) ; 'Eccentric
Tales^ (Excentriske Noveller) ; ^Under the
Yoke> (Under Aaget) ; ^Ten Years^ (Ti Aar) ;
and 'By the Roadside^ (Ved Veien), are the
titles of some of them. The last named is con-
sidered the masterpiece.

Bang, a drink. See Bangue.

Bangalore, ban-ga-lor', a town of Hindu-
stan, capital of Mysoer, 70 miles northeast of
Seringapatam. It stands on a plateau 3,000 feet
above sea-level, and is divided into two parts,
the old native town and the cantonments. The
chief buildings are the government house (where
the British resident lives), the new public offices,
the palace of the maharajah, the central jail, etc.
There is a fine public pleasure-garden. In the
old town stands the fort, reconstructed by Hy-
der Ali in 1761, and captured by Lord Corn-
wallis in 1791. Latterly the town has greatly
prospered. There are manufactures of silks,
cotton cloth, carpets, etc. Bangalore is noted
for its salubrity. Pop. (1901) about 160,000.

Bange, banzh, Valerand de, French artil-
lery colonel : b. Balignicourt, 1833. In 1873 he
reconstructed both the light and heavy field
pieces of the day, and his models were adopted
by the French army in 1879. In 1884 he was the
successful competitor with Krupp for the con-
tract to supply field pieces to the Servian gov-
ernment. His gun has been preferred also by
England, Sweden, and Italy. He was the first
to employ effectively the screw principle in the
mechanism of the breech block. See Hennebert,
<L'Artillerie Krupp et I'Artillerie de Bange^
(1886).

Bangkok', or Bankok, the capital of the
kingdom of Siam, extending for 3 or 4 miles

on both sides of the Menam, which falls
into the Gulf of Siam about 15 miles below. It
consists of three parts — the town proper, the
floating town, and the royal palace. The town
proper occupies an island 7 or 8 miles in
circuit, and is surrounded with walls and bas-
tions ; situated in the midst of gardens and lux-
uriant foliage it presents a very picturesque ap-
pearance. The floating town consists of wooden
houses erected on bamboo rafts moored to the
bank in rows eight or more deep. The pal-
ace, occupying an island in the river, is sur-
rounded by high walls. Though the general
character of the buildings is not irnposing, nu-
merous temples, glittering with gilding and ter-
minating in lofty spires, are seen in many quar-
ters. The trade, both inland and foreign, is
very extensive. The population is about 800.000,
nearly half of whom are Chinese, the others
including Burmese, Annamese, Cambodians, Ma-
lays, Eurasians, and Europeans. The foreign
trade of Siam centres in Bangkok and is
mainly in the hands of the Europeans and
Chinese. The approach to Bangkok by the Me-
nam, which can be navigated by ships of 350
tons' burden (large sea-going ships anchor at
Paknam, below the bar at the mouth of the
river), is exceedingly beautiful. As the town
is neared, numerous temples present themselves,
and floating houses become common ; and finally
the whole city, with its rich gardens and shining
temples and palaces, bursts full upon the view.
Stone buildings are used only for the royal pal-
aces, some noblemen's houses, monasteries, and
the dwellings of Europeans. A large number
of the houses float on rafts fastened by ropes
to poles ; most of the trade of the city is carried
on upon the river. The internal traffic of Bang-
kok is chiefly carried on by means of canals,
there being only a few passable streets in the
whole city. Horses and carriages are rarely
seen, except in the neighborhood of the palaces.
The native houses on land, — of bamboo or
other wood, like the floating houses, — are raised
upon piles, six or eight feet from the ground,
and are reached by ladders. The circumference
of the walls of Bangkok, which are 15 to 30
feet high and 12 broad, is about 6 miles.
Bangkok is the constant residence of the king.
The palace is surrounded by high w^alls and is
nearly a mile in circumference. It includes tem-
ples, public offices, accommodation for officials
and for some thousand soldiers, with their nec-
essary equipments, a theatre, apartments for a
crowd of female attendants, and several Bud-
dhist temples or chapels. Several of the fa-
mous white elephants are kept in the courtyard
of the palace. Throughout the interior are dis-
tributed the most costly articles in gold, silver,
and precious stones. The temples of Bangkok
are innumerable, and decorated in the most gor-
geous style, the Siamese taking a pride in lav-
ishing their wealth on them. In the neighbor-
hood of Bangkok are iron mines and forests of
teakwood. Tne chief exports are rice, sugar,
pepper, cardamoms, sesame, hides, fine woods,
ivory, feathers, and edible birds' nests. The im-
ports are tea, manufactured silks, and piece
goods, opium, hardware, machinery, and glass-
wares. The United States has a resident con-
sular agent. Among recent evidences of pro-
gress may be mentioned the erection of steam
mills, the introduction of gas into the royal pal-
aces and many no'olemen's houses, and the estab-

BANGOR

lishment of a regular mail to Bangkok in 1884.
Siam joined the International Postal Union in
\ 1885, and in 1890 a parcel post service (with
Singapore and Europe) was established. Bang-
kok is now connected with Burma and Cam-
bodia by telegraph, and is the centre of a local
system of (in 1893) 1. 780 miles. A short rail-
way at Paknam (on the coast) was opened in
1893; another line of 165 miles is being made;
and others to the northern provinces have been
surveyed and sanctioned. In 1893 a treaty was
concluded at Bangkok, by which Siam made
large cessions to France, two French gunboats
having forced their way to the capital after an
ineffective defense.

Ban'gor, Ireland, a seaport town, county
Down, situated on an acclivity on the south side
of Belfast Lough, four miles northwest of Don-
aghadee. It consists of three principal and sev-
eral smaller streets, and has an Episcopal
church, a Methodist and a Roman Catholic
chapel, and two Presbyterian churches ; an en-
dowed school, six national schools, a Protestant
hall, and a branch of the Belfast Bank. The
male population is chiefly employed in seafaring
pursuits, the females in hand-sewing in all its
branches. Bangor is a favorite bathing resort.
Bangor Abbey was founded by Saint Congall
in 555 A.D., and was destroyed by the Danes in
the 9th century. The parish church now occu-
pies the site. Pop. in 1891, 3,834.

Bangor, Maine, the chief city of eastern
Maine, is a port of entry and the seat of Penob-
scot County. The city is on the west bank of
the Penobscot River, across its affluent the Ken-
duskeag, and at the head of navigation, about
28 miles from Penobscot Bay. It is on the
Maine Central, Bangor & Aroostook and several
other railroads, with steam and electric lines
radiating in all directions ; is on the main line
from Boston to Saint John and Halifax, and
also has direct steamship connection with Bos-
ton, being the terminus of the Bangor Division
of the Eastern Steamship Company. Bangor is
76 miles northeast of Augusta, 137 miles north-
east of Portland and 246 miles from Boston.

Trade and Commerce. — Situated near the
geographical centre of Maine and at the head
of navigation on the largest river of the State,
Bangor occupies a highly favored position and
one destined to be even more commanding with
the growth and development of the expansive
territory north and east and tributary to her.
As the shire town of a county embracing some
7S,ooo inhabitants, as the trade centre and
shipping point of a large and rich agricultural
section and for many thriving industrial com-
munities ; as a point of convergence for numer-
ous important railway and steamship lines, and a
consequent tarrying place for great numbers of
tourists, sportsmen and commercial travelers ;
these together with the busy commerce of its
port, the metropolitan character of its hotels
and the compactness of its business section, give
to the city a much more populous appearance
than the above figures would indicate. Bangor
has a fine harbor, easily accessible for vessels
of large size ; and the scene in the open season
along the docks, where crafts of varying rig are
loaded with lumber, ice and the diversified prod-
ucts of this region, is an animated one. Al-
though nearly 30 miles from the bay and 60
miles from the ocean, the tide rises about 17

feet, and there is a sufficient depth of water
to float the largest of ocean steamships. The
Penobscot River, whose waters unite with
those of the bay of the same name, is a noble
water highway, rising 300 miles away amid the
mountains and forests of northwestern Maine.
In the 8,200 square miles drained by the Penob-
scot there are 1,604 tributary streams indicated
on the State map, and 467 lakes and ponds.
Bangor is one of the greatest lumber markets
in the north, there being tributary to the city
the great forests of spruce traversed by the
Penobscot and down which the logs are floated ;
and has every sort of manufactory of wood and
allied products, — saw, planing, woodpulp, and
molding mills; factories of furniture, carriages,
trunks, valises, agricultural implements, boots,
shoes and moccasins, clothing, dairy products,
etc., with iron foundries, machine shops, ship-
yards, flour mills and pork-packing establish-
ments. Ice-cutting is also an important indus-
try, Penobscot ice being exceptionally pure.

Manufactures and Industries. — Bangor's man-
ufacturing establishments number in the vicin-
ity of three hundred, embracing about one
hundred different kinds of industries and em-
ploying several thousand hands. These figures
are, however, inadequate to correctly portray the
city's manufacturing interests, as many of
the most important establishments, including all
the large saw mills but one, are outside the city's
limits. Therefore, while the manufactures of
these mills are purely Bangor products, the
plants themselves and most of the employees
belong properly to other towns. Among Maine's
many industries the lumber trade still holds a
foremost place. From 1816, in which year about
a million feet were cut, down to the present
time, there have been cut on the Penobscot
waters in the vicinity of 11,000,000,000 feet.
The lumber cut on the Penobscot and its tribu-
taries during the winter of 1903-4 aggregated
about 210,000,000 feet. Lumber shipments from
the port of Bangor during 1903 were 156,509,108
feet against 124,767,646 feet in 1902, and
120,954,897 feet in 1901. In recent years pulp
and paper manufacturing has made great ad-
vance and numerous pulp and paper mills are
now in operation along the Penobscot, from
those of the Eastern Manufacturing Company
at South Brewer to the immense plant of the
Great Northern Paper Company at Millinocket.
In recent years diversified manufactures have
been multiplying and many and varied are the
products of these establishments. Bangor has
one of the largest and most prosperous shoe
factories in the State. Here is located a trunk
manufacturing establishment which shipped re-
cently a whole trainload of trunks, the largest
shipment of trunks ever made by one manufac-
turer in this country or the world. There are
located here great wood-working plants from
whence go all over the country the finest de-
signs in interior decorations and architectural
wood-working.

Bangor is a trade centre for eight counties,
and is connected with their principal places by
steam or electric roads, or by water communica-
tion. As indicative of the volume of the city's
commerce the Bangor Customs District reports
the exports for the fiscal year ending 30 June
1903 as $5,372,939, against $4,248,430 in 1902, and
$4,170,982 in 1901. The imports for the fiscal

BANGOR

year ending 30 June 1903 were $1,341,880. In
1903 for the first time in its history the United
States Bureau of Statistics reports a shipment
to the Midway Islands, located in the distant
Pacific, midway between Honolulu and Guam,
and it is interesting to note that these goods
were shipped from the Bangor Customs Dis-
trict. Exports by vessel from the port of
Bangor consist chiefly of fruit box shocks to
the Mediterranean, spool bars to Scotland and
deals to South America and the United King-
dom. The coal receipts in the port of Bangor
aggregated 365,720 tons in 1903 and there were
273 cargoes.

Banks, etc. — Bangor has five national banks,
two savings banks, two trust and banking com-
panies, two loa;i and building associations and
two marine insurance companies. There are
two daily papers and several weekly and monthly
publications. There is a board of trade with
attractive rooms at the city hall. The Kendus-
keag, flowing through the centre of the city, is
spanned by several bridges, and the city is con-
nected with Brewer across the Penobscot by a
bridge 1,300 feet long. A dam across the Penob-
scot just above the city furnishes water supply
and power, the city owning both its waterworks
and municipal lighting plant. The assessed
property valuation of Bangor is $16,345,000, with
a total debt of less than $1,000,000.

Buildings, etc. — The city has a fine granite
custom house and post-office and the recently
completed county court-house is a handsome
and commodious edifice, a credit to the great
county of Penobscot, of which Bangor is the
shire town. Bangor's city hall — the Hersey
memorial building — is an imposing edifice
which reflects credit upon the city. The Bangor
public library is one of the foremost institutions
of its kind and contains on its shelves upwards
of 50,000 volumes. The Bangor opera house is
unsurpassed for its beauty and appointments by
any outside the largest cities. The Bangor
Auditorium Association has erected the largest
building of its kind in the State, and here each
fall are held the eastern Maine musical festi-
vals. The Eastern Maine General Hospital is
one of the important institutions here and Ban-
gor is also the home of the Eastern Maine In-
sane Hospital. The Bangor Theological Sem-
inary is a time-honored institution of learning,
and only nine miles away, in the town of Orono,
is the flourishing University of Maine.

Government. — Bangor received a city char-
ter 12 Feb. 1834. The city seal is typical, the
rising sun in the background illustrating the
Sunrise State, and the spruce tree in the centre
portraying the great lumber interests, while in
the immediate foreground are gear wheel,
anchor and plow, emblematic of manufactures,
commerce and agriculture. The government is
vested in a mayor, who is elected annually, and
a council divided into two chambers. The city
has seven wards, and one alderman and three
councilmen are chosen annually from each
ward, the city government comprising the
mayor, seven aldermen and twenty-one council-
men. Most of the appointments and adminis-
tration offices are subject to the control of the
mayor and city council.

History. — Bangor's present site was in the
early days the camping-ground of the Tarra-
tines, a famous tribe of Indians. It was in 1769

that Jacob Buswell, Bangor's first white settler,
came here from Massachusetts. He was a
hunter and boatbuilder, and established his home
near the site of Saint John's Roman Catholic
Church. The place was for a time known as
Kadesquit, afterwards as Condeskeag, and later
as Kenduskeag. The locality had been visited
by the French as early as 1605, and was one of
the many places identified with the mythical
Norumbega. Kenduskeag plantation was only
a small hamlet at the time of the devolution
and during the time when the British had con-
trol of the river the hardships were severe. At
the instigation of Rev. Seth Noble, Bangor's
first clergyman, the name of Kenduskeag was
finally abandoned and Sunbury adopted. With
the growth of the place the people became im-
patient of the plantation organization and dele-
gated Parson Noble to proceed to the General
Court at Boston and secure an act of incorpora-
tion. Minister Noble was a great lover of
music, and the hymn tune of Bangor was such
a favorite with him that that name was substi-
tuted for Sunbury and the act incorporating the
town of Bangor was passed 25 Feb. 1791.

Bangor early gave attention to the matter
of improving her transportation facilities, and
she had her railroad when most of the proud
cities of to-day knew nothing of such things.
As early as 1836 her enterprising citizens built
a railroad to Old Town, a dozen miles up the
river, with a view of aiding the development of
her natural resources ; and this, one of the ear-
liest railroads in America, prospered for nearly
a third of a century. Not only did the city
have one of the first railroads in the country,
but the pioneer iron steamship constructed in
America was built to run to this port and bore
the name Bangor. She was built in 1845 on
the Delaware, her owners being the Bangor
Steam Navigation Company of Maine, and she
was designed for passenger and freight service
between Boston and Bangor. Within recent
years, through the enterprise of some of
Bangor's public spirited men, Aroostook County
has been brought into direct railroad commu-
nication with Bangor through the construction
of the Bangor & Aroostook railroad, this sys-
tem having numerous branches to important
points in northern Maine, it having also ab-
sorbed the Bangor & Piscataquis railroad. In
recent years there has been no more important
railroad enterprise inaugurated in New England
than that of the Bangor & Aroostook, and under
its enterprising and progressive management it
has become a potential factor in the development
of Bangor and the immense territory stretch-
ing to the northward. Bangor business men,
ever alert to adopt the newest methods, in-
augurated in this city the first electric railroad
in Maine and more recently electric roads have
been constructed reaching Hampden and South
Brewer on the south and Old Town and
Charleston on the north. These electric lines
bring Bangor and the territory immediately con-
tiguous into close touch, and the benefits accru-
ing therefrom are far-reaching.

Located as the city is, on the west bank of
the imperial Penobscot, at its junction with the
less pretentious Kenduskeag, the business is
largely in the valley, while the surrounding
heights afford picturesque sites for residences.
The diversified aspect is heightened by the

BANGOR — BANGS

wealth of trees along the residential streets, and
few localities are to be found with greater
scenic attractions. From the highlands over-
looking the city the view is particularly fine,
the mountains which fill the eastern horizon
making a fitting background to the picture. The
Kenduskeag has, through much of its course,
very precipitous banks, a notable illustration
being the historic Lover's Leap, a mile above
the city ; and along this picturesque stream are
mnumerable gems of scenic beauty.

Bangor enjoys the unique distinction of
being the only place of its size on the globe
where salmon fly-fishing can be successfully
practised within the city's limits, and in one
season a Bangor lumber manufacturer brought
to the gaff and successfully landed twenty-seven
salmon, aggregating 500 pounds in weight. The
Bangor salmon pool, whence are taken all the
salmon caught with a fly on the Penobscot, is
situated about a mile above the city and just
below the falls that span the river at the Bangor
waterworks dam.

Bangor is the home of many sportsmen and
is the headquarters in this section for sports-
men's supplies of all descriptions. Nearly all
the parties of sportsmen who in the season visit
the great wilderness of northern and eastern
Maine make this their rendezvous and procure
their outfits here. Moose and deer are multi-
plying rapidly as the result of wise game laws,
and Maine is truly the sportsmen's paradise.
The records kept by the wardens at Bangor
show that during the fall months of 1903 there
were shipped to and through the city from the
Maine game regions 4,679 deer, 217 moose and
26 bears, the biggest shipment in a smgle day
havirig been 202 deer and 14 moose.

Population. — In the year 1800 the population
of Bangor was 277. From 1830 to 1834 Bangor
expanded rapidly and when in the latter year a
city charter was adopted the population was
about 8,coo. The census for 1900 gave Bangor
a population of 21,850; the population in 1904 is
about 25,000, and with the towns immediately
environing, including the city of Brewer across
the river, about 40,000.

Edward M. Blanding,
Secretary Bang,or Board of Trade.

Bangor, North Wales, an episcopal city
and parliamentary borough, in Carnarvonshire,
near the northern entrance of the Menai Strait.
It consists chiefly of one principal street about
a mile in length, nestling i na narrow valley,
but there is also a higher and more modern
quarter called Upper Bangor, overlooking the
strait. The principal public buildings are the
cathedral, the bishop's palace, deanery house,
University College of North Wales, train-
ing college for teachers, etc. Bangor is
the oldest bishopric of Wales, having been
founded by Saint Deiniol in 550 a.d. He
built a cathedral, which the Saxons demolished
in 1071, and the new edifice, completed in 1102,
was destroyed by fire in 1402. The present
structure was in building in 1496-1532; it is of
cruciforni design, 214 by 60 feet, and has a tower
60 feet in height. Modern improvements have
been freely introduced. There are plants for
gas and electric lighting, and a free public
library. The municipality was incorporated in
1883. The chief local trade is through the Pen-

rhyn slate quarries, in which 3,000 wage-earners
are employed. The annual fairs are thronged
with buyers and sellers. The fact that the har.
bor is not suited to large vessels makes the
trade by sea of small proportions. Pop. (1901)
1 1,500.

Bangor, Pa., a borough of Northampton
County, 15 miles north of Easton; on the
Bangor and Portland and New Jersey Central
railways. There are numerous slate-quarries,
and the products of the slate-mills, etc., find
an extensive market. Pop. (1890) 2,509; (1900)
4,106.

Bangor Theological Seminary (Congrega-
tional). It sprang frc^n the Society for Pro-
moting Theological Education, organized in
1810, and chartered in 1812 (for the need at thi%
time see Andover Theological Seminary). The
seminary was chartered by the legislature of
Massachusetts (of which Maine was then a
part) February 1814; was opened at Hampden,
Me., October 1816; but in 1819 was removed to
Bangor and graduated its first class 2 Aug. 1820.
In that year the province of Maine was sepa-
rated from Massachusetts ; and the Seminary
was conducted as a means for supplying the
need in Maine for pastors and teachers.
It was at first conducted on the English plan,
but a few years later remodeled its courses to
suit American needs. Organized to supply the
churches of Maine with educated pastors, it has
furnished over half tneir number ever since and
does so still. Up to 1903 it had graduated 808
students and given partial course to 255 others.
It has endowments which furnish aid to all
needy students, and a library of 23,500 volumes ;
and in 1903 had six professors and 23 students.
The course is one of three years, and the Sem-
inary is open to Christians of every denomina-
tion. There is an endowment of $10,000 for the
Bond lectureship, which is not limited to the
subjects common to such lectureships, but in-
cludes also instruction in scientific directions.
In recognition of the close connection between
the Seminary and the Maine churches, the Sem-
inary trustees, in 1827, invited the general con-
ference of the Congregational Churches to send
yearly a committee to the institution, and a
board of visitors has since been annually ap-
pointed by the State conference.

Bango'rian Controversy, a controversy
stirred up by a sermon preached before George
I. in 1717, by Dr. Hoadly, bishop of Bangor,
from the text ''My kingdom is not of this
world,*' — in which the bishop contended in the
most pronounced manner for the spiritual na-
ture of Christ's kingdom. The controversy was
carried on with great heat for many years, and
resulted in an enormous collection of pamphlets.
See Hoadly, Benjamin.

Bangs, Heman, Methodist Episcopal
clergyman: b. Fairfield, Conn., April 1790; d.
New Haven, Conn., 2 Nov. 1869. He became a
member of the New York Annual Conference in
1815; preached in pulpits in New York and
Connecticut ; was one of the founders of Wes-
leyan LTniversity, Middletown, Conn., and one
of the most effective preachers in his Church.

Bangs, Isaac Sparrow, American soldier:
b. Canaan, Me., 17 March 1831; d. 1903. He
entered the Union service 9 Aug. 1862; became

BANGS — BANISHMENT

captain in the 20th Maine infantry, August 1862 ;
lieutenant-colonel of colored troops, February
1863 ; colonel of the loth U. S. colored heavy ar-
tillery, November 1863, until honorably dis-
charged 19 July 1864. He took part in the
Maryland campaign of September and October
1862, and was present at the battles of Antietam,
Shepardstown Ford, and Fredericksburg; was
with the expedition to Ellis and Richard's fords,
and served through Burnside's second cam-
paign. Later he was at the siege of Port Hud-
son, La., and commanded the defense of New
Orleans. For his meritorious services he was
brevetted brigadier-general of volunteers, 13
March 1865.

Bangs, John Kendrick, American humorist
and editor: b. Yonkers, N. Y., 27 May 1862.
He was one of the founders of ^Life,' and has
long been famed for his light verse and humor-
ous stories, among which may be mentioned
< Coffee and Repartee^ (1886) ; <New Waggings
of Old Tales.> with F. D. Sherman (1887);
<The Idiot^ (1895) ; <Mr. Bonaparte of Corsi-
ca^ (1895) ; ^Water Ghost, and Other Stories,^
<The Mantel-Piece Minstrels.^ <The Bicyclers
and Other Farces,^ ^A Houseboat on the Styx,'
and ^A Rebellious Heroine' (1896) ; <The Pur-
suit of the Houseboat' (1897) ; ^Enchanted
Typewriter' (1899) ; and ^Uncle Sam, Trustee'
(1902). He became editor of 'Harper's Week-
ly' in 1900, of the 'Metropolitan Magazine' in
1903, and of 'Puck' in 1904.

Bangs, Lemuel Bolton, American physi-
cian : b. New York, 9 Aug. 1842. He was
graduated at the College of Physicians and
Surgeons in 1872; was professor of genito-urin-
ary diseases in the Post-Graduate Medical
School and Hospital of New York, and later at
Bellevue Hospital Medical College; and was
consulting surgeon to a number of hospitals
in New York. He was president of the Ameri-
can Association of Genito-Urinary Surgeons
(1895), and the editor of the 'American Text-
Book of Genito-Urinary Diseases,' etc.

Bangs, Nathan, clergyman and author: b.
Stratford, Conn., 2 May 1778; d. New York,
3 May 1862. He ent'^red the Methodist min-
istry in 1801. In 1820 he became head of the
Methodist Book Concern, which he reorganized
thoroughly, paying off its debts, extending its
business, and putting it on a paying basis. He
was also charged with the censorship of all its
publications. He edited the 'Christian Advo-
cate' and the 'Methodist Magazine' ; was a
founder and secretary of the Methodist Mis-
sionary Society ; president of Wesleyan Univer-
sity, Middletown, Conn., in 1841 ; and in pastoral
work from 1842 until his retirement in 1852.
His chief work was 'A History of the Metho-
dist Episcopal Church, 1776-1840' (4 vols.
1830-42) ; others are: ^Errors of Hopkinsianism'
(1815) ; 'Predestination Examined' (1817) ;
< Original Church of Christ' ("1836) ; 'State and
Responsibilities of the Methodist Episcopal
Church' (1850). Compare his life by A. Stev-
ens (1863).

Bangue, or Bang, a drink much used
throughout the East as a means of intoxication,
prepared from the dried leaves of the Indian
hemp, which are also called by this name. See
Hashish.

Bangued, ban-gad', Philippines, the capital
of the province of Abra, Luzon, 236 miles north
of Manila. Pop. (1898) 13,417.

Bangweolo, bang'we-o'lo (also called
Bemba), a great Central African lake, discov-
ered by Livingstone in 1868, which is 150 miles
long by 75 wide, and 3,700 feet above the
sea. The Chambeze, which flows into it, and
the Luapula, which issues from it, constitute
the head-stream of the Kongo. The shores are
flat, and parts of the lake are mere marsh. In
the northwestern part are four large islands
inhabited by the Mboghwa, a race of fishermen
and herdsmen. On its southern shore Living-
stone died.

Ban'ian, or Ban'yan (from Sanskrit baiiij,
a merchant), the name commonly given by Euro-
peans to Hindu merchants, brokers, etc., in
Bengal and western Hindustan. They are often
men of great wealth, and carry on most exten-
sive dealings, their operations extending as far
as the borders of the Russian and Chinese terri-
tories, the Persian Gulf, and Eastern Africa.
They are great travelers, and have counting-
houses in almost every trading town of impor-
tance in Asia. English sailors call banian days
those days on which they have no flesh meat.
Probably the name has a reference to the habits
of this class ; because, before people were ac-
quainted with the abstinence of all the Hindus,
it was thought to be confined to the Banians.

Banian Tree. See Banyan.

Banim, ba'nim, John, Irish w^riter: b. 1800;
d. 1842. He early exhibited a taste for litera-
ture, and before his 20th year wrote a play
called 'Damon and Pythias,' which was after-
ward performed at Drury Lane. His fame rests
on his novels, particularly the 'O'Hara Tales,*
in which Irish life in all its features is admir-
ably portrayed.

Banim, Michael, Irish novelist: b. Kil-
kenny, 5 Aug. 1796; d. Booterstown, 30 Aug.
1874. He claimed to have written 13 out of
the 24 books of fiction confusedly associated
with the names of John and Michael Banim,
and called himself the author of 'Crohoore of
the Bill Hook,' one of the most popular of the
'O'Hara Tales'; 'The Ghost Hunter' (1833);
'Father Connell' (1842), and 'The Town of the
Cascades' (2 vols., 1864).

Banishment (the act of putting under ban,
proclamation, as an outlaw), a technical term in
Scotch criminal law for the punishment of send-
ing out of the country under penalties against
return. This punishment was formerly much
used in various forms, — for example, banish-
ment to the plantations or colonies ; to Eng-
land (even after the Union) ; from a par-
ticular county in Scotland, etc. Sometimes cap-
ital punishment was commuted to banishment
for service in a foreign war. The old Scotch
doom of deportation was gradually merged in
transportation under various British statutes. At
present, banishment is still the statutory sen-
tence in cases of celebrating clandestine mar-
riages.

"Banishment is sometimes used in the sense
of expulsion or deportation by the political au-
thority on the ground of expediency, as well
as in the sense of transportation or exile by
way of punishment for crime.*' 3 Atn. & Eng.
Enc. Law (2d Ed.) 770. The United States

BANISTER — BANK HOLIDAYS

supreme court decided in the case of Fong Yue
Ting V. United States, 149 U. S. 698, that the
right to exclude or to compel aliens, or any class
of aliens, absolutely or upon certain conditions,
in war or in peace, is an inherent and inalien-
able right of every sovereign and independent
nation. The idea of banishment occurs in the
ostracism and petalism of Greece, and the rele-
gation, exile, and deportation of Rome. It was
generally accompanied by forfeiture of civil
rights. In England, voluntary banishment was
called abjuration.

Ban'ister, John, Anglo-American scien-
tist : b. England ; d. 1692. He settled in the
West Indies, and later in Virginia, in the vicin-
ity of Jamesburg. where he devoted himself to
the study of botany. He was a contributor of
a catalogue of Virginia plants to Ray's ^History
of Plants,^ in 1660. The genus Banistcna was
named in his honor. His publications include
< Observations on the Natural Productions of
Jamaica^ ; ^The Insects of Virginia-" ; 'Curiosi-
ties in Virginia,' etc.

Banister, John, son of the preceding: b.
Virginia; d. 1787. He was educated in England
and studied law there; became colonel in the
Virginia militia ; was a member of the Vir-
ginia Assembly, and prominent in the patriotic
conventions of the Revolutionary period ; was
a representative from Virginia in the Conti-
nental Congress in 1778-9, and one of the sign-
ers of the Articles of Confederation.

Banjarmassin, ban-yarmas'-sen, Borneo, a
town near the southeastern angle of the island,
under the government of the Dutch, on an arm
of the Banjar, about 14 miles above its mouth.
Owing to the marshy ground and frequent
inundations of the river the houses are built
on piles, and many of them on rafts, the front
next the river being used as a shop or stall on
v.'hich wares are exposed for sale. On market
days the water is covered with skiffs, having
a single individual in each, moving about sell-
ing vegetables, etc. The people are continually
on the river, all necessaries being purchased at
these floating markets, and all business being
done on the water. In every respect it is a
floating town, possessing neither carriages nor
horses; the only animals kept being pigs, goats,
ducks, geese, and fowls. The houses of the
European functionaries, the government build-
ings, and the fort, are built partly of stone and
partly of wood. The fort Tatas is surrounded
with palisades, and contains the resident's
house, the magazines, and barracks. Exports
are pepper, benzoin, bezoar, ratans, dragon's
blood, birds' nests, iron, and straw mats very
artistically made ; and imports rice, salt, sugar,
opium, coral, Chinese porcelain, silk, cutlery,
gunpowder, etc. Pop. about 35,000.

Ban'jo (a negro corruption of bandore,
Italian, pandora, from Greek pandoura, a three-
stringed instrument), the favorite musical in-
strument of the negroes of the southern States,
and now widely popular elsewhere. It is five-
stringed, has a body like a tambourine, and a
neck like a guitar, and is played by stopping the
strings with the fingers of the left hand and
twitching or striking them with the fingers of
the right. The upper or octave string, however,
is never stopped.

Bank, primarily an establishment for the
deposit, custody and repayment on demand, of
money; and obtaining the bulk of its profits from
the investment of sums thus derived and not
in immediate demand. The term is a derivative
of the banco or bench of the early Italian
money dealers, being analogous in origin to the
terrns trapccitai (trapeca, a bench or table)
applied to the ancient Greek money-changers,
and mensarii (mensa, a table) applied to the
public bankers of Rome. See B.-vnks and
Banking.

Bank Bills, or Notes, promissory notes is-
sued by a bank or banker and representing their
face value in specie. In the production of bank
notes the principal purpose is to render their
forgery impossible, or at least easy of detec-
tion. This is sought to be effected by peculi-
arity of paper, design, and printing. Bank of
England notes -are printed in one of the black-
est and most indelible of inks, on paper ex-
pressly made for the purpose by one firm only.
It is a hand-made paper, remarkable for
strength, lightness, and difficulty of imitation,
and its peculiar watermark con.stitutes one of
the chief safeguards against forgery. No Bank
of England notes are issued twice, so that this
mark is rarely indistinct and the paper does not
lose its peculiar crispness. Some years ago a
self-registering machine was invented for im-
pressing on each note a distinctive mark known
only to the bank authorities. Owing to some
of the notes of the Scotch banks, printed simply
in black ink, having been successfully forged
by photography, those issued by them have
since 1858 been printed in colored inks, at least
two colors being used for each note.

Since 1855 the notes of the Bank of England
have been all produced by surface printing from
an electrotype. The number of notes produced
and issued by this bank sometimes amounts to
300,000 per week. There are 70 or 80 kinds of
Bank of England notes, differing in their de-
nominations or values, but similar in the mode
of printing.

In the United States the bank notes at pres-
ent in circulation are manufactured by the Gov-
ernment Bureau of Engraving and Printing, the
paper being made by a private concern under
a patented process, the chief ingredients being
a mixture of linen and cotton fibre, into which
are introduced threads of silk so arranged as to
be perceptible after the notes are printed. This
style of paper is furnished only to the govern-
ment. The highest skill is exercised in engrav-
ing the plates, nearly all parts of them being
executed by the geometrical lathe and the ruling-
machine the work of which it is impossible to
imitate successfully by hand. The printing of
the notes is done in colored inks of the best
quality, sometimes as many as four shades be-
ing used. The great expense of the machines
used in the engraving, and the superior quality
of the work generally, renders successful coun-
terfeiting almost impossible. The notes, when
badly worn, are returned to the United States
Treasury, and other notes are issued in their
stead. See Money, Paper.

Bank Holidays, daj'S during which banks
are legally closed. In the" United States they
are: i January, or New Year's Day, a legal or
bank holiday in all the States except Arkansas,
Delaware, Georgia. Kentucky, Maine, Massa-

BANK-SWALLOW— BANKING INSTITUTIONS

chusetts, New Hampshire, Rhode Island, and
North and South Carolina. 4 July, Independ-
ence Day, and 25 December, Christmas Day,
are bank holidays in all the States and Terri-
tories of the Union. Thanksgiving Day and
public fast days appointed by the President of
the United States are also legal, or bank, holi-
days. 12 February, the anniversary of the birth
of Abraham Lincoln, is a legal holiday in nine
States. 22 February, the anniversary of the
birth of Washington, is a legal holiday in all
the States save Arkansas, Iowa, and Mississippi.
The first Monday in September, Labor Day, is
a holiday in nearly all the States. 8 January,
anniversary of the battle of New Orleans, and
Firemen's Day, 4 March, are legal holidays in
Louisiana. Good Friday is a legal holiday in
Florida, Louisiana, Minnesota, and Pennsyl-
vania ; and Shrove Tuesday in Louisiana and
Alabama. Decoration Day (North) and ]\Ie-
morial Day (South) is observed in the several
States.

In England and Ireland the bank holidays
are: (i) Easter Monday; (2) the Monday in
Whitsun week, generally called Whit Monday;

(3) the first Monday in August; (4) 26 De-
cember, popularly called Boxing Day. In Scot-
land : (i) New Year's Day; (2) the first Mon-
day in May; (3) the first Monday in August;

(4) Christmas Day.

When one of these holidays falls on Sunday
it is observed on the following day, and a note
or check becoming due on a holiday or a Sun-
day is payable on the first business day follow-
ing.

Bank-swallow, a small swallow, familiar
not only in all parts of America, but in most
other countries, for its habit of breeding in
colonies in holes in sand-banks. It is sooty
black above, and white on the under surface of
the body, with a dusky band across the breast.
This swallow comes from its winter home in
the tropics, among the earliest birds of spring,
and spreads northward even to the borders of
the Arctic Ocean. Many, however, remain
within the United States, where companies of
them seek the banks of streams or exposed
cliffs of sand, and bore in close proximity a
great number of tunnels, which may be seven
or eight feet deep. The bill and feet are
both exceedingly weak, yet with these feeble
tools each pair, working alternately and with
great diligence, complete their excavation in a
surprisingly short time. The same bank will
be occupied year after year. The inner ex-
tremity of the tunnel is furnished with a nest
of dry grass and feathers, and there are laid in
June four or five pure white eggs. The tun-
nels are used as roosting places at night by both
sexes, and when the young are hatched they will
scramble to the mouth of the burrow and may
be seen sitting there some days before they ob-
tain strength and courage to launch forth
upon their wings. These swallows, like oth-
ers, feed entirely upon small insects caught in
the air, and the sight of a crowd of them dart-
ing about the neighborhood of their homes,
with a constant twittering, is one of the most
familiar and pleasing sights of our country dis-
tricts. The English sparrows trouble them
greatly by seizing upon their burrows and drag-
ging out the furniture ; and snakes and mice
sometimes enter the holes, but against most ene-

m.ies these swallows are well protected. Our
common species {Clivicola riparia) is also nu-
merous throughout Europe and Asia. Very
similar species inhabit the Oriental region and
Africa. These birds are well described in all
standard works of ornithology, and some spe-
cial information may be obtained in the ^Mono-
graph of the Hirundinidas^ by Sharpe and
Wyatt (1885-94) ; and in ^Bird Watching,^ by
Edmund Selous (1901). See Swallow.

Bank of England. See Banks and Bank-
ing.

Bank of France. See Banks and Bank-
ing.

Bank of North America. See Banks and
Banking.

Banking Institutions, the Examination of.
Since the beginning of the Civil War, corpora-
tions have materially multiplied in number in
the United States. As their scope has broad-
ened and their responsibilities have grown with
their increase, it has been found necessary to
the inspiring of public confidence, to the pro-
tection of vested interests, and the prevention
of abuse, to prescribe certain limitations be-
yond which they may not go. On the other
hand, extraordinary powers have been shown
to be absolutely necessary to the success-
ful prosecution of enterprises which must
otherwise be undertaken by the State or munici-
pality or else remain unaccomplished, not only
to the detriment of the public interests but to
the impoverishment of a whole country. The
wisdom of such legislation, permissive yet re-
strictive, which has brought the great cor-
porations of the day into being has been
fully justified by experience. This is espe-
cially true of the great financial institutions
which supply the funds for gigantic under-
takings. In fact, in this connection we find
that of all the large corporations those pertain-
ing to banking are the most important, the most
necessary of all. These it is that make great
nations and render possible the living in com-
fort of millions within a prescribed area ; for
it is the financial institutions that supply the
means for building railways, installing the
prominent manufacturing industries, rebuilding
cities — as the city of New York is now being
rebuilt — and even furnishing the means, at a
time of national peril, of successfully main-
taining a war of defense against aggression and
aggrandizement. Let us glance at a few of the
benefits which our national and State banks
and trust companies and banks for savings con-
fer.

Benefits of Banking Institutions. — These in-
stitutions afford a permanently safe place where
the individual may deposit his moneys. And
this is much more of a privilege than may
appear on the surface. For not only is the
secure place of deposit supplied, which other-
wise would be wanting, but the bank practically
insures the safety of the funds committed to
it : if in any way loss is sustained by robbery
or fire or by some other cause, the bank is
bound to make good the loss, and this regard-
less of the fact that the depositor may not be a
profitable customer, as many dealers are not.
In fact, the number of depositors who simply
use a bank as a convenience, whose deposits are
not large and whose multiplicity of small checks

BANKING INSTITUTIONS

are a trouble, as they are the despair of the
individual bookkeeper, is legion. Nevertheless
the bank takes such accounts, holds the money
subject to innumerable little drafts which are
made good by new deposits equally numerous
and small ; and thus the active little account
is maintained from year to year, often only a
source of trouble and expense to the bank,
which actually receives no adequate return for
its services as warden and agent. It is to be
noted, too, that in this country the services
rendered the individual by the banks dififer
greatly from those afforded by like corporations
in some other countries, notably in France.
To cite one instance : In that country every
note when due must be paid to the bank officer
in hard cash ; a check on that or some other
bank, duly certified, would not be received. In
fact, the bank's messenger visits the payer of
the note and demands the payments of the
exact amount in cash, or protest and legal
proceedings follow.

Relation of Banks to the Community. —
But leaving this phase of the subject, a
glance will show how vital is the relation of a
bank to the community doing business with it.
In a word, it may be said to receive all the
money that comes to that community and to
disburse it as desired by the customer. Not
only so, but when he cannot command the
money required to transact his business,
the bank may supply the desired amount.
Thus it is, estates are cared for, income
in the shape of interest is paid, vast sums
are committed to its keeping, while by its
loans made at times of emergency the bank
enables the business of the community to
be transacted ; and this principle extended
stands for the business of the world. It
is easy to see that a misfortune to such an
institution means a calamity to a community,
and a series of them means panic, with its con-
sequences of impoverishment and distress, and
sometimes ruin to countless thousands. How
disaster in this direction has been wrought in
the past those familiar with the history of
banking in the earlier days, when banks were
not subject to the restrictions of the present
time, and when the failure of a bank often
meant irreparable loss to innocent holders of
their circulating notes, are fully aware. But
when we go farther and take the most superficial
glance at the great industries of the country,
we obtain some conception of what banks and
banking mean. Is it too much to say that
without credit and banking facilities the unpar-
alelled facilities of our gigantic railway systems,
stretching from ocean to ocean and conveying
the enormous crops of the country by which we
are enabled to feed the world, would be in vain ?
In the last analysis we shall find that it is not
car wheels, but it is money, that moves the
great harvests of a continent — as for that mat-
ter, of the world. And the money would be
lacking but for the banks ; these, and not steam
or electricity, stand between the nations and
starvation.

Saf'^guarding Depositors. — It would seem that
under the circumstances no argument was re-
quired to establish not only the necessity for ade-
quate safeguards in the shape of stringent stat-
utes, but that measures should be provided to
insure strict conformity on the part of the bank

officers and directors to the requirements of the
banking laws, thus safeguarding the depositor
agamst abuse of privilege or criminal carelessness.
The attamment of this object is sought by the
provision in national and State legislation, as
the case may be, requiring official examination
and the publishing of a statement of a bank's
condition from time to time as the authorities
may deem expedient. There is but one proper
bank supervision, and this includes mental
alertness to discover the very best methods
for despatching business with celerity, for
msuring correctness, for guarding most ef-
fectually against errors, and to render tamper-
ing with the books most difficult and de-
tection most easy. It means, too, economy in
the use of time — the article which so many
squander lavishly as if, like the waters that pass
out from between the mute lion lips of the
Nile fountains, it was to flow on forever. Super-
vision means, also, such oversight as makes the
manager thoroughly familiar with the business
of the bank, so that he can upon occasion com-
mand the fullest information regarding a new
department of the business at a moment's no-
tice. The years of a banker's work in the dis-
charge of his heavy responsibilities are not
many at the most. From the time he assumes
the direction of the affairs of a bank to the time
when his own ledger must be closed, a very few
decades intervene. When that time has come
and he either passes from all work or puts
down his pen and vacates his chair for a
younger man, it becomes evident that the super-
vising banker — be he president, or cashier —
whoever he may be and whatever his official
designation — should be able to hand over
to his successor not only the assets of the
bank unimpaired, but an intelligible working
system such as will enable the new manager to
familiarize himself with the details of the busi-
ness and discover the exact situation with the
least dela}^ But this can only be accomplished
by the inauguration of a system as nearly perfect
as may be, which, with its comprehensive
method of safeguarding checks, will require of
him less devotion to such details as it is the
province of his subordinates to supervise. That
is to say, the more perfect the system in prac-
tice the more time will the manager have for
the exercise of his judgment upon the most
important questions coming before him. It is
here that the test of the most efficient bank
official lies. Take, for an illustration, the work
of supervising the loans made on real estate.
Expert Examinations. — It has been held, and
is indeed held by many knowing no other method,
that to ascertain the value of properties sub-
mitted as collateral for loans recourse must be
had to some qualified expert, generally some one
engaged in buying and selling real estate. The
judgment of such an authority has been, and is,
accepted as conclusive on the security offered,
and determinative as to whether the report shall
be favorable or adverse to the loan. But here
the question arises. Who shall gunrantee the
expert? — for experience has too often shown
that his judgment may fail, or it may be dis-
covered that the expert was consciously or un-
consciously interested in advising the loan : the
applicant may have been a friend of his, or —
and such cases have been — it may be his own
device for getting a loan by applying through

BANKING INSTITUTIONS

the concealed interest of another party. But
suppose a more excellent way is to be found by
which the bank can be rendered reasonably cer-
tain as to the value of the property, that
a clear title can be given, that it has real
existence as described, both as to environ-
ment and prospective value; if he be a
wise banker, will he not take advantage of
that safer and saner method? And let us sup-
pose, further, that in this way our banker is
kept informed regarding specific localities, as to
whether they are advancing or retrograding in
value, whether the interest is kept up — is it not
clear that a banker who has such expert advice is
not only freed from duties that would otherwise
needlessly weigh upon him, but that his services
are to just this extent made more valuable in
that with less time expended in searching for
details and technicalities he has more time to
devote to other important duties? Needless to
say, I am not pleading for a title guarantee
company or other corporation ; I only say this —
that where the services of these or kindred in-
stitutions are warranted by the business of the
bank — and it must be small institutions where
the volume of business does not warrant them —
such facilities carrying guarantee of perfect
safety should be utilized by the prudent banker.
Illustrations pf the principle that the more
responsible officer should not be troubled
with detail that can be as well looked after
by capable subordinates are supplied at every
turn. They obtain recognition in the man-
agement of our great industrial corporations
where reports of details are placed before
responsible heads and action based on them is
taken accordingly. In fact the principle finds
expression in every phase of activity, being
adopted by the captains of industry as well as
by the captains of great armies. Assuredly,
great as Napoleon was, and past master in the
art of war, had he attempted to perform the
duties of subsistence commissary, quartermaster,
adjutant, and inspector, the story of Wagram
would in all probability still be unwritten, and
the history of Austerlitz would only be that of
an inconsequential village in the outskirts of
Vienna.

Systematic Examinations Essential. — But
be supervision ever so thorough, it can-
not serve its proper purpose without a system
of right examination — rather of examinations.
Unceasing watchfulness can only be maintained
through proper investigations, not only to detect
fraud but errors of judgment. The usual exam-
inations of books are of but two kinds,
those of the directors, and those of the official
examiners of the general or State government,
as the case may be. Of these two methods, that
of the directors, when rightly conducted, is
most important, and for the obvious reason that
the directors are better informed as to the value
of paper and local securities than the official
bank examiner, as a rule, can be. That the
examinations made by directors are too ^ often
superficial and perfunctory, goes without say-
ing. Were it otherwise we should hardly have
the record of the year last past, which showed
26 national banks placed in charge of receivers.
Six, however, have resumed business. Eight of
these failures were due to fraudulent manage-
ment, or to dishonesty of cashiers. Besides this,
during the year ending June 1904, 50 private

banks, 37 state banks, 8 trust companies, and 7
savings institutions became insolvent. Of course,
in the examinations by the directors the revision
of loans is most important, enabling the board,
as it does, when conducted in a business spirit,
to detect improper advances on an insufficient
collateral or inadequate endorsement. It is here
the examination should be most thorough, so that
the presence of '*weak" paper, which often be-
comes such after the loan has been made, may be
discovered and remedied. Obviously in such
an examination every piece of paper must be
gone over as to time of maturity and collateral,
which latter should invariably be produced.
Collaterals should all be carefully examined
with reference to their proper assignments to
the bank, so that there may be no question about
its ability to exercise a legal ownership, if
necessary. The ticklers, the discount book, and
all books pertaining to this most important
branch of bank, should be carefully investigated,
and the precise facts ascertained. The liabilities
of the bank, its deposits and cash on hand, the
character of the depositors and borrowers, the
condition of the individual and general ledgers,
the bad debts of the bank, including especially
notes past due, over-drafts when permitted — all
these and more should be investigated by the
board, and this without bias to any officer
or employe of the bank : all of them who dis-
charge their duties faithfully will be glad of
an examination which will result in enhancing
the appreciation and increasing the confidence
of the board as to the value of their services.

To insure the correctness of balances on the
individual ledgers it would be well to render
a monthly statement to depositors having active
accounts, and to others at short intervals. A
reconcilement blank, stating that the balance is
correct, should accompany the same, to be signed
by the depositor, and an envelope addressed to
the cashier. If there are errors, the depositor
may note them, to the end that they may receive
official attention immediately ; these reconcile-
ments to be filed by the auditor and checked
back by the examining committee.

Surplus Nominal and Real. — In some
instances it would be advisable for the
directors, when making an examination, to
employ a trustworthy expert accountant to aid
them in their investigations, because such an
expert may be able to make a more complete
analysis of the condition of the bank than can
the directors. Here I venture, in the interests of
justice to all, to express the conviction that
while banks may continue to fail, shortly after
they have secured a certificate of soundness from
the national or State bank examiner — as they
have failed in the past — no such failure should
take place following a like verdict of a board
of directors of a bank, though there have been
such cases. The official examiner of the national
or State government may not be presumed to
know the standing of many of the promisors or
endorsers of notes. It may be impossible for
him to detect worthless paper, though it
is supposed to represent thousands upon
thousands in value. But no such plea can
be accepted for the directors of a bank,
some, if not all, of whom should have
knowledge of the value of the paper upon
which they lend their depositors' money. And
what are the directors but trustees of the monevs

BANKING INSTITUTIONS

of others, committed to them in perfect con-
fidence, and to whom no language can too
severely be applied, who fail to direct? Here
it seems proper to emphasize a practice which
is becoming far too common in the management
of banking institutions, namely, the practice of
carrying on the general ledger a large surplus
fund, or undivided profits, through the failure
to charge off bad paper which is known to be
such. This is a matter to which, in their ex-
amination, directors should give their attention,
that their bank statement may represent the ex-
act condition of the institution; just such a
statement, in fact, as every right-minded di-
rector would furnish were the bank his own
property. But let me be just to the directors,
many of whom are prominent business men,
some of them directors in several other insti-
tutions and otherwise engaged in business oc-
cupations which take all their time, and which
make it impossible always for the director to
direct and examine, as he would be glad to do.
This fact has obtained recognition among lead-
ing bankers, who have inaugurated another sys-
tem of examination, nameh', the practice of hav-
ing the books of the bank examined as often as
may be deemed expedient by a committee
appointed by the president from the competent
clerks, including a chairman of considerable
experience. Tlie committee being notified as-
semble immediately. Without a moment's warn-
ing all the affairs of the bank are put in their
hands. They count the cash on hand, ex-
amine balances, count all securities, examine
and compare the sum total of all discounted
bills and their collaterals, verify all accounts
in the ledgers — in short, they rigidly scru-
tinize the condition of the bank. No one —
no officer even — is allowed to make any
transaction without the knowledge of the
committee, who take due account of it. Where,
as in the large cities, branch banks exist, the
affairs of each branch are also examined in the
same manner and at the same moment, that
there may be no collusion by shifting of bal-
ances, borrowing money or securities to make
good a deficiency.

Hozi' Some Banks Examine Themselves. —
The following from a circular letter, convening
a committee of examination, will give some idea
of the character of the work performed. Jhe
first line of the instructions to the committee
may read as follows :

On presentation of this order you will at
once take charge of the bank, and will not allow
any officer or clerk to do anything without your
knowledge.

Then follow specific instructions to the com-
mittee : First, count the cash in detail. Exam-
ine the cash items, and all items composing ex-
changes, and see if any are irregular, and make
full returns to the president. Test all dis-
counted bills, their endorsements and collaterals,
and prove the amounts and accompanying se-
curities. Check up all the loans. Verify all
extensions and balances of ledgers. Prove all
certificates of deposit and certified checks as
well as all outstanding vouchers. Prove the
cashier's account ; make a record of all out-
standing vouchers and see that all checks drawn
by the bank have two signatures. Verify
the expense account. Ascertain whether all
charges are initialed by an officer. Prove the

tellers' difference and submit all items to the
president. List all amounts due from banks and
verify them, noting any irregularity. Report on
amount due from each concern. Scrutinize and
report upon clearing house accounts and margin
accounts of the Consolidated, Produce, and Cot-
ton exchanges. List all dividend checks un-
paid. Check off all stocks, bonds, and mort-
gages. Describe all overdrafts, and see whether
the books are properly kept. ^ eport all suspended
debts and balances due. Check off, a month
back, the discount book and see if all amounts are
duly entered. Examine exchange account : see if
the entries appear suspiciouslv low and if there
are any debits. Investigate interest account ; see
It all charges are initialed by an officer. All in-
surance policies and bonds should be scrutinized
and a complete record made of the same. Report
on all differences called for on general led^-er
and whether they are all known to the officers!
State at length your views as to the con-
dition of the bank; report anv departure from
the method of our system as you understand it.
Report any suggestions that mav occur in con-
nection with the method of bookkeeping looking
towards their improvement. Finally state errors
made in the methods pursued in the handling
of bills discounted, loans, or any other detail
of the business.

In view of the facts which have been given
concerning these examinations made by bank
clerks themselves as to the condition of their
own institution, is it not true that while a great
deal of importance is attached, and rightlv so, to
the report of the official bank examiner, 'it must
be obvious that the examination by the com-
mittee as stated is exceedingly desirable. The
fact that the bank's investigating committee en-
ter into possession and assume entire control
of the bank's affairs, which they retain without
interference or interruption until they have
thoroughly satisfied themselves that the books of
the bank are correct and its afifairs precisely as
represented, affords the best possible guarantee
against fraud and clerical errors. It would
seem _ wise that all banks should cause such
examinations to be held; where this is
not expedient the same methods should be
pursued by the directors. If any illustration
were desired showing the necessity for rigid
supervision^ and thorough examination it may
be found in the astonishing story which ap-
peared in the public journals in December
1904. The fact is disclosed that a woman not
engaged in business, and not known to possess
tangible assets, was able to obtain from at least
one bank, with a reputation for conservatism,
loans of four times the capital stock of the insti-
tution.

It is a good plan, when an investigation is
being made by national or State bank examiners,
to appoint a committee of the clerks to co-op-
erate with such officials for the purpose of
verifying the investigation.

A theft which had wide newspaper publicitv,
both because of the very large sum stolen and
the prominence of the bank in the citv of New
York, was where a receiving teller was found
to be a thief, although the directors had abso-
lute confidence in his integrity. He used part
of the receipts of one day to cover the shortage
of the day preceding.

In one bank two individual bookkeepers were

BANKING INSTITUTIONS

in conspiracy with a dealer. They allowed the
depositors to draw out more money than they
had deposited by covering up the defalcations
by false entries.

The officer in charge of the exchange depart-
ment in one case entered drafts issued by him
for a less amount than the face. To illustrate :
A $5,000 draft was entered by him as $1,000,
and, as he had charge of the "reconcilement,^^
the difference was transferred from one account
to another. If a ledger is manipulated, or a
certificate of deposit register falsified, it is
difficult to discover the fraud.

It is true that in the larger cities the
national bank examiners receive pay whereby,
perhaps, they may receive sufficient to enable
them to make a proper examination, but
the law is such that it is alleged a premium is
placed upon incomplete work by the provision
contained in the statute for the pay of examiners
outside of the central reserve cities. There
are, at the present time, only 78 examiners
to investigate 5.536 national banks, and but a
short time can be given by the examiner to his
work.

It is a wise proceeding to compel all em-
ployes to take a vacation without notice each
year, so that others may become acquainted with
their duties. In this way, sometimes, defalca-
tions have been discovered.

In my experience, there has been found no
more satisfactory preventive against fraud than
the changing of employes, without previous
notice, for a short time, from one department to
another, at least once a year. A constant
inquiry should be made as to the conduct and
habits of all persons employed by the bank.
Such inquiry may not make a weak man strong,
but good resolutions may be strengthened by
the knowledge that the penalty for wrongdoing
will be surely and promptly inflicted.

It is only a truism to say that good bank
management and thorough examination are
wholly impossible in the absence of a definite
system, which enters into every phase of in-
dustry. We find it everywhere. The manufac-
turer who does not know in detail his stock
on hand at any time is in as dangerous a
position as an engineer without a steam gauge.
His steam may be low — the machinery of his
business will suddenly stop. His pressure per-
haps is high — all his capital tied up in stocks
means an explosion — and the receiver gets the
pieces.

Necessity of Method. — To a right and safe
banking system method is a necessary protec-
tion. Unsystematic banking is not only a
paradox, it is a contradiction in terms. Sys-
tem economizes time, excites invention, ex-
pands energy, concentrates power and acceler-
ates results. Without system, determination
weakens, purpose crumbles, failure is sure.
Subtract system from banking and chaos is
left. In banking there is no middle ground be-
tween order and confusion, between cosmos and
chaos. System, applied to banking, should make
it easy for the manager to have its condition
constantly before him. Emphasis has been
placed upon the value of examinations conducted
by bank clerks. But in view of the close rela-
tionship of these institutions to the public wel-
fare, and the further fact that they are virtually
the creation of the Federal and State laws, it is

evident, not only that banks should be examined
by officials of the respective governments, but
that the examinations should be of the most
searching character. A good bank will court
investigation. Whether it is true or not, as
a recent writer has said, that "bank exam-
iners are not called upon to play the de-
tectives," it is assuredly true that they should
discharge their duties with thoroughness, and
with a realizing sense of their duty to the pub-
lic. So far as practicable they must see to it that
collusion at the time of examination, between
teller and discount clerk or other officers is made
impossible, and that neither cash nor vouchers
are made to do double duty in the hands of the
dishonest, as has been done. It may not be
assumed that either national or State or direct-
ors' examinations will form an infallible guar-
antee _ against dishonest practices. But what
may justly be expected of these examinations,
together with such as the bank officials may
themselves institute, is that they will reduce
losses through error or fraud to a minimum.
No known system affords any guarantee of
faultless management ; but the best system rig-
idly applied will produce the best results pos-
sible ; and for this the public have a right to
look.

The Pre-eminence of Neiu York. — Some
years ago I made the statement that the banking
law ^ of the State of New York not only
furnished the model for the National Bank
Act but that it had affected the manage-
ment of the Bank of England, so that New York
may be said to have furnished banking law for
two worlds. Gradually but surely the larger
financial institutions of this country, following
the law of concentration, are developing in cap-
ital and other resources until at a time not dis-
tant, unless all signs fail, the Bank of England
will yield to this country the possession of the
world's greatest financial institutions. And it
may not be wholly irrelevant to remark here
that the lessons America has taught Great Brit-
ain, as certified to by Daniel O'Connell, John
Bright, and other British statesmen, are neither
few nor unimportant — only to mention the les-
son of local self-government as seen in the
several States and counties of the Union, the
lesson of religious liberty as seen in a nation
without a Church, witnessed, too, in free com-
mercial intercourse as exemplified in the free-
dom of intercourse between the several States
and Territories. Can it be doubted that in the
management of the great financial institutions
this country will exert a more powerful influ-
ence upon the other nations of the world than
she does even now? When it is stated that
enough money lies to-day in the savings banks
of the State of New York alone to pay off our
entire national debt on demand, and leave a sub-
stantial balance, is it not made clear that if we
are a spending nation we are also a saving peo-
ple? And let it be said that should the worst
ever come to this country through the horrors
of war, it may not for a moment be doubted that
the financial resources of America will serve her
even more effectively than the Bank of England
served Great Britain through the Napoleonic
wars, when she was obliged to send large sums
of gold and silver out of the country.

When we regard our financial resources in the
plentitude of their full significance it scarcely

BANKRUPT — BANKRUPTCY LAWS

seems possible to exaggerate the significance or
importance of anything and everything that
bears upon our financial institutions. And
what can be of greater importance than
the thorough, systematic, exhaustive and reg-
ular examination of our great financial
institutions — our national and State banks,
trust companies and institutions for sav-
ings whose capital and deposits are ex-
pressed by billions? What can be more essential
to the welfare of a community of bread-
winners and dependents upon them than the
assurance that those institutions, with which
are lodged the means for conducting the vast
enterprises of the country and the earnings
which have been won by hard labor, are con-
ducted in an honest, businesslike way, pre-
pared to meet the demands that may at any time
be made upon them? And the key to such a situ-
ation — what is it but such thorough supervision,
with rigid examinations, as shall inspire confi-
dence and dissipate alarm in hours of financial
stringency and tendency to distrust? A mercan-
tile house may fall, and the adverse results may
be partial and remediable ; but when a great
banking institution goes down, credit goes, for-
tunes disappear, the poor are left helpless, and
the tale of suffering is long and grievous.

No banking institution to-day is of the right
kind which is conducted as such institutions
were 50 years ago. In like manner we may be-
lieve that in future years new methods, new
safeguards, enforced by an impartial, effective
system of promotion of the personnel, will give
increased efficiency in bank management, result-
ing in a greater volume of business, fewer bank
failures, and heavier balances on the right side
of the ledger.

No institution can run itself — except to
ruin — least of all a bank. Eternal vigilance is
no less the price of liberty than of safe banking;
and only those institutions can gain and deserve
the public confidence and justify the powers con-
ferred upon them which are managed under a
supervision that is searching and thorough, in-
cluding examinations which are rigid and relent-
less.

Willis S. Paine, LL.D.,
Ex-Superintendent New York State Banking

Department, President Consolidated National

Bank.

Bank'rupt, a term derived generally from
Italian, banco, a bench, and Latin, rnptus, bro-
ken, in allusion to the benches formerly used by
the money-lenders in Italy, which were broken
in case of their failure. The word in its most
general sense signifies an insolvent person, but
more strictly an insolvent merchant.

There is perhaps no branch of legislation
more difficult, and at the same time more im-
portant, than that which defines the rela-
tions of debtors and creditors. One of the
first objects of all laws, after the protec-
tion of the person, is the enforcement of the
obligation of contracts, and among all the
contracts made in a community those imposing
the obligation to pay money constitute the most
numerous class. Some of the first questions in
legislation are : By what measures shall this
obligation be enforced? and by what penalties
shall the breach of it be punished? In many
communities, especially in the earlier stages of

civilization, the breach of such a contract or
obligation is regarded as a crime, and the in-
solvent debtor is treated as a criminal. The an-
cient laws upon this subject in England so re-
gard the insolvent trader. The early laws of
the Romans and Athenians authorized the most
rigorous measures for procuring satisfaction of
a debt, even permitting the sale of the debtor
into slavery for this purpose. The Battas of
Sumatra still, it is reported, sell not only the
debtor, but also his family for the benefit of the
creditor. But as civilization advances the laws
put a more mild construction upon the debtor's
failure to fulfil his contract, and, with certain
qualifications, and under certain restrictions,
attribute it to misfortune, and, on giving up his
property to be divided among his creditors, dis-
charge him from all further liability.

The power of making bankrupt laws in the
United States was, by the Constitution, con-
ferred on Congress, which alone had the power
to make a bankrupt law applicable to, and bind-
ing upon, all creditors in the United States, and
for all descriptions of debts. This power was
first exercised by Congress in 1800, by the enact-
ment of a bankrupt law limited to five years,
and which expired by its own limitation. This
act was modeled upon the English statutes of
bankruptcy existing at the time, and, like them,
was applicable to no debtors except merchants.
Both by the English statutes and the French
code, persons capable of becoming bankrupts
are such as fall under the general description of
merchants, which the French describe as com
mercants.

A statute of the reign of George III., re-
lating to bankrupts in Scotland, describes a
person capable of becoming such to be one who
^'either for himself, or as an agent for others,
seeks his living by buying and selling, or by the
workmanship of goods or commodities*' ; an
English statute of the reign of George IV.,
embodying the previous acts and judicial de-
cisions on this subject, enumerates particularly
the descriptions of persons who are to be con-
sidered merchants, and capable of becoming
bankrupts. See Bankruptcy Laws.

Bank'ruptcy Laws. When a person is un-
able to pay his debts in full, the law of civilized
countries adopts some means of satisfying the
creditors, as far as they can be satisfied, out of
the debtor's estate, and relieving the debtor him-
self from pressure which, by his own efforts, he
would riot be likely to overcome. The debtor
having been declared a bankrupt, his property
vests in his creditors for the purpose of being
divided ratably among them, and consequently
he starts anew, entirely relieved from the obli-
gations thus partially satisfied. In general
terms this is the process of bankruptcy as ob-
served in modern societies. The law of bank-
ruptcy is, in fact, a modern creation slowly
evolved out of the criminal code in answer to
the necessities of a widely spread industrial

life. , ., . .

The early law of Rome, while prohibiting con-
tracts of usury, gave the legal creditors the
savage remedy of dividing the carcass of their
debtor or selling him and his family into slav-
ery. The Lex Poetclia (about 326 B.C.) enabled
a debtor who could swear to being worth as>
much as he owed to save his freedom by re-

BANKRUPTCY LAWS

signing his property; and many years afterward
the legislation of Julius Caesar established the
cessio bonorum as an available remedy for all
honest insolvents. The bankrupt law was slow-
ly developed in England. The first English
statute on bankruptcy (34 and 35 Henry VIII.,
c. 4.) was directed against fraudulent debtors,
and gave power to the lord chancellor and oth-
er high officers to seize their estates and divide
them among their creditors. In England, before
1841, only a tradesman could be a bankrupt.
This distinction was then abolished. It was
abolished in the United States in i86g. In the
United States, Congress alone has power to pass
a bankrupt law which shall have authority
throughout the countr)\ The several States
may enact such statutes when there is no law of
Congress in operation. The first general bank-
rupt act in the United States was passed in
1800 and was repealed in 1803. In 1841 an-
other law was put in operation, with a special
view of meeting the urgent needs of debtors
who had been ruined by the commercial revul-
sion of 1837-8, and who could receive no ef-
fectual relief from local laws. This act was
repealed in 13 months, but in the meantime a
large number of cases had been disposed of,
amounting to 3,250 in Massachusetts alone. An-
other bankrupt law was passed which took ef-
fect I June 1867. It was framed with great
care by a committee of the House of Represen-
tatives, of which Mr. Jenckes was the chairman
and chief working member. Its authors hoped
that it would form a permanent addition to the
jurisprudence of the country, but it was re-
pealed within a few years.

An act ^'to establish a uniform system of
bankruptcy throughout the United States,'' was
passed by both Houses of the 55th Congress,
and by the approval of President McKinley be-
came a law on i July 1898. The question had
been brought before Congress for several years,
the issue not being between the political par-
ties, but on the method of legislation, one side
favoring the creditor and the other the debtor
class. The Nelson bankruptcy bill, which at the
first, or special, session of the 55th Congress,
passed the Senate, failed to receive the consent
of the House. The new law was a compromise
jetween the Nelson bill, calculated chiefly to
benefit debtors, and the Torrey bill, designed
to guard the interests of both creditors and
debtors. The adoption of the bill which be-
came a law was mainly through the long-con-
tinued efforts of Senator Hoar (Rep., Mass.),
aided especially by Senator Nelson (Rep.,
Minn.), and Representative George W. Ray
(Rep., N. Y.). A conference between the two
Houses was held, which reached an agreement
on 15 June, the report being adopted by the
House, 28 June, by a vote of 133 to 53 ; present
and not voting, 24. All the votes against the
bill came from the South and the far West.

The provisions under which a man can be
thrown into bankruptcy against his will are as
follows: (i) where a man has disposed of his
property with intent to defraud ; (2) where
he has disposed of his property to one or more
creditors tc give a preference to them; (3)
where he has given a preference through legal
proceedings; (4) where a man has made a
voluntary assignment for the benefit of his
creditors generally: (5) where a man admits
\n vritinj? that he is a bankrupt. The last two

provisions are practically voluntary proceed-
ings. Under the common law a man is con-
sidered insolvent when he cannot pay his debts
when they are due ; under the new law he is
deemed insolvent only when his property, fairly
valued, is insufficient to pay his debts. Only two
offenses are cited under the new law ; one when
property is hidden away after proceedings in
bankruptcy have been begun, and the other
when perjury is discovered. Discharges are
to be denied in only two cases ; one, in which
either of the offenses detailed has been com-
mitted, and the other, when it is shown that
fraudulent books have been kept. The term of
imprisonment for either of these offenses is not
to exceed two years.

The law provides a complete system through-
out the United States, and for its administra-
tion by the United States covirts in place of the
different systems formerly in existence in the
various States administered by State courts. In
bankruptcy proceedings a bankrupt debtor may
turn over all his property to the court, to be
administered for the benefit of his creditors,
and then get a complete discharge from his
debts. A bankrupt may of his own motion offer
to surrender his property to the administration
of the United States court and ask for his
discharge in voluntary bankruptcy, or creditors
may apply to the court to compel a bankrupt
to turn over his property to be administered un-
der the act for the benefit of the creditors in in-
voluntary bankruptcy. The bankrupt who has
turned over all his property and conformed
to the provisions of the acts is entitled to a
judgment of court discharging him from any
future liability to his creditors.

Extended powers are given by the law for
the taking possession and the administration
of the assets, among others, to allow and dis-
allow all claims against bankrupt estates ; ap-
point receivers and take the necessary measures
for the preservation and charge of the property
of a bankrupt ; to arraign, try, and punish bank-
rupts, officers, and other persons, and the agents,
officers, and members of the board of directors
or trustee, or other similar bodies or corpo-
rations for violation of the act ; to authorize the
business of the bankrupt to be conducted for
limited periods ; to cause the assets to be col-
lected and reduced to money and distributed,
and substantially determine all controversies in
relation thereto ; to enforce obedience to lawful
orders by fine or imprisonment ; and to extra-
dite bankrupts from one district to another.
As all questions, both of law and fact, in rela-
tion to the property of the rights of the various
parties, must be decided in the bankruptcy pro-
ceeding, it is provided that referees be appoint-
ed, who are charged with the duty of hearing
the allegations and testimony of all parties, and
deciding all such questions as may arise. Each
case, as it comes up, is assigned to some ref-
eree, whose duty it is to adjudicate and pass upon
all such questions arising therein m the first
instance, the right being reserved to any par-
ties to appeal from the decision of the referee
to the United States district court. The duties
of the referee are substantially of a judicial
character, and he occupies much the position
of a judge of primary resort, subject to an ap-
peal to the court, and is required to take the
same oath of office as that prescribed for judges
of the United States courts.

BANKS

Provision is made in the act for allowing
bankrupts to compromise or settle with their
creditors by a proceeding known as composi-
tion proceedings, whereby, if a bankrupt and
a majority of his creditors agree upon some
basis of settlement, the same, if approved by the
court, shall become binding upon all creditors.
The decision of the question as to the approval
of compositions and granting discharges to a
bankrupt from his debts is specifically reserved
by the act to the judges of the United States
courts ; but the court, by virtue of its general
powers, may refer such matters to the referee
to take testimony and report to the court his
opinion thereon. The aim of the act has been
to make the expense of the proceedings depend
largely upon the amount of the property in-
volved, and the compensation of the referee is
fixed substantially at one per cent on the
amount distributed to the creditors in ordi-
nary cases, where the assets are distributed
by the court, and one half of one per cent in
composition cases, and the trustees who have
charge of the actual management of the bank-
rupt's property receive as compensation such
■commissions on accounts paid out by them as
dividends as the court may allow, not to ex-
ceed, however, three per cent on the first $5,000,
two per cent on the second $5,000, and one per
cent on all sums in excess of $10,000.

Banks, Mrs. Isabella (Varlev), English
poet and novelist : b. Manchester, England. 25
March 1821 ; d. London, 5 May 1897. After
teaching school for some years in Manchester,
she married the journalist. George Linnaeus
Banks in 1846 and with him published a volume
of verse, * Daisies in the Grass* (1865). Her
first novel, 'God's Providence House* (1865),
made her widely known, and among other popu-
lar novels by her are: 'Stung to the Quick'
(1867); 'The Manchester Man* (1872);
■* Wooers and Winners* (1880) ; 'Forbidden to
Wed* (1883) : 'In His Own Hand* (1885) ;
-Geoffrey Oliphant's Folly* (1886). She pub-
lished several volumes of poems also and she
and her husband were the authors of many pop-
ular songs.

Banks, Sir Joseph, English naturalist: b.
London, 4 Jan. 1743; d. Islesworth, 19 June
1820. While in Oxford he began to manifest a
strong love of botany and other branches of
natural history, to which his attention had al-
ready been turned from about the age of 14.
He formed a volunteer class in the university
and brought Mr. Lyons from Cambridge to
teach it. In May 1766 he was chosen a mem-
ber of the Royal Society, and in the following
summer he went to Newfoundland and pro-
ceeded to Hudson Bay to collect plants. In
1768 he. with Dr. Solander. a pupil of Linnaeus
and assistant librarian at the British Museum,
accompanied Cook on his voyage of discovery,
Banks being appointed naturalist to the expedi-
tion. In an expedition into the interior of the
desolate Tierra del Fuego, for the purpose of
■examining the country, the two naturalists nar-
rowlj' escaped perishing with cold. Banks pro-
cured the introduction of the bread-fruit tree
into the West Indies, and he wrote the botani-
cal observations in the account of Cook's voy-
ages. In 1772 he visited Iceland with Dr. Solan-
der, in order to make himself acquainted with
its natural productions. During this voyage the
Vol. 2 — 18.

Hebrides were examined, and the columnar
stratification of the rocks surrounding the caves
of Staffa was made known to naturalists for
the first time. After the resignation of Sir
John Pringle in 1777 Banks was chosen presi-
dent of the Royal Society. In 1781 he was
made a baronet. The French chose him a mem-
ber of the National Institute in 1802, because to
his intercession they owed the recovery of the
papers of La Peyrouse relating to his voyage,
which had fallen into the hands of the British.
His library and his collections in natural his-
tory are celebrated. Besides some essays, peri-
odical publications, and some contributions to
the transactions of learned societies, he wrote
nothing but 'A Short Account of the Causes of
the Blight, the Mildew, and the Rust in Corn*
(1805). In accordance with a contingent be-
quest his collections were added to the British
Museum. The genus Banksia, of the natural
order Protcacea, was named in honor of him
by the younger Linnaeus.

Banks, Nathaniel Prentiss, American sol-
dier and statesman : b. Waltham, Mass., 30 Jan,
1816; d. there i Sept. 1894. Entirely self-
taught, he worked himself up from the position
of bobbin-boy in a cotton factory to the editor-
ship of a weekly newspaper. He read law, was
admitted to the bar, and began to practise, but
soon became active in politics. Elected to the
Massachusetts legislature in 1849, he became
speaker in 1851-2. In 1853 he was president
of the Massachusetts Constitutional Convention,
and the same year was elected to Congress as a
Coalition Democrat. The session which be-
gan 3 Dec. 1855, was memorable for its bitter
speakership contest, the candidates being Banks
and William Aiken, a large slaveholder of
South Carolina. The contest lasted two
months, the President's message being withheld,
and all legislative business blocked. The ser-
geant-at-arms borrowed $20,000 from a Phila-
delphia bank in order to make advances to
needy members of both parties. On the 133d
ballot, 2 Feb. 1856, Mr. Banks was elected.
None of his decisions while speaker were ever
reversed by the House. He was governor of
Massachusetts, 1857-9. In 1861 President Lin-
coln appointed him major-general of volunteers.
He conducted active operations in the Shenan-
doah valley and fought with credit at Win-
chester and Cedar Mountain. In co-operation
with Admirals Farragut and Porter he in-
vested Port Hudson and unsuccessfully at-
tempted to carry it by assault. In 1864, much
against his judgment, he was placed in com-
mand of the Red River Expedition, which re-
sulted most disastrously for the Federal forces.
Banks was widely censured and soon relieved
of his command. Gen. Grant, years later, in
his 'Memoirs* furnished a full vindication of
Banks by giving the name of the superior officer
responsible for the expedition. From 1866 to
1876 Gen. Banks represented his old district in
Congress, and was prominent as chairman of
the Committee on Foreign Relations. He was
United States marshal for Massachusetts,
1879-88. In i8gi Congress bestowed on him
an annual pension of $1,200. a severe mentai
disorder having come upon him.

Banks, Thomas, English sculptor: b. Lam«
beth, 29 Dec. 1735 : d. 2 Feb. 1805. He studied
sculpture in the Royal Academy, and was sent,

BANKS — BANKS AND BANKING

as one of its students, to Italy. Here he exe-
cuted several excellent pieces, particularly a
bas-relief representing Caractacus and his fam-
ily before Claudius, and a Cupid catching a but-
terfly. Among other works executed by him
was a colossal statue showing Achilles enraged
for the loss of Briseis, now in the entrance
hall of the Royal Academy. He was also the
sculptor of the admired monument of Sir Eyre
Coote in Westminster Abbey, and of those of
Dr. Watts and Woollett. He was elected a
member of the Royal Academy in 1785.

Banks, a nautical term applied to shelving
elevations in the sea or the bed of a river, ris-
ing to or near the surface, composed of sand,
mud, or gravel. When tolerably smooth at the
top they constitute shallows, shoals, and flats ;
but when rocky become reefs, ridges, keys, etc.
A good chart always defines them, indicating
whether they are sands or rocky.

Banks Land, an island in the Arctic
Ocean, discovered by Parry in 1819, explored
by AlcClure in 1850, and named by him Baring
Island. It is separated by Banks Strait from
Melville Island, lying to the northwest, and by
Prince of Wales Strait from Prince Albert
Land, lying eastward.

Banks and Banking. In specific relation
to his customer the banker occupies the position
of debtor to creditor, holding money which the
customer may demand at any time in whole or in
part by means of a check payable at sight on
presentation during banking hours. For the
refusal to cash a check from the erroneous sup-
position that he has no funds of his customer's
in his hands, or for misleading statements re-
specting the position in which the bank stands,
the banker is legally responsible. Moreover, the
law regards him as bound to know his cus-
tomer's signature, and the loss falls upon him
in event of his cashing a forged check. In
their relations to the community, the chief
services rendered by banks are the following:
By receiving deposits of money, and massing
in sums efficient for extensive enterprises the
smaller savings of individuals, they are the means
of keeping fully and constantly employed a
large portion of the capital of the community
which, but for their agency, would be unpro-
ductive; they are the means by which the
surplus capital of one part of a country is
transferred to another; where it may be ad-
vantageously employed in stimulating industry;
they enable vast and numerous money transac-
tions to be carried on without the intervention
of coin or notes at all, thus obviating trouble,
risk and expense. The mechanism by which the
last of these benefits is secured is to be found
in perfection in the clearing-house system.

History. — Although banking operations on a
considerable scale appear to have been conduct-
ed by the ancients, modern banking must be
regarded as having had an independent origin
in the reviving civilization of the Middle Ages.
In the I2th century almost the whole trade of
Europe was in the hands of the Italian cities,
and in these the need of bankers was
first ^ felt. The earliest public bank, that of
Venice, established in 1171, and existing down
to the dissolution of the republic in 1797,

was for some time a bank of deposit only,
the government being responsible for the de-
posits, and the whole capital being in effect a
public loan. In the early periods of the opera-
tions of this bank deposits could not be with-
drawn, but the depositor had a credit at the
bank to the amount deposited, this credit being
transferable to another person in place of
money payment. Subsequently deposits were
allowed to be withdrawn, the original system
proving inconvenient outside the Venetian
Ijoundaries. It was, however, less from the
Bank of Venice than from the Florentine bank-
ers of the 13th and 14th centuries that modern
banking especially dates, the magnitude of their
operations being indicated by the fact that be-
tween 1430 and 1433, 76 bankers of Florence
issued on loan nearly 5,000,000 gold florins.
The Bank of St. George at Genoa also furnished
a striking chapter in financial history. The im-
portant Bank of Amsterdam, taken by Adam
Smith as a type of the older banks, was estab-
lished in 1609, and owed its origin to the fluc-
tuation and uncertainty induced by the clipped
and worn currency. The object of the insti-
tution (established under guarantee of the
city) was to give a certain and unquestionable
value to a bill on Amsterdam ; and for this
purpose the various coins were received in
deposit at the bank at their real value in
standard coin, less a small charge for recoinage
and expense of management. For the amount
deposited a credit was opened on the books of
the bank, by the transfer of which payments
could be made, this so-called bank money being
of uniform value as representing money at the
mint standard. It bore, therefore, an agio or
premium above the worn coin currency, and it
was legally compulsory to make all payments
of 600 guilders and upward in bank money.
The deposits were supposed to remain in the
coffers of the bank, but were secretly traded
with in the i8th century till the collapse of the
bank in 1790. Banks of similar character were
established at Nuremberg and other towns, the
most important being the Bank of Hamburg,
founded in 1619. In England there was no
corresponding institution, the London mer-
chants being in the habit of lodging their money
at the Mint in the Tower, until Charles I. ap-
propriated the whole of it (£200,000) in 1640.
Thenceforth they lodged it with the goldsmiths,
who began to do banking business in a small
way, encouraging deposits by allowing interest
(4d. a day) for their use, lending money for
short periods, discounting bills, etc. The bank-
note was first invented and issued in 1690 by
the Bank of Sweden, founded by Palmstruck
in 1688, and one of the most successful of bank-
ing establishments. About the same time the
banks of England and Scotland began to take
shape, opening up a new era in the financing of
commerce and industry.

Bank of England. — The Bank of England,
the most important banking establishment in
the world, was projected by William Paterson,
afterward the promoter of the disastrous Darien
scheme. It was the first public bank in the
United Kingdom, and was chartered in 1694
by an act which, among other things, secured
certain recompenses to such persons as should
advance the sum of £1,500,000 toward carrying

BANKS AND BANKING

on the war against France. Subscribers to the
loan became, under the act, stockholders, to
the amount of their respective subscriptions, in
the capital stock of a corporation denominated
the Governor and Company of the Bank of
England. The company thus formed advanced
to the government i 1,200,000 at an interest of 8
per cent — the government making an additional
bonus or allowance to the bank of £4,000 annual-
ly for the management of this loan (which, in
fact, constituted the capital of the bank), and
for settling the interest and making transfers,
etc., among the various stockholders. This
bank, like that of Venice, was thus originally
an engine of the government, and not a mere
commercial establishment. Its capital has been
added to from time to time, the original capital
of ii,200,ooo having increased to £14,553,000, in
1816, since which no further augmentation has
taken place. There exists besides, however,
a variable **rest'^ of over £3,000,000. The char-
ter of the bank was originally granted for 11
years certain, or till a j-ear's notice after i Aug.
1705. It was subsequently renewed for various
periods in 1697, 1708, 1713, 1742, 1764, 1781,
1800, 1833, and 1844, certain conditions which
the bank had to fulfill being specified at each
renewal. On this last occasion it was continued
till 12 months' notice from 1855. At the same
time the issue department of the bank was
established as distinct from the general banking
department, the sole business entrusted to the
former being the issue of notes. By this ar-
rangement the bank was authorized to issue
notes to the value of £14,000,000 upon securities
especially set apart, the most important of the
securities being the sum of £11,015,100 due to
the bank by the government, together with so
much of the coin and bullion then held by the
bank as was not required by the banking de-
partment. The bank has since been permitted
to increase its issue on securities to £15,750,000,
but for every note that the issue department
may issue beyond the total sum of £15,750,000
an equivalent amount of coin or bullion must
be paid into the coffers of the bank. The Bank
of England notes are, therefore, really equiva-
lent to, and at any time convertible into, gold,
IS it is in the utmost degree improbable that
my drain on the treasure in the bank will
reduce the outstanding notes below £15,750,000.
They are (like all English bank-notes) of the
value of £5 and upward, and are legal tender
throughout England. Notes once issued by the
bank and returned to it are not reissued but
destroyed — a system adopted in order to fa-
cilitate the keeping of an account of the num-
bers of the notes in circulation, and so prevent
forgery.

In compliance also with the act of 1844 the
bank is compelled to publish a weekly account.
The following shows the condition of the bank
on 21 Jan. 1903 : Issue department : notes is-
sued, £49,666.245; securities, £18,175,000; gold,
coin, and bullion, £31,491,245. Banking depart-
ment: capital and "rest,*^ £18,103,048; deposits
and post bills, £50,670,747 ; securities, £45,438,969;
notes in the reserve, £21,314,325 ; and gold and
silver coin, £2,020,501.

The total of the notes given out by the issue
department is called the issue circulation, the
portion of it in the hands of the public being
the active circulation, and that still in the
banking department being the note reserve.

This note reserve represents really the amount
of bullion in the issue department available
for the use of the banking department. Of the
other iterns in the account it may be noted that
the proprietors' "rest" is a varying surplus in-
creased always by accumulated profits up to
5 April and 10 October, when the bank divi-
dends are paid to the shareholders ; and that
the public deposits, which include sums lodged
on account of the customs, inland revenue, etc.,
increase through revenue receipts until the divi-
dend terms in January, April, July, and Octo-
ber. The other or private deposits comprise
those of bankers, merchants, and other persons.
An increase in these private deposits indicates
an increase of monetary ease, while a decrease
informs us that bankers, merchants, and traders
have calls upon them for money. A better in-
dication of the demand for money is furnished,
however, by the advances on commercial se-
curities, and it is by this and the condition of
the reserve that the bank rate of discount is
regulated. When the reserve is high and the
advances moderate the discount rate is lov.-,
and it is raised according as the reserve falls
and advances are more in request, especially
during an adverse foreign exchange and drain
of gold. Gold is thus restrained from going
abroad, and its influx into the country is en-
couraged. In addition to the profits which the
bank may make by ordinary banking business,
it receives an allowance for the management
of the national debt, etc., at the rate of £300
per million on £6,000,000, and £150 per million
on all debt above that sum. It also derives a
profit from the foreign coin and bullion brought
to it, for which it pays £3 17s. 9d., or ij/2d. per
ounce less than the real value.

The management of the bank is in the hands
of a governor, deputy-governor and 24 directors,
elected by stockholders who have held £500 of
stock for six months previous to the election.
A director is required to hold £2,000, a deputy-
governor £3,000, and a governor £4,000 of the
stock. The court or board of directors meets
every Thursday, when the weekly account is
presented.

Bank of France. — The Bank of France is
second in importance only to the Bank of Eng-
land. It was established in 1800, at first with a
capital of 45,000,000 francs, and with the ex-
clusive privilege in Paris of issuing notes pay-
able to bearer, a privilege which was extended
in 1848 to cover the whole of France. It has
numerous branches in the larger towns, a num-
ber of these having been acquired in 1848, when
certain joint-stock banks of issue were by gov-
ernment decree incorporated with the Bank of
France, the capital of which was then increased
to 91,250,000 francs, in 91,250 shares of i.ooo
francs each. In 1857 the capital was doubled,
and, besides this, it has a large surplus capital
or <'rest.*^ Like the Bank of England, it is a
bank of deposit, discount, and circulation, and
is a large creditor of the stafe. The govern-
ment appoints the governor and two deputy
governors, who are all required to be stock-
holders. There is also a body of 15 directors
and 3 censors, nominated by the shareholders.

The capital stock of the Bank of France
is 182,500,000 francs. As shown by statement of
resources and liabilities dated 22 Jan. 1903 the
surplus and other profits of the bank amounted
to 42,515,000 francs, and its outstanding circula-

BA'NKS AND BANKING

tion to 4,431,801.910. The total assets of the
bank were 5,262.099,592. of which 3,601,126,067
consisted of specie divided as follows : Gold,
2,508,805,839; silver, 1,092,320,228.

National Banks of the United States. — The
table below, compiled from the report of the
comptroller of the currency (30 Jan. 1905),
gives a comprehensive view of the development
of the national banking sj'stem in recent years.

On II Jan. 1905, 5,528 national banking asso-
ciations filed reports of condition with the comp-
troller of the currency. The paid-in capital
stock of the reporting banks was $776,916,147;
surplus funds and other undivided profits, $406,-
177-675 and $183,994,737, respectively. The out-
standing circulating notes of the reporting banks
amounted to $424,345,433 and their individual
deposits to $3,612,499,599. The aggregate re-
sources of the associations were $7,117,800,553,
an increase since 22 Jan. 1904 of $540,922,390.
Against deposit liabilities of $4,416,877,711, a
reserve was held aggregating $1,008,064,321.

The volume of the exchanges of the 98
clearing houses of the United States for the
year ended 30 Sept. 1904 amounted to $102,150,-
313,982, against $113,963,298,913 for the year
ended 30 Sept. 1903, the net decrease being
$11,812,984,931. See Banks and Banking,
American, and Banks, United States Na-
tional.

Recent Rapid Grozvth. — From 14 March
1900 to 31 March 1903 — 3 years and 17 days
— 1,442 new banks were organized. They were
capitalized and distributed as follows :

State

No.

Capital

Bonds
Deposited

$ 777,500

205,000

200,000

4,205,000

1,065,000

100,000

50,000

410,000

1,365,000

525,000

250,000

5,710,000

3,030,000

$ 205,000

549,000

286,750

35,500

25,000

117,500

319,250

56,500

62,550

1,544,050

839,300

Connecticut

Delaware

Florida

Indiana

Indian Territory.

Iowa

Kansas

Kentucky

Louisiana

Maine

Maryland

Massachusetts . ..

Michigan

Minnesota

Mississippi

Missouri

Montana

Nebraska

New Hampshire. .

New Jersey

New Mexico

New York

North Carolina. . .
North Dakota...

Ohio

Oklahoma

Oregon

Pennsylvania . . .

Porto Rico

Rhode Island. . . .
South Carolina. ..
South Dakota. . ..

Tennessee

Texas

Utah

Vermont

Virginia

Washington

West Virginia. . .

Wisconsin

Wyoming

No.

64
73
38

3
35

3
23

43
85

7
169

166

I
26

7
31
28

Capital

1,970.000

2,445,000

1,490,000

2,620,000

875,000

250,000

1,107.000

2,150,000

2,565,000

3,406,000

725,000

1,855,000

305,000

960,000

225,000

1,070,000

225,000

6,570,000

330,000

5,945,000

2,065,000

175.000

14,407,000

100,000

500,000

260,000

800,000

480,000

6,318,000

105,000

25,000

1,130,000

380,000

1,335,000

1,795,000

175,000

Bonds
Deposited

524,40a
807,250
479.750
498,300
194,000

69,500
286,450
175,000
242,300
988,900
235,000
385,250

64,000
295,800

60,000
299,800

67,550

1,205,300

106,250

367,500

1,573,450

644,300

51,750
2,830,350

50,000

70,750

242,300

139,500

1,778,450

30,000

25,000
343,000
101,250
420,000
462,200

68,750

Number of new banks i ,442

Capital $86,135,500

Bonds deposited 20,375,500

Nine hundred and fifty-seven of these took
advantage of the law of 14 March 1900, permit-
ting the establishment of $25,000 banks. The
remaining 485 were banks of $50,000 and over
capital. These figures include 622 converted
State and private banks. During March 1903, 56
banks were organized, distributed as follows :

Middle States

Western States

Southern States....

Eastern States

Pacific Territories. . .

22 banks

13 banks,

12 banks,

8 banks,

I bank,

Number of new banks in one month.
Capital

$700,000 capital

405,000 capital

640,000 capital

400,000 capital

25,000 capital

$2,170,000

THE NATIONAL BANKS OF THE UNITED STATES.

Year
Ending
Sept. 1

1882.
1883.
1884.

1890.
1891.
1892.

1893-
1894.
1895.
1896.
1897.
1898.
1S99.
1900.
1901 .
1902.
1903.
1904.

No. of
Banks

2,197
2,350
.^,582
2,665
2,784
3,049
3,093
3,170
3,353
3,577
3,701
3,759
3,755
3,716
3,682
3,620
3,581
3,561
3,632
4,030
4,306
4,805
5.244

Capital

473,947,715
494,640,140
518,605,725
524,599,602
532,459,921
578,462,765
583,539,145
596,302,518
625,089,645
660,108.261
679.076,650
684,342,024
672,951,450
660,287,065
652,725.750
638,173.805
6i=i,8i8,725
608,674,895
613,053,69s
639.043,080
667.354,275
735.314.217
765.948,330

Surplus

133,570
131,232
147,721
146,903
155,030
173.913
184.416
194.818
208.707
222,766
237.761
246,918
246,001
247,466
248,235
249,044
244,281
247.930
250,914
271,432
305.21 1
362,497
398,299

931.00
187.00
475.00
495.00
884.00
440.97
990.92
192.19
786.00
668.00
865.23
.673-11
328.00
002.00
.323-00
948.00
.S79.00
970.00
856.00
304.00
716.00
,812.00
071.00

Total
Dividends

40,791
40,678
41,254
40,656
42,412
44,152
46,531
46,618
51,158
50,795
50,400
49.633
45,333
45,969
45,525
42,394
44,291
46,691
47.995
52,616
68,199
63.565
75.588

,928.00
678.00
473.00
,121.00
,803.00
407.92
,657-89
060.27
883.33
,01 1. 00
713-93
195-99
270.00
,663.00
947.00
,241.00
,971.00
,502.00
,024.00
.778.00
.494-00
,847.00
890.00

Total
Net Earnings

53-321
54.007
52,362
43,6 _
55.165
64,506,
65,360
69,618
72,055
75.763
66,658
68,750
41.955
46.866
49.742
44.273
50.03
54.346
87.293
81.853
106,581
109. S81
112,936

,234-00
,148.00
:, 783-00
,497-00
.385.00
,869.66
,486.73
,265.07
.563-52
.614.00
1O15.27
1952-09
.248.00
.557-00
,318.00
,314-00
.972.00
1,692.00
.485.00
,795.00
,477-00
,530-00
,427.00

Ratio

Ratio
of Divi-

of Divi-

dends

to Cap-

ital and

Capital

Surplus

8.73

6.81

8.30

6.50

8.00

6.20

7.80

6.00

7.96

6.17

7.98

6.12

8.02

6.10

7.82

5-89

8.19

6.14

7-70

5.76

7.42

5-50

7-25

S-33

6.07

4-09

6.96

5-06

6.97

S-05

6.64

4.78

7.17

5.1s

7-67

5-45

7.89

5-5 7

8.28

5-82

10.10

6.98

8.80

5-91

9-93

6.57

Ratio

ofEarn-
ings to
Capital

and
Surplus

8.00
8.00
6.50
8.02
8.95
8.57
8.80
8.6s
8.60
7.27
7.38
4- 05
5-15
5-52
4-99
5.82
6.34

10.14
9.06

10.92

10.21
9.81

BANKS AND BANKING

The number of new banks in the manufactur-
ing States is very marked. Ohio, 85 ; Indiana,
49; Illinois, 80; Pennsylvania, 169; New York,
55. The agricultural States also show up well,
with 166 for Texas, 95 for i^linnesota, 69 for
Oklahoma, and 64 for Indian Territory.

By groups of States the showing is :

New England States
Eastern States. . . .
Southern States...

Middle States

Western States. . . .

Pacific States

Islands

Xo.

269
346
440
315
51
3

Capital

$ 3,250,000
23,204,000
16,825,500
26,751,000
io,:6o,ooo
5,320,000
625,000

Bonds
Deposited

$ 415.500
4,646,900
4.477,250
6,842,700
3,041,100
846,050
106,500

The $20,375,500 of bonds deposited against
circulation is a fraction less than 24 per cent of
the capital, the latter being the measure of the
maximum amount of circulation issu?ble. Our
total national bank figures for 31 March 1903
were :

Number of banks. . . .
Capital

Bonds on deposit....
Circulation secured by

bonds

Circulation secured by

lawful money

4,869

$739,178,695

342,160,770

338,349.814

44,169,444

Increase since
14 March, 1900

1,252

$122,870,600

97.549.200

128,116,528

UNITED STATES CURRENCY CIRCULATION.

Fiscal Year

1870.
1872.
1873.
1874.
1875-
1876.
1877.
1878.
1879-
1880.
1881.
1882.
1883.
1884.
1885.
1886,
1887,
1888,
1889
1890.
1891
1892
1893
1894
1895
1896
1897
1898
1899
1900
1901
1902
1903
1904

Amount in
circulation

675
738
751
776
754,
727

T22
729
81S,

973.
,114
.174
,230
,243
,292
,252
,317,
.372,
,380,
.429.
.497,
.601,
.596,
,660,
,601.
,506,
,640,
.837.
.904,
.055.
.I75.
,249.
.367,
.519

212,704
309.549
881,809
083,031
947
609,338
314.883
132,634
631.793
382,228
238,419
290,419
305.696
925.969
568,615
700,525
539.143
170,870
361,649
251,270
440,707
347,187
701,245
808,708
968.473
631,026
808,946
859.89
071,881
150,998
.387.277
390,551
692,169
,142,860

Circulation
per capita

17-50
18.19
18.04
18.13
18.16
16.12
15-58
15-32
16.7s
19.41
21.70

22.90
22.65
23.02
21.82
22.45
22.88
22.52
22.82

23-41
24.44
23-85
24.28
22.93
21.10
22.49
24.66
25-45
26.94
27.98
28.43
29.42
30.77

Currency Act of 1900. — On 14 ^larch 1900
President McKinley approved a new currency
act, which, among other things, established the
gold dollar as the standard unit of value, and
placed at a parity with that standard all forms
of money issued or coined by the United States.
The bill also made a number of important
changes in the regulations governing national
banks. The new law permits national banks
with $25,000 capital to be organized in places

of 3,000 inhabitants or less, whereas the mini-
mum capital previously was $50,000. It also
permits banks to issue circulation on all classes
of bonds deposited up to the par value of the
bonds, instead of 90 per cent of their face, as
before. This act also reduces the semi-annual
duty on national bank circulation secured by 2
per cent consols of 1930 to one fourth of i
per cent. As a result of this legislation the out-
standing circulation of national banks increased
over $100,000,000 between the date of passage of
the act and 31 Oct. 1901.

From 14 March 1900 to 31 Oct. 1904 there
v;ere organized 2,196 national banking associa-
tions, with an authorized capital aggregating
$125,512,300, and with bonds as security for cir-
culation of $31,331,250. Of this total number,
there were 1,437 banks with an aggregate cap-
ital of $37,459,500, whose individual capital was
less than $50,000, the average but slightly in
excess of the minimum, namely, $25,000. The
number of banking institutions in the country,
by reason of these organizations, was only in-
creased to the number of 1,230, as 250 of the
associations were conversions of State banks,
and 716 reorganizations of State or private
banks liquidated for the purpose.

During the existence of the national banking
system, up to 31 Oct. 1904, there were organized
7,460 national banking associations, of which
number 1,548 were placed in liquidation either
by vote of stockholders or by expiration of
charters, and 417 in charge of receivers, leaving
in active operation on the date mentioned 5.495
banks, with capital stock of $781,126,335. These
associations had on deposit with the treasurer
of the United States, in trust, as security for
circulation, bonds to the amount of $426,544,790,
on which circulation had been issued (on that
date) to the amount of $424,530,581. In addi-
tion to circulation secured by bonds there were
outstanding notes to the amount of $32,750,919,
secured by the deposits of lawful money. The
increase of national bank circulation from 14
March 1900 to 31 Oct. 1904 was, in round num-
bers, 202.9 million dollars.

On 12 April 1902 the act was approved, au-
thorizing the extension, for a period of 20 years,
of the charter of national banking associations
which had been extended under the act of 12
July 1882. From the date of the passage of the
extension act of 1902 to 31 Oct. 1904 the cor-
porate existence of 315 banks, with a capital of
$88,310,300, was extended for a second time.

O. P. Austin,
United States Treasury Department.

Banks and Banking, American. The his-
tory of banking in America opens in
those trying days of the Revolutionary
War, when the new republic, trembling on the
verge of disaster, groped out so blindly in
search of some adequate means of financial
relief. At that moment, however, there were
some master minds that were found capable
of meeting such an emergency, and it requires
no stretch of the imagination to discover
that the aid given by their advice was of in-
calculable importance at this critical period
in the nation's history.

Of course, it is true that banking methods
in America have undergone many radical
changes since the days of the country's

BANKS AND BANKING

infancy, and yet, as we review the past, it is
impossible not to admit that the systems in
vogue in tht United States have always been
more or less sound. They have changed be-
cause conditions have changed, and not so
much because they were based upon mis-
taken ideas. Adapted to the needs of the
times they served, they remained in opera-
tion until altered conditions had made them
obsolete, but then, just as promptly as neces-
sity required, they were altered to meet the
ef^<wCt of the new conditions. See United
States Finances of 1775-1789.

In the beginning of the financial history
of the Republic — a little more than a century
ago — the fiscal afifairs of the United States
were in the hands of the **Bank of the United
States,^' a national institution which had
been modelled quite closely upon the lines of
the old Bank of England. With the excep-
tion of a brief period just prior to and
including the War of 1812, this institution
remained as the great American financial
power, and its final abandonment was the
occasion of one of the most bitter political
struggles of which we have any record.

It was through the efforts of Andrew
Jackson and his successor, Martin Van Buren,
that the State bank system came into exist-
ence as a substitute for the former single
dominant power, and for more than a quar-
ter of a century this system represented the
American method of banking. That it had
its good points there can be no doubt. That
many of the State banks were as sound and
solvent as any banking institution in the
world to-day is not a matter for question.
Unfortunately, however, there were some of
them that could not be classified as ^'sound®
banks, and as there was no uniform basis
."or their government, no power that should
say at what point their operations became
dangerous or unwise, the weakness of the
system exhibited itself in the discounting of
a currency that became more and more de-
moralized in proportion to its distance from
the bank which was responsible for its
issuance.

When the Civil War came, with all its
insistant demands upon the resources of
the country, it was found that this method
of banking was utterly unable to respond
to the requirements of the new conditions.
It was to meet this emergency that an-
other new system was devised, and It is
this system that is in use to-day. Around
it some of the greatest financial institutions
of the world have been developed, for it
would be almost impossible to imagine a sys-
tem that could be more conducive to natural
growth and expansion. By avoiding any
great centralization of power it distributes
its beneficent influence throughout the coun-
try. By placing the pledge of the Federal
Government upon every banknote issued it
makes the contingency of a discounted and
demoralized currency impossible.

To trace in detail the history of American
banking it is necessary to go back to 1780,
when the first bank established in the United
States was opened in Carpenters' Hall, Phila-

delphia. It was known as the Pennsylvania
Bank, and was organized, upon personal
credit alone, by Robert Morris, George
Clymer and a few other gentleman, who took
as their only security, the bills that a desperate
Congress had drawn upon John Jay, who was
then employed in negotiating a loan in Spain.
Its object, therefore, was mainly a patriotic
one, for practically all its efforts were de-
voted to the aid of the government in its
work of transporting troops and maintaining
an army which was then in desperate need
of every kind of assistance. Later, when Mr.
Morris had been appointed superintendent of
finance, and the bank which he had founded
had gone out of existence, it was at his re-
quest that Congress issued to him and his
associates the charter for the new Bank of
North America. In January, 1781, this new
institution began its business operation in
Philadelphia, with Thomas Willing as its first
president, and a board of 12 directors. With a
capital of $400,000 it conducted its business on a
specie basis, its notes having the weight of legal
tender. In addition to its national charter,
it received a similar authorization from the
State of Pennsylvania, and, as it was then
the only banking institution in the country,
its profits began to accumulate so rapidly
that, in the years 1783 and 1784, it was able
to declare dividends of 14 per cent. Natu-
rally enough such evidences of prosperity
attracted attention, and it was not long before
another coterie of wealthy merchants formed
a project to open a rival bank. They even
went so far as to apply for a charter, but,
before the necessary act was passed, the Bank
of North America squelched the threatening
opposition by permitting its projectors to
participate freely in the old bank's new issue
of $500,000 worth of stock. In 1787 it was re-
chartered as a State bank by an act of the
Pennsylvania legislature, and with several legis-
lative changes it has continued to exist as a
prosperous financial institution.

It was not until 1784 that a similar bankmg
house was established in the city of New
York. During the several years that had
elapsed since the formation of the Bank of
Pennsylvania the merchants of New York
had been appropriately interested in the Phila-
delphia experiment. At one time a num-
ber of the prominent business men of the
city assembled and discussed the possibil-
ity of creating a bank upon a plan which
was later dubbed by its opponents as the
^'land" bank scheme. According to this pro-
ject only a small part of the capital of this
institution was required to be paid in specie,
the balance being issued against sight notes,
themselves payable in specie and secured by
land accepted at one-third of its value. As
this plan met with the influential support of
Chancellor Livingston it was nearly carried
through the legislature to which it had ap-
plied for a charter, but finally, and chiefly
through the personal efforts of Alexander
Hamilton, the passage of the act was defeated.

As the demand for the establishment of
a local banking institution became more in-
sistent, however, several of the most promi-
nent business men of New York responded

BANKS AND BANKING

to a call for a meeting which was held at the
Merchants' Coffee Ixouse, on 22 Feb. 1784.
Gen. Alexander MacDougal presided, and
when, after a long discussion of the subject,
it was decided to start the bank, he was
further honored by election as its first presi-
dent. It was determined that the bank should
begin operations with a capital of $500,000,
either gold or silver, divided into 1,000 shares
and, when, on 15 March, the first 500 shares
had been taken, the corporation was organ-
ized with Samuel Franklin, Robert Bowne,
Comfort Sands. Alexander Hamilton, Joshua
Waddington, Thomas Randall, William Max-
well, Nicholas Low, Daniel McCormick, Isaac
Roosevelt, Joshua Vanderbilt and Thomas B.
Stoughton, as its directors. William Seton
was elected cashier, but the New York busi-
ness men of that day were so ignorant of
everything associated with the organization
of a bank and with methods of banking in
general, that the new cashier was obliged to
go to Philadelphia in search of necessary
instruction respecting the nature of his duties.
During his absence the directors perfected
their arrangements, and, as they had not
secured their charter, they decided to operate
without one. Accordingly the doors were
opened to the public. 9 June 1784, the insti-
tution, which was know as the Bank of New
York, being located in a three-story, yellow
brick house at No. 67 St. George's (now
Franklin) Square.

Slight as their experience with banking
institutions had been there were many per-
sons in those days who believed that banks
were antagonistic to the best interests of the
community. During the years 1785 and 1786,
therefore, when the evils due to the scarcity
of currency began to make themselves felt,
popular opinion became very strongly op-
posed to the entire system, it being held
that the banks were hoarding the specie
v.-hich was so badly needed in the commercial
v'orld. To meet the exigencies of the oc-
casion, several of the States in which the
feeling rose highest, proceeded to issue paper
money by vote of the legislature, but as this
action accomplished no other purpose than
to temporarily allay the demand for currency,
this same lack of confidence in the banks and
their purpose prevailed when, imder the
newly adopted Constitution, Gen. Washington
was elected to the Presidency, and Alexander
Hamilton took his seat as the first secretary
of the treasury. Under his famous financial
policy the national Government not only as-
sumed and bonded the debts contracted by
the Continental Congress, as well as those
contracted by the several colonies during the
progress of the war, but it went a step
further by establishing, in 1791, the Bank of
the United States.

Established under a 20-year charter, this
institution was devised to act as the fiscal
agent of the Government and to serve as the
depository of all public moneys. Its capital
was fixed at $10,000,000. divided into 25.000
shares of $400 each, payable one-fourth in
specie and three-fourths in six per cent, stocks
of the United States. It was further author-

ized to hold property of all kinds to an
amount not exceeding $15,000,000. inclusive
of its capital stock; was permitted to issue
its notes, payable in specie, and could estab-
lish branch banks, in various cities through-
out the country. Accepted as the direct agent
of the United States Government in every
important particular, it is not strange that
the institution should have prospered and
tliat, during its entire career, its annual divi-
dends ranged from 8 to 10 per cent. The
first branch bank opened by the Bank of the
United States was an ofifice of deposit and
discount in New York.

As prosperity soon returned under the
beneficent influence of Hamilton's wise finan-
cial policy the confidence in the American
institutions was again quite generally restored,
and, while it is true that the spirit of specula-
tion, which was eventually let loose in the
land, resulted in a stringency in the currency
that would undoubtedly have resulted seri-
ously if Alexander Hamilton and the United
States Treasury had not come to the relief
of the business community, not once, but
three times, business continued to improve.

In New York, however, the sentiment of
opposition to the banking system was still
so strong that every political influence was
exerted to prevent the granting of any new
charters. As the banking field, despite this
sentiment, was by no means overcrowded,
several ineffectual efforts had been made to
establish new institutions, and finally, a com-
pany headed by Aaron Burr found a means
to overcome the difficulties. In 1799, they
applied to the legislature and by it were
granted a charter for a company which os-
tensibly proposed to provide pure water for
the city of New York. The capital of this
corporation, which was known as the Man-
hattan Company, was fixed at $2,000,000, but,
unnoticed by the politicians who had been
so active in their opposition to the banking
interests, there was a clause in this charter
which, after specifying that the capital of the
company was to be devoted to the establishment
of a water supply, also provided that the sur-
plus might be "employed in the purchase of
public or other stocks or other moneyed
transactions or operations not inconsistent
with the laws and constitution of the State
of New York.»

It is, of course, unnecessary to add that
a corporation with such a clause in its charter
found little difficulty in securing the funds
requisite to the opening of a new bank. By
1803, however, the establishment of banks
had become so general that there were no
less than 40 in operation in various parts of
the country.

As Congress failed to renew the charter
of the Bank of the United States, and as the
expiration of this act, in i8ri. was almost
immediately followed by war with Great
Britain, the financial position of the country
was a most unsatisfac'rory one. Having de-
pended upon the Bank of the United States
for its credit, the Government had little of its
own, and it was. therefor, compelled to
depend to a large degree upon the already
established banks. There were many of these

BANKS AND BANKING

institucions, all under State charter, and no
less than 123 new ones were created during
the four years following the closure of the
Bank of the United States. The aggregate
capital of all these banks was in excess of
$40,000,000, and the face value of the notes
which they had issued represented fully
$200,000,000. Of this sum a large portion had
been issued in the form of loans to the Gov-
ernment, and, at such a time as this, when
public credit was prostrated, the strain upon
the banks was too great for them to bear.
On I Sept. 1814, therefore, specie paymct
was suspended.

It was during this critical stage i.i t'le
financial history of the nation that the p-.iv:; c
bank began to assume a position of i.^ipcrl-
ance in the commercial world. In iSii. as
soon as it had been found that it would be
impossible for the Bank of the United States
to continue its operations, the buiiuing and
stock of the institution were purchased by
Stephen Girard, a Philadelphia merchant,
who proceeded to carry on the business upon
his own responsibility. In the beginning liis
capital was but $1,200,000, but this was eventu-
ally increased to $4,000,000.

Moreover, if anything further was necessary
to call the attention of the public to this great
private institution, Girard's exhibition of
patriotism soon made his name known from
one end of the land to the other. It was
during the last year of the war, at a time
when money was the one factor that was
necessary to assure a renewal of peace, that
the United States Treasury, devoid of funds,
discovered that the money it needed was not
forthcoming. In desperation the Treasury
offlcials attempted to float a loan tor $5,000-
000, but, of this amount scarcely $20,000 had
I^een subscribed when Girard, acting solely
upon his own faith in the stability of the
Government, volunteered to subscribe for the
■entire loan.

Taught by experience that it would be
unwise to remain longer without an accredited
fiscal agent one of the first acts of Congress
was to grant a new 20-year charter to the
Bank of the United States. In accordance
with the provisions of this act of incorpora-
tion the capital of the new institution was
fixed at $35,000,000, divided into 350,000
shares of $1,000 each. Of this amount $7,000-
coo was held by the United States Govern-
m.ent, while the remainder of the stock was
easily disposed of. The bank issued its notes, in
amount not less than $5, payable in specie on
demand, and transacted a general banking busi-
ness so successfully that its stock was quoted at
50 per cent, above par. By the provisions of
the act of incorporation the operations of
the institution were placed in the hands of r
board of directors composed of 25 members,
five of whom were stockholders selected by
the President of the United States. The
active direction of affairs, however, was left
to a special board of seven directors, chosen
by the general board, and headed by the
President. In January, 1817, therefore, this
new institution began its operations, and its
efforts were regarded so favorably that it
soon established branch banks in all the im-

portant cities throughout the country. In
1830, there were no less than 27 of these
branch banks, all engaged in doing a thriving
business.

With such a reliable institution at their
command it is not surprising that the people
should have looked with no little mistrust
upon the unsatisfactory methods pursued by
the State banks. As soon as the new charter
liad been issued to the Bank of the United
States it was apparent to everybody that the
State institutions would either be compelled
to resume specie payment, or, as the only
a:ternative, pass out of existence. As the re-
sult m.any of them closed their doors, so many,
i:i fact, that, of the 446 State banks then in
operation, only 165 remained. At the same
t'.ir.c the a:Tgregate State banking capital of
t!ic v/ho!e country for the year 1814, $90,000,-
rco, showed a withdrawal of only $30,000,000
by reason of these suspensions. Of this sum
o^'i'y $5,cco,ooo was an actual loss, this amount
bri"g apportioned between the Government
and tlie individual holders. At the same time
such institutions continued in existence and
precautionary laws to govern their operation
were enacted by the legislatures of many States.
In April, 1829, for example, the New York
legislature adopted a general banking law
which was known as the "Safety Fund Act.'*
According to its provisions banks were per-
mitted to issue notes for general circulation
to an amount not in excess of twice their
capital, while the amount of possible loans
was restricted to two and a half times their
capital. To make good the payment of the cir-
culation and other debts of banks that might
become insolvent a guarantee fund was created
by means of which the banks made an annual
payment of one-half of one per cent, on their
capital stock to the State treasury until a total
of three per cent, had been paid.

During the period in which so many of
the prominent financial leaders of the country
were engaged in the work of reconstructing
the Bank of the United States, several Phila-
delphia business men determined to establish
an institution in which persons of meagre in-
come might find it possible to deposit their
small savings. In 1816, therefore, the first sav-
ings bank was opened in America. It was
known as the Philadelphia Saving Fund So-
ciety. During the same year a bank of similar
character was established in Boston, a third
was opened in New York in 1819, and, by the
close of 1820, the idea had extended so far
that there were no less than 10 savings banks
engaged in business in the country, with 8,635
depositors and deposits amounting to more
than $1,000,000. See Bank.s, Banking.

During the many years of its existence
the Bank of the United States continued
to increase in prosperity and influence.
On I Nov. 1832 it reported that its total
liabilities, including such of its notes as
were in circulation, its deposits and all
other debts, aggregated $37,296,950.20. At
the same time, its assets, including specie, cash
in Europe, and debts from reliable industrial
and banking corporations, were $79,593,870.97.
As this left a surplus of $42,296,920.77. the
bank was then unquestionably one of the

BANKS AND BANKING

richest institutions in the world. In 1832,
there was no reason to doubt the stabiHty of
such a financial establishment.

Strange as it may seem, however, it was
nothing less than this continued prosperity
that brought about the downfall of the Bank of
the United States. At the time of Jackson's
election to the Presidency the opposition to it
was so strong that he declared that it should
not be rechartered, and, when he had taken
his seat, he made this promise good by an-
nouncing that he should refuse to sign any act
that might have a tendency to extend the life
of the institution, explaining his position on
the ground that such a financial system as
that which it renresented was not only un-
constitutional but was also extremely dan-
gerous to the liberties of the nation. In
spite of the fact that the prosperity of the
country had been so great Ouring the 20 years
of this bank's operations that the Government
not only had been able to pay its war debt
but actually had a surplus of $40,000,000 on
hand, the public funds vv'cre withdrawn from
the institution at the earliest possible moment,
and the surplus, by vote of Congress, was
distributed among the States.

It is not difficult to understand that this
blow was one from which no financial estab-
lishment covdd easily recover. Its charter
threatened, its deposits withdrawn and scat-
tered to the four winds, and with all its opera-
tions the object of the enmity of an unrelent-
ingly adverse administration, there seemed to
be no alternative but to cease the transaction
of business. Determined that he would not
give President Tackson the satisfaction of clos-
ing its doors, its president, Nicholas Biddle,
persuaded the State legislature of Pennsylvania
to pass an act incorporating it as the Penn-
sylvania Bank of the United States, but, while
he thus had the satisfaction of stealing a march
on the administration, his efiforts to save the
life of the bank were useless and four years
later, in 1840, it finally retired from business.

Such a mishap to such an institution as the
Bank of the United States gave the State
banks the chance for which they had long
been waiting and they proceeded to make the
most of it. The demise of the national in-
stitution had left the field open to them, and
just at the moment when such aid was most
needed, the distribution of the public moneys
among the several States had come to give
an impetus to their deposits. As the result
of this favorable combination of circumstances
the State legislatures were kept busy granting
charters to new State banks, and, by 1837,
their number had increased to such an extent
that there was no less than 634 of them in
the country, their aggregate capital being
more than $290,000,000.

In disrupting the established financial
system of the country, however, President
Jackson liad not looked sufficiently far ahead
to be able to anticipate the possible troubles
that might arise as the result of his action.
He had closed the Bank of the United States,
but he had provided for no other responsible
authority to take its place. Wnen the finan-
cial affairs of the country were turned over

to the State banks, therefore, the temporary
prosperity which followed the appearance of
the new issues of State bank-notes assumed
the form of the wildest kind of speculation.
For a time public lands were chosen as the
field for the speculator's operations, and the.
dealings represented many millions of dollars.
As everything was based upon the currency
notes, however, and as many of tliese were
worthless, because issued by insolvent, or
"wild-cat" banks, it did not take long for
men acquainted with the principles of finance
to recognize the fact that trouble was in-
evitable. It was at this time that President
Jsckson determined to make an effort to es-
tablish the finances of the country upon a
more sound basis, and, in the hope of assisting
in the accomplishment of this purpose, he
issued his famous "Specie Circular," in which
he notified all agents of public-lands that they
must accept nothing but specie in payment.

It was this command that precipitated
matters, for the banks, being called upon to
redeem all their circulation in specie, were un-
able to respond, and so, on 9 May 1837, they
again suspended payment. Months passed,
but no relief came. Accordingly, in the fol-
lowing November, a conference was held in
New York to see if some means could not be
devised by which the banks would be able
to resume payment. No less than 136 banks
were represented in this gathering, but, in
spite of the fact that many suggestions were
made, no plan of relief was deemed practicable.
Compelled to take cognizance of a situation
which had been so directly the result of the
administration's financial policy. President
Van Buren, 1837, proposed the sub-treasury
plan as a measure which would tend to pre-
vent the loss of public moneys through the
failure of banks. Wise as the suggestion was
from the governmental point of view, the
fact that it presented no remedy to the present
difficulties made it an extremely unpopular
measure. As the result it was defeated, and,
three years later, when it was passed, it was
piomptly repealed again in the succeeding
year. Not until five years later was it finally
re-enacted. United St.\tes : Finances of the,
1816-1861.

During all this time the State banks were
increasing in number. It is true that they were
constantly in trouble. The New York banks
did not resume payment until May, 1838, and,
although they were followed by the Philadel-
phia and Southern banks in August, the latter
were able to hold out much more than a year,
suspending payment again on 9 Sept. 1839. In
spite of the lack of confidence which such un-
certainty necessarily engendered, however, the
growth of the country and the exigencies of
business resulting from such widening of in-
terests created a demand for more banking
houses. In 1840, the number of such banks had
increased to 901, and their total capital to
$358,000,000.

Of course, during all this period the de-
mand for a national banking system had been
constantly increasing, and one of the great is-
sues upon which Gen. Harrison's presidential
campaign was fought and won provided that a

BANKS AND BANKING

new bank should be incorporated at the first
possible moment after his inauguration. Fully
in sympathy with this project. President
Harrison called a special session of Congress
to devise the best means of fulfilHng his
promise, but when he died, before Congress
had convened, those who fought so strenously
for a return of the old national banking
system lost their most influential supporter.
President Harrison's successor. President
Tyler, was so unalterably opposed to the
movement that he twice vetoed the measure
to "establish a financial agent of the govern-
ment" <*to act for it in all fiscal matters, and
to facilitate mercantile exchanges throughout
the country", even when the matter had been
passed by Congress and was presented in the
form of a bill awaiting his signature. Among
all the banks, at this period, none stood so
high in public estimation as those which were
located in the New England States. During
the periods of uncertainty the New England
banks had been less afifected than those of
any other section, a situation which was
largely due to the fact that they had adopted
what was then known as the "Suffolk Bank
System." In other words, they had bound
themselves to an agreement by which the
Suffolk Bank of Boston was chaiged with the
duty of redemption and collection for all the
banks in the New England territory. To
facilitate such operations each bank maintained
a stipulated deposit w'ith the Suffolk Bank.

The stringency of 1840-43 represents an-
other critical period in the financial history of
the United States, but the better times which
followed had succeeded in doing little more
than to ease the situation when a great im-
petus was given to national prosperity by the
discovery of gold in California. For several
years this influence was paramount in American
affairs, and, under these new conditions, the
bank system, for a time, ceased to trouble.

It was during this period in the financial
history of the country that the first clearing-
house project was devised and carried into
effect. For several years American bankers
had felt that they were in need of better facili-
ties in their work of transacting the business
of the country, and it was to meet this demand
that the New York Clearing House Associa-
tion was formed, on 11 Oct. 1853. It origi-
nally consisted of a membership of 52 banks,
and the system which it adopted was so
simple, and yet so effective that it is difficult
to imagine why its establishment should have
been delayed for so long a time. Under the
old system each bank was compelled to send
to all other banks seoarately such of their
checks as it might hold, for payrrent, and
stood ready, in its turn, to pay cash to the
other banks for such of its checks as they
might have in their possession. When the
clearing-house was established, however, a
very different system was adopted, for, at a
specified hour, each bank holding a member-
ship in the association sent cne of its clerks
to the general office with all the checks that
it held for collection. Here they were as-
sorted, and the sum total of the checks held
by each was compared with the sum total

of the checks presented against it. If the re-
sult showed a balance in favor of the other
banks, each bank paid to the clearing-house
a sum equal to the amount due whereas, if the
balance stood in favor of the bank, the clear-
ing-house promptly drew its check for that
amount. Thus, transactions that several clerks
and messengers could not have completed
within many hours were finished in a compar-
atively short soace of time.

It was not only as a matter of convenience
that the new clearing-house association made
its influence felt, however, for its effect was
beneficial both in the matter of economizing
currency and in giving security to the great
banking interests of the country. It is only
necessary to remember that the clearing-house
transactions often involve daily exchanges of
more than $2,000,000 for one to realize what
a tremendous amount of idle money would be
required to transact this aggregate of business
under the old system of separate clearance
payments. Under the new clearance system,
with its convenient method of balances, this
business is transacted wi*-h the use of not more
than four per cent, of the total amount of cur-
rency involved. Moreover, this system is not
only an assurance of protection to its members
in the matter of individual transactions, but
it has, by its more extended operations of
issuing loan certificates at critical times,
proved a great bulwark of safety to the entire
banking world. During these years the average
daily exchanges of the clearing-house were
$105,964,277, and the average daily balances,
$3,939,265.

The New York Clearing House Associa-
tion consists of 54 members, 53 of the
members being representative banks, and the
fifty-fourth member the assistant treasurer of
the United States stationed at the sub-treasury
in New York City. In addition to these active
members, all other New York banks and trust
companies are permitted to clear through the
institutions which hold membership in the as-
sociation. According to the last annual re-
port, the transactions of the New York Clear-
ing House for the year ending 30 Sept. 1905,
were as follows : Total transactions^ $95,833,-
194,343.80; average daily transactions, $315,-
240,770.86 ; total balances for the year. $3,953,-
875.974.80; average daily balances. $13,006,170.97.
The total transactions of the association since
its organization in 1853 have attained the al-
most incalculable aggregate of $1,657,547,640.-
106.75. As the advantages of such a system
were too great to escape recognition other cities
followed New York's example, and the exchange
of the clearing houses of the country for 1905
aggregated $140,501,841,957.

No sketch of the history of the banking
interests of the United States would be com-
plete without a more or less detailed reference
to the two disastrous periods that are now re-
membered as the panics of 1853 and 1873.
Overspeculation, which w'as the cause of the
former, had been going on for some time
and the most conservative minds in the finan-
cial world had begun to look with considerable
dread into the future, when the storm suddenly
broke, on 24 August, when the Ohio Life

BANKS AND BANKING

and Trust Company announced its suspension
with liabilities in excess of $7,000,000. As
the result of that failure the Philadelphia
banks were compelled to suspend on 25-26
September, and this general suspension ex-
tended through Virginia, Maryland, the Dis-
trict of Columbia and even into Rhode
Island. In New York the spirit of dis-
trust became so general that runs on all
the banks threatened most serious conse-
quences, and, on 14 October, to prevent the
utter demoralization of the bankmg system,
the State legislature passed an act authorizing
the suspension of specie payment for a term
of one year. As the result the banks closed
their doors, but the trouble was so largely
a temporary one that the city banks were
able to resume business again on 24 Decem-
ber. In New England, the panic which had
first been felt chiefly in Rhode Island, rapidly
extended until it finally became general
throughout the entire section of the country.
The banks not only suspended, but factories
and large workshops shut down. In fact, in
some places it was found necessary to call
upon the State troops that they might be in
readiness to put down the riots that were
threatened by the vast army of hungry work-
ingmen. Fortunately for the individual as
well as for the nation the panic was of brief
duration. By the beginning of 1854, business
had renewed its activities and the banks had
resumed operations, but, brief as the struggle
was, it resulted in no less than 5,123 failures,
with total liabilities amounting to $291,750,000.
The next few years, however, saw a return to
conditions that were not so foreign to the old
time prosperity, and, in i860, just one year
prior to the long suspension of specie payment
which was the direct result of conditions due
to the war, there were in the United States no
less than 1,562 banks, with an aggregate capital
of $422,000,000, a circulation of about $207,000-
000, deposits of $254,000,000, and specie in
hand to the amount of more than $83,500,000.

The four years during which the war was in
progress gave the banks of the country an
opportunity to give unquestionable proof of
their loyalty and patriotism, and yet the story
of these times, with the Government's issues
of its "legal tenders,'* is more properly a
matter of discussion imder the head of national
finance. (See Banks, N.a.tional.) Thus, the
national banking law, the legislative enactment
which regulates the operation of banks to-day,
was passed 3 June 1864. Simple as its pro-
visions were, they were drafted with such a
clear view as to the security of the banking
system, that little reason for dissatisfaction
has been found with them. According to
these provisions, the establishment of a bank
requires the association of not less than five
persons, and a fully paid-up capital. To secure
its notes of issue it is compelled to hold the
Government's pledge in the form of United
States bonds, on which the comptroller of the
currency authorizes it to circulate such notes to
an amount equal to the par value of the securi-
ties not exceeding the authorized capital stock.
Wise and secure as these conditions were,
they would have been of little value in improv-

ing the currency situation if the State banks had
been permitted to continue to issue their notes
under the system that had existed since 1836. To
meet this difticulty, therefore. Congress passed
a law placing a prohibitive tax of 10 per cent.
on the circulating notes of the State banks.

Realizing that the circulation of their notes
would be impossible under the new conditions,
many of the old State banks changed their
organization to meet the requirements of the
new national bank law, and, at the close of
the war, there were not more than 500 of these
institutions that had neither complied with
the provisions of the new statutes nor gone
out of existence. Those that remained con-
tinued to do what they are still doing. They
transacted a general banking business of loan,
discount and deposit, and left the circulation
of notes to the national banks. At the time
of the institution of the national banking
system, however, it was specified that the
comptroller of the currency should not permit
the total circulation of the country to exceed
$300,000,000. As more and more banks became
established, however, the demand for a larger
circulation became so insistent that Congress
was at last compelled to take recognition of it
by making an extra issue of $54,000,000. This
was also almost immediately taken up.

The next critical period in the financial
history of the United States was the disastrous
panic of 1873. Serious as this ordeal was,
however, it was not entirely unanticipated,
for it was almost inevitable that the nation
should pass through such a trying period in
its transition from the season of inflation re-
sulting from the great war loans to the normal
basis of more peaceful times.

In 1875, Congress again resumed its serious
consideration of the financial question, and, as
the result of its discussions, several important
reforms were instituted. One act- removed
all restrictions upon the total amount of notes
which might be issued by the national banks.
Another ordered the resumption of specie pay-
ment, which had been suspended since the
beginning of the war, and this resumption,
which, as it was decreed, took place i Jan.
1879, was accomplished without the slightest
disturbance of business conditions, a fact
which redounds greatly to the credit of
America as a nation. From the day when
Congress withdrew its restriction upon cir-
culation the number of national banks have in-
creased steadily from year to year. In 1875,
there were 2.047 banks in the country, with
a total capital of $497,864,833. and an aggre-
gate surplus of $134,123,649. By 1885, only
10 years later, the number of banks had in-
creased to 2,665, while their capital amounted
to $524,599,602, and their total surplus to $146,-
903.495. making an increase of 618 banks, a
total gain of $26,734,769 in capital, and an in-
crease of $12,779,846 in the matter of surplus.
Even such an increase did not meet the re-
quirements of the ever-growing and pros-
perous country. Steadily, therefore, the work
of the national banks widened, until, at last, in
1905, the report of the comptroller of the cur-
rency showed that there were no less than 5,757,
such banks in the country, with an aggregate

BANKS AND BANKING — BANKS, SAVINGS

capital of $799,870,229, a total surplus of $417,-
757,591, and undivided profits amounting to
$202,536,366. Total resources^ $7,472,350,878.
Loans and discounts, $4,028,414,785. See United
States — Finances of the. 1861-1903.

Of course, in the meantime, the country
has passed through another period of busi-
ness depression and financial stringency.
Coming more gradually than such crises
usually come, it made itself most generally
felt about 1892, and, for several years, it con-
tuiued to exert its baneful influence more
persistently than had been the case during
any previous period of commercial misfor-
tune. Although there was no actual panic
there was a time when the nation stood peril-
ously near the verge of disaster, and, while
this condition of affairs was largely the effect
of lack of confidence on behalf of the people
it operated so conclusively as a check upon
business enterprise, that its industrial reac-
tions, which affected all classes, was the means
cf causing much suffering in all parts of the
land. For the first time since the close of
the Civil War the money broker reappeared
to take his profits in the premiums he placed
upon all sorts of currency, for the banks,
having all too little money, were compelled to
transact their business largely by means of
certified checks.

One result of this hoarding of the nation's
money was seen in the runs upon the insti-
tutions for savings. In the West these became
so frequent, and were usually so persistent,
that many of the perfectly solvent savings
banks, being unable to realize upon their
securities quickly enough to save themselves,
were compelled to go to the wall. In New
York, when the troubles became so threaten-
ing that it was impossible to judge how long
il would -be before the storm would break in
an excited mob of depositors all eager to
recover their savings, the bank officials held
a hurried conference at which they deter-
mined that their only hope lay in the law
that permitted them to refuse to pay an ac-
count except upon three months' previous
notice. As they did take advantage of this
clause, they succeeded in averting the disaster.

However important a factor the savings
bank has become it is the national bank that
has been the foundation of America's finan-
cial prosperity. During the past 30 years its
stimulating influence has extended to almost
every town and hamlet in which business is
transacted. Well-organized, and carefully sup-
ervised, its uniform system of banking has
rnade it of as great importance to the indi-
vidual as it is to the Government. In fact, if
any argument was needed to testify to the
solvency of the system, it would only be neces-
sary to remember that, since the establish-
ment of the system, onlv 439 failures have
occurred in a total of 7,966 banks that have
been organized. See Banking Institutions,
THE Examination of.

Among the banks proper the State bank
still holds an important position. At the
close of the fiscal year, 1904-5, there were
m the United States, according to the report
of the Treasury Department, no less than

7,794 State banks, while, at this time, their
aggregate resources were $3,190,911,378; their
capital was $379,756,040; their surplus was
$154,439,841 ; their undivided profits were $63,-
164,608; their aggregate deposits were $2,365,-
209,630^ and their loans and discounts were
$1,906,914,878, an amount which included the
sum of $251,814,768, which represented the loans
on real estate and collateral securities.

According to the Treasury report for
1904-5 the savings banks in existence num-
bered 1,237. Their total resources were
$3,368,279,857; capital stock, $26,191,294; sur-
plus, $197,582,867 ; undivided profits, $35,708,852 ;
their aggregate deposits, $3,093>077-357, while
the aggregate of their loans was $i,534.-
114,618, of which sum all but a very small
amount was secured by real estate.

In 1905 there were 1,028 private banks in
operation throughout the country. At this
time their total resources were $165,233,295 ;
capital stock, $22,518,193; surplus, $6,872^18;
undivided profits, $2,958,278; their individual
deposits were $127,937,098, and their loans and
discounts were $107,098,805.

The number of loan and trust companies
in existence at the close of this fiscal year,
1904-5, was 683. In spite of the fact that
this is the smallest branch of the banking
system, considered from a numerical point of
view, the total resources of these institutions
showed an aggregate of $2,865,976,479; capital
stock, $243,133,622; their surplus was $281,289,-
339; undivided profits, $82,226,383; their loans
and discounts amounted to $1,549,633,063, of
which sum only $144,394,593 was on real estate,
and their total deposits were $1^980,856,737.

From this array of figures it may easily
be computed that there were no less than
16,499 banks of all descriptions engaged in
business operations throughout the United
States in 1905. The total amount of their
capital was $1,471,469,378; their surplus
amounted to $1,057,942,556, and undivided
profits, $386,594,467, certainly a record of
a stupendous achievement when we re-
member that it was not more than 125 years
ago that the American banking system had its
origin in a little Philadelphia bank which
Robert Morris established upon a capital of
only $400,000. See Bank Bills ; Banks and
Banking; Finance; Trust Companies; Coin-
age; Money; Monetary Systems of the
World; Canada, Financial System.

The grand aggregate of resources of all these
banks reached the stupendous sum of $17,062,-
751.887; the individual deposits, $11,387,762,535,
and loans and discounts, $9,126,176,149.

Levi Parsons Morton.

Banks, Savings, in their inception, were
primarily benevolent institutions, organized for
the benefit of the working, thrifty citizen, who
desirous of safeguarding the future of himself,
and of those dependent upon him, saved small
sums from his daily or weekly earnings ; com-
mercial and financial banks could not and would
not attend to these small accounts, and there-
fore, the lawmakers, urged by public-spirited
citizens, incorporated institutions, wherein the
savings of the frugal-minded, industrious and
thrifty, whose savings were too small to invest

BANKS, SAVINGS

in public or private securities, or who were not
educated to make such investments, could be
deposited with absolute safety, and at the same
time earn some interest for them.

They may rightly be considered as a benevo-
lence from the State, who thus endeavors to
protect itself against the carelessness of its
citizens, and to minimize mendicity, destitution,
and pauperism, by offering to its people safe
depositaries for their surplus earnings; the
theory is that many will prefer independence
from honest industry to beggarly dependence,
the result of idleness OT self-indulgence, and
that the poor should be helped to help them-
selves, and to receive the reward for their
industry and self-denial. To further foster this
spirit, the savings banks are in many communi-
ties practically freed from taxation, in the same
manner as churches, schools, hospitals, etc. ; this
enables them to return to their depositors all
their earnings, save onl}- the necessary expenses
of conducting the business. Savings institutions
are the outgrowth of a better social structure,
making for order, temperance, virtue, industry,
and thrift, as well as upholding pul)lic credit
and fostering good citizenship; they create self-
respect and independence, and may well be
considered as among the greatest civilized forces
working for the betterment of the condition of
mankind.

Savings banks, however, are by no means
charitable institutions. He who by careful liv-
ing has a surplus, however small, over and above
his daily needs, is in no sense a subject for
charity; as a matter of fact, he is a small
capitalist ; he, together with many others, by
depositing their savings in the savings banks,
not only help themselves and encourage thrift
in others, but these savings, amounting in the
aggregate to enormous sums, instead of being
locked up and hidden away, as in the past,
are employed to further public and private enter-
prises, furnishing capital for building water-
works, railroads, State and city and private
institutions, and thus this money finds its way
back into the pockets of the laborer and ine-
chanic, in the shape of work and wages, a
true endless chain.

They are of comparatively modern origin,
and it is only towards the end of the eighteenth
century that we find any mention of them.
Small beginnings were made in 1778 in Ham-
burg, Germany, and 1787 in Berne, Switzerland ;
these associations, however, simply cared for
the spare cash of servants, mechanics, and la-
borers, and as a rule did not allow withdrawals,
but granted annuities ; being different from the
English idea of savings banks. In England the
matter was suggested, it is said, by Jeremy
Bentham, in 1797, in his system of frugality
banks, but the first known attempt in that direc-
tion was made in 1798 by the Rev. Joseph
Smith of Wendover. who offered his parishion-
ers to take care of their savings during the sum-
mer months and to repay them at Christmas
with a bounty of one third additional : about
the same time the "Friendly Society for the
Benefit of Womtn and Children* was estab-
lished at Tottenham High Cross, by Mrs. Pris-
cilla Wakefield, and this society became regu-
larly organized in 1804 ; Malthus also suggested,
in 1803, the idea of county banks for the labor-
ing classes. The first regular organization
brought before the public was in 1810, when

the Rev. Henry Dunkin of Ruthwell, Dumfrie-
shire, Scotland, started a self-sustaining insti-
tution, receiving deposits from the general pub-
lic ; during the first year of this ^'Parish Bank"
the receipts amounted to ii5i, and in four
years increased to £922. In 1814 the Edinburgh
Savings Bank was established on the basis
of Mr. Dunkin's plan. In London the first sav-
ings bank was opened in 1816 and was recog-
nized by Act of Parliament in 181 7.

Generally speaking it may be said that be-
cause of the fact that the paternal governments
of Europe have large functions, thereby exerting
a powerful influence in the economic life of
the nation, and also partly owing to the lack
of initiative in private benevolent enterprises,
savings banks were started there as national
enterprises, usually managed through the post-
office department ; the investments of such banks
being mainly confined to government securities.

In the United States the functions of the
government are more limited, and are usually
restricted to formulating general legislation, or
granting charters to savings institutions under
the laws of the different States, and also exert-
ing some supervision over them, by means of
periodical examinations by the State bank su-
perintendent or commissioner. Under our system
of government we are apt to consider that our
citizens are fully able to attend themselves
to their banking business, in the same manner
as the banks of deposit and discount, and it
is a good American practice, that does not
allow the State to interfere with the private
business of its citizens, and restricts it to its
own functions, as well defined in the Constitu-
tion. In the United States there is no permanent
or perpetual debt, thus making this form of
investment impracticable, as it certainly would
be injudicious for our savings banks, who are
usually looked upon as local institutions, the
money which they receive on deposit being
loaned out, whenever practicable, in the vicinity
of the bank itself. We may trace the first
savings bank in the United States to the
organization in 1816 of the Philadelphia Savings
Fund Society, in Philadelphia, Pa., a private
association which was afterwards incorporated
by the legislature of Pennsylvania in 1819. The
Provident Institution for Savings in the town
of Boston, Mass., was incorporated in 1816,
and the Savings. Bank of Baltimore, Md.. in
1818. In New York the first organized savings
bank was the Bank for Savings. Efforts had
been made for several years by public-spirited
citizens of that city, to get a charter from the
legislature for such bank, acting on a sugges-
tion received from Patrick Colquhoun, a magis-
trate in London, by his correspondent in New
York. Thomas Eddy: but the then existing
hostility to banks rendered this very difficult,
and it was not without much work and con-
siderable delay that at last, in 1819. a bill
incorporating the Bank for Savings was passed
by the legislature and approved by the council
of revision. The organizers named in the cer-
tificate were nearly all members of the Society
for the Prevention of Pauperism, founded in
1817. The trustees (three in rotation) attended
for one month each, as a committee, doing the
work of the bank: they received no compensa-
tion for their services, and were restricted in
investing their deposits to government securi-
ties and public stocks, issued under the lawf

BANKS, SAVINGS

of the United States and of this State. Since
then many savings institutions have been organ-
ized both in New York and in the other States
of the Union.

The primary savings bank being wholly
philanthropic, the services of the trustees are
usually gratuitous, and on this basis there have
been built, in the Eastern States of the United
States, a large number of flourishing institu-
tions, answering perfectly to the demands that
gave them birth. Criticisms have been made
at times, and were echoed in the legislature,
disapproving of the requirement of the gratuity
of the trustee's services, and arguing that men
are sure to become careless in their supervision
when not paid for their services ; partly because
of this contention, the plan of mutual savings
banks has not been adopted in the Western
and Southern States, where the savings bank
business is done by financial institutions furnish-
ing their capital and surplus as a guarantee for
the reoayment of deposits, and where the direc-
tors and stockholders are directly and financially
interested in the success of the bank. Another
reason to be considered also, was that condi-
t\ons in these States differ vastly from those
existing in the Eastern States. It was generally
believed that purely mutual savings banks would
not receive sufficient support, and could not
succeed in the more sparsely settled parts of
our country, and therefore they were instituted
as adjuncts, or departments, of regular com-
mercial banks of deposit. A few large and
successful mutual savings banks, based on the
eastern idea, and flourishing in the Western
and far Western States, seem, however, to prove
that this reason does not always apply. There is
no doubt that mutual savings institutions, pro-
tected by wise legislation, strictly restricted
as to first class investments and practically freed
from taxation, are as safe depositaries of the
savings of the nation, as may well be devised ;
and no institutions created with that object in
view can possibly be made too safe. A pro-
posal for postal savings banks has been fre-
quently before the public, but has never met
with success. The main arguments against them
consist in the difficulty which would be found
in investing these large amounts by a body
of constantly changing officeholders, and also
that the functions of the State should not be
increased, but rather diminished.

The average rate of interest paid to savings
bank depositors in the United States is about
3/^ per cent per annum.

In England the savings banks are both
governmental and trustee banks. Tlie trustee
banks are based on a plan somewhat similar to
our mutual banks in the United States. They
have some 2.300,000 depositors, with about $300,-
000,000, to their credit. The governmental
banks are called postal savings banks. Deposits
and withdrawals are made through the numerous
post-offices in Great Britain, and the deposits,
as is mainly the case with trustee banks, are
invested in government securities through the
commissioners of the public debt. These post-
office savings banks have about 8,800,000 deposi-
tors, with aggregate deposits of about $700,-
000,000. The interest paid is about 2-14 per
cent per annum.

A short summary of the law of the State
of New York, which is considered by many the

best savings bank law in the United State.s, is
as follows :

Trustees. — Thirteen or more, to receive no
remuneration as such, nor to borrow money
from the bank.

Investments. — Government bonds, bonds of
States not having deraulted for 10 years, munici-
pal bonds in New York State and several
other named cities, railroad bonds as named,
bonds and mortgages on real estate in the State
for not over 65 per cent of deposits, nor for
above 60 per cent of value, if improved, or
40 per cent if unimproved.

No loans on personal security.

To hold no real property, except banking
house, and that acquired under foreclosure,
which is to be sold within five years.

Deposits limited to $3,000 for each depositor;
interest not over 5 per cent per annum; surplus
fund, not over 15 per cent of deposits ; examina-
tion every two years by bank superintendent.

Savings bank statistics form a very uncertain
basis for comparisons and for drawing conclu-
sions, as conditions dift'er vastly in different
countries. In the United States, in addition to the
deposits in the savings banks, there is a large ac-
cumulation of savings in the life insurance com-
panies ($2,000,000,000), in the building and loan
associations ($600,000,000), and in school sav-
ings banks ($500,000), not to speak of the sav-
ings invested in homesteads and land. In Eng-
land, where landlordism prevails, nearly all the
savings are in the savings banks and life insur-
ance companies. In France, where the land is di-
vided into small holdings, some of the savings
of its people are in the savings banks, but they
are mainly invested in stocks and in the irre-
deemable government bonds held by its people
direct. In Germany and Switzerland, many
communes and cantons have established munici-
pal institutions, doing much the same work
as our own savings banks in the United States.
In Russia the government takes charge of all
savings. In Austria both government postal
banks and private banks are organized. In
Sweden the post-office banks invest their funds
in government bonds, bank stocks, and municipal
public stocks.

The following table shows the number of
depositors and amount of deposits in savings
banks in the different countries of the world,
where statistics are obtainable.

Countries

Number of
Depositors

Total deposits

Austria-Hungary

British Colonies

6,663,822

2,782,572

2,088,448

1,203,120

11,298,474

15,432,211

11,093,469

1,330,275

6,740.138

7.467.452

718,823

145.507

5. 177. 501

1,892,586

1,300,000

7.305.433

$1,309,752,448
330,858,520
141,851,419

236,170,057

847,224,910

2,273,406,226

966.854,253

Holland

72,738,817

Italy

482,263,472

40.887.186

89,633.481

7.426,031

466,1 59,229

151,480,442

193,000,000

3,060,178,611

Total

82,639-831

$10,669,885,102

The above figures show average deposits in
the savings banks in the world of $101.01 for

BANKS, UNITED STATES NATIONAL — BANNERET

each depositor, or $ii.oo per capita. The de-
posits in the United States average $418.89 for
each depositor, or $37.38 per capita of popula-
tion.

The following table shows the growth of
the savings banks in the United States :

Year

1820
1830
1840
1850
i860
1870
1880
1890
1900
1904

Total deposits

$1,138,576

6,973,304

14,051,520

43,431,130

149,277,504

549,874.358

819,106,973

1,524,844,506

2,449,547,88s

3,060,178,611

In several States of the Union associations
of savings banks have been formed for mutual
benefit, and for the purpose of watching over
proposed legislation in regard to savings banks
so as to protect the interests of their depositors.
In 1901 a national union of savings banks was
organized as the savings bank section of the
American Bankers' Association. This section
includes in its membership a majority of the
savings banks in the United States, and conven-
tions are held yearly where members from all
parts of the United States meet to discuss the
many subjects of particular interest to savings
banks and to their depositors.

William Han hart,
Secretary '^^Saz'ings Bank Section''^ The Ameri-
can Bankers' Association, New York.
Banks, United States National. The na-
tional Bank of the United States owes its ex-
istence to the necessities that were occasioned as
the direct result of the outbreak of the Civil
War. Prior to 1861 the paper currency of the
country had been furnished by some 1,600 pri-
vate corporations, each organized under its re-
spective State laws. When Congress met in
extraordinary session on 4 July 1861, it was
confronted by a serious financial situation. With
estimates showing a probable expenditure of
$1,000,000 a day, the treasury was empty and the
nation was already deeply in debt. At the sug-
gestion of Secretary Chase, therefore, the govern-
ment was empowered to raise $320,000,000, all
but $80,000,000 of which should be by loan, and,
in anticipation of the revenue, to issue
$50,000,000 of treasury notes, redeemable on de-
mand. At the invitation of Secretary Chase the
banks in the larger cities soon negotiated the
requisite loan, but, while this relieved the tem-
porary necessities of the treasury, the secretary
realized that a safer financial policy must be
adopted if the nation was to remain upon a
secure foundation. When Congress reassembled
in December, therefore, Mr. Chase was pre-
pared to suggest a plan to meet these require-
ments. He explained that while the ordinary
revenues of the country might be sufficient to
meet the ordinary expenditures, for the extra-
ordinary expenses of the war it was necessary
to depend upon loans, and he suggested that the
time had come when the government might
properly claim a part, at least, of the advan-
tage of the paper circulation then constituting
a loan without interest from the people to the
banks. He believed that the best way to accom-

plish this result was to provide a national cur-
rency, to be issued by the banks, but secured by
the pledge of United States bonds.

Before Congress could consider the secre-
tary's recommendations the suspension of specie
payment, 28 Dec. 1861, completely changed the
aspect of the situation. To provide for the
pressing needs for cash, Congress was com-
pelled to authorize the issue of more demand
notes and so matters continued until December
1862, by which time the war had reached such a
magnitude as to exhaust even the enormous re-
sources provided by Congress. The disburse-
ments in November had amounted to nearly two
million dollars a day, while unpaid requisitions
had reached the extent of $46,000,000, and the
annual statement of receipts and expenditures
showed a deficit of $277,000,000 to be provided
for. To meet this situation Secretary Chase
recommended an increase in the amount author-
ized to be borrowed on the last 5-20 bonds, but,
in order to create a market for these bonds, he
again advised the creation of a series of banking
associations under a national law that should
require them to secure their circulation by a
deposit of government securities. Although
strongly advocated and introduced in a bill by
Mr. Hooper, 7 Jan. 1863, the suggestion met
with so little favor that the bill was adversely
reported by the Committee on Ways and Means,
but on 25 January, after President Lincoln had
sent a special message to the House warning
Congress that its present financial policy would
soon produce disastrous consequences, Senator
Sherman introduced another bill providing for
a national currency. This measure differed
somewhat from Mr. Hooper's bill, which had
failed in the committee room, and, as some of
the features which had proved objectionable in
the former measure had been eliminated in the
Senate bill, it met with less opposition, although-
it was so closely contested that it passed the
Senate, 12 Feb. 1863, by a vote of 23 to 21 only.
The House concurred in its passage on the 20th
by a vote of 78 to 64, and, on the 25th, the
measure received the signature of the Presi-
dent, and it was this act which has been pro-
ductive of the magnificent national bank system
of the United States of to-day. See Sumner,
< History of American Currency' : Richardson,
<The National Banks'; Bolles, ^Financial His-
tory of the United States.'

Bannatyne Club, a literary club, named
after George Bannatyne, the Scotch literateur,
founded in 1823 by Sir Walter Scott, its pur-
pose being to publish works on Scottish history
and literature. It was dissolved in 1859. The
society when founded had 31 members, but when
dissolved there were 100, the membership being
limited to that number.

Ban'neker, Benjamin, American negro
mathematician: b. ^Maryland 9 Nov. 1731 ; d.
1806. At the age of 50 he began the study of
mathematics for astronomical purposes. He
published annually after 1792 an almanac de-
vised by himself, and aided in determining the
boundaries of the District of Columbia.

Ban'neret, an abbreviation of knight ban-
neret ; a member of an ancient order of knight-
hood which had the privilege of leading their
retainers to battle under their own flag. A
banneret was entitled to display a banner in-
stead of a pennon. They ranked as the next

BANNOCK — BANQUETS

order below the Knights of the Garter, only a
few official dignitaries intervening. This was
not, however, unless they were created by the
king on the field of battle, else they ranked
after baronets. The order is now extinct, the
last banneret created having been at the battle
of Edgehill, in 1642, for his gallantry in res-
cuing the standard of Charles I.

Bannock, a cake once much eaten in Scot-
land. It was made of oatmeal, barley-meal, or
peasemeal baked on an iron plate or griddle
over the fire. From a supposed resemblance the
turbot is sometimes called in Scotland the
bannock-fluke.

Ban'nock. See Baxak.

Ban'nockburn, Scotland, a village in Stir-
lingshire, two miles southeast of Stirling, fa-
mous for the decisive battle fought near it,
24 June 1314, between King Robert Bruce of
Scotland and' Edward 11. of England, in which
the EngHsh, though greatly superior in numbers
and equipment, were defeated. The Scots owed
their signal success partly to their position and
partly to the use of covered pits which rend-
ered the English cavalry useless. The Bore-
stone, where Bruce is said to have planted his
standard, is still shown near a flagstaff erected
in 1870. The village has manufactures of wool-
ens, such as tartans, carpets, etc. Pop. (1900)
2,600.

Banns, the announcement of intended
marriage, requiring the hearers to make known
any cause why the parties should not be united
in matrimony. By the publication of these
banns is meant the legal proclamation or notifi-
cation within the parish, district, or chapelry, of
the names and descriptions of the persons who
intend to be there married; the object being to
secure public knowledge of intended marriages,
and that all who have objections to the marriage
may be enabled to state them in time. If the
bridegroom live in a different parish from the
bride, the banns must be proclaimed also in
that parish, and a certificate of such proclama-
tion must be produced before the celebration of
the marriage. According to the old English
canon law, the publication of banns might be
made on holidays ; but a change was made to
Sundays by Lord Hardwicke's Marriage Act in
1753, and although that act was afterward su-
perseded by the 4 Geo. IV. chap. 76, the regu-
lation as to Sundays has been since continued.
Seven days' notice at least must be given to the
clergyman before publication of banns. Banns
were customary in various places before
they were prescribed by the entire Church
in the Fourth Council of Lateran. The
Council of Trent ordered pastors to pub-
lish them at the principal mass in the parish
church, or churches, of the parties, on three
successive Sundays or festivals. This publica-
tion should be made within two months
preceding the marriage. For grave reasons the
bishop can dispense from this obligation. By
the English Prayer Book the announcement is
required to be made in the words of the rubric
on each of the three Sundays preceding the cere-
mony. If objections are offered by anyone
present, the clergyman cannot proceed further.
Except in the Roman Catholic Church the cus-
tom of thus publishing the banns of marriage is
practically obsolete in the United States.

Banquets. It was the famous Mr. Boswell
who first defined man as a cooking animal, and
yet, appropriate as the definition still is, neither
mythology nor tradition offer any clue to aid the
student in discovering when it was that the hu-
man animal first learned to cook. Of course,
it is highly improbable that this secret was
known to prehistoric man. Instead of knowing
how to cook he undoubtedly ate his food raw,
washing it down with pure cold water from the
springs and brooks, and many years must have
elapsed before he made the surprising discovery
that the foods that satisfied his hunger could be
vastly improved in taste if subjected to the in-
fluence of heat. All this, however, is little more
than mere surmise for our only knowledge re-
garding the customs of eating in vogue during
the remote past has been obtained from the
relics unearthed by archseology. On walls now
ruined and decayed the hand of the ancient
painter and sculptor left a record of the cus-
toms of his time and from this source the stu-
dent has been able to gather some little informa-
tion regarding the gastronomic progress of the
human race.

Such records, however valuable they may be
in the absence of other facts, are vague and
unsatisfactory at best, and so, turning to ancient
literature, one finds that the earliest references to
food preparation are contained in the Bible.
In Genesis, when Abraham bade Sarah make
ready Miree measures of fine meal that he might
be prepared to entertain the angel, the student
finds his first direct reference to breadstuffs,
and, from that time, the Scriptures often make
mention of some foods by means of which the
reader may obtain a more or less correct idea
of the slow stages by which this branch of the
human race progressed from its habits of prim-
itive simplicity to the stately banquets of King
Solomon and the extravagant feasts of Belshaz-
zar.

As our meagre records show that the art of
feasting was practically contemporaneous with
the Egyptians and the Hebrews it is not im-
probable that the latter race may have learned
the secrets of good living from the former dur-
ing the time of the captivity, for at the period
when both Greek and Roman were still content
with the simplest fare the Hebrews had been
initiated into the pleasures of the table, a fact
which explains the many quaint Biblical warn-
ings against the sin of glutton}'-, as in Esdras,
where it is said that ^^the faces of them that
have used abstinence shall shine above the
stars.''

Among the ancient Jews all festive repasts
were held toward the close of the day, after
all matters of business had been concluded. If
the feast was to be one of great ceremony guests
were not only invited long before the occasion,
but again, on the day and as near as possible to
the hour appointed, servants were sent to their
houses to deliver orally the second, or ^'express''
invitation, which announced that the host was
now prepared to receive his guests. As this
"express'' invitation was sent to none but those
who had already declared their acceptance,
honor and propriety required that they answer
the summons at once and in person, a fact
which explains and justifies the feelings of re-
sentment which were entertained by the master
of the house in the parable of the great supper,
on which occasion, as will be remembered, each

BANQUETS

perscn invited met the bearer of the/^express^^
with a frivolous apology for his inabilitj- to be
present at the feast to which he had already
accepted an invitation.

Guests at Hebrew banquets were required
to bring their cards of invitation and these were
presented to servants stationed at the entrance
door. Upon being admitted the guests were
conducted to the receiving-room v.here water,
oils and perfumes awaited them. If the host
desired to exhibit a great mark of courtesy he
provided each guest with a richly embroidered
garment, light and showy and cut in a flowing
fashion, which all were required to wear during
the feast.

If the banquet was of a private character the
master of the house presided, but on occasions
of public festivity a governor of the feast was
selected and it was his duty to see that the
banquet was not only properly conducted but
that the company present preserved at least a
semblance to order. Appointment to this office
was always regarded as a great honor, and,
among the Greeks and Romans, the position was
prized so highly that the choice of the individual
to fill it was often decided by chance, as by the
throw of the dice.

The positions of the guests at the tables were
not fixed by inviolable rule. Sometimes they
selected their own places, while, at other times,
thej- were arranged by seniority of family, or
even according to the whim of the host who
might desire to assign the most distinguished
guests to places near his own person. In the
earliest daj^s, as is shown by the habits of the an-
cient Israelites, guests sat cross-legged around
a low table and the custom of reclining while
<?ating was not introduced until about the last
of the Old Testament days. At least, it was
.about this time that the Jews adopted this cus-
tom, as well as the habit of having but two
thirds of the table spread with a cloth, the
portion where the food was to stand being left
bare. In ancient Egypt and Persia the tables
were arranged along the sides of the room and
guests faced the wall.

At this time such articles as spoons, knives
and forks were unknown and those who ate
obtained the morsel they desired by dipping their
slices of bread in the dish before them, folding
the piece of meat or other food substance within
it by the use of the thumb and two fingers.
Later centuries saw the invention of the spoon
but many hundred years elapsed before any
other substitute for the fingers was suggested.
Naturally the hands became besmeared with
grease but they were cleaned by being rubbed on
slices of bread, kept for that purpose. This
bread was then thrown to the dogs who waited
beneath the tables for just such morsels from
the feast. If the fingers became too badly
soiled, however, servants appeared with water
and assisted the guests to wash by pouring a
stream over the hands into a basin.

^^'hen the party was a large one it was the
custom for two persons to eat from one dish
and the host often showed the height of hos-
pitality by dipping his hand into his own dish,
lifting a portion of the food, and offering sop
to his guest. To decline such an attention was
a breach of etiquette that stamped one as being
extremely ill-bred. In order that the hands
should be always clean from dirt, however, the
rabbis enjoined the "first water'* and the "last

\'0l. 2 — 19.

water,** or the washing before and after eating,
and, in the case of travelers at least, the "first
water** included the washing of the feet. After
the adoption of the reclining posture guests
lay with their faces toward the table, the left
arm resting upon a cushion and the feet
stretched out behind, while during the progress
of the banquet both head and feet were fre-
quently sprinkled with perfume to overcome
any unpleasant odor that might arise from too
copious perspiration.

The foods served at these ancient banquets
consisted of flesh, fish, fowl, melted butter,
bread, honey and fruit, all of which were
brought to the table at one time, the service
being accomplished by the use of trays, the num-
ber and quality of the dishes varying under
different circumstances. In ordinary cases the
portion of each guest consisted of four or five
dishes, but if the guest was a person of great
distinction this portion was increased until the
dishes became so numerous that they were piled
one upon another, completely covering the table.
All this food, which was usually prepared in
liquid or with a sauce, as in a stew, had been
cut into conveniently small pieces before it was
served.

From the earliest days within the recollec-
tion of history sacrificial occasions have always
included a banquet, however crude a festival it
may have been, and it was the adoption of this
custom that gave a religious as well as a social
significance to so manj' of the Hebrew feasts.
As the Lord's Supper of the Christians was de-
rived from the Passover, so all the great reli-
gious festivals had. as their accompaniment, a
domestic feast. On the occasion of the religious
banquets, however, the wine was mixed accord-
ing to rabbinical regulation, or with three parts
water ; four brief benedictions being pronounced
over the cup before it was passed by the master
of the feast.

The Greeks, like the Persians, began and
ended their feasts with libations of wine, and
some idea of the nature of an ancient Greek
banquet may be obtained from the following
curious account of a dinner given by Achilles
in honor of Ulysses :

He cast down a great fleshing block in the firelight,
and laid thereon a sheep's back and a fat goat's and a
great hog's chine, rich with fat. And Automedon held
them for him while Achilles carved. Then he sliced
well the meat, and pierced it through with spits. Then,
when the fire was burned down and the flames waned,
he scattered the embers and laid the spits thereupon,
after he had sprinkled them with holy salt._ Then when
he had roasted the meat and apportioned it in platters,
Patroklos took bread and dealt it forth in fair baskets,
and Achilles dealt the meat; and he sate himself over
against godlike Odysseus and bade his comrade Patro-
klos to sacrifice to the gods, so he cast the first fruits
into the fire. Then they put their hands to the good
cheer lying before them.

Later, of course, the Greeks became more
delicate eaters and vied with the Romans as to
the elaborate character of their feasts. Like
the Egyptians and Hebrews they reclined
at table and their sumptuous repasts were di-
vided into two courses : the first consisting of
fish and meat, accompanied by the vegetables
and several hors d'ceuvres or entrees, while the
second course comprised the pastry, fruits and
other kinds of dessert.

As soon as the regular meal was finished the
tables were removed and the floor was cleaned
of all fragments. Other tables were then
brought in by the servants, tables covered with

BANQUETS

salted cakes, cheeses and other foods provocative
of thirst, as well as the great mixing bowls, the
pitchers of water cooled in snow, and the jugs
of unmixed wine, for the Greeks loved to drink
heavily after eating, and as they drank, to an
accompaniment of music, song and dances, young
and handsome slaves garlanded their heads and
breasts with twining vines and flowers, not,_as
has sometimes been said, as a sign of festivity,
but because the garlands were supposed to
cool the forehead and counteract the heady
effect of the wines.

Like the Hebrews the Greeks obtained their
first lessons in cookery from the Egj-ptians and
they soon put them to good account._ The
Athenians vi^ere particularly apt pupils in the
kitchen science and they finallj' came to excel
the rest of Greece in gastronomic achievements
just as the modern French excel the rest of
Europe in this day. An excellent proof of this
assertion is to be found in the circumstance that
what is regarded as one of the most valuable
of the lost works of antiquity is a didactic poem
on gastronomj', written by Archestratus, tlie inti-
mate friend of one of the sons of Pericles.
<<This great writer,^' says Athenseus, '<has
traversed earth and sea to render himself ac-
quainted with the best things which thej^ pro-
duced. He did not, during his travels, inquire
concerning the manners of nations, as to which
it is useless to inform ourselves, since it is im-
possible to change them ; but he entered the
laboratories where the delicacies of the table
were prepared, and he held intercourse with none
but those who could advance his pleasure. His
poem is a treasure of science, every verse is a
precept.^^

Among the great nations of ancient times the
Romans were the last to learn the art of cookerj'.
As late as the year 174 B.C. there were neither
cooks nor public bakers in Rome, and the people
were satisfied with and asked for nothing better
than a kind of porridge made of pulse. This
in addition to their vegetables and some legumi-
nous fruits formed their principle articles of diet.
The Asiatic wars, however, introduced the Ro-
mans to the luxuries of the table and, in a day
as it were, Rome, discovering that it had a
palate, went mad on the subject of gastronomy.
Slaves who could cook, bake, or make sweets
were brought to Rome in large numbers but,
as everj' man of wealth was eager to purchase
them, they brought the highest of prices.

As this was the dawning of the day of
Rome's expansion it was not long before her
agents began to supply her capital with dainties
from all parts of the world. From the far East
to the far West whatever seemed delicate of
taste or that might help to tempt a nation of
palates already craving a new flavor was brought
to the cooks in the Roman kitchens. To im-
prove the quality of his cuisine the Emperor
Vitellius, one of the most enormous eaters the
world has ever known, sent his legions to every
part of the empire to shoot game for him, while
entire fleets were employed in doing nothing but
catching_ the fish that were to grace his table.
In fact it seemed as if Rome, so long satisfied
with the humblest of fare, could not find a suffi-
cient variety of foods to gratify its desire for
•jiovelty.

Even as early as Caesar's time, however, the
Roman table was liberally provided with a
>ariety of foods sufficient to satisfy almost any

appetite. As an example of a feast given in
those days one may take the following menu
which was served at a pontifical banquet long
before the advent of the golden days of Im-
perial Rome :

The first course, which was intended to
merely whet the appetite, consisted of conger
eels, oysters, two kinds of mussels, thrushes
served on asparagus, fat fowls, a ragout of
oysters and other shell fish, with black and
white marrons. The second course included a
variety of shell fish and other marine animals,
becaficos, haunches of venison, a wild boar, and
a pasty of becaficos and other birds. The third,
and principal course, comprised the udder of
swine, boar's head, a fricassee of fish, a fricassee
of sow's udder, ducks of various kinds, roast
fowl, with pastry and Picentine bread.

As the years passed Rome experienced no
deterioration in its love for the good things
of the table. In fact, on the other hand, this
pontifical menu was really a meagre bill of fare
as compared to those which were afterward
prepared by the Roman cooks for the delectation
of the later Caesars. As an illustration the fol-
lowing description of a banquet in the time of
Nero, which is taken from Dean Farrar's
^Darkness and Dawn,^ is admitted by students
to be a vivid but not exaggerated picture of a
feast in the da5'S of Imperial Rome. At this
banquet, which was prepared under the direc-
tions of Otho, Nero entertained eight guests.
The walls of the room ^Svere inlaid with mother-
of-pearl and slabs of ivory. . . . The table
was of cedar-wood, and it sparkled with goblets
of gold and silver. . . . among which were
scattered amber cups. . . . Although it was
winter, garlands of exotic roses were provided
for every guest, and none but the most youthful
and beautiful of Otho's slaves were permitted to
wait upon them. The supper was no supper
of Trimalchio, with its coarse and heavy glut-
tonies. . . . The oysters were from Rich-
borough ; the lampreys were from the fishponds
of a senator who was said to have flung into
them more than one slave who had oft'ended
him ; the mullet came from Tauromenos ; the
milk cheese from Sarsina. There were two tiny
dishes which represented the last and most ex-
travagant devices of Roman gourmets, the one
composed of the tongues of nightingales, the
other of the brains of Samian peacocks and
African flamingoes, of which the iridescent and
crimson feathers adorned the silver plates on
which they laj-. Sea and land had been swept
with mad prodigality to furnish every luxury.
The wines were of the rarest vintages, and
whereas four kinds of wine were thought extrav-
agant in the days of Julius Caesar, Otho set 80
different sorts before his guests. . . . Hot
mushrooms alternated with bits of ice.* Per-
fumes were sprinkled on the hair and feet of
the guests, and the amusements that were pro-
vided were dancing b}" Andalusian girls, dice
and gambling. Offerings to the gods were not
forgotten, however, and these were thrown into
the hearth.

If this was a dainty repast, however, Rome
was not always so dainty for the wealthy gour-
mands were not satisfied with eating well. They
wanted to gluttonize, to eat of ever>1:hing im-
moderately until they found it impossible to eat
any more, when, by resorting to the ever-con-
venient feather, they were able to return to the

BANQUETS

feast and stuff themselves once more to reple-
tion. On such occasions the more distinguished
the company, the earlier began the banquet and
the later it lasted.

Nor did the Roman table ever go dry for the
want of rare and choice wines. In Greece the
juice of the grape was almost invariably mixed
with water, but Rome wanted no dilution of its
revelling. Wildly extravagant and prodigal in
everything, the Romans made no exception in
the case of their drink. The wines that they
used were preserved in jars or bottles of baked
clay, and, as they were prized in proportion to
their age, each receptacle bore a label on which
it was distinctly stated in what consulship the
beverage had been made. Many of these wines
came from Italy, the Campania being considered
the best, but the wines of Greece were also
there, side by side with all the drinks that time
or money could gather from every part of the
world.

The fact that civilization and cookery go
hand in hand was never more strikingly illus-
trated than in the case of the ancient Britons,
for, in the earlier days of their history their
cuisine was marked by all the limitations of
primitive simplicity. The Roman conquest,
however, appears to have applied to the kitchens
of the country as thoroughly as to the govern-
ment, for as the Roman conquerors were un-
willing to eat the crude culinary preparations
of the native Briton they proceeded to teach
the conquered how to cook for them. Then,
too, at about the same time, the appearance of
the German immigrants, with their own more
wholesome cookery, was not without its good
effect, and the transformation in Mme. Britan-
nica's methods of cooking may be said to have
been almost as wise as it was radical.

The centuries which succeeded the fall of
the Roman Empire, and which comprised the
greater part of the Middle Ages, was as dark
a period for gastronomy as it was for all other
arts. For a time it seemed as if man had
forgotten how to cook ; as if he had lost his
taste for the well seasoned dishes which had
once been his chief delight, and that he had no
desire to get it back again. Even Charlemagne,
who, according to his Capitularies, took a warm
personal interest in his table, was a novice both
in the art of cooking and in that of service,
for his banquets were barbaric affairs composed
of huge roasts of meat dripping from the spit,
and other crude features that would have put
the ancient Roman gourmets to the blush. Per-
sonally, too, the great Emperor of the West
was extremely abstemious and seldom, even at
dinner, permitted himself to be served with more
than fo'jr dishes.

The reading of the description of Prince
John's banquet in Sir Walter Scott's <Ivanhoe^
certainly gives the impression that the Normans,
who appeared two or three centuries later, were
justified in priding themselves upon their su-
perior taste and discrimination in matters of
eating, but even such flashes of light were but
faint illuminations for so black a night for art
as that of the dark ages.

Highly as the cuisine is esteemed to-day;
idolized as it was before the fall of Rome and
Greece called a halt upon civilization and placed
a check upon progress, it seems somewhat
strange that there was no one chronicler of

affairs bright enough to detect the fact that the
revival in the lost art of cookery had commenced.
As the historians of those days dealt in facts,
not in manners, however, it is impossible to
state at just what period gastronomy began
to be cultivated again, although, of course, it is
well known that its revival, like the revival
in learning, was brought about in Italy. Ac-
cording to the best authorities, however, it was
the merchant-princes of Florence who made
the first attempt to improve the cuisine of the
country and their experiments met with such
success that their efforts were greeted with the
most heartfelt encouragement by travelers from
foreign countries who were invited to sit at
their tables. It was to the Italian cuisine, in
fact, that the French owed their instructions in
the gastronomic art, for when Catherine da
Medicis returned to Paris she carried several
professors of the new cookery in her t^rain. The
effect of their importation was almost immedi-
ately noticeable. They improved the pot-an-feu;
they expounded a new theory of taste ; they ex-
patiated upon the value of sauces, but, and this
was more to the purpose so far as the progress
of civilization was concerned, they introduced
the art of making ices. Even the i6th century
^Montaigne, whose life was certainly cast in
pleasant places, among the people who composed
the best French society, was unable to appre-
ciate the estimate that the Italian cooks of that
day had so properly put upon their vocation.
In one of his contemporaneous, if not somewhat
reminiscent studies, he says :

I have seen amongst us one of those artists who had
been in the service of Cardinal Caraffa. He discoursed
to nie of this science de gueule with a gravity and a
magisterial ?'ir, as if he was speaking of some weighty
point of theology. He expounded to me a difference
of appetites: that which one has fasting; that which
one has after the second or third course; the methods
now of satisfying and then of exciting and piquing it;
the police of sauces, first in general, and next in partic-
ularising the qualities of the ingredients and their
effects; the differences of salads according to their
seasons; that which should be warmed., that which
should be served cold, with the mode of adorning and
embellishing them to make them pleasant to the view.
He then entered on the order of the service, full of
elevated and important considerations —

" \ec minimo sane discrimine refert
Quo gestu lepores et quo gallina secetur."
And all this expressed in rich and magnificent terms,
in those very terms, indeed, which one employs in
treating of the government of an empire. — I well re-
member my man.

The period which intervened between the
arrival of Catherine de Medicis from Italy
and the accession of Louis XIV. is one concern-
ing which there is practically no authentic cul-
inary record, although tliere is not the slightest
reason to doubt that prodigious advances were
made by the gastronomic art during that time.
In fact, one has but to refer to one of the menus
from the table of Louis XIV. to realize that
cookery had ceased to be an experiment, and
it is necessary to go but a step further and
compare the foods of Paris in Louis' time with
those in use in other parts of the world, to
realize the progress that had been made by
the French cooks by the middle of the i6th
century. In Paris, for example, the foods were
not dissimilar to those of our own day. to
which the following menu of a dinner which
was served to Emperor Charles V., by the city
of Halle, would certainly be a contrast:

(i) Raisins in malt flour; (2) fried eggs; (3) pan-
cakes; (4) steamed carrots; (5) fried slices of bread;

BANQUETS

(6) a covered porridge; (7) a high pasty; (8) a pea-
soup with marrow, covered richly with peas and eggs;
(9) yellow codfish boiled in butter; (10) carps, boiled;
(11) fried fish, with bitter oranges, spiced; (12) sweet
pikes; (13) pulverized kernels, with almonds (14) maize
in almonds' milk; (15) fried fish with small olives;
(16) cakes; (17) pears and confect.

And during this time England, too, had
made some httle progress in the improvement of
its cuisine, although Henry VIII. was one of the
first monarchs who exhibited any liberality in
rewarding originality in cookery. Henry, how-
ever, seemed unable to do enough for those
who ministered to the gratification of his appe-
tite, and on one occasion, he was so much
delighted with the flavor of a new pudding
that he presented a manor to its inventor.

From the early days when the housewives of
Briton had adopted a cuisine which may quite
properly be termed an amalgamation of German
and Roman cookery England had maintained a
position of her own in the world of gastronomy.
By no means as ostentatious as the ancient
disciples of the art ; less dainty, perhaps, than
the more modern disciples in the various Euro-
pean countries, their school of the kitchen was
so largely their own that it is not strange that
Cardinal Campeggio, one of the legates charged
to treat with Henry VIII. concerning his di-
vorce from Catherine should have been re-
quested to draw up a report on the state of
English cookery as compared with that of Italy
and France, by the express desire and for the
especial use of his Holiness the Pope.

There are certain historical documents con-
nected with the Seymour family still on file in
London, which throw a most interesting light
upon the culinary customs in vogue in England
during the reign of the Eighth Henry. They
show, for example, the manner in which he was
entertained at Wulfhall on the occasion of his
marriage to Jane Seymour. The facts, presented
in a paper prepared by the Duchess of Somerset,
are as follows :

The king, with his whole household and nobility,
arrived at Wulfhali on Saturday, 9 Aug. 1539. They
remained Sunday, Monday, and Tuesday. How or
where so many were lodged does not appear; but
" covers," as we should call them, " messes," as the
book calls them, were laid for two hundred the first
day. There are only two meals a day accounted for,
and it appears that on Saturdays, as well as on Fridays,
no meat was eaten, abstinence from flesh on those days
having been ordered by a Royal proclamation, not only
for health and discipline, but for the benefit of the
C9mmonwealth and the profit of the fishing-trade. The
king's supper on his arrival, therefore, consisted only
of fish.

Country places in Wiltshire must have been better
supplied with fish than they are now, for the bill of
fare included pikes, gills, salmon, tenches, lobsters,
bream, plaice, trouts, congers, carps, roach, ells, potted
sea-fish and salmon pasties, a sack of oysters, salt hab-
erdine (which was cod-fish salted at Aberdeen), soles,
and whitings.

The next day being Sunday, there were messes for
four hundred, and the provisions amounted to 6 oxen, 2
muttons, 12 meals, 5 cygnets, 21 great capons, 7 good
capons, 10 Kentish capons. 3 dozen and 6 coarse
capons, 70 pullets, gi chickens, 38 quails, 9 mews,
6 grets, 2 shields of brawn, 7 swans, 2 cranes, s storks,
3 pheasants, 40 partridges, 2 peachicks, 21 snipe, besides
larks and brews — whatever they were.

It is scarcely necessary to trace the history
of the banquet — which is, of course, but an-
other name for the history of eating — with
more close attention to detail. In contrasting
the banquets of other days with those of to-day,
however, one is struck by the fact that the
modern peoples have also made some consider-

able improvement in the manner of eating and
drinking, for one has but to turn to the menus
of meals served at the beginning of the 19th
century to find that dinners were not infre-
quently burdened by 20 or more entrees.

In the last century before the Christian era
a stoic, Posidonius of Rhodes, in discussing the
methods of cookery, took advantage of the op-
portunity to preach simplicity. He insisted
that man, who had been blessed with good teeth,
glands, and secretions, a tongue and the usual
apparatus for digestion was independent of
the cuisine, and this ancient pagan idea that the
object of all repasts should be to take away the
desire of eating and to maintain health and vigor
has become more acceptable to thoughtful people
during the past century. To-day our private
banquets at least are simplicity itself when com-
pared with those of even a century ago, and
while their somewhat monotonous dearth of
any entertainment except that of eating and
drinking, with occasional music, has recently
resulted in a sort of mania for the odd and
eccentric, it is so obvious that these banquets
are based upon the old desire for notoriety, the
wish to dazzle which has inspired so many of
the world's great feasts since the days of King
Solomon's entertainment of the Queen of Sheba,
that no particular attention is paid to such
purile attempts to provide a novelty.

To obtain a correct idea of the modern ban-
quet, however, the public banquet conceived and
executed in the most perfect taste, it is only
necessary to recall the dinner recently given at
Compeigne by President Loubet of France in
honor of the Czar and Czarina of Russia. One
of the most magnificent and perfectly appointed
affairs of modern times, its 500 covers were
served at a cost to the French Govermnent of
something more than $15,000, exclusive of the
wines. And as these were the choicest brands
and of the most ancient lineage their cost must
have been fully as great as that of the dinner
itself.

A story is told that upon this occasion the
correspondent of one of the great foreign jour-
nals interviewed the chef for the purpose of
securing some authentic details concerning the
dinner. Among other questions he asked :
"And what was the chief novelty of the menu?^*
Instantly the great man stood upon his dignity
and his voice was strong in its wrath as he
replied : "Novelties ! I would have you know
that on the table of the guests of our country
we lay no second editions.'' A reply which
might have been made by Vatel, the chef who
killed himself, being unable to survive the dis-
honor of the table for which he was responsible.

In the various descriptions of President Lou-
bet's banquet to the reigning sovereigns of
Russia little is said in regard to the decorations
or service, the writers confining themselves to
the menu, that being the most important feature
of the feast. Mention is made, however, that
the flags, flowers, ribbons, and spun-sugar orna-
ments united in a decorative scheme with effec-
tively beautiful results.

In regard to the menu, ]''ov«:ever, it is ap-
parent that it left nothing to he desired. The
soups were clear turtle and Creme du Barry,
which gave the guests a choice, after which
"came a wonderful dish of soft roes called on
the bill of fare 'Caisses de laitances Dieppoise,'

BANQUETTE — BANTRY

and another, ^Barbues dorees a la Vatel,*
served with a remarkable sauce in which a
hundred elements harmonized in a perfect whole.
Venison with an acid dressing and braised
quail, the most delicate bird of the species, a
native of the vineyards of central France, fol-
lowed the entrees. Afterward, in turn came
sherbets, granites, etc., succeeded by truffled
pheasants with champagne sauce, salad Potel,
named for the chef who invented it, and similar
delicacies." The triumphal achievement, how-
ever, was a savory entremet which is described
■ as a *<small pudding of asparagus heads served
' with a cream sauce." Hot-house fruits, ices,
' cheese, and coffee comprised the final courses
of the feast.

One of the exhibits which attracted the
most attention at the last Paris Exposition was
a service of Sevres which was admittedly the
most beautiful and costly production that the
famous potteries had ever attempted. Upon
each piece of china was pictured a danseuse, but
no two were the same in either pose or type of
loveliness. Realizing that the one "hobby" of
the czarina was her love for beautiful china,
of which she already had a famous collection,
including the best specimens of the work of
all the great potteries of the world, it was
decided to copy this magnificent service in every
detail. It was thus used at the banquet and
was afterward presented to the first lady of
Russia in the name of President Loubet.

The occasion upon which one nation enter-
tains the rulers of another nation is an event
when, if at any time, even the most ostentatious
display might be regarded as permissible. If
contrasted with the seemly manner of living
in vogue among modern diners at ordinary
times this banquet of the French President may,
in some respects perhaps, have bordered upon
ostentation. When compared to the extrava-
gan feasts of other days, however, it seems
striking in its simplicity, for nothing could have
been in greater contrast to the extravagant
luxury of the banquets of the ancients, to say
nothing of that of many more modern rulers,
that luxury which precedes, if it does not lead
to, decadence.

Miles Bradford,
Author of ^Carlotta and I?

Banquette, ban-ket', in fortification, the ele-
vation of earth behind a parapet, on which the
garrison of a fortress may stand, on the ap-
proach of an enemy, in order to fire upon them.
Its dimensions vary, and it is frequently made
double ; that is, a second is made still lower.

Banquo, ban'kwo, a famous Scottish thane
of the nth century. In conjunction with Mac-
beth, cousin of Duncan, the king, he obtained
a victory over the Danes, who had landed on
the Scottish coast. Macbeth, shortly afterward,
violently dethroned Duncan and caused him to
be secretly assassinated. Banquo, though not
an accomplice, was a witness of the crime ; and
being subsequently regarded by Macbeth with
fear and suspicion, the latter invited him and
his son, Fleance, to supper, and hired assassins
to attack them on their return home during the
darkness of night. Banquo was slain, but the
youth made his escape. Shakespeare has inter-
woven this occurrence with the theme of his
tragedy of < Macbeth.^

Ban'shee, an imaginary female being sup-
posed by some of the peasantry in Ireland and
the Scottish Highlands to wail or shriek near a
house when one of the inmates is about to die.

Bantam, ban-tam', or ban'tam, a province
occupying the whole of the west end of the
island of Java, and containing a population of
about 520,000. It long formed an independent
kingdom governed by its own sultan, but at
the beginning of the 19th century was formally
incorporated by the Dutch with their other
possessions. Rice is now the staple product.
Its capital, which bears the same name, was
once the principal mart of the Dutch, and was
surpassed by few towns of the East in antiquity
and celebrity. It is now very much decayed.
Bantam is be'-cved to give name to the weH-
known small but spirited breed of domestic
fowl.

Ban'tam, any one of various breeds of
diminutive fowls kept for pleasure, and par-
taking of the characteristics of the several
breeds which they imitate in miniature. Thus
the game-bantams are miniatures of exhibition
game-cocks, and weigh about 22 ounces. The
golden and silver Sebright bantams originated
in America from a cross between a Polish
fowl and a bantam, and are exceedinglj' beauti-
ful in plumage. The rose-comb bantams are
little copies of Hamburg fowls, and should be
either lustrous black or pure white ; and the
cocks have a rose comb, square in front, evenly
corrugated, and ending in a spike with a slight
upward curve. Booted white bantams are those
which have their shanks heavily feathered. The
Cochin fowl is imitated in all its varieties by a
bantam the cock of which weighs about 28
ounces. Most beautiful of all are the Japanese
bantams, of which there are several varieties.
The typical one is white with the tail black,
and composed of long, sickle-like, white feath-
ers held erect and edged with white. The
wing quills are dark slate color edged with
wdiite, so that when the wing is folded it shows
only white.

Bantayan, Philippines, a town in the prov-
ince of Cebu, 62 miles north of the town of
Cebu, Pop. 10,000.

Ban'teng, a wild ox {Bos sondaicus) of the
niountain forests of the Malay Peninsula and
Archipelago (except Sumatra), which greatly
resembles the gaur (q.v.), and is by soine con-
sidered a variety of that animal. These cattle
are exceedingly fierce, and are regarded by
sportsmen as among the most dangerous of
game. Nevertheless they have been tamed, and
when crossed with the domestic cattle of the
region yield a serviceable hybrid.

Bant'ing, William, an Englishman of no-
table corpulence: b. 1797; d. 1878. By adopting
a diet he was able to relieve himself of his
superfluous flesh, and accordingly he wrote a
pamphlet called <A Letter on Corpulence'
(1863), describing his system, which attracted
so much attention that the term "to bant" has
been incorporated in the English language to
express the reduction of obesity by diet. See
also Obesity.

Ban'try, Ireland, a seaport town in county
Cork, 56 miles west-southwest of Cork. It con-
sists of four principal streets and a spacious
square, but the town generally has a mean ap-

BANTRY BAY — BANZ

pearance. It has a growing trade, and fishing
is carried on to some extent. Pop. (1901)
about 3,000.

Bantry Bay, a deep inlet of Cork County,
Ireland, remarkable both for its beauties and
for !ts natural advantages, although the latter
are turned to but little account. It is about
25 miles long and from 3 to 5 miles wide, and
is safe and commodious for vessels of any size,
the water being deep close to both shores, with
few rocks or shoals. A French force tried to
land here in 1796. The entrance is guarded by
Crow Head on the northwest and by Sheep's
Head on the southeast.

Bantu, ban'too, or ba-ntoo, the ethnologi-
cal name of a group of African races dwelling
below lat. 6° N., and including the Kaffirs,
Zulus, Bechuanas, the tribes of the Loango,
Kongo, etc., but not the Hottentots. The term
is also used to denote the homogeneous family
of languages spoken in Africa throughout the
vast region lying between Kamerun, Zanzibar,
and the Cape of Good Hope, with the exception
of the Hottentot, Bushmen, and Pigmy en-
claves. Ba-ntu, in almost all of these languages,
signifies "the people,* and hence is applied to
the whole linguistic family. The Bantu family,
although divided into hundreds of dialects, is
evidently derived from one mother tongue.

Banu, bii'noo, or ban'noo, or Bannu, Brit-
ish India, a district in the Punjab; area 3,868
square miles ; Pop. over 330,000. The district
is watered by the Indus, which here, during
inundations, becomes a vast body of water many
miles wide. Nearly all the inhabitants are Mo-
hammedans. Agriculture thrives, especially in
the cultivation of the ordinary cereals, sugar-
cane, cotton, and various oil seeds. The chief
towns are Trakhel and Kalabagh.

Banvard, John, American artist, poet and
dramatist: b. New York, about 1820; d. 1891.
He was best known by his panorama of the
Mississippi River, covering three miles of can-
vas, which was exhibited in the chief cities of
Europe and America. He wrote a great number
of poems; several plays: ^Banvard, or the Ad-
ventures of an Artist'^ (1849) ; < Pilgrimage to
the Holy Land^ (1852), etc.

Banvard, Joseph, an American Baptist
clergyman and historical writer, brother of the
preceding: b. New York, 1810; d. 1887. Among
his writings were ^Plymouth and the Pilgrims*
(1851) ; 'Romance of American History*
(1852); ^Memoir of Webster* (1853); <Pris-
cilla* (1854) a historical novel; 'Soldiers and
Patriots of the Revolution* (1876), etc.

Banville, ban-vel, Theodore Faullain de,
French poet and novelist: b. Mouhns, 14 March
1823; d. Paris, 13 March 1891. He was the son
of a naval officer, and went early in life to
Paris, where he devoted himself exclusively to
literature, contributed to many journals and
reviews, and lived in close friendship with some
of the foremost artists and men of letters of
the day. First known as a poet through two
volumes entitled ^The Caryatides* (1842) and
<The Stalactites* (1846), he established his rep-
utation with the 'Odes Funambulesques*
(1857), a sort of great lyrical parody, pub-
lished under the pseudonym Bracquemond,
which immediately found great favor and was
followed by ^New Odes Funambulesques*

(1868, afterward reprinted as 'Occidentales*) ;
'Russian Idyls* (1872); 'Thirty-six Merry
Ballads' (1873) ; etc. His dramatic efforts did
not meet with equal success, only 'Gringoire*
(1866) holding the stage for some time. As
a prose writer he is favorably known by a num-
ber of humorous and highly finished tales and
sketches, like 'The Poor Mountebanks* (1853) ;
'The Parisians of Paris* (1866) ; 'Tales for
Women* (1881) ; < The Soul of Paris* (1890),
etc. Of considerable literary interest is ^My
Recollections* (1882).

Banxring, banks'ring, a tree-shrew of
Java. See Tree- Shrew.

Banyan, ban'yan, or ban-yan', or Banian-
tree (Ficus Benghalensis), an East Indian tree
of the natural order Urticacece, noted for the
roots which descend from the branches and
become accessory trunks, thus permitting the
original tree to extend over a wide area. In
the Calcutta botanical garden one specimen,
known to be upward of 100 years old, has more
than 3,000 small trunks, 230 that vary from 2
to 3J/2 feet in diameter, and a main trunk
13 feet in diameter. Among these trunks 7,000
people could stand. The trees often attain a
height of more than 70 feet. The leaves are
cvate heart-shaped, five to six inches long; the
inconspicuous axillary flowers are succeeded by
cherry-like scarlet fruits which are eaten by
monkeys. The seeds seldom germinate on the
ground, but usually among the leaf bases of
palms, the roots descending the palm trunks,
embracing and finally killing them. As the
banyan ages its original trunk dies and decays,
leaving the younger trunks to support the life
of the tree. The Hindus ascribe various medi-
cinal virtues to this tree, which they regard as
sacred. Its light porous wood, its juice, and
its fruit have no important economic uses. Its
close relative, Ficus indica, which does not root
from the branches, is sometimes erroneously
called the banyan-tree.

Banyumas, ban-yoo-mas' (Javanese, "gol-
den water**), a residency and town of Java.
The area of the residuary is 2,100 square miles,
and its population about 1,300,000. The chief
culture is rice; but cofifee, tea, sugar, indigo,
cinnamon, and other exotics are produced by
corvee labor, as enforced by the Dutch in other
parts of Java. The town is on the river Serajc
22 miles inland. Pop. about 9,000.

Banyuwangy, the extreme eastern district
of the island of Java, noted for its extensive
cofifee gardens, and for the remarkably pure
sulphur obtained from the Goonong-Marapi vol-
canic mountain. This is also the name of the
capital, an important seaport and Dutch mili-
tary post, on the Strait of Bali, about 550 Eng-
lish miles east-southeast from Batavia.

Banz, bants, once one of the richest and
most famous of the Benedictine monasteries,
on the right bank of the Maine, three miles
below JLichtenfels, Bavaria. Founded in 1071,
and destroyed in the Peasants' war in 1525, it
was rebuilt, and although plundered again in
the Thirty Years' war it gradually became famed
for the scientific attainments of its monks. In
1803 it was broken up. and its library and col-
lections were divided between the Munich mu-
seum and other institutions.

BAOBAB — BAPTISM

Baobab, ba'6-bab {Adansonia digitata),
a tree belonging to the natural order (or sub-
order) BombacecE, and formmg the only known
species of its genus, which was named after the
naturalist Adanson. It is also called the mon-
key-bread tree. The leaves are deep green, and
are divided into five unequal parts radiating
from a common centre, and each lanceolate in
shape. This tree is a native of western Africa
and is likewise said to be found in Egypt and
Abyssinia ; it is cultivated in many of the
warmer parts of the world. It is one of the
largest known trees, its trunk being sometimes
not less than 30 feet in diameter. In Adanson's
account of Senegal some calculations are made
regarding the growth of this tree, founded on
the evidence of the annular layers. The height
of its trunk by no means corresponds with the
thickness which it attains. Thus, according to
his calculations, at one year old its diameter is
one inch ; and its height five inches ; at 32 years
old it has attained a diameter of two feet, while
its height is only 22 feet, and so on ; till at
1,000 years old the baobab is 14 feet broad, and
58 feet high ; and at 5,000 years the growth
laterally has so outstripped its perpendicular
height that the trunk will be 30 feet in diameter
and only j^ feet high. The roots, again, are of
a most extraordinary length, so that in a tree
with a stem 77 feet in girth the main branch
or tap-root measures no feet in length. It
often happens that the profusion of leaves and
of drooping boughs almost hide the stem, and
the whole forms a hemispherical mass of ver-
dure 140 to 150 feet in diameter, and 60 to 70
feet high. The wood is pale-colored, light, and
soft, so that in Abyssinia the wild bees perforate
it and lodge their honey in the hollow, which
honey is considered the best in the country.
The negroes on the western coast apply their
trunks to a very extraordinary purpose. The
tree is liable to be attacked by a fungus which,
vegetating in the woody part without changing
the color or appearance, destroys life and ren-
ders the part so attacked as soft as the pith
of trees in general. Such trunks are then hol-
lowed into chambers, and within these are sus-
pended the dead bodies of those to whom are
refused the honor of burial. There they be-
come mummies, perfectly dry and well pre-
served, without further preparation or embalm-
ing, and are known by the name of gui riots.
The baobab is emollient and mucilaginous; the
pulverized leaves constitute lalo, a favorite arti-
cle with the natives, which they mix with their
daily food to diminish excessive perspiration,
and which is even used by Europeans in fevers
and diarrhoeas. The flowers are large, white, and
handsome ; and in their first expansion bear
some resemblance to the white poppy, having
snow-white petals and violet-colored stamens.
Both flowers and fruit are pendant, and the
leaves drop off before the periodical rains come
on. The friiit is of an oblong shape, of consid-
erable size, and tastes like gingerbread, with a
pleasant acid flavor. The expressed juice, when
mixed with sugar, forms a cooling drink much
used in putrid fevers; this juice is generally
used as a seasoning for corn gruel and other
food.

Baour-Lormian, ba-oor-lor-myafi, Louis,
Pierre Marie Francois, French poet and
dramatist: b. Toulouse, 1772; d. 1854. He first

attracted wide notice through his < Poems of
Ossian^ (1801), an extremely clever imitation
of Caledonian verse; and afterward won suc-
cess with a tragedy, *Omasis, or Joseph in
Egypt^ (1807). Other works of his are * Politi-
cal and Moral Vigils^ (1811), in the manner
of Young ; < Duranti or The League in the Prov-
mce^ (1828), a historical novel; and 'Legends,
Ballads, and Fabliaux' (1829). But his best
work is probably a poetical translation of the
book of Job, completed after he had lost his
eyesight.

Bapaume, ba-pom, France, a town in the
department of Pas-de-Calais, 12 miles south of
Arras. Here, on 2 and 3 Jan. 187 1, took place
two fierce struggles between the French Army
of the North and the Prussian Army of Obser-
vation; the French being defeated with a loss
of over 2,000.

Baph'omet, the name of a mysterious
image which the Knights Templars were
charged with worshipping when the order was
suppressed by Philip IV. of France. It is prob-
ably a corruption of Mahomet, and the charge
may have arisen from the circumstance that
some of the Templars had gone over to the
Moslem faith.

Baptan'odon, an extinct ichthyosaur or
fish-lizard of the Jurassic period. Its remains
have been found in the marine Jurassic shales
of Wyoming and other western States, which
have hence been called ^'Baptenodon Beds.'* It
is distinguished from the true ichthyosaurus
(q.v.) (found only in the Old World) by the
form of the paddle-bones, which are rounded
instead of polygonal, and was incorrectly sup-
posed to be toothless, as its name indicates.
The skulls are two to three feet long, so that
the entire animal probably measured 10 to 15
feet, and resembled the ichthyosaurus in pro-
portions and habits.

Baptism (from the Greek haptiso, from
baptizcin, to immerse or dip), the applica-
tion of water to a person as a sacrament or
religious rite. It is generally thought to have
been usual with the Jews even before Christ,
being administered to proselytes, but was prob-
ably nothing more than a ceremony of purifica-
tion. From this baptism, however, that of John
the Baptist differed, because he baptized Jews
also as a symbol of the necessity of perfect pu-
rification from sin. Christ himseli never bap-
tized, but directed his disciples to administer this
rite to converts (Matt, xxviii. 19) ; and baptism,
therefore, became a religious ceremony among
Christians, taking rank as a sacrament with all
sects which acknowledge sacraments.

In the primitive Church the person to be
baptized was immersed in a river or in a vessel,
with the v/ords which Christ had ordered, anc
a new name was generally bestowed at this
time further to express the change. Sprinkling,
or, as it was termed, clinic_ baptism, was used
only in the case of the sick who could not
leave their beds. The Greek Church and various
Eastern sects retained the custom of immersion ;
but the Western Church adopted or allowedthe
mode of baptism by pouring or sprinkling, since
continued by most Protestants. This practice
can be traced back certainly to the 3rd century,
before which its existence is disputed. Since
the Reformation there have been various Prot-
estant sects called Baptists, holding that bap-

BAPTIST YOUNG PEOPLE'S UNION — BAPTISTS

tism should be administered only by immersion
and to those who can make a personal profes-
sion of faith.

Tlie Montanists in Africa baptized even the
dead, and in Roman Catholic countries the prac-
tice of baptizing church bells, — a custom of
lOth century origin, — continues to this day.
Being an initiatory rite, baptism is, therefore,
administered only once to the same person. The
Roman and Greek Catholics consecrate the wa-
ter of baptim, but Protestants do not. The act
of baptism is accompanied only with the formula
that the person is baptized in the name of the
Father, Son, and Holy Ghost; but among most
Christians it is preceded by a confession of
faith made by the person to be baptized, if an
adult, and by his parents or sponsors if he be
a child.

The Roman Catholic form of baptism is far
more elaborate than the Protestant. This
Church holds that baptism is a sacrament which
has the effect to remove in the individual the
penal consequences of the sin of Adam, to re-
store him to a state of supernatural grace, and
to give him a right to the beatific vision of God,
remitting all actual sins committed by the in-
dividual. It also imprints an indelible charac-
ter, which is both an ornament to the soul and
a capacity for receiving the other sacraments.
The effect of the sacrament is produced ex opere
opcrato ; that is, by an act of the Holy Ghost
infallibly accompanying the performance of the
external rite. Bishops, priests, and deacons are
the ordinary ministers of baptism, and all others
are forbidden to baptize except in case of neces-
sity. Baptism is, however, valid when duly ad-
ministered by any person, and any one may law-
fully baptize in case of necessity. On the part
of children and others who have never attained
the use of reason no dispositions are required.
In order to receive the sacrament validly a per-
son who has the use of reason must know what
he is doing and intend to receive baptism. In
order to receive the grace of the sacrament he
must have faith, and, if he has committed mor-
tal sins, repentance ; otherwise the grace of the
sacrament remains suspended until he acquires
the proper dispositions. Besides sacramental
baptism, called baptismum flurninis, there are
two substitutes which can supply its place,
called, in a wide and improper sense, baptis-
mum sanguinis and baptismum ftaminis. The
former of these is martyrdom, the second is the
desire of baptism, accompanied by faith and per-
fect contrition or the love of God. These only
supply the place of baptism when it cannot be
had, and confer sanctifying grace, but not an
indelible character. Solemn baptism is accom-
panied with the application of chrism and holy
oil, and several other ceremonies of great an-
tiquity.

Baptist Young People's Union of America,
an association representing many young peo-
ple's societies connected with the Baptist
churches in the United States and Canada, or-
ganized June 1891 in Chicago, which place has
since been its headquarters. Upon the forma-
tion of the Union, as the withdrawal of the
Baptist societies was feared by the Christian
Endeavor societies, a plan of federation was
adopted for the establishment of young people's
societies over which no constitution should be
required. Conventions are held yearly.

Baptista, John, Carmelite poet: b. JMar.tUa
1448; d. 15 16. His poetical writings weie
well known throughout Europe during his life-
time ; their correctness of form and choice
Latinity caused them to be used as texts in the
schools. His greatest poem is *De Calamitate
Temporum' ('On the Evils of the Day^), and
is divided into three parts.

Baptistery, that part of the church, or a
special building in which is administered the
sacrament of Baptism. In the earliest ages of
Christianity the solemn administration of this
sacrament was reserved to the bishop, and to
the episcopal church was generally annexed a
special building called the baptister\'. As the
converts to Christianity increased it became
necessary to set aside for the baptismal cere-
monies a small space within the main builJmg
of the various parish churches.

Baptistines. (i) A religious order of
women founded in 1744 in Genoa by Baptista
Solimani. Their rule enjoined a strict fast
throughout the entire year, the chanting of the
office at midnight and conversation with friends
or relatives restricted to three times during the
year. (2) A congregation of secular priests
founded in 1755 by Dominic Olivieri and placed
under the jurisdiction of the Cardinal Prefect
of the Propaganda by Pope Benedict XIV.
The congregation ceased to exist at the end of
the 18th century.

Baptists, a religious body originating in
England early in the 17th century as a result
of the Separatist movement. Among the Sepa-
ratists was John Smyth, who emigrated from
Gainsborough with his people to escape perse^
cution, and at Amsterdam established a new
congregation upon the principle of baptism on
confession of faith. Some members of this
Church returned to England and in 161 1 formed
in London the first of the churches known as
General Baptists, because they held the Armin-
ian doctrine of a general atonement. The Par-
ticular Baptists (holding the Calvinistic doctrine
of a particular atonement, that is, for the elect
only) arose in 1633, when a number left a
Separatist church in London to form a new
congregation and were baptized anew on con-
fession of faith. Another group withdrew from
the same church in 1640, and shortly after in-
troduced the practice of immersion, which was
soon adopted by all the other churches and gave
rise to the name by which they were known
from_ 1644 onward. The Particular and General
Baptists continued to be separate bodies until
1891, when they united.

There are other divisions among the general
body, but all the churches agree in holding to
the supremacy of the Scriptures as the rule of
faith and practice ; the necessity of personal
faith and credible evidence of regeneration be-
fore baptism ; immersion as the only baptism
commanded by Christ or practised by his apos-
tles ; the independence of each church ; and the
entire separation between civil and ecclesiastical
authority. On the question of communion Eng-
lish Baptists have been divided from the begin-
ning. The earliest declarations were that only
the baptized are authorized to partake of the
Lord's Supper, but the practice of some churches
was not in accord with this principle. At pres-

BAPTISTS IN AMERICA

ent many churches admit not only to the com-
munion but to membership those who have not
been baptized. There are at present in Great
Britain and Ireland 2,747 churches with 372,219
members. Baptist missions have established
churches in many of the countries of Europe, as
well as in Asia and Africa, and in the world
there are now 50,978 Baptist churches and
4>705,953 members. The English Baptists may
be traced back through the Continental Anabap-
tists, the Waldensians, Petrobrusians, and va-
rious other sects, to the nth century. None
of these bodies regularly practised immersion,
so far as we know, but they agreed in holding
the fundamental Baptist principle of a regen-
erate Church and rejected the baptism of infants
as an unauthorized and post-apostolic practice.

Baptists in Amer'ica. (i) From the first
settlements to the Great Aivakcning. — There
were a few Baptists (or, as they were then usu-
ally called. Anabaptists) among the early settlers
of the colonies, especially Massachusetts, but the
first Baptist church was of independent origin.
Roger Williams, a graduate of the University of
Cambridge, a Puritan unable to conform to the
Church of England, emigrated to the Massachu-
setts colony and landed in Boston in 1631. Here
he soon developed theories that made him ob-
noxious, and he was therefore banished by the
General Court, 8 Oct. 1635. The chief count
against him was that he denied the authority of
the civil magistrate to punish religious offenses.
He made his way to Rhode Island, purchased
land from the Narragansett Indians, and founded
the colony of Providence on the principle of
complete separation between civil and religious
affairs. His study of the Scriptures led him to
reject infant baptism, and others having come to
his opinion a church of 12 members was consti-
tuted. Williams was baptized by one of them,
Ezekiel Holliman, and he then baptized the
others. As there is no indication of subsequent
change in the method of baptism, here or else-
where, it is reasonable to conclude that American
Baptists have practised immersion from the be-
ginning. Not long after this a church was estab-
lished in the colony at Newport under the leader-
ship of John Clarke, an English physician. A
Welsh Baptist church emigrated bodily to Massa-
chusetts in 1633 and ultimately settled at Swan-
sea in 1667. This church was not greatly dis-
turbed, but in Boston the Baptists experienced
severe persecution. John Clarke and Obadiah
Holmes, of the Newport church, visited the col-
ony to comfort and confirm in the faith the few
scattered brethren there, and were arrested for
holding a religious service in a private house in
Lynn. They were sentenced to be fined heavily,
and in default to be *well whipped.'* This sen-
tence was executed upon Holmes, in the streets
of Boston, 6 Sept. 1661. Clarke's fine was paid
by a friend, and he escaped. In 1665 a Baptist
church was formed in Boston, consisting of nine
members. Thomas Goold, its leading member
and first minister, was so continuously impris-
oned and ill-treated that his health was shat-
tered, and he died in 1675. Other members
suffered in like manner. A small meeting-house
was built in 1678. whereupon the doors were
nailed up by order of the court. The new
charter of the colony, in 1691, granted ''liberty
of conscience to all Christians except Papists,**
but Baptists were still taxed for the support

of the churches of the "standing order.** Even
when the heavy hand of the Puritan official was
restrained, progress did not become much more
rapid, for prior to 1740 there were but eight
Baptist churches in Massachusetts. In the other
New England colonics growth was proportion-
ally slow. The first church in Connecticut was
that at Groton, established in 1705, probably by
Baptists from Rhode Island.

The most marked progress of Baptists was in
the group of colonies afterward known as the
Middle States. The centre of this growth was
the town of Philadelphia. In the near-by village
of Pennepek or Lower Dublin (now incorporat-
ed in the city) a church was founded in 1688,
mainly of Baptists from Great Britain, and a
preaching-station was appointed in Philadelphia,
which was not formally recognized as a separate
church until 1746. The Welsh Tract Church
was formed in 1701 in a place now in the State
of Delaware. In the neighboring colony of
New Jersey a simultaneous beginning had been
made. The church at Middietown had been
formed in 1688, and the following year a church
that had been organized at Dover^ N. H., emi-
grated in a body and became the Piscataway
Church. Churches at Cohansey (1690), Cape
May (1712), and Hopewell (1715) followed.

In the New York colony the first church was
established at Oyster Bay, L. I., about 1700. and
in 1714 a second church was formed in New
York city — both organized through the labors
of some Rhode Island Baptists. After 1730 the
New York church ceased to exist, and it was not
until 1745 that another attempt was made to
found a Baptist church there ; and so feeble
was this that it did not attempt an independent
existence until 1762.

The oldest church in the southern colonies
was first constituted in Maine, then a part of
the Massachusetts settlement. A few pe'ople at
Kittery were baptized in Boston and organized
a church, but they were so much disturbed by
persecutions that they decided to emigrate to
Charleston, S. C, and became the First Baptist
Church of that city in 1684. Some General
Baptists settled in the Virginia colony in 17 14.
and other churches were rapidly formed. From
1727 onward Baptist churches were founded in
North Carolina, and a church was established
in Maryland in 1772. The Carolina churches
proved to be especially fruitful. From these
feeble and unpromising beginnings there result-
ed a great growth during the remaining years
of the i8th century.

The division that from the first existed
among the English Baptists seemed likely to be
perpetuated in America. In New England the
majority of the earliest churches were or became
Arminian in theolog}'. and the first churches in
the colony of New York appear also to have
been of that order, together with several of
the New Jersey congregations. But the Phila-
delphia group and part of the New Jersey
churches were strongly Calvinistic, and gradu-
ally they took the lead and became the control-
ling force.

This result was promoted, if not caused, by
the formation of the Philadelphia Association.
The five oldest and nearest churches (Pennepek,
Welsh Tract. IMiddletown, Piscataway, Cohan-
sey) from the beginning cultivated close rela-
tions with one another, and were accustomed to
hold "general meetings** with the various

BAPTISTS IN AMERICA

churches in turn, at which members of all the
others attended as far as possible. These meet-
ings were at first annual, and then came to be
held twice a year, in IMay and September. As
the churches grew, such mass-meetings became
less practicable, and m September 1707, when
the meeting was held in Philadelphia, the other
churches sent delegates. The practice continued
thenceforth without interruption, and so the
first association of Baptist churches was formed.
Such associations differ from the synods and
conferences of other denominations in that they
have no legislative or judicial authority over
the churches, which retain their complete in-
dependence. The association has advisory pow-
ers only, and considers questions of common
interest to the churches composing it, especially
measures for the more effective spread of the
gospel. It thus becomes a missionary and evan-
gelic institution, and as such has been one of
the most powerful agencies in the growth of
Baptist churches in America.

The Philadelphia Association gradually drew
to its membership not only all the Baptist
churches of the middle colonies, but those far-
ther south, and at its most flourishing early
period had 31 churches on its roll, extending
from New York to Virginia. By 1742, seeming-
ly before, this association adopted a Calvinistic
confession of faith, — in large part identical
with the Westminster Confession, — and this
Philadelphia Confession soon became by com-
mon consent the standard of faith and practice
among American Baptist churches, and still
holds that position over large regions. It ought
to be added, however, that among Baptists no
confession has any real authority, such docu-
ments being regarded as only convenient state-
ments of what the Scriptures are believed to
teach; and among Baptists it is to the Scrip-
tures, and not to any confession, that appeal is
always made.

2. From the Great Azvakening to the Found-
ing of the General Convention. — The spiritual
movement known as the Great Awakening
(q.v.), judged by its results, was the most im-
portant single event in the history of American
Christianity. On no religious body did it have
more happ}% far-reaching and permanent results
than upon the Baptists. The new spiritual life
into which they were quickened is shown by the
rapid advance made by them in all the colonies
after 1740. In 40 years the churches increased
in Alassachusetts from 8 to 73, and the mem-
bers from about 200 to over 3,000. This means,
of coitrse, that not only were many new
churches constituted in the colonies already
named, but that the other colonies were entered.
From 1750, churches were organized in New
Hampshire, and from 1780 in Vermont. In
Maine the planting of churches began again in
1768. In 1784 there were in New England 151
churches with 4.783 members — an enormous
increase, nearly 10 times the number of churches
and quite 10 times the number of members that
existed a generation before.

In the South the increase was even more
rapid, especially in Virginia and the Carolinas.
In Virginia the Baptists were rigorously perse-
cuted, their preachers being imprisoned and
fined with great severity, but even in prison they
preached the gospel and made converts. The
Kehukee Association, organized in 1765 in Vir-
ginia, and the Ketockton, in 1766 in North Car-

olina, testify to the rapid progress made in
these regions. By a series of statutes passed
between 1776 and 1798 Virginia repealed ail
her punitive and incorporating laws, and placed
all forms of religious behef on an equal footing
before the law. The progress of the Revolution
so broadened men's ideas that the other colonies
followed her example, although New England
lagged behind, and Massachusetts did not fully
banish intolerance from her laws until 1833.
This principle of separation of Church and
State, long advocated by Baptists and at length
made the fundamental law of the United States
and of each several State, is recognized by for-
eign jurists as the most important contribution
to political philosophy and the science of gov-
ernment yet made by America.

The war of the Revolution naturally caused
a serious check to religious progress in the
colonies, but less to the Baptists than to most
other bodies. The Episcopal Church was badly
disorganized, and almost destroyed, because her
ministers were mostly Tories and were driven
from their parishes ; but the Baptist ministers
were patriots, with but a single known excep-
tion. The Methodists were greatly embarrassed
in a similar way — their preachers were nearly
all from England, and John Wesley was a vio-
lent writer against the cause of the colonies and
their ^'wicked rebellion.® Except where actual
hostilities prevailed, the Baptist churches suf-
fered little, and as a whole were stronger at the
close of the war than at the beginning, ready for
an immediate advance and a rapid growth, since
they could take advantage of every favorable
opportunity.

And one of the greatest opportunities ever
offered any religious body was theirs at the
close of the war. The settlement of the great
West began actively at once. Two great tides
of immigration set westward : the one from
New England, by the fertile valleys of central
New York toward Ohio, and Illinois; the other
from Virginia, Maryland, and Pennsylvania,
over the mountains by the old Indian trail to
Pittsburg, and thence into Ohio or down the
river to Kentucky and Tennessee. Among the
earh' settlers of these new regions were not a
few Baptists ; and the churches and associations
in the older regions sent out missionary preach-
ers to visit the new settlements and organize
churches wherever possible. It thus came to
pass that Baptist churches were often the first,
always among the first, to be formed in the
new communities of the West, and their growth
was rapid. By the year 1800 the denomination
had increased to 1,200 churches, and their mem-
bers to more than 100,000. The formation of
associations had kept pace with the growth of
churches ; prior to 1800 there were 48 such
bodies formed, nearly all of which carried on
active missionary operations for the planting
of new churches and the aiding of those newly
planted to sustain themselves. This missionary
activity of the associations is the distinctive
feature of the period, and more than any other
thing explains that unexampled growth, far out-
stripping that of the population.

3. From the Formation of the General
Convention to Its Division in 1845. — The most
important forward step of American Baptists was
their engaging in the work of foreign missions.
This was done through no plan of their own. but
in obedience to the leadings of Divine Providence.

BAPTISTS IN AMERICA

Some young men of New England Congrega-
tional churches, while students at Williams Col-
lege and later at the Andover Theological Sem-
inary, became deeply interested in the giving
of the gospel to the heathen, and in consequence
the American Board of Commissioners for For-
eign Missions was constituted in June 1810.
Three of the first missionaries sent out, — Adon-
iram Judson, his wife, and Luther Rice, — be-
came convinced from independent study of the
Scriptures that only believers should be baptized,
and that immersion was the sole apostolic bap-
tism. Accordingly they were baptized by Eng-
lish Baptist missionaries at Calcutta shortly
after their arrival, and by consequence severed
their relations with the Board that had sent
them out. Mr. Rice returned to America to tell
the story and enlist the Baptist churches in
the support of these missionaries. This was com-
paratively easy, but by his tour among them
the churches had become so aroused to their
unfulfilled duty toward the heathen that they
were not content merely to support the Judsons.
Local missionary societies were formed in sev-
eral States, and at length delegates from
churches throughout the country met at Phila-
delphia in May 1814, and organized the "Gen-
eral Convention of the Baptist Denomination
in the United States for Foreign Missions.^*
This furnished the churches what they greatly
needed, — a common cause, a rallying-point, —
and at once the Convention and its work became
a strongly unifying influence. The missionary
work thus begun was prosecuted with zeal, lib-
erality, and success. The Judsons went to
Rangoon and began a mission among the Bur-
mans in 1813; the Karens were reached in 1828;
and missions followed among the Chinese
(1833), Telugus (1836), and Assamese (1836).

For a time it seemed that all Baptist churches
would unite in the support of this work, but
after some years opposition began to develop
among the churches that held to an extreme
form of the Calvinistic theology. This opposi-
tion finally became directed against ministerial
education, Sunday-schools, and all organization
for evangelic effort, as well as against the Con-
vention. The agitation of these extreme views
finally led to a withdrawal of a part of the
churches from all fellowship with the others,
and those thus withdrawing became known as
Old School, or Primitive Baptists, since they
claimed to be faithful to the original principles
of the body, from which the others had depart-
ed. The agitation was most bitter in the central
Atlantic States, but the Primitive Baptists be-
came most numerous in some of the southern
States, especially Tennessee and Georgia, where,
among the mountain districts, they are still very
numerous. They are popularly known as "Hard
Shells."

The Convention, in addition to its foreign
missionarj' enterprise, also for a time conducted
some home-mission operations, and local socie-
ties in several States were organized for this
work. All of these agencies proved insufficient,
and in 1832 the American Baptist Home Mis-
sion Society was formed in New York to take
special charge of this enterprise, setting free the
General Convention to devote its whole atten-
tion to foreign missions. But this was not the
end of organization. The efficient conduct
of home missions was found to demand further
subdivision of effort, and after the second decade

of the century State conventions were rapidly
formed in the various States for the super-
vision of missionary work in the older commu-
nities, leaving the national society to overlook
the newer regions of the great West. The rise
of Sunday-schools was synchronous with this
development of missionary eiTort, and called
into being new forms of organization. Among
Baptists It gave new life to a tract society that
had been formed in 1824 in Washington, and
caused its removal to Philadelphia and its
growth into the American Baptist Publication
Society, which, since 1840, has given a great
share of its capital and effort to the publication
and circulation of Sunday-school literature. The
work of foreign missions led to the making and
printing of versions in the various languages
of the mission fields. Some of these were print-
ed by aid from the American Bible Society,
formed in 1816 by representatives of the chief
evangelical denominations ; but after a time Bap-
tists were denied equal rights in this body, and
in April 1837 a convention held at Philadelphia
formed the American and Foreign Bible Society
for doing this work.

This was the period, not only of perfecting
organization, but of controversies that resulted
in great loss to Baptists. The rise of the body
now known as Disciples of Christ, led by Alex-
ander Campbell and others, from 1815 to 1835,
caused great disturbance and loss to Baptists in
the middle West and South. Mr. Campbell had
been a Baptist preacher, and many Baptist
churches went bodily into the new movement.
In the Middle and Eastern States, during the
same period, William Miller led many astray by
his predictions regarding the speedy "end of the
world, and the ultimate result of his teaching
was the formation of the Second Advent bod}',
into which many Baptist churches and members
went. At nearly the same time and in the same
region the famous anti-Masonry agitation (q.v. )
also convulsed the churches and hindered their
progress, where it did not actually deplete their
numbers. But this was also a period of great
revivals and rapid numerical growth, not pe-
culiar to any one part of the country. Begin-
ning the century with some 1,200 churches and
100,000 members. Baptists had grown to 8,406
churches and 686,807 members in 1845, about
one Baptist to each 32 persons of the population.

The greatest controversy of the period, and
that which had most lasting results, was that
caused by the institution of slavery. After
about 1825 anti-slavery sentiment rapidly grew
strong in the northern States, and among the
Baptist churches of that region the opinion gen-
erally prevailed that a Christian man could not
consistently be the owner of slaves. The Gen-
eral Convention had been organized on the
principles of the Federal Constitution — of giv-
ing equal rights to slaveholders and non-slave-
holders ; but as in the State, so in the Church,
this compromise proved unworkable after a
time. For several years fierce debates were held
on the subject at the meetings of the Conven-
tion, and the feelings of both sections grew
more embittered. At length the Executive
Board declared that they could not appoint a
slaveholder as a missionary, and the southern
churches felt this to be a denial of their consti-
tutional rights. Accordingly in May 1845 a con-
vention met at Augusta, Ga., and formed the
Southern Baptist Convention. The mission

BAPTISTS IN AMERICA

work, home and foreign, of the southern Bap-
tist churches has been done since that time
through this body, under the supervision of
v'arious boards appointed for the purpose. This
work was necessarily interrupted by the Civil
War, but was resumed with new vigor at the
conclusion of that struggle, and has been prose-
cuted with increasing liberality and success.
The Convention is a strictly delegated body.

4. The Last Half Century. — The last 50
years have been a time of great increase in
numbers and wealth. At the close of the 19th
century there were 43,959 churches and
4,181,686 members, about one person in 18 of
the population. The rate of progress has there-
fore been almost double that of the population,
marvelous as the latter has been, and a very
small percentage of this had been gained by
immigration. The valuation of church property
in 1900 was $86,648,982, the expenditure for
public worship $9,622,166, the contributions for
missions $1,123,839, and for all other purposes
$12,348,527. Corresponding facts for i850_ and
earlier years are not ascertainable, but it _ is
certain that the wealth of the churches has in-
creased fully twice as fast as the membership,
and within the last 15 years the contributions
have doubled, showing a commensurate growth
of liberality.

But in this last half century the most marked
feature of denominational progress has been in
educational work. Very early in their history
Baptists began to found colleges and other in-
stitutions of higher learning. Brown University
was established in 1764, and was followed by
Colby (1818), Colgate (1819), Columbian
(1821), and Lewisburg (1846). Two theologi-
cal seminaries were early founded : Hamilton
(1817) and Newton (1825). In the West and
South 16 other institutions that still survive
were established before 1850, not to mention a
few academies. The combined endowments of
all these schools in 1850 would probably not
have exceeded $500,000. In 1900 there were 7
seminaries, 31 colleges, 32 schools for women
only, 46 academies, and 17 schools for negroes
and Indians. These schools had over 38,000
students enrolled, and in them has been invest-
ed over $44,000,000, of which fully half is pro-
ductive endowment.

Two thirds of the Baptists of the United
.States are in the south, and of these far more
than half are negroes. The separate organiza-
tion of the colored Baptists dates, of course,
from the Civil War. The first of their State
conventions was formed in 1866 in North Caro-
lina, and like societies have been organized in
15 States. In the North a large part of their
churches are members of the regular associa-
tions. The National Baptist Convention was
organized in 1880, and was expected to perform
an office for their churches similar to that of
the Southern Baptist Convention for the white
churches. But there have developed ambitious
leaders among them, and divided counsels have
resulted, and there has been in consequence a
multiplying of organizations very confusing to
those who attempt to follow their history and
v/ork. Owing to the lack of education among
them, reports of meetings are defective and sta-
tistics untrustworthy, and no definite state-
ments of their work can be attempted.

Besides what are often called the *^regular'*
Baptists, — those in full fellowship with each

other and enumerated above, — there are nu-
merous other bodies, aggregating 500.000 mem-
bers, that hold substantially the same princi-
ples. The Freewill Baptists are perhaps the
largest of these. The name describes two dif-
ferent .groups of churches : one originating in
North Carolina about 1729, and having its
representatives mainly in the South ; the other
arising in New Hampshire about 1780. The for-
mer are known as Original Freewill Baptists, and
practise feet-washing and anointing the sick
with oil as gospel ordinances. The latter have
of late adopted the name Free Baptists, are
Arminian in theology, and practise "open" com-
munion. They are strongest in New England
and the Middle West. A general conference
was organized in 1827, a Foreign Mission
Society in 1834, a"d an Education Society m
1840. They now have about 85,000 members,
and the southern churches may have i2,00O'
more. The Six-Principle and Seventh-Day
Baptists also originated in New England. The
former began in Rhode Island, where several
of the earliest churches came to be known by
this name. The churches of this order mostly
held Arminian views, but differed from other
Baptist churches mainly in insisting on the lay-
ing on of hands immediately after baptism,
believing this to be one of the six principles enu-
merated in Heb. vi. i, 2. The first Seventh-
Day church was formed in Newport in 1671 ;
their distinctive principle is indicated by their
name. The German Seventh-Day Baptists had
a separate origin in Pennsylvania about 1728,
from the Dunkards or Tunkers, who settled in
Germantown from 1719 and onward. They are-
sometimes called German Baptists, but that
name is more properly applied to German con-
gregations of the "regular" Baptists. The
Church of God, or Winnebrennerians. the River
Brethren, and one branch of the IMennonites.
also agree in the main with the principles and
practices of Baptists.

Besides the United States, Baptists are rep-
resented in all parts of North America, es-
pecially in Canada. Since 1778, Baptist churches
have existed in Nova Scotia and New Bruns-
wick, and about 1794 began a like movement in
lower Canada, near the Vermont line. The
organization of the Maritime churches came
first, beginning with an association formed in
1800, and extending until a convention for gen-
eral missionary purposes united several earlier
societies in 1846. Churches were planted m
Ontario after 1803, and organization proceeded
along the usual lines. In 1888 all previously
existing societies were consolidated by act of
the Dominion Parliament into the Baptist Con-
vention of Ontario and Quebec, which con-
ducts its work through five executive boards.
The Canadian Baptists have now grown to over
1,000 churches and 100,000 members.

In Mexico and the West Indies the Baptist
churches are of recent missionary origin. The
chief exception is in Jamaica, where English
Baptists began operations nearly a century ago,
the first church having been formed in 1816.
The Southern Baptist Convention has taken
Cuba as its special field, while Northern Bap-
tists have established a mission in Porto Rico,
In the West Indies, Mexico, and Central Amer-
ica there are now not far from 50,000 Baptists. ^
Henry Cl.w Vedder,
Croser Theological Seminary.

BAR — BAR-SUR-AUBE

Bar, Karl Ludwig von, German jurist: b.
Hanover, 1830. He was trained in the universi-
ties of Gottingen and Berlin, and sat in the
Reichstag 1890-3. He has been a strong advo-
cate of publicity as well as of more humane
procedure in all criminal trials. Important
works b}" him are: *Das Internationale Privat-
«nd Strafrecht* (1862) ; ^Die Redefreiheit der
Mitgleider gezetzgebender Versammlungen'
(1868) ; 'Die Lehre vom Kausalzusammen-
Tiange in Rechte (.1871) ; *Das Deutsche Reichs-
gericht' (1875); ^Staat und Katholische
Kirche in Preussen' (1883).

Bar-Cochba, Simon, celebrated Jewish
impostor of the 2d century a.d., who pretended
to be the Messiah. He called himself, or was
called by his followers, Bar-Cochba, meaning
Son of the Star, and applied to himself Balaam's
prophecy, "There shall come a star out of
Jacob,' etc. He obtained the support of the
celebrated Rabbi Akiba, and availing himself
of the general dissatisfaction produced among
the Jews b}' Hadrian's attempt to erect a tem-
ple to Jupiter on the site of the temple of Je-
rusalem, raised the standard of revolt, and
scon mustered numerous followers. After car-
rying on a kind of guerilla warfare, he made
"himself master of Jerusalem about 132, and
:gained possession of about 50 fortified places.
Hadrian, who had at first despised the insur-
rection, now saw the necessity of acting more
A-igorously, and sent to Britain for Julius
Severus, one of his ablest generals, who, avoid-
ing a general engagement, gradually made him-
self master of the different forts which the
rebels possessed, and then, though not withotit
great loss, took and destroyed Jerusalem. Bar-
cochba retired to a mountain fortress, and
perished in the assault of it by the Romans
three years after, about 135.

Bar, Russia, a town in the government of
Podolia : so called after the birth-place of its
foundress. Bona Sforza, the wife of King Sigis-
mund I. of Poland. It is famous as the place
where a confederation of the Polish people was
held with a view to combating the Russian influ-
ence and the adherents of Russia in Poland. 29
Feb. 1768. The Russians took Bar by storm on the
following 28 May, together with 1,400 men and
^0 pieces of cannon. Eleven fairs are annually
held here. Leather-dressing, distillery, and
brick-making are carried on. Pop. (1900)
13 000.

Bar. In heraldry, one of the charges known
as ordinaries. It is formed by two horizontal
lines passing over the shield and occupying
one fifth of the surface.

In hydrography, a barrier of sand in the
channel of a river or along the seacoa.st. Riv-
ers are constantly engaged in the transporta-
tion of sediment seaward, and whenever the
current is checked the suspended material sinks
and accumulates along the bottom. Bars thus
formed may disappear during periods of floods
when the water gains increased velocity, and
they frequenth' change their position with slight
alterations in the course of the current. Sand
laars are also common at the mouths of rivers
Avhcre the flow of the water, and therefore its
transporting power, is lessened before enter-
ing the sea. The precipitation of the sediment
is assisted in this case bj' the mingling of the
fresh and saline water. The formation of

such bars does not differ from that of a delta
(q.v.). The transporting action of currents
and waves sometimes builds up a long line of
bars or reefs along the seacoast, as is seen on
the Atlantic and Gulf shores of the United
States. See Reef.

In law, a word having several meanings;
thus, it is the term used to signify an enclosure
or fixed place in a court of justice where law-
years may plead. In English superior courts
queen's coun.sel are admitted within the bar;
other members of the bar sit or stand outside.
A railed-off space within the Houses of Lords
and Commons is similarly called the bar. The
dock, or enclosed space where accused persons
stand or sit during their trial is also called the
bar ; hence the expression "prisoner at the bar."
It has also a general meaning in legal pro-
cedure, signifying something by way of stop-
page or prevention. There is also a trial at
bar — that is, a trial before the judges of "-
particular court, who sit together for that pur-
pose in banc (q.v.). The term is used both
in England and the United States as a syno-
nym for the legal profession.

In music, a line drawn vertically across the
staff, for the purpose of dividing the music into
equal measures of time. The term is very often
improperly applied to measures themselves.
The quantity of time included between two
bars varies as the time is triple or common,
the former being equivalent to three crotchets
and the latter to four. The thick bar at the
end of a piece of music is called the double
bar. Bars were first used about the middle of
the 15th century. See Measure.

Bar Har'bor, ^le., a popular summer re-
sort in Hancock County, Me. ; on the east shore
of Mount Desert Island. It derives its name
from a sandj' bar which connects Mount Desert
with the largest of the Porcupine group. The
surrounding scenery is very pleasing, and with-
in a short distance are many points of interest
readily accessible to the tourist. Among these
are the summit of Green Mountain, Eagle
Lake, Mount Newport. Kebo, The Ovens, Great
and Schooner Heads, Spouting Horn, Thunder
Cave, and Eagle Cliff. Pop. (1900) 1,600.

Bar Shot, a double-headed shot, made of
two half-balls connected by a bar, and formerly
used in naval battles for cutting awa}' the masts
and rigging of the enemy's ship.

Bar-le-Duc, bar-le-diik, or Bar-sur-Ornian,
bar-siir-ornaii. France, capital of the depart-
ment of Meuse. 125 miles east by south from
Paris. It consists of an upper and a lower
town, the former of which commands a fine
view. The lower town extends into the valley
traversed by the Ornain, here crossed by three
stone bridges. It is a busy active place, with
many shops, manufactories, and w^arehouses.
The streets are wide and well laid out. but the
public buildings are inferior. The chief manu-
factures are cotton yarn, cotton, and woolen
stuffs, printed calicoes, and colored handker-
chiefs. The preserved fruits and confectionery,
as w^ell as the wines of Bar-le-duc, are in re-
pute. Pop. (1896) 18,249.

Bar-sur-Aube, bar-siir-6b. France, a town
30 miles east of Troyes, notable as the scene
of a victory of the allied forces commanded by
Schwarzenberg over the French, commanded
by Macdonald and Oudinot, 27 Feb. 1814. The

BAR-SUR-SEINE — BARANOFF

council which decided the plan of campaign
of the allies was held here the day before the
battle. Pop. (1896) 4,548.

Bar-sur-Seine, bar-siir-san, France, an an-
cient town in the department of Aube, notable
as the scene of a victory of the allied forces
over the French, in March 1814. Pop. (1896)
3.157.

Bara, bii'ra, Jules, Belgian statesman: b.
Toiirnai, 1835 ; d. Brussels, 26 June 1900. He
early displayed oratorical gifts, and soon after
beginning the practice of law was appointed
professor of law in the University of Brus-
sels. He entered the House of Deputies in
1862 as a Liberal, and was appointed minister of
justice in 1865. For the remainder of his ca-
reer he was prominent in the Liberal ranks
whether in the Cabinet or as a member of the
House of Deputies, his power of scathing in-
vective being instrumental in causing the resig-
nation of the clerical ministry of d'Anethen in
1871 and the fall of that of Malou in 1878.

Baraba, ba-ra-ba', a steppe of Siberia, in
the government of Tomsk, occupying more
than 100,000 square miles. Covered with salt
lakes and marshes, it was colonized in 1767 by
the Russians, who have since cultivated parts
of it. Pop. 250,000.

Barabas, ba-rab'as, the principal person-
age in Marlowe's tragedy, *The Jew of Malta.'

Barab'bas, the robber released by Pilate
at the Passover when Jesus was condemned to
death. It was a custom of the Roman govern-
ment, for the sake of conciliating the Jews, to
release one Jewish prisoner, whom they might
choose, at the j'early Passover. Pilate desired
thus to release Jesus, but the Jews demanded
Barabbas (Matt, xxvii. 16-26). (2) The title
of a novel by Aiarie Corelli, having him as the
central figure.

Barabbas: A Dream of the World's
Tragedy, a romance by Marie Corelli. It is
the story of the last days of Christ, his be-
traj'al, crucifixion, and resurrection. The story
is dramatically told, but the style is florid and
meretricious, appealing more to the emotions
than to the reason.

Barabins'ki, a Tartar tribe living on the
banks of the river Irtish, and engaged in pas-
toral and agricultural pursuits. Their religion
is Shamanistic, but Christianity has made some
progress among them.

Baraboo, bar'a-boo. Wis., a city and coun-
ty-seat of Sauk County, on the Baraboo River,
and the Chicago & N. W. R.R. ; 40 miles north-
west of Madison and 3 miles from Devil's Lake.
It is an agricultural region ; has important man-
ufacturing interests, which are promoted by an
excellent water power ; is a noted fruit centre ;
and has a national bank, city hall, water works,
electric light, gas works, daily, weekly, and
monthly periodicals. It is governed by a mayor,
elected biennially, and a municipal council. Pop.
(1900) 5,751.

Barabra, ba-ra'bra, a Nubian people living
on both sides of the Nile, from VVady Haifa
to Assouan. They are about 40,000 in number,
and are believed to belong to the same stock as
the ancient Egyptians.

Baracoa, ba-ra-ko'a, Cuba, a seaport near
the eastern end of the island, and its capital,

1518-22. The town was founded in 1512. Near
it is the mountain noted as the "Anvil of Bara-
coa.^' In the vicinity Maceo and his men be-
gan in 1895 the struggle for Cuban independ-
ence. Pop. (1899) 4,937-

Barada, ba-ra'da, the Abana of the Bible,
a river of Syria, rising in the Anti-Libanus and.
flowing across the plain to the east past Da-
mascus. It loses itself in a lake called Bahret-
el-Ateibeh. Around Damascus its waters are
used for irrigation by means of canals.

Baraga, bar'a-ga, Frederic, Austrian Ro-
man Catholic prelate and missionary : b. Treffen,.
Carniola, 29 June 1797; d. Marquette. Mich.,
19 Jan. 1868. He came to the United States in
1830 and spent the rest of his life among the
Chippewa and Ottawa Indians in Michigan.
His Chippewa grammar (1851) and Chippewa
dictionary (1851-3) are of philological impor-
tance, and he was also the author of a work
in German on the ^Historj^, Character, Man-
ners, and Habits of the North American In-
dians' (1837).

Baraguay d'Hilliers, ba-ra-ga-de-ya,.
Achille, Count, marshal of France: b. Paris,
1795; d. 1878. He was the son of Louis Para-
guay d'Hilliers (q.v.). In 1830 he took part in
the expedition to Algeria, in which his success-
gained liim the confidence of the government,
which created him a lieutenant-general. In
1841 he was made governor-general of Algeria.
On the fall of Louis Philippe in the revolution
of 1848 the provisional government appointed
him to the command of the military division of
Besangon. He replaced Changarnier in the
command of the Army of Paris, and concurred
in the accomplishment of the coup d'etat on 2
Dec. 1851. In the war with Russia in 1854
Baraguay d'Hilliers was commander-in-chief of
the Baltic expedition, and for his ser^'ices re-
ceived the dignity of marshal of France, and
later was nominated a senator. He took an
active part in the campaign of 1859, when
France leagued with Sardinia to free Italy
from Austrian domination.

Baraguey d'Hilliers, Louis, French gen-
eral: b. Paris, 1764; d. Berlin, 6 Jan. 1813. Re-
ceiving an appointment in the army of Italy
from Napoleon, he shared all the success of the
campaign of 1796-7. Made general of division
and commandant of Venice, in 1798 he accom-
panied the expedition to Egypt ; and afterward
successively held appointments on the Rhine, in
the Tyrol, and in Catalonia. He commanded
a division in the Russian campaign of 1812, but
during the retreat incurred the displeasure of
Napoleon and appears to have died from cha-
grin and disappointment.

Baralt, ba-ralt', Rafael Maria, Venezuelan
poet and historian : b. Maracaibo, Venezuela,
2 July 1814; d. ]\Iadrid, Spain, 2 Jan. i860. He
was educated in Bogota and at Caracas ; served
in the Venezuelan army, and went to Spain in
1843, where he held posts of honor and attained
literary fame. He wrote ^Ancient and iModern
History of Venezuela' (1841) ; and ^Odes to
Columbus and to Spain.'

BaranoflF, ba-ra'nof, Alexander Andrevich,
Russian trader: b. 1746; d. 1819. He founded
a trading colony on Bering Strait (1796) and
established commercial relations with the Unit-
ed States, China, and Hawaii. He was the first
governor of Russian America.

BARANOFF ISLAND — BARBADOS

Baranoff Island, the most important of development of his intellectual faculties brought

the Alexander Islands, Alaska. It is about 75 about a languid malady, and at the age of 19

miles long. On its northwest coast is the he died.

town of Sitka. The island derives its name Baratynski, bii-ra-tin'ske, Jevgeni Abramo-

from the Russian trader, Baranoff (q.v.), who vich, Russian poetr'b. within the government

m 1799 took possession of it. of Tambov, 1800; d. Naples, 1844. He enlisted

Barante, ba-riint, Aimable Guillaume Pros- as a private soldier at 18. and by 7 years'

per Brugiere, Baron de, French historian and service in Finland fought his way to the rank

statesman: b. Riom. Auvergne, 10 June 1782; of an officer, which, however, he soon resigned

d. 23 Nov. 1866. After filling some subordinate to devote himself to a literary life. His first

offices he was appointed in 1809 prefect of La poem, <Eda,^ is a mirror of Finnish life and

Vendee. In this year was published his feeling: his greatest, <The Gypsy.>

'Tableau de la Litterature Francais au XVIIIe Barb, a horse of the Barbary breed, in-

Siecle,^ of which Goethe has said that it troduced by the Moors into Spain, and of great

contains neither a word too little nor a word speed, endurance, and docilitj'. This breed is

too much. In 1815 Louis XVIII. made Barante said to be a variety of the Arabian, and most

secretary of the ^linistry of the Interior, and of the progenitors of the present thoroughbred

about the same time he took his seat in the horse were of the same strain.

Chamber of Deputies, where he voted with the Bar'bacan, or Barbican, a projecting

Moderate Liberals. In 1819 he \yas raised to ^^.^^ch tower or other advanced work before the

the Chamber of Peers. His principal work, g^^g of ^ castle or fortified town. The term

<Histoire des Dues de Bourgogne de la Maison ^arbacan wrs more especiallv applied to the

de Valois, 1364-1477^ (1824-8), secured his outwork intended to defend' the drawbridge,

election to the Academy in 1828. Between 1830 ^^.^ich in modern fortifications is called the

and 1840 he represented France at .Turin and fc-ta du pont. At the castles of Warwick and

St. Petersburg, but after the revolution of 1848 Alnwick the medic-eval barbacan? still remain,

he devoted himself entirely to literary pursuits, by^ the barbican gate at York is almost entirely

Other works of his are: 'Histoire delaConven- of modern construction

V°«^'^' cil^T^U '^''^''''\ ^." Directoire> Barbacena, bar-ba-sa-'na. a flourishing town

1855); ^Etudes Historiques et Biographiques>; ^^ g^^^jj -^^ ^j^^ gtate of Minas Geraes. 125

<Etudes Litteraires et Historiques> (1858). ^jj^g northwest of Rio de Janeiro. It is situat-

Consult also < Souvenirs du Baron de Barante> ^^ -^ ^^e Mantiqueira Mountains, about 3,500

(1690-9;. £ggj. above the sea. Pop. 5.000.

Baran'ya, Hungary a province of, border- Barba'dos, an island of the West Indies,

mg upon the Danube River, haymg an area 9f ^ ■ jj, ^he Atlantic Ocean more than 100 miles

1,966 square miles and a population of 361,743 m ^^g^ ^f ^^e nearest members of the chain of

^900. ^ Lesser Antilles. (See Antilles.) No other

Barasingha, bar-a-sin'ga. See Swamp-Deer, country, with the possible exception of some of

Barata'ria Bay, a body of water in the the provinces of China, is more densely popu-
southeastern part of Louisiana, extending north lated, the inhabitants (about 20,000 white per-
from the Gulf of Mexico, between the parishes sons, and approximately 169.000 negroes 1 av-
of Jefferson and Plaquemine. It is about 15 eraging 1.120 to the square mile The entire
miles long by 6 wide, and it and the lagoons area of the island available for the purpose-
branching out of it were rendered notorious or 100,000 acres out of a total acreage of
about the years 1810-12 as being both the head- 106,470.-15 under cultivation. Some of the
quarters and rendezvous of the celebrated La- white inhabitants are of the best English stock,
fitte and his buccaneers. being descendants of early settlers who were

■n ^ > • -Tf . c „c „.,«- closelv allied by the bond of blood or ties 01

Bara ana. Pirates of, a company of out- f^end^hip with the colonists of Virginia. The
laws imder the eadership of a notorious bandit J ^^^^^ ^^ ^
Jean Lafitte, who established their rendezvous ^y^^^^- ^^^ ,,4 i,, ^73,. when he visited this
in the Bay of Barataria 40 miles south of New f company with his invalid brother,
Orleans. They committed great depredations Lawrence. The rainfall is abundant, and the
on English and Spanish shipping b"t heir agreeable, thanks to trade-winds blow-
colony was broken up in 1814 by a United States J ^^^^^^ ^,^^ Atlantic. Barbados is
naval force. Lafitte and some of his men subse- -^j Jf England, with its own governor,
quently served under Jackson in the battle of j^gigiatifre. etc. In addition to many lesser
New Orleans. educational institutions the island has Codring-

Bar'athron, the name of a deep gorge near ^on College, which is affiliated with the Univer-

Athens, into which criminals condemned to gity of Durham. England. Its principal city,

death were thrown. It was originally a quarr>% Bridgetown, headquarters of the Royal Mail

but was enlarged in order to serve for purposes Steamship Company, is an attractive place of

of punishment. Usually persons were thrown residence and a favorite resort of tourists. It

into it after execution, but occasionally while jg also the see of the bishop of Barbados,

living. There is one narrow-gauge railway, and the

Baratier, ba-ra-ter', Johann Philipp, Ger- highways are excellent The chief and almost
man litterateur, remarkable for the precocity the sole industry is the cultivation of sugar-
of his intellect: b. Schwabach. 1721 ; d. Halle, cane, to which the soil ,s peculiarly adapted.
^ Sept. 1740. At the age of 7 he understood Food supplies are imported largely from the
Greek and Hebrew, and 2 vears later he com- United States, to which country- nearly the en-
piled a Hebrew dictionary. He was 13 when he tire sugar product is sent. The value ot the
translated the qtinerary of Beniamin of Tu- annual exports is about $3.600.000 : of the aver-
dela.> Excess of work and perhaps a too rapid age annual imports about $o,ooo,oCK). Like

BARBADOS CEDAR — BARBAROUX

Guadeloupe and its dependencies, and Desirade
and Maria Gaiante, Barbados is a coral island.
Its length is 21 miles, and its width 15 miles. It
is situated in lat. 13° 4' N., and Ion. 59° 2,-' W.
Consult Stark, < History and Guide to Barbados.^
IMarrion Wilcox,
Authority on Latin-America.

Barba'dos Cedar, a cedar or juniper
(Juiiipcnis barbadcusis). It is found in Florida
and the other warm parts of America.

Barbados Cherry, a West Indian shrub or

small tree (MalpigJiia glabra) of the natural
order Malpigliiacca, with handsome crimson ax-
illarj' flowers, cultivated to some extent in warm
countries for its acid fruit, inferior to but re-
sembling a white cherrj'. M. nrcns also bears
an edible but smaller fruit, and is sometimes
also called Barbados cherrj'.

Barbados Flower Fence, or Barbados
Pride, the beautiful plant Poinciana pulclierri-
nui. It belongs to the leguminous order, and
the sub order Cccsalpiiiiccc. It is a low, spiny tree
with an odor like savin. It is a native of the
tropics of both hemispheres, and in Barbados
especialh- it is used for fence purposes.

Barbados Goose'berry, Blad Apple, or
Lemon Vine (Pcrcskia aciileata), a shrubby,
slender, tropical American cactus which bears
lemon-j^ellow, smooth, edible pear- or egg-shaped
fruits as large as olives. The species is widely
used in greenhouses as a stock on which to graft
other species of cacti. Its more sturdy relative,
P. blco, is similarly used for larger species of
cacti.

Barbados Leg, a name frequently applied
to the disease called elephantiasis. It is common
in Barbados, and is endemic in many tropical
and semi-tropical countries. See Elephan-
tiasis.

Barbados Lil'y, t\i& Amaryllis eqiicstris,r\o\v
called Hippeastrum cqucstre, an ornamental
plant from the West Indies.

Bar'bara, Saint, virgin and martyr much
honored in the Greek and Roman Catholic
Churches who is supposed to have flourished in
the 2>^ or early part of the 4th century. Her his-
tory has been related by various chroniclers,
but with so many discrepancies that it is difH-
cult to ascertain either the events of her life
or the circumstances of her martyrdom. Ac-
cording to Jacobus de Voragme, the author of
the 'Aurea Legenda,* she was born at Heliopo-
lis, in Egypt, of pagan parents. On arriving at
the age of womanhood she was very beautiful, and
her father, fearing lest she should be taken from
him., confined her in a tower, and in the pictures
of this saint the tower is therefore one of her
most frequent attributes. In her seclusion she
heard of the preaching of Origen, and wrote to
him begging for instruction, whereupon he sent
one of his disciples, who taught and baptized
her. On learning this her father was so in-
censed that he put her to death. Metaphrastes
and Mombritius inform us that she was mar-
tyred at Heliopolis in the reign of Galerius, and
their account agrees with the Emperor Basil's
Menology and with the Greek Synaxary.
Others again hold that she suffered at Nico-
media, in 235, under Maximian I. Her festival
occurs 4 December,

Barbara Allen's Cruelty, an old English
ballad preserved in Percy's "^Reliques.^ While
Barbara's lover. Jemmy Groves, was on his
death-bed, her only remark to him was, "Young
man, I think j'ou're dying." For this unnatural
composure she subsequently endured the pangs
of remorse.

Barbara Frietch'ie, the title of a noted
poem by Whittier (1863) founded upon an in-
cident reported to have occurred in Frederick,
Md., in the Civil War. Recent investigations
have thrown some doubt upon the authenticity
of the account. A play upon this them.e has
been written by the dramatist Clyde Fitch.

Bar'bara's History, a novel by Amelia
Blandford Edwards, published in 1864. It is
the romance of a pretty girl, clever and capa-
ble, who, passing through some vexations and
serious troubles, settles down to an unclouded
future.

Barbarelli, Giorgio. See Giorgione.

Barba'rian, a term used by the Greeks to
designate a foreigner ; one who could not speak
Greek. At first the Romans were included
by the Greeks under the term barbarian ;
but as the inhabitants of the great Italian
city gradually gained imperial power, and,
moreover, began to consider the Greek lan-
guage a desirable if not even an indispen-
sable part of a liberal education, they were
no longer placed in the category of bar-
barians, nor was their speech deemed barba-
rous. When the Greeks became the most civ-
ilized people in the world, the term barbarian
came to be used with some reproach, but less so
than among ourselves now.

Barbaros'sa, Arooj, or Horuk, corsair
chieftain, styled "^'Barbarossa" from his red beard.
He was the son of a Greek at Alitylene, and in
1516 assisted Selim, king of Algiers, in driving
the Spaniards out of that countr^^ Having
taken possession of the capital he put Selim to
death and mounted the throne himself. He
died in 1518.

Barbarossa, Khair-ed-Din, the younger
brother and successor of the preceding. He
surrendered the sovereignty of Algiers to Selim
I., Sultan of Turke}^ in exchange for a force
of 2,000 janissaries and the title of dey. He
was afterward appointed ^'captain pasha^^ or high
admiral of the Turkish fleet, conquered Tunis,
and in 1538 gained a victory over the imperial
fleet luider the command of Andreas Doria in
the Bay of Ambracia. He died in 1546.

Barbaros'sa.- See Frederick B.\rb.\rossa.

Barbaroux, bar-ba-roo, Charles Jean
Marie, celebrated French revolutionist of
the Girondin party: b. Marseilles. 6 March 1767;
d. Bordeaux, 25 June 1794. At first an advocate
and journalist at jMarseilles, he was sent by that
city to the Constituent Assembly at Paris.
There he opposed the Court party and took
part with the minister, Roland, then out of
favor. After the events of 10 Aug. 1792 he re-
turned to his native town, where he was received
with enthusiasm, and was soon after chosen
delegate to the convention. In the convention
he adhered to the Girondists, and belonged to
the party who at the trial of the king voted for
an appeal to the people. He boldly opposed the
party of Marat and Robespierre, and even di-
rectlv accused the latter of aiming at the dic«

BARBARY — BARBARY APE

tatorship; he was, consequently, in May 1793
proscribed as a royalist and an enemy of the
republic. He fled to Calvados, and thence with
a few friends to the Gironde, where he wan-
dered about the country, hiding himself as best
he could for about 13 months. At last, on the
point of being taken, he tried to shoot him-
self; but the shot miscarried, and he was guil-
lotined at Bordeaux. He was one of the great
spirits of the Revolution. There was no loftier-
minded dreamer in the Girondist ranks; hardly
a nobler head than his fell in that reign of
terror.

Barbary, a general name for the most
northerly portion of Africa, extending about
2,600 miles from Eg>'pt to the Atlantic, with a
breadth varying from about 140 to 550 miles ;
comprising Morocco, Fez, Algeria, Tunis, and
Tripoli (including Barca and Fezzan). Bor-
dered by the Mediterranean on the north, and
by the Sahara on the south, the temperature of
this region is generally moderate and remarka-
bly uniform, seldom descending to the freezing-
point, and seldom coming up to sultry. From
March to September is the dry season, when the
ground is frequently so parched as to render
walking upon it impracticable. From Septem-
ber to March is the wet season, but the rains are
moderate, and almost every day affords a respite
of sunshine. The soil is fertile, though sandy
and light on the coast, the climate healthy, and
agricultural productions are various and abun-
dant. The range of production gives a com-
bination of both tropical and temperate fruits.
Agriculture is, nevertheless, greatly neglected.
For three centuries the inhabitants of the Bar-
bary states have rendered themselves the pest
of human society by their depredations upon
the commerce of the seas. Anciently, all Africa
was comprehended under two divisions — Egypt
and Libya — while Libya was subdivided into
northern and southern Libya. North Libya
comprised mainly what is now known as the
Barbary states. Herodotus says that in his
day northern Libya was inhabited by the in-
digenous race of Libyans and by the foreign
Phoenicians and Greeks. These latter settled
at various points, from Egypt to Carthage, while
the indigenous Libyans occupied from the east
to the west, throughout the entire extent. Of
the origin of the Libyans, whom Herodotus
calls indigenous, we have no trace. Arabian
tradition says they colonized Libya from Yemen.
The Phcenicians early settled Carthage (869
B.C.) and perhaps the still more western coasts
of Mauritania, — at least it appears that Carthage
was a powerful state at the invasion of Greece
by Xerxes. The Cyrenians, who were Greeks,
had colonized at Cyrene, just east of the bay of
the Mediterranean called Syrtis Major (Gulf of
Sidra), in what is now known as Barca. West
of Carthage lay Numidia and Mauritania, even
to the Pillars of Hercules; east of Cyrene was
Egypt ; while between these two foreign col-
onies stretched the narrow coast line, from the
Major to the Minor Syrtis. known as Emporia.
The rapidly growing Carthaginian power soon
extended colonies along the entire coast from
the Pillars of Hercules to Grecian Cyrene. The
jealousy of Rome was not long in being awak-
ened against so threatening a rival. The history
of the' Punic wars is well known. At the end
of IT7 years the Carthaginian power was e.xtin-
guished. Carthage herself in ruins, and Africa
Vol. 2 — 20.

a Roman province from Mauritania to Cyre-
naica. The more complete subjugation of Nu-
midia was accomplished in the Jugurthine war,
and that of Mauritania in the reign of Claudius.
Thus the territory of the Barbary states, from
independent native sovereignties and foreign
colonies, had come into the hands of Rome.
About 400 A.D. several Teutonic tribes, over-
running Gaul and crossing the Pyrenees, settled
in Spain. When, in 428, Boniface revolted
against Honorius, the Vandals crossed the Fre-
tum Gaditanum into Africa, led by Genseric,
drove out the inhabitants, utterly e.xpelled the
Roman power from upper Libya, and reigned
100 years. Then came the struggle under Jus-
tinian for the re-establishment of the Roman
ascendency. By Belisarius it was conducted
to a successful issue, and northern Africa w?s
united to the eastern empire. For over 300
years this relation continued until about the
middle of the 7th century ; the Saracens over-
ran Numidia and Mauritania to the Atlantic,
and, notwithstanding the disastrous death of
their leader Okba, the sceptre of upper Libya
passed again from the hands of Rome into that
of Arabia. Fifty years later the conquests of
Musa and Tarik were pushed across the straits,
and a Saracenic empire established in Spain.
But the revolution which brought the Abbasides
to the caliphate of Arabia and drove the only
surviving caliph of the Ommiades into Spain,
prepared the way for the independence of the
western colonies, and Africa began to throw oflf
the Saracenic yoke (788). A succession of for-
tunes now attended the states of upper Libya.
For eight centuries they were alternately trib-
utary and independent, passing from hand to
hand, like the stakes of a faro bank, till in the
i6th century the two brothers Barbarossa con-
quered the whole territory of Numidia and
Carthage, and erected the regencies of Algiers
and Tunis. A few years later the Turkish Sul-
tan, whose supremacy the j'ounger Barbarossa
had acknowledged, erected the pashalic of Tri-
poli over the ancient Cyrenaica, while in the
west there was a gradual consolidation of
power into the hands of Mohammed ben Hamed,
and his son, who finally established the dynasty
of Sherifs in the empire of Morocco, while the
French erected, between Morocco and the pos-
sessions of the Porte, the regency of Algeria.
The religion of the Barbary states is generally
Islamism. The European settlers are of course
Christians, or Jews, while the blacks, who are
slaves, are pagans. There seem to be at pres-
ent six races or tribes of men inhabiting the
Barbary States: (i) The Moors. (2) The
Arabs. (3) The Berbers, who are indigenous,
and from whom the states probably received the
appellation Barbary. (4) The Jews. (5) The
Turks, who are the military of the country.
(6) The Blacks. The Arabs call the Barbary
states Moghreb (west). The language of the
people inland differs from that of Arabia and
Syria, though not so much as on the coast.
See Algeria; Barca; Fezzan; Morocco; Tri-
poli ; Tunis.

Bar'bary Ape, or Magot, a small species
of ape of the genus Macacus. interesting as be-
ing the only animal of the monkey kind in
Europe. It is found on the rock of Gibraltar,
where the individuals are few in niimber;
whence it has been concluded by M. de Blain-
ville that they have sprung from domesticated

BARBARY POWERS

apes escaped from confinement in the houses of
Gibraltar. The Barbary magot is a small tail-
less monkey completely covered with greenish-
brown hair. In its wild state it is lively and
intelligent, but becomes sullen and intractable
in captivity.

Barbary Powers, U. S. Treaties and Wars
with the. The four JNIohammedan states of
Morocco, Algiers, Tunis, and Tripoli, though
either independent or nominally tributary to
Turkey, were for some three centuries a com-
mon foe to Mediterranean commerce and travel.
Almost their entire subsistence was on the
produce of piracy : either the avails of captured
stores, the ransoms for prisoners held in
slavery, or the blackmail paid by other powers
for immunity. The large states paid them a
regular annual tribute, — though by joining
forces they could have stopped the piracy at
any time, — on the express ground that it gave
them the monopoly of Mediterranean trade
against the small ones which could not afford
it; and England, which paid about $280,000 a
year, deliberately put the price high to pre-
vents others from bidding up to it. Even these
sums bought only temporary truce, as the pirate
state lived on depredations, and the tribute had
to be supplemented with constant presents and
concessions. A part of this tribute was always
demanded in armed vessels, ammunition and
naval stores, so that the civilized powers fur-
nished the means for plundering themselves.
The ransom of captives from them was a lead-
ing object of public and private charity, and
collections were taken up in churches for this
end. In 1786 there were 2,200 Christian cap-
tives in Algiers alone. When the United States
began to send vessels to the Mediterranean no
longer protected by tb.e English flag, the pi-
rates at once assailed them ; and in July 1785,
the Algerines captured 2 vessels and 21 men.
Congress appropriated $80,000 in 1784 to buy
immunity after the European model ; but it
seemed likely to cost nearer $1,000,000, and,
reversing their usual parts, John Adams pre-
ferred to pay as a cheaper resort than fighting,
while Jefferson considered fighting both cheaper,
more honorable, and the preparation for a bet-
ter future. Morocco, for some reason much
the most amenable, signed in 1787 a 50-year s'
peace without tribute, though with the under-
standing of some presents to the Sultan, and
kept it, save for a short time in 1803. The
Dey of Algiers asked $59,496 for his captives, or
over $2,800 each, though the last French cap-
tives ransomed had only cost $300, or with
costs, $500; and the matter hung fire for several
years, 11 of the 21 dying before the final ran-
som of 1795. In 1793, by the carelessness or
bad faith of an English consul, the Algerine
corsairs gained entrance to the open sea be-
yond the Strait of Gibraltar, and captured 10
United States vessels at a blow, the number of
our captives in their hands in November being
115. Negotiations v/ere set on foot, and on 5
Sept. 1795 Congress paid Algiers $992,463.25 for
peace and the ransom of all our prisoners —
this sum including a 36-gun frigate costing
$99,727, and about $100,000 worth of stores and
ammunition. It also engaged to pay $21,600 a
year thereafter in naval stores, $20,000 on pre-
sentation of a consul, biennial presents of
$17,000, and other regular and incidental gifts.
In 1798 it sent four armed vessels as arrear."!-

A treaty was made with Tripoli in November
1796, on much the same terms save that there
were no ransoms; and one with Tunis, in 1799.
for $107,000. The cost of immunities and ran-
soms in 1802 had been over $2,000,000; and of
course even this bought nothing permanent. The
pasha of Tripoli broke the treaty in three years
and a half, demanding $225,000 with $25,000
annually, and on refusal declared war, 14 May
1801. A squadron under Commodore Dale was
sent to the Mediterranean and blockaded Tri-
poli, also forcing Algiers and Tunis to think
better of their threatened alliance with it and
to renew their treaties. Morris succeeded hirn,
but was soon recalled. Preble, who took his
place, 1803-4, forced Morocco, which had
joined Tripoli, to withdraw from the alliance
and renew its treaties ; carried on a vigorous
lalockade; and bombarded Tripoli five times.
Barron succeeded Preble, but in the middle of
1805 turned over the command to Rodgers, who
at once prepared for a grand bombardment and
assault. The scale was turned, however, by
William Eaton (q.v.), who took up the cause
of the pasha's elder brother, Hamet Caramelli,
driven from the throne some years before, or-
ganized at Alexandria a singular rabble of cos-
mopolites, and after a desperate six weeks'
march across the desert, captured, with the aid
of the navy, the seaport of Derne in Barca, sev-
eral hundred miles east of Tripoli. The pasha
feared an insurrection as well as Rodgers' at-
tack; and hastily signed on 3 June 1805, with
Tobias Lear, United States consul-general at
Algiers, who had come to Tripoli on purpose,
a treaty by which the United States paid $60,000
ransom for the prisoners, left Hamet's support-
ers to the pasha's vengeance and Hamet himself
to beg the United States for a pension, and al-
lowed the pasha four years to deliver up
Hamet's wife and children. The need and
honor of this abject surrender of our govern-
ment belongs to historical polemics. The em-
bargo of 1807 prevented further trouble for
some years by annihilating our commerce; but
after its removal in 1810 the depredations were
renewed, and in 181 2 Algiers was ready for
more gratifications. The dey had received from
us $378,363, but made out a case for $27,000
arrears, forced the United States consul to
borrow it at usurious rates, and then ordering
him out of the country, declared war. The
War of 1812, however, having denuded the Med-
iterranean of our trading-vessels, he captured
only I brig and 11 persons; and after the
war our naval force under Decatur was turned
against Algiers. He found its entire fleet at
sea ; captured two and cut off the rest from port ;
entered the city 30 June 1815, 41 days after sail-
ing; and forced the dey to sign within three
hours, without gift or present, on pain of
having his city destroyed and his fleet cap-
tured, a treaty abolishing all tribute or presents
of any sort thereafter from the United States,
delivering up all his captives and agreeing that
henceforth prisoners of war should not be made
slaves, and paying indemnity for the captured
brig. Tunis and Tripoli having allowed Eng-
lish ships to seize American prizes in their har-
bors, Decatur proceeded to both places and
forced their rulers to make similar treaties, pay
indemnities, and release all their Christian pris'
oners of whatever nations. This magnificent ac-
tion of the United States induced the English

BARBASTRO —BARBEL

government to take similar steps the next year,
but Tunis and Tripoli did not abandon piracy
till 1819, and Algiers was not finally reduced till
1829 by France. It was the United States which
first lifted this incubus of "Algerine" (as the
entire system was compendiously called) piracy
and slavery from the Christian world. See
Schuyler, ^American Diplomacy^ (1886) ;
Henry Adsms, ^History of the United States,^
Vols. I., II.. IX. (1889-90); Felton, <Life of
Eaton, > in Sparks, 'American Biography. > See
Treaties ; United States — Diplomacy of the.
Barbastro, bar-ba'stro, Spain, a city of
Arragon, 30 miles east-southeast of Huesca.
The city has straight, well-made, and paved
streets, a cathedral with paintings by Galeran,
parish church, college, Latin and three other
schools, town-house, session-house, ecclesiasti-
cal court-house, extensive hospital, two prisons,
several convents with churches attached, two
palaces, a theatre, and bull-ring. It also pos-
sesses philosophical, agricultural, commercial,
and other literary and beneficent associations.
The manufactures of Barbastro have greatly de-
clined, consisting only of hats, hardware, cut-
lery, shoes, and ropes ; while a little trade is car-
ried on in cattle, horses, and mules. Pop.
(1901) 8,300.

Bar'bauld, Anna Letitia, English writer,
daughter of the Rev. John Aikin: b. Kib-
worth, Leicestershire, 20 June 1743 ; d. 9
March 1825. She received from her fa-
ther a classical education, and early showed
a disposition for poetry. Her earliest pro-
duction was a small volume of miscellaneous
poems, printed in 1772, which in the year fol-
lowing was succeeded by a collection of pieces
in prose, published in conjunction with her
brother, Dr. John Aikin, of Stoke-Newington.
In 1774 she married the Rev. Rochemont
Barbauld. Her * Early Lessons and Hymns for
Children,^ and various essays and poems, have
secured for her a permanent reputation. In
1812 appeared the last of her separate publica-
tions, entitled "^Eighteen Hundred and Eleven,^
a poem of considerable merit; previous to which
she had edited a collection of English novels,
with critical and biographical notices. A simi-
lar selection followed from the best British
essayists of the reign of Anne, and another from
Richardson's manuscript corresponder.ce, with a
memoir and critical essay on his life and writ-
ings. She will be longest remembered by her
beautiful and much quoted lyric beginning:
'Life, we have been long together.^ See Aikin,
'Works of A. L. Barbauld' ; Mrs. Thackery-
Ritchie, 'Book of Sibyls^ (1883).

Barbazan, bar-ba-z6h, Arnauld Guilhem,
Sire de, French captain, distinguished by
Charles VI. with the title of "Chevalier Sans
Reproche,*' and by Charles VIII. with that of
"Restaurateur du Royaume et de la Couronne
de France' : b. about the end of the 14th cen-
tury : killed at Bullegneville, 1432. He earned
the former of his titles, while yet young, by his
successful defense of the national honor in a
combat fought in 1404 between six French and
six English knights, before the Castle of Mon-
tendre ; and the latter designation he acquired
by his extraordinary exertions on the side of
the Dauphin, at a time when the cause of na-
tive royalty, powerless in presence of the Anglo-
Burgundian league, boasted few adherents.

Barbe-Marbois, bar-ba-mar-bwa, Frangois,
Marquis de, French statesman: b. Metz, 3
Jan. 1745 ; d. 14 Jan. 1837. After fulfilling dip-
lomatic offices at several German courts he was
sent to the United States as consul-general of
France. He organized all the French consulates
in this country, in which he resided 10 years,
and married the daughter of William Moore,
governor of Pennsylvania. In 1785 he was ap-
pomted by Louis XVI. superintendent of St.
Domingo, and introduced many reforms into
the administration of justice and of finance in
that island. He returned to France in 179a
and was again employed in German diplomacy.
During the excitement of the Revolution he
was exiled to Guiana as a friend of royalty, but
being recalled in 1801 he was made director of
the treasury, a title which he soon exchanged for
that of minister. In 1803 he was appointed to
cede Louisiana to the United States for
$10,000,000, but had the skill to obtain the price
of $16,000,000, a piece of diplomacy for which he
was liberally rewarded by Napoleon. In 1813
he entered the Senate, and the next year voted
for the forfeiture of the emperor and the re-
establishment of the Bourbon dynasty. He was
well received by Louis XVIII. , appointed a peer
of France and honorary counsellor of the uni-
versity, and confirmed in the office of first
president of the court of accounts, which he
had formerly held. He was an object of the
indignation of Napoleon after his return to
France from Elba, and was ordered to leave
Paris. He resumed his offices after the return
of the Bourbons, but, moderate in his prin-
ciples, and an enemy of all reaction, he was
not in harmony with the majority of those with
whom he associated ; and in the Chamber of
Peers he succeeded with difficulty in effecting
the substitution of banishment for death as a
penalty for political offenders. After the rev-
olution of July he exercised the same adulation
and took the same oaths of fidelity to Louis
Philippe which he had formerly given to Na-
poleon and the Bourbon princes. The desire to
die first President, which had been the motive
of all his flexibility, proved at last a vain one,
and in 1834 he was succeeded in his office, and
as a consolation received the portrait of the
king, accompanied by an autograph letter. His
numerous works contain curious details concern-
ing St. Domingo, Louisiana, and Guiana, which
he studied in his exile, and he wrote also upon
the treason of Arnold.

Bar'becue, a large gathering of people,
generally in the open air, for a social entertain-
ment or a political rally, the leading feature of
which is the roasting of animals whole to fur-
nish the members of the party with food. The
word is said to have been employed in Virginia
prior to 1700, and the institution of the barbecue
is of southern origin.

Barbel (Barbus), a genus of fresh-water
abdominal malacapterygious fishes, of the family
Cyprinidce, or carps, distinguished by the short-
ness of the dorsal and anal fins, a strong spine
replacing the second or third ray of the dorsal,
and four fleshy filaments growing from the lips,
two at the nose and one at each corner of the
mouth, and forming the kind of beard to which
the genus owes its name. Of the several spe-
cies, generally named after the country or river
where they are found, the European one, com'

BARBER — BARBERRY

mon in most of the rivers of its temperate
climates, and hence called B. vulgaris, is most
deserving of notice. _ Its average length is from
12 to i8 inches, but individuals have been taken
measuring 3 feet, and weighing from 15 to 18
pounds. The head is smooth and oblong, and
the upper jaw is much longer than the lower.
Its dorsal spine, which is strong and serrated,
often inflicts severe wounds on the fishermen
and damages their nets. It lives on small fishes,
and also on aquatic plants, worms, and in-
sects, which it obtains by boring with its barbels
into the banks of the stream and turning up the
loose soil. Its flesh is very coarse and unpala-
table, and at the time of spawning, the roe is
dangerous to eat. Another species, common
in the Nile, is described as weighing upward of
70 pounds, and has a flesh which is fine, delicate,
and well-flavored. When caught, the fisherman
puts an iron through its jaw and fastens it by a
short cord to the bank of the river, where it
remains alive till required.

Barber, Edward Atlee, American archae-
ologist: b. Baltimore, Md., 13 Aug. 1851. He
was graduated at Williston Seminary in 1869,
and was assistant naturalist in the U. S. Geo-
logical Survey in 1874-5. Subsequently he was
engaged in gold-dredging. His writings include
a history of the ancient Pueblos ; a large num-
ber of magazine articles on ceramics; * Pottery
and Porcelain of the United States^ ; ^Manual
for Collectors of Blue China^ ; ^Genealogies of
the Barber and Atlee Families,' etc.

Barber, Francis, American soldier: b.
Princeton, N. J., 1751 ; d. Newburg, N. Y.. 11
Feb. 1783. He graduated at Princeton in 1767,
and became principal of a school in Elizabeth-
town, where Alexander Hamilton was one of his
pupils. He was successively major and lieu-
tenant-colonel of the 3d New Jersey artillery,
and assistant inspector-general under Baron
Steuben. He took part in the battles of Tren-
ton, Princeton, Brandywine, and Germantown,
and was severely wounded at Monmouth and in
Sullivan's Indian expedition, 1779. He was of
the greatest service to Washington in securing
intelligence of the enemy's movements and in
putting down the mutiny of New Jersey and
Pennsylvania troops. In 1781 he commanded a
battalion of infantry in Lafayette's Virginia
campaign, and was present at Yorktown. He
was killed by a falling tree at the close of the
war.

Barber, John Warner, American author:
b. Windsor, Conn., 1798; d. 1885. He wrote a
^History of New Haven' (1831) ; ^Incidents of
American History' (1847) ; < Elements of Gen-
eral History' (1844) ; and ^Our Whole Coun-
try' (1861), etc.; and assisted in compiling the
historical collections of New York, New Jer-
sey, Virginia, and Ohio.

Barber, one who shaves beards and
dresses hair. The occupation of barber is an
institution of civilized life, and is only known
among those nations that have made a certain
progress in civilization. It is referred to by
the prophet Ezekiel : "And thou, son of man,
take thee a barber's razor, and cause it to pass
upon thine head and upon thy beard." (Ezek.
V. I.) We do not read of a barber at Rome
till about the year 454 of the city; but there,
as elsewhere, when once introduced, they be-
came men of great notoriety, and their shops

were the resort of all the loungers and news-
mongers in the city. Hence they are alluded to
by Horace as most accurately informed in all
the minute history, both of families and of the
state. But in early times the operations of the
barber were not confined, as now, to shaving,
hair-dressing, and the making of wigs ; but in-
cluded the dressing of wounds, blood-letting, and
other surgical operations. It seems that in all
countries the art of surgerj'' and the art of
shaving went hand in hand. The title of barber-
chirurgeon, or barber-surgeon, was generally
applied to barbers. The barbers of London were
first incorporated by Edward IV. in 1461, and at
that time were the only persons who practised
surgery. The barbers and the surgeons were
separated, and made two distinct corporations —
in France, in the time of Louis XIV., and in
England in 1745. The sign of the barber-chi-
rurgeon consisted of a striped pole from which
was suspended a basin ; the fillet round the pole
indicating the riband or bandage twisted round
the arm previous to blood-letting, and the basin
the vessel for receiving the blood. This sign
has been generally retained by the modern bar-
ber. In the United States, however, it is only
occasionally that the basin may be seen hang-
ing at the dogr of a barber's shop. The
character of the barber is amusingly illustrated
in one of the tales of the "^Arabian Nights En-
tertainments,' and has been immortalized by
Beaumarchais, Mozart, and Rossini, under the
name of ^ Figaro.'

Barber-fish. See Surgeon-Fish.

Bar'ber Poet, The. See Jasmin, Jacques.

Bar'ber of Seville, The, a five-act comedy
by Pierre Augustin^ Caron (who later assumed
the noni de guerre 'Beaumarchais). It is the
first of the Figaro trilogy, the later plays being
the ^Marriage of Figaro' and the ^Guilty Moth-
er.' Upon it have been founded ^11 Barbiere di
Liviglia,' an opera by Paisiello (1780), and ^11
Barbiere di Liviglia,' an opera by Rossini, first
presented in 1816 and ever since extremely popu-
lar.

Barberini, bar-bar-re'ne, celebrated Flor-
entine family which became powerful through
Cardinal Maffeo Barberini, who was elected
Pope in 1623 as Urban VIII. Few of the
Popes have carried nepotism so far as Urban,
who, during his reign of 21 years, seemed intent
on only one object, the aggrandizement of his
three nephews. Two of them were appointed
cardinals, and the third became Prince of Pales-
trina. The principality of Palestrina continued
in the possession of the Colonna branch of the
family until 1889, becoming extinct in the male
line in that year.

Barberini Faun, a famous piece of Greek
sculpture, so called from its having once been
in the possession of the Roman family of Bar-
berini. It is now in the Glyptothek at Mimich.

Barberini Palace, the residence of the
Barberini family in Rome, begun by Pope Ur-
ban VIII. , its most distinguished member, but
not finished till 1640. It contains a famous
picture-gallery and a library with over 10,000
volumes and 10,000 MSS.

Bar'berry (Berberis), a genus of about 100
species of low ornamental shrubs of the natural
order Berheridacece, natives of temperate cli-
mates, sometimes subdivided into species with

BARBERRY BLIGHT — BARBIE DU BOCAGE

simple deciduous leaves (Bcrberis) and species
with pinnate persistent leaves (Mahonia, q.v.).
The yellow flowers are succeeded by red, dark-
blue, or black fruit which in some species is used
for making jellies of beautiful color and dis-
tinct flavor ; that of some other species is dried
and used like raisins. The yellow roots and
sometimes the stems of several species are used
in dj'eing, and the bark of some in tanning.
Many of the species are used for ornament and
for hedges, but in wheat-growing sections they
should not be planted, because they are host-
plants for the ascidium stage of wheat-rust (Puc-
cinia graminis), which, however, has been known
to develop in localities remote from barberry
bushes. B. vulgaris and its varieties and B.
thunbergii (considered by some botanists a form
of vulgaris) are probably the most common
and valuable simple-leaved species planted in
America. The former, an American species, is
a rather erect shrub about lo feet tall, with large
leaves and racemes of flowers which are followed
by red fruits that persist during the winter and
even well into the second summer ; the latter,
a Japanese species, is a low, spreading, graceful
shrub with dainty little leaves which become
brilliant red in autumn, and with solitary yellow
flowers followed by orange-red persistent fruits.
The stamens, which in many if not all species
are sensitive, spring up when touched. Propa-
gation is usually efifected by means of seeds
or cuttings of green wood, but sometimes by
grafts and layers. For description of species
cultivated for ornament in America, consult
Bailey and Miller, 'Q^clopedia of American
Horticulture^ (1900-2).

Barberry Blight or Rust. See Rusts.

Barbers' Itch. Two distinct diseases of the
skin are known by this name — one of a parasitic
nature, the other not parasitic. In the latter
there is an inflammation of the hair follicles
characterized by the formation of papules and
pustules pierced by hairs. It affects the hairy
part of the face and runs a chronic course. It
is more inclined to affect the upper lip and
upper parts of the face. The more important
disease is the Tinea barbce, or parasitic disease.
Here the hair follicles are infected by a fungus,
the triclwphyton. It is a form of ringworm of
the beard. It affects the lower part of the face
and neck, causing itching, scaly eruptions that
secrete a thick mucus and spread out ring-like
from the centre. The disease is always con-
tracted from another person or sometimes from
lower animals. Uncleanly barbers' implements
are the chief agents in its spread. In the early
stages — the parasitic form — it is readily cura-
ble, but in the chronic stages it may prove very
difficult to treat successfully.

Bar'berton, Ohio, city in Summit County, 7
miles from Akron, and 39 miles from Cleveland;
on the Erie, the Baltimore & Ohio, and the
Pennsylvania Railroads. The town was founded
in 1893 by O. C. Barber, president of the Dia-
mond Match Company, whose works are lo-
cated here. It is known as the " magic city *
having acquired a population of 7,000 in less
than 10 years. It is a progressive manufactur-
ing centre having sewer-pipe mills, rubber
works, potteries, iron works, paint mills, salt
wells, strawboard works, and other industries.
The city is governed lay a mayor and city
council elected biennially.

Barbes, Armand, bar-bes, ar-mon, French
politician and revolutionist: b. Island of Guada-
loupe, 1810; d. 1870. At an early age he was
taken to France, and in 1830 went to Paris to
attend the law classes, where he had an oppor-
tunity of manifesting his political opinions at
that period of public excitement. During the
whole reign of Louis Philippe he was constantly
engaged in conspiracies. In consequence of an
unsuccessful attempt to overthrow the govern-
ment he was condemned to death, a sentence
which was commuted to perpetual confinement.
The revolution of 1848 restored Barbes to lib-
erty. He then founded a club, which took his
name, in which the doctrines of socialism were
superadded to republicanism. After the insur-
rection of May 1849, Barbes was sentenced to
deportation. In 1854 he was again set at liberty,
and left France, a voluntary exile.

Bar'bet, any of the tropical South Ameri-
can birds of the families Capitonidce and Buc-
conida, both of which are characterized by
prominent bristles about the mouth, which as-
sist them in catching flying insects. The birds
of the former family are more usually called
^^ thickheads,'^ and those o\ the latter '^ puff-
birds*' (qq.v.).

Barbette, bar-bet', the platform or eleva-
tion of earth behind the breastwork of a forti-
fication or an intrenchment, from which artillery
may be fired over the parapet. An ascent leads
from the interior of the intrenchment to the bar-
bette. When the garrison has much heavy ord-
nance, or the enemy has opened his trenches, or
when it is determined to cannonade the intrench-
ments of a given point, — as, for example, a
bridge or pass, — and the direction of the cannon
is not to be materially changed, it is usual, in-
stead of making a barbette, to cut embrasures
in the parapet ; on the contrary, firing from the
barbette is expedient when one expects to be at-
tacked only by infantry, or wishes to cannonade
the whole surrounding country. See Fortifi-
cation.

Barbette Gun. See Ordnance.

Barbette Turret. See Turret.

Barbey d'Aurevilly, bar-ba-do-re-ve-ye,
Jules, French critic and novelist: b. Saint-
Sauveur-le-Vicomte, Manche, 2 Nov. 1808; d.
Paris, 24 April 1889. As a contributor to the
Pays in Paris he created a sensation by the un-
reserved tone and peculiar style of his literary
criticisms. He wrote *0n Dandyism and G.
BrummeP (1845) ; <The Prophets of the Past'
(1851) ; ^Goethe and Diderot' (1880) ; ^Polemics
of Yesterday' (1889) ; 'Nineteenth Centurj': The
Works and the Men' (1861-92). Of his novels
the best are <The Bewitched' (1854) ; and 'The
Chevalier des Touches' (1864).

Barbiano, bar-bya'no, Abrechtda, an Ital-
ian military officer, who formed the first regular
company of Italian troops organized to resist
foreign mercenaries, about 1379. This organi-
zation, named the "Company of St. George,"
proved to be an admirable school, as from its
ranks sprang many future officers of renown.
He became grand constable of Naples in 1384,
and died in 1409.

Bar'bican. See Barb.\can.

Barbie du Bocage, bar-bya-dii-bo-kazh,
Jean Denis, distinguished French geographer:
b. Paris, 1760; d. there 1825. He laid the foun-

BARBIER — BARBOUR

dation of his fame in 1788 by the pubHcation of
liis beautiful Atlas to the ^Voyage du Jeune
Anacharsis,^ and was appointed in 1792 keeper
of the maps of the Royal Library, and in 1809 pro-
fessor at the Sorbonne. In 1821 he founded the
Geographical Society, of which he became presi-
dent. He was also a member of the Institute.
His maps and plans to the "^Voyage Pittoresque
en Grece, de Choiseul Gouffier,^ and to the works
of Thucydides, Xenophon, etc., exhibit much
erudition. He also prepared many modern maps,
and published excellent dissertations in various
scientific collections. Although the progress of
time has necessarily deprived much of his work
of its original value, his labors have not the
less given a decided stimulus to the progress
of science.

Barbier, bar-bya, Antoine Alexandre,

French bibliographer: b. Coulommiers, 1765; d.
1825. In 1794 he went to Paris, where he was
chosen a member of the committee appointed to
collect works of literature and art existing in
the monasteries, which were then suppressed.
This was the cause of his being appointed in
1798 keeper of the library of the Conseil d'fitat,
collected by himself, and when it was trans-
ported to Fontainebleau in 1807 Napoleon ap-
pointed him his librarian. On the return of the
king he had the care of his private library. His
e:^cellent *^ Catalogue de la Bibliotheque du Con-
seil d'fitat' (1801-3) is now very rare. His
<Dictionnaire des Ouvrages anonymes et pseu-
donymes' (1806-9, 4 vols., 3d ed. 1824),
is, on account of its plan, its accuracy, and its
fulness (at least in respect to French literature),
one of the best works in this branch of bibli-
ography.

Barbier, Henri Auguste, French poet: b.
Paris, 39 April 1805 ; d. Nice, 12 Feb. 1882.
Having written a historical novel (1830) with
Royer, depicting French mediaeval society, he en-
tered his proper sphere, that of poetical satire,
in which he obtained a brilliant success with
^The lambes' (1831 ; 31st ed., 1882), a series of
poignant satires, political and social, lashing the
moral depravity of the higher classes, — notably
the ignoble scramble for office under the new
government, the subject of *■ The Quarry,' the
most famous among these satires. His next
works, * Lamentation' (1833), bewailing the
misfortunes of Italy, and "^Lazarus' (1837), in
which he describes the misery of the English and
Irish laborer, show a considerable falling off;
and in those that followed, the poet of ^The
lambes' is scarcely to be recognized. He was
elected to the Academy in 1869.

Barbier, Paul Jules, a prolific French
dramatist : b. Paris, 8 March 1825 ; d. 1901.
Having won success with his first effort, "^A
Poet' (1847), a drama in verse, he produced
*The Shades of Moliere' (1847) ; < Andre Chen-
ier' (1849) ; <Willy Nilly,' a comedy (1849) ;
and thereafter in collaboration, mostly with
Michel Carre, a number of dramas and vaude-
villes, also countless librettos for comic operas.
After the war of 1870-I he published ^The
Sharpshooter, War Songs' (1871), a collection
of patriotic poems ; and later two other volumes
of lyrics, <The Sheaf (1882) and <Faded Flow-
ers' (1890); besides < Plays in Verse' (2 vols.,
J879).

Barbier de Seville. See Barber of Seville.

Barbiera, bar-bya'ra, Raphael, Italian poet
and journalist: b. Venice. 1851. His contribu-
tions to periodical literature are particularly val-
uable, and he has published also several works
on Italian literature and numerous anthologies.

Barbieri, Giovanni Francesco. See Guer-

CINO.

Barbieri, Giuseppe, Italian poet and pulpit
orator: b. Bassano, 1783; d. Padua, 1852. He
was distinguished for the tasteful eloquence of
his sermons.

Barbizon, bar-be-zoii, a village on the
skirts of the forest of Fontainebleau ; a favorite
haunt of artists and tourists which has given
its name to a school of French landscape paint-
ers. See also Barbizon School.

Barbizon School, the name applied to a
school of French artists who settled in the vil-
lage of Barbizon about 1844. Theodore Rous-
seau was the earliest of these, and after 1849
Jean Franqois Millet lived in Barbizon ; also
Corot, Troyon, Diaz, and Daubigny were of
this school, and the term came presently to de-
note those artists who went to nature for in-
spiration. See Millett, 'The Painters of Barbi-
zon' (1890). Also see Corot; Millet.

Barbo'sa, Duarte, Portuguese traveler: b.
Lisbon, 1480; d. 1521. He traveled all through
India, visited the Molucca Islands, and was Ma-
gellan's companion and historiographer in his
circumnavigation of the globe. He was mur-
dered by the natives of the island of Cebu.

Barbou, bar'boo, the name of a celebrated
French family of printers, the descendants of
John Barbou, of Lyons, who lived in the i6th
century. From his press issued the beautiful
edition of the works of Clement Marot in 1539.
His son, Hugh, removed from Lyons to Limo-
ges, where among other works, his celebrated
edition of ^Cicero's Letters to Atticus' appeared
in 1580. Joseph Gerard, a descendant of the
same family, settled in Paris, and continued in
175s the series of Latin classics in duodecimo, —
rivals to the Elzevirs of an earlier date, — ■
which had been begun in 1743, by Coustelier.
This series of classics is much prized for its
elegance and correctness.

Barbour, bar'ber, Erwin Hinckley, Ameri-
can geologist: b. near Oxford, O. He was as-
sistant palaeontologist in the United States geo-
logical survey in 1882-8; Stone professor of
natural history and geology in Iowa College in
1889-91 ; became professor of geology in the Uni-
versity of Nebraska, and acting State geologist in
1891 ; and curator of the Nebraska State Museum
in 1892. In 1893 he took charge of the annual
Morrill geological expeditions, and since then
he has also been engaged in the United States
geological and hydrographic surveys.

Barbour, James, American statesman: b.
Orange County, Va.. 10 June 1775 ; d. 8 June
1842. He was admitted to the bar when 19 years
old. He served in the Virginia legislature 1796-
1812, becoming governor of the State in the
latter year. Three years later he was elected to
the United States Senate. He was secretary of
war 1825-7, a"d minister to England 1828-9. In
politics he was strongly anti-Democratic. He
was chairman of the convention which nomi-
nated Harrison and Tyler for the presidency and
vice-presidency.

BARBOUR — BARCELONA

Barbour, John, Scottish poet, of whose life
but little is known. He is supposed to have
been Dorn about 1316; was educated at Oxford
and Paris ; and was a clerk in the king's house-
hold. He died in Aberdeen, 13 March 1395.
His great epic, ^The Bruce, ^ tells the story of
Robert Bruce and the battle of Bannockburn.
It was written in 1375 and brought him favor
from the king. First printed in Edinburgh in
1571 ; best modern edition by Skeat (Early
English Text Society). He also wrote 'Leg-
ends of the Saints,^ of 33,533 verses; and a
fragment on the Trojan war.

Barbour, John Humphrey, American edu-
cator: b. Torrington, Conn., 29 May 1854; d. 29
April 1900. He was graduated from Trinity
College in 1873, and ordained in the Protestant
Episcopal Church in 1878. He was rector of
Grace Church, Hartford, till 1889, and then be-
came professor of New Testament literature and
interpretation at the Berkeley Divinity School.

Barbour, Oliver Lorenzo, American law-
yer: b. Cambridge, N. Y., 12 July 181 1; d. 17
Dec. 1889. He received an academical educa-
tion, and was admitted to the bar in 1832. Dur-
ing 1847-76 he was reporter of the New York
court of chancery and the New York supreme
court. He compiled a large number of legal
digests, treatises on several branches of prac-
tice, and annotated editions of Collyer's, Chitty's,
and Cowen's works.

Barbour, Philip Pendleton, American ju-
rist : b. Orange County, Va., 25 May 1783 ; d. 24
Feb. 1841. He studied law at William and
Mary College and began to practise in 1802.
He led the war party in the Virginia legislature
1812-14, when he was elected to Congress, be-
coming speaker of the House in 1821. Four
years later he was appointed a judge in his
native State, returning to Congress in 1827 ;
but later resigning through ill-health. He was
subsequently appointed a Federal judge, and in
1836 was promoted to the supreme court of the
United States. In politics he was a Democrat.

Barbour, William McLeod, American
Congregational clergyman : b. Fochabers, Scot-
land, 29 May 1827; d. Maiden, Mass., 5 Dec.
1899. He was graduated from Oberlin College
in 1859, and from Andover Theological Seminary
in 1861 ; was pastor in South Danvers (now Pea-
body), Mass., 1861-8; professor in Bangor Theo-
logical Seminary 1868-77 ! professor of divinity
and college pastor in Yale 1877-87; and became
principal and professor of theology in the Congre-
gational College in Montreal, Canada, in 1887-96.

Barboursville, Ky., a town and county-
seat of Knox County, 185 miles southeast of
^.ouisville, on the Cumberland River, and the
Louisville & N. R.R. The chief industries are
mining and lumbering, but oil wells have re-
cently been drilled and the region is being rap-
idly developed. Pop. (1900) 1,010.

Barboursville, W. Va., a town of Cabell
County, situated on the Guyandotte River, and
on the Chesapeake & O. and Guyandotte Valley
R. R.'s It is the seat of Barboursville College,
a Methodist institution, and is of historic in-
terest as the scene of a Federal victory in the
Civil War, 13 July 1861. Pop. (1901) 429.

Barbox Brothers, a short story by Dick-
ens, with a second part known as < Barbox
Brothers & Co.^

Barbuda, bar-boo'da, West Indies, one of
the Leeward Islands, belonging to Great Britain.
It has a fertile soil, and produces tobacco, cot-
ton, corn, and pepper. There are forts on the
west side of the island, and a roadstead, but no
port. The population is almost entirely negroes,
and numbers less than 1,000.

Barbudo, bjir-boo'do, or Barbu, Spanish
names in the West Indian region for the strange
fishes of the family Polynemidce. See Mango-
Fish.

Bar'by, Prussia, a town in the province of
Saxony, on the left bank of the Elbe, 16 miles
south-southeast of Magdeburg. It is well built
and has an old castle, and manufactures of linen
and cotton, soap-works, breweries, and distiller-
ies. Pop. (1900) 5,137.

Bar'ca, a province of northern Africa, ly-
ing east of Tripoli, and belonging to Turkey,
about 500 miles long by 400 miles wide. It
forms a portion of tlifi ancient Cyrenaica, in its
widest sense, where the Greeks had two flour-
ishing colonies. The Greeks were followed in
possession of the country by the Romans, and
the monuments of both peoples remain in the
ruins of their cities. The sides and summits
of the hills in the east and north are fertile, and
yield abundant crops and excellent pasture. The
loftiest heights do not exceed 1,800 feet. Flow-
ering shrubs occur in great variety, including
am.ong others, roses, laurestinas, honeysuckles,
etc. The Bedouin inhabitants have numerous
camels and other cattle, constituting their prin-
cipal wealth. Among beasts of prey the most
common are hyenas and jackals; noxious in-
sects also abound. There are hardly any per-
manent streams, inost of the water-courses being
of the nature of mountain torrents, which lose
themselves in the sands of the Libyan Desert.
The eastern portion, however, is tolerably well
supplied with water by rains and springs. The
chief exports of the country consist of grain and
cattle, along with ostrich feathers and ivory,
brought by caravans from the interior. Next to
Bengazi, the capital, the seaport of Derna is the
chief town. Barca used to form a dependency
of Tripoli, but since 1879 has been an independ-
ent vilayet of the Turkish empire. The pop-
ulation is variously estimated, but probably does
not much exceed 325,000.

Barcarolle, bar'ka-rol, a song of the gon-
doliers at Venice, often composed by them-
selves, to some simple and pleasing melody, such
as may be timed to the stroke of the oar. Such
melodies are sometimes introduced into operas,
and have been written for the piano.

Barcellona, bar-chel-lo'na, Sicilj% a town
in the province of Messina, situated on the Son-
ganto River, 27 miles west of the town of Mes-
sina. It is noted for its sulphur baths which
are frequented from May to September. It has
a considerable trade, mostly in oil and fish. Pop.
(1901) 23,493.

Barcelo'na, the second largest city of
Spain. It is the capital of the province of the
same name and of the military department of
Catalonia, and is handsomely built, in the shape
of a half-moon, on the coast of the Mediter-
ranean, between the mouths of the Liobregat
and the Besos. It was. even in the Middle Ages,
one of the principal commercial places on this
sea; is fortified; and has on the east side a

BARCELONA — BARCLAY

strong citadel, built in 1715. On the west lies
the hill of Monjuich, with a fort which protects
the harbor. Barcelona is divided into an upper
and lower town, and contained, including the ad-
joining Barcelonetta, 509,589 inhabitants in 1897.
Its manufactures are the most important in
Spain. The principal are cottons, silks, woolens,
machinery, iron castings, paper, glass, mathemat-
ical instruments, chemicals, stoneware, soap.
There are also dyeworks, tanneries, etc. The
harbor is spacious, and has an entrance 300 yards
wide between two long piers. The entrance is
protected by a large mole, which has been re-
cently extended, and there is a large dry-dock.
The exports largely consist of manufactured
goods, wine and brandy, fruit, oil, etc. The so-
called Barcelona (hazel) nuts are not exported
from Barcelona, but from Tarragona. The city
contains a university (in a noble pile of buildings
begun in 1872), several libraries, a museum, a
school for engineers and artillery, an academy
of belles-lettres, a foundling hospital, a general
hospital, large enough to contain 3,000 sick per-
sons, a deaf-and-dumb institution, a large ar-
senal, a cannon foundry, several large theatres,
a cathedral dating from the 13th century. It is
altogether a beautiful and agreeable town, with
various interesting features and highly pictur-
esque surroundings. Electric lights and electric
tramways have been introduced. Barcelona was
an important city from a very early date, and
was from the 9th till the 12th century governed
by its own counts ; but afterward by the mar-
riage of Raymond IV. with the daughter of
Ramiro II., king of Aragon, it was united with
that kingdom. In 1640 it withdrew, with all
Catalonia, from the Spanish government, and
submitted to the French crown ; in 1652 it sub-
mitted again to the Spanish government ; in 1697
it was taken by the French, but restored to
Spain at the Peace of Ryswick. In the war of
the Spanish Succession Barcelona took the part
of the Archduke Charles ; but in 1714 was be-
sieged by the troops of Philip V., under the com-
mand of the Duke of Berwick, and taken after
an obstinate resistance. The strong citadel on
the east side of the city was then erected to over-
awe the inhabitants. On 16 Feb. 1809, Barcelona
was taken by surprise by the French troops
under Gen. Duhesme, and remained in the power
of the French till, in 1814, all their troops were
recalled from Catalonia to defend their own
country. In 1821 the yellow fever carried off
40,000 of the inhabitants. The city has been the
scene of many serious and sanguinary revolts,
particularly in 1832, 1836, 1840, and 1841. Lat-
terly, industry and commerce have rapidly in-
creased, the construction of railways contribut-
ing to this result. This city is regarded as the
centre of anarchist movements in Spain.

Barcelona, Venezuela, the capital of a dis-
trict and of the State of Bermudez, near the
mouth of the Neveri, 160 miles east of Caracas.
The surrounding country is fertile, but the city
is very unhealthy. Cattle, jerked beef, hides,
indigo, cotton, and cacao are the chief exports.
Pop. (1900) aljout 13,000. The district, formerly
a separate state, has since 1881 formed one of
the divisions of the State of Bermudez.

Barchester Towers, a novel by Anthony
TroUope. It is the second of the eight volumes
comprised in his ^Chronicles of Barsetshire,'
and is a study of social life in the clerical circle
centring at the episcopal palace of Barchester.

Barclay, Alexander, English, or more
probably Scottish, poet: b. about 1475; d. 1552.
Very little is known concerning him except from
his writings, which inform us that he_ was a
priest and chaplain at St. Mary Ottery, in Dev-
onshire, and afterward a Benedictine monk of
Ely. His principal work is a satire, entitled
<The Shyp of Folys of the Worlde,^ a free
translation of a German composition. Barclay
also wrote Eclogues, which are curious and in-
teresting for the descriptions they afford of the
characters and manners of the age.

Barclay, James, Canadian educator: b.
Paisley, Scotland, 19 June 1844. He was li-
censed by the Paisley Presbytery in 1870; arid
was called to St. Paul's Church, in Montreal, in
1883. While in Scotland he was frequently sum-
moned to Balmoral to preach before Queen Vic-
toria. He served through the Riel rebellion ill
the Northwest Territories, in 1885, and, besides
being 'connected with various local institution.^
has been president of Trafalgar Institute since
its opening.

Barclay, John, Scottish poet: b. Pont-a-
Mousson, France, 1582; d. 1621. He accom-
panied his father to England, where he was
much noticed by James I., to whom he dedi-
cated a politico-satirical romance, entitled
'Satyrikon,^ in Latin, directed against the Jes-
uits. He wrote also several other works, among
which is a singular romance, in elegant Latin,
entitled ^Argenis,^ which first appeared at
Paris in 1621. It is an allegory, of a character
similar to that of Satyrikon, and alludes to the
political state of Europe, and especially France,
during the league. Like the earlier work, it has
been several times reprinted, and has also been
translated into several of the modern languages,
including English.

Barclay, John, Scottish anatomist: b.
Perthshire, 1760; d. Edinburgh, 1826. He
studied divinity and was licensed as a preacher
at Dunkeld. In 1789 he commenced the study
of anatomy, and graduated in 1796, when he
visited London and studied under Dr. Marshall.
On his return to Edinburgh in 1797, he gave
lectures on anatomy. He published several
works on subjects connected with the sciences
of medicine and surgery ; he also made some ef-
forts toward reforming the system of nomen-
clature then in use among anatomists. He be-
queathed his valuable anatomical collection to
the Royal College of Surgeons of Edinburgh,
where it is known as the Barclayan Museum.
He published 'Description of the Arteries of the
Human Body' (1812).

Barclay, Robert, a distinguished member
of the Society of Friends : b. 23 Dec. 1648, at
Gordonstown, in the County of Moray, of an
ancient and honorable family ; d. 3 Oct. 1690.
The troubles of the country induced his father,
Col. Barclay, to send him to Paris, to be edu-
cated under the care of his uncle, who was prin-
cipal of the Scots College in that capital. Un-
der his influence he was easily induced to
become a convert to the Roman Catholic reli-
gion, upon which his father sent for him to return
home; and Col. Barclay soon after becoming a
Quaker, his son followed his example. Uniting
all the advantages of solid learning to great
natural abilities, he soon distinguished himself
by his talents and zeal in the support of his
new opinions. His first treatise in support of

BARCLAY-ALLARDICE — BARD

his adopted principles was published at Aber-
deen in the year 1670, under the title of 'Truth
Cleared of Calumnies,^ etc. To propagate the
doctrines, as well as to maintain the credit he
had gained for his sect, he published, in 1675, a
regular treatise, in order to explain and defend
the system of the Quakers, which production was
also very favorably received. These and simi-
lar labors involved him in controversies with the
leading memljers of the University of Aberdeen,
and others ; but he was at the same time busy
with his great work in Latin, *^An Apology for
the True Christian Divinity, as the Same is
Preached and Held Forth by the People in Scorn
. Called Quakers,-* published at Amsterdam in
1676; an English translation appeared later in
the same year. He traveled with William Penn
and George Foxe through the greater part of
England, Holland, and Germany, to spread the
opinions of the Quakers. The last of his pro-
ductions, in defense of the theory of the Quak-
ers was a long Latin letter addressed, in 1676,
to Adrian de Pacts, 'On the Possibility and Ne-
cessity of an Inward and Immediate Revela-
tion.' It was not published in England until
1686. With few exceptions, both partisans and
opponents unite in the profession of great re-
spect for the character and talents of Barclay.
Besides the works already mentioned or alluded
to, he wrote 'Cathechism and Confession of
Faith' (1673) ; 'Theses Theologize' (1675), of
which the Apology was a defense; 'The Anar-
chy of Ranters' (1676) ; 'Universal Love Con-
sidered and Established Upon Its Right Founda-
tion' (1677) ; and various replies to the most
able opponents of his Apology. In 1692 a col-
lected edition of his works appeared under the
title 'Truth Triumphant.' It was republished
in 1717-18.

Barclay-Allardice, Robert, known as Capt.
Barclay, the pedestrian: b. 1779; d. 8 May
1854. He entered the army (1805), and
served in the Walcheren expedition (1809),
but afterward devoted himself to agri-
culture, cattle-breeding, and the claiming of
earldoms (Airth, Strathearn and Menteith).
His feat of walking 1,000 miles in 1,000 consecu-
tive hours took place at Newmarket, in June
and July, 1809.

Barclay de Tolly, Michael, Prince, dis-
tinguished Russian general: b. Livonia, 1761;
d. Insterburg, 14 May 1818. He entered
the army at an early age, and his long service
as a subordinate in campaigns against the Turks,
Swedes, and Poles, laid the basis of a valuable
experience, and served to develop his great nat-
ural capacity for command. In 1810 he was
named minister of war. He occupied this posi-
tion in 1812, when Napoleon invaded Russia, but
was soon appointed to the chief command of
the army. He adopted a plan of retreat, which
was soon seen to be a strict necessity, as the Rus-
sian army, officially estimated at more than 500,-
000, did not greatly exceed 100,000 men. In this
difficult campaign Barclay proved no unworthy
opponent of Napoleon himself. Notwithstand-
ing, the Russians became impatient of a policy
which seemed to show no active results, while
jealousy of the Scottish extraction of Barclay
and other causes completed his overthrow, and
after the capture of Smolensk by the French
he was superseded by Kutusoff. Serving under
his successor, he commanded the right wing of

the Russian army at the battle of Moscow,
maintained his position, and covered the retreat
of the rest of the army. After the battle of
Bautzen, in 1813, at which he again distinguished
himself, he was reappointed to the chief com-
mand, which he had soon after to resign to
Prince Schwarzenberg. He forced the surren-
der of Gen. Vandamme, who had been detached
by Napoleon for some special operations, after
the battle of Dresden, and took part in the de-
cisive battle of Leipsic. On crossing the Rhine
at the head of the Prussian troops he issued a
strict proclamation, forbidding all license on the
part of his soldiers, and by the maintenance of
an exact discipline he conciliated the French as
much as possible to the invaders. He was made
a field-marshal in Paris. In 1815 he commanded
a mixed corps of continental troops. In this
year he received from the emperor the title of
prince, and from Louis XVIII. the badge of the
order of Military Merit. The Emperor Alex-
ander caused a statue to be erected to him in
one of the principal places of St. Petersburg.

Barclay Sound, an inlet on the west coast
of Vancouver Island. It is some 35 miles in
extent and the Alberni Canal continues it yet
farther inland. It contains several islands and
iron ore is found along its shores.

Bard, John, American physician: b. near
Philadelphia, February 1716; d. 30 ]March 1799.
He was of a family which had fled 1[rom France
upon the revocation of the edict of Nantes. He
practised his profession a few j'ears in Phila-
delphia, but removed to New York in 1746,
where he rose to the first rank among physi-
cians. In 1759, the citizens of New York were
alarmed by the arrival of a ship, on board which
a malignant fever was raging, and Dr. Bard was
appointed to take measures to prevent the dis-
ease from spreading. He succeeded in keeping
the pestilence within the limits of a temporary
hospital, but to guard against similar dangers in
future, at his suggestion, Bedloe's Island was
purchased, and hospital buildings erected there-
on, which were placed under his charge. He
continued the practice of his profession to an
advanced age, and upon the establishment of the
New York Medical Society in 1788, was elected
its first president.

Bard, Samuel, American physician: b.
Philadelphia, i April 1742; d. 24 May 1821. He
practised in Philadelphia and New York ; or-
ganized the medical school of Kings (Colum-
bia) College, and was dean of the faculty ; alsc
was president of the New York College of Phy-
sicians and Surgeons that succeeded the medical
school. He published several works, including
'The Shepherd's Guide' (1807) ; and a 'Manual
of Midwifery' (1807).

Bard, Thomas Robert, American politi-
cian: b. Chambcrsburg, Pa., 8 Dec. 1841. He
engaged in railroading in Maryland 1858-64,
when he went to California to look after the
interests of Col. Thomas A. Scott. Since then
he has resided in Ventura County, engaging in
wharving and warehousing, banking, sheep graz-
ing, real estate, and petroleum mining. In 1892
he was the only Republican elector for Califor-
nia. He was elected to the United States Senate
7 Feb. 1900 by the unanimous vote of the Re-
publican majority in the legislature.

BARD — BARDOWICK

Bard, a fortress and village in Italy, about
23 miles southeast of Aosta. When the French
crossed the St. Bernard, in 1800, the fortress of
Bard, manned by 400 Austrians, maintained for
10 daj'S a resistance to their further advance into
Italy. Ultimately Napoleon contrived to elude
the vigilance of the garrison, and passed by a
mountain-track during the night.

Bard, a designation applied to the ancient
poets of the Celtic tribes, who, in battle, raised
the war-cry, and in peace sang the exploits of
their heroes, celebrated the attributes of their
gods, and chronicled the history of their nation.
Their early history is uncertain. Diodorus tells
us that the Celts had bards, who sang to musical
instruments ; and Strabo testifies that they were
treated with respect approaching to veneration.
There is a passage in the ^Germania^ of Tacitus
in which a word occurs that some have read as
barditus, and translated Bard's Song; but bari-
tus appears to be the true reading, and the
true signification merely War-cry. The first
Welsh bards of whom anything is extant are
Taliesin, Aneurin, and Llywarch Hen, of the
6th century; but their language is imperfectly
understood. From the days of these early rep-
resentatives of the bards we have nothing fur-
ther till the middle of the loth century, when
the reputation of the order was increased under
the auspices of Howel Dha. A code of laws
was framed by that prince, to regulate their du-
ties and fix their privileges. They were distrib-
uted into three classes, with a fixed allowance ;
degrees of rank were established, and regular
prize contests, known as eisteddfods, were insti-
tuted. Their order was frequently honored by
the admission of princes, among whom was
Llewellyn, last king of Wales. The Britons,
kept in awe as they were by the Romans, subse-
quently harassed by the English, and eternally
jealous of the attacks, the encroachment, and the
neighborhood of aliens, were, on this account, at-
tached to their Celtic manners. This situation
and these circumstances inspired them with a
proud and obstinate determination to maintain a
national distinction, and preserve their ancient
usages, among which the bardic profession is so
eminent. Sensible of the influence of their tra-
ditional poetry in keeping alive the ideas of
military valor and of ancient glory among the
people, Edward I. is said to have collected all
the Welsh bards, and caused them to be hanged
lay martial law as stirrers up of sedition. On
this incident is founded Gray's well-known ode
*The Bard.^ We, however, find them existing
at a inuch later period, but confining themselves
to the humble task of compiling private genealo-
gies. But little is known of the music and inea-
sures of the bards ; their prosody depended much
on alliteration; their instruments were the harp,
the pipe, and the crwth. Attempts have been
made in Wales for the revival of oardisra, and
the Cambrian Society was formed in 1818, for
the preservation of the remains of this ancient
literature, and for the encouragement of the
national muse. The bardic institution of the
Irish bears a strong affinity to that of the Welsh.
The genealogical sonnets of the Irish bards
are still the chief foundations of the ancient his-
tory of Ireland. Their songs are strongly
marked with the traces of Skaldic imagination,
which still appears among the *^*tale-tellers,^' a
sort of poetical historians, supposed to be the
descendants of the bards. There was, also,

evidently a connection of the Welsh with Ar-
morica. Hence, in the early French romances,
we often find the scene laid in Wales ; and,
on the other hand, many fictions have passed
from the Troubadours into the tales of the
Welsh. In the Highlands of Scotland there are
considerable remains of compositions supposed
to be those of their old bards still preserved.
Of these, the poems of Ossian, said to be col-
lected and translated by MacPherson, were the
most celebrated, but the best authorities have
decided that they are spurious.

Bardeir, Mrs., the obliging landlady of
Mr. Pickwick in Dickens' *^ Pickwick Papers,'
and the heroine of the famous ^Bardell vs. Pick-
wick^ case.

Bardesanes, bar-de-sa'nez, Syrian poet and
theologian, who lived in the latter half of the
2d century, in Edessa, and is memorable for
the peculiarity of his doctrines. He considered
the evil in the world only an accidental reaction
of matter, and all life as the offspring of male
and female yEons. From God, the inscrutable
Principle of all substances, and from the con-
sort of this first Principle, proceeded Christ, the
Son of the Living, and a female Holy Ghost ;
from these, the spirits or created powers of the
four elements ; thus forming the holy eight, or
the godlike fulness, whose visible copies he found
in the sun, moon, and stars, and therefore at-
tributed to these all the changes of nature and
of human destiny. The female Holy Ghost,
impregnated by the Son of the Living, was,
according to him, the Creator of the world.
The human soul, originally of the nature of the
.-Eons, was confined in the material body only
as a punishment to its fall, but not subjected
to the dominion of the stars. He considered
Jesus, the ^on destined for the salvation of
souls, only a feigned man, and his death only
a feigned death, but his doctrine the sure means
to fill the souls of men with ardent desires for
their celestial home, and to lead them back to
God, to whom they go immediately after death,
and without a resurrection of the earthly body.
Bardesanes propagated this doctrine in Syrian
hymns, and is the first writer of hymns in this
language. The Bardesanists did not formally
separate themselves from the orthodox Christian
Church, and they maintained themselves until
the 5th century. A fragment of the work of
Bardesanes upon destiny is preserved in the
Greek language, by Eusebius, ^Prsepar. Evangel,
lib. vi. cap. 103.-* He led an irreproachable life.

Bardili, Christoph Gottfried, German
metaphysician: b. Blaubeuren, Wiirtemberg, 28
May 1761 ; d. Stuttgart, 5 June 1808. He was
distinguished as a critic and opponent of Kant,
and philosophically a forerunner of Schelling
and Hegel through his exposition and defense of
the reality of pure abstract thought as a ground
of concrete thinking and being.

Bar'dolph, Shakespearean character. He
is one of the dissolute comrades of Falstaff and
appears in the plays ^Henry IV.^ parts I. and
II; ^Henry V.'; and <Merry Wives of Wind-
sor.'

Bardowick, bar'do-vek, a town In Han-
over, once the commercial centre of northern
Germany, but now an insignificant village, fa-
mous for the ruins of a one time magnificent
cathedral, dating from before the destructioi;
of the town in 1189. Pop. (1900) 2002.

BARDSLEY — BARFLEUR

Bardsley, Charles Wareing, English cler-
gyman and author : b. Keighley, Yorkshire, 1834.
He was graduated at Oxford in 1868, and or-
dained deacon in 1870. His publications include
'English Surnames, their Sources and Significa-
tions^ (1875) ; *^John Leeley's Troubles' (1876)
* Memorials of St. Anne's. jManchester' (1876)
^Curiosities of Puritan Nomenclature' (1880) ,
^Her Grandfather's Bible, a Tale of Furner's
Fells' (1886), etc.

Bardwan, burd-wiin', a division of Bengal,
upon the Hugh. Area, 13,850 square miles; pop.
(1901) 2,245,000. Apart from its products, rice,
grain, hemp, cotton, indigo, etc., it has a noted
coal field of about 500 square miles in area,
with an annual output of about 500,000 tons.
The capital of the same name has a population
of 34,080.

Bare'bone, or Barbon, Praise-God, the

name of a leather seller in Fleet Street in London,
well known in his day as a prominent preacher
among the Baptists: b. about 1596; d. 1679. He
made himself notorious as an enemy of the
monarchy, and in 1660, on Monk's arrival in
London, Barebone, at the head of a numerous
mob, presented a petition to Parliament against
the restoration of the Stuarts. In 1661 he was
committed to the Tower, and remained for some
time in confinement.

Barebones Parliament, a derisive term ap-
plied to the ^'Little Parliament" summoned by
Oliver Cromwell, 4 July 1653. It consisted of
140 persons, '4'aithful, fearing God, and hating
covetousness," but mostly of very destructive
social principles. These began by abolishing the
court of chancery, and were proceeding to abol-
ish tithes, to the alarm of the more moderate
members, and of Cromwell himself, who dis-
solved the Parliament on 12 December of the
same year. See Gardiner, 'History of the Com-
monwealth and Protectorate' Vol. II. (1897).

Barefooted Friars. See Friars.

Barege ba-razh, a light, open tissue of
silk and worsted or cotton and worsted for
women's dresses, originally manufactured near
Bareges, France, and in that country known as
crepe de barege The fabric is now chiefly
manufactured at Bagneres de Bigorre.

Bareges (ancient Valletria), a watering
place in the south of France, department of the
Hautes-Pyrenees, 22 miles south from Tarbes,
and celebrated for its thermal springs. It is
situated in a valley between two perpendicular
chains of mountains, along with numerous oth-
er villages. From June to September it is
crowded with patients, and the bath establish-
ment is a spacious marble building. A military
hospital and an ecclesiastical charity hospital
are also prominent local institutions.

Bareilly, ba-ra'le, a town of Hindustan in
the northwest provinces, capital of a district of
the same name, 131 miles east-southeast from
Delhi. It has a pleasant and elevated site, and
contains one well-built street, an old and a new
fort, and cantonments in the environs. The
principal manufactures are ornamental furni-
ture, sword-cutlery, gold and silver lace, and
perfumery. On the outbreak of the Indian muti-
ny the native garrison mutinied and took pos-
session of the place. It was retaken by Lord
Clyde in May, 1858. Pop. (1901) 117,400.

Barentz, "William, Dutch navigator: b.
about 1560, who discovered Nova Zembla in
1594- While on a third expedition to the same
region, in 1596, he discovered Spitzbergen, but
had to spend the winter of 1596-7 in Nova
Zembla. He and his companions suffered great
hardships which led to his death on the home-
ward journey. Relics of his expedition were
discovered undisturbed in 1871.

Barere de Vieuzac, ba-rar-de-vye-zak,
Bertrand, French revolutionist and agi-
tator: b. Tarbes, 10 Sept. 1755; d. 14 Jan. 1841.
An advocate of Toulouse, he acted as a deputy
in the National Assembly, and was sent by the
department of the Hautes-Pyrenees to the Na-
tional Convention in 1792. He soon became
active as a journalist, and attached himself to
the Mountain, supporting it with eloquence of
such a flowery and poetical style as afterward
earned him the name of the ''Anacreon of the
g;uillotine." He was president of the conven-
tion when the sentence was passed upon Louis
XVI. He rejected the appeal to the people, and
gave his vote with these words: ''The law is for
death, and I am here only as the organ of the
law." Though a supporter of Robespierre, he
concurred in his downfall, yet this did not save
him from being impeached and sentenced to
transportation. His sentence was not carried
into effect, and he shared in the general am-
nesty of the i8th Brumaire. Elected a deputy
during the Hundred Days, he was banished af-
ter the second restoration. He went to Brus-
sels, where he devoted himself to literary work
till the revolution of July permitted his re-
turn.

Baretti, ba-ret'te, Giuseppe Marc' Antonio,

Italian writer: b. Turin 25 April 1716; d. 5 May
1789. In 1753 he published a 'Defence of
the Poetry of Italy against the Censures of M.
Voltaire.' About this time he was introduced
to Johnson, then engaged in the compilation of
his 'Dictionary,' of which Baretti availed him-
self to compile an Italian and English diction-
ary in 1760, much more complete than any
which had hitherto appeared. In this year he
revisited his native country, and published at
Venice a critical journal, the ^Frusta Literaria,'
which w^as soon suppressed. He therefore re-
turned to England, and in 1768 published an
'Account of the Manners and Customs of
Italy.' While defending himself in a street
brawl he mortally wounded one of his assail-
ants, and was tried for murder at the Old Bailey,
but acquitted. On this occasion Johnson,
Burke, Goldsmith, Garrick, Reynolds, and Beau-
clerk gave testimony to his good character. In
1770 he published his 'Journey from London to
Genoa through England, Portugal, Spain, and
France,' and continued to publish introductory
works for students in the Italian and other
modern languages, and superintended an edition
of Machiavelli's works. His 'Opere Scritte in
Lingua Italiana' appeared at Milan in 6 volumes
in 1813-18. Baron Pietri Custodi published his
'Scritti Scelti, Inediti, o Rari' (1822).

Barfleur, bar-fler, a seaport of France, in
the department of La Manche, about 15 miles
east of Cherbourg. It was at one time the best
port on the coast of Normandy, but in the year
1346 was taken and pillaged by Edward III.,
king of England, and the harbor destroyed.

BARGE — BARING

William the Conqueror fitted out at Barfleur
the expedition which effected the conquest of
England. Pop. (1897) 1,189.

Barge, a term commonly applied to flat-
bottomed boats such as are used on rivers and
canals, the name including various craft, many
of them carrj^ing sails and being rigged in sev-
eral ways. Formerly the name was given to a
boat of state or pleasure used chiefly for orna-
mental purposes, and to the boat of the com-
manding officer of a ship of war. In eastern
New England the name is also given to a kind
of open omnibus much used at railway sta-
tions and seaside resorts.

Bar'ham, Richard Harris, English humor-
ous writer: b. Canterbury, 6 Dec. 1788;
d. 17 June 1845. Having been ordained
a clergj'^man, he became in 1821 one of
the minor canons of St. Paul's Cathe-
dral. In 1824 he was appointed a priest
in ordinary of the chapel-royal, and was shortly
afterward presented to the rectory of the united
parishes of St. Mary Magdalene and St.-Greg-
ory-by-St. Paul, London. In 1837, on the start-
ing of Bentley's "^Miscellany,' under the editor-
ship of Charles Dickens, he laid the foundation
of his literary fame by the publication in that
periodical of the ^Ingoldsby Legends' — a series
of humorous tales in verse which achieved an
immense success, having in a collective form,
from 1840 onward, been published over and
over again in various editions, with many
^'legends" added to the original number.
Though a brilliant member of society, and rank-
ing with the most distinguished wits of the day,
including his intimate friends, Sydney Smith
and Theodore Hook, Mr. Barham never ne-
glected his more serious duties as a clergyman.
His life has been written by his son.

Bari, a negro people of Africa, dwelling on
both sides of the White Nile. Gondokoro is
their chief town. They practise agriculture
and cattle-raising. Their country was conquered
by Baker Pasha in 1871 for Egypt.

Bari, ba're (ancient Barium), an important
seaport of southern Italj^ in Apulia, capital of
the province Terra di Bari, and situated on a
promontory of the Adriatic, 69 miles north-
west of Brindisi. It was a place of some im-
portance under the Romans, passed from them
to the Saracens, and was afterward selected as
the seat of government by the Northmen who
conquered Apulia. It has been thrice destroyed
and rebuilt on the same site. The present to^vll,
surrounded by walls, and defended by a castle,
consists of a poorly-built old town with a bet-
ter part of more recent date. It is the see of
an archbishop, and possesses a cathedral with
a tower 260 feet high, dating from the early
half of the nth century, but largely spoiled by
recent alterations. The church of San Nicola
dates from 1087; and there is also a roj'^al ly-
ceum. Bari manufactures cotton and linen
goods, organs, pianos, hats, soap, glass, and
liquors, and has a trade in wine, grain, almonds,
oil, etc. It has regular steamboat communica-
tion with Venice, Ancona, Trieste, Brindisi,
Genoa, and Marseilles. A United States consul
is stationed here. Pop. (1901) 77,478.

Bariatinski, bar-ya-ten'ske, Alexander
Ivanovich, Prince, Russian field-marshal: b.
1814; d. Geneva. 9 March 1879. He was edu-
cated with the future czar, Alexander II., and

while a young officer in the hussars was trans-
ferred to the Caucasus, where his successes
against the famous Shamyl secured him, in
1852, the rank of lieutenant-general. On the
accession of Alexander II. he returned to St.
Petersburg, and in 1856 was appointed to the
command of the army of the Caucasus. Three
successful campaigns were closed by the storm-
ing of Ghunib, and the capture of Shamyl. For
these services he was made a field-marshal. His
health, however, had broken down, and the re-
mainder of his life was passed chiefly abroad.

Barili, ba-re'le, Philippines, a town in the
province of Cebu, 52 miles from Cebu, its capi-
tal. Pop. (1898) 20,914.

Barilla (Spanish, ^^mpure soda"), the com-
mercial name of a crude variety of soda ob-
tained by burning certain fleshy plants that
grow near the ocean and in other salty places.
The Salsola soda was largely used for this pur-
pose, and was cultivated in Spain, Sicily, Sar-
dinia, and other places on account of the con-
siderable yield of barilla that it furnished. The
plants were cut in September, dried for about
a month, and then burned on an iron grating,
beneath which was a pit into which the fused
ashes fell. The burning was continued until a
ton or two of the ash had accumulated in the
pit, after which the product was allowed to cool,
and was then broken up and shipped to market.
Barilla contains about 20 per cent of soda, the
remainder consisting chiefly of chlorides and
sulphates of sodium, calcium, and aluminum. It
was formerly much used in the manufacture of
soap, but has now been almost entirely replaced
by purer grades of soda, obtained by chemical
means from common salt. See Kelp.

Bar'ing, the family name of one of the
most influential financial establishments in the
world, the well-known house of Baring Broth-
ers & Company. John Baring, the father of the
founders, was a German cloth maker who en-
gaged in business in a small way at Larkbear,
Devonshire, England, in the earlier half of the
i8th century. His sons, Francis and John,
established the firm of Baring Brothers in Lon-
don, in 1770. Since 1890 the house has been
reorganized as a limited banking company.

Baring, Alexander. See Ashburton, Alex-
ander Baring, Lord.

Baring, Sir Evelyn (Viscount Cromer), an
English colonial civil servant : b. Norfolk, Eng.,
26 Feb. 1841. He served in the Royal Artillery,
became secretary- to his cousin, the Earl of
Northbrook, one of the controllers-general of
Egyptian finance (1879), finance minister of In-
dia (1880), and agent and consul-general in
Egypt from 1883 till April 1907. He was created
a peer in 1892. viscount in 1899, and is author
of < Staff College Essays' ; ^The War Game.'

Baring, Sir Francis, English oanker: b.
Larkbear, England, 1740; d. 1810. He obtained
a commercial training, founded a large and suc-
cessful business, became a director of the East
India Company, and was created a baronet in
1793. He took an active part in the discussions
relative to the bank restriction act of 1797, and
at the time of his death was reckoned the first
merchant in Europe.

Baring, Sir Francis Thornhill, English
banker, son of Sir Thomas: b. 1796; d. 1866,
Under successive Whig governments, he was a

BARING — BARIUM

lord of the treasury, secretary to the treasury,
chancellor of the exchequer, and first lord of
the admiralty. He was created Baron North-
brook in 1866.

Baring, Sir Thomas, English banker: b.
1772 ; d. April 1848. He was the eldest son of Sir
Francis, whom he succeeded in the baronetcy.
He was chiefly remarkable as an admirer and
encourager of art. His magnificent collection of
paintings was dispersed by public sale after his
death. His fourth son, Charles Thomas
(1807-79), was bishop of Durham.

Baring, Thomas, English banker and poli-
tician, brother of the first Lord ilorthbrook : b.
1799; d. 1873. He devoted himself early to com-
mercial pursuits, and also to politics, in which
he was a Conservative, thus taking the opposite
side to his brother. He entered Parliament in
1835. representing the borough of Huntingdon
from 1844 till his death.

Baring, Thomas George, second Earl of
Northbrook: b. 1826; d. London, Eng., 115
Nov. 1904. He was successively a lord
of the admiralty, under secretary of state for
India, under secretary of war, governor-gen-
eral of India (1872-6), and first lord of the
admiralty (1880-5), and was cieated an earl in
1876. He has published 'The Teachings of
Christ in His Own Words. ^

Baring-Gould, Sabine, English clergyman
and novelist: b. Exeter, 28 Jan. 1834; d. Port
Elizabeth, South Africa, 4 June 1906. He grad-
uated from Cambridge in 1856, and since 1881
has been rector of Lew-Trenchard in Devon.
Among his numerous works are: 'Iceland: Its
Scenes and Sagas^ (1864) ; 'The Book of
Werewolves^ (1865) ; 'Curious Myths of the
Middle Ages^ (1866-7) ; ^ Lives of the Saints^
(1872-9); 'Yorkshire Oddities^ (1874); 'Ger-
many, Past and Present^ (1879). Prominent
among his novels and other later books are:
'Mehalah: a Story of the Salt Marshes^
(1880); 'John Herring^ (1883); 'Red Spider>
(1887); 'Grettis the Outlaw> (1890) ; 'The
Broom Squire^ (1896) ; 'Guavas the Tinner^
(1897); 'Bladys (1897); 'Domitia> C1898) ;
'Pabo the Priest^ (1899); 'A Book of the
West> (1899) ; 'Furze-Bloom' (1899) ; 'The
Crock of Gold' (1899); 'Winefred' (1900);
'A Book of Dartmoor' (1900) ; 'In a Quiet
Village' (1900) : 'Virgin Saints and Martyrs'
(1900) ; 'The Frobishers' ; 'A Book of Brit-
tany' (1901) ; 'Royal Georgie' (1901) ; 'Miss
Quillet'; 'Nebo the Nailer' (1902).

Baring Island, an island in the Arctic
Archipelago. The name is also given to a bay
and strait. They were named for Sir Francis
Baring, who was first lord of the admiralty at
the time of their discovery.

Baringo, a lake in East Africa, northeast
of the Victoria Nyanza, about 20 miles long.
200 square miles in area, and between 3.000 and
4.000 feet above sea-level. Though fed by many
streams, it has no visible outlet. It contains
several small islands and was discovered by
Thomson in 1883.

Barite, ba'rit (Greek, "heavy," in allusion
to its high specific gravity), a mineral having
the formula BaSO^, and crystallizing in the
orthorhombic system, but also occurring mass-
ive, and in granular, earthy, and stalactitic
forms. It is usually white or nearly so, and has

a hardness of from 2.5 to 3.5. Its specific
gravity ranges from 4.3 to 4.6, and from this
circumstance the mineral is often called "heavy-
spar." Barite was first examined (in 1602)
by Casciorolus, a shoemaker of Bologna, who
discovered that it becomes phosphorescent when
heated with combustible matter, and gave it the
name lapis solis, or "sun stone." Barite occurs
in many parts of the world, and in large quan-
tities. In the United States it is found abun-
dantly in many States, notably in Virginia,
North Carolina, and Missouri, and in the Lake
Superior region. It constitutes an important
source of barium compounds, and was mined m
the United States to the extent of about 61,000
tons in 1902. See also B.\rium.

Baritone, or Barytone, a male voice, whose
compass partakes of those of the common bass
and the tenor, but does not extend so far down-
ward as the one nor to an equal height with
the other. Its best tones are from the lower A
of the bass clef to the lower E or F in the
treble; yet we find Verdi and Meyerbeer exact-
ing G and even A flat from it. This name is
also given to the smaller bass saxhorn in B flat
or C, used in reed and brass bands.

Ba'rium, a metallic element, strongly re-
sembling calcium in its chemical properties.
The mineral barite (q.v.) was the first com-
pound of barium to be examined. In 1750
Marggraf showed that barite contains sulphu-
ric acid, and the subsequent labors of Scheele
and Gahn proved that it also contains a pre-
viously unrecognized earth, which Bergmann
called terra ponderosiim, or "heavy earth." In
1779 Guyton de Morveau proposed the name
"barote" (Greek, "heavy") for this earth, and
Lavoisier modified the word to "baryta," in
which form it still survives. Subsequently ba-
rj'ta was found to be the oxid of a new metal,
which was isolated by electrolysis in 1808 by
Berzelius and Pontin, and afterward by Davy,
and named "barium." The properties of metal-
lic barium are not yet satisfactorily ascertained,
for it is probable that the metal has never been
obtained in a state of even approximate purity.
Thus, Davy says it is a silver white metal;
Clarke ascribes to it the color and lustre of
iron ; Bunsen and Matthiessen describe it as
golden yellow ; and Donath states that its true
color is that of bronze. It oxidizes rapidly in
the air, and decomposes water readily. It is
ductile and somewhat malleable. Its atomic
weight is 137.4 (0^16), and its chemical sym-
bol is Ba. It melts at about the same tempera-
ture as cast iron, and its specific gravity ap-
pears to be between 3.75 and 4.00. The most
common sources of barium compounds are the
carbonate and sulphate, which occur native as
Witherite and Barite (qq.v.), respectively.
The nitrate is prepared by acting upon the
native carbonate with nitric acid. It is a solu-
ble salt, with the formula Ba(N03):. The
nitrate decomposes upon being strongly heated,
the nitric acid being expelled, while barium
monoxid (or baryta), BaO, is left behind as a
gray, porous mass, strongly caustic and alka-
line. When gently heated in air, barium mo-
noxid takes up another molecule of oxygen and
forms the dioxid. BaO:; and on being more
strongly heated, the dioxid gives up the extra
atom of oxygen again, and returns to the mo-
noxid. It was long ago proposed to make use of

BARK — BARK-BEETLES

this curious property for isolating pure oxygen
from the air, by alternately heating the dioxid
at a high temperature, and collecting the oxygen
given off as it returns to the monoxid, and then
submitting it, at a lower temperature, to the
action of a current of air until it has again
passed into the state of dioxid. It was found,
however, that the process would work only for
a short 'time, after which a fresh supply of
baryta was required. Recent investigations
have gone far toward discovering the cause
of this loss of activity, and it is now likely
that oxygen will soon be made on a commercial
scale by this most ingenious process. Baryta
absorbs water with considerable evolution of
heat and the formation of a hydrate, Ba(0H)2,
which crystallizes with eight molecules of water.
Barium hydrate is also made, in large quanti-
ties and at a low price, at Niagara Falls, by the
electrolysis of soluble salts of barium. The
hydrate is used in refining sugar, being much
superior to lime for this purpose. With cane
sugar it forms an insoluble compound from
which the sugar may afterward be set free by
a current of carbon dioxid gas. The hydrate
is also likely to be of great use, in the near
future, for preventing the formation of boiler
scale, by precipitating the carbonates and sul-
phates in the feed water, in the form of in-
soluble barium compounds. The value of ba-
rium hydrate for this purpose has long been
known, but until the development of the elec-
trolytic method of manufacturing it, the ex-
pense involved was prohibitive. Barium sul-
phate (barite) is thrown down as a precipitate
whenever a soluble barium compound is added
to a solution of any sulphate ; and for this
reason soluble barium salts are much used by
the chemist in testing for sulphuric acid and
sulphates. The chloride (BaCl^) is the salt
most commonly employed as a reagent for this
purpose. Barium sulphate is one of the most
insoluble salts known. The native sulphate,
when ground up, is used to adulterate white
lead. The artificial sulphate is also used for
this purpose, and is itself used as a paint, under
the name of "permanent white,^' or blanc fixe.
The artificial sulphate is said to be superior to
the natural mineral for use as a paint, as it
has more "body.^^ When barium sulphate is
heated with coal it loses its oxygen, and be-
comes reduced to the sulphid, BaS, a salt which
is highly phosphorescent, and is known as
Bologna phosphorus. After exposure to sun-
light or to a strong artificial light, barium sul-
phid shines for hours with a bright, orange
color. Barium is readily recognized by the
spectroscope, by a number of characteristic
green lines. Its volatile salts communicate a
green color to non-luminous flames, and are
used (especially the nitrate) in pyrotechny.

In poisoning by the barium salts the symp-
toms resemble those seen in poisoning by other
metals. In the acute forms there is pain and
burning in the mouth and stomach, nausea,
vomiting, and chills. These are followed by
diarrhoea, dizziness, and chilly feelings. The
pulse is slowed, at first large and full, later
small and scarcely recognizable. Muscle paral-
ysis supervenes with dyspnoea, loss of conscious-
ness, convulsions, and death. In the treatment
prompt washing of the stomach with a solution
of Glauber's salts is advisable. This forms an
insoluble barium sulphate.

Bark, the more or less easily separable

layers of tissue surrounding the woody cylinder
of trees and shrubs, also, by extension, the
analogous part (cortex) of textile plants such
as hemp, jute, ramie, flax, etc., and other annual
stems. The layers are divided into three groups
which may be readily seen in a yearling stem ;
(i) The phloem, bast, the inner food-conducting
tissue annually thickened from the cambium
(q.v.) layer which separates it from the wood;
(2) the green zone which generally does not
increase in thickness but which in young twigs
assists in food elaboration (see Photosyn-
thesis) ; (3) the epidermis or external layer
with contiguous cork cells which increase from
the phellogen, or cork cambium, a layer of
epidermal or cortical cells. These cork cells
which develop mainly at right angles to the
direction of the stem, die and become more or
less weather-beaten and seamed from cracking
and give the characteristic appearance to tree
trunks. Many trees can be identified by their
bark alone.

The bark of many trees and shrubs is of
economic use mainly in tanning, dyeing, medi-
cine, and cookery. In tanning (q.v.) such
barks as are rich in tannic acid are most in
demand; oak, hemlock, and chestnut (qq.v.)
are general favorites in America and Europe ;
eucalyptus and acacia in Australia. Larch and
willow bark are used for special work. To
obtain these barks the trees are felled after the
sap has started to flow in the spring, the rough
exterior laj^ers removed, the bark of the trunk
and main limbs peeled off in lengths of about
two feet with specially made tools ; the bark
of the smaller branches, in equal lengths, is
loosened with mallets and slipped off^. After
removal the bark is loosely piled in open sheds
to dr}'- or stacked on end in the open air,
the larger pieces being placed on the outside to
protect the smaller inner ones from rain and
sun, which together with mildew are the im-
portant agencies that may injure the quality
of the product. The barks used in medicine,
cookery, etc., are treated under individual titles.
See Cascarilla, Cinchona, and Cinnamon ;
also Cork.

Bark, or Barque, a three-masted vessel
whose foremast and mainmast are square-
rigged, but whose mizzenmast has fore-and-aft
sails only. The distinction between a bark and
a barkentine is that the latter has but one
mast square-rigged, the main and mizzen being
both rigged fore-and-aft.

Bark-beetles, members of the family
Scolytidcc, and allied to the weevils. They are
of an elongate C3'^lindrical form, truncated be-
fore and behind. They mine under the bark of
trees, running their winding galleries in every
direction, but rarely attack living healthy trees.
They are usually brown or black in color. The
rounded head does not end in a snout and is
deeply sunken in the thorax ; the clavate anten-
nae are somewhat elbowed, while the palpi are
very short ; the elytra are often hollowed at
the end, and the short stout legs are toothed on
the under side of the femora, and the tarsi are
slender and narrow. The eggs are laid in the
bark, whence the larvae on being hatched bore
straight into the sap wood, or mine between the
bark and the sap wood. They are fleshy, cylin-
drical, footless larvae, wrinkled on the back.

BARK-LOUSE — BARKER

When fully grown in the autumn they gnaw an
exit for the beetle, taking care to leave a little
space closed in front of their burrow to con-
ceal the pupa. The various species of Scolytus,
Tomicus, and Xyloterus give rise to a disease
similar to fireblight, by their ravages beneath the
twigs of fruit trees, causing the bark to shrivel
and peal off as if a fire had run through the
orchard. Xyloterus ftiscatus has been found to
bore into empty wine casks and spoil them for
use. The spruce forests of Maine and other
parts of northern New England have, since 1818,
been devastated by Dcndrocotoniis piccaperda
of Hopkins. It attacks and kills vigorous trees
in perfect health, the largest and best stands of
limber suffering most from its ravages. The
estimated number of adults which under favor-
able conditions may emerge from an average-
sized tree is from 5,000 to 7,000. Hopkins esti-
mates that an average of three pairs of beetles
to the square foot of bark on 10 to 15 feet of
the trunk of an average-sized tree are sufficient
to kill it, and that 6,000 beetles breeding in one
tree may be sufficient to kill from 20 to 25 more
trees. Two other beetles (Polygraphiis sufipcn-
nis and Tcfropium ciniiauioptcnim) also aid the
Deudrocotonus in killing the spruce. Consult :
Packard, 'Report on the Insects Injurious to
Forest and Shade Trees^ (1890) ; Hopkins,
* Insect Enemies of the Spruce in the North-
east^ (Bull. No. 28, Division of Entomology,
U. S. Dept. Agriculture, 1891).

Bark-louse, a hemipterous insect of the
scale family (Coccidce). The bark-lice are very
small insects, whose females are wingless, their
bodies resembling scales. The females sting
the bark of trees with a long slender beak,
sucking in the sap, and, when very numerous,
injure or kill the tree. The males have two
wings but no beak, and take no food. The
apple bark-louse (Mytilaspis pomonim) is de-
structive to young apple-trees, while in Florida
M. gloi'cri is a pest of the orange, as is also
the San Jose scale-insect (q.v.). The cochineal,
the mealy-bug of hot-houses, and various other
coccid insects, belong to this group. See Scale-
insects, and the names of various species.

Bark, Peruvian. A bark obtained from
several trees belonging to the genus Cinchona,
which grow spontaneously in many parts of
South America, but more particularly of Peru.
The trees somewhat resemble a cherry-tree in
appearance, and have white or pink flowers.
This valuable medicine was formerly called
Jesuit's Bark, from having been introduced
into Europe by the members of that Order
settled in South America. They were instruct-
ed in its use by the natives of Peru, and it con-
tinued for many years a source of profit to the
Order. Its bontanical name was derived from
that of the Countess del Chinchon, the lady of
a Spanish viceroy, who had been cured by it.
The tree from which it is obtained grows abun-
dantly in the forests of Quito and Peru, and
the bark is cut by the natives in the months
of September, October, and November, during
which alone the weather is free from rain.
The bark is of three kinds — red, yellow, and
pale, of which the yellow and pale barks are
the stronger in their febrifuge properties. The
crown-bark, as the highest-priced is termed, is
of a pale yellowish-red. The pale is the original
Peruvi"^n cinchona, and is produced by several

varieties of the Cinchona oMcimlis. The red is
obtained from the C. sticcirubra, which grows
chiefly in the forests of Ecuador around Chim-
borazo. The yellow sort is produced by the
C calisaya, and grows in Bolivia and Peru.

The uses of the bark in medicine are too
well known to need description; but the chem-
ical discoveries in relation to it are deserving
of more particular mention. Its medicinal prop-
erties were found to depend upon the presence
of a substance called quinine. This exists,
more or less, in all kinds of Peruvian bark, but
in quantities very unequal in the various kinds.
See QuixiNE.

Barkal, or Jcbel Barkal, an isolated sand-
stone rock, 400 feet high, in Nubia, near the
Fourth Cataract of the Nile. It is nearly per-
pendicular on all sides, but fully so on the
side nearest the Nile. There are some remark-
able ruins in the vicinity. Excavations here
have revealed inscriptions and archaeological
remains of great interest and value, an account
of which may be found in Lepsius's 'Denk-
miiler,^ Vol. V.

Bark'entine. See Bark or Barque.

Barker, Albert Smith, American naval offi-
cer : b. Massachusetts, March 1843. He was
graduated at the United States Naval Academy
in 1859; served on the frigate Mississippi in
the operations to open the Mississippi River
in 1861-3, taking part in the bombardment and
passage of forts Jackson and St. Philip and
the Chalmette batteries, the capture of New
Orleans, and the attempted passage of Port
Hudson, where his vessel was destroyed. He
became captain 5 May 1892; commanded the
cruiser Newark during the war with Spain ;
subsequently succeeded to the command of the
battleship Oregon, which he took to Manila;
became a rear-admiral, and was placed in com-
mand of the Norfolk Navy Yard in 1899; and
in July 1900 succeeded the late Rear-Admiral
Philip as commandant of the Brooklyn Navy
Yard.

Barker, Edmund Henry, English philolo-
gist: b. Hollym, Yorkshire, December 1788;
d. London, 21 March 1839. He undertook the
labor of reprinting the 'Thesaurus Grsecus-" of
H. Stephens, upon which was expended an im-
mense amount of time and money, but owing tc
severe adverse criticisms, the work did not
appear in the form which was originally in-
tended, or under his name. His first work,
'Classical Recreations,' appeared in London,
1812; one volume only was published. He also
wrote several dissertations, essays, etc., for re-
views ; a work upon the claims of Sir Philip
Francis to the authorship of the Junius letters ;
a Greek and English dictionar3% etc. In the
latter part of his life he became so reduced that
he was at one time confined in a debtors'
prison, and finally died in an obscure lodging-
house in extreme want.

Barker, Fordyce, American physician: b.
Wilton, Franklin County, Me., 2 May 1819; d. 3a
May 1891. He entered upon the practice of his
profession in Norwich, Conn., in 1845, and
made a specialty of obstetrics and diseases of
women. After serving as professor of mid-
wifery at Bowdoin, he removed to New York
in 1850. He was an incorporator of the
New York Medical College and obstetricaT

BARKER — B ARLAAM

surgeon to Bellevue Hospital, besides acting as
consulting physician in leading hospitals. He
wrote VPuerperal Diseases* (1872); and <0n

Seasickness.'

Barker, George Frederick, American
physicist: b. Charlestown, Mass., 14 July 1835.
He was graduated from Sheffield Scientific
School, 1858, and Albany Medical College, 1863,
and from 1859 to 1872 taught at Harvard, Yale,
Wheaton College (111.), and Western Univer-
sity of Pennsylvania. Since 1873 he has been
professor of physics in the University of Penn-
sj^lvania. He was a United States commis-
sioner at the International Electrical Exhibition
at Paris, 1881, where he received the Legion
of Honor decoration, with rank of commander.
He has frequently served as an expert in patent
and other cases, notably as a government expert
in the suit against the American Bell Telephone
Company, and in the Lydia Sherman poisoning
case in 1872. His publications have chiefly ap-
peared in the ^American Journal of Science,'
^American Chemist,' and "^Proceedings of the
American Philosophical Society.' Others are,
besides text-books on chemistry: ^Nitrous-Ox-
ide' (1866) ; *^ Correlation of Vital and Physical
Forces' (1871) ; ^Progress in Physics.' For
several years he contributed to the Smithsonian
reports.

Barker, Jacob, American financier: b.
Swan Island, Me., 7 Dec. 1779; d. Philadelphia,
26 Dec. 1871. He early developed remarkable
business ability, settled in New York, and
before he was 21 owned five trading vessels and
controlled a large credit. In 1801 he met with
heavy reverses, but obtaining a government con-
tract for supplying oil, made up his losses, and
at the outbreak of the War of 1812, undertook
the raising of a loan of $5,000,000 for the gov-
ernment. He was a founder of Tammany Hall,
and a State senator, and established a bank in
Wall Street in 1815 which failed in 1819. His
financial methods aroused intense opposition
and he was once indicted for fraud and con-
victed, but a new trial quashed the indictment.
Removing to New Orleans in 1834, he was ad-
mitted to the bar and accumulated a large for-
tune that was mostly lost during the Civil
War. During the latter part of his life he lived
in Philadelphia with his son, Wharton Barker.
See ^Incidents in the Life of Jacob Barker,
1800-1855^ (1855).

Barker, James Nelson, American author:
b. Philadelphia, 17 June 1784; d. Washington,
March 1858. He served wnth distinction in the
War of 1812, but subsequently entered civil life,
becoming mayor of his native city in 1820. He
was collector of customs at Philadelphia 1829-38
and during the ensuing 20 years was comptrol-
ler of the United States Treasury. His dra-
matic works, especially ^Marmion,' ^The In-
dian Princess,' and ^Smiles and Tears,' were
popular.

Barker, Lewellys Franklin, Canadian-
American anatomist: b. Norwich, Ont., 1867.
He was a professor of anatomy at Johns Hop-
kins University 1894-1900, and from 1900 has
been at the head of the department of anatomy
in the Rush Medical College of University of
Chicago. He is author of ^The Nervous Sys-
tem and Its Constituent Neurones' (1899).

Barker, Matthew Henry, English novelist:
b. Deptford, 1790; d. London, 29 June 1846.
He followed the sea, and under the name of
"The Old Sailor," wrote spirited sea tales,
very popular in their day. They include 'Land
and Sea Tales' (1836); 'Life of Nelson'
(1836); 'Topsailsheet Blocks' (1838; new ed.
1881); and 'The Victory, or the Wardroom
Mess' (1844).

Barker's Mill, a form of waterwheel de-
vised by Dr. Barker, some 300 years ago. It
turns about a vertical axis, down which the
water that is to operate it flows. At the
lower extremity of the vertical axis two or
more hollow arms project horizontally, like
the spokes of a wheel. Water is discharged
tangentially from the ends of these hollow
arms, and by its reaction causes the wheel to
rotate. Barker's mill is now used only as a
toy, although a modification of it, invented by
Whitelaw, is still used, to some extent, as a
source of power in Great Britain, where it is
known as the Scotch turbine. See Turbine.

Barking, England, a town in Essex, on
the left bank of the Roding, about two miles
above its junction with the Thames, and seven
miles northeast from London. The houses are
mostly of brick and generally well built. It
has a parish church, a handsome structure, with
a lofty tower, and some fine public buildings.
There are also the ruins of Barking Abbey, at
one time among the wealthiest nunneries of
England. There are several important indus-
trial works, the largest being a gas works em-
ploying many hands. Pop. (1901) 21,500. Con-
sult 'Barking Town' (1897).

Barking Wolf, a name in early American
books for the prairie wolf or coyote, on account
of the greater resemblance in its voice to the
barking of a dog than to the howl of the
wolf. See Coyote. •

Bar'kis, a rustic figure in Dickens' 'David
Copperfield.' He proposes to David's nurse,
Peggotty, in the since famous phrase "Barkis
is willin'."

Barks'dale, William, American statesman
and military officer: b. Rutherford County,
Tenn., 21 Aug. 1821 ; d. 2 July 1863. He was
admitted to the bar when under 21, and rapidly
achieved eminence in law and politics, editing
the Columbus Democrat, and serving in the
Mexican war. He entered Congress in 1853,
but resigned his seat when his State seceded,
and took command of a regiment of Mississippi
volunteers. He was made a Confederate brig-
adier-general after a campaign in Virginia, and
was killed at Gettysburg.

Barlaam, bar'la-am, Italian theologian:
b. Seminaria, Calabria ; d. about 1348. He was
a monk of St. Basil, noted for his learning, and
particularly for his thorough knowledge of
the Greek language. In 1327 he visited Con-
stantinople, and in 1331 he was appointed abbot
of the convent of St. Salvator. In 1339 the
kings of France and Sicily sent Barlaam in vain
to Pope Benedict XII. at Avignon, for the
purpose of obtaining assistance against the Mo-
hammedans, and of arranging a union between
the Greek and Latin Churches. Henceforth he
was engaged in various religious controversies,
and was defeated in them all. He finally en-

BARLAAM AND JOSAPHAT — BARLEY

tered the Roman Catholic Church, and through
the influence of his friend, Petrarch, received
from Pope Clement VI. the bishopric of Geraci.

Barlaam and Josaphat, one of the most
popular of early niediccval romances, supposed
to have been written by St. John of Damascus,
— or Damascenus, as he is sometimes called, —
a Syrian monk born about the end of the 7th
century. The name of Barlaam and Josaphat
appear in both the Greek and Roman lists of
saints. According to the narrative of Damas-
cenus, Josaphat was the son of a king of India
brought up in magnificent seclusion, to the end
that he might know nothing of human misery.
Despite his father's care, the knowledge of
sickness, poverty, and death cannot be hidden
from him; he is oppressed by the mystery of
existence. A Christian hermit, Barlaam, finds
his way to him at the risk of life, and succeeds
in converting him to Christianity. The prince
uses his influence to promote the new faith
among his people. When he has raised his
kingdom to high prosperity, he leaves it to
spend the remainder of his days as a holy
hermit. Professor Max Miiller traces a very
close connection between the legend of Bar-
laam and Josaphat, and the Indian legends of
the Buddha as related in the Sanskrit of the
Lalita Vistara. This connection was first
noticed, according to Prof. Miiller, by AI.
Laboulaye in the ^Journal des Debats' (July
1859). A year later, Dr. Felix Liebrecht made
an elaborate treatment of the subject. The
compilers of the ^Gesta Romanorum,^ Boccac-
cio, Gower, and Shakespeare have all drawn
materials from this romance.

Barlaeus, bar-le'us, or Baerle, Kaspar van,
Dutch historian and learned writer: b. Antwerp,
12 Feb. 1584; d. Amsterdam, 14 Jan. 1648.
His ^Poems,^ mostly Latin, are not forcible,
but his * History of Brazil under Maurice of
Nassau^ is decidedly so; and he composed also
numerous fine orations, the influence he ex-
ercised upon contemporary thought bemg very
considerable.

Barletta, bar-let'ta, Gabriello, Italian
monk : b. perhaps at Barletta, in the kingdom
of Naples, in the 15th century. He became
celebrated at Naples on account of his sermons,
in which he mixed sarcasm and the ludicrous
with the sacred ; quoting, now Virgil, now
Moses ; placing David at the side of Hercules ;
and commencing a sentence in Italian to con-
tinue it in Latin, and end it in Greek. Some-
times he forgot himself so far as to use ex-
pressions of which he had not considered the
signification, as when he asked by what signs
the Samaritan knew Jesus was a Jew. Very
serious authors, Niceron and others, have given
the response of the preacher ; but it cannot be
reproduced here. There is under his name a
collection of Latin sermons, which have gone
through more than 20 editions.

Barletta, Italy, a seaport town on the
west shore of the Adriatic, 23 miles northwest
of Bari. In the market-place is a colossal
bronze statue, about 18 feet high, supposed to
represent the Emperor Heraclius. A statue
of the statesman Massimo d' Azeglio, who died
in 1866, adorns another square. The cathedral
is a fine Byzantine edifice, the nave of which
is supported by antique granite columns. There
are several other churches, convents for both
Vol. 2 — 21.

sexes, an orphan institution, a colli^ge founded
by Ferdinand IV., and a theatre. The harbor
is formed by a mole running out from the
shore. It admits of small vessels only, but
good anchorage-ground is found in the road-
stead. Barletta has a considerable trade in
grain, wine, almonds, and the other productions
of the country, which are exported to the differ-
ent ports of the Adriatic. Pop. (1901) 42,022.

Barley (A. S. baccrlic, from here, barley -\-
leac, a leek, plant) ; genus Hordeum; our
fourth most important cereal. It belongs to
the natural order Graminea or grass family,
and is one of the oldest of the cultivated mem-
bers of this family. It was cultivated in ancient
Egypt (Exod. ix. 31), by the Greeks and Ro-
mans. Pliny regarded it as the most ancient
food of mankind. It has been found in the
lake dwellings of Switzerland in deposits be-
longing to the Stone Age. Ears of barley are
represented plaited in the hair of the goddess
Ceres, and are also shown on ancient coins.
One of the sacred books of the Chinese claims
that it was grown in China 2000 B.C. It grows
wild in western Asia, and some authorities re-
gard this as its original home. It is adapted to
both warm and cold climates, has a wider
range of distribution than any other cereal,
being grown all over the region embraced in the
temperate zones, from Alaska, Iceland, and
Norway in the north to Algeria, Egypt, India,
and other sub-tropical countries. The Nepaul
or Himalaya barley is very hardy, producing
good crops at an elevation of 14,000 feet above
the sea. In Chile and Switzerland it thrives at
5,000 feet, but on the plateaus of Peru it rarely
ripens.

This species is divided into several types,
of which the following are recognized: Two-
rowed barley, Hordeum distichon; four-rowed
barley, H. vulgare, the common barley, here or
bigg; six-rowed barley, H. hexasticlwn; naked
barley, H. distichon nudum, the flowering glume
and pale not adhering to the grain as in other
types; fan, spratt, or Battledore barley, H. zeo-
criton, two-rowed with wide-spreading awns;
this is valued in Germany and is sometimes
called German rice. These types are further
subdivided into varieties, the most popular for
malting belonging to the two-rowed type. The
best known is the Chevalier, which originated in
Suffolk, England, in 1819. This variety and
selections from it constitute the high-priced bar-
ley of California. In Europe the two-rowed
type predominates. In this country the six-
rowed is more common. The four-rowed vari-
eties were formerly used for malting; they are
hardy and productive but coarse, and are being
replaced by the two-rowed. In northern lati-
tudes well-drained and fertile medium or rather
light soils, particularly those of a calcareous
nature are best. Strong loams, hea\'y' clays,
and soils rich in humus, produce heavy crops,
but of inferior quality. In southern latitudes
medium to heavy loams are best. Climate and
season are of more importance than soil in de-
termining whether the barley will be a good
malting variety or not. A rather dry climate
suits well. The climate of eastern and south-
eastern England produces the best malting bar-
ley. It may be sown broadcast or drilled, but
the latter method is more satisfactory. Fall-
sown varieties are handled like fall-sown wheat,
but it is generally sown in the spring after

BARLEY BREAK — BARLOW

spring-wheat sowing is over. The amount sown
varies from two to three bushels per acre. It
germinates quickly, and late spring frosts may
injure it. Fertilizers when applied must be
evenly distributed or an uneven growth will
result. It ripens before spring wheat, and
should be fully ripe before it is cut. The color
and value of the grain is easily injured by damp
weather. From 30 to 40 bushels of grain and
1,500 to 2,200 pounds of straw is a good yield.
Sometimes this yield of grain is doubled. A
good malting variety must have quick, high,
and even germinating power ; the grains must
be plump, heavy, thin-husked, and uniform in
size ; of good bright color, not "steely*^ or
bleached, indicating immaturity when cut, nor
musty ; must contain a high percentage of starch,
mealy not flinty, showing that the starch can
be readily transformed during malting. Barley
IS sometimes attacked by rust and smut, but
less so than wheat. (See Rusts; Wheat.)
Wireworms are sometimes troublesome. The
production of barley in the United States is in-
creasing. In 1866, 7,916,342 bushels were grown
on 492,532 acres. In 1905, 136,651,020 bushels
en 5,095,528 acres. The four leading States in
1904 were Minnesota, 32,123,041 bushels; Cali-
fornia, 28,091,999 bushels; North Dakota. 17,518,-
074; Wisconsin, 14,941,290 bushels. The aver-
age yield for the 10 years 1895-1904 was 25.02
bushels per acre. The average farm value 40.48c
per bushel. In 1904 only Russia grew more
barley than the United States.

Feeding Value and Uses. — The average per-
centage composition of barley is, water, 10.9;
proteids, 12.4; nitrogen-free extract, chiefly
starch, 69.8; ether extract, 1.8; crude fibre, 2.7;
ash, 2.4. Digestion experiments with pigs
showed that 80 per cent of the dry matter, 81
per cent of the protein, 87 per cent of the nitro-
gen-free extract, and 57 per cent of the ether
extract were digestible. Barley is chiefly used
for malting, for the preparation of spirits, beer,
and malted foods. It is also employed in do-
mestic cookery as *pot or hulled barley^^ in
which only the husks are removed; "pearl bar-
ley^' is the grain deprived of husk and pellicle,
then ground to a round form and polished ;
"patent barley" is flour obtained by grinding
pearl barley. It is used in soups, for making
demulcent and emollient drinks for invalids and
other purposes. Barley bread is darker in color
and less nutritious than that from wheat flour;
it does not contain gluten, but is fairly rich in
other proteids.

Barley, or decoctions of it, are used to
modify cows' milk for feeding to infants. Bar-
ley meal and the by-products, barley bean, bar-
ley feed (from pearled barley) screenings, malt
combs, and brewers' grains are used as stock
feeds. Its use for horse feed in the United
States is confined to the Pacific coast. For
other stock its use is more general. It may be
fed alone or with other grain. Barley hay is
grown, the crop being cut before the grain is
mature. As a forage crop or pasture it may be
grown alone or with peas, vetches, or other
quick-growing legumes. Barley straw is usually
considered as not worth feeding, but may be
used as bedding. See Malt.

Barley Break, a game once common, and
often mentioned by old English writers. It
was played by six young people, three of either

sex, formed into couples, a young man and a
young woman in each, it being decided by lot
which individuals were to be paired together.
A piece of ground was then divided into three
spaces, of which the central one was profanely
termed hell. This was assigned to a couple as
their appropriate place. The couples who occu-
pied the other spaces then advanced as near as
they dared to the central one to tempt the
doomed pair, who, with one of their hands
locked in that of their partner, endeavored with
the other to grasp them and draw them into the
central space. If they succeeded, they were
then allowed themselves to emerge from it, the
couple caught taking their places. That the
game might not be too speedily finished, leave
was given to the couple in danger of being taken
to break hands and individually try to escape,
while no such liberty was accorded to those at-
tempting to seize them.

Barleycorn, John, a personification of the
spirit of barley, or malt liquor. It is commonly
used jocularly, and in humorous verse. Dr.
Murray's ^ Dictionary^ quotes a title in the Pepy-
sian Library, about 1620, "A pleasant new bal-
lad ... of the bloody murther of Sir John Bar-
leycorn.® Burns' ballad on John Barleycorn,
'There was Three Kings into the East,^ is well
known.

Barlow, Francis Channing, American mil-
itary officer: b. Brooklyn, N. Y., 9 Oct. 1834;
d. II Jan. 1896. He studied law in New York,
and practised there, but in 1861 enlisted as a
private in the 12th Regiment, New York State
National Guard, which was among the first
troops at the front. He was promoted lieuten-
ant after three months of service ; colonel dur-
ing the siege of Yorktown ; distinguished himself
in the battle of Fair Oaks, or Seven Pines, for
which he was promoted brigadier-general, and
fought in almost every subsequent battle of the
Army of the Potomac. He was severely wound-
ed at Chancellorsville and at Gettysburg, and
was mustered out of the service with the rank
of major-general of volunteers. In 1866-8 he
was secretary of State of New York; in 1871
became attorney-general ; and in 1873 resumed
law practice in New York.

Barlow, James William, Irish historian: b.
21 Oct. 1826. He was professor of modern
history in Trinity College, Dublin, from 1861,
and has published 'Lectures on Mediaeval Italy' ;
'The Normans in Italy' ; 'Eternal Punishment
or Eternal Death' ; 'The Ultimatum of Pessi-
mism.'

Barlow, Jane, popular Irish novelist: b.
Clontarf, Ireland, 17 Oct. i860. The literary
quality is a marked characteristic of all her
writing. Her published works include 'Bog-
land Studies,' verse (1892) ; 'Irish Idylls'
(1892) ; 'Kerrigan's Qualitv' (1893) >' ^The
End of Elfintown' (1894) ; 'The Battle of the
Frogs and Mice' (1894) ; 'Maureen's Fairing'
(1895); 'Strangers at LisconneP (1895);
'Mrs. Martin's Company' (1896) ; 'Creel of
Irish Stories' (1897) ; ^ From the East Unto the
West' (1898); 'From the Land of the Sham-
rock' (1900) ; 'Ghost-bereft and Other Stories'
(1902) ; 'The Founding of Fortunes' (1902).

Barlow, Joel, American poet and diploma-
tist : b. Redding, Conn., 24 March 1754 ; d. near
Cracow, Poland, 24 Dec. 1812. In 1774 he was
placed at Dartmouth College, New Hampshire

BARLOW — BARMOTE COURT

and after a short residence entered Yale Col-
lege, New Haven, where he displayed a talent
for versification, which gained him the friend-
ship of Dr. Dwight, then a tutor there. Bar-
low, more than once during the vacations of the
college, served as a volunteer in the army of
the Revolution. In 1778 he applied himself to
the study of the law, but soon after accepted
the position of chaplain in the army, which he
held till the close of the war (1783). During
this period his songs and addresses were said
to have animated and encouraged the soldiers;
at this time, too, he planned and partly com-
posed his 'Vision of Columbus.* He went to
Hartford, where he started a weekly newspaper,
continuing at same time the preparation of his
poem for the press. It was published in 1787,
and some months after in London. To pro-
mote the sale of his poem, and that of a new
edition of the Psalms adapted by him. Barlow
gave up the newspaper and became a bookseller.
In 1788 we find him in France as agent for a
number of speculators in land, called the Ohio
Company. The Revolution was then in pro-
gress, and Barlow went about lecturing and or-
ganizing societies in its favor. He went to
England in 1791, and was deputed in the follow-
ing year by the London Constitutional Society
to present an address to the French Convention.
In 1795 he was appointed American consul at
Algiers, a post he only held for two years.
Returning to Paris he made some successful
com.mercial speculations and acquired a consid-
erable fortune. He returned, after an absence of
17 years, to his native country (1805). In 1811
he was appointed minister-plenipotentiary to
France. In the following year, owing to the
fatigues and privations of a journey to Wilna
to hold a conference with Napoleon, he died
at an obscure village near Cracow. His princi-
pal poem, the 'Columbiad,'' has never been
popular ; it is defective in plan and execution,
overloaded with philosophical discussions and
political tirades; and disfigured by pedantic and
uncouth words of his own coinage. His prose
writings bear the stamp of an active and ener-
getic intellect, but want that ripeness of judg-
ment required by the complex nature of the
subjects he examines. See Todd, 'Life and
Letters of Joel Barlow^ (iS

Barlow, Peter, English physicist and
mathematician: b. Norwich, October 1776; d. i
March 1862. He was professor of mathematics
in the Royal Military Academy at Woolwich
for a period of 40 years. His greatest work is
the 'Mathematical and Philosophical Diction-
ary.' He was also the author of an elaborate
work on the 'Machinery and Manufactures of
Great Britain' (1837) ; of a treatise on the
'Force and Rapidity of Locomotives' (1838) ;
and of an 'Essay on Magnetic Attraction,' one
of the first works in which the phenomena of
magnetism were distinctly enunciated. He in-
vented the Barlow lens.

Barlow, William Henry, English engineer:
b. ID May 1812; d. 14 Nov. 1902. He was edu-
cated for the engineering profession, and among
his most notable achievements are the St. Pan-
eras terminal station in London and the Tay
Bridge, constructed 1880-7. In 1876 he visited
the United States as one of the judges of the
Centennial Commission. He published 'Illurn-
ination of Lighthouses' ; 'Diurnal Electric

Tides and Storms > ; 'The Resistance of Flexure
in Beams'; 'The Logograph.'

Barlowe, Arthur, English navigator: b.
about 1550; d. about 1620. In 1584 he was sent
with Philip Amidas to select a suitable loca-
tion for Raleigh's proposed American colony.
They explored the coast of North Carolina and
on their return to England Barlowe wrote an
enthusiastic description of the attractions of
the land they had visited.

Barlows Disease. See Scurvy.

Barm. See Yeast.

Bar'mecides, a celebrated Persian family,
whose virtues and splendor form a favorite sub-
ject for Mohammedan poets and historians.
Two eminent members were Khaledben-Barmek,
prime minister of Caliph Abul Abbas Al-Saffah,
and tutor of the celebrated Haroun al-Raschid,
and his son Yahya, grand vizier of Haroun.
The expression Barmecides' Feast, meaning a
visionary banquet or make-believe entertain-
ment, originates from a story in the Arabian
Nights' Entertainments, of a wealthy Barmecide,
to whom a poor man, Schacabac, had applied
for charity. On the latter informing him that
he was starving, the Barmecide invited him to
dinner; and calling for a succession of the most
sumptuous viands, although none were provided,
urged his guest to fall to and enjoy himself,
praising the merits of each dish as it was pre-
tended to arrive on the table. Schacabac,
though suffering all the pangs of hunger, en-
tered into the eccentric humor of his host, de-
clared his infinite enjoyment of everything set
before him, and by his patience so won the
heart of his eccentric entertainer, that the lat-
ter not only provided for him immediately an
actual and plenteous repast, but likewise took
him into his house and intrusted him with the
management of his affairs.

Barmecides' Feast. See Barmecides.

Bar'men, a city on the Wupper, in
Rhenish Prussia. The town of Barmen is
formed by the union of seven villages contained
in the valley of Barmen, from which it takes
its name, and its western border adjoins the
city of Elberfeld. It is the seat of the Rhen-
ish Missionary Society, which has here a large
seminary. The valley is remarkable for natural
beauty. The United States has a resident con-
sul. Barmen contains the principal ribbon
manufactories on the Continent, and its ribbons
are sent into all parts of the world. Next to
ribbons the most important textile manufactures
are zanellas or Indian cloths, satin for lining,
and lace. Barmen also possesses numerous
large dye-works, besides manufactures of chem-
icals, plated and other metal wares, buttons,
yarns, iron, machines, pianos, organs, soap, etc.
The city has six railway stations, and one of
its remarkable features is the electric swinging
railway over and along the line of the Wupper
between Barmen and Sonnborn. Pop. (1900)
142,000.

Bar'mote Court (from hcrg, hill, and mote,
meeting), a name given to local courts held in
the lead-mining portions of Derbyshire, Eng-
land. Their purpose is the definition of the
ancient rights of the inhabitants, and the set-
tlement of disputes connected therewith. They
are of ancient origin, but their scope has been
much restricted during the Victorian period.

BARN — BARN SWALLOW

See Bainbridge, <The Law of Mines and Min-
erals^ (5th ed. 1900).

Bam (Saxon, berern, from here, barley,
and em, a close place or repository). The word
seems originally to have denoted a building for
the storing of grain. In modern times it has
a wider signification — all structures of any ca-
pacity used on a farm for storing crops and
sheltering stock being known as barns. In the
changeable climate of the United States, with
its severe winters, protection to cattle becomes
an important item in the operations of hus-
bandry, and as our agriculture becomes more
highly developed we construct more expensive,
convenient, and useful barns. A well-built
barn, embracing all the conveniences needed for
the easy and safe storing of crops, and the
comfort and well-being of farm stock, will al-
ways be one of the safest and best investments
a farmer can make. At one time the barns on
many estates were capacious enough to contain
all the grain raised on them, but recently the
practice of stacking grain has gained ground,
and it is now considered the better plan —
building the grain barn of sufficient size to con-
tain one or two ricks of grain at a time, and
all the necessary appurtenances for threshing.
The stacked grain is kept in better condition
from having a freer circulation of air, and being
so disposed as to be free from the attacks
of vermin. A regular yard is set apart for
stacks, elevated platforms are provided on which
the stacks are built, and they are so arranged
as to prevent vermin from climbing to them
from the ground, and so far separated as to
leave each stack isolated. Many such conven-
iences are known to the American farmer. The
skeleton barn, a building but partially enclosed,
spaces being left between the boards for the
free ingress of air, with a durable roof and
projecting eaves, is most used for grain, and
for the storing of hay loosely trussed for mar-
ket. The sheep and stock barns on the con-
tinent of Europe are generally of an inferior
character, and usually serve also as a residence
for the family of the servant or foreman of the
farm. The sheep and stock barns of the United
States are generally commodious structures,
with wide sheds on each side, in which the ani-
mals find shelter and receive their provender, or,
when built on a side hill, the cellar is appro-
priated to this purpose. Sheds also surround
the whole yard in many instances, while stacks
of the poorer quality of hay and threshed straw
occupy the centre of the yard, their contents
being freely used as bedding and partial food
for cattle, the greater bulk finding its way into
the manure heap. These are both comfortable
quarters for the animals, and profitable for the
farmer. Modifications of this general plan are
made by each farmer according to his means
and peculiar ideas. As a general rule, stock
barns are found most profitable when they af-
ford the most ample accommodations. The
greater the comfort of his animals, the more
uniform the profit of the farmer. Great care
should be used in the selection of a place for
the farm buildings. The barns should be easily
reached, and so arranged as to admit of the
economical disposition of both crops and man-
ures. The soil should be dry and porous, or
should be thoroughly drained. Ample provision
should be made for the saving of manures.
Side-hill barns aflford cellars in which these

may be kept without waste, their bulk aug-
mented, and those changes produced upon them
which are so essential to their highest efficacy.
If no good springs, streams, or wells can be
obtained, cisterns for rain water should be pro-
vided. Barns are usually built of wood, some
of stone, a few of brick, and of concrete or
gravel wall. The gravel wall can be made
cheaper than stone walls, and can be built on
farms affording only gravel and small stones
of a quality too poor to build ordinary stone
walls. Barn doors are usually of wood ; and
when intended for the threshing or handling of
grain should be tight and smooth, and kept
clean. Oak, beech, and yellow pine form excel-
lent floors. The threshing floors described by
Columella were formed by wetting the earth
with the lees of oil, mixing in some chaff, and
ramming the whole down firmly ; chaff was then
trodden on the top, and the whole left to dry
in the sun. The lees of oil were said to check
vegetation, and drive away vermin. The prepa-
ration of corrugated iron, at a comparatively
cheap rate of cost, suggests that material as
one of the best for a well-built barn. The roof
deserves more attention than it usually receives
at the hands of the farmer who wishes to be
truly economical in his expenditure for build-
ings. Finally, let all farmers remember that
ventilation is one of the most important things
to be secured, especially in stock barns.

Barn Owl, a widespread but rather un-
common owl (Stri.v Aamtnea) which seems to
be known in all parts of the world, and is
everywhere recognizable among other owls by
the heart-shaped form of the facial disks, which
meet in a point below the beak. These give a
very quaint expression, which has led to the
soubriquet ^^monkey-faced" in the southern
States. It is about 17 inches in length, and its
plumage is yellowish-red, irregularly marked
with lighter and darker tints. The eyes are
small and black and surrounded by cream-col-
ored disks, bordered with rust-red. The legs
are long and bear short feathers only. . It is
more numerous in the southern part of the
United States than in the northerly portion, and
is rarely seen even where many exist, since it
is more completely nocturnal in its habits than
are most owls. It makes its nest in hollow
trees or a niche in some rocky cliff or earthen
bank, and occasionally nests in belfries or old
walls, as is a common habit in Europe. The
nest is composed of straw and feathers and the
eggs are white. H. K. Fisher, author of ^The
Hawks and Owls of the United States' (1893),
regards this owl as probably the most bene-
ficial of its tribe to the agriculturist, because
in America, at least, it subsists almost entirely
upon the small rodents so injurious to crops.
This is especially true in the South, where it
subsists on the cotton rat and the many harm-
ful mice ; while in the West, it catches gophers,
ground-squirrels, and rabbits, so that it is en-
titled to gratitude and protection. _ The same
beneficent service is reported for it in other
parts of the world. The American is regarded
by many ornithologists as a separate species,
Strix pratincola.

Barn Swallow, one of the most familiar
and wide spread of North American swallows
(Chelidon erythrogaster) . Its plumage is lus-
trous blue, the forehead, chin, and throat dull

BARNABAS — BARNACLE

chestnut;, bounded by a collar-like band of blue
across the chest, below which the plumage is
pale reddish-brown. By its deeply forked tail
it is readily distinguished from the square-tailed
cliff-swallow (q.v.), which also throngs about
barns, and often is wrongly termed barn swal-
low ; but the latter invariably puts its flask-
shaped nests under the eaves outside of the
structure, while the true barn swallow invaria-
bly nests inside the building. These birds have
remarkable wing power, flying for many miles
at a time at the rate of more than a mile a
minute, with consummate grace and ease; and
catching in the air all their food, which con-
sists of winged insects, many of which are in-
jurious or annoying to man, so that their pres-
ence is of decided benefit, as well as a pleasant
accompaniment of rural life. Before the coun-
try was densely populated the swallows made
their homes in caves, or in niches of rocks, or
hollow trees, but ever since the civilization of
the country began, these trustful birds have built
their nests close to man's habitation, every-
where frequenting barns and outhouses. Their
nest is composed of layers of mud, about an
inch thick, plentifully mixed with straw, and
lined with feathers. They usually rear two
broods a season : the first in IMay, and the sec-
ond in July. The eggs are four to six in num-
ber, white, with red and purple spots and
splashes nearly covering the larger end. When
the second brood of young are capable of using
their wings, the swallows congregate in flocks
of thousands, and m.igrate southward, travel-
ing by daylight, instead of at night, as is the
custom of most migratory birds. In the north-
eastern part of the country, the barn swallows
have been nearly exterminated by the English
sparrow, who seize their nest for their own
breeding purposes and destroy their eggs and
young in a ruthless way, often, apparently, in
a spirit of malicious mischief.

Bar'nabas, the surname given by the apos-
tles to Joses, or Joseph, a fellow-laborer of
Paul, and, like him, ranked as an apostle. He
is said to have founded at Antioch the first
Christian community, to have been first bishop
of Milan, and to have suffered martyrdom at
Cyprus. His festival is held on ii June.
There is an epistle in 21 chapters ascribed to
Barnabas by Tertullian and other early Chris-
tian writers, but without any support of internal
evidence. It was probably written between 119
and 126 B.C. by some one who was not a Jew,
and under the influence of Alexandrian Judaistic
thought.

Barnabas, Cape, a headland of Alaska,
which the navigator, Capt. Cook, discovered
on St. Bainabas Day.

Bar'nabites, a religious order, properly
called "Regular Clerks of the Congregation of
St. Paul,*^ and deriving the name of Barnabites
from their church, dedicated to St. Barnabas,
at Milan. Their origin is uncertain, but is sup-
posed to date from the pontificate of Gregory
XI. ('1370-8). A younger branch was founded
during the i6th century, for the purpose of
preaching and administering the sacraments
among the populace of Milan, who had become
much corrupted by the continual presence of a
multitude of German soldiers in the city, and
who were also much afflicted by pestilence. In
1579 their constitutions and rules were fully

revised and established under the direction of
St. Charles Borromeo. They were expelled
from France in 1880 and as an order have
greatly declined.

Barnaby, Sir Nathaniel, English naval
architect: b. Chatham, 1829. From 1855 to
1885 he was engaged in the designing office
of the admiralty in the construction of nearly
all the British naval vessels. He brought
about the substitution of steel for iron in ship-
building, and the subsidizing of merchant ves-
sels for use in war. He was made a K. C. B. in
1885.

Barnaby Rudge, a novel by Charles Dick-
ens, published in 1841. The plot is extremely
intricate. Some of the most whimsical and
amusing of Dickens' character-studies appear
in the pages of this novel; while the whole
episode of the gathering and march of the mob,
and the storming of Newgate is surpassed in
dramatic intensity by no passage in modern
fiction, unless by Dickens' own treatment of
the French Revolution in the ^Tale of Two
Cities.* Among the important characters, many
of whom are the authors of sayings now pro-
verbial, are Gabriel Varden, the cheerful and
incorruptible old locksmith, father of Dolly
Varden ; Mrs. Varden, a type of the narrow-
minded zealot, devoted to the Protestant man-
ual ; Miss Miggs, their servant, mean, treach-
erous, and self-seeking; Sim Tappertit, an
apprentice, an admirable portrait of the half- fool,
half-knave, so often found in the English ser-
vile classes half a century ago ; Hugh, the
hostler, and Dennis, the hangman ; and Grip,
the raven, who fills an important part in the
story, and for whom Dickens himself named a
favorite raven.

Barnacle, Lord Decimus Tite, the name of
the nobleman whom Dickens in his 'Little Dor-
rit* places in charge of the circumlocution
office.

Barnacle, a degenerate crustacean, living
attached to rocks and the bottoms of ships. The
barnacles would at first glance hardly be re-
garded as Crustacea at all, and were considered
to be mollusca, until in 1836, Thompson found
that the young barnacle was like the larvas of
other low Crustacea (Copcpoda). The j'oung
barnacle is, as in the common sessile form, a
shell-like animal ; the shell composed of several
pieces or valves with a multivalve, conical, mov-
able lid, having an opening through which sev-
eral pairs of long, many jointed, hairy append-
ages are thrust, thus creating a current which
sets in toward the mouth. The common barna-
cle (Balanus balanoides) abounds on every
rocky shore from extreme high-water mark to
deep water, and the student can, by putting a
group of them in sea water, observe the open-
ing and shutting of the valves and the move-
ments of the appendages. The structure of the
barnacle may best be observed in dissecting a
goose-barnacle (Lepas fascicularis). This bar-
nacle consists of a body (capitulum) and leath-
ery peduncle. There are six pairs of jointed
feet, representing the feet of the Cyclops. The
mouth, with the upper lip. mandibles, and two
pairs of maxillae, will be found in the middle
of the shell. A short oesophagus leads to a
pouch-like stomach and tubular intestine. This
form, like most barnacles, is hermaphroditic,
the ovary lying at the bottom of the shell, or,

BARNACLE-EATER — BARNARD

in the pedunculated forms, in the base of the
peduncle, while the male gland is either close
to or some distance from the ovary. There is
also at the base of the shell, or in the peduncle
when developed, a cement-gland, the secretion
of which is for the purpose of attaching the
barnacle when in the "cypris'^ stage to some
rock or weed.

While the sexes are generally united in the
same individual, in the gerera Ibla and Scalpel-
liim, besides the normal hermaphroditic form,
there are females, and also males called "com-
plementary males,'' which are attached parasiti-
cally both to the females and the hermaphro-
ditic forms, living just within the valves or
fastened to the membranes of the body. These
complemental males are degraded, imperfect
forms, with sometimes no mouth or digestive
canal. The apparent design in nature of their
different sexual forms is to effect cross-fertili-
zation. The eggs pass from the ovaries into
the body-cavity, where they are fertilized, and
remain for some time. They pass through a
morula condition, a suppressed gastrula or two-
layered state, and hatch in a form called a
"Nauplius,'' from the fact that the free-swim-
ming larva of the Entomostraca was at first
thought to be an adult Crustacean, and de-
scribed under the name of Nauplius. The
Nauplius of the genuine barnacles has three
pairs of legs ending in long bristles, with a
single eye and a pair of antennae, the body end-
ing in front in two horns, and posteriorly in a
long caudal spine. After swimming about for
a while, the Nauplius attaches itself to some
object by its antennas, and a strange transfor-
mation results. The body is enclosed by two
sets of valves, appearing as if bivalved, like a
cypris ; the peduncle grows out, concealing the
rudimentary antennje, and the feet become
smaller, and eventually the barnacle shape is
attained. The common barnacle {Balanus ba-
lanoides) attains its full size after becoming
fixed, in one season ; that is, between April and
November.

Barnacle-eater. See File-fish.

Barnacle Goose. See Bernacle Goose.

Barnard, Lady Anne, Scottish poet, author
of <Auld Robin Gray' : b. 1750; d. 26 May 1825.
She was the eldest daughter of James Lindsay,
fifth Earl of Balcarres, and in 1793 married An-
drew Barnard, a son of the bishop of Limerick,
and colonial secretary to Lord Macartney at the
Cape of Good Hope. There Lady Anne lived
till 1807, when, losing her husband, she re-
turned to London, her residence till her death.
Her famous lyric was written as early as 1772
to sing to. an ancient melody; but she first ac-
knowledged its authorship in 1823 to Sir Walter
Scott, who two years later edited it for the
Bannatyne Club, with two continuations. Her
^Letters' were published in 1901.

Barnard, Charles, American dramatist: b.
Boston, Mass., 13 Feb. 1838. He is a journalist
and dramatist. His most popular play is <The
County Fair'- (1888). Author of ^The Tone-
Masters' (New York 1871) ; <Knights of To-
Day' (1881) ; (The Whistling Buoy' (1887) ;
dramas, and books on gardening and electricity.

Barnard, Mrs. Charlotte Arlington, «Clari-
REL." English comnoser of songs and ballads:
b. 1830; d. 1869. She wrote nearly 100 ballads
between 1858 and i860 under the pseudonym of

Claribel, many of them becoming very popu-
lar, "Won't You Tell Me Why, Robin?" and
"Come Back to Erin," being especially well
known. In most cases she wrote the words for
her songs, and she was also the author of a vol-
ume of "^Thoughts, Verses, and Songs.'

Barnard, Daniel Dewey, American lawyer:
b. Shefheld, Mass., 16 July 1797; d. Albany, N.
Y., 24 April 1861. He was admitted to the bar
and began practice at Rochester, N. Y., ib2i.
He was a representative in Congress, 1827-9,
and 1839-45, serving as chairman of the Ju-
diciary Committee. From 1850 to 1853 he was
minister to Russia. He gave much time to
literary pursuits, publishing several addresses
and speeches.

Barnard, Edward Emerson, American as-
tronomer : b. Nashville, Tenn., 16 Dec. 1857. He
was astronomer in Lick Observatory, Cali •
fornia, in 1887-95, and then became professor
of astronomy in Chicago University. His prin-
cipal discoveries are the fifth satellite of
Jupiter in 1892, and 16 comets. He has made
photographs of the Milky Way, the comets,
nebulae, etc. The French Academy of Sciences
awarded him the Lalande gold medal in 1892,
and the Arago gold medal in 1893, and the
Royal Astronomic'I Society of Great Britain
gave him a gold medal in I097. He is a
member of many American and foreign
societies, and a contributor to astronomical
journals.

Barnard, Frederick Augustus Porter,
American educator : b. Shefheld, Mass., 5 May
1809; d. 27 April 1889. He was graduated at
Yale College in 1S28 ; instructor there in 1830 ;
professor of mathematics and natural philosophy
in the University of Alabama, 1837-48, and af-
terward of chemistry and natural history till
1854; professor of mathematics and astronomy
in the University of Mississippi, 1854-61 ; its
president in 1856-8; and its chancellor in
1858-61. He was president of Columbia Col-
lege, New York, in 1864-88. In i860, he was
appointed a member of the expedition to ob-
serve the eclipse of the sun in Labrador ; was
engaged in 1862 in reducing observations of the
stars in the southern hemisphere ; had charge of
the publication of charts and maps of the United
States Coast Survey in 1863 ; was named one of
the original incorporators of the National Acad-
emy of Sciences in 1863 ; was one of the L^nited
States commissioners to the Paris Exposition
in 1867; member of the American Philosophical
Societ3^ corresponding member of the Royal So-
ciety of Liege, and member of many other scien-
tific and literary associations. Among his publi-
cations are: ^Letters on College Government'
(1854) ; *^ Report on Collegiate Education'
(1854) ; ^Art Culture' (1854) ; < History of the
American Coast Survey' (1857); ^ University
Education' (1858) ; ^Undulatory Theory of
Light' (1862) ; 'Machinery and Processes of
the Industrial Arts, and Apparatus of Exact
Science' (1868) ; "^Metric System of Weights
and Measures' (1871) ; *^ Recent Progress of Sci-
ence' ; etc. Barnard College, affiliated with
Columbia University, was named in his honor.

Barnard, George Grey, American sculptor
of eminence: b. Bellefonte, Pa., 24 May 1863. He
studied at the Chicago Art Institute and the
ficole Nationale des Beaux Arts, Paris, 1884-7.
He first exhibited at the salon of 1894. In 1900

BARNACLE, BALANOGLOSSUS, ETC.

1. Common Barnacle (Balanus)

2. Larva of Lepas.

3. Mussel (Lepas anatifera).

4. Megalasma striatum.

5. Balanoglossus clavigerus, young
specimen.

BOT FLIES AND BLOW FLIES.

1. Cattle Bet Fly. a. Adult; b. Larva; c. Pupa, all enlarged.

2. Sheep Bot Fly. a, Adult; b. Larva, from above; c, Pupa.

3. Horse Bot Fly. a. Adult; b. Egg, attached to a hair.

4. Blow Flies. I, Musca vomitoria; a. Adult; b, Egg; c. Larva; d. Pupa; e, Sarcophaga carnaria; f. Newly born'
larvae; g, Growing larvae; h, Musca domesticia and larva; i, Stomax calcitrans; j, Head of fly enlarged; k, Foot of fly
enlarged; 1, House fly, poisoned by Fly-asaric.

BARNARD — BARNARDO

he received a gold medal at the Paris Exposi-
tion. His chief works, largely symbolical in
character, are: 'Brotherly Love,^ 'The Two
Natures* (in the Metropolitan Museum), 'The
God Pan> (Central Park), and 'The Hewer.>
His studio is in New York.

Barnard, Henry, American educator: b.
Hartford, Conn., 24 Jan. 181 1; d. 5 July 1900.
He was president of the University of Wiscon-
sin (1856-9), and St. John's College, Annapolis,
Md. (1865-6) ; founded the 'American Journal
of Education' (1855) ; was the first United
States commissioner of education (1867-70).
Among his numerous writings are: 'Hints and
Methods for Teachers' (1857) : 'Pestalozzi and
Pestalozzianism' (1861) ; 'German Educational
Reformers' (1862) ; etc. In 1886 he began to
publish the 'American Library of Schools and
Education,' a collection of 800 of his own writ-
ings, reports, etc.

Barnard, John, American Congregational
clergyman : b. Boston, 6 Nov. 1681 ; d. 24 Jan.
1770. He was one of the earliest New England
dissenters from Calvinism. Ordained colleague
minister of Marblehead (1716) ; he took great
interest in the local fisheries and commerce. He
wrote 'History of the Strange Adventures of
Philip Ashton' (1725), etc.

Barnard, John Gross, American military
engineer: b. Sheffield, Mass., 19 May 1815; d.
14 May 1882; brother of F. A. P. Barnard
(q.v.). He was graduated at the United States
Military Academy in 1833 ; served from 1835 to
1852 on the coast of the Gulf of Mexico ; and
was brevetted major in the Mexican war. He
subsequently had charge of the fortifications of
San Francisco and New York harbors.

Barnard, Joseph Folger, American jurist:
b. Poughkeepsie, N. Y., 1823; d. there 6 Jan,
1904. He was graduated from Yale University
in 1841 ; admitted to the New York bar 1844;
was elected justice of the State supreme court
in 1862, and was re-elected, holding the office
until his death,

Barnard College, an educational institution
for women in New York, affiliated with Co-
lumbia University (q.v.), and founded in 1889.
The admission of women to Columbia on the
same terms as men had been warmly urged for
some years by President F. A. P. Barnard
(q.v.), when in 1882 the trustees consented to
allow their attendance at the lectures, but de-
clined to grant matriculation or examination.
This being found contrary to the statutes of
Columbia, on 8 June 1883 a collegiate course
duplicating that for the men was opened to
women outside the college, but taught by the
same instructors, with the same examinations,
and rewarded with a degree. The plan was
abandoned after five years' trial, and in March
1888 a proposal was made to establish a wo-
man's annex, to be separately financed, but man-
aged under the approval of the trustees of Co-
lumbia; the women to pursue the same courses
under the same instructors, in such wise as not
to interfere with the men's classes. Columbia to
appoint the examiners and confer the degrees.
This was accepted, and in 1889 the institution
was opened under the name of Barnard Col-
lege, with seven students. Later the rule of
common instructors was so far relaxed that

the professors in Barnard were only required to
have the approval of Columbia, and since then
the deans and some professors have been wo-
men ; still later, each institution assumed the
support of three professorships in the other.
After a time certain classes of the senior year
and many post-graduate classes were opened
to women, subject in all cases to the consent of
each professor. The growth of Barnard College
rendered these provisional arrangements unsat-
isfactory, and they were modified by making
Barnard formally a part of the Columbia system,
19 Jan. 1900. At present the president of Co-
lumbia is ex officio president and a trustee of
Barnard, while the dean of Barnard controls
its internal management and has a vote in the
council of Columbia. Barnard, however, re-
mains a distinct institution, separately financed,
with its own trustees, and supports a complete
undergraduate course. Columbia grants all
Barnard degrees as its own, and the Columbia
library is free to Barnard students, and certain
post-graduate courses are open to members of
both institutions. Barnard College received 32
new students during its first year, had doubled
the number three years later, and 16 years from
its foundation, in 1905, had 57 professors and
366 students, and had graduated 455 in all.
The productive funds are $28,333 and income
$119,157. Bcirnard was started without further
resources than a few four-years subscriptions,
but speedily attracted donations and endowments
which have enabled it to keep pace with its rap-
idly growing demands. Up to March 1902, it
had an endowment of $250,000; in that month
an equal amount was added by John D. Rocke-
feller, and another $250,000 was the result of
lesser gifts. In March 1903, a gift of $i,ooo,oco
was made to the college by Mrs. Elizabeth Mil-
bank Anderson, who had previously given Mil-
bank Hall to the institution. Among its build-
ings are Biinkerhoff Hall, chiefly built from
gifts by Mrs. Van Wyck Brinkerhoff; Fiske
Hall, given by Mrs. Josiah M. Fiske; and Mil-
bank Hall, given by Mrs. Abram A. Anderson.
' The first dean of Barnard was Miss Emily
James Smith (who subsequently became the
wife o" George Haven Putnam, the New York
publisher), and in looi she was succeeded by
Miss Laura Drake Gill.

Barnar'do, Thomas John, English philan-
thropist: b. Ireland, 1845; d. London. Eng., 19
Sept. 1905. He founded the Barnardo Homes
for homeless children, his attention being turned
in this direction by the condition of a boy
in a ragged school in east London in 1866
Following up the subject, he began to rescue
children who had found their only shelter at
night under archways, or in courts and alleys.
These were introduced to his homes, where they
received an industrial training, were saved from
a possible career of crime, and enabled to achieve
an honorable position in life. In 1899 over
36.000 boys and girls had passed through the
homes : at the same time Dr. Barnardo had under
his direction in the Ilnited Kingdom and the
colonies 24 mission branches and 86 distinct
homes dealing with every age and class _ of
needy and destitute childhood, including an im-
migration depot in Ontario, an industrial farm
in Manitoba, a home for babies, and a hospital
for sick children. Up to 1899 the number of
trained and tested boys and girls who had been
placed' in colonial situations exceeded 10,000.

BARNATO — BARNES

Barna'to, Barney, or Barnett, South Afri-
can speculator, whose real name is believed to
have been Bernard Isaac : b. London, England,
about 1845, of Hebrew parents; d. 14 June 1897.
He began business as a dealer in diamonds, and
in five years earned enough to buy shares in
the Kimberley diamond mines. He established
a partnership with Cecil Rhodes, and, when, in
1886, gold was discovered, secured possession of
the greater part of the region. He committed
suicide by jumping from the deck of the steamer
Scot, bound from Cape Town to Southampton.
See Isaac's ^Life of Barnett Barnato^ (1897).

Barnaul, bar-nowl', a mining town of
Siberia, in the government of Tomsk, and 230
miles southwest of the town of that name, on
the Barnaulski, near its junction with the Obi.
It is well built, and the streets are regular and
spacious. The chief edifices are of wood. There
is a mining-school, an observatory, a public
library, a museum, etc. Lead is smelted from
the mines in the neighborhood ; there are lime
and brick kilns, a mint for copper coins, and
manufactories. Pop. (1897) 29,408.

Barnave, bar-nav, Antoine Pierre Joseph
Marie, French orator: b. Grenoble, 1761 ; d.
Paris, 29 Nov. 1793. He was chosen a deputy
of the tiers ctat to the assembly of the states-
general, and showed himself an open enemy to
the court. The Constituent Assembly appointed
him their president in January 1791. After the
flight of the king he defended Lafayette against
the charge of being privy to this step, and, upon
the arrest of the royal family, was sent, with
Petion and Latour-Maubourg, to meet them,
and to conduct them to Paris. When the corre-
spondence of the court fell into the hands of the
victorious party, 10 Aug. 1792, they pretended to
have found documents which showed him to
have been secretly connected with it, and he was
guillotined. See Salvandy, *Life of Barnave^ ;
Lamartine, ^History of the Girondists.'

Barnburners, a nickname for the progress-
ive section of the New York State Democracy
from about 1844 to 1852, which retaliated by call-
ing the other party "Hunkers.^' They were essen-
tially the same party which from 1835 onward
had favored extension of the canal system, while
their opponents were the same who wished it
restricted to immediately profitable canals ; but
under these names the division was on the slav-
ery question (see Free-Soil Party), in which
the Barnburners were the Van Buren or Free-
Soil wing. They also stood for the local con-
trol by the ^'Albany Regency,'^ as against the
Polk "machine" which the new administration
was trying to build up in New York, and which
favored the extension of slavery into the Terri-
tories. About 1852 the nicknames changed into
^^Softs'^ and "Hards,'' corresponding with new
issues to the later "Half-breeds" and "Stal-
warts." The origin of the name is usually de-
rived from the familiar campaign story of the
man who burned his barn to free it from rats.

Barnby, Joseph, Sir, English composer
and organist : b. York, 12 Aug. 1838 ; d. London,
28 Jan. 1896. He was chorister in York Min-
ster; organist St. Andrew's, Wells Street, Lon-
don, 1863-71 ; precentor and choir-master St.
Ann's, Soho, 1871 ; precentor and director of
musical instruction in Eton College, 1875, and
head of the Guildhall School of Music ip Lon-
don from 1892. His cantatas of "Rebekah," a

sacred idyll, and "The Lord Is King" ; numer-
ous highly interesting services and anthems
(such as "King All Glorious"), for the Church,
as well as several secular choruses and songs,
rendered him famous both in England and the
United Stales. He was knighted in 1892.

Bar'negat Bay, a bay on the east coast of
New Jersey, about 25 miles in length, and sepa-
rated from the ocean by Squan and Island
beaches. Barnegat Inlet connects it with the
Atlantic. On the south side of the inlet is a
lighthouse 150 feet high.

Barnes, Albert, American theologian: b.
Rome, I Dec. 1798; d. Philadelphia, 24 Dec. 1870.
Until the age of 17 he was employed by his
father, who was a tanner, in his own occupa-
tion. At the age of 22 he graduated at Hamil-
ton College, and after studying theology at
Princeton was licensed to preach in 1824, and
ordained pastor to the Presb3'terian Church of
Morristown, N. J., in February 1825. In 1830
he was removed to the pastoral charge of the
First Presbyterian Church in Philadelphia,
where he remained till his death. He is chiefly
known by his *^ Notes on the New Testament,'
published in 11 volumes between 1832 and 1848;
and his < Notes on the Old Testament,' com-
pleted in 1870, which are favorite works with
Sunday-school teachers and others engaged in
biblical tuition. Other works of his are: ^The
Church and Slavery' (1857) ; ^The Atonement
in Its Relations to Law and Moral Government'
(1859) ; "^Evidences of Christianity' (1868) ;
^Life at Threescore and Ten' (1869). He was
tried for heresy on account of his belief in un-
limited atonement, and though acquitted, the
eventual result of the trial was to divide
the Presbyterian body in the United States into
the Old and New School branches in 1837.

Barnes, Alfred Smith, American publisher:
b. New Haven, Conn., 28 Jan. 1817; d. Brook-
lyn, N. Y., 17 Feb. 18S8. He began his career in
the book store of D. F. Robinson & Company in
Hartford, Conn., removing to New York with the
firm. At the age of 21 he formed a connection
with Prof. Charles F. Davies and began publish-
ing the latter's mathematical works, personally
canvassing for them every State in the coun-
try. In 1840 he removed his business to Phila-
delphia, but returned to New York in 1855. He
confined his publications almost exclusively to
school text-books. Retiring from active man-
agement in 1880 he left five sons to continue
the business. At his death he left large be-
quests to charities and educational institutions.

Barnes, Barnabe, English poet: b. York-
shire, about 1569; d. Durham, England, De-
cember 1609. He was the son of a bishop of
Durham ; was educated at Oxford ; and went to
Normandy in 1591 with the Earl of Essex. Flis
fame rests on a collection of sonnets, madrigals,
and odes, called "^Parthenophil and Parthenope'
(about 1593). Other books of his are: ^A Di-
vine Century of Spiritual Sonnets' (1595) >' arid
^The Devil's Charter,' a tragedy (1607).

Barnes, Charles Reid, American botanist:
b. Madison, Ind., 7 Sept. 1858. He was edu-
cated at Hanover (Ind.) College, 1877, and pur-
sued graduate studies at Harvard. He held
professorships in Purdue University and the
University of Wisconsin, 1880-98, and since
1898 has been professor of plant physiology in
the University of Chicago. He is the author of

BARNES — BARNEVELDT

^Outlines of Plant Life^ (1900) ; joint author of
^ Plant Dissection^ ; and *^Keys to the Genera and
Species of North American Mosses' (i8go).
He has contributed many papers to the ^Botani-
cal Gazette,' of which he has been an editor
since 1883.

Barnes, Dame Juliana. See Eerners,Daaie
Juliana.

Barnes, James^ American soldier: b. Bos-
ton, Mass. 1806; d. Springfield, Mass., 12 Feb.
1869. Appointed to West Point from Massa-
chusetts, he graduated there in 1829, standing
fifth in a class which included R. E. Lee, J. E.
Johnston, and a number of others who after-
ward became distinguished. Resigning from the
army after seven years' service, he became a
vailroad engineer and built, either wholly or in
part, the Rome & W., Sacketts' H. & E.,
the Bufifalo, C. & N. Y., the Terre Haute, A. &
St. L., and the Potsdam & W. R.R.'s, between
1848 and 1857. During the Civil War he was col-
onel of the i8th Massachusetts Volunteers 1861-2,
and brigadier-general of United States Volun-
teers 1862-5. He was present at the battles of
Antietam, Fredericksburg, Chancellorsville, and
Gettysburg, where he was severely wounded.
Exposure and wounds so impaired his constitu-
tion that he was unable to engage activel}^ in his
profession after the War.

Barnes, James, American author: b. An-
napolis, Md., 19 Sept. 1866. He was graduated
from Princeton University in 1891, and has been
connected in an editorial capacity with "^Scrib-
ner's Magazine' and *■ Harpers' Weekly.' Dur-
ing the Boer war he acted as a correspondent
in the field for the ^Outlook.' His books are:
* Naval Actions of 1812' ; *For King or Coun-
try' ; ^Yankee Ships and Yankee Sailors' ; ^A
Loyal Traitor'; *The Hero of Erie' (1898);
*A Princetonian' ; "^David G. Farragut' (1899) ;
^ Drake and His Yeomen' (1899); < Great War
Trek with the British Army on the Veldt'
(1901) ; "^With the Flag in the Channel' (1902).

Barnes, Joseph K., American surgeon: b.
Philadelphia, 21 July 1817; d. Washington, D.
C, 5 April 1883. He was educated in the medi-
cal department of the University of Pennsyl-
vania ; became assistant surgeon in the army in
1840, and served at various posts through the
Mexican war. At the beginning of the Civil
War he was summoned from Oregon and as-
signed to duty in the office of the surgeon-
general. In 1863 he was appointed a medical
inspector, with the rank of colonel, and in Sep-
tember of the same year was promoted to
brigadier-general. In 1865 he was brevetled
major-general. United States Army. He was
surgeon-general of the army from 1864 till 1882,
when he was retired.

Barnes, William, English dialect poet and
philologist: b. Rushay, Dorsetshire, in 1800; d.
7 Oct. 1886. Of humble birth, he first entered a
solicitor's office, then taught a school in Dor-
chester, and having taken orders became rector
of Winterbourne Came in his native county, and
died there. He acquired a knowledge of many
languages, and published ^An Anglo-Saxon De-
lectus' ; <A Philological Grammar,' grounded
upon English; <^Grammar and Glossary of the
Dorset Dialect,' etc., but is best known by his
< Poems of Rural Life,' in the Dorset dialect,
and < Rural Poems,' in common English.

Barnesville, Ohio, town in Belmont
County, on the B. & O. R.R., 32 miles west of
Wheeling. It is the centre of an extensive to-
bacco and fruit region and has numerous man-
ufactories. It has a national bank, schools,
churches and several newspapers. Pop. (1900)
3,721.

Bar'net, or High Barnet, a town of Eng-
land, in Herts, 11 miles from London. Pop.
(1901) 7,900.

Barneveldt, bar'ne-velt, John van Olden,

Dutch statesman: b. 1549; d. 13 May 1619.
He early showed himself zealous for the inde-
pendence of the United Provinces, and as
advocate-general of the province of Holland dis-
played profound views and great skill in busi-
ness. He preserved his country against the
ambition of Leicester ; penetrated the secret
plans of Maurice of Nassau, whom his fellow-
citizens had elevated to the post of stadtholder;
and his marked distrust of this prince placed him
at the head of the Republican party, which
aimed to make the stadtholder subordinate to the
legislative power. Spain at that time made
proposals for peace through the archduke, gov-
ernor of the Netherlands. Barneveldt was ap-
pointed plenipotentiary on this occasion, and
evinced alike the skill of a statesman and the
firmness of a republican. Maurice of Nassau,
whose interest led him to prefer war, labored
to prevent the establishment of peace; and
Barneveldt was induced only by the most ur-
gent solicitations of the states to retain the office
which had been assigned to him, concluding in
1609 an armistice with Spain for the term of
12 years, in which the independence of Holland
was acknowledged. His influence now became
still greater, and he was more and more an
object of jealousy to the house of Nassau. The
hostile spirit of the opposite parties in the state
was further increased by theological difficulties.
In order to prevent a civil war Barneveldt pro-
posed an ecclesiastical council, which resolved
upon a general toleration in respect to the
points in question. The states acceded at first
to this wise measure, but at a later period the
Nassau party persuaded them to adopt other
views. This party represented the Arminians
as secret friends of Spain. Maurice insisted
upon a general sjmod, with a view, as he pre-
tended, of putting an end to all religious quar-
rels ; but Barneveldt persuaded the states to
oppose this measure. Troops were now levied,
without the consent of Maurice, to re-establish
order in the cities where the Gomarists had
excited disturbances. On the other side, the
Nassau party redoubled its attacks upon Barne-
veldt, who, in answer to them, published that
celebrated memorial in which he warns the
United Provinces of the danger which threat-
ened them from the other party. Maurice, how-
ever, procured the assembling of a synod at
Dort, in 1618, to which almost all the Calvinistic
churches of Europe sent deputies. They con-
demned the Arminians with the most unjust
severity, and Maurice was encouraged by their
sentence to adopt violent measures. He caused
Barneveldt and other leading men of the Ar-
minians to be arrested; and 26 bribed judges
condemned to death as a traitor the man to
whom his country owed its political existence.
The old man of 72 ascended the scaffold, and

BARNEY — BARNUM

<;uffered de:ith with the same firmness which he
had evinced under all the circumstances of his
life. His two sons formed a conspiracy against
the tyrant; William escaped, but Reinier was
taken and executed. His mother, after his con-
denmation, threw herself at the feet of Maurice
to beg for mercy, and to his question why she
humbled herself thus for the sake of her son
when she had not done it for her husband, made
the memorable reply : "I did not ask pardon for
my husband, because he was innocent; I ask
it for my son, because he is guilty.* See Mot-
ley, 'John of Barneveldt^ (1874).

Barney, Joshua, American naval officer:
b. Baltimore, Md., 6 July 1759; d. i Dec. 1818.
He was captured by the British in March 1778,
but exchanged in August of the same year ; was
captured again and held a prisoner till he es-
caped in 1781. In April 1782. he took the Brit-
ish ship General Monk, off Cape May; in No-
vember 1782, he carried dispatches to Dr. Frank-
lin in France, and brought back a sum of money
lent by the French government. In 1794 he went
with Monroe to France, and for six years served
in the French navy. In 1814 he commanded the
i^eet stationed in Chesapeake Bay.

Barnfield, Richard, English poet: b. Nor-
bury, Shropshire, 1574; d. 1627. His lyrics, *As
It Fell Upon a Day^ and "^If Music and Sweet
Poetry Agree,' were long ascribed to Shake-
speare and were included in *^The Passionate
Pilgrim' (i599)- Barnfield's works include:
'The Affectionate Shepherd' (1594) ; 'Cynthia,
with Certain Sonnets and the Legend of Cas-
sandra' (159s) ; 'The Encomion of Lady Pe-
cunia' (1598).

Barni, bar-ne, Jules Remain, French
scholar and critic: b. Lille, i June 1818; d. Mers,
4 July 1878. His efforts to propagate the Kan-
tian philosophy through the medium of 'Ob-
servations on the Sense of the Sublime and
Beautiful' (1836) ; 'Foundations of Ethical
Metaphysic' (1848), and 'Kantian Philosophy'
(1850), earned him distinction; as did also, in
another, but contiguous field, a 'History of
Moral and Political Ideas in France in the
Eighteenth Century' (1866).

Barns'ley, England, a town in the west
riding of Yorkshire, 23 miles south by east of
Leeds. It occupies the summits and slopes of
two hills and is well built. Among the chief
buildings are the public hall, built at a cost of
over £26,000, and furnishing accommodations for
various societies ; the offices of the miners' asso-
ciation, the Beckett Hospital, the county court,
the offices of the Barnsley Banking Company, the
parish church, St. George's Church, the Congre-
gational Church, a beautiful edifice, and several
other places of worship. Its staple industry is
the manufacture of linen in a variety of forms,
which is carried on to a great extent, both hand-
looms and power-looms being used ; linens are
also printed here in a style similar to the cottons
of Lancashire. There are numerous collieries
in the neighborhood, among which the Oaks
Colliery has been made memorable by several
disastrous explosions. The town possesses a
beautiful public park containing several monu-
ments. A United States consul is stationed
here. Pop. (1901) 41,000.

Barn'stable, Mass., a town, port of entry,
and county-seat of Barnstable County, 72 miles

southeast of Boston. Within its corporate limits
are 12 villages, several of which, such as
Hyannis, Osterville, and Cotuit, are well-known
summer resorts. The town has several public
libraries and a State normal school. Farming,
fishing, and cranberry culture are the principal
industries. Pop. (1900) 4,364.

Barnstaple, England, a town in Devon-
shire, 34 miles northwest from Exeter, on the
right bank of the Taw, here crossed by a hand-
some bridge of 16 arches. It is locally styled Ba-
rum, and among its public edifices are a large 14th
century church, a guildhall, and market build-
ings, the bridge buildings, Albert clock-tower,
etc. Its manufactures consist chiefly of pottery,
known as "Barum ware," lace, paper, furniture,
toys, leather, gloves, and collars ; and ships and
boats are built. The trade chiefly depends on
the surrounding district. Previous to 1885 the
town returned two members to Parliament.
Pop. (1901) 14,000.

Barnum, Frances Courtenay (Baylor),
American novelist : b. Fayetteville, Ark., 1848.
She has written 'On Both Sides,' an interna-
tional novel (1886); 'Behind the Blue Ridge,*
'Juan and Juanita,' a story for boys and girls;
'Claudia Hyde' (1894) ; 'The Ladder of For-
tune' (1899). She has also been a frequent
contributor to magazines, and a writer of short
stories. Since her marriage she has lived in
Savannah, Ga.

Barnum, Phineas Taylor, American show-
man : b. Bethel, Conn., 5 Julyi8io; d. Bridgeport
7 April 1891. He was the son of a tavern-
keeper and in his boyhood displayed a remark-
able propensity for practical jokes upon his
father's customers, as well as a decided turn for
trade. Having accumulated a small sum of
money he opened a small miscellaneous store.
Here he was very successful^ and taking advan-
tage of the mania for lotteries which then pre-
vailed throughout the country, he visited New
York, and obtained some insight into their man-
agement. Returning to his store, he immediately
entered into this business upon a large scale,
established agencies in various cities and towns,
and realized considerable sums from the im-
mense sales of tickets which he was thus enabled
to make. The predominating trait in his char-
acter would not, however, permit him to settlt
down as a country store-keeper, and we soon
hear of him as the editor of the Herald of
Freedom, published in Danbury, Conn. In this
undertaking he was also very successful in a
pecuniary point of view, but his freedom of
speech and the boldness of his opinions soon
gained him many enemies, and he was several
times sued for libel, and once confined in prison
for 60 days. In 1834 he removed with his fam-
ily to New York, having become much reduced
in circumstances. Here he tried many ways
to obtain a livelihood, but without much success,
until 1835, when hearing of Joice Heth, a col-
ored woman, the reputed nurse of George Wash-
ington, he visited her owners, and becoming sat-
isfied that here was an opportunity of retrieving
his broken fortunes, he became her purchaser
for the sum of $1,000, which he had obtained
from various friends. By widely advertising this
curiosity, considerable excitement was created,
and the receipts soon amounted to $1,500 per
week. This was Mr. Barnum's first attempt as
a public showman, and finding the business

BARNUM — BARODA

profitable, he collected a small company and trav-
eled through the country, realizing large sums
wherever he halted. In 1836 Joice Heth died,
and a post-mortem examination proved her to
have been but 75 or 80 years old, instead of
161, which was her reputed age. From 1836
until 1839 Mr. Barnum continued in the exhibit-
ing business, but was then obliged to return to
New York, again reduced to poverty. He now
barely subsisted by writing occasional articles
for Sunday papers, and by petty jobs. In 1841,
the establishment known as Scudder's American
Museum was announced for sale, and with a
boldness almost unparalleled in mercantile
transactions, Mr. Barnum negotiated for its pur-
chase; without owning a dollar he made satis-
factory arrangements with its holders and took
possession. Here his fortune turned ; at the end
of a year he was able to pay all the obligations
which he had entered into on account of the
museum. In 1848 he had added to it two other
extensive and valuable collections, beside several
minor ones, and single curiosities without num-
ber. It now became the most popular place of
amusement in the United States. In 1842 he
heard of Charles S. Stratton, of Bridgeport,
then 5 years old, less than 2 feet high, and weigh-
ing only 16 pounds. The boy became known to
the world as Gen. Tom Thumb, and was ex-
hibited in the United States with astonishing
success until 1844, when Mr. Barnum sailed
with him for England. Throughout Great Brit-
ain he was received with a popularity surpassing
even that of America, and for four months the
receipts averaged $500 per day. Tom Thumb
was presented to the royal families of England,
France, and Belgium, courted and caressed by
the nobility, and presented with costly gifts. In
Coventry Barnum purchased the "Happy Fam-
ily*' of birds and animals, for which he paid
$2,500. In 1847 he returned to America, where
the "GeneraP* was again exhibited for a year
with increased success, the receipts in the United
States and Havana amounting to $150,000.
Barnum conceived the idea of inducing Mile.
Jenny Lind to visit America, and entered into
an agreement with her, by which he engaged
her to sing in America for 150 nights at $1,000
per night, the expenses of herself and troupe
:o be defrayed by him. Jenny Lind arrived in
New York i Sept. 1850. The excitement upon
this occasion has perhaps never been equaled in
America. She gave her first concert at Castle
Garden, and from that time until June 1851, gave
g;i concerts, which were a succession of tri-
umphs, the gross receipts for the whole amount-
ing to over $700,000. The tickets were generally
sold at auction, the highest price paid for one
ticket being in Providence, R. I., namely, $650.
He continued before the public with varying
success until 1855, when having built himself
an extensive villa at Bridgeport, Conn., he re-
tired from business and published his life, giv-
ing a full account of the various enterprises in
which he had been engaged. He also devoted
much of his time to farming, and made many
improvements in Bridgeport. Two museums
of his were burned, in 1865 and 1868, and in
1871 he established "The Greatest Show on
Earth,* a combination of traveling circus and
menageries. He was defeated for Congress in
1866, but was four times a member of the Con-
necticut legislature. Besides his < Autobiogra-
phy > (1854), he published <The Humbugs of the

World* (1865), and ^Struggles and Triumphs>
(1869).

Barnum, William H., American politician:
b. Boston Corners, N. Y., 17 Sept. 1818; d. 30
April 1889. He received a public school educa-
tion and amassed large wealth in manufacturing;
was a member of Congress from Connecticut in
1866-76, when he was elected United States
Senator to complete the term of Orris Ferry
(deceased). In 1880 and 1884 he was chairman
of the Democratic National Committee.

Barn'well, Robert Woodward, American
statesman : b. Beaufort, S. C, 10 Aug. 1801 ; d. 25
Nov. 1882. He was graduated from Harvard
University in 182 1 ; became a lawyer; was a
member of Congress from South Carolina in
1829-33; a United States senator from that
State, 1850-1 ; commissioner from South Caro-
lina to confer with the Federal government re-
garding the proposed secession of the State in
i860; member of the Provisional Confederate
Congress, 1861-2; a Confederate senator in
1862-6; and then president of the University of
South Carolina (an office he had held in
1835-41) till 1873.

Barnwell, Robert Woodward, American
bishop of the Episcopal Church : b. Beaufort,
S. C, 27 Dec. 1849; d. Selma, Ala., 24 July 1902.
He prepared for the Episcopal ministry at the
General Theological Seminary in New York,
and was rector of Trinity Church, Demopo-
lis, Ala., 1876-80; and of St. Paul's, Selma, Ala.,
1890-1900. In 1900 he was consecrated Bishop
of Alabama.

Baroccio, ba-roch'6, or Barocci, Fiori
Federigo, Italian painter: b. Urbino, 1528; d.
there 31 Sept. 1612. In his youth he studied
the works of Titian, and, in 1560 he was en-
trusted by Pius IV. with the decoration of the
Belvedere palace. Some of the Roman painters,
envious of his genius, invited him to a banquet,
where they gave him poison. For four years he
was not able to touch his pencil, and afterward
could only work two hours a day. His later
pictures are in the style of Correggio. His 'Last
Supper,* 'Descent from the Cross,* 'St. Francis
Stigmatized,* 'Christ and Magdalen,* and 'An-
nunciation,* are among his best productions.

Baroche, ba-rosh, Pierre Jules, French
statesman: b. Paris, 1802; d. Jersey, 1870. In
1847 he was elected member of the Chamber of
Deputies for the department of Charente-
Inferieure, where he steadily opposed the minis-
try of Guizot. He signed the Acte d' Accusa-
tion, drawn up by Odillon Barrot 23 Feb. 1848,
in which they were accused of violating the
rights of citizens, and of systematic corruption.
On 2 Dec. 1851, Baroche was nominated presi-
dent of the Council of State; an office in which
he exhibited much ability and tact, and subse-
quently filled the offices of minister of foreign
affairs (i860), and minister of justice (1863).
He was made a senator in 1864.

Baro'da, a city of Hindustan, in the prov-
ince of Gujerat, capital of the native state of
Baroda, 240 miles north of Bombay, on the left
bank of the Viswamitra, here spanned by four
stone bridges. The city proper is surrounded by
a wall, outside of which are large suburbs. The
houses in general are very mean, but there are
several palaces, some handsome houses belonging
to the wealthy inhabitants, government offices,

BAROMETER

a high school, and numerous temples. It is
a place of considerable trade, and the seat of a
British resident. Pop. (1901) 103,800. The
state of Baroda, which has been tributary to
Great Britain from 1802, has an area of 8,100
square miles and a population (1901) of
1,953,000.

Barometer (Greek, ^'weigM-measure'^),
an instrument invented by the Italian physicist
Torricelli, and used for determining the pres-
sure of the atmosphere. (For an account of its
early history see Atmosphere.) In its sim-
plest form the mercurial
barometer consists essen-
tially of a vertical glass
tube about a yard in
length, closed at the top
and open at the bottom,
and partially filled with
mercury, into a vessel of
which its lower end also
dips. In preparing the in-
strument for use, the tube
is first completely filled
with mercury; but as soon
as it is free to do so
the column of mercury
in the tube sinks (leaving
a vacuous space at. the top
of the tube) until it
stands at a height (usually
about 30 inches) such that
the pressure of the col-
umn exactly balances that
of the atmosphere. A
graduated scale of metal
or glass is provided, by
means of which the differ-
ence in level between the
of the column and the ."lurface of
mercury in the open vessel (called the

top
the

^'cistern") at the bottom can be measured with
precision. In the Fortin instrument (the de-
sign commonly adopted for all but the most re-
fined work) the cistern is closed below by a
piece of flexible leather, which can be raised or
lowered by means of a screw, in order to bring
the surface of the mercury in the cistern to a
certain fixed level, before the reading is taken.
A pointed index, k, preferably of ivory, projects
downward into the cistern from the upper cover,
the position of its tip, with respect to the scale
on the barometer tube above, being known. The
mercury in the cistern being first brought ac-
curately into contact with the extremity of k,
the position of the upper end of the barometric
column is read from the scale. The ^'apparent'^
height of the barometer is then known; but in
order to deduce the "true^* height, certain cor-
rections must be applied. The most important
of these is the correction for. temperature. The
scale from which the height of the column is
read is longer when the temperature is high than
when the temperature is low; and the mercury
in the column is also less dense at higher tem-
peratures than at lower ones. These two
sources of error partially compensate each other ;
for at a high temperature the reduced density
of the mercury tends to make the column stand
too high, while the greater length of the scale at
such a temperature tends to make the reading
too small. The compensation is not perfect,
however, and when the coefficient of expansion
of the scale is known^ a table of temperature

corrections must be calculated, to reduce the
direct reading to what it would have been if it
had been taken at some fixed standard tempera-
ture. The temperature of meltnig ice is adopted,
by universal consent, as the standard to which
the ^'apparent" reading is to be reduced. An-
other important correction must be applied in
order to allow for the variations of gravity
with the latitude and elevation of the place of
observation. Where gravity is relatively weak,
a longer column of mercury will be required
to balance a given atmospheric pressure than
would be required to balance the same pressure
in a region where gravity is stronger. All the
barometric readings taken at the International
Bureau of Weights and Measures, near Paris,
are reduced to the values they would have if
made at the level of the sea, in latitude 45° ;
and this practice is growing in favor among
physicists generally. To reduce a barometric
reading to sea-level and to latitude 45°, it is
merely necessary to multiply the observed height
of the column (after applying the correction for
temperature) by the expression (i — .00259 cos
L) (i — .00000006 H), where L is the latitude of
the place of observation, and H is its height
above the sea, in feet. Several secondary cor-
rections have also to be considered, when great
refinement is desired. Prominent among these is
the correction for "capillarity,'' which is made
necessary by the fact that the mercury does not
stand as high in a small barometric tube as it
does in a larger one, on account of the surface
tension (q.v.) of the liquid. No simple formula
for this correction can be given, and it varies
somewhat according as the barometer is rising or
falling at the time of the observation. Tables
for finding the capillary correction are given in
Guyot's meteorological and physical tables, pub-
lished under the direction of the Smithsonian
Institution at Washington. An excellent table
is also given in Guillaume's ^Thermometrie de
Precision,^ where the elaborate precautions taken
in filling the modern precision barometer are
also described.

The barometer is a simple instrument, and
of the greatest use in all kinds of scientific
work. The greatest fault of the mercurial in-
strument is the difficulty of transporting it with-
out breakage and without destroying the vacuum
in the upper part of the tube by the admission
of air laubbles. Instruments like the Fortin
type may be transported by screwing up the
leather bottom until both the cistern and the
tube are completely filled with mercury, then
reversing the barometer, and carrying it to its
destination bottom side up. The ^^aneroid*
barometer, although not nearly so accurate as
the mercurial instrument, possesses the advan-
tage of portability, since, as its name signifies,
it does not contain any liquid; and it is there-
fore used to a considerable extent in the deter-
mination of the heights of places above the
sea. (See Hypsometry.) Various forms of
the aneroid exist. One of these consists of a
cylindrical metal box. exhausted of air, and
having a lid of thin, corrugated metal. The lid,
which is highly elastic, jdelds to every chan.ge
of atmospheric pressure, and delicate multiply-
ing levers transmit its motions to an index that
moves over a graduated scale, whose divisions
are marked on the dial empirically, by compari-
son with a mercurial barometer. For further
information concerning the barometer and its

BAROMETER.

*, * TorricelU's Experiment with tube full of .Mercury. ' Barometer in its simplest form. * Barometer with bent
tube and scale. ^, '' Fortin's portable Barometer — structural details. ' Common Wheel-Barometer or Weather-
Glass. ' Internal structure of same. ' Aneroid Barometer. ' ' Internal Mechanism of Aneroid.

BAROMETRIC LIGHT — BARONY

use. consult Stewart and Gee, ^Elementary Prac-
tical Physics^; Glazebrook and Shaw, 'Prac-
tical Physics^ ; Abbe, 'Meteorological Apparatus
and Methods' ; Guillaume, 'Thermometrie de
Precision.' See also Meteorology.

Barometric Light, a name sometimes
given to the faint glow (first observed by Jean
Picard in 1675) produced in the vacuous space
of a mercurial barometer when the instrument
is agitated. The light is given oflf by the mer-
curial vapor (or other highly attenuated gas)
that is present, under the influence of the elec-
tricity generated by the friction of the mercury
against the glass. Advantage has been taken of
this phenomenon in the construction of "self-
acting* Geissler tubes, the electricity required
to excite them being generated, when they are
inverted or shaken, by the friction of a small
quantity of mercury introduced before the ex-
haustion. No very brilliant results can be
obtained in this way, however.

Baron, ba-ron, Michel, or Boyron, French
comedian : b. 1653. and long attached to Mo-
liere's companJ^ For nearly 30 years he played
with great success, and retired from the stage
in 1691 without any apparent reason. In 1720.
however, he again returned, and was received
with immense enthusiasm, playing, with great
success, even the most youthful parts. In 1729
he was taken ill while on the boards, and died
shortly after.

Baron. In the feudal system of the
Middle Ages, at first, the immediate tenant of
any superior was called his Baron. In old rec-
ords the citizens of London are so styled, and
the members of the House of Commons, elected
by the Cinque-Ports, were called barons. This
title was introduced into England by William
the Conqueror to signify an immediate vassal
of the Crown, who had a seat and vote in the
royal court and tribunals, and subsequently in
the House of Peers. It was the second rank
of nobility, until dukes and marquises were
introduced and placed above the earls, and vis-
counts also set above the barons. It is now the
lowest rank of the peerage, and is held by
prescription, patent, or tenure. The barons
were anciently divided into greater barons, or
such as held their lands of the king in capite;
and lesser barons, such as held their lands of
the greater barons by military service. In Ger-
many the ancient barons of the empire were
the immediate vassals of the Crown. They ap-
peared in the imperial court and diet, and be-
longed to the high nobility. But these ancient
feudatories were early elevated to the rank of
counts or princes. A baron has the title of
*right honorable lord," etc., and should be ad-
dressed as ''my lord*' or "your lordship." His
wife claims also the title of "right honorable,"
and may be addressed as "madam," or "your
ladyship." The coronation robes of a baron
differ from those of the other peers in having
but two rows of spots on the mantle ; and the
parliamentary robes, in having but two guards
of white fur, with rows of gold lace. The
right of wearing a coronet was first conferred
on barons by Charles II. It is adorned with
six pearls, set at equal distances, of which
four are usually shown. In England, the four
puisne judges of the court of exchequer bear
the title of baron, and the chief judge that of
Lord Chief Baron of the Exchequer. They are

addressed as My Lord, but have no seat in the
House of Lords, unless by being previously
made a member of the peerage. See also Peer.

Baronet, a hereditary dignity in Great
Britain and Ireland next in rank to the peerage,
originally instituted by James I., 22 May 161 1.
The first person to receive the honor was Sir
Nicholas Bacon of Redgrave, whose successors
in the title have ever since held the rank of
premier baronet of the kingdom. Baronets are
created by letters-patent, under the great seal,
and the honor is generally given to the gran-
tee and the heirs male of his body lawfully
begotten, though sometimes it is entailed on
collaterals. The order was created nominally
to assist in the plantation of Ulster, but really
in order to raise money for the king, and each
baronet, on his creation, was obliged to pay
into the treasury a sum amounting to a little
less than $5,500. According to the terms of its
foundation the dignity could be conferred only
on those who had the right by inheritance from
at least a grandfather to wear coat-armor, and
whose income from lands was not less than
$5,000 per annum. In 1622 there were 200 baro-
nets in England, this being the number to
which the order was originally limited. Charles
I. and subsequent sovereigns disregarded alto-
gether the original limitation of the number.
Precedence is given to baronets before all
knights, except those of the Garter, bannerets
created on the field, and privy-councilors. An
order of Baronets of Ireland was also instituted
by James I., for the same purpose and with the
same privileges as the baronets of England.
Since the union, in 1801, none have been created
otherwise than as baronets of the United King-
dom. Charles I. instituted an order of Baronets
of Scotland and Nova Scotia in 1625, for the
purpose of advancing the plantation of Nova
Scotia, in which the king granted a certain por-
tion of land to each member of the order.
Since the union the power of the Crown to
create new baronets specially connected with
Scotland is held to have ceased.

Baro'nius, Caesar, Italian ecclesiastical
historian: b. Sora, 1538; d. 30 June 1607. He
was educated at Naples; in 1557 went to Rome;
was one of the first pupils of St. Philip of
Neri, and member of the oratory founded by him ;
afterward cardinal and librarian of the Vatican
Library. He owed these dignities to the ser-
vices which he rendered the Church by his
edition of the Roman Martyrology, 'Ecclesiasti-
cal Annals,' in reply to the Protestant 'Magde-
burg Centuries,' comprising valuable docu-
ments from the papal archives, on which he
labored from the year 1580 until his death.
They were continued, though with less power,
by other writers, of whom Raynaldus takes the
first rank.

Barons' War, the war carried on for sev-
eral years by Simon de Montfort and other
barons of Henry III. against the king, begin-
ning in 1263. See also Montfort, Simon de.

Barony, the lordship or fee of a baron,
either temporal or spiritual. Originally every
peer of superior rank had also a barony an-
nexed to his other titles. But now the rule
is not universal. Baronies in their first crea-
tion emanated from the king. Baronies apper-
tain also to bishops, as formerly to abbots.
William the Conqueror having changed the

BAROTSE — BARRACKPUR

spiritual tenure of frank-almoyn, or free alms,
by which they held their lands under the Saxon
government, to the Norman or feudal tenure
by barony. It was in virtue of this that they
obtained seats in the House of Lords. The
word is commonly applied in Ireland to a sub-
division of a county.

Barotse, ba-rot'se, a South African people
inhabiting a region in the west of Rhodesia,
extending from the Chobe River northward to
the Kabompo. They are a branch of the
Bechuanas who have migrated northward, and
it would appear that they were long subject to
a Basuto tribe called the Makololo. About
i860, however, they threw off the yoke of their
oppressors and almost exterminated them, but
they still speak the language of the Makololos.
Their country is a treeless, alluvial plain, over
150,000 square miles in extent. From 1890 King
Lawanika acknowledged the virtual supremacy
of Great Britain, and in 1898 the British South
African Company obtained complete administra-
tive powers.

Barou'che, a four-wheeled carriage virith a
falling top. There are usually two inside seats
in which four persons can sit.

Barquesimeto, bar-ke-se-ma-to, a city of
Venezuela, capital of the state of Lara ; is sit-
uated in a high plain, on the Barquesimeto
River. It was founded by the Spaniards in
1552. The soil of the neighborhood is very
fertile. Coffee of excellent quality is grown
here. The town is well built, and has wide
streets, and among its prominent buildings are
the government palace, barracks, market and
Cathedral. Pop. (1899) about 40,000. Previous
to the earthquake of 1812 it contained 15,000
persons, but that calamity destroyed 1,500 lives,
and left scarcely a house standing.

Barr, Amelia Edith, (Huddleston), Anglo-
American novelist : b. Ulverstone, Lancashire,
England, 29 March 1831. She was the daugh-
ter of the Rev. William Huddleston, and in 1850
married Robert Barr. She came to the United
States in 1854, and lived for some years in
Texas; but after her husband's death (1867)
removed to New York, where her first book,
'Romance and Reality.* was published in 1872.
She is a prolific writer, and her more than 30
novels are very pooular. Among them are ^Jan
Vedder's Wife> (1885) ; <A Da^ughter of Fife'
(1885): ^A Bow of Orange Ribbon> (1886);
*A Border Shepherdess* (1887) ; 'Friend
Olivia* (1890) ; <A Sister to Esau* (1891) ;
'Remember the Alamo* ; 'Prisoners of Con-
science* (1897) ; 'I, Thou, and the Other One*
(1899); ^Trinity Bells* (1899); 'The Maid of
Maiden Lane* (1900) ; 'The Lion's Whelp*
(1901) ; 'Souls of Passage* (1901).

Barr, James, Canadian author: b. Wallace-
town, Ontario, 1862. He engaged in journalism
in that province, the United States, and in
London ; and under the pen-name of Angus
Evan Abbott has contributed much to maga-
zine literature. Among his separate publica-
tions are 'American Humorous Verse* (1891),
and the American volume in the 'International
Humorous Series* (1893), the last containing a
biographical index of nearly 200 American and
Canadian humorists. He is a brother of Robert
Barr (q.v.).

Barr, Robert, Scottish novelist: b. Glas-
gow, 16 Sept. 1850. He spent his childhood in
Canada, drifted into journalism, and in 1876
joined the staff of Detroit Free Press, and wrote
under the name of Luke Sharp. He went to
London in 1881 and in 1892 founded The Idler
with Jerome K. Jerome, but retired in 1895 to
devote himself to fiction. He is author of 'In
a Steamer Chair* (1892) ; 'In the Midst of
Alarms* (1894) '< '■The Face and the Mask*
(1895); 'One Day's Courtship* (1896); 'A
Woman Intervenes* (1896) ; 'Countess Tekla*
(1899) ; 'The Unchanging East* (1900) ; 'The
Victors* (1901) ; 'A Prince of Good Fellows*
(1902).

Barra, a small Mandingo kingdom of west-
ern Africa, near the mouth of the Gambia, with
an estimated population of 200,000, its men be-
ing remarkable for their fine proportions. The
surface, which is fertile, but rather marshy,
is well cultivated. The territory about the
mouth of the river belongs to the British, who
have built the port of Albreda on the south
bank, from which considerable trade is car-
ried on. The chief town is Barrinding, where
the so-called king resides.

Bar'ra, a Scottish island, forming part of
the Outer Hebrides, eight miles long and from
two to five wide, and almost entirely composed
of gneiss, which on the west coast forms huge
rocky barriers. On these the Atlantic, beating
with all its force, has hollowed out vast caves
and fissures. In the interior not merely the
hollows and valleys, but many of the loftiest
hills are clothed with fine pasture, on which
large herds of cattle and flocks of sheep are
reared. The coasts abound with fish, and the
island forms a fishing centre of some impor-
tance. There are many standing stones and
other antiquities. Pop. (1891) 2,131.

Bar'racan, strictly, a thick, strong fabric
made in Persia and Armenia, of camel's hair,
but the name has been applied to various wool,
flax, and cotton stuffs.

Barracand, ba-ra-c6ii, Leon Henri, French
poet and novelist: b. Romans, Drome, 2 May
1844. He gave up the law when a very young
man in order to write verses ; but he was not
much known as a poet until 'Dananiel* (1886)
appeared, under the pseudonym of Leon Gran-
DET, followed by a sequel, 'Doctor Gal* (1870),
He had already, however, attracted attention by
some fictions, and has steadily risen in im-
portance as a novelist — 'Yolande* (1867);
'Hilaire Gervais* (1885) ; 'The Second Lieu-
tenant's Manuscript* (1887) ; and 'The Cousin*
(1888), being perhaps best known. His 'La-
martine and the Muse* (1883) was crowned
by the French Academj'.

Barrack Room Ballads, a book of verse by
Rudyard Kipling, published in 1892. It deals
with the various experiences of Tommy Atkins,
the British private, and no such vivid por-
traiture of the common soldier with his dull-
ness, his unhesitating obedience, and his matter-
of-fact heroisms has appeared elsewhere.

Barrackpur, ba-rak-poor', a town and can-
tonment in Hindustan, on the Hooghly, 15
miles north of Calcutta. In the vicinity is the
suburban residence of the Viceroy of India,
within a park four miles in circuit. A sepoy
mutiny, the prelude to the great outbreak a;

BARRACKS — BARRAS

Meerut in May, took place here in February
1857. A mutiny had previously taken place in
1824. Barrackpur is also known as North Bar-
rackpur to distinguish it from South Barrack-
pur or Agarpara, midway between it and Cal-
cutta. Pop. 18,000.

Barracks, a name originally given to tem-
porary accommodation for troops, but now des-
ignating permanent and commodious erections,
in which troops are lodged in fortified towns
or other places. The introduction of barracks
into England was opposed as dangerous to lib-
erty, by estranging the soldier from the citizen,
and fitting him to become a tool of despotism ;
but the billeting of soldiers upon citizens had
grown to be so burdensome to communities that
after the close of the i8th century extensive
barracks were built at convenient stations all
over the United Kingdom. Much improvement
has been effected in the construction and ar-
rangement of English barracks during the last
half-century ; and separate quarters are now
provided for married soldiers. The construc-
tion and repair of barracks is part of the duty
of the royal engineers ; their equipment and al-
lotment is intrusted to a barracks section of the
Army Service Corps. In the United States
the term is ofiicially used to designate impor-
tant military posts, such as the Columbus Bar-
racks, San Diego Barracks, Washington Bar-
racks, and others.

Barracoon, a negro barrack or slave de-
pot, formerly plentiful on the coasts of Africa,
Cuba, and Brazil.

Barracuda, bar-ra-koo'da, an oceanic fish
of the famih^ Sphyrcenid<E, of which about 20
species inhabit the warm seas of the whole
world. All are elongate, pike-like fishes, with
long, pointed jaws filled with sharp teeth. They
are often of large size, are powerful swimmers,
active and voracious, and, like the blucfish. prey
upon schools of smaller fishes. Several species
occur on the American coasts. The great bar
racuda '^picuda,'* or "becuna*' {Sphyrccna picu-
da) , is -common throughout the West Indies
and northward to South Carolina, and reaches
a length of six feet. It is the largest and most
voracious of the genus, is as fierce as a shark,
and is sometimes dangerous to bathers. Other
West Indian species are those called guaguanche,
and picudilla. These are smaller, as is a third
species also, which is common along the At-
lantic coast of the United States. Two or three
species are found on the Pacific coast from
California southward. One of these (5*. argen-
tea) is a long and slender species, known
as the California ^<barracouta." and highly val-
ued for food. It closely resembles the typical
European barracuda (S. sphyrcena), locally
known as *spet'^ and ^^sennet.'* and one of the
important food-fishes of the Mediterranean.

Barramunda, bar-ra-mun'da, or Burnett
Salmon, names in Australia for a mud-fish
{Ceratodus), remarkable as a survival of the
very ancient group Dipnoi. See Lung-Fish.

Barrande, ba-rand, Joachim, French geol-
ogist : b. Sangues in the department of Haute
Loire, 11 Aug. 1799; d. Vienna, 5 Oct. 1883.
His specialty was the Silurian formations in
Bohemia, his writings including 'Systeme
Silurien du Centre de la Boheme^ (1852
and 1887) ; Xolonie dans le Bassin Silurien de
la Boheme^ (i860) ; ^Documents sur la Faune

Primordiale et la Systeme Taconique en Amer-
ique> (1861) ; ^Representation de Colonies de la
Boheme dans le Bassin Silurien du nordouest
de la France^ (1853) ; ^Cephalapodes, Etudes
Generales.^

Barran'dite, a mineral occurring in
rounded concretions exhibiting a concentric
structure as well as indistinct radial fibres. It
is gray, usually with tinges of color, and has
a hardness of 4.5 and a specific gravity of 2.58.
Its composition is ( Al,Fe) P0« + 2H2O, the
iron and aluminum being present in the ratio
of about 4 to 3. It is found mainly at Cer-
hovic in Bohemia.

Barranquilla, bar-ran-ke'lya, the chief
commercial centre of Colombia, some 15 miles
from the mouth of the Magdalena. The bar
at the mouth of the river has been improved
so as to enable sea-going vessels to pass up
to Barranquilla, which possesses excellent
wharfage accommodation. The inland traffic
by river steamers is important. The trade is
mainly in the hands of Germans. It is the seat
of a United States consulate. Pop. about
40,000.

Barrantes y Moreno, bar-ran'ta-se-mo-ra'-
no, Vicente, Spanish writer: b. Badajoz, 24
March 1829. He first studied theology, but in
1848 settled in Madrid to pursue literature; held
responsible government offices ; became a mem-
ber of the Academy in 1872. Among his
works are the stories ^Always Late' (i8tI);
<Juan de Padilla,> ^The Widow of Padilla.>
and a series of historical studies, dealing with
strictly local Philippine and Estremaduran
topics. His ^Tales and Legends' are well
chosen and well written ; but a work on ' The
Defects and Dangers of Universal SuflFragc?
partly fiction and partly satire, is ineffective.

Barras, ba-ras, Paul Frangois Jean Nico-
las, Comte de, French statesman: b. Fox-
Amphoux (Var), 30 June 1755; d. January
1829. When the Revolution broke out he im-
mediately showed himself an opponent of the
court, and had a seat in the tiers-etat. while his
brother was sitting among the nobility. He
took part in the attacks upon the Bastile and
the Tuileries. was elected a juryman at the
tribunal of Orleans, and in September a mem-
ber of the national convention, where he voted
for the death of Louis XVI. Although he had
established his reputation as a patriot, yet he
displeased Robespierre, who resolved to involve
him in the great proscription which he then
meditated. Barras therefore joined those de-
termined to overthrow Robespierre, and took an
important part in the events of the 9th Ther-
midor (27 July 1794). He was entrusted with
the chief command of the forces of his party,
repelled the troops of Henriot. and made him-
self master of Robespierre. On 4 Feb. 1795 he
was elected president of the convention. The
13th Vendemiaire (5 Oct. I795). when the
troops of the sections which favored the royal
cause approached the convention. Barras for a
second time received the chief command of
the troops of the convention, and the battalion
of the patriots, who hastened to their assistance.
On this occasion he employed Gen. Bonaparte.
In his report he attributed the victory to ibis
young general, and procured for him the chief
command of the army of the interior. His im-
portant services promoted him to the Directory.

BARRASS — BARREL

Barras soon perceived that Bonaparte would
give a decisive superiority to him who should
obtain an influence over him; and therefore he
displaced Carnot from the War Department
and took possession of it himself. This sepa-
rated them, and Carnot for some time took part
with the council, where a party had been
formed to restrain the power of the Directory,
and particularly that of Barras. The rupture
could only terminate with the ruin of one of
the parties: that of the council fell by the
events of the i8th Fructidor (4 Sept. I797), in
which Barras took a leading part. From this
period he governed absolutely until 13 June
1799, when Sieyes entered the Directory. Never-
theless Barras succeeded in preserving his seat,
but he became a victim of the i8th Brumaire
(9 Nov. 1799). In a letter which he sent to
St. Cloud he resigned his office, and received a
passport to his estate. He afterward retired to
Brussels, where he lived for several years; but
finally received permission to repair to the south
of France. His memoirs were published in
French and English (1895-6).

Barrass, Edward, Canadian clergyman: b.
Durham, England, 22 July 1821. He entered
the ministry in 1840, and removed to Toronto
in 1853. He became the assistant editor of the
Christian Guardian, and published, among other
works, *-A Gallery of Deceased Ministers^
(1853) ; ^Class Meetings: Their Origin and Ad-
vantages^ (1865) ; ^A Gallery of Distinguished
Men^ (1870); and ^Smiles and Tears: or,
Sketches from Real Life^ (1879).

Bar'ratry, a law term applied to (i) the
oft'ense committed by the master of a vessel of
embezzling or injuring goods committed to his
charge for a voyage. Barratry has also been
defined to be an unlawful or fraudulent act, or
very gross or culpable negligence, of the master
or mariners of a vessel in violation of their
duty as such, and directly prejudicial to the
owner, and without his consent ; (2) the offense
of frequently exciting and stirring up law suits
or quarrels among one's neighbors or in society
generally. An indictment for this offense must
charge the offender with being a common bar-
rator, and the proof must show at least three
instances of offending. An attorney is not liable
to indictment for maintaining another in a
groundless action. In New York, and some
other States, barratry is defined to be the prac-
tice of exciting groundless judicial proceedings,
and is a misdemeanor.

Barre, bar, Antoine le Fevre de la,

French naval officer : b. about 1600 ; d. 4 May
1688. He was appointed governor of Guiana in
1663, and re-took Cayenne from the Dutch. In
1667 he defeated the English in the Antilles,
forcing them to raise the blockade of St. Chris-
topher. In 1682 he was appointed to the gov-
ernorship of Canada, taking the place of the
Count de Frontenac. He was, however, re-
called in 1684, for having by his irresolution
caused the failure of the expedition to treat with
the savages.

Barre, Isaac, British officer: b. Dublin,
1726; d. London, 20 July 1802. He was wound-
ed at Quebec, was beside Wolfe when he fell,
and figures in West's picture of *^The Death of
Wolfe. ^ He entered parliament in 1761, and
held office successively under Lord Butte, Pitt,
Rockingham, and Lord Shelburne. In Pitt's

second administration he exposed the corrup-
tions of the ministry, was a strong opponent of
Lord North's ministry, and opposed the taxation
of America. The town of Barre, Mass., was
named in his honor.

Barre, bar'ra, a group of Arawakan tribes
dwelling along the Upper Rio Negro in north-
western Brazil and the adjoining districts of
Venezuela. They are extremely aggressive, and
their language is extending rapidly throughout
that region.

Barre, bar're, Mass, a town in Worcester
County, on the Ware River, 21 miles north-
west of Worcester. An institute for feeble-
minded children is established here, and there
are cotton, woolen, and straw factories. It was
named for Col. Isaac Barre (q.v.). Pop. (1900)
2,059.

Barre, Vt., a city in Washington County,
on the Central V., the Barre, and the Montpelier
& W. R. R.R.'s ; six miles southeast of Mont-
pelier. Barre received a city charter in 1894;
and has a reputation as one of the most im-
portant seats of the granite industry in the
United States. It contains, besides granite
quarries, several industrial plants connected
therewith ; a national and two savings banks ; a
public library; opera house, Goddard Seminary;
a home school for young men and women, with
four courses of study ; Spaulding High School ;
daily and weekly newspapers ; an assessed prop-
erty valuation exceeding $2,500,000, and a total
debt of about $150,000. It was incorporated in
1894. Pop. (1900) 8,448.

Barreiro, ba-ra'e-ro, Juan Baptista Her-
nandez, Cuban lawyer: b. Havana, about
1842. He acquired a liberal education, and
amassed large wealth in the practice of his pro-
fession. He was professor of Roman law in
the University of Havana for 30 years ; and
more recently was dean of the law faculty in
the university. In February 1900, while acting
as first assistant mayor of Havana, he was ap-
pointed a member of the new Cuban Civil Cab-
inet, and given the portfolio of public education.

Barrel, a hollow vessel made of staves,
set on end, arranged around a circle, and bound
together with hoops. By each stave being made
wider in the middle and tapering a little toward
the ends, the barrel is of larger diameter, or
bulges, in the middle. The bevelled edges of
the staves cause them to fit closely together,
making a tight joint along their length. The
ends are closed by circular heads, the edges
made thin to fit into a groove cut to receive
them near the ends of the staves, in which they
are held fast by driving the hoops upon the
swell of the barrel. The construction of the
barrel is ingeniously adapted for combining
great strength with lightness. It resists pres-
sure from without by the arched arrangement
of the staves ; and the hoops secure it from the
expansive force of gases often generated in its
contents. Its form is the most convenient for
transportation, admitting of the vessel being
rolled or rapidly swung by hooks placed under
the chine or ends of the staves. In the form of
kegs, firkins, liquor casks, butts, hogsheads, etc.,
they are met with everywhere. Yet the Chinese,
with all their ingenuity, it is said, have never
made a barrel. Formerly barrels were con-
structed entirely by hand, the cooper shaving the
staves with the draw knife, and shaping them

BARREN GROUNDS — BARRETT

■by clamps. But machines are now applied to
this purpose, by which the work is done much
more expeditiously. See Cooper.age.

As a measure of capacity, the barrel is of
variable dimensions, differing in size with the
materials it is designed to hold. In wine mea-
sure the barrel must contain 31J/2 gallons. A
barrel of beer in England is equal to 361^ im-
perial gallons. In the United States a barrel of
flour must contain 196 pounds ; and a barrel of
beef or pork, 200 pounds. The measure of ca-
pacity called barrel bulk is five cubic feet. Bar-
rel is also used to express any thing long and
hollow, as a gun-barrel. It is also applied to the
cylinder in a watch, about which the spring is
coiled ; and in anatomy, to the "cavity of the
tympanum^^ of the ear.

Barren Grounds, the name given to a
large tract in the Northwest Territories of Can-
ada, extending northward to the Arctic Ocean
between Great Bear and Great Slave lakes and
Hudson Bay. It consists largely of swamps,
lakes, and bare rock, and a comparatively small
part of it is yet well known. The vegetation
■chiefly consists of dwarf birches and willows,
mosses and lichens. The animals include the
reindeer, musk-ox, beaver, polar bear, wolves,
foxes, etc.

Barren Island, a volcanic island in the
Andaman Sea, about lat. 12° 15' N. ; Ion. 93°
54' E. Its diameter is about two miles, with
submarine slopes plunging rapidly to a depth
■of more than 800 fathoms. There is an ancient
crater over a mile in diameter, from the centre
of which a newer cone rises to a height of
1,015 feet. The volcano was active in 1789 and
1803, but is now dormant. A small island near
Coney Island, New York, is also known as
Barren Island.

Barren Measures, the name given to cer-
tain groups of strata associated with the coal
measures, but which contain no workable de-
posits. . In the United States there are two
so-called barren stages, a lower intervening
between the lower productive and the upper pro-
ductive measures, and an upper lying at the
base of the Permian System.

Barres, ba-res, Maurice, French novelist:
b. Charms-sur-Moselle, 1862. His earlier writ-
ing as exemplified in his ^Sous I'oeil des Bar-
bares> (1888) ; ^Un Homme Libre^ (1889) ; and
<Le Jardin de Berenice^ (1891), is more or less
decadent in character, but his later work is much
more forceful, and inculcates a healthful spirit
of nationalism. ^Les Deracines^ (1897) is
among the best of his latest writings.

Barrett, Benjamin Fisk, American Swe-
denborgian clergj-man : b. Dresden, Me., 1808 ;
d. Germantown, Pa., 6 Aug. 1892. He was
graduated from Bowdoin College in 1832, and
held Swedenborgian pastorates in New York,
Cincinnati, and Philadelphia. He was a vo-
luminous writer and industrious editor of books
and periodicals relating to Swedenborgianism.
Chief among them are: ^Life of Swedenborg*
C1841) ; 'Letters on the Divine Trinity^ (i860;
4th ed. 1873) : < Catholicity of the New Church'
(1863) ; <Episcopalianism' (1871) ; 'New View
of Help (1870: 5th ed. 1886); 'Swedenborg
and Channing' (1878) ; 'Heaven Revealed'
<i885).

Vol. 2 — 22.

Barrett, George Hooker, American actor:
b. Exeter, England, 9 June 1794; d. 5 Sept.
i860. He left England with his mother, an ac-
tress of some celebrity, and arrived at Boston
in October 1796; he made his first appearance
the same year in the part of Cora's child, in
'Pizarro,' at the age of two years. He com-
menced playing in New York in 1806. at the
Park Theatre, in the part of 'Young Norval,*
and became manager of the Bowery Theatre,
New York, in 1826, in company with E. Gilbert.
He afterward visited England, and in 1837 per-
formed at Drury Lane Theatre, London, under
the management of Alfred Bunn. He was also
manager of the Tremont Theatre, Boston, and
in 1847 opened the Broadway Theatre, New
York, but he did not retire from the stage. His
favorite characters were in genteel comedy, but
he also acted in farce and low comedy with
great success. From his elegance and stateliness
he was known by the sobriquet of "Gentleman
George.''

Barrett, John, American diplomatist: b.
Grafton, Vt., 28 Nov. 1866. He was graduated
at Dartmouth College in 1889, and the same
year went to the Pacific coast and engaged in
journalism till 1894. During 1894-8 he was
United States minister-resident and consul-gen-
eral at Bangkok, Siam, and, afterward repre-
sented several American newspapers in Manila,
Philippine Islands. After the American victory
in Manila Bay he made a special study of con-
ditions in the Philippines, and, returning by way
of London, addressed a joint assembly of mem-
bers of the House of Commons and the London
Chamber of Commerce, on the condition of trade
in the Far East. He returned to the United
States in the summer of 1899, and did much in
support of the action of the Federal government
in the Philippines.

Barrett, John Kelly, Canadian official: b.
Hamilton, Ontario, 5 June i860. He was grad-
uated at Holy' Cross College, Worcester, Mass.,
in 1872, and after serving as principal of St.
Mary's Model School in Hamilton entered the
public service, principally in the line of educa-
tion. He became conspicuous in 1890. when the
authorities of Manitoba abolished the Roman
Catholic schools and the official use of French
in that province, by defending the claims of the
Roman Catholic minority and by bringing suit
against the city of Winnipeg to test the consti-
tutional power of the Provincial Government in
passing the School Act of 1890.

Barrett, Lawrence, American actor: b.
Paterson, N. J., 4 April 1838; d. 21 March 1891.
His first appearance on the stage was in 1853,
in 'The French Spy.' In 1856 he appeared as
Sir Thomas Clifford in 'The Hunchback' at
Chambers Street Theatre, New York, and in
1857 he supported Burton, Charlotte Cushman,
Edwin Booth, and other eminent actors. He
served as a captain in the 28th Massachusetts
Infantry in the early part of the Civil War.
Later he acted at Philadelphia, Washington, and
at Winter Garden, in New York, where he was
engaged by Mr. Booth to play Othello to his
lago. After this he became an associate man-
ager of the Varieties Theatre in New Orleans,
where for the first time he played the parts
of Richeh'eu, Hamlet, and Shylock. In 1864 he
secured 'Rosedale' from Lester Wallack, and
after appearing in its leading character at New

BARRETT — B ARRIE

Orleans, began his first tour as a star actor.
In 1867 he played at Maguire's Opera House
in San Francisco, and was then manager of
the California Theatre till 1870. Late in 1870
he went with Mr. Booth, playing in alternate
characters in Booth's Theatre. In 1871-2 he
was manager of the New Varieties Theatre in
New Orleans, and in De.cember 1872 acted Cas-
sius to Booth's Brutus in New York. During
1873-4 he made tours through the United States.
In 1875 he appeared as Cassius in 'Julius
Caesar,^ in Booth's Theatre, and later as King
Lear. He was the first actor to appear as Dan-
iel Druce in the United States in Mr. Gilbert's
play. In 1882 he brought out 'Francesca di
Rimini,^ at the Chestnut Street Theatre in Phil-
adelphia. In 1883 this play ran for nine weeks
at the Star Theatre, in New York. In 1887 he
began his first joint engagement with Edwin
Booth in Buffalo. Mr. Barrett's last production
of a new play was 'Guido Ferranti^ by Oscar
Wilde, brought out in 1890, at the Broadway
Theatre, New York. His last appearance was
on 18 March 1891, in the character of Adrian du
Mauprat to the Richelieu of Mr. Booth. He
wrote 'Life of Edwin Forrest.^

Barrett, William Alexander, English jour-
nalist and musician: b. London, 15 Oct. 1834;
d. 17 Oct. i8gi. He was musical critic of the
London Morning Post from 1867 till his death,
and edited several musical journals. He pub-
lished a 'Life of Balfe' ; 'The Choristers'
Guide^ ; 'English Church Composers' ; 'English
Folk Songs, Glees, apd Madrigals,' and a 'Dic-
tionary of Musical Terms' (with Stainer.)

Barrett, William Fletcher, English scien-
tist : b. Jamaica, West Indies, 10 Feb. 1844. He
assisted Prof. Tyndall at the Royal Institution,
London, 1862-6, and in 1873 became professor
of experimental physics in the Royal College of
Science, Dublin. He was one of the founders
of the Society for Psychical Research, and is
widely known for his original researches in
magnetism and radiant heat. He has published
'Lessons in Science' (1880) ; 'Early Chapters
in Science' (1899) ; 'A Monograph on the So-
called Divining Rod' (1897-1900).

Barrett, Wilson, English dramatist and
actor : b. Essex, 18 Feb. 1846 ; d. London, 22
July, 1904. He went upon the state in 1863. In
1874 he became manager of the Amphitheatre in
Leeds, and later lessee of the Grand Theatre in
Leeds ; in 1879 manager of the Court Theatre,
London; and in 1881, of Princess' Theatre, Lon-
don. He visited the United States in 1886, and,
returning to England in 1887, became manager of
the Globe Theatre ; revisited the United States in
1888, and again in 1889 ; in 1896 became man-
ager of the Lyric Theatre, London ; and in
1899, of the Lyceum. His dramas include 'The
Sign of the Cross' ; *^ Pharaoh' ; 'Now-a-days' ;
'The Daughters of Babylon' ; 'In Old New
York' ; etc. ; and he adapted for stage pur-
poses such well-known novels as 'The Deem-
ster' ; 'The Bondman' ; 'The Manxman' ; and
'Quo Vadis.'

Barr'head, a manufacturing town of Scot-
land, seven miles southwest of Glasgow. The
chief industries are the printing of cottons, the
spinning of cotton yarn, dyeing, bleaching, iron
and brass founding, and the making of machin-
ery and sanitary appliances. Pop. (1901) 9.9CO.

Barrias, ba-re-as, Felix Joseph, French
painter : b. Paris, 13 Sept. 1822 ; a pupil of Leon
Cogniet. His most successful works are 'Cin-
cinnatus' (1844) ; 'Sappho' (1847) ; and 'Death
of Chopin' (1885). He was awarded the Grand
Prix de Rome, 1844 ; Legion of Honor, 1859 ;
first medal at the Paris Exposition, 1889.

Barrias, Louis Ernest, French sculptor: b.
Paris, 1841 ; d. 4 Feb. 1905. His first success
was the 'Spartains' for the Tuileries in 1871.
Among his latest works are the Carnot Me-
morial for the city of Bordeaux (1896), and the
bronze statue of Laboisier for Paris (1900).

Barricade, an obstruction hastily impro-
vised to defend a narrow passage (for instance,
a street, a bridge, etc.), serving to retard an
enemy and afford an opportunity of firing upon
them with effect. Carriages, casks, chests, fur-
niture, beams — in short, everything which is at
hand is used for this purpose ; and if it is ne-
cessary that the enemy, when consisting prin-
cipally of cavalry, should be checked in the
pursuit, though it be but for a moment, the
baggage wagons may be employed with effect.
Barricades, constructed of the first materials
that came to hand, were used in popular insur-
rections during the Middle Ages, and Paris has
obtained notoriety as the city in which they have
been most frequently employed. In 1358 its
streets were barricaded against the Dauphin.
The first "Battle of the Barricades" took place
on the entry of the Duke of Guise into Paris,
12 May 1588. It was followed, during the War
of the Fronde, by another contest of a some-
what similar character, 26 Aug. 1648, when
Anne of Austria ordered the arrest of three pop-
ular members of the parliament. In July 1830,
the elder branch of the Bourbons, and in Feb-
ruary 1848, the Orleans branch of the same fam-
ily, were driven from the French throne, after a
struggle at the barricades. Gen. Cavaignac, in
defense of the provisional government, waged
a fearful contest with the insurgents, who had
erected barricades, 23-26 June 1848, in which he
was at length victorious. The killed and
wounded amounted to 15,000, and about 8,000
of the rebels were taken prisoners.

Napoleon III. widened and macadamized
many of the principal streets of Paris, partly
with the express purpose of rendering the suc-
cessful erection of barricades next to impossible ;
but nevertheless in the second siege of Paris
(1871), the Communists threw up numbers of
strong barricades. There was a remarkable bar-
ricade erection in London in 1821. The ministry
desired that the body of Queen Caroline should
be conveyed out of the country to Germany, for
interment without the populace having the op-
portunity of making any demonstration. On the
matter becoming known, a vast barricade was
erected at the point where the Hampstead Road
joins the New Road; and as nothing but the use
of artillery could have forced the way, the offi-
cer in charge of the funeral changed his course.
In 1848 and 1849 barricades were successfully
carried in Paris, Berlin, Vienna, and Dresden,
by taking the defenders in the rear.

Barricades, The Days of the, a phrase em-
ployed to denote popular Parisian revolts. See
also Bareicade.

Barrie, James Matthew, popular Scot-
tish author: b. Kurriemuir, Forfarshire, 9 May
i860. He graduated from Edinburgh Univer-

BARRIE — BARRINGTON

sity in 1882, and went to London in 1885, to en-
gage in journalism. His peculiar talent for de-
picting Scottish village life and rustic charac-
ters with fidelity, pathos, humor, and poetic
charm, has brought him fame. ^Better Dead^
(1887) and ^When a Man's Single^ (1888) were
followed by <Auld Licht Idylls> (1888) and a
Window in Thrums^ (i88g), which first made
him widely known: 'An Edinburgh Eleven'

(1890) . 'My Lady Nicotine,' humorous essays
on smoking (1890) ; 'The Little Minister'

(1891) ; 'Sentimental Tommy' (1896); 'Mar
garet Ogilvy' (1896). a biography of his
mother; 'Tommy and GrizeP (1900) ; 'The Lit-
tle White Bird' (1902), etc. He has also written
nuiTierous short sketches, and the following dra-
matic works : 'Walker, London' (1892); 'Jane
Annie' (1893) ; and 'The Professor's Love
Story' (1895). *The Little Minister' was dram-
atized in 1897. and was played with success in
the United States. See Hammerton, 'James
Matthew Barrie and His Books' (1900).

Barrie, Canada, town and county-seat of
Simcoe County, Ontario ; on the Grand Trunk
Railway, at the western extremity of Lake Sim-
coe ; 64 miles north-northwest of Toronto.
Barrie was founded in 1832 and incorporated in
1871. It is a popular and beautiful summer re-
sort, and the starting point of the Lake Simcoe
steamers. The chief industrial establishments
are planing and grist mills, carriage works,
breweries, brick-yards, engine and boiler works,
and wicker works. The waterworks and electric
light plant are owned by the corporation. There
are 10 churches, a collegiate institute and busi-
ness college. In 1896 Allandale, a railway cen-
tre, was annexed to the town, and the Grand
Trunk Railway has here a large roundhouse,
machine shops, etc. A United States consular
agent is stationed here. Pop. (1901) 5,949.

Barrier Reef, The Great, a coral reef or
line ot reefs extending for 1,260 miles off the
northeast coast of Australia, at a mean distance
from land of 30 miles. It rises precipitously
from a great depth, no bottom having been found
at some places with a line of 285 fathoms.

Barrier Treaty. When, by the Peace of

Utrecht, the Spanish Netherlands were ceded
to Austria, 1715, this cession was agreed to by
the Dutch, who had conquered these provinces
in alliance with England, only on condition that
they should have the right (in order to secure
their borders and give them a barrier against
their powerful nei,ghbor, France) to garrison
several fortresses of the countrj', and that Aus-
tria should engage to pay yearly to Holland
350,000 dollars for the support of these garri-
sons. The treaty which was concluded between
Austria, England, and Holland was called the
Barrier Treaty, In 1781 the Emperor Joseph
II. declared it void.

Barriere, ba-ryar, Jean Frangois, French
historical writer: b. Paris, 12 May 1786; d.
there, 22 Aug. 1868. His energies were first
directed to periodical literature ; but he subse-
quently produced 'The Court and the City Un-
der Louis XIV., Louis XV., and Louis XVI.,'
besides editing a numerous series of memoirs of
personages connected with the Grand Monarch.

Barriere, Theodore, French dramatist:
b. Paris, 1823; d. there, 16 Oct. 1877. In col-
laboration with others he supplied the French

stage with a great number of dramas and come-
dies, some of which met with much favor, es-
pecially 'Bohemian Life' (1848, with Murger) ;
'The Maids of Marble' (1S53, with Thibou.st),
a counterpart to Dumas' 'The Camelia Lady,'
and 'The Spurious Men of Honor' (1856, with
Capendu), a scathing satire, and his master-
piece.

Barriers, Battle of The, an engagement
between the French and the Allies in front of
Paris, March 1814, in which the former were
defeated. Its immediate result was the abdi-
cation of Napoleon.

Barrili, bar-re'le, Antonio Giulio, Italian
novelist: b. Savona, 14 Dec. 1836. Engaging in
journalism u'hen only 18, he assumed the man-
agement of // Movimento in i860, and became
proprietor and editor of // Caffaio in Genoa in

1872. He had taken part in the campaigns of
1859 and 18G6 (with Garibaldi in Tyrol) and in
the Roman expedition of 1867, and sat in the
Chamber of Deputies in 1876-9. He is one of
the most prolific writers of modern Italy, and
among his numerous stories are 'Elm Tree and
Ivy' (1868) ; 'The Vale of Olives' (1871) ; 'As
in a Dream,' 'The Devil's Portrait' (1882);
'The Eleventh Commandment,' 'A Whimsical
Wooing.' He has published several volumes
of criticism, among which may be named:
^Ilrinnovamento Letterario Italiano' (1890).

Barring-out, a practice once common in
some English schools and rendered familiar to
many from forming the subject of one of the
tales in Miss Edgeworth's 'Parent's Assistant.'
It generally took place a few days before the
holidays, when the boys barred the doors of
the school and defied the masters from the win-
dows. It was commonly understood that the
pupils might dictate terms as to holidays for the
ensuing year if they could prevent the masters'
entrance for three successive days. The origin
of the practice is not known ; but its observance
is enjoined in the statutes of Witton School,
Cheshire, founded in 1588, by Sir John Deanc.

Bar'ringer, Daniel Moreau, American
statesman : b. in the county of Cabarrus, N, C,
1807 ; d. White Sulphur Springs, Va., i Sept.

1873, He graduated at the University of North
Carolina in 1826, established himself in the
practice of law in 1829, and, after gaining
distinction as a lawyer, was, in 1843, elected a
representative to the National Congress, He
was twice re-elected, and was minister to Spain,
1849-53, He was a delegate to the National
U^nion Convention in Philadelphia in 1866.

Barringer, Rufus, American lawyer and
soldier: b, Cabarrus County, N. C, 2 Dec. 1821 ;
d. Charlotte, N, C, 3 Feb. 1805. lie graduated
from the University of North Carolina, 1842,
and settled in the practice of law at Concord,
though a strong Union man he followed his
State into the Confederacy, raised a company of
cavalry, and by June 1864, had risen to the rank
of brigadier-general. He was in 76 actions, and
was severely wounded on several occasions. At
the close of the war he returned to the practice
of law, advocated the acceptance of the recon-
struction acts, and took a prominent part in
State politics until his retirement in 1884.

Bar'rington, Daines, English lawyer, anti-
quary, and naturalist : b. 1727 ; d. March 1800.
After preparatory studies at Oxford and the

HARRINGTON — BARRIOS

Inner Temple, he was called to the bar, and
held several offices previous to his being ap-
pointed a Welsh judge in 1757. He was subse-
quently second justice of Chester till 1785, when
he resigned that post, and thenceforward lived
in retirement, chiefly at his chambers in the
Inner Temple, where he died. His publications
were numerous, but his name is now best known
as a correspondent of White of Selborne, whose
famous letters on natural history he is said to
have suggested. He was an eager, curious anti-
quary, uncritical and the subject of many hoaxes.
Barrington, George, Irishman, noted au-
thor and notorious thief: b. 1755; d. about 1840.
His most notable act of thieving was the robbing
of a Russian prince in Covent Garden Theatre.
He took from him a gold snuff-box said to be
worth $150,000; but, as the prince refused to
prosecute, he was dismissed from trial. In 1790
he was sentenced to seven years' penal servitude
at Botany Bay ; but having given information of
an intended mutiny of the other convicts on the
voyage, at the end of two years he was dis-
charged, on the first warrant of emancipation
ever issued. He was made superintendent of
convicts, and later high constable at Paramatta.
He was a wit, and of some literary genius : one
couplet in a prologue he wrote for Young's play
^Revenge,^ produced by the convicts on the
opening of the Sydney Theatre, remains an en-
during classic:

" True patriots we; for be it understood,

We left our country for our country's good."

He wrote also 'Voyage to Botany Bay* (1801),
'History of New South Wales' (1802), 'History
of New Holland, > i. e. Australia (1808).

Barrington, John Shute, English lawyer
and theologian: b. London, 1678; d. Becket,
Berkshire, 14 Dec. 1734. He w-as created first
Viscount Barrington in 1720. He was a disciple
and friend of Locke, a friendship which is
thought to have been brought about by the pub-
lication of his (Barrington's) work, 'The In-
terest of England,* etc. He was devoted to
theology and wrote extensively in that science.
His chief works have been collected under the
title 'The Theological Works of the First Vis-
count Barrington.-*

Barrington, Sir Jonah, Irish jurist: b.
County Queens in 1760; d. Versailles, France,
3 April 1834. He became judge in the Court
of Admiralty, and was a steady opponent of the
Act of Union in 1800. As the result of several
peculations, upon petition of both Parliamentary
houses, he was deprived of his office, and in
1830 left England. He was the author of 'Per-
sonal Sketches* (1827) ; 'Historic Memoirs of
Ireland* (1832) ; 'The Rise and Fall of the
Irish Nation* (1833), etc.

Barrington, William Wildman, English
statesman, second Viscount Barrington: b. 15
Jan. 1717; d. I Feb. 1793. He was sworn a
member of the privy council in 1755, and in the
same year accepted the office of secretary of
war. In 1761 he was appointed chancellor of
the exchequer, but in 1765 reassumed the post of
secretary of war, which he held till 1778, w^hen,
in consideration of long public and personal
services, he was retired.

Barrington, Can., a seaport of Nova
Scotia in Shelburne County, 173 miles west of
Halifax by rail. Its industries are ship-building.

fishing, and the shipping trade. A United
States consul resides here. Barrington Pas-
sage is a small fishing suburb. Pop. 1,900.

Barrios, bar're-6s, Gerardo, Central Amer^
ican statesman: b. about 1810; d. 1865. He be-
came president of Salvador in i860. During his
administration, education, commerce, and public
works progressed remarkably, his presidential
management being unusually liberal. He was
deposed by Duenas as the outcome of the war
with Guatemala, and, while endeavoring to bring
about a revolution in order to become president
again, was captured and executed.

Barrios, Justo Rufino, Guatemalan states-
man, of Spanish-Indian blood : b. San Lorenzo,
Guatemala, 17 July 1835; d. Chalchuapa, 2
April 1885. He was educated for the law, but
the political punishment of his father led him
to become a guerrilla revolutionist, and finally
chief lieutenant of Garcia Granados, who by his
help ousted Vicente Cerna (the decisive battle
being fought 29 June 1871) and became presi-
dent. Barrios being commander-in-chief. The
revolution w^as a democratic and anti-clerical
one, and the new government began by expell-
ing the Jesuits ; to which Barrios added the sup-
pression of religious orders during an acting
presidency, and after he had, on 4 June 1873,
succeeded Granados as president. There had
been incessant revolts of the reactionists, which
shortly after his accession he quelled once for
all, establishing a system of terrorism and es-
pionage which at least gave the country quiet
and enabled him to carry out his wonderful re-
forms and improvements. He maintained in-
ternal peace, and supremacy in Central America,
by a thorough system of militia drill for all but
the pure-blooded Indians; keeping an army of
some 30,000 men in constant reserve, with 3,000
to 4,000 in the capital, which he made one of
the best ordered cities of Spanish America. He
reorganized the postal and organized the tele-
graphic service also on the reports of men
sent to examine the United States systems. He
built the first telegraph and the first railroad
in Guatemala, and started a line to the coast,
compelling every citizen earning over $8 a month
to hold stock in it ; constructed street railway
lines in the capital ; improved the roads and
built solid bridges. He remodeled the educa-
tional system, established collegiate institutes,
normal and industrial schools, and made
knowledge of French and English a condition
of license to practise law or medicine. He
built two modern penitentiaries. In a word, he
transformed Guatemala into one of the most
habitable and progressive countries south of
the United States. But the foremost purpose of
his life was to form Central America into one
united state, for power and prosperity and the
ending of the miserable wars that wasted its
vitality. On 15 Jan. 1876 he assembled a diet
from all the states in Guatemala city to frame a
plan of consolidation ; but as it could not agree
upon one, he therefore determined to set up
governments in the other states favorable to his
plans. Honduras was racked by a civil war
and offered no difficulties, Salvador was too
small to resist the union of the two, and thence-
forward till 1884 Barrios disposed of the re-
sources of all three republics. On i March
1880, the first constitution of Guatemala went
into operation, and Barrios was re-elected for a

BARRISTER — BARROSA

six-year term. On 24 Feb. 1883 he issued a
circular to the hberal party, pledging himself
to effect the unification only by peaceful means
and with the consent of all the republics. In
March 1884 he called a meeting of five delegates
from each republic, but Costa Rica and Nica-
ragua still held back. Finally, on 28 Feb. 1885,
he with his assembly, issued a decree proclaim-
ing the union of the five states, relying on Hon-
duras and Salvador to help him put down
resistance in the others. But the president of
Salvador refused to employ force, and on Barrios
persisting, joined Nicaragua and Costa Rica
in a league to resist him, appealing to Mexico
and the United States for help. President Diaz
of Mexico remonstrated with Barrios, and the
United States viewed the movement with dis-
favor ; but on the Salvador troops, which ex-
pected Mexican help, invading Guatemala, Bar-
rios drove them back into Salvador, and while
entering Chalchuapa w^as struck down by a
sharpshooter's bullet. His widow removed to
New York, and his son became a cadet in the
United States army.

Bar'rister, in England, an advocate or
pleader, who has been admitted by one of the
Inns of Court, namely, the Inner Temple, Mid-
dle Temple, Lincoln's Inn, or Gray's Inn, to
plead at the bar. Before a student can be ad-
mitted to the bar he must have been a member
of one of those societies, and have kept 12
terms there by dining sufficiently often in the
hall of the society to which he belongs, and
must also pass a public examination. The ex-
aminations, which had dwindled into mere
forms, have in recent years been made more
stringent. Barristers are sometimes called ut-
ter or outer barristers, to distinguish them from
queen's (or king's) counsel, who sit within the
bar in the courts, and are distinguished by a
silk gown. Barristers are also spoken of as
counsel, as in the phrase opinion of counsel,
that is, a written opinion obtained from a bar-
rister before whom the facts of a case have
been laid. The duties of a barrister are hon-
orary, and he can maintain no action for his
fees. It is the barristers who speak before all
the higher courts, being instructed in regard to
the facts of the case they have in hand by
means of the brief which they receive from the
solicitor engaging their services. In the United
States there is no distinct order of counsel
corresponding to the English barrister, the same
person performing the duties of attorney, solici-
tor, counsel, or advocate. See also Advocate.

Barron, James, American naval officer: b.
Virginia, 1769; d. 21 April 1851. He entered the
navy in 1798, and commanded the Chesapeake
in 1807, when it was attacked by the British
ship Leopard as a result of his refusal to allow
the Chesapeake to be searched for deserters.
The Chesapeake, which w-as quite unprepared,
discharged one gun previous to striking her
colors. She was captured and three alleged
deserters were found. Barron was court-mar-
tialed for neglect of duty, though only par-
tially to blame for the surrender of his vessel,
and suspended for five years. The court closed
its finding on the subject of the personal con-
duct of the accused, in the following language:
*No transposition of the specifications, or any
other modification of the charges themselves,
would alter the opinion of the court as to the

firmness and courage of the accused ; the evi-
dence on this point is clear and satisfactory.'^
Such was the fate of Commodore Barron, but it
is more than probable that under the state
of public feeling, demanding a victim, those who
were really responsible for the efficiency of the
Chesapeake, escaped unpunished. Upon his res-
toration, as the outcome of a long correspond-
ence with his personal enemy, Commodore
Decatur, a duel was fought and Decatur was
killed. Barron became senior officer in the navy
in 1839, though never again in active service and
never regained full public esteem. See Chesa-
peake AND Leopard.

Barron, Samuel, American naval officer:
b. Hampton, \'a., 1763; d. 29 Oct. 1810. In 1805
he commanded a squadron of 10 vessels in
the expedition against Tripoli. On his return to
the United States he was appointed commandant
of the Gosport Navy Yard, but died immediately
afterward.

Barros, bar-ros, Arana Diego, Chilean
scholar and historian : b. Santiago, 16 Aug.
1830. Ill health obliging him to give up legal
studies, he early devoted himself entirely to his-
torical and literary pursuits, and soon became
an authority on the history of his native coun-
try. The favor with which his historical
sketch of the campaigns of 1818-21 was received
encouraged him to begin an extensive ^History
of Chilean Independence' (1854-8). He spent
several years investigating the government
archives and private libraries of South America
and Europe in search of material bearing on the
history of South America. His chief works in
addition to the above are: "^Vida y Viajes de
Hernando de Magallanes^ (1864) ; ^Histoire de
la Guerre du Pacifique^ (1881), written by
order of the government ; and his monumental
^Historia General de Chile' (12 vols. 1884-93).
In Simancas he discovered the manuscript of
the ^Puren Indomito.' an historical poem on the
Araucanian war, and published an edition of it
at Leipsic in i860.

Barros, Joao de, eminent Portuguese
historian: b. Viseu, 1496; d. Pombal, 1570. His
first work, an historical romance, entitled the
^Emperor Clarimond,' appeared in 1520. Bar-
ros presented it to the king, who urged him to
undertake the history of the Portuguese in In-
dia, which was issued 1552-62. King John III.
appointed Barros governor of the Portuguese
settlements in Guinea, and afterward general
agent for these colonies. In 1530 he presented
Barros with the province of Maranham in Bra-
zil for the purpose of colonization. Barros lost
a great part of his fortune by the enterprise, and
returned the province to the king, who indern-
nified him for his losses. His work ^L'Azia
Portugueza,^ is much admired for its style and
erudition. He wrote besides a moral dialogue,
^Rhopicancuma,^ in which he shows the per-
nicious consequences of accommodating prin-
ciples to circumstances; but this work was
prohibited by the Inquisition. He w^rote also
a dialogue on false modesty, and a Portuguese
grammar, the first ever published.

Barro'sa, or Borosa, a village in Spain,
near the southwest coast of Andalusia, 16 miles
south-southeast of Cadiz. On a knoll to the
east of it a battle was fought in 181 1, in which
the British under Gen. Graham, when aban-
doned by the Spaniards, defeated a superior

BARROT — BARROW

French force under Victor. No decisive results
were obtained from the battle, however.

Barret, ba-ro, Camille Hyacinthe Odllon,

French statesman : b. Villefort, Lozere, 19 July
1791 ; d. Bougival, near Paris, 6 Aug. 1873.
At 19 he pleaded before the ordinary tribunals,
and at 23, by a special dispensation, before the
Court of Cassation, Paris, and early acquired
a high reputation for eloquence. In the politi-
cal arena his oratory soon made him one of the
most influential leaders of the liberal opposition.
He became president of the "Aide-toi" Society
in 1830, and at the July revolution in that year
was one of three commissioners appointed to
conduct the dethroned Charles X. to Cherbourg,
on his way to England. Returning he was ap-
pointed prefect of the department of the Seine
and member of the Council of State, but in a
few months resigned his offices to lead the
opposition to Casimir Perier and the reactionary
ministers who followed him. He supported
Thiers from his accession to office in March
1840, to his fall in October, when he resumed
his opposition to the ministry of Guizot. He
took a conspicuous part in the reform movement
of 1847, and spoke eloquently at several of the
provincial reform banquets which led to the
revolution of February 1848. Made president
by Thiers in his short-lived ministry, he ad-
vised the king to withdraw his troops and thus
remove the last obstacle to the downfall of his
throne. In the last sitting of the Chamber of
Deputies he supported the claim of the Count
de Paris to the throne and the regency of the
Duchess of Orleans. The February revolution
considerably abated his ardor for public liberty.
He held office for some time under the presi-
dency of Louis Napoleon, but retired from
active political life after the coup d'etat, 2 Dec.
1851, and accepted no office under the Second
Empire. In July 1872 he was made a councilor
of state and vice-president of the council, 6 Aug.
1873. His *^Memoires Posthumes' appeared at
Paris (1875-6).

Barrow, Frances Elizabeth, American
author : b. Charleston, S. C, 22 Feb. 1822 ; d.
7 May 1894. She was educated in New York,
where she was married to James Barsow. She
wrote, under the name of Aunt Fanny, nu-
merous books for children; among them *^Six
Nightcaps,^ which has been translated into
French, German, and Swedish. Another, ^The
Letter G-* (1864), was widely known and very
popular. She also wrote a novel, "^The Wife's
Stratagem.^

Barrow, or Borrowe, Henry, English
ecclesiastical reformer, often considered as one
of the founders of Congregationalism : d. 1593.
He was a member of Gray's Inn, London, in
1576 and there became interested in the writings
of Thomas Browne, the founder of the Brown-
ists. On account of his advocacy of Church
reform he was imprisoned and with his co-
reformer, Greenwood, was hanged at Tyburn.
He was the author of "^ Brief Discourse of the
False Church^ (1590). See Dexter, < Congre-
gationalism of the Last Three Hundred Years'
(1880).

Barrow, Isaac, eminent English mathema-
tician and theologian : b. London, 1630 ; d. May
1677. At the Charterhouse, where he was edu-
cated, he was chiefly remarkable for fighting

and neglect of study, but being removed to
a school at Felsted, in Essex, he began to show
some earnest of his future great reputation. He
was subsequently entered a pensioner of Trinity
College, Cambridge, in 1645, of which he was
chosen a scholar in 1647. The ejection of his
uncle, the Bishop of St. Asaph, from his fellow-
ship of Peterhouse, in consequence of his ad-
herence to the royal party, and the great losses
sustained by his father in the same cause, left
him largely unprovided for. His good dis-
position and great attainments, however, so
won upon his superiors that, although he re-
fused to subscribe to the Covenant, he was very
highly regarded. Finding that opinions in
church and state opposite to his own now pre-
vailed, he proceeded some length in the study
of anatomy, botany, and chemistry, with a view
to the medical profession. He, however,
changed his mind, and to the study of divinity
joined that of mathematics and astronomy. In
1652 he graduated M.A. at Oxford, and being
disappointed in his endeavor to obtain the
Greek professorship at Cambridge, engaged in
a scheme of foreign travel. He set out in 1655,
and during his absence his first work, an edi-
tion of Euclid's * Elements,' was published at
Cambridge. He visited France and Italy, where
he embarked for Smyrna, and from Smyrna he
proceeded to Constantinople, returning in 1659
by way of Germany and Holland, and was soon
after episcopally ordained by Bishop Brown-
rigg. In 1660 he was elected Greek professor at
the University of Cambridge, without a com-
petitor. The following year he received the de-
gree of B.D. He was in 1662 chosen professor
of geometry in Gresham College, and in 1663
the Royal Society elected him a member of that
body in the first choice after their incorpora-
tion. The same year he was appointed the first
Lucasian professor of mathematics at Cam-
bridge, on which occasion he delivered an excel-
lent prefatory lecture on the utility of mathe-
matical science In 1669, on a conscientious
principle of duty, he determined to give up
mathematics and adhere exclusively to divinity.
Accordingly, after publishing his celebrated
'Lectiones Opticas,' he resigned his chair to the
great Newton. In 1670 he was created D.D. by
mandate, and in 1672 the king nominated him to
the mastership of Trinity College, observing that
he had bestowed it on the best scholar in Eng-
land. He had before this refused a living, given
him with a view I0 secure his services as a
tutor to the son of the gentleman who had it
to bestow, because he deemed such a contract
simoniacal ; and he now, with similar consci-
entiousness, had a clause in his patent of mas-
ter allowing him to marry, erased, because in-
compatible with the intentions of the founder.
In 1675 he was chosen vice-chancellor of the
University of Cambridge ; but the credit and
utility expected from his labors were frustrated
by his untimely death.

The works of Barrow, both mathematical
and theological, are of the highest class. Of
the former the following are the principal :
^Euclidis Elementa' (1655) ; <Euclidis Data'
(1657) ; *^Lectiones Optic^e' (1669) ; 'Lectiones
Geometricae' (1670) ; 'Archimedis Opera'
(1675) ; ^Apollonii Conicorum, lib. iv.' ; ^Theo-
dosii Sphericorum, lib. iii., novo methodo illus-
trata et succincte demonstrata' (1675) ; ^Lectio
in qua Theoremata Archimedis de Sphsera et

BARROW — BARROW-IN-FURNESS

Cylindro per Methodiim Indivisibilium Inves-
tigata, etc.* (1678) ; ' Mathematicje Lectiones*
(1683). All his English works are theological;
they were left in manuscript, and published by
Dr. Tillotson (1685). ^Isaaci Barrow Opus-
cula* appeared in 1607. As a mathematician,
especially in the higher geometry, Barrow was
deemed inferior only to Newton ; as a divine
he was singularly distinguished for depth and
copiousness of thought. A fine specimen of his
characteristic copiousness is quoted by Addison
from his sermon on 'Vain and Idle Talking,^
in which the various forms and guises of wit,
■ — a faculty for which Dr. Barrow was himself
celebrated, — are enumerated with a felicity of
expression which it would be difhcult to parallel.

Barrow, Sir John, eminent English traveler
and geographer : b. near Ulverstone, Lanca-
shire, 1764; d. 23 Nov. 1848. When 14 years
old he entered an iron foundry in Liverpool
as clerk and overlooker. Two years after-
ward he gave up this situation and made a voy-
age in a whaler to Greenland. He was
subsequently employed as a teacher of mathe-
matics in a school at Greenwich, and in that
capacity attracted the attention of Sir George
Staunton, who appointed him nominally comp-
troller of the household to Lord Macartney in
his embassy to China in 1792, though his real
employment was to take charge of the philo-
sophical instruments carried out as presents to
the Chinese emperor. Of this journey he after-
ward published an account under the title of
* Travels in China* (1804). On Lord Macart-
ney being appointed governor of the Cape of
Good Hope in 1797, he made Mr. Barrow his
private secretary ; and on quitting the Cape
in 1798 left him auditor-general of public ac-
counts. During his residence there he made
several journeys into the interior of South Afri-
ca, and on his return to England published an
account of them under the title of 'Travels in
Southern Africa.* In 1804 Barrow was ap-
pointed second secretary to the admiralty. The
duties of this post he discharged with the
most exemplary industry and activity, and he
took an ardent interest in promoting geographi-
cal and scientific discovery, and more especially
the expeditions to the Arctic Seas. His leisure
hours were employed in literary work, and the
numerous volumes published by him attest the
profitable use he made of his time. These in-
clude, in addition to the books of travel already
mentioned, the 'Life of Earl Macartney* 'Life
of Lord Anson* ; 'Life of Lord Howe* ; 'Voy-
ages of Discovery and Research within the Arc-
tic Regions* ; Autobiographical Memoir*
(1847) 'Sketches of the Royal Society.* In
1835 he was created a baronet, and in 1845
retired from his office at the admiralty. He
originated the Royal Geographical Society in
1830 and was its vice-president at the time
of his death. Barrow Strait, Cape Barrow, and
Point Barrow, in the Arctic regions, were
named in his honor.

Barrow, a navigable river of Ireland, prov-
ince of Leinster. Its course is generally south-
ward, and after about 900 miles it joins the Suir
to form the estuary called Waterford Harbor.
It is navigable for vessels of 200 tons to New
Ross, 25 miles from the sea, and for barges to
Athy in Kildare County, where it is joined by a
branch of the Grand Canal.

Barrow, Cape or Point, a term applied to
three prominent localities of the Arctic region,
in honor of Sir John Barrow, (i) Point Bar-
row, on the north coast of Alaska, in lat. 71°
23' N., and Ion. 156° 31' W., long considered
as the most northerly spot on the American
mainland. (2) Cape Barrow, on the coast of
Canada, or Coronation Gulf, is in lat. 68° N.,
Ion. 111° W. (3) Barrow Strait, the earliest
of Parry's discoveries, leading to the west out
of Lancaster Sound, which Parry's immediate
predecessor. Captain, afterward Sir John Ross,
had pronounced to be landlocked in that direc-
tion. Besides its main course to Melville
Sound, Barrow Strait throws off Prince Re-
gent's Inlet to the .south and Wellington Chan-
nel to the north. The passage averages about
50 miles in breadth, extending nearly along the
parallel of 74° N., from 85° to 100° W.

Barrow, an artificial mound or tumulus
of stones or earth, piled up over the remains
of the dead. Such erections were frequently
made in ancient times in our own land, and
they are met with also in many other countries
both in the Old and New World. In Scotland
they are called cairns. When opened they are
often found to contain stone cysts, calcined
bones, etc. Burial in barrows, commencing
amid the mists of remote antiquity, seems to
have been practised as late as the 8th century
A.D. One of the finest barrows in the world is
Silbury Hill, Wiltshire, near Marlborough. It
is 170 feet in perpendicular height, 316 along
the slope, and covers about five acres of ground.
See also Mound Builders.

Barrow-in-Furness, an English seaport,
and count}' borough, in the district of Furness,
situated opposite to and including the island
of Walney, Lancashire. In 1848 or 1849 it was
but a hamlet with 100 inhabitants, whose chief
support was fishing; in 1901 its population was
57,584. This extraordinary prosperity is due to the
working of the rich mines of red hematite iron-
ore which abounds in the district, and to the
extension of the railway to Barrow, by which its
excellent natural position and capabilities of
development as a seaport have been taken ad-
vantage of. There are now four docks com-
pleted, and the depth of water is sufficient to
admit the largest ships at present afloat. Much
timber is imported from the north of Europe
and from Canada and Norway, large numbers
of cattle are brought from Belfast, and an
extensive trade is done in grain and flour.
Iron-ore and pig-iron are largely shipped from
the port. There is a large passenger traffic with
the Isle of Man and Belfast. The chief indus-
trial occupations are the manufacture of iron
and Bessemer steel, ship-building, iron-found-
ing, and the making of ropes, sails, bricks, and
large jute-works, paper-pulp works, and salt-
works have been established. Barrow owes a
great deal of its prosperity to the discovery
of the Bessemer process of steel-making, and
to the fact that the hematite ores of the dis-
trict are specially adapted to this process. The
yearly output of pig-iron is said to be 350.000
tons, with 200,000 tons of Bessemer and Sie-
mens-Martin steel. Messrs. Vickers, Sons, and
Maxim, Limited, employ some 8,000 persons,
and have built some of the largest merchant and
war-vessels afloat. They also manufacture ord-
nance. The town is laid out on a regular

BARROWS — BARRY

plan, mostly in rectangles, is substantially built,
and well drained and supplied with gas,
water, and electricitj'. It contains churches,
chapels, and schools for the various denomina-
tions, a free public library, workmen's insti-
tute, and a town-hall, built at a cost of over
i6o,ooo. The Redistribution Act of 1885 erected
it into a parliamentary borough, returning one
member. The interesting ruins of Furness
Abbey, which was founded in 1127, lie within
two miles of the town.

Barrows, Elijah Porter, American clergy-
man and educator: b. Mansfield, Conn., 1807; d.
1888. He was professor of sacred literature in
Western Reserve College, Ohio, 1837-52, and of
Hebrew in Andover Theological Seminary,
1853-66. In 1872 he became professor of He-
brew at Oberlin College, Ohio. Beside many
contributions to the 'Bibiiotheca Sacra, ^ he pub-
lished ^Companion to the Bible^ (1867) ; ^Sa-
cred Geography and Antiquities' (1872) ; ^Man-
ners and Customs of the Jews' (1884).

Barrows, John Henry, American edu-
cator: b. Medina, Mich., 11 July 1847; d. Oberlin,
Ohio, 3 June 1902. He was graduated at Olivet
College in 1867 ; subsequently studied in Yale Col-
lege, Union and Andover Theological Seminaries,
and at Gottingen ; was pastor of the First Presby-
terian Church, in Chicago, for 14 years; organ-
ized and was president of the World's Parlia-
ment of Religions, at the World's Columbian
Exposition in Chicago, in 1893. He delivered
a course of lectures on Christianity in the prin-
cipal universities in India, under the patronage
of the University of Chicago, 1896-7, and be-
came president of Oberlin College in 1898. He
published ' The Gospels are True Histories'
(1891) ; <Life of Henry Ward Beecher' (1893) :
'Christianity the World Religion' ; 'The World
Pilgrimage' ; 'History of the Parliament of
Religions' (1893; ! 'The Christian Conquest of
Asia,' (1899).

Barrows, Samuel June, American cler-
gyman and author: b. New York, 26 May 1845.
After a varied early career he became private
secretary to William H. Seward in 1867, went
to Utah in 1870 with Chaplain Newman of the
United States Senate, and reported the debate
with the Mormons. He was graduated at Har-
vard Divinity School in 1875, and while an
undergraduate accompanied as correspondent of
the New York Tribune Gen. Stanley's Yellow-
stone expedition in 1873, and Gen. Custer's
Black Hills expedition in 1874, taking part in
the battle of the Big Florn. He was pastor of
the First Unitarian Church, Dorchester, Mass.,
1876-81 ; editor of the Christian Register
(1881-97) ; secretary of the United States dele-
gation to the International Prison Congress,
Paris, 1895 ; and United States representative on
the International Prison Commission, 1896. In
1897 he was elected to Congress from the loth
Massachusetts district. He has written 'The
Doom of the Majority of Mankind' (1883) ;
'Shaybacks in Camp' ; 'Crimes and Misdemean-
ors in the United States' ; 'A Baptist Meeting
House' ; 'Isles and Shrines of Greece' (1898).

Barrundia, bar-roon'de-a, Jose Francisco,
Central American statesman : b. Guatemala,
1779; d. New York. 4 Aug. 1854. He was
sentenced to death for treason in 1813, but
escaped, and became leader of the Revolutionary
Party, in 1819. In 1823-4, as a member of the

Constitutional Convention of Central America^
he brought forward the decree for the abolition
of slavery. He became president of the Cen-
tral American Republic in 1829; retaining office-
for over a year, and in 1852 was again elected
president. He came to the United States in
1854, as minister from Honduras, to propose
the annexation of that territory to the United
States, but died suddenly before anything was-
accomplished.

Barry, Alfred, English prelate: b. London,
15 Jan. 1826. He was a son of the architect
Sir Charles. Barry, and was educated at Cam-
bridge. He was headmaster of Leeds gram-
mar-school, 1854-62 ; principal of Cheltenham
College, 1862-8, and of King's College, London
1868-83. He was canon of Worcester, 1871-81,
of Westminster 1881-4. He became primate of
Australia and bishop of Sydney in 1884, but
resigned his see in 1889 and returning to Eng-
land was rector of St. James, Piccadilly, Lon-
don, 1895-1900. He has published 'Introduc-
tion to the Old Testament' (1850); 'Life of
Sir C. Barry' (1867) ; 'Boyle Lectures'
(1876-8) ; 'Christianity and Socialism' (1891) ;
'England's Mission to India' (1894); 'Hulsean
Lectures' (1895).

Barry, Ann Spranger, English actress: b.
Bath, 1734; d. London, 1801. She was several
times married. Her first great success was
in the character of Cordelia, at Drury Lane,
London (1767). Her farewell was as Lady
Randolph, at Covent Garden (1797). Equal to
Mrs. Woffington and Mrs. Gibber in tragedy,
she surpassed them both in comedy. As Des-
demona she had, during her whole career, na
competitor. She is buried in Westminster Ab-
bey.

Barry, Sir Charles, distinguished Eng-
lish architect: b. London, 23 May 1795; d- May
i860. At a very early age he displayed a taste
for drawing and design, and while a youth, ex-
hibited at the Royal Academy. Having re-
solved to devote his energies to architecture, he
employed the little property left him in visiting
Italy, Greece, and the East. He left England
in 1817, and remained abroad upward of three
years. After his return he entered on his pro-
fessional career. He executed numerous im-
portant buildings, such as the Traveler's and
Reform Club-houses, London ; St. Edward's
School, Birmingham, etc. ; and in 1836 was
appointed architect of the new Houses of Par-
liament at Westminster. On this building his
fame as an architect rests, and with its execu-
tion he was employed almost unintermittently
to the day of his death, extending over a period
of more than 24 years. In 1852 he received the
honor of knighthood. He had been admitted
a Royal Academician in 1841. As an architect
he belonged to the eclectic school, and adopted
indifferently the Gothic or classic styles ac-
cording as he might be required or circum-
stances rendered it expedient.

Barry, Edward Middleton, English archi-
tect, son of Sir Charles Barry: b. 1830; d. 1880.
He had already distinguished himself in his-
profession, and succeeding to his father's busi-
ness, completed his great work the Houses of
Parliament. He designed a large number of
buildings, many of them of national magnitude
and importance, such as the Covent Gardetr
Theatre, the opera house at Malta, and the New

BARRY

National Gallery in London. He was elected a
Royal Academician in 1869, and in 1873 suc-
ceeded Sir G. G. Scott as professor of archi-
tecture to the Academy.

Barry, Elizabeth, English actress: b. 1658;
d. London, 7 Nov. 1713. She was said to be
the daughter of Col. Barry, a prominent royalist
in the civil war. She made her debut on the
stage under the patronage of the Earl of Roches-
ter; and her first performance is said to have
been witnessed by Charles IL and the Duke
and Duchess of York. Her reputation was won
chiefly in the line of tragedy, in the roles of
Monimia and Belvidera. She was known as
*'the great Mrs. Barry*^ ; and is said to have
created over 100 roles. See Gait, ^ Lives of the
Players > (1831).

Biarry, James, Irish painter and writer on
his art: b. Cork, 11 Oct. 1741 ; d. 12 Feb. 1806.
By one of his first paintings in oil, ^The Con-
version of St. Patrick,* exhibited at Dublin, he
attracted the attention of Burke, who carried
him, in his 23d year, to London. The brothers
Burke provided him with the means for visit-
ing Paris and Rome, whence he went to Flor-
ence, Bologna, and Naples. He remained about
four years in Italy, returning in 1770. Having
exhibited some important pictures he was elect-
ed an associate of the Royal Academy in 1772,
and a full academician the following year. In
1777-83 he executed his chief work, the paint-
ings which adorn the great hall of the Society
of Arts. In 1775 he published *An Inquiry into
the Real or Imaginary Obstructions to the In-
crease of the Arts in England.^ He was ap-
pointed professor of painting to the Academy
in 1782; but in 1799, after he had alienated the
respect of his fellow-academicians by his pe-
culiar manners, and by his savage attacks upon
them, he was expelled on the occasion of a vio-
lent pamphlet issued by him under the title of
a * Letter to the Society of Dilettanti.^ He was
distinguished more by vigor of conception than
by accuracy of execution, and his paintings have
not maintained their reputation.

Barry, John, the first American commo-
dore: b. Wexford, Ireland, 1745; d. Philadel-
phia, 13 Sept. 1803. He early displayed a great
partiality for the sea, ' and at the age of II
adopted America as his home, and made a num-
ber of voyages in merchant ships, until the
commencement of the Revolution. He at once
embraced the cause of the colonies, offered his
services, and was one of the first officers com-
missioned by Congress in the naval service.
After a successful cruise in the I^xington, he
was transferred, in the latter part of 1776, to
the Effingham, one of three large frigates built
in Philadelphia. When the American vessels
of war were lying near Whitehill, whither
they had been sent when the city and the forts
of the river had fallen into the power of the
British, Commodore Barry conceived the dar-
ing plan of annoying the enemy by means of
small boats, properly armed, which being sta-
tioned down the river and bay might intercept
supplies, and in case of danger take refuge in
the creeks. He accordingly manned the boats
of the frigates, descended the river with muffled
oars under cover of the night, and appeared un-
expectedly before the city. He effected his ob-
ject by intercepting a large stock of provisions,
and capturing several vessels laden with mili-

tary munitions and valuable stores for the Brit-
ish officers. He was afterward transferred to
the Alliance, a frigate of 36 guns, which was
placed under his orders. 25 December 1781 the
Alliance sailed from Boston with the Marquis
de la Fayette and Count de Noailles on board,
who were proceeding to France on public busi-
ness. During the rest of the war Barry served
with credit to himself and benefit to his coun-
try, and after the cessation of hostilities, was
appointed to superintend the building of the fri-
gate United States in Philadelphia, which was
designed for his command. He retained the
command of the United States until she was
laid up in ordinary.

Barry, John Arthur, Australian journalist:
b. 1850. He led a roving life for many years,
but finally settled in Sydney, N. S. W. His
writings include: * Steve Brown's Bunyip'
(1893); 'The Great Deep> (1895); 'The Lack
of the Native Born^ (1898); <A Son of the
Sea^ (1899) ; <Against the Tides of Fate>
(1899) ; 'Old and New Sydney^ (1901); 'Red
Lion and Blue Star^ (1902).

Barry, John Daniel, American novelist: b.
Boston, Mass., 31 Dec. 1866. He has written
*A Daughter of Thespis* ; <The Intriguers* ;
'Mademoiselle Blanche' ; 'The Princess Mar-
garethe, a Fairy Tale* ; etc.

Barry, Sir John Wolfe, English engineer
of eminence, youngest son of Sir Charles Bar-
ry: b. London, 7 Dec. 1836. He built the pres-
ent Blackfriars Bridge in London, the Tower
Bridge, the Barry Dock at CardifT, and planned
the railway in Argentina from Buenos Ayres to
San Rosario. He has published 'Railway Appli-
ances* (1876) ; 'Lectures on Railways and
Locomotives* (1882) ; 'The Tower Bridge'
(1894).

Barry, Martin, English physiologist: b.
Fratton, Hampshire, 1802; d. Beecles, Suffolk,
April 1855. He studied at the medical schools
of London, and at several on the Continent,
and took his degree of M.D. in Edinburgh, in
1833. He wrote much on physiological sub-
jects, and especially on animal development and
embryology. He was elected a member of the
Royal Society in 1840. In 1844 he was ap-
pointed house-surgeon to the Royal Maternity
Hospital, Edinburgh. His means being ample,
he gave his professional services largely to the
poor.

Barry, Patrick, American horticulturist;
b. near Belfast, Ireland, May 1816; d. Roches-
ter, N. Y., 23 June 1890. He came to the United
States at 20 and settled at Rochester in 1840.
He was a member of the nursery firm of El-
wanger & Barry. He published a much valued
work called 'The Fruit Garden,* and at various
times edited the 'Horticulturist* and the Gene-
see Farmer.

Barry, Spranger, Irish actor, the great
rival of Garrick: b. Dublin, 1719; d. London,
1777. He was brought up as a silversmith ; but
was attracted to the stage. He first appeared
(1744) at the Theatre Royal, Smock Alley, Dub-
lin ; and in 1746 was engaged at Drury Lane,
London, as alternate to Garrick, in 'Hamlet *
and 'Macbeth.' Having aroused Garrick's
jealousy by his success as Romeo, he was en-
gaged (1749) at Covent Garden, where his su-
premacy in ^Romeo and Juliet* was generally

BARRY — BARTAS

conceded. He spent 1754-66 trying to found a
theatre at Dublin. In 1767 he reappeared at
London in the part of Othello. From 1774 till
his death he acted at Covent Garden. He is
buried in Westminster Abbey.

Barry, Thomas Henry, American sol-
dier: b. New York, 13 Oct. 1855. He gradu-
ated at West Point, 1877, and passed through
the various grades of the service to his ap-
pointment as brigadier-general. United States
volunteers, 18 June 1900. From August 1898 to
February 1900 he was adjutant-general of the
8th army corps in the Philippines, and became
chief of staflF, Division of the Philippines, 1900-I,
and became Brigadier-General 18 Aug. 1903.

Barry, William Farquhar, American mili-
tary officer: b. New York, 18 Aug. 1818; d.
18 July 1879. He first saw actice service in the
Florida war (1852-3), and in the Mexican war
acted as aide-de-camp to Gen. Worth. At the
outbreak of the Civil War he was made chief
of artillery, and organized the artillery of the
Army of the Potomac. He subsequently became
chief of artillery to Sherman, and took part
in the march to the sea. In 1865 he was brevet-
ted major-general. In 1867 he had charge of
the Artillery School at Fort Monroe. He was
part author with J. G. Barnard of < Engineer
and Artillery Operations of the Army of the
Potomac, 1861-2,^ and of <^Tactics for the Field
Artillery of the United States.^

Barry, William Francis, English Roman
Catholic priest, theologian, and novelist : b.
London, 21 April 1849. He was educated at
Oscott and the English College, Rome ; was
professor of philosophy at Birmingham Theo-
logical College, 1873-7 ; professor of divinity
at Oscott, 1877-80 ; and has been rector of a
parish in Dorchester, O.xfordshire, from 1883.
Besides writing much on metaphysical themes
in English reviews, he is the author of several
brilliant novels, including: ^The New Anti-
gone> (1887) ; ^The Place of Dreams> (1894) ;
^The Two Standards^ (1898) ; <Arden Mas-
3iter> (1900); <The Wizard's Knot^ (1901) ;
'Ernest Rcnan' (1905). He has also published
'The Papal Monarchy* (1902).

Barry, William Taylor, American states-
man : b. Lunenburg, Va., 5 Feb. 1784 ; d. Liver-
pool, England, 30 Aug. 1835. He graduated at
William and Mary College (1803), and was
soon after admitted to the bar. In 1810 he be-
came a member of Congress from Kentucky.
He served in the War of 1812; and from
1814-16 v/as United States senator from Ken-
tucky. In 1828 he was appointed postmaster-
general under Jackson ; and was on his way
abroad as minister to Spain at the time of his
death. He was the first postmaster-general who
had a seat in the Cabinet.

Barry Cornwall.

Waller.

See Procter, Bryan

Barry, a seaport and railway terminus of
south Wales, county of Glamorgan, seven miles
southwest of Cardiff. It has been practically
brought into existence by the construction
(1884-9) of a dock of 70 acres area here, be-
tween Barry Island and the mainland, at a cost of
about ^850,000, the entrance being between two
breakwaters respectively 2,600 and 700 feet in
length. Barry possesses churches and chapels,
market-^iall, public-hall, seamen's institute, etc.,

and carries on a large export trade in coal. As
a municipality it is markedly progressive. Pop.
(1901) 27,000.

Barry Lyndon, the best of Thackeray's
shorter novels. It was originally written as a
serial for 'Eraser's Magazine,* and was pub-
lished in book form in 1844. It is cast in the
form of an autobiography. The hero is an Irish
gambler and blackleg, but of audacious cour-
age and of picturesque versatility. He tells his
story in a plain matter-of-fact way, without
concealment or sophistication, glorying in epi-
sodes which would seem shameful to the most
rudimentary conscience, and holding himself to
be the greatest but most ill used of men.

Barrymore, Maurice, American actor: b.
India, 1847 ; d. Amityville, L. I., 25 March
1905. He was educated at Cambridge. Hav-
ing gone upon the stage he came to America
and made his first appearance in 1875. Since
then he has been most of the time in this
country, acting as leading man with Modjeska,
Mrs. Langtry, Mrs. Bernard Beere, and Olga
Nethersole. He has also written several plays,
among them 'Nadjeska.^

Bar'sabas, the son of Alpheus, brother of
James the Less and of Jude, and one of the
candidates nominated for the apostolical office
left vacant by the treachery and suicide of
Judas. According to tradition he was afterward
appointed bishop of Eleutheropolis, a town of
Palestine, about 20 miles from Jerusalem, and
suffered martydrom. Another Barsabas, sur-
named Judas, and supposed to be the brother
of the above, is mentioned in the Acts as one
of the companions of Paul and Barnabas when
they went to preach the gospel at Antioch. He
is supposed to have returned to Jerusalem, and
died at a very advanced age.

Barsu'ma, or Barsumas, Nestorian bishop
who flourished in the 5th century. He became
bishop of Nisibis and Metropolitan in 435. He
established a theological school which sent out
many missionaries, and is regarded as the found-
er of the Nestorian faith in Persia and eastern
Asia.

Bartan, bar-tan', a town of Asia Minor,
at the junction of the« river Bartan and a
smaller stream, the former navigable for small
vessels entering the Black Sea a few miles
below. It is surrounded by a ruinous wall, and
consists of about 800 houses, built on two low
hills of cretaceous limestone. The houses, on
account of the marshy character of the sur-
rounding country, are all built of two stories,
only the upper one of which' is inhabited. For
the same reason the streets are carefully paved
with large limestone slabs. It has several
mosques, khans, and baths ; and carries on an
active trade with Constantinople, from which
it imports various kinds of merchandise, send-
ing in exchange hemp, fruit, and building-
timber. Pop. 4,000.

Bartas, bar-ta, Guillaume de Salluste du,

French soldier, diplomatist, and man of letters :
b. Montfort, 1544; d. 1590 of wounds received
at the battle of Ivry. His chief poem, 'The Di-
vine Week,* gives an account of the creation,
and is said to have had a considerable influence
on Milton's 'Paradise Lost.* Thirty editions
of the work passed through the press in six
years. Joshua Sylvester (1563-1618) translated

BARTENSTEIN — BARTH

into English ^Du Bartas, His Divine Weeks
and Works' (1598). Mrs. Anne Bradstreet,
the earhest American woman of letters, was an
ardent admirer of his strained pedantic style
and modeled her own verse upon it.

Bartenstein, bar'ten-stin, Treaty of, a
treaty between Prussia and Russia against
France, concluded at Bartenstein, Prussia, 26
April 1807, soon after the battle of Eylau.
The objects of the alliance were to re-establish
Prussia within the limits of 1805 ; to dissolve
the Rhine Confederation ; to restore Tyrol and
Venice to Austria ; to secure the co-operation
of England and Sweden ; to aggrandize Han-
over at the expense of France ; to restore the
House of Orange; and to obtain from France
indemnities to the kings of Sardinia and Naples.
The terms of this alliance are chiefly important
for their similarity to the terms offered Napo-
leon at Prague (1813). The town of Barten-
stein has manufacturing interests of importance.
Pop. (1900) 6,779.

Barter, a term used in commerce and
political economy, to express the exchange of
one commodity for another, as contrasted with
the sale of commodities for money. It is simply
a primitive form of exchange carried on in
countries in which the use of money has not
yet been introduced, or is not prevalent. It
was an economic stage through which all com-
munities must have passed. Even yet in many
rude countries barter is very common ; and Eu-
ropean travelers find it convenient to take with
them weapons, tools, and ornaments to exchange
with the natives for their commodities. In civ-
ilized communities barter is a very exceptional
thing, having been superseded by the use of
money in various forms.

In law, barter, or exchange, as it is now
more generally called in law books, is a con-
tract for transferring propert}^ the considera-
tion being some other commodity ; or it may
be described as a contract for the exchange of
two subjects or commodities. It thus differs
from sale, which is a contract for the trans-
ference of property in consideration of a price
in money. See also Sale.

Bartfeld, biirt'felt, a tovv^n in Hungary,
156 miles northeast of Budapest, on a rising
ground near the banks of the Tepla and Lauka.
It is one of the oldest towns in Hungary, and is
well built ; has several Roman Catholic
churches, a Lutheran church and school, a
Franciscan monastery, military academy, hos-
pital, theatre, paper-mills, potteries, etc. Some
acidulous chalybeate springs and baths, near
the town, are much frequented. The trade in
wine, hemp, linen cloth, and woolen yarn is
considerable. Pop. 5,069.

Barth, bart, Auguste, French Oriental
scholar : b. in Strassburg^ 2.2. May 1834. He is
a member of the French Institute and his an-
nual reports in ^ Revue de 1' Historic des Reli-
gions^ are much esteemed. His most important
work is 'Les Religions de 1' Inde' (1879;
English translation 1882).

Barth, Heinrich, distinguished geogra-
pher and African traveler: b. Hamburg, 16
Feb. 1821 ; d. 25 Nov. 1865. He received his
education partly in his native town, and partly
at the University of Berlin, and having deter-
mined to explore all the countries bordering on
the Mediterranean, set out with this intention

in the beginning of 1845. After his return in
the end of 1847 he wrote an account of his
travels, which he published with the title * Wan-
derungen durch die Kiistenlander des Mittel-
meeres* (Berlin, 1849). In less than two years
after his return from his first travels he was
invited by the English government to join Dr.
Overweg in accompanying the expedition that
was about to proceed under James Richardson
to Central Africa. The expedition having landed
at Tripoli in the end of 1849, set out thence
for the interior of Africa in February 1850.
His explorations, which extended over an area
of about 2,000,000 square miles, hitherto almost
entirely unknown, were continued for more than
five years, in spite of the death both of Richard-
son and Overweg, and he did not return to
Tripoli till the autumn of 1855. The chief geo-
.graphical results of these travels consist in the
light they throw on the true nature of the
Desert of Sahara, in showing that the eastern
upper branch of the Niger, the Benuwe, is not
connected with Lake Chad, and in the deter-
mination of the course of the Niger between
Say and Timbuctoo. The result of these trav-
els, entitled ^Travels and Discoveries in North
and Central Africa,^ was published in English
(1857-8). Immediately after its publication he
set out upon a new series of travels through
the countries bordering on the Mediterranean,
the last of which occupied the summer of 1865.
Besides the works mentioned, he published
_^SammIung und Verarbeitung Central-afrikan-
ischer Vokabularien^ (1862-3).

Barth, or Bart, Jean, French seaman: b.
Dunkirk, 20 Oct. 1650; d. there, 27 April 1702.
He was the son of a fisherman, and at an early
age evinced a love of adventure, which led him
to follow the sea. He desired to enter the royal
service, but at this period the lower classes
were never commissioned in the French royal
navy, and Barth was constrained to take the
command of a privateer. In this position op-
portunities soon occurred for distinguishing
himself, and his name became known to Louis
XIV., who commissioned him to cruise in the
Mediterranean. His bravery soon raised him
in the favor of the king, and he was appointed
captain of the squadron in 1697. France being
now at war with the Dutch, a field was opened
of which Barth was not slow to take advantage,
and the most unexampled feats of daring soon
made him the terror of his enemies. On one
occasion, a famine existing in France, Barth
recaptured from the Dutch 100 sail of vessels,
loaded with grain. At another time when Dun-
kirk was blockaded, taking advantage of a fog,
he sailed through the English and Dutch fleets,
and destroyed 86 merchantmen : then making
a descent near Newcastle, Northumberland, he
destroyed 200 houses, and returned safely with
property valued at 500,000 crowns. Barth was
rough in manners, and entirely uneducated ;
indeed, he could with difficulty scrawl his own
name; but he was as simple-minded and honest
as he was brave. A statue to his memory, by
David d'Angers, was erected at Dunkirk in
1845. See Badin, <Jean Bart> (1867) ; Landelle.
<Jean Bart et son fils^ (1874).

Barth, Paul, German sociologist: b.
Baruthe, Silesia, i Aug. 1858. He is a pro-
fessor in the University of Leipsic and in addi-
tion to his much-valued ^Philosophie der Ge-

BARTH — BARTHELEMY-SAINT-HILAIRE

schichte als Sociologies (1897), is the author of
<Geschichte Philosophic Hegels und die Hege-
lianer bis auf Marx und Hartmann^ (1890) ;
< Beweggriinden des Sittlichen Handelns^
(1889) ; Tiberius Gracchus^ (2 ed. 1893).

Barth, a seaport of Prussia, in the prov-
ince of Pomerania, northwest of Stralsund. Its
chief industries are ship-building and fish cur-
ing and packing, and it has also a good trade
in grain and wool. Its church dates from the
13th century. Pop. (1900) 7,100.

Barthelemy, bar-ta-l'-me, Auguste-Mar-
seille, French poet and politician: b. iMar-
seilles, 1796; d. there, 23 Aug. 1867. Educated
at the Jesuit College of Juilly, he went to Paris
in 1822, and soon made himself famous by a
series ot vigorous and pointed political satires
in verse, directed against the Bourbons, and
full of suggestive regrets for the glories of the
empire. In < Napoleon in Egypt^ (1828), and
still more in his elegy for Napoleon's son, ^The
Son of the Man^ (1829), he spoke out his im-
perialism more boldly, and the latter occasioned
his imprisonment on the eve of the revolution
of July. His liberation, of course, was imme-
diate; and with his friend Mery, he celebrated
the victory of the people in a poem dedicated to
the Parisians, entitled "^The Insurrection. ^ Dur-
ing all the changes which followed, Barthelemy
was indefatigable as a brilliant versifier on the
political events of the day ; though, in his later
years, his popularity somewhat declined. He
was, from the first, a warm supporter of the
second Napoleonic regime. Some of his sayings
are memorable, as the oft-quoted '^L'homme ab-
surde est celui qui ne change jamais. '^ He died
in Marseilles, of which city he was librarian.

Barthelemy, Fransois, Marquis de, French
diplomatist: b. Aubagne (Provence), 20 Oct.
1747; d. Paris, 3 April 1830. He was brought
up by his uncle, the author of ^Anacharsis^ ;
and the protection of the Duke of Choiseul es-
tablished him in diplomacy. The Revolution did
not hinder his success in life; in 1793 he was
minister plenipotentiary to Switzerland. He
successively negotiated the Peace of Basel with
Prussia, Spain, and the elector of Hesse, the
first treaties concluded by the French republic.
This won for him an enviable reputation ; but
he was especially popular among the Clichyen
or royalist part}', by which he was, in 1797,
elected member of the directory ; consequently
on the republican coup d'etat of the i8th Fructi-
dor, he was ejected from the government, ar-
rested, and transported with Pichegru and
Ramel, to Guiana, whence he escaped to the
United States. Shortly afterward he was in
England, and after the i8th Brumaire was re-
called by the first consul, who made him a
senator. On the establishment of the Empire
he received the title of count and showed great
devotion to Napoleon during the course of his
prosperity, but as soon as misfortune threatened
Barthelemy sided at once with his enemies. He
was made a minister of state and a marquis by
Louis XVIII. and in 1819 proposed the restric-
tion of the electoral franchise.

Barthelemy, Jean Jacques, French anti-
quarian : b. Cassis, near Marseilles, 20 Jan.
1716; d. 30 Jan. 1795. He received a good edu-
cation from the fathers of the oratory at Mar-
seilles, and was about to prepare himself, under
the Jesuits, for holy orders; but becoming dis-

gusted with his teachers declined all offers of
clerical promotion, and only accepted the title
of abbe, in order to show that he belonged to
this class. He became deeply interested in the
study of Oriental languages and antiquities,
and his indefatigable industry and acute-
ness soon enabled him to communicate to the
learned new discoveries in this Oriental study,
among which the *^ Alphabet of Palmyra, ^ pub-
lished 1754, holds a principal place. In 1747
he was chosen member of the Academy of In-
scriptions at Paris. About this time he became
acquainted with the Count Stainville (afterward
the minister Choiseul), who was on the point
of departing as ambassador for Rome, and in-
vited Barthelemy to accompany him. Having
been appointed director of the Cabinet of
Medals in 1753, he accepted the offer and went,
in 1754, to Rome. He traveled through Italy,
collected antiquities, and occupied himself, after
his return, with learned works and with the
arrangement of the cabinet which had been
intrusted to his care, and to which he added
a great number of costly and rare medals.
Among his works none are so distinguished for
learning and beauty of description as the ^Trav-
els of the Younger Anacharsis in Greece,^ on
which he had labored 30 years, and which was
translated into English, German, and other lan-
guages. He himself was modest enough to call
this an unwieldy compilation, but all the
learned men of France and foreign countries
received it with the greatest applause. Bar-
thelemy, in his advanced age, resolved to com-
pose a complete catalogue of the Royal Cabinet
of Medals, but was interrupted in 1788 by the
storms of the Revolution. In 1789 he received
a place in the Academie Frangaise. In 1793 he
was arrested on a charge of aristocratic lean-
ings, but was soon after set at liberty. When
the chief librarian of the national library, the
notorious Carra, was executed, 31 Oct. 1793,
Barthelemy received the offer of his place but
declined it.

Barthelemy-Saint-Hilaire, Jules, French
politician and philosopher: b. Paris, 19 Aug.
1805 ; d. there, 25 Nov. 1895. On completing
his studies he received an appointment in the
ministry of finance, being at that time also
on the staff of the Globe newspaper. After the
revolution of 1830 he founded a journal called
Bon Sens, and continued to support the liberal
party in the press. In 1834 he became examiner
in French literature at the ficole Polytechnique,
and four years later he was appointed to the
chair of Greek and Latin philosophy in the
College de France. He played a part on the
side of the moderate party in the revolution of
1848, and was elected to the constituent assem-
bly for Seine-et-Oise. The coup d'etat of De-
cember 1852 caused him to forsake political life
for a considerable time and to resign his profes-
sorship. From this retirement he emerged in
1869, the year of his election as deputy for the
first circumscription of Seine-et-Oise. He was
shortly afterward sent to the National Assem-
bly as the representative of that department,
and during the troublous times of 1870-I he
was closely associated with M. Thiers. In 1875
he became a life senator, and in the cabinet of
M. Jules Ferry, constituted 1880, he was ap-
pointed minister of foreign affairs. The chief
event of his tenure of this office was the occu-

BARTHEZ — BARTHOLOMEW

pation of Tunis. In 1881 he again abandoned
public life for study and literary work. His
greatest work is his complete French version
of Aristotle (1837-93) : and among his other
writings are ^De la Logique d'Aristote' (1838) ;
<Des Vedas) (1854) ; <Du Bouddhisme> (1855) ;
< Letters on Egypt^ (1856); Le Bouddha et sa
Religion' (1862) ; < Mahomet et le Coran>
(1865); ^De la Metaphysique> (1879); ^L'lnde
Anglaise* (1887) ; <La Philosophic dans les
rapports avec les Sciences et la Religion'
(1889) ; < Etude sur Francis Bacon' (1890) ;
^Victor Cousin' (1895) ; and other works on
Hindu religions, philosophy, etc.

Barthez, bar-tas, Paul Joseph, distin-
guished French physician: b. Montpellier, 11
Dec. 1734; d. 15 Dec. 1806. He was the founder
of a medical school at Montpellier which ac-
quired a reputation throughout all Europe.
Later he received high honors at the hands of
Napoleon. Among his numerous writings may
l^e specially mentioned the 'Nouvelle jNIecanique
<ies Mouvements de I'Homme et des Animaux.'

Bartholdi, Frederic Auguste, distinguished
French sculptor: b. Colmar, Alsace, 2 April
1834; d. Paris, 4 Oct. 1904. While a student in
painting under the celebrated Ary Scheffer, he
showed a greater bent and aptitude for sculpture,
and devoted his energies to this branch of art,
exhibiting numerous works at the salons. After
the Franco-German War of 1870-71, in which
he fought on the staff of Garibaldi, he came into
prominence by the gigantic ^Lion of Belfort'
carved out of the red rock on the hill which
towers over the Alsatian city, and commemo-
rates its celebrated siege and defense. His statue
of * Lafayette Arriving in America,' now in
Union Square, New York city, was presented to
the metropolis by France as a testimonial of
gratitude to Americans for sympathy and ser-
vice during the Franco-German War. During
the days of the Commune when unable to pur-
sue his studio work in Paris, Bartholdi visited
the United States, and when arriving in the
beautiful harbor of New York, conceived the
idea of the colossal statue of ^Liberty Enlight-
ening the World,' erected on one of the islands
of the harbor to welcome with its flaming torch
all arrivals in the Land of Liberty. On his
return to France he divulged his plan, and a
body of distinguished Frenchmen formed a so-
ciety to carry out his project. Bartholdi gave 20
years of devoted effort to the work, personally
superintending the raising of the subscription
of $400,000 with which the French nation gave
the statue to the United States. Tlie donations
came maijily from the pence of the poor, requir-
ing enormous attention and detail, and when sub-
scriptions lagged, Bartholdi pledged his own
private fortune to defray the running expenses
and practically impoverished himself over the
work. Patiently overcoming all difficulties and
obstacles, he had the satisfaction to see the statue
dedicated with imposing ceremonies by President
Cleveland 28 Oct. 1886. (See Liberty, Statue
OF.) Bartholdi was a prolific sculptor, and among
the most notable of his other works are the
figures of Washington and Lafayette on the
Place des fitats-Unis in Paris, the Bartholdi
"fountain of the Botanical Gardens in Washing-
ton, the bronze group of the 'Lyre among the
Berbers, a Souvenir of the Nile,' exhibited at

the Salon of 1857; <Genius in the Talons of
Misery,' Salon of 1859; 'Portrait of General
Schramm, the Modern Martyr' (1864); 'Por-
trait of Laboulaye' (1866); 'The Leisures of
Peace' (1868); 'Young Alsatian Grape Grow-
er' (1869) ; an equestrian statue of Vercinge-
torix (1870) ; portraits of Messieurs Erckmann-
Chatrian; his well-known 'Curse of Alsace'
(1872) ; and 'Swizerland Assuaging the Sorrows
of Strasbourg, Siege of 1870' (1873).

Bartholin, bar'to-len, Kasper, Danish phy-
sician : b. A'lalmo, Sweden, 12 Feb. 1585 ; d.
Soroe, 13 July 1630. He traveled in Germany,
France, England, and Italy, and taught medi-
cine at Padua, Wittemberg, and Copenhagen.
He was for many years rector of the university
of Copenhagen, and his 'Institutiones Anatom-
ical' was a text-book in general use in Europe
■ in the 17th century in various translations.

Bartholin, Thomas, Danish physician, the
most distinguished of the sons of the preceding:
b. Copenhagen, 20 Oct. 1619; d. 4 Dec. 1680.
After traveling throughout Europe, he became
professor of anatomy in the University of Co-
penhagen, and made several discoveries in this
science. He revised his father's 'Anatomy'
and was a firm believer in Harvey's theory of
the circulation of the blood. His son, Kaspar
(1654-1704), was a famous anatomist, and his
son Thomas (1650-90) was an antiquarian
writer whose 'Antiquitatum Danicarum Libri
Tres' (1689) is of much value.

Bartholin's Glands (named after their dis-
coverer, Kaspar Bartholin (q.v.), are the
yulyo-vaginal glands, two in number, situated
inside the vaginal opening. They secrete a
mucous secretion and are subject to infection,
forming abscesses. See also Bartholinitis ;

COWPERITIS.

Bartholomew, of the Martyrs, archbishop
of Braga in Portugal: b. 1527; d. 1590. He
wrote several treatises on spiritual subjects,
was an intimate friend of Saint Charles Bor-
romeo, and did for the Church in Portugal what
Saint Charles did for religion in Italy. He was
one of the most influential members of the
Council of Trent, and the enactment of most of
the reformatory decrees in that Council was
due to his zeal and perseverance. Consult his
'Life' translated by Lady Herbert.

Bartholomew, Edward Sheffield, American
sculptor : b. Colchester, Conn., 1822 ; d. 2 May
1858. He studied in New York and in Rome,
where he lived during the latter part of his life.
Among his works are 'Blind Homer, Led by
His Daughter,' 'Eve,' * Youth and Old Age,'
'Ganymede,' and 'Evening Star.'

Barthoromew, Saint (son of Tolmai), the
apostle, probably the same person as Nathanael,
mentioned in the Gospel of St. John as an up-
right Israelite, and one of the first disciples
of Jesus. The name "Tholmai" was not a pat-
ronymic, but a surname given to the apostle,
a common practice, owing to the well-known
scarcity of Hebrew family names. He is said
to have taught Christianity in the south of
Arabia, into which, according to Eusebius, he
carried the Gospel of St. Matthew in the He-
brew language. Chrysostom mentions that he
preached in Armenia and Asia Minor, and tra-
dition tells that he was flayed alive and crucified
head downward. His day is the 24th of August.

BARTHOLOMEW, SAINT — BARTHOLOMEW'S HOSPITAL

Bartholomew, Saint, archbishop of Nak- routed army; the young Prince Henry de

schiwan «Apostle of Armenia," b. Bologna; d. Beam (afterward Henry IV., king of Navarre

1333 Having learned of his missionary zeal, and France), the head of the Protestant party

Pope John XXH. consecrated him bishop of after the death of Conde, was appomted com-

Maraga in Armenia. He belonged to the Do mander-m-chief. and Coligny commanded m the

minican Order and established a province of the name of the Prmce Henry de Conde, who swore

same in Armenia. With the assistance of con- to avenge the murder of his father. The ad-

freres he translated into Armenian the Psalter, yantageous offers of peace at St. Germain-en-

the Missal, the moral tracts of Saint Augustine. Laye (8 Aug. 1570) satisfied the chiefs of the

and Saint Thomas' four books, <Contra Gen- Huguenots, particular y Admiral Coligny, who

j.jjgg ) was wearied with civil war. i he king appeared

Bartholomew Fair, a celebrated fair for- ^o have entirely disengaged himself from the

merlv held in West Smithfield, London, on Saint inA^encf of he Guises and his mother; he m-

Ti' , , > T-v A 4. T.t c t. vited the old Coligny, the support of the

Bartholomews Day, 24 Augtist. It was first Huguenots, to his couri and honored him as a

established in the reign of Henry I., and was ^^^^^^ ^^^ ^-^^^^ ^^ ^^^ j.; ^^^ ^^^^-^^ ^^

originally devoted mainly to the purposes of ^j^^ p^-^^^ ^^ ^-^^^ (^g ^ ) ^^■.

business and traffic. It was finally abolished in ^^-^^ ^^^^^^^ ^p ^ ^^j^ ^^^ ^jf^ most distin-

^°^5- . , _ J guished Huguenots in Paris. Meanwhile the

Bartholomew, Saint, one of the Leeward ^^^^^^ ^^d allied herself to the Guise family.

Islands, in the West Indies. 120 miles to the and jealous of the influence of Coligny with

northwest of Guadeloupe, belonging to France the king, determined to have him assassinated,

(to which It was transferred by Sweden m Qn 22 August a shot from a window wounded

1877), about 8 square miles in area, and rising the admiral. The king hastened to visit him,

to the height of about 1,000 feet. It produces and swore to punish the author of the villainy;

tobacco, sugar, cotton, indigo, cassava, drugs, but on the same day he was induced by his

etc., with some excellent woods (including lig- mother to believe that the admiral had designs

num vitas"), and limestone. All the fresh water on his life. <<God's death!" he exclaimed: "kill

which can be procured is saved in cisterns, as the admiral ; and not only him, but all the

there are no springs. The climate is healthy. Huguenots: let none remain to disturb us!*

The island i? encompassed by formidable rocks, The following night Catherine held the bloody

which render it dangerous of access to shipping, council which fixed the execution for the night

Pop. 2,835. The only town is Gustavia or Saint of St. Bartholomew, 24 Aug. 1572. After the

Bartholomew. In the South Pacific Ocean are assassination of Coligny a bell from the tower

two other islands of the same name. of the royal palace, at midnight, gave to the

Bartholomew, Massacre of Saint, the assembled companies of 2,000 burghers the sig-
slaughter of French Protestants in Paris and r:al for the general massacre of the Huguenots,
other cities in France on various dates between The Prince of Conde and the king of Navarre
24 Aug. and 3 Oct. 1572. After the death of saved their lives by choosing mass rather
Francis II., Catherine de Medici had assumed than death, and pretending to embrace the
the regency for her son, Charles IX., then only Roman Catholic religion. Roman Catholics as
10 years old, and in spite of the opposition of well as Huguenots fell victims to the
the Guises she issued an edict of toleration political and personal hatred of the slay-
in favor of the Protestant party, 1562, which ers. By the king's orders the massacre
she had favored in many ways. The party of was extended through the whole kingdom; and
the Guisas now persuaded the nation that the if, in some provinces, the officers had honor and
Roman Catholic religion was in the greatest humanity enough to disobey the orders to butcher
danger. Religious dissension grew rife, and their innocent fellow^ citizens, yet instru-
each party, Roman Catholic and Huguenot, ments were always found to continue the
under pretext of religion, treated the other massacre. This horrible slaughter continued
with cruelty. Prince Conde took up arms; over 40 days; the victims are calculated from
the Guises had recourse to the Spaniards, 10,000 to 100,000. The Calvinist martyrology
Conde to the English, for assistance. Both cites 786 names; 2,000 is the number corn-
parties were guilty of the most atrocious puted by late historians. At Rome the mas-
cruelties, but finally concluded peace. The sacre was reported as a victory oyer a great
queen-mother caused the king, who had en- Huguenot conspiracy against the king; it was
tered his 14th year, to be declared of age, that for this reason the Pope ordered the Te Deum
she might govern more absolutely under his to be chanted and a medal struck commemorat-
name. Duke Francis de Guise had been assas- ing the event. Those of the Huguenots who
sinated by a Huguenot, at the siege of Orleans; escaped fled into the mountains and to
but his spirit continued in his family, which Rochelle. The Duke of Anjou laid siege to that
considered the Admiral Coligny as the author city, but, during the siege, received the news
of his murder. The king had been persuaded that the Poles had elected him their king. He
that the Huguenots had designs on his life, concluded a treaty, 6 July 1573, and the king
and had conceived an implacable hatred against granted to the Huguenots the exercise of their
them. Meanwhile the court endeavored to religion in certain towns. See also Huguenots.
gain time, in order to seize the persons of the See Loughnan, <The :\Ionth> (1892).
prince and the admiral by stratagem, but was , , ..^ . , « • j: 1
disappointed, and hostilities were renewed in Bartholomews Hospital, baint, formerly
1565. and still again after the Peace of Lonju- the priory of St. Bartholomew, and made_ a
meau, 1568, this time with greater cruelty than hospital by Henry VIII. in 1547. It contains
ever In the battle of Jarnac, 1569, Conde was 676 beds, and. on an average. 6,000 patients are
made prisoner and shot by Capt. de Monte- annually admitted to the hospital, -while about
sqiiie'i. Coligny collected the remains of the 100,000 out-patients are relieved by it.

BARTHOLOMITES — BARTLETT

Barthol'omites. See Basilians.

Bar'tizan, a battlement on the top of a
house or castle ; a small overhanging turret pro-
jecting from the angle on the top of a tower,
or from the parapet or other parts of a build-
ing ; or, the battlement surrounding a spire or
steeple, or the roof of a cathedral or church.

Bartlett, Elisha, American physician and
author: b. Smithfield, R. I., 1805; d. there, 18
July 1855. He graduated from the medical de-
partment of Brown University in 1826, and de-
livered the course of lectures on pathological
anatomy at the Berkshire medical institute in
Pittsfield, Mass., in 1832. In 1836 or 1837 he
was elected the first mayor of Lowell. He sub-
sequently lectured at Dartmouth College, and
in Transylvania University and the universi-
ties of Maryland and New York. In 1851 he
became professor of materia medica and medi-
cal jurisprudence in the College of Physicians
and Surgeons in New York, which place he
held until his death. He published ^ Essay on
the Philosophy of Medical Science^ (1844) ;
^Fevers of the United States^ (1850) ; and a
volume of poems, entitled ^Simple Settings in
Verse for Portraits and Pictures in Mr. Dick-
ens' Gallery^ (1855).

Bartlett, Edwin Julius, American chemist:
b. Hudson, O., 16 Feb. 1851. He was graduated
at Dartmouth College in 1872, and at Rush
Medical College in 1879; made associate pro-
fessor of chemistry in Dartmouth in 1879, and
full professor in 1883. He is a member of the
American Chemical Society, and the New York
Medico-Legal Society, and an honorary mem-
ber of the New Hampshire Medical Society.
He is the author of many papers on chemical
subjects.

Bartlett, Sir Ellis Ashmead. See Ash-
mead-Bartlett.

Bartlett, Homer Newton, American com-
poser : b. Olive, N. Y., 28 Dec. 1846. He began
his public career when 9 years of age, and at
ID composed violin music, piano duos, songs,
and vocal duets. He has written a large num-
ber of anthems, quartets, and glees for vocal
rendering, and pieces for the flute, stringed
instruments, and military bands and orchestras.
His best compositions include a three-act opera,
'La Valliere* ; a cantata, ^The Last Chieftain ' ;
an oratorio, ^Samuel,' etc.

Bartlett, Ichabod, American lawyer: b.
Salisbury, N. H., 1786; d. 19 Oct. 1853. He
graduated at Dartmouth College in 1808, com-
menced the practice of the law in Durham, but
soon removed to Portsmouth, where his skill
and ability soon commanded success. He is
celebrated as an opponent of Webster and Ma-
son. He was frequently a member of the State
legislature, and of the United States House of
Representatives for three terms, 1823-9.

Bartlett, John, American author and pub-
lisher : b. Plymouth, Mass., 14 June 1820; d.
Cambridge, Mass., 3 Dec. 1905. He entered the
university book-store, became a publisher in Cam-
bridge in 1836, and senior partner in the house
of Little, Brown & Company, in 1878. His
works include: < Familiar Quotations' (1854;
9th ed. 1891); <New Method of Chess Nota-
tion' (1857) ; <The Shakespeare Phrase-Book>
(1882); 'Catalogue of Books on Angling, In-
cluding Ichthyology, Pisciculture, etc' (1882);

'The Complete Concordance to Shakespeare's
Dramatic Works' C1894); and <Poems.'

Bartlett, John R., American naval officer :
b^ New York, 1843; d. Saint Louis, 22
Nov. 1904. He was appointed an acting
midshipman in the navy from Rhode Is-
land in 1859; entered the United States Naval
Academy, where he remamed till the beginning
of the Civil War, when he was assigned to the
West Gulf Blockading Squadron. He took
part in the bombardment and passage of Forts
St. Philip and Jackson, and the Chalmette bat-
teries, and the capture of New Orleans and
attack on Vicksburg in June 1862. He was pro-
moted lieutenant in 1864 ; took part in the bom-
bardment of Fort Fisher in December, and the
assault on its works in January. Subsequently
he was on surveying duty in Nicaragua and on
the United States Coast Survey ; was promoted
to captain, i July 1892; and was retired 12 July
1897. After the declaration of war against
Spain, in 1898, he was recalled to active ser-
vice, and on 9 July succeeded Rear-Admiral
Erben as commander of the Auxiliary Naval
Squadron, organized for the protection of the
Atlantic coast cities.

Bartlett, John Russell, American author:
b. Providence, R. I., 23 Oct. 1805 ; d. 28 May
1886. He was educated for a mercantile career,
and after 1837 entered the book-importing trade
in New York. In 1850, he was appointed one
of the commissioners to determine the Mexican
boundary. In 1855 he was made secretary of
State of Rhode Island. He published various
valuable records, genealogies, local histories,
etc., but his best known work is his 'Diction-
ary of Americanisms' (1850).

Bartlett, John Sherren, Anglo-American
journalist, founder of the Albion newspaper in
New York: b. Dorsetshire, England, 1790; d.
24 Aug. 1863. He was educated as a physician
in London ; was appointed surgeon i.i the royal
navy in 1812 ; sailed to the West Indies on
board the packet Swallow ; was captured by the
American frigates President and Congress,
under Commodore Rodgers, and remained a
prisoner at Boston until discharged in 1813.
At the close of the war he married a lady of
Boston and established himself there as a
physician. The Albion, commenced by him in
New York. 22 June 1822, as an English organ
of conservative politics, gained a wide and
profitable circulation. Bartlett subsequently
commenced one or two other papers of a simi-
lar character at a cheaper price, and on the be-
ginning of Atlantic steam navigation also es-
tablished at Liverpool the European, a weekly
compendium of the latest news for American
circulation. Owing to the failure of his health,
he withdrew from the Albion in 1848. He sub-
sequently published the Anglo-Saxon, a weekly
paper at Boston, which he continued about two
years. In 1857 he served as English consul at
Baltimore.

Bartlett, Joseph, American wit, poet, and
adventurer: b. Plymouth. Mass., 1763; d. Bos-
ton, 27 Oct. 1827. He began the study of law
at Salem, but soon gave it up for a voyage to
England. Here he pursued the career of an
adventurer, gambled, spent, got into prison,
wrote a play for his release, and went upon
the stage himself. From an actor he became
a merchant, and having sailed for America with

BARTLETT — BARTLEY

a large supply of goods on credit, was ship- a year of travel in the East. In 1877 he ac-

wrecked on Cape Cod. In 1799 he delivered a cepted the presidency of Dartmouth College,

poem on ^Physiognomy^ before the Phi Beta which he held until 1892, when he resigned.

Kappa society of Harvard, satirical and clever, He was the author of a number of works, in-

and said to touch upon the traits of individuals at eluding; *From Egypt to Palestine^ (1879);

the time. To the edition of this poem, published ^Sketches of Missions of the American Board^ ;

in 1823, were appended a number of ^Aphorisms ^Sources of History in the Pentateuch' ; and

on Men, Principles, and Things,' the results of *^The Veracity of the Hexateuch' ; and also

his various experience. The same year he de- wrote a part of the American edition of

livered a Fourth of July oration at Boston, and 'Smith's Dictionary of the Bible. >
afterward recited a poem, entitled the 'New Bartlett, William Francis, American mili-

Vicar of Bray,' which obtained considerable tary officer : b. Haverhill, Mass., 6 Jan. 1840 ; d.

celebrity. He next attempted the practice of 17 Dec. 1876. He was a student at Har-

law and of politics in Maine, was elected to yard University at the outbreak of the Civil

the State legislature, and nearly secured an \Var, but left to enter the army. He was

election to Congress by his active exertions as wounded in the battle of Ball's Blufif, suffering

a speaker and newspaper writer. He then prac- the loss of a leg ; but continued in the service ;

tised law at Portsmouth, N. H., and finally ^as twice wounded at Port Hudson ; and in the

closed his improvident life, a burden to his battles of the Wilderness, while leading the

friends, at Boston. See Duyckmck's <Cyclo- 57th Massachusetts regiment, was again wound-

paedia of American Literature.' ed, taken prisoner, and sent to Libby Prison.

Bartlett, Josiah, American statesman: b. At the close of the war, he was made a major-

Amesbury, Mass., November 1729; d. 19 May general of volunteers for distinguished services

1795. He commenced the practice of medicine in the field.

in 1750, at Kingston, and established a reputa- Bartlett, William Henry, English artist:

tion, during the prevalence of the angina ma- b. Kentish Town. London, 29 March 1809; d.

ligna in 1754, by treatment with Peruvian bark, 25 Sept. 1854. He served an apprenticeship

in opposition to the usage of other physicians, with the distinguished architectural antiquary,

He received several appointments from the John Britton, who employed him to make

royal governor, John Wentworth, but lost them drawings for his < Cathedral Antiquities' and

in 1775, for being a zealous Whig. Being i Picturesque Antiquities of English Cities.'

chosen delegate to the Continental Congress, Bartlett subsequently traveled extensively

he was the first who voted for, and the first, abroad, and the works which he published, de-

after the president, who signed the Declaration scriptive of the countries visited by him ob-

of Independence, his name being first called tained great success with the public. They

as representative of the most easterly province, include < Walks About Jerusalem' (1844) ;

He accompanied Stark m 1777 to Bennington. <Forty Days in the Desert' (1848); 'The Nile

He was appointed chief justice of the com- Boat or Glimpses of Egypt' (1849) ; <Foot-

mon pleas in 1779, justice of the supreme court steps of Our Lord and His Apostles in Syria,

m 1784, and chief justice in 1788. He was an Greece, and Italy' (1851) ; 'The Pilgrim Fa-

active member of the convention called to adopt thers' (1853) ; 'Jerusalem Revisited' (1855).
the Federal constitution in 1788. In 1790 he Bartlett, William Holmes Chambers,

zii ?ro^etif fi^s^go^l^o'-midS^ Z'.^ ^^'vl^7 ^"' ^ss^'T ^^ F^riis^

State constitution He was also president of ^^, ^SSS^^Tv^^ ^L^'.r^s uSl

the medical society established in 1791, by his . . r ■ • / ^ ^r

,■ T ,1 1 • • ff; 1 • i .• tenant of engineers, was assistant professor
exertions. In all his various offices his duties .1 ^q^„ „ tt ^ ^1
wprf^ ahlv pnH faithfnilv disrhflrcrerl ^here, 1827-9. He was engaged on the con-
were ably and taithtully discharged. struction of Fort Munroe and Fort Adams;

Bartlett, Paul Wayland, American sculp- was assistant engineer at Washington, 1832-4;

tor: b. New Haven, Conn., 1865. He entered the and again at West Point as assistant professor,

ficole des Beaux Arts, Paris, 1880; became 1834-6. When he resigned his lieutenancy in

chevalier of the Legion of Honor, 1895. His 1836, he was made full professor of philosophy

principal works are: an equestrian statue of at West Point, and held this position until he

Gen. McClellan in Philadelphia; one of La- retired in 1871. He was a member of the

fayette in Paris (presented to France by the Natural Academy of Sciences and other scien-

school children of the United States) ; a statue tific societies, and wrote several scientific books,

of Gen. Joseph Warren in Boston; statues of including 'Treatise on Optics' (1839); 'Syn-

Columbus and Michel Angelo in the Library of thetical Mechanics' (i8so-8) ; 'Acoustics and

Congress, and 'The Bear Tamer,' in the Optics' (1852-9) ; 'Analytical Mechanics'

Metropolitan Museum of New York. (1853-9) ; and 'Spherical Astronomy' (1858-9).

Bartlett, Samuel Colcord, American edu- Bartley, Elias Hudson, American chemist:
cator: b. Salisbury, N. H., 25 Nov. 1817; d. b. Bartleyville, N. J., 6 Dec. 1849. He was
16 Nov. 1898. He was educated at Dartmouth graduated at Cornell University in 1873 ; was
College, and became a teacher there and at an instructor there in 1874-5 ; professor of
Andover Theological Seminary. He had charge chemistry at Swarthmore College, 1875-8 ; lec-
of a church at Monson, Mass. ; subsequently be- turer at the Franklin Institute, Philadelphia, in
coming professor of philosophy in Western Re- 1877-8. He removed to Brooklyn in 1879;
serve University, Ohio. He afterward became graduated at Long Island College Hospital in
pastor of a church in Manchester, N. H.. and 1879; was lecturer there on physiological and
later of the New England Church in Chicago, practical chemistry in 1880-5 ; and then became
In 1858 he was made professor of biblical liter- professor of chemistry and toxicology. He
ature in the Chicago Theological Seminary, was made chief chemist of the health depart-
where he remained until 1873, when he spent ment of Brooklyn, in 1882. He is the author

BARTOK — BARTOLOZZI

of several articles in Wood's * Household Prac-
tice of Medicine^ (1885), and of ^A Text-Book
of Medical Chemistry.^

Bar'tok, Ludwig von, a Hungarian poet
and dramatist: b. 1851. ^Carpathian Songs^
includes his happiest verse. As a playwright,
he is even more distinguished ; the comedy of
*The Most BeautifuP (1880), and the historical
tragedy, 'Margareta Kendi,' as well as *Anna
Thuran,^ a historical drama, having been fre-
quently acted.

Bartol, Cyrus Augustus, American Unita-
rian clergyman : b. Freeport, Me., 30 April
1813 ; d. 17 Dec. 1900. He was graduated at
Bowdoin College in 1832, and at Cambridge
Divinity School in 1835 ; became colleague pas-
tor with Dr. Charles Lowell of the West
Church (Unitarian),) in Boston, 1837, and full
pastor in 1861. He was a member of the
Transcendental Club. His works include:
^Discourses on the Christian Spirit and Life^
(1850) ; ^Discourses on Christian Body and
Form^ (1854) ; ^Pictures of Europe Framed in
Ideas' (1855) ; ^History of the West Church
and Its Ministers' (1858) ; *^ Church and Con-
gregation' (1858) ; ^Word of the Spirit to
the Church' (1859) ; * Radical Problems'
(1872); <The Rising Faith' (1874); ^Princi-
ples and Portraits' (1880).

Bartoli, bar't5-le, Adolf o, Italian historian:
b. Fivizzano, 19 Nov. 1833 ; d. 1894. He
has long been a recognized arbiter of taste
and the elegancies in connection with his coun-
try's literature; his 'First Two Centuries of
Italian Literature' (1870-80), and 'History of
Italian Literature' (1878-89) being master-
pieces. In 1874 he became professor of Italian
literature in the Institute of Florence.

Bartoli, Danielle, a learned Italian Jesuit :
b. Ferrara, 12 Feb. 1608; d. Rome, 13 Jan.
1685. He was the author of a celebrated his-
tory of the order of the Jesuits, published at
Rome in six volumes (1653-75). Bartoli had
access to many curious manuscripts in the Vati-
can, of which he availed himself. This gives
to his work peculiar interest, and portions of
it, as for instance that on Asia, passed through
several editions. The first edition of 1667 con-
tains also an interesting account of the mission
to Mongolia, and a sketch of the life of Father
Acquaviva. He also wrote on physics and phi-
lology. A new edition of his complete works
in 12 volumes appeared at Turin in 1825. and
a select edition of the most striking passages at
Milan in 1826.

Bartoli, Pietro Santi, sometimes called
Perugio, Italian painter and engraver : b. about
1635 ; d. Rome, 1700. He was a pupil of Nicolas
Poussin. His engravings, numbering over
1,000, are scarce and valuable. His skill as a
copyist was so great that he could counterfeit
the effects of time on the colors of pictures.
The 'Admiranda Romanorum Antiquitatem
Vestijia,' a collection of engravings much es-
teemed archseologically, is his most important
work.

Bartolini, bar-to-le'ne, Lorenzo, cele-
brated Italian sculptor: b. Vernio, i777; d.
Florence, 1850. In his 5'outh he was a pupil
of Desmarets, a French painter, and made con-
siderable progress ; but the bent of his genius
leading him rather to handle the chisel than

Vol. 2 23.

the brush, he proceeded to Paris and entered
the studio of the sculptor Lemot. Napoleon
intrusted him with a multitude of works, among
others a colossal bust of the emperor placed
above the entrance of the French Institute, and
a magnificent statue of him, which, in conse-
quence of the events of the restoration, was
never delivered to government, and is now in
America. On the fall of the empire he returned
to Florence, where he continued to exercise his
profession. Among his greater works may be
mentioned his groups of Charity, and Hercules
and Lycas, and the beautiful monument in the
cathedral of Lausanne, Switzerland, erected in
memory of Lady Stratford Canning, who died
there in 1817. Bartolini ranks next to Canova
among modern Italian sculptors. See Canova,
'Schools and Masters of Sculpture' (1898).

Bartolommeo, bar-to-lom-ma'o, Fra, or
Baccio Delia Porta, one of the most distin-
guished of the Florentine painters: b. Savign-
ano, 1469; d. Florence, 1517. He learned in
Florence the first principles of painting from
Cosimo Roselli, and acquired a more perfect
knowledge of art by studying the works of
Leonardo da Vinci. He was an admirer and
follower of Savonarola, on whose death, in con-
sequence of a vow made during the peril of
persecution, he took the Dominican habit in
1500, and assumed the name of Fra Bartolommeo.
For the space of four years he did not touch
his pencil, and employed it afterward only on
devotional subjects. Raphael visited Florence
in 1504 and gave instructions to Bartolommeo
in perspective, receiving in return his lessons
in coloring. Some years afterward the latter
visited Michael Angelo and Raphael at Rome.
After his return to Florence he executed several
religious pictures, among which were a Saint
Mark and Saint Sebastian, which are greatly
admired. His style is severe and elevated, but
very graceful in youthful figures ; his coloring,
in vigor and brilliancy, comes near to that of
Titian and Giorgione. But he particularly ex-
cels in drapery, which none before him repre-
sented with equal truth, fulness, and ease. His
pictures are preserved in the gallery of the
Grand-Duke at Florence and in the palace of
Pitti. See Jameson. 'Memoirs of the Early
Italian Painters' (1887); Symonds, 'The Ren-
aissance in Italy' (1885); Radcliffe, 'Schools
and Masters of Painting' (1898) ; Cartwright,
'The Painters of Florence' (1901).

Bartolozzi, bar-to-lot'se, Francesco, a dis-
tinguished Italian engraver: b. Florence, 21
Sept. 1728; d. Lisbon, Portugal, April 1813.
In Venice, in Florence, and Milan, he etched
several pieces on sacred subjects, and then went
to London, where he received great encourage-
ment and accommodated himself entirely to the
national taste, so as even to work in the popular
red dotted manner. His pieces were so uni-
versally sought for that a complete collection
of them was valued at £1,000. He was elected
a member of the Royal Academy of Arts in
London. After 40 years' residence in London
he went to Lisbon to engrave on copper the
portrait of the regent, where he received, in
1807, the order of Christ. With accuracy of
design he united great delicacy of execution.
Among his best engravings is the 'Death of Lore
Chatham,' after Copley, and the 'Virgin and
Child.' His works, among which are imitations

BARTOLUS — BARTON

in etching of drawings of the great masters,
amount to more than 2,000. See Clement,
'Painters, Sculptors, and Engravers* (1899).

Bar'tolus, Osso, or Bartolus A. Saxoffer-
rato, a celebrated Italian jurist: b. Sasso
Ferrato, in the Marches of Ancona, about 13131
d. Perugia, 1356. He took his degree of doctor
of law at Bologna, became professor, first at
Pisa, aud then at Perugia, was ennobled and
honored with other distinction and privileges
by the emperor Charles IV., and not only pub-
lished many important works such as treatises
*0n Procedure,* 'On Evidence,* and commen-
tary on the 'Code of Justinian,* but distin-
guished himself in various other branches of
knowledge.

Barton, Andrew, Scottish naval com-
mander, who flourished during the reign of
James IV., and belonged to a family which for
two generations had produced able and suc-
cessful seamen. In 1497 he commanded the
escort which accompanied Perkin Warbeck
from Scotland. After doing considerable dam-
age to English shipping, he was killed in an
engagement with two ships which had been
especially fitted out against him (1512).

Barton, Benjamin Smith, American natu-
ralist : b. Lancaster, Pa., 10 Feb. 1766; d. Phila-
delphia, 19 Dec. 1815. He studied the natural
sciences and medicine in Philadelphia, Edin-
burgh, and London, and took his degree at Got-
tingen. He practised medicine in Philadelphia,
and held successively the chairs of botany and
natural history, materia medica, and theory
and practice of medicine in the university
there. He became president of many learned
societies, was a correspondent of Humboldt,
and, among other works, wrote 'Elements of
Botany* (1812-14) ; 'Collections for an Es-
say toward a Materia Medica of the United
States* (3d ed. 1810) ; and 'Flora Virginica*
(1812).

Barton, Bernard, English poet, often styled
the Quaker poet: b. London, 31 Jan. 1784; d.
19 Feb. 1814. In 1806 he removed to Wood-
bridge, in Suffolk, where he entered into a
business in coals and corn ; but subsequently
gave up this occupation, and in 1810 became
clerk in a bank at Woodbridge, a situation
which he held till not long before his death.
In 1824 a reading society founded by him at
Woodbridge presented him with £1,200, and he
afterward received a pension of £100 through
Sir Robert Peel. His first appearance as an au-
thor was in 1812, when he published a small
volume of poems under the title of 'Metrical
Effusions,* which led to a correspondence with
the poet Southey. This was followed in 1818
by 'Poems by an Amateur,* and in 1820 by a
volume entitled simply 'Poems,* which became
popular, and gained him the friendship of
Lamb and Byron. Of his other productions
the chief were: 'Napoleon, and other Poems*
(1822); 'Poetic Vigils* (1824); 'Devotional
Verses* (1826) ; 'A New- Year's Eve, and other
Poems* (1828) ; besides many contributions to
the annuals and magazines. His last work
was 'Household Verses* (1845). His daugh-
ter, Lucy, published 'Selections from the
Poems and Letters of Bernard Barton,* in 1849.
His poetry, though deficient in force, is pleas-
ing, fluent, and gracef'd, animated by a love of
nature, and by a pure religious spirit.

Barton, Clara, American philanthropist:
b. Oxford, Mass., 1830. She early became a
teacher, and founded at Bordentown, N. J., a
free school, opening it with six pupils. In 1854
it had grown to 600, when she became a clerk
in the patent office in Washington. On the out-
break of the Civil War she resigned her clerk-
ship and became a volunteer nurse in the army
hospitals and on the battle-field. In 1864 she
was appointed to the charge of the hospitals at
the front of the army of the James. She was
present at several battles, and in 1865 was placed
by President Lincoln in charge of the search for
missing men of the Union armies, having already
devoted much time to that work at her own ex-
pense. On the breaking out of the Franco-Prus-
sian war in 1870, she aided the Grand Duchess
of Baden in preparing military hospitals, assisted
the Red Cross Society, and, at the request of the
authorities, superintended the distribution of
v/ork to the poor of Strasburg in 187 1, after the
siege, and in 1872 did a like work in Paris. At
the close of the war she was decorated with the
Golden Cross of Baden and the Iron Cross of
Germany. On the organization of the American
Red Cross Society in 1881 she was made its
president, and in that capacity in 1884 had charge
of the measures to relieve sufferers from the
Mississippi and Ohio floods. In 1883 she was
appointed superintendent of the Reformatory
Prison for Women at Sherborn, Mass. In 1889
she had charge of movements in behalf of suf-
ferers from the floods at Johnstown, Pa. ; in
1892 distributed relief to the Russian famine
sufferers; in 1896 personally directed relief
measures at the scenes of the Armenian massa-
cres ; in 1898, at the request of President Mc-
Kinley, took relief to the Cuban reconcentrados,
and performed field work during the war with
Spain ; and in 1900 undertook to direct the relief
of sufferers at Galveston, but broke down phys-
ically. She resigned from the Red Cross Society
in 1904. She has published 'History of the Red
Cross* (1883) ; 'History of the Red Cross in
Peace and War* (1898).

Barton, David, American legislator: b.
probably in Waco County, Ky., 1785; d. Boone-
ville. Mo., 27 Sept. 1837- He was one of the ear-
liest settlers in Missouri ; presided over the con-
vention that drew up the State constitution in
1820; and was a United States Senator from
that State in 1 821-31.

Barton, Elizabeth, English religious im-
postor (commonly called the Holy Maid of
Kent) : b. about 1506; d. 20 April 1534. She
was used as an mstrument by the adherents of
Queen Catherine to excite the English nation
against the proposed divorce of Henry VIII.
from his first wife, and the apprehended separa-
tion of the English Church from Rome, with
which the king then threatened the Pope. Her
delirious utterances, in a nervous illness, were
made use of by the parson of Aldington, Rich-
ard Maister. and by a canon of Canterbury
named Bocking, to persuade her that she was a
prophetess inspired by God. Among other
things she prophesied that Henry, if he per-
sisted in his purpose of divorce and second
marriage, would die a shameful death and be
succeeded by Catherine's daughter. Her reve-
lations, published and distributed by the monk

BARTON — BARUCH

Dering, produced such a fermentation among
the people that Henry ordered the apprehen-
sion and examination of EHzabeth and her ac-
comphces before the star-chamber. After they
had there confessed the imposture they were
condemned to make a pubHc confession and to
imprisonment ; and the Maid, Bocking, Maister,
Dering, and three others were afterward ad-
judged guihj' of high treason for a conspiracy
against the king, and executed. The venerable
Bishop Fisher and Sir Thomas IMore were
among those accused of holding correspondence
with the Holy Maid ; and the former was pro-
nounced guilty of misprision, or concealment, of
(reason in consequence.

Barton, George Hunt, American geologist:
b. Sudbury, Mass., 8 July 1852. He was as-
sistant on Hawaiian Government survey,
1S81-3 ; assistant in geology in the Massachu-
setts Institute of Technology in 1883-4 : then
assistant professor of geolog}^ there; he also oc-
cupied the corresponding chair in Boston Uni-
versity and the Teachers' School of Science ;
and was assistant geologist of the United States
Geological Survey. In 1896 he was a member
of the sixth Peary expedition to Greenland. He
is a member of the Boston Society of Natural
History, the National Geological Society, and
the Geological Society of America, and the
author of many technical papers.

Barton. William, American military offi-
cer: b. Warren, R. I., 26 May 1748; d.
Providence, R. I., 22 Oct. 1831. He joined
the Revolutionary army soon after Bunker
Hill, and on the night of 10 July 1777,
he performed the exploit which made him
famous. Leading a small party of men, in four
whale-boats, across Narragansett Bay, he sur-
prised and captured the British general. Pres-
cott, at his headquarters, and hurried him away
to Washington's camp in New Jersey. Barton
received a sword from Congress, and was
brevetted colonel. He was afterward a mem-
ber of the State convention which adopted the
Federal Constitution.

Barton, William Paul Crillon, American
botanist: b. Philadelphia, Pa., 17 Nov. 1786; d.
29 Feb. 1856, a nephew of Benjamin Smith
Bar'cOn (q.v.). He was educated at Princeton
College, and in the medical school of the Uni-
versity of Pennsylvania ; was surgeon in the
United States navy and became professor of
botany in Jefferson Medical College, in 1815.
He was author of 'Flora of North America*
(1818-24) : "^Vegetable ^Materia Medica of the
United States* (1817-25) ; 'Compendium
Flon-e* (1818).

Bartram, John, an eminent American bot-
anist : b. Chester County, Pa., 23 March 1699;
d. 22 Sept. 1777. He is frequently called the
"father of American botany,'* and he founded
at Kingsessing the first botanical garden in
America. Linnaeus termed him "the greatest
natural botanist in the world.** He published
'Observations of the Inhabitants, Climate, Soil,
Diverse Productions, Animals, etc., Made in
His Travels from Pennsylvania to Lake On-
tario,* and a similar volume on eastern Florida
(1766). He was in constant correspondence
with European botanists, to whom he sent large
collections of American plants and would read-
ily undertake a journey of a hundred miles to
see a new plant.

Bartram, William, American botanist and
ornithologist: b. Kingsessing, Pa., 9 Feb. 1739;
d. there 22 July 1823; a son of John Bartram.
He spent five years in the southern States
studying natural history, and published the re-
sults in 'Travels Through North and South
Carolina and East and West Florida.* He
compiled a list of American birds, which was
the best of its kind up to the time of Wilson.

Bartsch, biirtsh, Adam von, Austrian en-
graver and art writer: b. \'ienna, 17 Aug. 1757;
d. there, 21 Aug. 1821. At die age of 16 he
brought himself into the notice of the Austrian
government by a series of engravings of the
gold and silver medals issued during the reign
of Maria Theresa, and, in 1781. was appointed
keeper of the prints of the royal collection. In
1803 he produced the first volume of his well-
known and authoritative work, 'Le Peintre-
Graveur,* in 21 volumes, giving a description
of the principal engravers of Europe, and criti-
cisms on their works. He etched upward of 500
pieces, and published several catalogues of
works of art.

Bartsch, Karl Friedrich Adolf Konrad,

German philologist : b. Sprottan, Silesia, 25
Feb. 1832; d. 19 Feb. 1888. He was professor
at Rostock, where he established the earliest
Germanic seminary in Germany, 1858-71 ; and
for the remainder of his life was head of the
department of German and Romance philology
at the L'niversity of Heidelberg. He was an
extremely brilliant, versatile, industrious scholar
whose attention was chiefly given to Middle
High German and Provengal poetry, and was
an original poet also, publishing a volume of
Ij'rics in 1874. Beside an important study of
the 'Nibelungenlied* (1865), he published
'The Song of Roland* (1874) ; a translation
of Burns ((1865); and of Dante's 'Divina
Commedia* (1867), as well as introductions to
the study of Provencal and old French, etc.

Barttelot, bar-tlo', Edmund Musgrove,

English soldier: b. 1859; d. 1888. Entering
the Indian army he served in the Afghan cairt-
paign, and as major in the Egj-ptian army,
joined the Stanley expedition for the relief of
Emin Pasha in 1887. In June 1888 he began a
journey into the heart of Africa and in the
course of a mutiny among his followers was
shot by one of his men. He was accused of
barbarous cruelty in his command by Stanley,
a charge oposed by Barttelot s brother in his
'Life of Edmund Musgrove Barttelot* (1890).

Baru, ba-roo', Philippines, a town of
Leyte. 31 miles from the capital of the prov-
ince, Taclobam. Pop. 12.322.

Baru (MaylajO) a wooly material found
at the base of the leaves of a sago palm-tree,
saguerus saccliarifer. It is much used in stuff-
ing cushions and calking ships.

Baruch, ba'ruk (Hebrew, "the blessed**),
the name of several individuals, of whom the
most celebrated was the son of Neriah, scribe
and assistant to the prophet Jeremiah. During
the reign of Jehoiakim, about 607 B.C., Jeremiah
while in prison, having been divinely commis-
sioned to put all his prophecies in writing, dic-
tated them to Baruch. who inserted them in a
roll, which he was ordered to read both within
and at the entrance of the temple. Jehoiakim
on hearing its commencement cut it in pieces

BARUS — BAS-RELIEF

and threw it into the fire. At the captivity,
after the destruction of Jerusalem, Jeremiah
and Baruch were permitted to remain in Pales-
tine, but were afterward carried into Egypt, 588
B.C. The subsequent life of Baruch is little
known. One of the apocryphal books bears
the name of Baruch. The Council of Trent
gave it a place in the canon, but its authentic-
ity was not admitted either by the ancient Jews
or the early Christian fathers.

Ba'rus, Carl Hazard, American physicist:
b. Cincinnati, O.. 19 Feb. 1856. He studied
at Columbia College and the University of
Wiirzberg; was physicist of the United States
Geological Survey in 1880-92; professor of
meteorojogy in the United States Weather Bu-
reau, 1892-3 ; and physicist of the Smithsonian
Institution, in 1893-5. In 1895, he became pro-
fessor of physics at Brown University. He is
a member of the National Academy of Sci-
ences ; was vice-president and chairman of the
section of physics in the American Association
for the Advancement of Science in 1897 5 and
is a corresponding member of the British Asso-
ciation for the Advancement of Science. He
contributes to the American Journal of Sci-
ence, and has written also valuable monographs
for the United States Geological Survey.

Bary, ba're, Heinrich Anton de, German
physician and botanist : b. Frankfort-on-the-
Main, 26 Jan. 1831 ; d. 19 Jan. 1888. He is
noted for his investigations in cryptogamic bot-
anj'-, and was professor of botany at Freiburg
in 1855, at Halle in 1867, and at Strasburg in
1872. Among his works are ^Die Mycetozen^
(1859) ; ^Vergleichende Morphologic und Bi-
ologie der Pilze, Mycetozen tmd Bacterien^
(1884) ; "^Vorlesungen iiber Bactorien^ (1885).

Barye, ba-re, Antoine Louis, noted
French sculptor: b. Paris, 24 Sept. 1795; d.
there, 25 June 1875. He studied engraving with
Fourrier and a goldsmith named Beinnais ; in
1812, was a topographical engineer, and is sup-
posed to have modeled a number of relief maps
now in the French war office. In 1816 he stud-
ied drawing with the painter Gros, and sculp-
ture with Basio ; and, in 1819, took the second
prize for a ^Milo di Crotona,^ which was
awarded him at a Concours of the Beaux Arts.
From 1823 till 1831 he worked under Faucon-
nier, jeweler to the Duchesse d'Angouleme. In
1831 he exhibited the celebrated ^ Tiger De-
vouring a Crocodile,^' and was then emploj^ed
by M. Lefuel to make four groups for the
pavilion on the Place du Carrousel. He was
an officer of the Legion of Honor, a member of
the Institute, and a professor at the Jardin des
Plantes. See Brownell, ^French Art' (1892).

Bary'ta, barium monoxid. See Barium.

Barytes, a common name for Barite (q.v.).

Baryton (viola di Bardone), a chamber in-
strument, very popular in the i8th century, but
now obsolete. It was somewhat like the viol di
gamba in tone, but had a broader finger-board,
with six or seven gut-strings, while under the
neck there were from 9 to 24 strings of brass
wire, which were pinched with the point of the
thumb, to produce a sound, while the gut-strings
were acted on by a bow.

Barytone. See Baritone.

Bas, or Batz, a French island in the de-
partment of Finisterre, 2^/2 miles from the coast

in the English Channel. Although but three miles
long and two miles wide it is defended by two
forts and four batteries. It has a lighthouse at
an elevation of 212 feet, and three fishing vil-
lages. Pop. (1896) 1,286.

Bas-relief, ba-re-lef (in Italian, basso-
rilievo, or low relief), as applied to sculpture,
a representation of one or more figures, raised
on a flat surface or background, in such a man-
ner, however, as that no part of them shall be
entirely detached from it. Alto-rilievo, or high
relief, is that in which the figures project half
of their apparent circumference from the back-
ground. Mczzo-rilicvo, or middle relief, is a
third species, between the two. But, generally
speaking, the first term is made- to comprehend
both the others. The term itself was invented
in Italy, about the nth or 12th century, on the
revival of the arts ; for the Greeks called such
works simply carved (a)iaglypta) ; and to what
is now called high relief they only applied the
term rounded (toreutike).

Bas-relief is particularly allied to archi-
tecture and under its dominion, since any con-
siderable work of this kind must be made for
the pediment, frieze, or panel of a building, or
for some other architectural work, such as a
tomb, sarcophagus, pedestal, or column. Bas-
reliefs seem to have been invented in the earliest
ages by the Eg3^ptians, for the whole of their
ancient monuments are covered with them, being
executed in the same way as the hieroglyphics
on their sepulchral chambers, obelisks, and tem-
ples. This has been fi_nely illustrated by the
drawings and models of the tomb of Sethi I.,
originally discovered near the ancient Thebes
by Belzoni, and which has since become fa-
miliar to many persons ; all the walls of that
extraordinary excavation being covered with
thousands of figures in low relief, colored, and
exhibiting the religious and warlike ceremonies
of that wonderful people. Bas-reliefs, too, are
found in India, decorating the subterraneous
temples of Ellora and Elephanta in an astonish-
ing profusion. The subjects are, of course,
sacred, and in the style of drawing resemble very
strongly those of the Eg\'ptian monuments, but
are evidently inferior, having larger heads and
disproportioned bodies and limbs. Both these
temples have been well illustrated and described
by Thomas Daniell, R. A., and Capt. Scaley ;
and for further information their respective
works may be constilted. The Persians, too,
like other ancient nations, employed bas-relief
as a figured writing, thereby recording and rep-
resenting the S3^mbols of the power and energy
of the Divinity, their own religious ceremonies,
and warlike achievements. The sculptures still
existing on the ruins of the palace of Persepolis
and the royal tombs accord in many striking par-
ticulars with those taken to England by Belzoni.
In both the figures are arranged in lines, either
horizontal or perpendicular, to suit the double
purpose of decoration and descripaon. In both
of them the natives of Egypt are distinguished
by the hood with lappets, the mitre, the full hair
artificially curled, the close tunic, the apron of
papyrus ; the Hindus, by the necklaces, bracelets,
and anklets ; the Hebrews, by their long beards,
and hair in spiral ringlets, their caps, full tunics,
with regular folds and large sleeves ; the Medes,
again, by their close tunics ; while the Persians
themselves, in many particulars, resemble the

BASAITI — BASCOM

Hebrews. The comparison may be easily made
by looking over the prints in Sir Robert Ker
Portre's * Travels in Persia/ and those in Le
Bruyn's ^ Travels,^ and then the engravings of
Denon's and Belzoni's large works.

Since it has been well observed that the
Greeks commenced in works of art precisely
where the Egyptians left off, we find that the
early bas-reliefs of Greece resemble pretty accu-
rately those of Egj'pt. The objects are repre-
sented in the same hard and simple manner, and
the marbles taken to England from the temple
of /Egina serve to fill up the history of sculp-
ture, in the interval between its first introduction
into Greece and its full development under
Phidias, at Athens, when that glorious work, the
Parthenon, was produced under the auspices of
Pericles.

The draperies in these early bas-reliefs are
thin and meagre, showing the forms of the
body and limbs; the folds regular, small, and
distinct, consisting chiefly of perpendicular and
zigzag lines. Some of the head-dresses consist
of small curls, very like the fashions of barbarous
nations ; and in a bronze patera in. the British
Museum the club of Hercules is ornamented
with spiral flutes, like one brought by Capt.
Cook from the Sandwich Islands.

The best examples of bas-relief now in ex-
istence are to be found within the walls of
the British Museum. We mean, of course, those
of the Elgin Marbles, which are executed in this
manner. And in the same collection are the
tombstone of Xanthippus, and a man curbing a
horse, both conjectured to be of the age of
Phidias, and which formed part of the Townley
collection. In the collection of the Marquis of
Lansdowne is a Greek bas-relief of Calchas, the
size of life. At Wilton there is a beautiful rep-
resentation of the ^ Death of Meleager,^ and a
small but curious ^Hercules and yEgle^ ; a bas-
relief composed of mosaic in natural colors,
which is supposed to be iniique. The celebrated
Barberini vase, formerly in the possession of
the Duke of Portland, is of dark-blue glass,
bearing figures in Toas-relief of white enamel or
glass of admirable workmanship. Fragments of
bas-reliefs of similar materials have been found
in the ruins of C?esar's palace at Rome, where
they had been fixed in the walls. The two tri-
umphal columns of Trajan and Antonine are
covered with bas-reliefs, containing several thou-
sand figures (the first, indeed, has 2,500 human
figures, according to Vasi), without reckoning
horses, elephants, mules, and the implements of
war.

Basaiti, ba-sa-e'te, Marco, celebrated
painter of Greek extraction : b. Friuli about the
middle of the 15th century. He settled in
Venice, where several of his paintmgs, remarka-
ble for the bvilliancy of their coloring, and dis-
tinguished by other excellences, are seen. His
masterpiece, now in the Ver>etian Academy, is
<The Calling of St. Andrew and St. Peter.^ He
was the contemporary, and not unfrequently the
successful rival, of Gian Bellini.

Basalt', a class of rocks belonging to the
volcanic series and characterized by augite and
plagioclase feldspar as essential constituents,
and by iron ores (magnetite and ilmenite) as
accessory minerals. Olivine is also present in
typical basalts ; among the rarer minerals are
orthorhombic pyroxene, black mica, hornblende,

quartz, leucite, and nepheline. Those varieties
which contain notable quantities of olivine are
known as olivine basalts, while the presence of
leucite and nepheline characterizes the leucite
basalts and the nepheline basalts. In texture the
basalts vary from a finely crystalline apparently
homogeneous mass to coarsely crystalline aggre-
gates; but the normal type is a fine-grained, black
rock, in which olivine is the only mineral that
can be recognized without the microscope. The
ground mass of the denser varieties contains
more or less glass, due to the rapid cooling of
the magma from the molten state. Basalts are
extremely abundant especially in those regions
which have undergone volcanic disturbance
within geologically recent times; in fact most
of the volcanoes of the present day erupt basal-
tic materials. In the United States they occur
mostly in the region west of the Mississippi
River, where great areas have been flooded by
fissure eruptions. The tendency of basalt to
assume a columnar structure often lends a char-
acteristic appearance to scenery, as is illustrated
by the famous Giants' Causeway on the north
coast of Ireland.

Basanite, baz'a-nlt (Gr. basanos, ^^touch-
stone")- See Touchstone.

Bascinet, or Basnet, a light helmet, some-
times with but more frequently without a -"isor,
and worn by knights at times when, though ap-
prehension of danger was not imminent, it
might not have been safe to be altogether un-
armed. It resembled a basin, and hence its
name. It was in general use for English in-
fantry in the reigns of Edward II. and III., and
Richard II., and is frequently mentioned in
Parliamentary and other public records.

Bas'com, Florence, American educator,
daughter of Dr. John Bascom (q.v. ). She was
educated at the University of Wisconsin and
at Johns Hopkins University, receiving from
the first the degree of B.A. and B.L. in 1882,
B.S. in 1884, and M.A. in 1887; and from the
latter that of Ph.D. in 1892. She was the first
woman to whom Johns Hopkins granted a de-
gree, and the first to receive a Ph.D. from any
American college. She had much difficulty in
securing admission to Johns Hopkins as a grad-
uate student, the only concession to her sex be-
ing that she might attend the lectures on geol-
ogy, and use the laboratory apparatus in that
branch. She had previously applied herself to
geology, and her thesis on receiving her Ph.D.
was on inorganic geolog^^ palaeontology and
chemistry being minor subjects. Subsequently
she was engaged in teaching; was assistant edi-
tor of the ^American Geologist^ ; became profes-
sor at Bryn Mawr College; and in 1899 was
chosen to supervise the geological survey of
Chester County, Pa.

Bascom, Henry Bidleman, American cler-
gyman : b. Hancock, N. Y., 27 May 1796; d. 8
Sept. 1850. He was licensed to preach in 1813,
and made chaplain to Congress in 1823 ; presi-
dent of Madison College, Pennsylvania (1827-9),
and of the Transylvania University, Ky., 1842.
In 1850 he was made a bishop of the ^fethodist
Episcopal Qiurch. He edited the ^Quarterly
Review,* 1846-50. His writings were published
in 1856.

Bascom, John, American educator and
philosophical writer : b. Geneva, N. Y., 1827.
He was president of the University of Wiscon-

BASE — BASEBALL

sin, 1874-87, and in 1900 was professor of po-
Jitical science in Williams College. He has writ-
ten a number of philosophical works, among
them * Philosophy of English Literature*
(1874); lectures before the Lowell Institute;
^Comparative Psychology' (1878); < Sociology'
(1887) ; *An Historical Interpretation of Phi-
losophy' (1893) ; 'Growth of Nationality in the
United States' (1899) ; and ^God and His Good-
ness' (1901).

Base. In archilecture: (a) The part of a
column between the bottom of the shaft and the
top of the pedestal. In cases in which there is
no pedestal, then the base is the part between the
bottom of the column and the plinth, (b) A
plinth with its moldings constituting the lower
part (that which slightly projects) of the wall
of a room.

In botany, a term applied to the part of a
leaf adjoining the leaf-stalk, to that portion of a
pericarp which adjoins the penduncle, or to
anything similarly situated.

In chemistry, a body capable of replacing the
hydrogen of an acid so as to produce a new
compound, called a ''salt," which contains the
base and all the elements of the acid except the
displaced hydrogen. The name was given by
Rouelle in 1744, and is now loosely used to
signify a metal, a salt-forming oxid or hj'droxid,
or an organic body, such as an alkaloid, an
amide, an amine, pyridine, quinoline, etc., which is
capable of combining with an acid to form a
salt. When oxids combine with acids their oxy-
gen unites with the liberated hydrogen of the
acid, to form water. A body (like caustic pot-
ash, KOH), is said to be strongly basic when
it forms salts that are very stable and are not
altered by hot or cold water.

In fortification, the exterior side of a poly-
gon, or the imaginary line connecting the salient
angles of two adjacent bastions.

In geometry: (a) The base of an ordinary
triangle is its third side, not necessarily the one
drawn at the bottom of the diagram, but the
one which has not yet been mentioned, while the
two others have (Euclid, book i., prop. 4,
Enunciation), (b) The base of an isosceles tri-
angle is the side which is not one of the equal
two (Ibid. prop. 5, Enunciation), (c) The base
of a parallelogram is the straight line on which
in any particular proposition the parallelogram
is assumed to stand (Ibid. prop. 35). It also
is not necessarily drawn the lowest in the figure
(Ibid. prop. 47). (d) The base of a cone is the
circle described by that side containing the right
angle which revolves (Euclid, book xi., def.
20). (e) The bases of a cylinder are the circles
described by the two rotary opposite sides of the
parallelogram, by the revolution of which it is
formed (Ibid. def. 23).

In heraldry, the lower part of a shield, or,
more specifically, the width of a bar parted off
from the lower part of a shield by a horizontal
line. It is called also base-bar, baste, and
plain point ('Glossary of Heraldry').

In military aifairs, see Tactics.

In ordnance, the protuberant rear portion of
a gun between the knot of the cascabel and the
base-ring.

In sculpture, the pedestal of a statue.

In trigonometry, surveying, and mapmaking,
a base or base-line is a straight line measured on
the ground, from the two extremities of which
angles will be taken with the view of laying

down a triangle or series of triangles, and so
mapping out the country to be surveyed.

In ecology, that portion of anything by which
it is attached to anything else of higher value
or signification (Dana).

Base of Operations. See Tactics.

Baseball, a popular sport in the United
States, of such general interest as to be known
as "the national game." It had its origin in the
old English game of "rounders," but developed
on Ainerican soil into a very different sport. In
Philadelphia an early form was played under the
name of "town-ball," and a similar game was
known in Upper Canada as early as 1838. It was
in the neighborhood of New York, however, that
baseball received its greatest development, regu-
larly organized clubs contesting in the "Elysian
Fields," at what is now the site of the city of
Hoboken, N. J., as early as 1845. It was no'_
until 1857, however, that the first baseball con-
vention was held for the purpose of framing
uniform rules out of the various methods of each
district and club, and in the following May the
first "National Baseball Association" was organ-
ized.

The first real series of games played between
organized clubs was that between teams picked
from the various clubs of New York and Brook-
lyn on the old Fashion Racecourse at Flushing
L. I., in 1858, the first authorized code of rules
being formulated and published for their direc-
tion. From the present view-point these rules
were crude. For instance, the regulation ball
weighed 6^/2 ounces and measured 10^ inches in
circumference. It was a lively ball (anticipating
hy 50 years the latest development of the golf-
ball), being made with 214 ounces of rubber,
covered with j^arn and leather. The bat was
unlimited as to length, but was decreed not to
exceed 2^/4 inches in diameter. In the delivery
of the ball there was a greater difference than in
any other respect as compared with the later de-
velopment of the game: for the ball could only
be pitched: all throws and jerks being pro-
hibited. The pitcher was at liberty to take any
number of steps before delivery, and his limit
was anywhere behind a line 12 feet across, and
45 feet from the home base. Then, too, he could
pitch his ball almost without limitation so long
as he pitched "as near as possible to the home
base."

As then played, none but amateurs partici-
pated; indeed, no one could represent his club
unless he had been a member for 30 days, and
"money, place, or emolument" was a bar. Games
were originally played on free grounds, but on
the establishment of the L^nion Ball Ground and
the Capitoline Club of Brooklyn in 1863, the
admission money went to the proprietor, the
players later having a share, and thus was laid
the foundation of professional play. So matters
drifted for six j^ears, with a gradual tendency
to greater restrictions in rules, greater skill in
play, and more and more professionalism, until
1869. when for the first time a salaried team,
the "Red Stockings of Cincinnati," began a tour
of games, and naturally carried ever}i;hing before
them. Through 1869 and up to June 1870, they
played without losing a single game.

The delivery of the pitcher had been gradu-
ally developing. As early as i860 the disguised
underhand throw had come into vogue, and by
1866 Arthur Cummings, of the Excelsior Junior

BASEDOW ~ BASEL

Nine, introduced a curved delivery. With the
advent of the swifter-playing professional, and
the reduced size and weight of the ball, came
into necessity, and therefore into use, the various
safeguards, of padded gloves, catchers' mitts,
breast-pads, and masks.

Ey 1^71 the game had become so extensive
and the professional element so popular that a
** National Association of Professional Baseball
Players" was formed, and m 1875 the various
club-owners took control of the professional
players and organized "The National League of
Professional Ball Ckibs," which continued in
undisputed possession of the professional field
until 1890, when a rival association, "The Ameri-
can League,'^ was founded. There are several
other leagues of minor importance. Base-
ball naturally found favor in American universi-
ties and colleges, but its technique in the early
days was crude, even among the best teams.
Team play as now interpreted was almost un-
known, the hitting was harder, and the fielding
poorer, the outfielders played much farther afield.
As late as the middle sixties scores of 50 runs
were not uncommon, and a hard-hitting college
team would make over 100. As late as 1867,
when two college nines made, respectively, 13
and 8, it was considered a phenomenon. There
is no intercollegiate championship in the ordi-
nary sense; each college plays a set of games
w'ith other colleges. A full and exact know-
ledge of the game can be acquired only by a
study of the official rules. Briefly, the game is
played between two teams of nine men each, on
a field in which a diamond-shape with sides of 90
feet each has been marked out according to cer-
tain technical rules, the angles being named, re-
spectively, the home plate and first, second, and
third bases, reckoning to the right from the
home plate. The pitcher's "box" is situated
near the centre of the diamond, about 60 feet
from the batsman's stand, and from that point
the pitcher is required to deliver balls to the
batsman, pitched according to definite rules.
The catcher stands behind the batsman; his
principal office is to catch unhit balls and return
them to the pitcher, or to throw to the baseman
when the batsman is making a run. The fielders
are known as the infield, consisting of first, sec-
ond, and third basemen and short-stop ; and the
outfield, or left right, and centre fielders. The
office of the first section is to catch batted or
thrown balls, and to touch therewith the bats-
man running between bases, or, failing in this,
to return the ball to the pitcher; that of the
second section may be stated generally as the
stopping or catching of batted balls and return-
ing them to the pitcher or throwing them to
the baseman for the purpose of putting out run-
ning batsmen. The positions and duties of the
fielders are defined with strict limitations by the
rules. The aim of each team is to make as
many runs as possible. To score a run a player
must make a complete circuit of the bases, but
not necessarily at one hit. With his own hit
he may get as far as -first base; then may get
to second base while the pitcher is delivenng
a ball to the second batter, and to the third base
on the hit of that man, or even on the hit of the
third batsman. When three men are put out,
one inning is finished; and the other team takes
its turn, with three men one after the other,
and so on until there have been nine innings on
each side. A batsman is out who is touched by the

ball after leaving one base and before he reaches
another, or whose batted ball is caught by one
of the fielders before it reaches the ground. The
batsman is also declared out when hit by a
batted ball ; or when being forced to run for a
base by reason of all bases being occupied, the
ball is held by the fielder at the base for which
he is making. The batsman must not step out
of his box, and must strike at every ball that
crosses "the plate" on a level between his knees
and shoulders — such are called "fair balls."
If he fails either to .strike at or to hit it counts as
a "strike" against him. and if he fails three times
he is out, providing the third ball is caught by
the catcher before it reaches the ground. If
the pitcher delivers a ball which does not pass
over the plate in the defined zone, it is counted
as "one ball" in favor of the batsman, and after
four such balls he is entitled to go to the first
base unmolested. Baseball has been re-trans-
planted back to England, but without much suc-
cess. In Australia it has become popular.

The principal authorities on the game are
Spalding's < Baseball Guide' ; 'The Art of Pitch-
ing and Fielding, Batting and Base-Running,'
by Henry Chadwick (1886) ; 'Baseball,' in the
Oval Series (1896); and 'Baseball,' by J. M.
Ward (1888).

Basedow, ba'ze-do, Johann Bernhard, often
called by himself Bernard von Xokdaldingex ;
German educator: b. 11 Sept. 1723; d. 25 July
1790. He had in Dessau an institution for edu-
cation called Philanthropinon. The chief fea-
tures of Basedow's system are the cosmopolitan
character which he endeavored to instil into his
pupils, and the full development of the faculties
of the young at which he aspired, in pursuance
of the notions of Locke and Rousseau. With
Salzmann, Campe, etc., he established some good
institutions, and deserves special credit for his
efforts for the education of the lower classes.

Basedow's Disease (also called Gr.wes'
Disease J. a peculiar affection of the sympa-
thetic nervous system, characterized by rapid
and irregular heart-action, large protruding eye-
balls, swelling of the neck, extreme nervousness,
and marked muscular tremor. Its exact cause is
unknown, but it seems to be associated with
some variation in the function of the thyroid
gland. It usually occurs in young females and
is not infrequently a curable affection, although
some patients are incurable. Surgical opera-
tions on the cervical sympathetic have cured
some cases. (See Goitre.) Consult: Osier,
'Practice of Medicine' ; Nothnagel, 'System of
Medicine.'

Basel, ba'zel, Basle, or Bale, bal. Switzer-
land ; one of the largest cities in the federa-
tion and capital of canton Baselstadt, 43 miles
north of Bern. It consists of two parts, situ-
ated on opposite sides of the Rhine, and corn-
municating by a long wooden bridge. It is
walled and irregularly, though fairly well built;
and has an ancient cathedral. _ Basel was for-
merlv a free imperial city, but joined the Swiss
Confederacy in 1501. Buxtorf, Wetstein. Her-
mann, the Bernouillis, and Euler were born in
Basel. Erasmus also lived there several years,
and lies buried in the cathedral. _ Among the in-
stitutions of the city are the university, founded
in 1450; various collections of paintings, a sem-
inarv for missionaries, and a German Bible So-
ciety. In 1849 a large museum was completed,

BASEL

which contains the university library (now con-
sisting of about 80,000 volumes), with 4,000
manuscripts, and all the collections belonging
to the town. Its manufactures consist principally
of ribbons, silk goods, cotton prints, linen,
gloves, leather, jewelry, and turnery ware. Its
advantageous position on the Rhine, a little be-
low the point where it becomes navigable, and at
the terminus of the French and German rail-
ways, has made it a centre of trade, and start-
ing point for travelers in Switzerland. It is the
seat of a United States consulate. Pop. (1900)
about 113,000.

Basel, Confession of, a Calvinistic con-
fession introduced by CEcolampadius at the
opening of the Synod of Basel (1531). It was
adopted by the Protestants of Basel in 1534.
Simple and comparatively moderate in its terms,
it occupies an intermediate place between
Zwingli and Luther.

Basel, Council of, a council announced at
the Council of Constance, and convoked by
Pope Martin V., and his successor Eugenius IV.
It commenced its sittings 14 Dec. 1431 under
the presidency of the cardinal legate Juliana
Caesarini of St. Angelo. The objects of its de-
liberations were to extirpate heresies (that of
the Hussites in particular), to unite all Chris-
tian nations under the Roman Catholic Church,
to put a stop to wars between Christian princes,
and to reform the Church. The Pope, having
learned that the Fathers were about to reopen a
discussion upon Hussite doctrines already defi-
nitely pronounced upon, and also because of
the expressed wish of the Greek bishops to
reopen negotiations for reunion at a council to
be held on Italian soil, instructed the cardinal
legate to dissolve the Council. That body op-
posed the claims of the Pope, with severe ani-
madversions on his neglect of the welfare of the
Church, and, notwithstanding his repeated or-
ders to remove to Italy, continued its delibera-
tions under the protection of the Emperor Sigis-
mund, of the German princes, and of France.

In order to secure itself against the attacks
of Eugenius IV. it re-enacted the decrees of the
Council of Constance concerning the power of
a general council (in matters of faith, of
schism, and of reformation) to command the
Pope,_as well as all Christendom, and to punish
the disobedience of the clergy, and even of the
Pope, by virtue of its judicial character as the
representative of the universal Church. It like-
wise pronounced all the doings and remon-
strances of the Pope against its proceedings of
no force, and began a formal process against
him after lie had issued a bull for its dissolu-
tion ; appointed him, term after term, to appear
before its tribunal, and exercised as much as
possible the papal prerogatives in France and •
Germany.

Meanwhile it concluded, in the name of the
Church, a peace with the Hussites (whose dep-
uties anpearerf 6 Jan. 1433, with 300 horse, in
Basel), by which the use of the cup in the com-
munion was granted to them. This peace was
ratified 20 Nov. 1433, by the Calixtines, the most
powerful and finally prevailing partv of the
Hussites. The council deviated on this point,
mdeed, from the decrees of the Council of Con-
stance, but was obliged so to do in order to
assist its most faithful protector, the Emperor
Sigismund, to the acquisition of Bohemia by

this compromise with the Hussites, who were
not to be subdued by force. Eugene IV re-
voked in 1433 his decree of dissolution, and at
the sixteenth session, 5 Feb. 1434. was read a
document subscribed to by the Pope, in which
It was declared that the Council had been law-
fully convened. In return the Fathers recalled
everything that had been said against the per-
son of the Pope or the dignity of his office.
I tie council, proud of this victory over the
Pope, then attempted to interfere in the quar-
rels of the German princes, but was reminded
by Sigismund, who protested against its inter-
meddling m the affairs of the Crown, of its
proper point — the reformation of the Church.
Toward the limitation of the power of the Pope^
a proceeding which naturally evoked papal op-
position, it had already made an important step
by depriving him of the disposal of the pre-
bends of cathedral and collegiate churches,
which had been obtained by his predecessors ;
by restoring to the chapters the free election
of their officers, and by obliging the Pope to
confirm them gratuitously. It proceeded to the
reformation of the clergy by ordaining that the
excommunicated should not incur the penalties
of their sentence before its publication; that
interdicts should never be granted at the re-
quest of single individuals ; and that repeated
appeals should not be allowed, on account o£
their complaints (20th session, 22 Jan. 1435) ;
that the annates (q.v.), the sums paid for the
pallia, etc., should be regarded as simoniacal,
and should not, under any pretext, be de-
rnanded or paid in future; that the divine ser-
vice, the mass, and the canonical hours should
be regularly observed by the clergy of each
class ; that disturbances of public worship should
be prevented by a good ecclesiastical police;
that the Feast of Fools and all irreverent cele-
brations customary in the Church about Christ-
mas should be abolished (21st session, 9 June
1435).

In the 23d session (25 March 1436) the form
of election, the confession of faith, and the offi-
cial oath of each Pope, by which he bound him-
self to obey the decrees of the council, and the
annual repetition of the same, were provided
for; all preferment of the relations of a Pope
vv^as forbidden, and the college of cardinals was
limited to 24 prelates and doctors of all na-
tions, who should be elected by the free votes
of the college, should be entitled to half of the
revenues of the states of the Church, should
watch over the Pope, and alwavs sign his bulls.
They granted him only the right to dispose of
the prebends belonging to the diocese of Rome,
and abolished the investiture of Church prefer-
ments in reversion.

In the 26th session it again summoned him
to appear, on account of his disobedience of its
decrees, declared him guilty of contumacy, and,
after Eugenius had opened his counter-synod
at Ferrara, decreed his. suspension from the
papal chair in the 31st session (24 Jan. 1438).
In the same session it forbade appeal to Rome
without resort to the intermediate jurisdictions,
left to the papal disposition but i out of 10
and _ 2 out of 50 prebends of a church, and
destined the third part of all canonries which
might become vacant to men who had taken
regular degrees. The removal of Eugenius,
however, seemed to be so questionable a pro-

BASEL — BASEMENT

ceeding that some prelates, who till then had
been the boldest and most intluential speakers
in the council (for example, the cardinal legate
Juliano, and the great canon Nicholas of Cusa,
Archdeacon of Liege, with the most of the
Italians), left Basel and went over to the party
of Eugenius. The Archbishop of Aries, Car-
dinal Louis Allemand, a man of superior spirit,
courage, and eloquence, was now made first
president of the council, and directed its pro-
ceedings with much vigor.

Although its number was diminished, its
most powerful protector, the Emperor Sigis-
mund, deceased, and its authority doubted by
several princes and nations on account of its
open rupture with the Pope ; yet, in the 33d
session (16 May 1439), after violent debates, in
which the Archbishop of Palermo, Nic. Tu-
deschi (known under the name of Panormita-
nus, as the greatest canon of his time), who
was the delegate of the king of Aragon and
Sicily, took the part of the Pope — it declared
Eugenius, on account of his obstinate disobe-
dience of its decrees, a heretic, and formally
deposed him, in the following session, as guilty
of simony, perjury, violation of the laws of the
Church, and bad administration in his office. In
the 34th session, June 1439, the council pro-
nounced the deposition of Eugene. At this ses-
sion there were but two representatives of Spain
and Italy, and the total number of prelates in-
cluding abbots was 39.

Notwithstanding the plague, then raging in
Basel, which continually diminished its number,
it proceeded in a regular conclave (17 Nov. of
the same year) to elect the Duke Amadeus of
Savoy to the papal chair. This prince then
lived in retirement at Ripaglia, on the Lake of
Geneva, and seemed particularly qualified for
the office on account of his piety, his riches,
and his connections. But Felix V., — this was
the name he adopted, — was acknowledged by
only a few princes, cities, and universities. The
chief powers, France and Germany, assented to
the decrees of the council for the reformation
of the Church, but they chose to remain neutral
in the contest with Eugenius. Meanwhile he
acquired new credit by the union concluded
with the Greek deputies at Florence (but after-
ward rejected by the Greek Church) and the
friendship of the Em.peror Frederic III. Tlie
council on the other hand, denounced by Eu-
genius and deserted by its protectors, gradually
declined under its feeble Pope, and, consulting
only appearances and the personal safety of its
members, held its 45th and last session 16 May
1443, after an inaction of three years inter-
rupted only by a few insignificant decrees. At
this session the place of meeting was changed to
Lausanne. Here some of the prelates remained
together under the cardinal Louis Allemand un-
til 1449, when, after the death of Eugenius and
the resignation of Felix V., they gladly accepted
the amnesty offered by the new Pope, Nicholas
v., and pronounced the council closed. The de-
crees of the Council of Basel are admitted into
none of the Roman or official collections, and
by the Roman Church are considered of no
authority. They have been regarded, however,
as of authority in points of canon law, in
France and Germany, as their regulations for
the reformation of the Church were to some ex-
tent adopted in both countries, and, as far as

they regard clerical discipline, were actually
enforced. Some concordats concluded at sub-
sequent dates have modified the application of
them, but never formally and entirely annulled
them. The Council of Basel was one of the
most miportant in the history of the Church.
The spirit of the councils of Pisa (1409) and
of Constance (1414-18) was formulated in the
decrees of Basel, and led to a twofold result ; on
the one hand the many salutary decrees of re-
form, on the other the clear expression of many
dangerous principles in regard to the organiza-
tion of the Church. Its history has often been
misrepresented by historians, some seeing in it
only an unhappy tendency from the true centre
of unity; others regarding it as a great pro-
gressive movement, but forgetting that it was
simply the growth of an expediency due to ex-
ceptional conditions. To know it impartially it
must be studied in the original sources.

Consult: Hardouin ; Labbe ; Cossart ; Mansi's
collection consists of 31 folios; Alzog, <Church
History>; and Parsons, 'Studies in Church
History.^

Basel, Treaties of Peace at, 5 April and
22 July 1795, between Prussia, Spain, and
France, in which Prussia and Spain separated
themselves from the coalition against France
and acknowledged the republic. France re-
tained the Prussian provinces on the left bank
of the Rhine until the general peace, and ac-
cepted the mediation of Prussia, when any Ger-
man princes wished to conclude separate treaties
of peace with it. A secret article was inserted
in the treaty, the object of which was to secure
compensation to Prussia in case the left bank
of the Rhine should remain with France at the
general peace. The landgrave of Hesse-Cassel
afterward concluded a treaty with the French
republic at Basel, 28 Aug. 1795, by which the
latter retained possession of the territories of
Hesse-Cassel on the left bank of the Rhine until
the general peace. By the Peace of Basel all
the conquests of France beyond the Pyrenees
were restored to Spain, in exchange for which
that country ceded to France the Spanish part
of the island of St. Domingo.

Basel, University of, an institution opened
in 1460. After the Reformation it became
strongly Protestant and exerted a widespread
influence in behalf of the new faith. .Among its
professors were Erasmus, CEcolampadius, Euler,
and the Bernoullis. It is at present the princi-
pal theological school in Switzerland, with de-
partments of medicine, law, and philosophy.
Its library contains 230,000 volumes and i,i^oo
MSS.

Basel'la, or Malabar Nightshade, a mono-
tj'pic but very variable genus of tropical herbs
of the natural order Chcnopodiacece. B. rubra,
a twining annual or biennial plant, native of
India, where it is cultivated as a pot herb, is
often raised in Europe, and has been introduced
into the United States as a substitute for spin-
ach, which it succeeds in season (July until
frost). It is decidedly mucilaginous when
cooked. Sometimes it is used as a greenhouse
climber. One variety bears edible tubers, and
another furnishes a purple dye.

Basement, in architecture, the base or
lowest story of a building. It should have ex-
ternally an appearance of strength, but its height

BASEY — BASIL

and proportion to the rest of the edifice are
very various, depending on the character of
the apartments on the ground floor.

Basey, ba'sa, Philippines, a town in Samar,
with a population in 1898 of 13,756.

Bashahr', one of the Punjab hill states, on
the lower slopes of the Himalayas, traversed
from east to west by the Sutlej ; area, 3,320
square miles. The rajah and upper classes in
the southern parts are Rajputs, and the people
generally are of the Hindu race, but their ob-
servance of Hinduism is very partial. The
rajah pays tribute to the British government,
for which he is required to raise troops in
time of war, and by which his sentences of
death must be confirmed. Pop. JSJ^j.

Bashan, ba'shan or ba-shan' (meaning un-
certain, perhaps "soft, rich soiP')> the name in
Scripture for a singularly rich tract of country
lying beyond the Jordan, between Mount Her-
mon and the land of Gilead. These two re-
gions, Bashan and Gilead, attracted the atten-
tion of those tribes that desired to continue
the pastoral life to which they and their fathers
had been accustomed ; and Gilead was accord-
ingly divided between Reuben and Gad, while
Bashan was given to the half-tribe of Manasseh.
Its forests contain magnificent oaks, and the
^'strong bulls of Bashan*^ of ancient times are
still represented by vast herds of black cattle.
Bashan had been the kingdom of the Canaanite
giant Og, whom Moses destroyed ; and one dis-
trict of the country, Argob, had at that time
60 fenced cities, with walls, gates, and bars,
besides many unwalled towns, remains of which
are yet to be seen. Among the cities of this
region were Edrei, Kenath, Golan, and Bozrah.
After the captivity it is mentioned as divided
into Trachonitis (the ancient Argob), Gaulanitis
(Golan), Auranitis (Hauran, mentioned by
Ezekiel), and Batansa, or Bashan proper.

Bashford, James Whitford, American
clergyman: b. Fayette, Wis., 27 May 1849. He
was graduated at the University of Wisconsin
in 1873, and at the Theological School of Bos-
ton University in 1876 ; became instructor of
Greek at the University of Wisconsin in 1874,
and president of the Wesleyan University of
Ohio in 1889. His works include ^Science of
Religion,^ numerous pviblished sermons, and
contributions to periodical literature.

Bashi-Bazouks', irregular troops in the
pay of the Turkish Sultan. They are a wild,
turbulent body of men, mostly from Turkey in
Asia, and in the duties with which they are en-
trusted resemble the Cossacks in the Russian
army. In the spring of 1876 the Bashi-Bazouks
were guilty of great atrocities in checking a
threatened insurrection in the district around
Philippopolis in eastern Rumelia.

Bashi' Islands. See B.\tan Islands.

Bashkirs', or Bashkeers', a tribe of half-
civilized people subject to Russia, and inhabit-
ing the banks of the Ural and Volga. They are
probably descended from the Nogay Tartars
and resemble them in their manners. They
formerly roamed about, under their own
princes, in southern Siberia. To avoid the Si-
berian khans they settled in their present terri-
tory, extended themselves along the Volga and
the Ural, and submitted to the khan of Khasan.
At the time when this state was overthrown

by Ivan II. they voluntarily took refuge under
the Russian sceptre ; but their frequent revolts
long prevented their increase and kept them in
a weak condition. They number about 500,000,
and inhabit chiefly the governments of Oren-
burg, Perm, and Samara. They are Moham-
medans, and live chiefly by hunting, the breed-
ing of cattle and horses, and keeping of bees.
They prepare from mare's and camel's milk
a fermented beverage, koumiss (q.v.), which is
their favorite drink. They furnish the Russian
army with a body of irregular cavalry.

Bashkirtseff, bash-kert'sef, Marie, Russian
author: b. Russia, i860; d. Paris, 1884. She
came of a noble and wealthy family, went
to Italy to study singing, and to Paris to
study art. Her fame rests on her private *Jour-
nal,^ which seems to have been written with
ultimate publication in view. It begins with
her 13th year and continues through her later
life. According to her own words, it was in-
tended to be "the transcript of a woman's life."
It appeared in Paris in 1885, and was abridged
and translated into English in 1889, and was
called by Gladstone "a book without a parallel."
Like Rousseau's *■ Confessions,^ it claims to be
an absolutely candid expression of individual
experience. From the age of three years she
cherished inordinate ambition, and felt herself
destined to become great as singer, writer,
artist, or queen of society. Admiration was es-
sential to her, and she records compliments to
her beauty or her erudition with equal pleasure.
Her life was a curious mixture of the interests
of an attractive society girl with those of a
serious student. Her chronic discontent was
due to the disproportion between her aspirations
and her achievements. She was never unself-
conscious, and her book reveals her longings,
her petty vanities, and her childish crudities,
as well as her versatile and brilliant talents.

Basic Slag, the slag of refuse matter which
is obtained in making basic steel, and which,
from the phosphate of lime it contains, is a
valuable fertilizer.

Basic Steel. See Steel Manufacture.

Basil, ba'zil or baz'Tl, Saint, surnamed
The Great, Bishop of C?esarea, Cappadocia :
b. about 326 ; d. 380. He was studying in
Athens in 355, and there became the friend of
Gregory, afterward Bishop of Nazianzen. He
was baptized in 357, and after extensive travels
retired to the desert of Pontus and there
founded an order of monks named Basilians.
He succeeded Eusebius in the see of Cjesarea
in 370, and by his opposition to Arian doctrines
greatly oflended the Emperor Valens. The
liturgy of St. Basil is still used in the Eastern
Church.

Basil I., emperor of Constantinople: b.
Macedon, of poor parents, about the beginning
of the 9th century ; d. 886, from a blow given
him by a stag while hunting. In his 25th year
he made his way to Constantinople, and gained
the favor of an archimandrite, who procured
him service with an officer of the court of the
Emperor Michael III. Later he was appointed
head-chamberlain to the emperor. Despite in-
trigues against him he advanced so rapidly in
the emperor's favor that he was adopted as his
colleague. He murdered his chief rival, Bardus,
and knowing that Michael had rendered himself
odious by his cruelty and debauchery, he headed

BASIL — BASILICA

a body of conspirators and murdered him in his
bed in 867, and assumed sole occupancy of the
throne. Notwithstanding his criminal acts, he
proved an able and equitable sovereign ; paid
equal attention to the internal administration
and the foreign relations of the empire, and,
not overlooking even its religious interests, sent
an archbishop into Russia and laid the founda-
tion of that ascendency which the Greek Church
has so long possessed in that country. He com-
piled a body of laws called the Basilica, which,
augmented by his son and successor, Leo the
Philosopher, were in force till the fall of the
empire. Basil I. deprived Photius of the see
of Constantinople, and restored Ignatius ; but
on the death of the latter he recalled Photius.
He successfully carried on war with the Sara-
cens. The versatility, if not the depth of his
intellect, is strikingly displa3'ed in his exhorta-
tions to his son Leo, which are still extant.

Basil II., emperor of the East: d. 1025.
On the death of his father, the Emperor Ro-
: nanus the Younger, in 963, he was kept out
of the succession for 12 years by two usurpers ;
the first, Nicephorus II. (Phocus), who died
in 969, and the second, Johannes (John) Zimis-
ces, who associated Basil and his brother
Constantine with him in the empire in 975, and
died the following year, leaving the whole
power to Basil although Constantine was
still his colleague in name. His reign was
almost a continuous warfare, in which the con-
tending parties seemed to vie with each other
in committing deeds of cruelty. In 1014, after
a great victory over the Bulgarians, in which
he had taken 15,000 prisoners, he had 99 out
of every 100 deprived of their eyes and thus
sent home. This horrible cruelty caused the
death of Samuel, king of the Bulgarians. The
war ended in 1019 by the complete conquest of
Bulgaria.

Basil (Ooimum), a genus of fragrant an-
nual herbs of the natural order Labiatcc, natives
of warm climates, cultivated for culinary pur-
poses and for ornament. The species generally
raised are sweet basil (0. basilicuni), bush or
dwarf basil, (O. tninijiium) , (considered by
some botanists a form of O. basiliciim) , and
tree basil (O. gratissimuin) . The name basil
is also applied to certain species of several other
related genera ; for instance, Pycnanthetnum
and Calainintha. For culture and uses, see
Herbs (Culinary.)

Basilan, ba-se'liin, Philippines, the largest
island of the Sulu Archipelago. It is of ob-
long form, about 36 miles long and situated
south of Mindanao, from which it is separated
by a strait nine miles wide. The island is very
mountainous, and most of it is covered by vir-
gin forests. The soil is extremely rich and
produces a variety of valuable crops, including
cotton, cofifee, sugar, chocolate, tobacco, indigo,
and spices of all sorts. Basilan has about 15.000
inhabitants and three excellent harbors. The
name is also applied to the whole group of 34
adjacent islets. The leading port is Isabela, on
Basilan Strait.

Basil'ean Manuscripts, two manuscripts of
the Greek New Testament, now in the library
of Basel: (i) a nearly complete uncial copy
of the Gospels of the 8th century; (2) a cursive
copy of the whole New Testament except the
Apocalypse, of the loth century.

Basil'ian Liturgy, that form for celebrat-
ing the eucharist drawn up, toward the close of
the 4th century, by Basil the Great, still used
in the Greek Church.

Basilian Monks, a monastic order, chiefly
belonging to the Greek Church, which strictly
follow the rules of St. Basil (q.v.), who, after
visiting the monasteries of Egypt, Syria, and
Palestine, induced many to enter and even to
found convents. His rule was cotifirmed by
Pope Liberius in 363. In 379 there were at
least 80,000 in the Eastern monasteries. Many
convents were dispersed in the 8th century,
during the Iconoclast persecutions, and all be-
gan to languish about the time of the Eastern
schism. The order comprises priests, lay-
brothers, cenobites living in community, ancho-
rites in cells, and hermits in solitudes. They
are governed by an archimandrite who has sev-
eral convents under his jurisdiction, and by
exarchs deputed by the archimandrite to visit
the convents. The order has developed more
extensively in Russia than in other countries.
In Austria, Poland, and Hungary there are
many communities, known as Ruthenians, in
union with Rome. In Italy also they had con-
vents in Calabria. Sicily, and Naples. In Spain
they flourished for nearly two centuries until
1835. The communities of Sisters of this name
were founded by St. Maerina, sister of St. Basil.
Other communities following the rule of St.
Basil are the Melchites. with about 600 houses
in Libanus ; the Bartholomites of the Armenian
rites, so called because, after taking refuge in
Genoa in 1307, they had possession of St.
Bartholomew's church there until 1659. This
name is likewise given to a community of secu-
lar priests founded by Bartholomew Holzhauser
in Germany in 1640, and once propagated in
Hungary, Poland, and Spain, but now extinct.
There are but six Basilians in the United States
(in Chicago) affiliated to the provincial house in
Toronto, Canada.

Basil'ica (literally, a royal hall, originally
the hall occupied by the archon basileus or
*'king archon" among the ancient Athenians),
the name of buildings belonging to classical an-
tiquity, which acquired their characteristic form
among the Romans. In the first centuries of
the Christian era the Roman basilicas were
splendid public buildings, of an oblong shape,
commonly adorned with columns and statues,
w^here the citizens collected to consult for their
common welfare, the merchants exposed their
wares, young orators exerci.sed themselves in
declamation, etc. Constantine the Great gave
some basilicas to the Christians in Rome for
their worship. Thence it happened that the
first Christian churches obtained the name of
basiliccc. But in the 4th century after Christ the
ancient form of the basilica began to be modified
and developed. (See Christi.an Architecture.)
The chief changes that from that time onward
were gradually made in its construction con-
sisted in the raising of the nave above the rest
of the building, the introduction of upper win-
dows, the addition of the transepts, and the
decoration of the interior with works of mosaic.
At a later time towers were introduced, and
still later vaulted roofs instead of the flat tim-
ber roofs with which they were formerly pro-
vided. The original church on the site of which
St. Peter's is built was a basilica, and hence the

BASILICA — BASILISK

name is often applied to the present church,
which is not, strictly speaking, a basilica.

Basilica, a code of laws founded on the
code of Justinian, supposed to have been named
after the Greek emperor Basihus I., in whose
reign its compilation was begun. It was fin-
ished by Leo the Philosopher, and revised
by order of his son Constantine Porphyrogeni-
tus in 945. It consisted of 60 books, but we no
longer possess them in a complete form. The
principal editions are those of Fabrot (7 vols.,
Paris, 1647), and Heimbach (Vols. I-V, Leip-
sic, 1833-50).

Basilicata, bii-zil-e-ca'ta, the ancient Luca-
nia, in southern Italy, composed solely of the
province of Potenza ; so called after the Em-
peror Basilius II., who reconquered it from the
Saracens and Lombards in the nth century.
It is mountainous, several peaks rising to up-
ward of 4,500 feet (Monte Pollino, 7,375 feet).
The Apennines here divide into two parts, which
branch off to the east and west. From these
the rivers Bradano, Basento, Salandrella, Agri,
and Sinni take their source, and, after draining
this fertile district, fall into the Gulf of Taranto
in the Ionian Sea. There are also many lakes,
some of volcanic origin. The chief are Mon-
ticchio, Pesole, Maorno, and Santa Palagina.
The bulk of the people are poor and ignorant,
and talk a dialect called basiiisco. Its coast
Ime being for the most part marshy, and, as a
consequence, unhealthful, the province derives
next to no commercial benefit from it. The
orange and lemon grow well near the coast.
Other products are cotton, flax, silk, honey,
wax, licorice, dried fruit, saffron, tobacco, etc.
Mineral springs are many, chiefly sulphur-
ous. There are marble quarries at Avig-
liano, Latronico, Muro, Lucano, and Picerno ;
chalk at Mauro Forte and Montemuro ; trans-
parent quartz at Lagonegro ; tufa at Matera ;
and excellent lignite at San Chirico Raparo and
Rotonda. Area, 3,845 square miles; pop. (1901)
490,000.

Basilicon, ba-zil'i-kon, a name of several
ointments, the chief ingredients of which are
wax, pitch, resin, and olive oil.

Basilicon Do'ron (the royal gift), the
title of a book written by King James I. in
1599, and printed in Edinburgh in 1603, con-
taining a collection of precepts on the art of
government, and maintaining the claim of the
king to be sole head of the Church.

Basilides, ba-sTl'i-dez, founder of one of
the most remarkable sects of ancient Alexan-
dria. He lived under the reigns of Trajan,
Adrian, and Antoninus, but the place of his
birth, supposed to be in Persia, Syria, or Egypt,
is unknown. He was well acquainted with
Christianity, but, under the pretense of freeing
it from corruption, corrupted it still more by
mixing it up with the wildest dreams of the
Gnostics and peopling the earth and the air
with multitudes of aeons. He had numerous
followers, who spread from Syria and Egypt
into Italy, and even as far as France, but they
suddenly sank into obscurity and are scarcely
heard of after the 4th century.

Basil'io da Gama, ga'ma, Jose, a Brazilian
poet: b. San Jose, 1740; d. Lisbon, 1795. His
principal poem gives a picturesque and roman-
tic account of the bloody wars which the Por-

tuguese waged, in 1756, against the natives of
Paraguay. He was a protege of the Brazilian
minister Pombal, who gave him employment in
his Cabinet. He shared Pombal's exile, and
also dedicated verses to him in token of his
gratitude. On his return to Rio de Janeiro he
was favorably received by the authorities and
the literary notabilities, and with their co-opera-
tion he became one of the founders of the first
Brazilian academy. In 1790 he again had to
resort to flight, and he succeeded in escaping to
Lisbon. He was the author of many lyrical
pieces and sonnets, and of a poem, 'Quitubia,*
written on an African chieftain whose devo-
tion to Portugal engaged the poet's sympathy ;
but the most abiding monument of his genius
is his ^ Uruguay,^ which is still popular wher-
ever the Portuguese language is known.

Basilis'cus, brother of Verina, wife of Leo,
emperor of the East : d. 477. In his youth he
obtained some successes against the Scythians,
and in 468, through the influence of his sister,
was appointed to command the immense arma-
ment fitted out at Constantinople against Gen-
seric, king of the«Vandals in Africa. This ex-
pedition consisted of upward of 1,100 vessels,
conveying soldiers and sailors to the number
of more than 100,000 men, and its equipment
is said to have cost about $25,000,000. But
this vast fleet, after reaching the coast of
Africa in safety, was altogether destroyed or
dispersed by Genseric, through the incapacity
or treachery of its leader. Basiliscus escaped
to Constantinople, and obtained the pardon
of the emperor only by the earnest inter-
cession of the empress. After the death of
Leo, and of his successor, Leo II., in 474,
Basiliscus usurped the imperial throne. But he
was imable to sustain himself in this position,
and was not long after overthrown and put to
death by Zeno, the legitimate heir.

Basilisk, baz'T-lTsk, according to Pliny (lib.
viii. c. 21), a kind of serpent found in the
African deserts, named basiliskos. or little king,
because its body was marked with bright spots,
and those on the head had the appearance of a
crown or diadem. It had a very pointed head,
with fiery eyes, and was of a dark color, verging
to blackness. All other snakes were said to fly
from the sound of its hissing; and instead of
trailing along like other serpents the basilisk
raised its body nearly erect, and, as it passed
along, killed the herbs and fruits by its touch,
and even by its breath. Yet this monster was
destroyed by weasels. If these fables had ref-
erence to any real animal, it is probable that
it was a species somewhat similar to the cobra
de capello, or the asp viper. Both are accus-
tomed to erect a very considerable part of the
body, though not to move forward in this way.
It is highly probable that the basilisk of the
ancients was merely a creature of fiction.

The name is now applied to one of the Cen-
tral and South American lizards of the family
Iguanidce and genus Basiliscus, remarkable for
the high and erectile crests which are devel-
oped along the back and tail of the males. They
have long legs and long flexible toes, enabling
them to climb trees with great activity. They
prefer such trees as overhang the water, into
which they plunge at any sign of danger. They
feed entirely upon vegetable matter. The best-
kfiown species is Basiliscus americanus, which

BASILOSAURUS — BASKET

lias a length of nearly three feet, three fifths of
which is tail. In color the basilisks are green
and brown, with dark cross-bars on the back,
and the crest of the males is red. In early
spring they lay about a dozen eggs in a hole
among the roots of a tree. See also Iguana.

Basilosaurus. See Zeuglodon.

Ba'sin, in physical geography, the whole
tract of country drained by a river and its
tributaries. The line dividing one river basin
from another is the watershed, and by tracing
the various watersheds each country is divided
into its constituent basins. The basin of a
lake or sea comprises as well all the territory
drained by the rivers which run into it. Such
hydrographic basins owe their origin either to
erosive action or to a depression of the earth's
crust. When rivers become established upon a
new land surface they proceed to deepen and
widen their channels, and in course of time
may appreciably lower the level of the drainage
area. Glaciers are also important agents in the
establishment of hydrographic basins, as is il-
lustrated by the numerous rock basins (now
occupied by lakes) that were hollowed out by
the great ice-sheets that once invaded northern
North America and Europe. Other depres-
sions have been formed by vertical movements
of the strata comprising the earth's crust. The
Great Basin lying between the Rocky Moun-
tains and the coast ranges, and many of the
lake basins of central Africa, originated in
this way. In geology a basin is the synclinal
arrangement of strata so that they dip or are
inclined toward a common centre. The Paris
Basin and the London Basin are familiar in-
stances. See River ; Lake ; Valley ; etc.

Bas'ingstoke, England, a town and parish
of Hampshire, situated near the source of the
Loddon, i8 miles north-northeast from Win-
chester. Its streets are well built, payed, and
lighted, and the town is amply supplied with
water. It has a town-hall, containing a spacious
corn-market and ball-room. It has also a fine
Gothic church, erected in the time of Henry
VIII. ; several other places of wprship ; a me-
chanics' institute, with good library; and numer-
ous charities. A considerable trade is carried
on in corn and malt. Population of municipal
borough (1901) 9,810.

Bas'kerville, John, English printer and
artist: b. Wolverley, Worcestershire, 1706; d.
1775. Inheriting a small estate, he was brought
up to no profession, but, acquiring great skill
in penmanship and carving letters on stone, at
the age of 20 he settled at Birmingham as a
writing-master. He subsequently engaged in
the manufacture of japanned works, and in
1750 entered upon his great career as printer
and typefounder, in which he displayed extraor-
dinary ability, as well as in the manufacture of
the ink and paper used in his productions. His
first great work was an edition of Virgil, in
royal quarto, 1756, which was followed by many
of the Latin classics, and some English ones,
in quarto and smaller sizes. After his death his
types and matrices were sold to Beaumarchais
at Paris for £3,700.

Basket, a vessel made of osier twigs or
other flexible materials, as rushes, strips of
wood, splits of bamboo, rattan, etc., and used
for holding and carrying all sorts of commodi-

ties. The word is of Brilanno-Celtic origin and
still subsists in the Welsh language in the form
Basgazvd, from Basg, plaiting, net-work : it was
adopted into the Latin language in the ist cen-
tury with form little altered — Bascauda. The
baskets made in Britain were highly prized by
the Romans, and the poets Juvenal and Martial
make mention of them as articles of no trifling
value. They were evidently regarded as rare
exotic curios in Juvenal's day, for the poet, in
drawing an exaggerated picture of the ship-
wreck in which his friend Catullus threw over-
board his most cherished possessions, couples
Bascaudse (ba.skcts) with articles of chased
silver wrought by famous artists (Sat. xii.).
And Martial (xiv. 99) makes the British bas-
ket say of itself: —

Barbara de pictis veni bascauda Britannis,

Sed me jam mavult dicere Roma suam —

" The Basket Barbaric, I'm come from the painted

Britanni,
But Rome now would choose rather to title me Roman."

In primeval times basket-making was a
branch of the art of weaving, and both of
these arts grew out of the still more primi-
tive one of wattling, first employed in mak-
ing enclosures. Tylor ('Early History of
in making enclosures. Tylor ('Early Hist, of
Mankind' ) notes the existence of wicker-
weaving among primitive tribes throughout the
world. This is the first step in the art of weav-
ing textile fabrics. It is practised, or rather
was practised, by the natives of New Zealand
and of northwestern America, and as late as
i856by an Indian tribe living northwest of Lake
Huron. In the lake habitations of Switzer-
land have been found specimens of wicker-
weaving work consisting of strands of un-
twisted fibre, probably hemp, bound together by
transverse strands wattled in among them ; and
in the same localities have been found speci-
mens of the same kind of weaving but of a
progressively higher and finer type. There is
even a genetic relation between the arts of
basket-making and pottery, proved by speci-
mens of rude pottery found in all quarters of
the world: in these are seen the impresses of
the basket-work on which the clay was molded
and which was burnt away in the kiln. Even
after the art of molding the clay without the
basket-work frame was invented, the potters
seem to have imitated the markings left by it.
Among the Indians of the Mississippi valley
along the gulf, all pottery vessels of large size
used to be modeled in baskets of willow or
splints, which, being burnt off, their markings
remained. Shields of basket-work covered with
hide were in use among the Briions at the
time of Caesar's invasion, and similar shields are
still employed by primitive peoples wherever
they live in savage isolation. Boats, too, of
basket-work, with a covering of hide (coracles),
were used by the ancient Britons, and boats of
the same type were seen by Herodotus (I. 194)
navigating the Euphrates. These were of round
form, without distinction of bow and stern,
and similar boats are still in use on some rivers
in India. On account of its lightness, combined
with strength and durability, basket-work is pre-
ferred to joinerj- in the manufacture of various
commodities, as window-screens, pony-carriage
bodies, chairs, tables, etc. In South America
the natives weave of rushes baskets capable of
holding liquids, and those of Tasmania, now

BASKET-BALL — BASKET-FISH

extinct, used to weave of leaves water-tight
vessels. The material most commonly em-
ployed in basket-making is the willow or ozier
twig, and the production of this material is an
important industry in France, Germany, Bel-
gium, Holland, and Britain. The product of
France and Britain is the most highly esteemed
for firmness, toughness, and evenness ; that of
Germany is reputed inferior to the French ; the
Dutch product is in least esteem, being soft
and pithy. Besides ozier twigs, a great variety
of other materials are employed in basket-
making. In this country coarse, strong baskets
are made of shavings or long broad splits of
various tough woods. In China and Japan the
usual materials are bamboo and rattan, and the
Chinese and Japanese excel in the manufacture
of wares of these materials, their products be-
ing unrivaled for fineness, elegance, and finish;
and some of their work, as in the encasing of
the egg-shell porcelain of the Japanese is mar-
velous for the delicacy of the manipulation :
even the examples seen in our marts, of com-
mon little porcelain saucers so encased in
basket-work, are worthy of admiration for
painstaking workmanship. The fronds of the
Palmyra palm, originally employed in India in
making *Cajan" baskets, now afford a staple
material for use in the art throughout the world.
So, too, Phormium tciiax, native of New Zea-
land, which yielded to the natives of that coun-
try their peculiar basket-making material, is now
employed in all countries for the same purpose.
Basket-making is one of the simplest of the
mechanic arts ; and the workman, in making
baskets designed for use, not for ornament or
to please the fancy, has no absolute need of
tools or apparatus beyond those requisite for
cutting the rods and interlacing them — a knife
and a bodkin, with a mallet to beat them into
place. The process can be learned in principle
by inspection of a basket-maker at work in
fashioning a basket from the foundation to the
rim. Having provided a sufficient quantity of
rods or splints of much greater length than
the proposed dimensions of the finished work,
he lays a number of them on the floor in paral-
lel pairs at small intervals in the direction of
the longer diameter of the basket : this is the
woof, so to speak. Then these are crossed at
right angles by two of the largest osiers, with
their thick ends toward the workman, who sets
his foot upon them ; next, each of these is
woven alternately over and under the length-
wise parallel pieces, and thus the parallel pieces
are held fast; this is the ^"^slath,'' — the founda-
tion. Now the end of one of the two transverse
rods is woven over and under the lengthwise
rods all round the bottom till that whole rod
is worked in ; and the same is done with the
other transverse rod, and then additional long
oziers are woven in till the bottom is of the
required size. The bottom is now finished and
work begins on the superstructure by driving
the sharpened large ends of a sufficient number
of long, stout oziers between the rods at the
bottom from the edge toward the centre: these
are the ribs or skeleton, being set up in the di-
rection of the sides ; between these ribs other
rods are woven in till the structure reaches the
desired height. To finish the edge the ends
of the ribs are turned down over each other
and thus compactly united. A handle is added
by forcing two or three sharpened rods of

the requisite length down through the weav-
ing of the sides, close together, and pinning
them fast a little below the brim ; the rods are
then either bound or plaited in any way the
workman chooses.

Our North American Indians were once
among the most expert basket-weavers in the
world. Now only the older Indians know the
art, and certain tribes whose work was incom-
parably fine and beautiful have already lost it.
After much pauperizing under the abominable
reservation system, it was decided that the In-
dians needed an industry to save them from
sinking still lower. Lace-making, after Brus-
sels and French patterns, was first superim-
posed on a Minnesota reservation, whence it has
spread. Now, lace-making, which has been de-
veloped by the European woman, fits her like
a glove ; and quite as truly, basket-making fits
the Indian like a moccasin. Yet the Indians
have succeeded at making lace, for they have
remarkable skill with the fingers. An enlight-
ened administrator of Indian affairs has taken
up the task of human development in the right
way and has made plans to revive basket-
making by introducing it into the Government
Indian schools, where the children, who now
know nothing of this beautiful art, may learn
from the only masters capable of teaching them
— their own people, directed by white teachers
who know the needs of the constantly widen-
ing market. Hundreds of thousands of dollars'
worth of baskets are imported from Japan and
Germany every year • — money which by every
right should be earned 'by our capable and
needy Indians ; and better than the money they
will earn is the satisfaction of doing what they
do with surpassing skill.

Basket-ball, a distinctly American gami».
Its history begins in i8gi, when a lecturer in
psychology at the Young Men's Christian Asso-
ciation Training School in Springfield, Mass.,
suggested, as an exercise of inventiveness, a
game that would comply with certain condi-
tions. One of his pupils, James Naismith, tak-
ing" note of the hypothetical conditions indoors, —
limited area, limited number of contestants,
equally applicable to either sex, etc., — applied
his mind to meet those conditions, and invented
« basket-ball.»

It is played on a marked oblong square con-
taining not more than 3.500 feet of actual
playing-space, by teams of five each, known
respectively as centre, left, and right forwards,
and left and right backs. The ball is round
and inflated, not less than 30 nor more than 32
inches in circumference, and very like that with
which "Association* foot-ball is played. The
goals are hammock nets of cord, suspended
from metal rings 18 inches in diameter, and
placed 10 feet from the ground, in the centre
of the ends of the playing-space. The time of
playing, for seniors, is two halves of 20 minutes,
with an interval of 10 minutes; and for juniors,
two halves of 15 minutes, with a similar inter-
val. No kicking of the ball with the foot, or
hitting with the fists, is permitted ; the ball
must be held by the hands only.

For rules, and much other necessary informa-
tion for actual plaving. consult Hepbion's ^Of-
ficial Basket-Bail Rules.>

Basket-fish, a name given about 1670 by
John Winthrop, governor of Connecticut, to
the Astrophyton agassisii. It belongs to the

BASKET-WORM — BASS

group Euryalida, and is allied to the sand-stars,
but differs in the arms being much branched
and ending in long slender tendrils which are
so much interlaced as to suggest basket-work.
It is very large, the disk being two inches
across, and the entire animal often a foot in
diameter. It lives off the coast of New Eng-
land in from lo to lOO fathoms of water. Other
names are "Medusa's-head," and *Sea-basket."

Basket-worm. See Bag-worm.

Baskett, James Newton, American zoolo-
gist : b. Kentucky, i Nov. 1849. He was grad-
uated at the Missouri State University in 1872.
He has devoted himself to the study of compara-
tive vertebrate anatomy, with ornithology as a
specialty. In 1893 he presented a paper on 'Some
Hints at the Kmship of Birds as Shown by Their
Eggs^ at the World's Congress of Ornitholo-
gists in Chicago. Among his publications are
'The Story of the Birds' ; 'The Story of the
Fishes' ; 'The Story of the Amphibians and
Reptiles'; 'The Story of the Mammals'; 'At
You-All's House' (a novel) ; 'As the Light
Led' (a novel), etc.

Basking-fish, or Basking-shark. See
Shark.

Basle. See Basel.

Basnage, ba-nazh, a family of French
Protestants, remarkable for the number of able
men and eminent writers whom it has pro-
duced.

1. Nicolas, who, having espoused the doc-
trines of the Reformation, was compelled by
persecution to take refuge in England, where
he became the minister of a congregation at
Norwich. When, by the accession of Henry
IV., a better era began to dawn, he returned to
his country and officiated, till his death, as
minister of a church at Carentan.

2. Benjaman, son of the former: b. 1850;
d. 1652. He succeeded his father in his charge,
and held it for the long period of 51 years.
He long held a prominent place among the re-
formers of France : presided in the assembly
held at Rochelle in 1622 ; undertook the dan-
gerous task of negotiating for English aid;
traveled into Scotland to arouse the Protestant
feeling in that country ; and on his return took
the lead in the important synods held at Char-
enton in 1623 and 1631, and at Alengon, in 1637.
flis principal work, entitled, 'Treatise on the
Church,' is a good specimen of his talents.

3. Henry de Franouenay : b. 1615; d. 1695.
He was the youngest son of Benjamin, studied
for the bar, and as a provincial advocate in
Rouen long stood at the head of his profes-
sion. His eloquence, learning, and unsullied in-
tegrity secured him the esteem, not only of the
Protestants, whose views he held, but even of
those most violently opposed to him. His com-
plete works, confined to juridical subjects, were
published at Rouen in 2 vols, folio in 1778.

• 4. Jacques, eldest son of Henri : b. Rouen,
1653; d. 1723. He is the best-known and per-
haps the ablest member of the family. He
studied theology at Geneva and Sedan, and in
1676 became minister of the Protestant Church
at Rouen. In 1685 his church having been
closed by decree of Louis XTV., he removed to
Holland and officiated as minister, first at Rot-
terdam, and then permanently at The Hague.
Among his works mav be mentioned 'History
of the Church,' 2 vols, folio; 'History of the

Jews,' 15 vols. 12 mo.; 'Annals of the United
Provinces,' 2 vols, folio; and 'The Holy Com-
munion.'

Basques, basks, or Biscayans, in their own
language, Euscaldunac; a remarkable race of
people dwelling in the southwest corner of
France, and in the north of Spain, on both
sides of the Pyrenees. They are probably de-
scendants of the ancient Iberi, who occupied
Spain before the Celts. The French Basques
(Gascons) settled, at the end of the 6U1 century,
on the north side of the Pyrenees, between those
mountains and the Garonne. After long strug-
gles they submitted to the kings of the Franks.
Under the Carlovingian race they elected their
own dukes, but after the extinction of that fam-
ily they fell under the dominion of Aquitania in
the nth century, and with it under that of
France in 1453. The Basques preserve their
ancient language, former manners, and their na-
tional dances, and make admirable soldiers,,
especially in guerrilla warfare, to which their na-
tive temperament inclines, and their frequent
expeditions in carrying on the smuggling, to
\vhich they are much addicted, inure them.
They are good seamen, and were the first Euro-
peans who engaged in the whale-fishery, which
they have, however, long since relinquished.
They occupy, in Spain, the provinces of Biscay,.
Guipuzcoa, and Alava ; in France, the depart-
ments of the Upper and Lower Pyrenees, Ariege
and Upper Garonne. See Biscay.

Basrah. See Bassora.

Bass, Edward, first Protestant Episcopal
bishop of Massachusetts : b. Dorchester, Mass.,.
23 Nov. 1726; d. Newburyport, Mass., 10 Sept.
1803. He was graduated at Harvard in 1744;
was ordained in England in 1752; and later be-
came pastor of the church at Newburyport,.
Mass. During the Revolution he omitted from
the church service all reference to the royal
family and the British government. For this
he was expelled from the Society for the Prop-
agation of the Gospel. In 1797 he was conse-
crated bishop of Massachusetts, and finally also
of New Hampshire and Rhode Island.

Bass, Michael Thomas, English brewer:
b. 1799 ; d. 1884. He became head of the Bur-
ton brewing firm of Bass & Company upon the
death of his father, and was a member of Par-
liament from 1848 to 1883. His benefactions
were very numerous, and included the building
and endowing of St. Paul's Church. Burton
(the total expenditure on the parish being about
$500,000) ; and the establishment of recreation
grounds, a free library, and swimming baths for
Derby, at a cost of $185,000. Of simple tastes,
he more than once declined a baronetcy and a
peerage.

Bass, the name of various trimly shaped,
active, gamy fishes of both fresh and salt water,
mostly in northern regions. The term was
originally applied to the Moronc labra.v of the
west coast of Europe, and was thence trans-
ferred to many other fishes having a real or
fancied likeness to this in appearance and quali-
ties. This fish repre.sents the sea-perch family,
Scrranidcc. is perch-like in form, usually 12
to 18 inches long, and frequents the shoal shore-
waters in great numbers, being noted for its
fierceness and voracity. Its flesh is excellent.
The same family and genius are represented in
North America by many species, of which the

BASS — BASS ROCK

nearest relative is the yellow bass (M. inter-
rupta) of the southern Mississippi valley. It
is a brass3--yello\v with seven very distinct
black longitudinal lines, those below the lateral
line being interrupted posteriorly, the posterior
parts alternating with the anterior. Its body
is oblong-ovate with the back much arched.
The dorsal fin and anal spines are stout. It is
a light fish for its length, ordinarily weighing
one to two pounds, but often measuring 12 to
18 inches, and weighing five pounds. It is very
gamy, and is esteemed by some anglers the
equal of the black bass in this respect.

In the same family falls the well-known
striped bass or <'rock fish" (Rocciis lincatiis),
of the northeastern Atlantic, which approaches
the coast and enters fresh water only at spawn-
ing-time, when its ascends the rivers. It was
absent from the Pacific coast until planted there
artificially, since which it has multiplied from
Puget Sound to lower California. The largest
fish are to be found in Chesapeake Bay, where
they average from 30 to 50 pounds in weight,
and occasionally reach double that. In color
they are brassy-olive, the fins and sides rather
pale, and the latter marked with seven or eight
blackish stripes. The favorite waj' of fishing
for the striped bass is by casting a ^'squid"
through the surf, using as a bait .pieces of clam,
shrimp, or crab ; but they will rise to a fly ; and
on the Pacific coast are easily lured by a shin-
ing spoon-bait.

The white bass {R. chrysops) is a near
relative of the striped bass, and inhabits the
Great Lakes from the St. Lawrence to Mani-
toba, and southward in the Mississippi valley
to Arkansas. Its preference is for still waters,
and it is even lighter in weight for length than
the yellow bass. It is generall}^ taken with bait,
though it will rise to the fly. It is silvery in
its color, tinged with golden below, with dusky
lines along the sides.

The most important of the American fresh-
water bass are the black bass — two species of
percoid game fishes of the distinctly American
family Centrarchidce, which also contains the
various sunfish (q.v.). One is the "big-
mouthed" and the other the ^^small-mouthed"
black bass. Both were originally confined to
the waters of the upper Mississippi valley, and
Great Lakes region, but in 1853 they were in-
troduced into the head waters of the Potomac
River, whence they have spread into all the
rivers that empty into Chesapeake Bay. More
recently bass have been introduced into New
England and into many of the far western
States ; as well as transported into England,
France, Germany, and other countries. The
body is oblong, compressed, the back not much
elevated, head oblong-conic, lower jaw promi-
nent, teeth on jaws, vomer and platines in
broad villiform bands, the inner depressible,
usually no teeth on tongue. Black bass vary
greatly in size in different waters. The small-
mouthed, however, seldom exceeds six pounds
in weight, while the large-mouthed, especially
in the South, is larger, running as high as 14
pounds. In color both are dull golden-green
with a bronze lustre, the scales on the cheeks
are more minute than those on the body, and the
dor.sal fin is deeply notched. In the small-
mouthed species (Micropterus dolomieu) the
maxillary does not extend beyond the eye. and
the scales on the cheek are arranged in 17 rows.

In the large-mouthed {M. sahnoides) the max-
illary extends beyond the eye and there are but
10 rows of scales on the cheeks. The lateral
line in both is nearly straight, passing from the
upper edge of the gill-cover to the centre of the
base of the caudal fin. The small-mouthed has
the wider range, extending from the Red River
of the North to Texas and Mexico. Both va-
rieties are free, but capricious, biters, and
both are game fighters. They are taken with
artificial flies, such as the " Rube Wood," * Seth
Green," " silver doctor," and "Parmachenee
bell," as well as by casting with a wide range of
natural baits, such as crayfish, minnows, worms,
and small frogs ; or they may be taken by troll-
ing from a boat, using a stiff rod, especially
in lakes, with any standard silver or golden
spoon-bait. In some districts the large-mouthed
bass is called ''straw" bass ; in others " slough,"
'' lake," '' marsh," or "Oswego" bass, or "green
trout," " welchman," etc.

Another species deserving mention is the
"rock-bass," one of the sunfish (Ambloplites
rupesfris) , found in practically every lake, pond,
and stream east of the dry plains. It does not
usually attain more than half a pound in weight,
is easily caught, and is the least persistent fighter
of any of the family. In color it is mottled-
olive or brassy-green.

Consult: Henshall, 'Book of the Bass'
(1889) ; ^ricl Jordan and Evermann, 'American
Food and Game Fishes' (New York 1902).

Bass^ bas (It. basso, deep, low), the lowest
part in the harmony of a musical composition.
It is the most important of all the parts, the
foundation of the harmony, and the support of
the whole composition. Different forms of bass
are: Basso concertante, or Basso recitante,
the bass of the little chorus ; the bass which ac-
companies the softer parts of a composition, as
well as those which employ the whole power
of the band. This part is generally taken by
the violoncellos. Bass-counter or contra-bass,
the under bass ; that part which, when there are
two basses in a composition, is performed by the
double basses, the violoncellos taking the upper
bass or basso concertante. Basso repieno
(Ital.), the bass of the grand chorus; that bass
which joins in the full parts of a composition,
and, by its depth of tone and energy of stroke,
affords a powerful contrast to the lighter and
softer passages or movements. Figured bass, a.
bass which, while a certain chord or harmony
is continued by the parts above, moves in notes
of the same harmony. Fundamental bass, that
bass which forms the tone or natural foundation
of the harmony, and from which that harmony is
derived. Ground bass, a bass which starts with
some subject of its own, and continues to be
repeated throughout the movement, while the
upper part or parts pursue a separate air and
supply the harmony. Tlwrough bass, the sj'Stem
in which words are denoted by placing figures
'over the bass note. Bass clef, the character put
at the beginning of the stave, in which the bass
or lower notes of the composition are placed,
and serving to determine the pitch and names of
those notes.

Bass (bas) Rock, a remarkable trap-rock
island, at the mouth of the Firth of Forth, three
miles from North Berwick. It is of circular
shape, about a mile in circumference, and rises
precipitously to a height of 420 feet. It is inac-

BASS, BAT FISH. BALLOOX FISH, ETC.

1. Bellows Fish (Centriscus scolopax)

2. Cave Fish (Amblyopsis spelaeus).
3 Bill Fish (Lepid^sleus osseus)

4. Falloon Fish (Tetrodon fuhaka).

5. Fat Fish (Malthe vespc-rtilio).

6. Skeleton of a Bass (Perca fluviatilis).

BASS STRAIT — BASSET

cessible except on one flat shelving point on the
southeast. Its summit is estimated at about
seven acres, and this supports a few sheep, the
mutton of which is considered a great dehcacy.
Solan geese and other sea-fowl in myriads cover
its rocks, and fly around it in clouds. The
surrounding water is of great depth on the
northeast, but shallow on the south. Among
the historical ruins on the island are the remains
of a fortalice commanding the landing-place,
capable of accommodating upward of lOO men,
formerly accessible only by ladders or buckets
and chains ; and the ruins of a chapel about
halfway up the acclivity. The Bass was pur-
chased by the English government in 1671, and
its castle, long since demolished, was converted
into a state prison in which several eminent
Covenanters were confined. It was the last
place in Britain that held out against William
III., its small band of gallant defenders yielding
only to starvation. The island anciently be-
longed to a family of the name of Lauder,
whose head was stj'led Lauder of the Bass.

Bass (has) Strait, a channel beset with
islands, which separates Australia from Tas-
mania, 120 miles broad, discovered by George
Bass, a surgeon in the British navy, in 1798.

Bass (bas) Viol, a stringed instrument re-
sembling the violin in form, but much larger.
It has four strings and eight stops, which are
subdivided into semi-stops, and is played with
a bow. See Viol.

Bas'sa, Africa, a district on the west coast
forming part of the negro state of Liberia
(q.v.).

Bassanio, ba-sa'ne-6, the lover of Portia
in Shakespeare's *^ Merchant of Venice.^

Bassano, bas-sa'no, Hugues Bernard
Maret, Due de, French publicist and states-
man: b. Dijon, 1763; d. 1839. On the first out-
burst of the French Revolution he enthusiastical-
ly embraced its principles, published the Bulletin
de I' Assemblee, and soon after was appointed
editor of the Moniteur. He became acquainted
with Bonaparte, and was made by him chief of
division in the ministry of foreign affairs. In

181 1 he was created Duke of Bassano and ap-
pointed minister of foreign affairs ; and in

1812 he conducted and signed the treaties be-
tween France, Austria, and Prussia, preparatorj'
to the fatal expedition to Russia. When the
emperor was sent to Elba in 1814, Bassano re-
tired from public life ; but immediately after
Napoleon's return he joined him, and was very
nearly taken prisoner at Waterloo. On the em-
peror's final overthrow Bassano was banished
from France, but at the Revolution of July 1830
he was recalled and restored to all his honors.
In 1838 he was made minister of the interior and
president of the council, but the ministry of
which he formed a part survived only three
days.

Bassano, Jacopo, (real name Giacomo da
Ponte), Italian painter: b. Bassano (whence his
surname), 1510; d. 1592. He painted historical
pieces, landscapes, flowers, and portraits ; among
the latter those of the Doge of Venice, of Ari-
osto, Tasso, and other persons of eminence.
Several of his best works are in the churches of
Bassano, Venice. Vicenza, and other towns of
Italy. He left four sons, all painters, of whom
Francesco was the most distinguished.
Vol. 2 — 24.

Bassano, Italy, a city in the province of
Vicenza, on the Brenta (Ion. 11° 43' E. , lat. 45°
46' N.J. Its 30 churches contain beautiful paint-
ings. A stone bridge, 182 feet long, unites the
town with the large village Vincantino. Vines
and olives are cultivated in the vicinity and there
is considerable trade in silk, cloth, and leather.
Its principal manufactures are straw hats, por-
celain, and wax. Napoleon made Bassano a
duchy, with 50,000 francs yearly income, and
granted it to his minister of foreign affairs,
Maret (see Bassano, Hugues). Near Bas-
sano, 8 Sept. 1796, Bonaparte defeated the Aus-
trian general Wurmser. Bassona was the birth-
place of the famous printer Mauritius, as well
as of the historical painter Giacomo da Ponte
(see Bassano, Jacopo), and a short distance
away lies the village of Possagus, the birthplace
of Canova. Pop. (1902) 15,443.

Bassein, bas-san', India, a decayed town m
the presidency of Bombay, at the south end of a
small island of the same name, 28 miles north of
Bombay, and separated from the Island of
Salsette by a narrow channel. It was fortified
by the Portuguese in 1536, and remained in their
possession until captured by the Mahrattas in
1739. During this period it rose to be a fine and
wealthy city of over 60,000 inhabitants, with
many stately buildings, including a cathedral,
5 convents, 13 churches, and handsome private
residences. Pop. (1901) about 11,000.

Bassein, Burma, a town in the Irrawaddy
division on the left bank of the Bassein River,
one of the mouths of the Irrawaddy. with a su-
burb on the right bank; lat. 16° 46' N. ; Ion. 94°
48' E. The English fort with the court-houses,
treasury, police-office, etc., are on the left bank.
In the suburb on the right bank are the rice-
mills and store-yards of the principal merchants.
The river is navigable up to the town for ships
of the largest burden, and Bassein is now a
place of considerable trade, exporting large quan-
tities of rice, and importing coal, salt, cottons,
etc. It is the seat of a consul of the United
States. Pop. about 30,000.

Basselin, bas-laii, or Bachelin, bash-Ian,
Oliver, French poet: b. Val-de-Vire, Norman-
dy, about 1350 ; d. about 1419. It has been asserted
that the vocabulary of theatrical and poetical lit-
erature is indebted to him for the word "vaude-
ville.'^ He seems to have been a cloth-fuller or
presser, much given to versified narration and
iteration of convivial themes in rhymed frag-
ments dubbed van.r-de-vire in honor of the
poet's birthplace. In the 'Book of New Songs
and Vaux-de-Vire' (1610) appears a collection
of these bacchanalian stanzas, the most touch-
ing of which is addressed by the sipger <To My
Nose,' the rubescence thereof being tastefully
and exquisitely celebrated.

Basses-Alpes, bas-alp (*lower Alps''), a
department of France, on the Italian border.
See Alps.

Basses-Pyrenees, bas-pe-ra-na (''lower
Pyrenees"), a French department bordering on
Spain and the Bay of Biscay. See Pyrenees.

Basset, a game of cards, formerly much
played, especially in France. It is very similar
to the modern faro. Severe edicts were issued
against it by Louis XIV., and it was afterward
played under the name of pour et contre. De

BASSET-HORN — B ASSIA

Moivre, in his ^Doctrine of Chances,' has cal-
culated many problems connected with this
game.

Basset-horn, a wooden wind-instrument
(called also Cornet by reason of its curvature),
believed to have been invented in Passau in
1770. It was afterward perfected by Theodore
Lotz in Presburg. It is, properly considered,
an enlarged clarinet; and, notwithstanding the
difference of its form, it resembles that, not only
in its qualities and tone, but also as regards its
intonation, the mode of holding it, and finger-
ing; so that every clarinet player can perform
on it. Besides the mouthpiece it is formed of
five pieces — the head-piece, two middle pieces,
the trunk, and the bell, the last of which is
usually of brass. It differs from the clarinet
chiefly in having four additional low keys
worked by the thumb of the right hand. Its
compass is three and a half octaves, from lower
F in the bass to double C of the treble. It is
seldom used in the orchestra ; though it is found
in Mozart's * Requiem^ and some other pieces.
It may also be used as a bass instrument.

Basset-hound, a dog with many hound-like
characteristics, somewhat used for rabbit-hunt-
ing, clumsy in shape, and allied to the dachshund
(q.v.). Its head is as massive and solemn-
looking as that of a bloodhound, which it also
resembles in the length of its ears. Its body
is as bulky as that of a foxhound, to which it is
also similar as regards coior, hair and form,
save that its fore legs are but four inches high
and crooked at the knee. Below this point is a
wrinkled ankle terminating in a massive paw,
each toe of which stands out distinctly. Its
coat is short, smooth, and fine, with the gloss of
a thoroughbred race-horse; and its colors are
black and white and tan. In weight it varies
frorn 40 to 45 pounds. It is probably of French
origin.

Basseterre, bas-tar, the name of two towns
in the West Indies, (i) The capital of the Is-
land of St. Christopher's, a seaport situated at
the mouth of a small river, on the south side of
the island, and on the edge of the fertile vale of
Basseterre, a tract yielding rich crops of sugar
and fruits. The town was destroyed by fire in
1867, but has been rebuilt with better houses
and wider streets than before. It is a place of
considerable commercial importance, with a pop-
ulation of about 8,000. (2) The capital of the
Island of Guadaloupe, situated near the south
end of the island, and consisting of one principal
long street stretching along the seashore. P is
defended by forts Royal and Matilda. The
anchorage is unsheltered and exposed to a con-
stant swell. Pop. about 10,500.

Bas'sett, James, American missionary: b.
Hamilton, Canada, 31 Jan. 1834. He was gradu-
ated at Wabash College 1856, and at Lane The-
ological Seminary 1859; was chaplain in the
Union army 1862-3 : and later pastor of Presby-
terian churches in Newark and Englewood, N. J.
In 1871 he went to Persia as a missionary,
and in a short time acquired such a familiarity
with the language that he composed a volume
of hymns in Persian (<Teheran,> 1875; 1884).
Other of his writings are: ^Among the Turco-
mans' (contributed to the ^Leisure Hour,'
1879-80); <Note on the Simnuni Dialects
(< Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society,' 1884);

< Persia, the Land of the Imams' (N. Y. 1886).
He has also translated the Gospel of St.
Matthew into Gaghatti Tartar (London 1880).

Bassett, John Spencer, American historian:
b. Tarboro, N. C, 10 Sept. 1867. He was
graduated at Trinity College, Durham, N. C,
in 1888, and took Ph.D. at Johns Hopkins in
1894. His works include 'Constitutional Be-
ginnings in North Carolina' ; ^Slavery and Ser-
vitude in the Colony of North Carolina' ; 'Anti-
Slavery Leaders of North Carolina' ; 'Slavery in
the State of North Carolina' ; 'The War of the
Regulation,' etc. In 1900 he was professor of
history in Trinity College, N. C.

Bassford, William Kipp, American musi-
cian : b. New York, 23 April 1839. He has
composed many songs and pianoforte numbers :
as, Mass in E flat (1894), and a two-act opera,
'Casilda,' still in manuscript. He completed the
opera 'Estrella,' left unfinished by the composer,
William Vincent Wallace, at his death.

Bassi, bas'se, Laura Maria Caterina, Ital-
ian philosopher: b. Bologna, 29 Oct. 171 1; d. 20
Feb. 1778. She received a doctor's degree as an
acknowledgment of her attainments, and de-
livered public lectures on experimental philoso-
phy. She also lectured in the Philosophical Col-
lege, where she was appointed professor. Her
correspondence with the most eminent scholars
of Europe was very extensive. She married
Giuseppe Verrati in 1738 and had several chil-
dren.

Bassi, bas'se, Ugo, Barnabite monk, and
distinguished Italian patriot : b. Cento, in the
Roman states 1804, of an Italian father and
Greek mother. He was much distinguished
among the brethren for his extraordinary learn-
ing and talents. The liberality of his political
opinions, however, rendered him obnoxious to
the papal court, and he was sent into exile in
Sicily, from which he returned on the accession
of Pius IX. in 1846. On the breaking out of
the Lombard revolution in 1848 he greatly dis-
tinguished himself by his valor in battle and his
ui'.tiring services in the hospitals. On the ca-
pitulation of Treviso he went to Venice, where
he fought in the ranks against her Austrian be-
siegers. Thence he went to Rome and joined
Garibaldi's legion as chaplain. On the fall of
Rome he was one of those who followed Gari-
baldi when he made a last attempt to fight his
way to Venice, which still held out against the
Austrians. The little band was, however, dis-
persed and cut up bj' Austrian troops, and Gari-
baldi himself escaped with great difficulty. Bassi
was taken prisoner, carried to Bologna, and con-
demned to death 18 Aug. 1849. He was the
author of a work on 'The Church After the
Image of Christ,' and an unfinished poem called
'Constantine, or the Triumph of the Cross.'
His talents were universal. He was an accom-
plished musician and composer, wrote his own
language in remarkable perfection, and was a
perfect master of Greek, Latin, English, and
French. He was equally remarkabl'" for his
personal beauty and his eloquence as an i}n-
provisatore, while his memory was so prodigious
that he is said to have been capable of reciting
the whole of Dante's 'Divina Commedia.'

Bassia, a genus of tropical trees found in
the East Indies and Africa, of the natural order
Sapotacece. One species (J5. parkii) is supposed
to be the shea-tree of Park, the fruit of which

BASSOMPIERRE — BAST

yields a kind of butter that is highly valued and
forms an important article of commerce in the
interior of Africa. There are several other spe-
cies, of which B. longifolia, or Indian oil-tree,
and B. butyracea, or Indian butter-tree, are well
known examples, yielding a large quantity of
oleaginous or butyraceous matter. The wood
is as hard and incorruptible as teak. See also
Butter-tree.

Bassompierre, ba-s6n-pe-ar, Frangois
(fraa-swar) de, marshal of France, one of the
most distinguished men of the courts of Henry
IV. and Louis XIII., descended from a branch
of the house of Cleves : b. Lorraine, 1579;
d. 1646. In his youth he studied philoso-
phy, jurisprudence, medicine, and the military
art. After traveling through Italy he appeared
at the court of Henry IV., where his taste for
splendor, play, and gallantr}' soon made him
conspicuous. In 1600 he made his first cam-
paign against the Duke of Savoy, and fought
with equal distinction in the following year
against the Turks. His love of France soon
called hmi back; he aspired to the hand of the
daughter of the Constable de Montmorency,
whose charms had excited the most violent
passion in Henry IV. Bassompierre yielded to
the solicitations of his king and renounced
his intended union with her. In -1622 Louis
XIII. appointed him marshal of France, and
became so much attached to him that Luynes,
the declared favorite, alarmed at his growing
influence, insisted upon his removal from court.
Bassompierre therefore accepted an embassy,
and held this position successively in Spain,
Switzerland, and England. After his return
he entered again into the military service and
was present at the siege of Rochelle and iMont-
auban. Cardinal Richelieu, who soon after ob-
tained entire control of the king and the coun-
try, feared the boldness of Bassompierre and
his secret connection with the house of Lor-
raine ; and the machinations of the latter served
him as a pretext for sending Bassompierre, in
1631, to the Bastille, from which he was not
released till 1643, after the death of the cardi-
nal. During his detention he occupied himself
with his memoirs (first published at Cologne,
1665), and the history of his embassies in
Spain, Switzerland, and England, which sheds
much light on the events of that time.

Bassoon', a w' ooden reed instrument which
forms the natural bass to the oboe, serving as
a continuation of its scale downward. The reed
is fixed to a crooked mouthpiece issuing from
the side of the bassoon. The holes are partly
closed by the fingers, partly by means of keys.
It was formerly used as an accompaniment to
the oboe, but it is now so far improved with
keys as to be susceptible of being played solo.
Its compass is more than three octaves, from
low B flat to A flat in the treble; but its
scale is complicated, and much depends upon
the player and even upon the individual instru-
ment. It consists of four tubes (besides the
mouthpiece), bound together somewhat like a
fagot. Hence the Italians term it fagotto, and
from them the Germans fagott. It forms, when
put together, a continuous tube about eight
feet long,_ but as the bore is bent abruptly
back on itself its height is only about four
feet. In music designed for wind-instruments
it often forms the bass. It is capable of very

fine effects, and has been much employed by
some of the best composers, sometimes as a
tenor or even alto instrument.

Bassora, bas-so'ra, or Basrah, bas'ra, Tur-
key, a city situated between two and three miles
on the west side of and on a navigable canal
leading from the Shat-el-Arab, as the united
stream of the Tigris and Euphrates is called,
about half way between the Persian Gulf and the
junction of the two rivers. The Shat-el-Arab
is navigable for vessels of 500 tons to Bassora,
70 miles. Merchants from Arabia, Turkey. Ar-
menia, and Greece, also Jews and Indians, reside
here, and it is the station of a United States
consul. The Arabs are more numerous than
the Turks, and their language is chiefly spoken.
The city is surrounded by a wall about 10 miles
in circuit, 20 to 25 feet thick. The houses are
generally mean, partly constructed of clay, and
tl e bazaars are miserable edifices. A consider-
able trade is carried on. Mail steamers run
between Bombay and Bassora, and there are
also other steamers trading here. Dates form
the principal export; camels and horses, galls,
gum, carpets, wool, and wheat are also exported;
total exports over $5,000,000 annually. The im-
ports are coft'ee, rice, spices, textiles, etc. The
trade of the interior is conducted by means of
caravans. The town is dirty and unhealthy ;
the environs are very fertile. The modern Bas-
sora arose in the 17th century, and does not
occupy the site of the older town, whose ruins
lie about nine miles southwest of it. Pop. about
30,000. The vilayet of Bassora has an area
of 16,482 square miles, and a population of about
200,000.

Bassora Gum, a gum brought from Bas-
sora ; supposed to be derived either from a
cactus or a mesembrj'anthemum.

Bassorin, a kind of mucilage found in gum
tragacanth (sometimes called adraganthin),
which forms a jelly with water but does not
dissolve in it. A clear, aqueous-looking liquid,
apparently of the nature of Bassorin, exists
in the large cells of the tubercular roots of some
terrestrial orchids of the section Ophyrecc. It
is formed of minute cells, each with its cytoblast ;
the whole being compactly aggregated in the
interior of the parent cell.

Bassville, bas-vel, Nicolas Jean Hugon de,

French journalist and diplomatist. As editor
of the Merciire National he attracted attention to
himself and was appointed secretary to the
legation at Naples in 1792. Soon after this he
was despatched to Rome, where he was killed,
in 1793, by the populace for attempting, under
orders of the French government, to oblige all
French residents to wear the tricolor cockade.
The death of Bassville has furnished the sub-
ject for many compositions in both prose and
verse, in French and Italian.

Basswood, the American linden, or lime-
tree (q.v.).

Bast, or Bass, the thin layer of fibrous
tissue formed by, but outside the layer of cam-
bium (q.v.), or in popular phrase the inner bark
of dicotyledonous shrubs and trees. Less fre-
quently it occurs in the leaves and pith of dicoty-
ledonous herbs and in the stems of certain mon-
ocotvledonous plants in which it is not easily
distinguished from the wood. By extension
the term is also applied to the phloem portion

BAST — BASTARD

of the vascular system (q.v.) of flowering plants
and ferns. For the plant, as well as for mercan-
tile purposes, bast is highly important, for
until it becomes changed into wood, it conducts
the elaborated food from the green tissue to
regions of use or storage. The bast cells are
disposed and developed variously in diflferent
plants ; occurring in rows, wreaths, more or less
spread bundles, or single within the paren-
chyma. In some plants bast is formed but
once, in others every year. Some fibres are
simple, others branched ; some priinary, others
secondary; some ever limber, and some change
to wood. They are most developed toward the
outside of the stem. While young they contain
a granulary liquid, which disappears by the
thickening of their walls. Young bast cells when
treated by a solution of iodine and chloride of
zinc, become pale blue, the older ones violet, the
full-grown pink. Thickened cells are plainly
stratified, and their walls often become contigu-
ous by the disappearance of the cavity. The
walls exhibit various designs, spiral or other
lines, more or less constantly, according to
the species of the plant. By microscopical exam-
ination and chemical analysis the nature of the
various fabrics made of bast may be determined.
Thomson and F. Baur have thus demonstrated
the sheets around Egyptian mummies to be of
linen. The degree of contraction, of twisting,
the length, density, and form of the single cells
of the bast vary in different plants. They are
very long in flax, hemp, in some nettles, spurges.
etc., very short in cinchona. Cotton consists of
long hairs, and not of bast cells, which it very
much resembles otherwise. The bast cells of
monocotyledenous plants are mostl)' lignified.
They conduct elaborated food but a short time,
become filled w-ith air, and thus dead to the
plant. The unlignified are very hygroscopic and
often contain chlorophyll. No bast cell has pits,
but the coniferae have sieve pores or canals.
The uses of bast are manifold. Flax bast is
soft, flexible, seldom with swellings ; hemp bast
is very long, stiller and thicker than flax, more
stratified; nettle {Urtica dioica) bast resem-
bles cotton, has swellings and is thicker than
hemp. Branched and lignified bast cells of great
beauty are found in the mangrove tree (Rhiso-
phora mangle) and the secondary ones of Abies
pectinata. Among the monocotyledonous bast
fibres, those of the New Zealand flax (Phormium
tenax) are the most remarkable, being fonned
in bundles near the margin of leaves. They
resemble hemp, are very white, sometimes j^el-
lowish, very long, and contain much lignin,
in consequence of which they are somewhat stiff,
but very tough and fit for stout ropes. In
palms a highly developed body of lignified bast
surrounds the vascular bundles, while bast bun-
dles are found also in the bark, leaves, and
interior of the stem. A similar disposition
exists in the Dracaena reflcxa, and in some
Aroidece. Everybody knows the tenacity of the
bast of the lime tree, which is hence called bass-
wood. The Chinese grass-cloth is made of
Boehmeria nivea or B. tenacissima. Manila
Jsemp comes from Miisa textiUs; rice bags are
made in East India from Aiitiaris toxicaria.
From the use of bast in ancient times for
writing upon, the Latin name of bast, liber, has
been applied to designate book. See also Fibre ;
Flax; Hemp; Jute; R.\mie.

Bast, in Egyptian mj'thology, a goddess
represented with the head of a cat or lione'.ij.
Bubastis, in Egj'pt, was the city where she held a
high place, similar to that of Neith in Sais.
Nearly a million Egyptians made annual pilgrim-
ages to her shrine. Great numbers of bronze
images of Bast were purchased in Bubastis.

Bastable, C. P., Irish political economist:
b. Charleville, County Cork, Ireland, 1855, and
since 1882 a professor of political economy in
Dublin University. He is the author of *An
Examination of Some Objections to the Study
of Political Economy-' (1884) ; "^The Commerce
of Nations^ (1892) ; "^Public Finance^ (1895) :
*The Theory of International Trade' (1897).

Bastar, a feudatory state of British India,
joined with the Chanda district of the Central
Provinces. It has an area of 13,062 square
miles. Pop. (1891) 310,884.

Bastard, one begotten and born out of
lawful w^edlock, or born during wedlock where
the husband was under the age of puberty, or
where the husband had died at such a time that
there was no possibility of his being the father,
or where there was no possibility of access on
the part of the husband on account of his
absence from the country, or where the hus-
band labored under a disability due to some
natural infirmity.

The Romans distinguished two kinds of nat-
ural children — notlii, the issue of concubinage,
and spuriij the children of prostitutes; the former
could inherit from the mother, and were entitled
to support from the father ; the latter had no
claims whatever to support. Both were often
raised to all the rights of legitimate children by
affiliation. The Athenians treated all bastards
with extreme rigor. By the laws of Solon, they
were denied the rights of citizenship, and a law
of Pericles ordered the sale of 5,000 bastards
as slaves. What rendered these regulations
more severe was, that not only the issue of
concubinage and adultery, but all children whose
parents were not both Athenians, were consid-
ered bastards at Athens. Thus Themistocles,
whose mother was a native of Halicarnassus,
was deemed a bastard. The law, as might be
expected, was often set aside by the influence
of powerful citizens. Pericles himself had it
repealed in favor of his son by Aspasia, after he
had lost his legitimate children by the plague.
The condition of bastards has been different in
different periods of modern history. Among
the Goths and Franks, they were permitted to
inherit from the father. Thiery, the natural son
of Clovis, inherited a share of his father's con-
quests. William the Conqueror, natural son of
Robert I., Duke of Normandy, and of Arlette,
daughter of a furrier of Falaise, inherited his
father's dominions. He called himself Willel-
miis, cognomcnto Batardus. The celebrated
Dunois styled himself, in his letters, the Bastard
of Orleans. In Spain, bastards have always
been capable of inheriting. The bastardy of
Henry of Transtamare did not prevent his acces-
sion to the throne of Castile. In France, the
condition of bastards was formerly very differ-
ent in the different provinces. Since the Revolu-
tion, it has been regulated in a uniform manner
by the general law of the kingdom. The code
civil thiis fixes their rights: If the father or
mother leave legitimate descendants, the bastard
is entitled to one third of the portion he would

BASTARD BAR — BASTIAT

have inherited had he been a lawful child; if
the father or mother die without descendants,
but leave ascendants, or brothers or sisters, he is
then entitled to one half of such a portion; if
the father or mother leave no ascendants nor
descendants, nor brothers nor sisters, he is en-
titled to three quarters of such a portion ; and
if the father or mother leave no relations within
the degrees of succession, he is entitled to the
whole property. These regulations do not apply-
to the issue of an incestuous or adulterous con-
nection.

By the common law of England, a child born
after marriage, however soon, is legitimate, or
at least he is presumed to be so ; for one
born in wedlock, and long enough after the
marriage to admit of the period of gestation,
may still be proved illegitimate, under some cir-
cumstances, and this is the general rule in the
United States. According to the common law,
a bastard is not the heir of any one ; and, on the
other hand, his only heirs are his children born
in wedlock, and their descendants. According
to the Roman law, one born out of wedlock
might be legitimated by subsequent marriage and
acknowledgment of his parents. In 1236 the
English prelates proposed the introduction of the
Roman law, in this respect, into England, to
which the nobility made the celebrated reply,
A^oliunus leges A)iglice mutare (We are unwill-
ing to change the laws of England). See Schou-
ler, ^Treatise on the Law of Domestic Rela-
tions.^

Bastard Bar, the ordinary name given to
the heraldic mark used to indicate illegitimate
descent. Properly speaking, it is not a bar at
all, which is a band stretching horizontally
across the shield, but a baton sinister ; that is,
it stretches diagonally across the shield in the
direction of the sinister chief and the dexter
base, but is couped or cut short at the ends,
so as not to touch the corners of the shield.
This circumstance serves to distinguish the
bastard bar from the bend sinister, as well as
the fact that the former is only one fourth
of the breadth of the latter. When belonging
to the illegitimate descendants of royalty it
may be of metal ; but in other cases it must
be of color, even when on another color. This
mark in heraldry is of comparatively recent
origin, bastards in earlier times, not having been
allowed to bear the arms of their fathers. It
cannot be removed until three generations have
borne it, and not even then unless replaced by
some other mark assigned by the king of arms,
or unless the coat is changed. Sometimes per-
mission was granted to a bastard or one of his
descendants to bear it dexter instead of sin-
ister, although he was not allowed to cancel it
altogether.

Bastard of Orleans, the name given to the
natural son of Louis, brother of Charles VI.
of France, Jean Dunois b. 1402; d. 1468. On
account of his exploits in the Hundred Years'
war he was created Count of Orleans.

Bastarnae, the earliest Teutonic people
mentioned in history. They migrated from the
region of the Vistula to the Lower Danube
about 200 B.C. See Keane, ^Man: Past and
Present^ (1899).

Bastia, the former capital of the island of
Corsica. q8 miles northeast of Ajaccio by rail.
It is badly built, has narrow streets, a strong

citadel near the sea, and a spacious but not
very well sheltered harbor. The inhabitants
carry on a considerable trade in manufactured
goods, hides, wine, oil, wax candles, liquors,
and maccaroni. The stilettoes manufactured
here are held in great esteem by the Italians.
In 1745 Bastia was taken by the British, and
in 1768 was united with France. On the new
division of the French territories (1791) Bastia
was made the capital of the department of Cor-
sica, of which at present Ajaccio is the capital.
Bastia is still, however, the commercial and
industrial capital of the island and a United
States consul is stationed here. Pop. (1900)
22,522.

Bastian, Adolf, German traveler and an-
thropologist: b. Bremen, 26 June 1826. He has
made extended journeys throughout Australia,
Asia, America, and West Africa at various peri-
ods of his career, and his explorations have
been prosecuted in such widely sundered coun-
tries as Yucatan, New Zealand, and Persia. At
the age of 70 he started on an exploring voyage
to the Malay Archipelago. He has been pro-
fessor of ethnology in the University of Berlin,
director of the Museum fiir Volkerfunde. and
in 1901 became editor of the 'Ethnographisches
Notizblatt,^ published in Berlin. His nearly 60
works deal with the various aspects of an-
thropology, his range being broad and his
services in behalf of science of the greatest
value. Among his many volumes may be
named ^Der Mensch in der Geschichte' (i860) ;
'Ethnographische Forschungen* (1871-3) ;
'Der Buddhismus in seiner Psychologic*
(1882) ; <Der Fetisch an der Kiiste Guineas'
(1884) ; 'Vorgeschichtliche Schopfungslieder*
(1893) ; ^Die Nikronesischen Kolonien* (1899-
1900) ; 'Die Volkerkunde und der Volker-
werkehr' (1900).

Bastian, Henry Charlton, English physi-
cian and biologist : b. Truro, 26 April 1837.
He obtained the degree of M.A. in 1861 from
the University of London, graduating subse-
quently in medicine at the same university. In
1864-6 he was a medical officer in Broadmoor
Criminal Lunatic Asj'lum, and in the latter year
was appointed lecturer on pathology and as-
sistant phj'sician in St. Mary's Hospital. In
1867 he became professor of pathological ?nat-
omy in University College, and in 1878 he was
also appointed professor of clinical medicine.
In 1887-95 'le was professor of the principles
and practice of medicine. Apart from numer-
ous contributions to medical and other period-
icals, and to Quain's 'Dictionary of Medicine,'
his works include 'The Modes of Origin of
Lowest Organisms' (1871) ; 'The Beginnings
of Life' (1872) ; 'Evolution and the Origin of
Life' (1874) ; 'Lectures on Paralysis from.
Brain Disease' (1875) ; 'The Brain as an Or-
gan of Mind' (1880), which has been trans-
lated into French and German; 'Paralysis:
Cerebral, Bulbar, and Spinal' (1886) ; <A
Treatise on Aphasia and other Speech Defects'
(1898). He is a recognized authority in the
pathology of the nervous system and an ad-
vocate of the doctrine of spontaneous genera-
tion.

Bastiat, Frederic, a distinguished French
political economist : b. Bayonne, 19 June 1801 ;
d. Rome, 24 Dec. 1850. He entered in 1818 the
counting-house of his uncle at Bayonne, but he

BASTIDE

felt no enjoyment in the routine of mercantile
life, and in 1825 retired to a property at Mu-
gron, of which he became possessor on the
death of his grandfather. Thus withdrawn
from society he devoted himself with eagerness
to meditation and study, mastering the English
and Italian languages and literatures, specula-
ting on the problems of philosophy and religion,
and digesting the doctrines of Adam Smith and
Say, of Charles Compte and Dunoyer. In 1845
he came to Paris in order to superintend the
publication of his *Cobden et la Ligue, ou I'agi-
tation Anglaise pour la liberie des echanges,'
and was very cordially received by the econo-
mists of the capital ; from Paris he went to
London and Manchester, and made the personal
acquaintance of Cobden, Bright, and other lead-
ers of the league. When he returned to France
he found that his writings had been exerting
a powerful influence; and in 1846 he assisted in
organizing at Bordeaux the first French Free
Trade Association. He wrote in rapid succes-
sion a series of brilliant and effective pamphlets
and essays, showing how socialism was con-
nected with protection, and exposing the delu-
sions on which it rested. While thus occupied
he was meditating the composition of a great
constructive work, meant to renovate economical
science by basing it on the principle that "inter-
ests left to themselves tend to harmonious com-
binations, and to the progressive preponderance
of the general good.* The first volume of this
work, *Les Harmonies ficonomiques,' was pub-
lished in the beginning of 1850. The life work
of Bastiat, in order to be fairly appreciated, re-
quires to be considered in three aspects, (i)
He was the advocate of free trade, the opponent
of protection. The general theory of free trade
had, of course, been clearly stated and solidly
established before he was born, and his desire
to see its principles acted on in France was
quickened and confirmed by the agitation of the
Anti-Corn-Law League for their realization .in
England, but as no one denies it to h::ve been
a great merit in Cobden to have seen so dis-
tinctly and comprehensively the bearing of
economical truths which he did not discover,
no one should deny it to have been also a
great merit in Bastiat. He did far more than
merely restate the already familiar truths of
free trade. He showed as no one before him
had done how they were applicable in the vari-
ous spheres of French agriculture, trade, and
commerce. Now the abstract theory of free
trade is of comparatively little value ; its elab-
oration so as to cover details, its concrete ap-
plication, and its varied illustration are equally
essential. And in these respects it owes more,
perhaps, to Bastiat than to any other economist.
In the *Sophismes ficonomiques^ we have the
completest and most effective, the wisest and
the wittiest exposure of protectionism in its
principles, reasonings, and consequences which
exists in any language. (2) He was the op-
ponent of socialism. In this respect also he had
no equal among the economists of France. He
alone fought socialism hand to hand, body to
body, as it were, not caricaturing it, not de-
nouncing it, not criticising under its name
some merely abstract theory, but taking it as
actually presented by its most popular repre-
sentatives, considering patiently their proposals
and arguments, and proving conclusively that
they proceed on false principles, reasoned

badly, and sought to realize generous aims by
foolish and harmful means. Nowhere will rea-
son find a richer armory of weapons available
against socialism than in the pamphlets pub-
hshed by Bastiat between 1848 and 1850. These
pamphlets will live, it is to be hoped, at least
as long as the errors which they expose. (3)
He attempted to expound in an original and
independent manner political economy as a
science. In combating first the protectionists
and afterward the socialists, there gradually
rose on his mind a conception which seemed to
him to shed a flood of light over the whole of
economical doctrine, and, indeed, over the whole
theory of society, namely, the harmony of the es-
sential tendencies of human nature. The radi-
cal error, he became always more convinced,
both of protectionism and socialism, was the
assumption that human interests, if left to them-
selves, would inevitably prove antagonistic and
anti-social, capital robbing labor, manufactures
ruining agriculture, the foreigner injuring the
native, the consumer the producer, etc. ; and the
chief weakness of the various schools of po-
litical economy, he believed he had discovered
in their imperfect apprehension of the truth that
human interests, when left to themselves, when
not arbitrarily and forcibly interfered with, tend
to |iarmonious combination, to the general good.
Such was the point of view from which Bas-
tiat sought to expound the whole of economical
science. The sphere of that science he limited
to exchange, and he drew a sharp distinction
between utility and value. Political economy
he defined as the theory of value, and value as
^*the relation of two services exchanged." The
latter definition he deemed of supreme im-
portance. It appeared to him to correct what
was defective or erroneous in the conflicting
definitions of value given by Adam Smith, Say,
Ricardo, Senior, Storch, etc., to preserve and
combine what was true in them, and to afford
a basis for a more consistent and developed
economical theory than had previously been
presented. It has, however, found little accept-
ance, and Roscher, Cairnes, and others seem to
have shown it to be ambiguous and misleading.
A consequence of it on which he laid great
stress was that the gratuitous gifts of nature,
whatever be their utility, are incapable of acquir-
ing value — what is gratuitous for man in an
isolated state remaining gratuitous in a social
condition. Thus, land, according to Bastiat, is
as gratuitous to men at the present day as to
their first parents, the rent which is paid for it, —
its so-called value, — being merely the return
for the labor and capital which have been ex-
pended on its improvement. In the general
opinion of economists he has failed to establish
this doctrine, failed to show that the properties
and forces of nature cannot be so appropriated
as to acquire value. His theory of rent is
nearly the same as Carey's, that is, decidedly
anti-Ricardian. His views on the growth of
capital and interest, on landed property, competi-
tion, consumption, wages, and population, are
independent, and, if not unqualifiedly true, at
least richly suggestive.

Bastide, Jules, French statesman: b. Paris,
21 Nov. 1800; d. 1879. Early a democrat, he
could never cease to labor for the downfall of
the Bourbon monarchy, and fought hard in the
revolution of July 1830. He was also opposed
to I he Orleans monarchy. Condemned to

BASTIEN-LEPAGE — BASTION

death for his share in the insurrection of 5 June
1832, he escaped from prison and fled to Eng-
land, where he resided two years. He returned
in 1834, and was acquitted. After the death of
Armand Carrel he became chief editor of the
National new'spaper. This place he resigned
in 1846 and founded the Revue Nationale in
1847. He rendered great assistance to Lamar-
tine in the office of the ministry of foreign
aflfairs, and was minister for foreign affairs
from 10 May to 20 Dec. 1848. lie retired to
private life after the coup d'etat of 1852. He
was the author of ^La republique frangaise et
ritalie en 1848^ (1858) ; 'Guerres de religion
en France' (1859).

Bastien-Lepage, bast-yen'-le-pazh, Jules,
French painter : b. Damvilliers, i Nov. 1848 ;
d. 10 Dec. 1884. He studied under Cabanel,
and early began to attract notice by his im-
pressionist pictures in the Salon. Some of his
more important works were 'In Spring,' 'The
First Communion,' 'The Shepherds,' 'The
Potato Harvest,' ' The Wheat-field,' 'The
Beggar,' and 'Joan of Arc Listening to the
Voices.' His most striking portraits were
those of his grandfather, his father and mother,
Sarah Bernhardt, Andre Theuriet, and the
Prince of Wales. He was made a chevalier of
the Legion of Honor in 1879. See Theuriet,
<J. Bastien-Lepage, I'homme et I'artist' (1885).

Bastile, the state prison and citadel of
Paris, built to protect the palace of Charles V.
against the incursions of the Burgundians, and
destroyed by the mob in the beginning of the
Revolution in 1789, after an existence of over
four centuries. It was founded by Hugues
d'Aubriot in 1369, and completed by the addi-
tion of four towers in 1383.

Lettres de cachet were issued in the name
of the king, but the names of the individuals
were inserted by the ministers, who were the
depositaries of these letters. Of the origin of
this custom we may perhaps find the explana-
tion in Montesquieu's Esprit des Lois, where
it is said, "Honor is the virtue of monarchies,
and often supplies its place." A nobleman was
unwilling to be dishonored by a member of his
family. Filial disobedience and unworthy con-
duct w-ere probably, not more uncommon among
the nobility of France than elsewhere. But in
such cases fathers and relations often requested
the confinement of the offender until the head of
the family should express a wish for his re-
lease. At first this privilege was limited to the
chief families of the country. The next step
was, that the ministers of government consid-
ered themselves entitled to the same privileges
as heads of families among the nobility. If an
offense was committed in their offices or house-
holds, which, if known, would have cast a
shadow upon the ministers themselves, they
arrested, motu propria, the obnoxious indi-
viduals, and often made use of their privilege
to put out of sight persons whose honest dis-
charge of duty had excited their displeasure,
or who w^ere acquainted with facts disgraceful
to the ministers themselves. It sometimes hap-
pened that no further examination of the pris-
oners was held, and the cause of their detention
nowhere recorded. In such cases an individual
remained in prison sometimes 30 or 40 3'ears,
or even till his death, because succeeding officers
took it for granted that he had been properly

confiiied, or that his imprisonment was re-
quired for reasons of state. The invention of
the lettres de cachet immediately opened the
door to the tyranny of ministers and the in-
trigues of favorites, who supplied themselves
with these orders, in order to confine individuals
who had become obnoxious to them. These
arrests became continually more arbitrary, and
men of the greatest merit were liable to be
thrown into prison whenever they happened to
displease a minister, a favorite, or a mistress.
On 14 July 1789 the Bastile was surrounded
by a tumultuous mob, who first attempted to
negotiate with the governor Delaunay, but when
these negotiations failed, began to attack the
fortress. For several hours the mob continued
their siege without being able to effect any-
thing more than an entrance into the outer
court of the Bastile ; but at last the arrival of
some of the Royal Guard with a few pieces of
artillery forced the governor to let down the
second drawbridge and admit the populace. The
governor was seized, but on the way to the
hotel de ville was torn from his captors and
put to death." The next day the destruction of
the Bastile began, and a bronze column now
marks its site. The event considered by itself
was of no great national importance, but it
marked the beginning of the French revolution.
Much exaggeration took place in relation
to the discoveries said to be made in its demo-
lition, especially those in relation to one Count
de Lorges; but it is sufficiently established that
there was no such person in existence, much
less in the Bastile. No exaggeration, however,
was needed. Seven persons only \vere found
in its cells and dungeons ; one, the Count de
Solage, a prisoner since his nth year; another,
Tavernier, the son of Paris Duverney, who,
after 10 years at the Isles ^Marguerites, had
passed 30 years in the Bastile, and who re-
appeared on his liberation, bewildered, with a
broken intellect, like a man awakened from a
sleep of 40 years, to a new world compared with
that on which he had closed his eyes. Records
of horrors even worse than this were found in-
scribed on the registers of the prison. Two
will suffice. They are the names of Father
Theodore Fleurand, of Brandenburg, a Capu-
chin, retained many years on suspicion of being
a spy ; and of one Lcbar, arrested at 76 and
dead at 90 years. Nearly 50 years before Cag-
liostro scrawled on the walls of his cell: "The
Bastile shall be demolished, and the people shall
dance on the area where it stood." This
prophecy, at least, of the empiric and impostor,
was realized to the letter. It was the Car-
magnole which they danced about the liberty
trees to the tune of the 'Ca Ira.' See Arnold,
'Histoire de la Bastile' (1845-59); Bingham,
'The Bastile' (1888) ; Funck-Brentano, 'The
Bastile' (1900).

Bastinado, a punishment employed by the
Turks, which consists of blows upon the back
or soles of the feet, applied with a light wooden
stick or with a knotted string.

Bastion, a flanking tower in mediaeval
fortification, from which archers and war ma-
chines could direct their projectiles on the
storming enemy while he was held in check by
the ditch. On the introduction of artillery into
Europe towers were made considerably larger
than formerly, and ultimately, in the beginning

BASTON — BAT

of the i6th century, the Italian engineers made
them polygonal instead of round or square, thus
forming a bastion. This is an irregular penta-
gon, one side of which is turned inward toward
the tower, so that the opposite salient angle
faces the open field. The two longer sides, en-
closing the salient angle, are called the faces;
the two shorter ones, connecting them with the
town wall or rampart, are called the flanks.
The faces are destined to reply to the distant
fire of the enemy, the flanks to protect the ditch
by their fire. The first Italian bastions still
showed their descent from the ancient towers.
They kept close to the main walls ; the salient
angle was very obtuse, the faces short, and the
parapet revetted with masonry to the very top.
Bastions are built in very different ways. Some
are entirely filled with earth : some have a void
space inside; some are straight, some curved,
some double, some have even three or four
flanks, one over the other ; some have fausse-
brayes, or low ramparts of earth outside ; some-
times they have casemates, destined for the
retreat of the garrison, or for batteries ; some-
times cavaliers or orillons, etc. In modern
times, among the fortifications built according
to the system of bastions, those on the plan of
Cormontaigne and the modern French works,
are considered best adapted for defense. They
are spacious; the flank of the side bulwark,
which is perpendicular to the prolongation of
the face of the principal bulwark^ is not farther
distant than 300 paces from its point; it is also
straight, and orillons and other artificial con-
trivances are banished.

Baston, Robert, English poet: b. in the
13th century near Nottingham; d. about 1320.
He became prior of a Carmelite convent at
Scarborough, and is said to have accompanied
Edward II. into Scotland, with the view of
celebrating the anticipated victories of his sover-
eign, but having been taken prisoner, was com-
pelled to change his strain, and wrote in honor
of Robert Bruce. Besides poetry he left several
works in Latin, one entitled 'De Variis Mundi
Statibus,^ and another, *^De Sacerdotum Luxu-
riis.^

Bastwick, John, English physician: b.
Writtle in Essex, 1593; d. 1654. He settled at
Colchester, but instead of confining himself to
his profession entered keenly into theological
controversy, and in 1624 procured the publica-
tion in Holland of a treatise which he had writ-
ten, entitled ^Elenchus Religionis Papisticae,^
which, as he declares on the title-page, he
proves it to be neither apostolic nor catholic,
nay, not even Roman. He afterward published
'Flagellum Pontificis et Episcoporum Lati-
alium,^ which acquired some notoriety as a fer-
vid attack on Episcopacy in general, and at-
tracted the attention of the high-commission
court, who called the author before them, and
condemned him to a fine and two years' im-
prisonment. Bastwick became more zealous
than before, however, and published a defense
addressed to the English prelates and a new
"litany,* in which his former offenses were
boldly repeated. A second sentence mercilessly
condemned him to a much heavier fine, to ex-
posure on the pillory, the loss of his ears, and
imprisonment for life. The ascendency of the
Parliament in 1640 procured his freedom ; the
sentence was formally repealed, and the amount

of the fines imposed on him was afterward re-
funded. He appears to have been a stanch
Presbyterian, for in 1648 we find him attacking
the Independents.

Basutoland, an English crown colony of
South Africa, lying to the east of the Orange
River Colony, and on the northeast of Cape
Colony. The Basutos belong chiefly to the
great stem of the Bechuanas, out of one of the
chief branches of whom, along with the sur-
vivors of various other Caffre tribes, they have
arisen. Their countenance is better formed
than that of the negroes, although they have the
flat nose, protruding lips, and woolly hair of the
latter. Their figure is slender and well-propor-
tioned, the color of their skin a very ,dark
brown, and their disposition cheerful, mild, and
pacific. Their land, called by themselves Le-
suto, is very fertile, and is cultivated with great
industry ; but its fertility has long exposed them
to the encroachments of their neighbors. Un-
der their chief Moshesh, who died in 1869, they
were raised from a state of utter barbarism to
a certain degree of civilization, and the land
was thrown open to mission^jies. Being ex-
posed, however, to constant attacks of their
warlike neighbors, Moshesh was at last induced
to request the English government to adopt
them as subjects. This was acceded to, and in
1868 Basutoland was declared English territory,
being annexed to Cape Colony in 1871. In
1884, however, Basutoland was placed under the
direct authority of the home government. It
has an area of about 10,300 square miles, and
the exports, which consist chiefly of grain, cat-
tle, and wool, in 1900 amounted to $669,320.
Pop. (estimated) about 260.000. See Widdi-
combe, "^ Fourteen Years in Basutoland' (1892) ;
Barkley, ^ Among Boers and Basutos' (1900) ;
Bryce, ^Impressions of South Africa (1899).

Bat, one of a group (order Cheiroptera) of
small mammals adapted to life in the air by
the possession of wings formed of a membrane
stretched between the greatly prolonged bones
of the arm and hand. The general organiza-
tion of bats allies them to the Insectivora. The
bones of the spine, hinder limbs, and tail are of
a normal character : the chest is much enlarged
to admit of the increased size of the lungs and
heart, necessary to the relatively violent exer-
tion necessary to flight, the breast bone is keeled
as in birds, and the muscles of the fore limbs
are much enlarged. The fore limbs themselves
consist of the normal number and arrangement
of bones, but all are greatly elongated, especially
those of the fingers, which are so lengthened
out as often to be equal to the total length
of the spine. The thumb, however, is compara-
tively small, stands at right angles to the other
bones, and terminates in a strong claw of great
service in clinging to supports. The whole ex-
tent of the arm and hand in the bats is in-
closed within a membrane which consists of
leathery skin, more or less furry tipon the out-
side, which stretches between the fingers, arm
bones and body, forming an extensible mem-
brane, or parachute, and constituting an effec-
tive instrument of flight. In some bats a similar
membrane (which is only an extension of the
skin and is of double thickness) stretches from
the heel of each hind foot, where it is supported
by a bony spur, to the tip of the tail, but in
many bats the tail is free from any such mem-

BATS.

X. Flap-nose Bat (Rhinopoma microphyllum). 3- Water Bat (Vespertilio daubcntonii) _

2. Pigmy Bat (Vesperugo pipistrellus) (natural sl.e). 4. Horse-shoe Nose Dat (Rh.nolophus ferrum-equinum).

BAT-PARASITES

brane. The tail is very variable in length, but
is never prehensile nor bushy. The hinder limbs
of bats are peculiar in being twisted in such
a way that the knee bends backward, making
walking very difficult.

The membranous wings of the bat are not
only an organ of flight, enabling it to perform
feats in the air probably not exceeded by any
bird or insect, but are also a means of informmg
the creature as to its surroundings. Bats are
mainly nocturnal and their eyes, though highly
organized, are very small, imbedded in fur and
comparatively useless in the dark, yet no animal
seems more thoroughly wide awake and able
to take care of itself, even in almost complete
darkness, than this one, which habitually lives
m gloomy caves and seeks its food only after
daylight has departed. The ability which it dis-
plays in catching its prey by extraordinary
agility in pursuit, and in avoiding obstacles as it
darts about among the trees, seem to be due
largely to an extreme sensitiveness in the wings.
These are not only supplied with a great num-
ber of blood vessels and nerves, but their sur-
faces abound in minute sense-organs, each the
terminus of a nerve fibrilla. This armature has
evidently arisen as an added means of informa-
tion, giving the animal a sense of touch more
exquisite than we know of elsewhere in the
animal kingdom. The well-known experiments
of the Italian Spallanzani toward the end of the
i8th century, which have been verified by more
recent investigations, make it plain that bats
depend very largely upon these sense-organs in
their wings to guide them in their devious flight
through the darkness. It w"as found that bats
whose eyes were sealed up with varnish, or even
completely destroj^ed, made their \vay with ap-
parent ease not only through dark rooms, but in
places where strings had been stretched across
the path m various directions, and other obsta-
cles had to be avoided. These blinded bats
never collided with such obstructions, but
seemed able to approach a wall at ease, alight
upon a pel :h, or even find a small cavity with-
out apparently searching for it.

For a similar purpose of information many
bats are furnished with extraordinary mem-
branous appendages upon the nostrils and ears,
which give to some of them the most grotesque
appearance. In the large fruit-eating fox-
headed bats of the East Indies, which are more
nearly diurnal than any others, the ears are of
no great size, and the nose is defended only
by long hairs about the nostrils and eyelids ;
but in all the smaller, insect-eating, nocturnal
bats, there arise upon the nostrils leaf-like ap-
pendages, sometimes very large and complicated,
which resemble the leathery substance of the
wings, and in such species, the ears are often
several times larger in area than all the rest of
the face. These great ears must not only collect
sounds far too faint for us to hear, but their
membranes are as nervous and sensitive as
those of the wings, probablj"- being able to feel
degrees of density in the air entirely imper-
ceptible to most other creatures.

Bats are divisible into two groups or sub-
orders, the Megachiroptcra, and the Microchi-
roptera. The first group contains the fruit-eating
tats whose large size, reddish fur, and fox-like
head have given them the name of flying foxes
(q.v.). Their chief distinguishing feature, how-
ever, is the fact that the molar teeth are not

tubercular but are marked with a longitudinal
furrow. They live mainly upon fruit and are
confined to the tropics of the Old World, and
are all included in a single family, Pteropodidcs.
Ihe Microchiroptera have molars with sharp
cusps adapted to cutting and crushing the in-
sects upon which they mainly subsist. This
group includes all of the ordinary bats, of which
those most familiar in North America and
Europe belong to the large and typical family
l'cspcrtiliouida\o{ which nearly 200 species are
named. Among the most numerous and wide-
spread of the North American bats, are the large
hoary bat {Lasiurus cinereus) of the north
eastern States: but it keeps to the woods and
is not often seen; it migrates to the southern
States in winter. It is about 5.50 inches long
Another common bat of the woods is the
smaller, silver-haired (Lasiouycteriis uoctiva-
gans.) The red bat (length 4.40 inches) is
numerous in the Alleghanian region, inhabiting
caves in great companies; but the "common"
bat of the whole country east of the Rockies, is
the little, glossy, brown familiar of our homes
and gardens, as well as of the woods, which
remains with us the year around, hibernating
during cold weather in the hollow trees,
caves, and crevices about buildings, where they
rnake their home, and whence they emerge at
night, to seek their prey about our farmyards
and gardens. As the insects caught are mainly
mosquitos and similar pests, and as they do no
harm, they should be encouraged, rather than
feared and persecuted. **A\vake at the most,"
says Cram, "some four out of every 24 hours
of their drowsy little lives, they never make any
nests or even attempt to fi.K over the crannies
where they hide, and where the little bats are
born. These helpless little things are not left
at home at the mercy of foraging rats and
mice. When the old bat flits off into the twi-
light, the youngsters often go with her, clinging
about her neck. ... At times, she deposits them
on the branch of a tree, where they hang, shel-
tered by the leaves.*

The lower Mississippi Valley has a yellowish
bat, called "big-eared" (Coryiwrhinus macrotis)
which differs from the others in that its great
ears are joined together by their bases in front.

For a systematic account of the bats of the
world consult Dobson, ^Catalogue of Chirop-
tera in the British Museum' (1878), and his
subsequent papers, mentioned in Flower's
< Mammalia' (1891). For North Americaii
forms consult H. Allen, ^Bats of North America'
(Smithsonian Institution, Washington, 1893).
For habits, etc., see the writings of Harlan, Au-
dubon, Baird, Godman, E. A. Mearns, C. L.
Herrick, G. S. Miller, and especially C. H. Mer-
riam, 'Mammals of the Adirondacks' (Linnsan
Society, New York, 1893) ; Stone and Cram,
'American Animals' (1902) ; Gosse, 'A Nat-
uralist's Sojourn in Jamaica' (1851). See also
Fox-b.\t; Fruit-b.\t; Le.\f-nosed B.\ts; V.\m-
piRE, and similar titles.

Bat-parasites. Besides bugs (see Bed-bi'g)
certain very strangely modified wingless flies
are in rare cases found living on bats in Africa
and the East Indies. They are somewhat spider
like, wMth a narrow ej'eless head, though four
ocelli are present in some species, which rests
on the back of the thorax, while the legs are
large, long, and sprawling, ending _ in large
claws. They are only a line or two in length.

BATABANO — BATAVI

The larva is, like that of the sheep-tick (q.v.)
and horse-fly iHippobosca), very peculiar, the
maggot being probably nourished in the dilated
oviduct of the fly, then attaining its full growth,
when it is expelled in the shape of a broad,
short puparium, the skin being hardened by the
excretion of chitin.

Batabano, ba-ta-ba-no', Cuba, a town in
the province of Havana near the south coast,
37 miles from Havana, by rail. San Cristobal
de la Habana was founded on the site of the
inodern Batabano by Diego Velasquez in 15 14.
Pop. (1899) 1,025.

Batac, ba-tak', or Batag, Philippines, an
island about one and a half miles off the north-
east coast of Samar, the most northerly of that
portion of the Philippine islands which goes
under the designation of Visaya, or Bisaya.
Area 18 square miles.

Batac, or Batag, Philippines, a town of
Luzon in the province of Ilcos Norte, founded
in 1587. It is situated 10 miles south of Laoag.
Pop. (1898) 17,625.

Batak, ba'tak, Bulgaria, a district and
town southwest of Philippopolis. The region
became prominent in European history in the
time of the Bulgarian insurrection against Tur-
key in 1876. In May of that year the villagers
of Batak were preparing to take part in the
insurrection, when the place was attacked by
a force of Bashi-Bazouks under the command
of Achmet Agha of Dopat. After a short
struggle, the village was surrendered and the
inhabitants gave up their weapons, on the as-
surance of the Turkish commander that "not
a hair of their heads should be touched.^' On
•9 May 1876 the Turks began one of the most
cruel massacres recorded in history ; the inhab-
itants of the unfortunate village were butchered
and those who took refuge in the church were
l)urned to death by the Turkish soldiers. Mr.
Baring, the English commissioner, visiting the
place two months later, found but one survivor,
an old woman. The Turkish government re-
warded Achmet with a decoration of honor.
The news of the massacre at Batak and of other
^Bulgarian atrocities,'' aroused all Europe and
furnished Russia with an excellent pretext for
declaring war against Turkey in 1877. See
also Bulgaria ; San Stefano, Treaty of ; Tur-
key.

Bataleur, ba-ta-ler', a large, voluminously
crested eagle of Africa, named Hclofarsns
ecaudatiis with reference to the unusual short-
ness of its tail. It has the handsomest plumage
of all the eagles, presenting bold contrasts of
rich maroon, black, and gray, with bronzy re-
flections from the wings. It feeds mainly on
hzards and snakes, attacking the latter, even
when venomous, by blows of its powerful beak.
Its breeding season, which is at the commence-
ment of the hot weather when other birds are
busy at other things, seems to be placed with
reference to the greater ease with which snakes
can then be captured, when the grass dies down
or burns off, exposing them to view.

Batalha, ba-tal'ya, a village in Portugal,
69 miles north of Lisbon, famed for its Domini-
can convent, founded by King John I., in com-
memoration of a victory over the king of Castile
in the year_ 1385. This convent is one of the
most splendid buildings in Europe and is 576 feet

long and 443 wide. Its church, in which lie the
remains of the founder and the foUowmg three
kings of the house of Aviz, as well as those of
Prince Henry the Navigator, is a beautiful
edifice, adorned with many art treasures.

Batan, ba'tan, Philippines, a province of
the island of Luzon, forming the peninsula be-
tween the bay of Manila and the China Sea ;
area, 450 square miles ; chief town, Bolanga. It
is noted for many excellent varieties of marble,
which are extens~ively used in the churches and
public buildings of Manila and other towns of
the Philippines. The inhabitants of the towns
and coasts of this province are of the Tagalog
race, but, besides these, the mountain fastnesses
are inhabited by numerous tribes of Negritos.

Batan, Philippines, a town on the island
of Panay, in the province of Capiz, 31 miles from
Capiz. Pop. (1898) 12,908.

Batan, or Bashi Islands, a group of small
islands in the Chinese Sea, discovered by Dam-
pier in 1687, and now forming a dependency of
the Philippines, north of which they are situ-
ated, midway between Luzon and Formosa.
American control was established over these
islands in March 1900, with Teofilo Costillejo
as first governor. The Batans are bounded on
the north by Bashi Channel, which divides the
Philippines from the Japanese insular territory,
and have an area of 125 square miles and a
population estimated at 9,500. The principal
islands in the group are Itbayal, Basa^, Saptan,
and Hujos. Santo Domingo de Basco, the prin-
cipal town and port, is about 500 miles from
Manila, and has a population of about 3,000.
The other large towns are San Bartolome de
Calayan, San Carlos de Marigatao, San Jose de
Ibana, Santa Maria de Maj'an, and San Vicente
de Saptan. Under Spanish rule Santo Domingo
was the residence of a political military gov-
ernor, a judge and an attorney-general.

Batangas, ba-tan'gas, Philippines, a town
on the island of Luzon, 58 miles south of
Manila. It was founded in 1581, and it situated
on the large bay of Batangas, opening into the
Strait of Mindoro. It is well-built, containing
several spacious streets, in which are many
elegant mansions. The city has an excellent
harbor, and prior to the war between the United
States and Spain was the seat of a large com-
merce. The province is one of the richest sugar
growing districts in the Philippines; but the
industry is far inferior to its possibilities owing
to the lack of proper machinery and modern
methods of treatment. It is also notable for
its large prodiiction of cocoanut oil, the larger
part of which is used for domestic purposes,
chiefly lamp _ oil and lubricating machinery.
Such of it as is exported to Europe, after being
solidified, is manufactured into soap and candles.
Pop. 39.358.

Batatas, ba-ta'tas. See Sweet Potato.

Bata'vi, an old German nation which in-
habited a part of the present Holland, especially
the island called Batavia, formed by that branch
of the Rhine which empties itself into the sea
near Leyden, together with the Waal and the
Meuse. Their territories, however, extended
much beyond the Waal. Their bravery was
commended by Tacitus. According to him, they
w-ere originally the same as the Catti, a German
tribe which had emigrated from their country on

BATAVIA — BATCHELLER

account of domestic troubles. This must have
happened before the time of Caesar. When Ger-
manicus was about to invade Germany from
the sea, he made their island the rendezvous
of his fleet. Being subjected by the Romans,
they served them with such courage and fidehty
as to obtain the title of their friends and breth-
ren. They were exempted from tributes and
taxes, and permitted to choose their leaders
among themselves. Their cavalry was particu-
larly excejient. During the reign of Vespasian
they revolted, under the command of Civilis,
from the Romans, and extorted from them
favorable terms of peace. Trajan and Adrian
subjected them again. At the end of the 3rd
century the Salian Franks obtained possession
of the island of Batavia. See Batavian Re-
public.

Bata'via, properly the name of the island
occupied by the ancient Batavi, became at a
later date the Latin name for Holland and
the whole kingdom of the Netherlands. The
name Batavian Republic (q.v.) was given to the
Netherlands on their new organization. 16 May
1795, and they continued to bear it till the es-
tablishment of the kingdom of Holland, under
Louis Bonaparte, 8 June 1806.

Batavia, Java, a city and seaport on the
north coast of the island, near the west end, and
the capital of all the Dutch East Indies; Ion.
106° 50' E. ; lat. 6° 8' S. It is situated on a
wide, deep bay, in which are interspersed many
low, green islets, within which ships find safe
anchorage, the roadstead being sheltered from
the northwest monsoon. The largest of these
islets is Onrust, at which all ships above 300
tons burden have to anchor. The town consists
of two portions. The old is situated in a low,
marshy plain near the sea, and intersected by
the Great River and sundry canals, is exceed-
ingly unhealthy, and subject to an intermittent
fever, very fatal to strangers. Much has been
done, however, to diminish the unhealthiness by
draining the marshes, and letting currents of
water into the stagnant canals. The old is still
the business quarter and contains the principal
warehouses and offices of the Europeans, the
Java Bank, and the exchange. On the west side
of the Great River is the Chinese quarter, inhab-
ited entirely by Chinese. Batavia is the chief
mart among the islands of the Asiatic Archipel-
ago for the products of the Eastern seas and the
manufactures of the West, and its commerce is
correspondingly important. Batavia was founded
by the Dutch in 1619, and attained its greatest
prosperity in the beginning of the i8th century,
when it had about 150,000 inhabitants. 1 he most
important edifices are the Stadt-house, Calvin-
istic, Lutheran, and Portuguese churches, some
Mohammedan mosques and Chinese temples.
Pop. (1900) 115,567. The inhabitants are chiefly
of Malay extraction, with a considerable admix-
ture of Chinese, and a small number of Euro-
peans (Dutch, English, and Portuguese). A
United States consul resides here. See Java.

Batavia, 111., a town in Kane County, on
the Fox River, and on the Chicago & N. W. and
Chicago, B. & Q. R.R.'s ; 2,7 miles west of Chi-
cago. Here is the State Asylum for the Insane,
and 9 churches, public schools and public library.
Among the industries are stone quarries, farm
implement works, and wagon factories. Batavia

was settled in 1834 and incorporated in 1856.
Pop. (1900) 3,871.

Batavia, N. Y., a town and county-seat
of Genesee County, on Tonawanda Creek and
several railroads ; n miles east of Buffalo and
32 miles west of Rochester; on the New York
C. & H. R., the Lehigh Valley, and Lake Erie &
W. R.R.'s. It is in an agricultural region; has
manufactories of plows and harvesters, carriage
wheels, and shoes, and contains the State insti-
tution for the Blind, the Dean Richmond Me-
morial Library, national banks, daily and weekly
newspapers. Batavia was the home of William
Morgan, made famous through the Anti-Ma-
sonic excitement in 1826. Pop. (igoo) 9,180.

Batavian Republic, the name adopted by
the Seven United Provinces of the Netherlands
soon after the French Revolution, and acknow-
ledged hy the powers of Europe. The whole
republic was declared one and indivisible; all
members of society were declared equal in the
eye of the law, without respect to rank or birth ;
all religious societies, acknowledging a Supreme
Being, equally protected by law. Feudality was
abolished, all fiefs declared allodial, and posses-
sors 9f lordships to be indemnified. In 1806
the form of government was changed into that
of a kingdom, under the name of Holland ; and
the Batavian republic fell nominally under the
sway of Louis Bonaparte as its sovereign, but
really under that of his brother Napoleon. See
Netherlaxds.

Batbie, ba-be, Anselme Polycarpe, French
jurist and politician: b. Seissan, 31 May 1828;
d. Paris, 30 June 1887. He first belonged to the
faculties of law at Dijon and Toulouse, but. in
1862, he became professor of constitutional law
at Paris. Elected to the National Assembly
(February 1871), he became one of the leaders
of the Monarchist party. In Broglie's reaction-
ary cabinet (1873) he was made minister of
public instruction. After 1876 he was a mem-
ber of the Senate. He wrote 'Turgot, Philos-
opher, Economist, and Administrator* (i860) ;
^Course of Political Economy' (1864); ^New
Course of Political Economy* (1865) ; 'The
Public Credit* (1865) ; 'Summary of the Course
of Public and Administrative Law* (1885), and
'Theoretical and Practical Treatise on Public
and Administrative Law* (1885).

Batchelder, Richard Napoleon, American
military officer: b. Lake \'illage, N. H.. 27 July
1832. He entered the Union army at the begin-
ning of the Civil War : and was brevetted
brigadier-general. United States Volunteers.
13 March 1865 ; became brigadier-general and
quartermaster-general, L'nited States .\rmy, 26
June 1890; and was retired 27 July 1896. He
was awarded a Congressional medal of honor
for most distinguished gallantry in action during
the Civil War.

Batcheller, George Sherman, .American
jurist: b. Batchcllcrville, N. Y., 25 July 1837.
He was admitted to the bar in 1858; entered
the Union army at the beginning of the Civil
War; w-as taken prisoner at Harper's Ferry, and
exchanged in 1863 ; was then appointed deputy
provost-marshal-general of the Department of
the South ; and. in 1865-70 was inspector-gen-
eral on the staff of Governor Fenton of New
York. In 1883 he became president of the Inter-
national Tribunal of Egypt; in 1889, assistant
secretary of the Unitec! States Treasury; in i8go.

BATCHELOR — BATES

United States minister-resident and consul-gen-
eral to Portugal; and in 1897, again a member
of the International Tribunal of Egypt. In the
last-named year he received from King Humbert
the decoration of the great cordon of the Order
of the Crown of Italy, in recognition of Lis
services as president of the Universal Postal
Congress which met in Washington in ]May
1897.

Batchelor, George, American Unitarian
clergyman : b. Southbury, Conn., 1836. He \yas
secretary of the American Unitarian Association
1893-7, and has since been editor of the ^Chris-
tian Register.' published in Boston. He has
also been secretary of the National Unitarian
Conference 1870-80, and its chairrnan 1893-4.
He is the author of ^Social Equilibrium.'

Batchian, bat-shyan', or Batian, one of the
Moluccas, west of the southern peninsula of the
large island of Halmahera or Gilolo. Area, 835
square miles; pop. about 11,000. It belongs to
the Dutch residency of Ternate, consists of two
peninsulas joined by a narrow isthmus, and has
many mountains. Batchian produces gold, cop-
per, much coal, sago, cocoanut trees, rice, cloves,
and fine timber.

Bate, William Brimage, American legis-
lator : b. near Castalian Springs, Tenn., 7 Oct.
1826 ; d. Washington, D. C, 9 March 1905. He
served as a volunteer through the Mexican war ;
was graduated at the Lebanon Law School in
1852 ; elected attornej'-general of the Nashville
district in 1854 ; and was presidential elector
in i860. In the Civil War he rose from private
to the rank of major-general in the Confederate
army, and was three times dangerously wounded.
He was an elector-at-large for Tennessee on the
Democratic ticket in 1876 ; was elected governor
in 1882 and 1884 ; and a United States senator
in 1887, 1893, and 1899.

Bateman, Kate Josephine, American ac-
■tress: b. Baltimore, Aid., 7 Oct. 1842. About
1851 she and her sister Ellen began to act,
being known as the Bateman Sisters. Kate be-
gan, in 1861, to play Juliet, Pauline, etc., but
was especially successful in Leah. She became
rich and famous, and, having married George
Crowe, an English physician, identified herself
with the management of a London theatre.

Bateman, Newton, American educator: b.
Fairfield, N. J., -z"] July 1822; d. Galesburg,
111., 21 Oct. 1897. He graduated from Illinois
College, 1843, and studied at Lane Theological
Seminary, but began to teach instead of entering
the ministry. He was professor of mathematics
at St. Charles College, 1847-51 ; State superin-
tendent of public instruction, 1858-63 ; member
of the State board of health, 1877-97 ; and presi-
dent of Knox College, 1875-92, when ill-health
caused his retirement. His official reports are
of high value in educational literature, and much
of the excellence of the Illinois school laws is
due to his widom and foresight. He published
< School Laws of Illinois' (1865 ; 12th ed. 1866) ;
'School Laws and Common School Decisions of
the State of Illinois' ; revised by W. L. Pills-
bury (1888).

Bates, Alfred E., American military offi-
cer: b. Monroe. Mich., 15 July 1840. He gradu-
ated at the United States Military Academy in
1865 ; commissioned a second lieutenant in the
2nd Cavalry : promoted to first lieutenant, 19

Oct. 1865 ; transferred to pay department with
the rank of lieutenant-colonel, 7 Jan. 1897 ; pro-
moted colonel and assistant paymaster-general,
31 March 1899; and brigadier-general and pay-
master-general, 12 July following. He served
for several years as military attache to the
United States Embassy in London, and was a
brigadier-general of volunteers in the war with
Spain in 1898.

Bates, Arlo, American author: b. East
Machias, Me., 16 Dec. 1850. He graduated from
Bowdoin in 1876, when he engaged in literary
work in Boston, editing the Sunday Courier,
1880^3 ; and afterward became professor of
English Literature in the Massachusetts Institute
of Technology. He is author of poems and
novels, including *^The Pagans' (New York
1884) ; <A Lad's Love' ; <The Wheel of Fire'
(1885); 'The Philistines' (1888); 'Berries of
the Brier' (1886), poems; 'Told in the Gate'
(1892) ; 'Talks on Writing English' ; 'Talks on
the Study of Literature' (1897) ; 'The Puri-
tans' (1899) ; 'Under the Beech Tree' (1899) ;
'Diary of a Saint' (1902).

Bates, Barnabas, American clergyman; an
active promoter of cheap postage in the United
States: b. Edmonton, England, 1785; d. Boston,
Mass., II Oct. 1853. He came to America at
an early age, became a Baptist preacher in
Rhode Island, and was, for a time, collector of
the port of Bristol. In 1825, having become a
Unitarian, he established a weekly journal in
New York, called the Cliristian Inquirer.
During Jackson's administration he received an
appointment under Samuel Gouverneur, post-
master of New York, and for some time per-
formed the duties of postmaster himself. The
information gained in this capacity, first inter-
ested him in the question of cheap postage. He
investigated the subject for years, wrote, pub-
lished pamphlets, and lectured throughout the
country, and finally effected a material reduction
in the rates of land postage. He was endeavor-
ing to obtain a corresponding reform in ocean
postage at the time of his death.

Bates, Blanche, American actress: b. Port-
land, Oregon, 1873. She made her first appear-
ance in 1894 in San Francisco, taking a part
in Brander Matthews' one-act play 'This Pic-
ture and That.' Her first success was as Mrs.
Hillary in 'The Senator,' and she has played
the leading comedy roles in 'The Last Word,'
'The Railroad of Love,' 'Transit of Leo,' and
'The International Match.' Her acting of Nora
in 'A Doll's House' (the first Ibsen play pre-
sented on the Pacific coast) was a distinct artis-
tic triumph. She has also taken leading parts
in 'The Charity Ball,' 'Sweet Lavender,' 'The
Dancing Girl,' and others. Her phenomenal
success in 'The Great Ruby' (1899) ; as Miladi
in 'The Three Musketeers' (1899) ; and in Long
and Belasco's 'Darling of the Gods' (1902-3),
has given her a place of assured prominence on
the American stage. See Strang, 'Famous Ac-
tresses of the Day' (1899).

Bates, Charlotte Fiske, American poet and
miscellaneous prose-writer: b. New York, 30
Nov. 1838. She was educated in Cambridge,
Mass.; assisted Longfellow in compiling 'Poems
of Places' ; edited the 'Cambridge Book of
Poetry and Song' (Boston, 1882;); 'The Long-
fellow Birthday Book' ; and 'Seven Voices of
Sympathy' ; has contributed to magazines ; and

BATES — BATESVILLE

has puDlished 'Risk and Other Poems^ (1879).
She was married in 1891 to Adolphe Roge.

Bates, Clara (Doty), American author: b.
Ann Arbor, Mich., 1838; d. 1895. She lived
in Chicago and pubHshed many juvenile books;
also *From Heart's Content' (1892).

Bates, David, American poet : b. 1810,
d. Philadelphia, 25 Jan. 1870. He was the
author of the well-known poem 'Speak Gently.'
In 1848 his poems were published under the
title, <The Eolian.>

Bates, Edward, American lawyer : b. Bel-
mont, Va., 4 Sept. 1793 ; d. 25 March 1869.
Having settled in Missouri, he served in the
legislature and constitutional convention, and in
Congress in 1827-9. He was attorney-general
of the United States in Lincoln's first adminis-
tration ; and had been a candidate for the presi-
dential nomination in i860.

Bates, Harriet Leonora (Vose), better
known as Eleanor Putnam, American story
writer, wife of Arlo Bates: b. 1856; d. 1886. She
wrote 'A Woodland Wooing' ; 'Old Salem'

(1886) ; with her husband, 'Prince Vance,' etc.
Bates, John Coalter, American military

officer: b. St. Charles County, Mo., 26 Aug.
1842. He entered the regular army as a lieu-
tenant in the nth United States infantry, 14
May 1861 ; served on the staff of General
Meade from the battle of Gettysburg to the
close of the war. On 4 May 1898 he was ap-
pointed a brigadier-general of volunteers ; on
8 July was promoted to major-general for his
services in the Santiago campaign. In February
1899 he was appointed military governor of the
province of Santa Clara, Cuba, and in April fol-
lowing, was ordered to duty in the Philippines.
In March 1900 he was assigned to the command
of the department of southern Luzon, and for
liis eminent services there and on the Sulu group
was promoted major-general, 9 June 1902.

Bates, Joshua, American financier : b. Wey-
mouth, Mass., 1788; d. 24 Sept. 1864. In 1828 he
became a member of the house of Baring
Brothers & Company, in London, and subsequent-
ly its senior partner. In 1854 he was appointed
umpire to the joint British and American Com-
mission for the settlement of claims arising
from the War of 1812. He was the principal
founder of the Boston Public Library, and in
1852, the first year of its existence, he made
it a gift of $50,000, and later gave it 30,000
volumes. Its main reading room is named
''Bates Hall" in his honor.

Bates, Katharine Lee, American story
writer, poet, and educator : b. Falmouth, Mass.,
12 Aug. 1859. She was called to the chair of
English literature in Wellesley College in 1891 ;
and has edited collections of ballads, etc. ; and
written juvenile stories, including 'Rose and
Thorn' (1889); also 'The English Religious
Drama' (1893) ; and 'The College Beautiful

(1887) ; 'History of American Literature'
^1898); 'Spanish Highways and Byways' (1900).

Bates, Samuel Penniman, American histo-
rian : b. Mendon, Mass., 29 Jan. 1827. He has
been principal of Meadville Academy, Pa. : su-
perintendent of schools in Crawford County,
Pa., 1857-60; deputy state superintendent of
schools, 1860-6; and State historian. 1866-73.
Among his publications are the 'Lives of the
Governors of Pennsylvania' (1873); 'Lectures

on Mental and Moral Culture' (1859) ; 'History
of the Battle of Gettysburg' (1878); 'History
of , the Battle of Chancellorsville' (1882).

Bate's Case, an English historical incident
of much significance as marking the opening of
the struggle of Parliament with the Stuart
kings. John Bate, a London merchant, having
refused to pay certain duties levied without
consent of Parliament, was sent to prison by
the royal officers. The Commons supported
Bate, but the king's authority to levy imposi-
tions on exports and imports was sustained by
the Court of Exchequer.

Bates College, Lewiston, Me., was opened in
1863 and chartered in 1864. It grew out of
Maine State Seminary, a secondary school
opened in 1857. The college was founded by its
first president. Rev. Oren Burbank Cheney, D.D.
(1863-94), and bears the name of its chief
benefactor, Benjamin Edward Bates, a merchant
of Boston, and one of the founders of the city
of Lewiston. Bates was the first eastern college
to afford collegiate education to women, and her
first woman graduate (1869) became a professor
in Vassar College. Established in the interest
of the Free Baptist denomination, she has been
notably free from sectarianism — her faculty
having been drawn from seven religious denomi-
nations and her students representing Protes-
tants, Catholics, and Hebrews. Bates places
primary stress upon character, does not tolerate
hazing and makes abstinence from intoxicating
drinks a condition of student membership. Her
courses of instruction cover the range of under-
graduate studies as pursued in progressive col-
leges of to-day. The unusual excellence of her
courses in English, including argumentation, is
indicated by her eleven victories in twelve inter-
collegiate debates held with five colleges and
universities. To these results her three flourish-
ing literary societies are believed to have con-
tributed. Alone among New England colleges.
Bates has no secret fraternities. She has chemi-
cal, physical, and biological laboratories, libra-
ries containing 28,000 volumes, and a spacious
athletic field. Her campus of 50 acres is of rare
natural beauty, and with her nine buildings, has
a value of $350,000. Her invested funds amount
to upwards of $400,000. Of her 1097 graduates
475 have become educators, 60 of them teachers
in colleges and vmiversities. For the last 15
years the number of her graduates at the head
of city high schools in New England is believed
to have exceeded those of any other college.
Bates has 71 scholarships, affording free tui-
tion to their recipients, and she so shapes her
entire policy as to help students of small means
to meet their own expenses. The college has
22 officers and instructors, and 353 students —
an increase of more than too per cent, during
the last decade. Cobb Divinity School is a
department of Bates College, having its own
building, faculty, and administration.

George C. Chase, President.

Batesville, Ark., a town and county-seat of
Independence County : situated on the White
River and on a branch of the St. Louis, I. M. &
S. R.R. It is the seat of Arkansas College, a
Presbyterian institution. The river is navigable
for steamboats to this point and the LTniced
States government is providing a sj'Stem of
locks and dams to insure navigation for 100
miles above the town. It contains immense

BATFISH — BATH AND BATHING

quarries of marble and other stone, and there
are woolen mills, flouring mills, furniture fac-
tories, etc. Pop. (1900) 2,2,27.

Batfish, a sea-fish (Malthe vespertilio) of
low organization, constituting the family Mal-
theida, allied to the goosefishes {LophiidcE),
which creeps about the bottom like a huge
toad and feeds upon whatever comes w^ithin
its reach. It is numerous in all warm seas, and
some related forms inhabit the deeper parts of
the ocean. See Goosefish.

Bath, England, a citj' in Somersetshire,
107 miles west of London. It is beautifully
situated on the Avon, in a narrow valley
bounded on the northeast and southwest by
hills, and widening on the northwest into rich
and extensive meadows. The Avon is navigable
from Bath to Bristol. Bath is noted for its
places of amusement, its fine streets, and
the magnificence of its public buildings. The
houses are of superior construction, built of
freestone, obtained from the hills about the town.
The Abbey Church ranks as one of the finest
specimens of perpendicular Gothic architecture.
Bath is remarkable for its medicinal waters,
the four principal springs yielding no less than
184,000 gallons of water a day ; and the baths
are both elegant and commodious. The tem-
perature of the springs varies from 109° to
117° F. They contain carbonic acid, chloride
of sodium and of magnesium, sulphate of soda,
carbonate and sulphate of lime, etc. Bath was
founded by the Romans, and called by them
Aquw Soils (waters of the sun). Among the
Roman remains discovered here have been
some fine baths. The height of its prosperity
was reached, however, in the i8th century,
when Beau Nash was leader of the fashion
and master of its ceremonies. Since then,
although it still attracts large numbers of visit-
ors, it has become the resort of valetudinarians
chiefly. Jointly with Wells it is the head of
a diocese, and returns two members to the
House of Commons. Pop. (1901) 49,817.

Bath, Me., city, port of entry, and county-
seat of Sagadahoc County, on the Kennebec
River, and the Maine C. R.R. ; 12 miles from
the ocean and 30 miles south of Augusta and 36
miles northeast of Portland. It is admirably
situated as a commercial port ; has regular
steamboat connections with Boston and Port-
land ; is principal!}' engaged in shipbuilding, both
wood and iron ; and has manufactories of brass
and iron goods, oil cloth, shoes, and lumber.
The Bath Iron Works have built the gun-boats
Machias and Castine, the ram Katahdin, and
several of the modern torpedo boats for the
United States navy. Bath has a large coastwise
and foreign trade in ice, coal, lumber, hay, iron,
and steel ; and contains four national banks, pub-
lic library, a costly system of waterworks, and
property valued at $7,000,000. Pop. (1900)
10,477.

Bath, N. Y., town and county-seat of
Steuben County, on the Cohocton Creek, 36 miles
west of Elmira, on the Buffalo branch of the
Erie, and the Delaware, L. & W. R.R.'s. It is
the seat of the New York State Soldiers and
Sailors' Home, the Davenport Home for Or-
phan Girls, and Haverling Academy; is prin-
cipally engaged in agriculture ; and has manu-

factories of shoes, sash and blinds, harness,
etc. It is governed by a mayor, annually
elected, and a town council. Pop. (1900) 4,994-

Bath and Bathing. The use of the bath
is primarily for purposes of cleanliness, but
it also subserves various other useful ends.
Bathing undoubtedly took place first in rivers
and in the sea, but men soon learned to en-
joy this pleasure in their own houses. Even
Homer inentions the use of the bath as an old
custom. When Ulysses enters the palace of
Circe, a bath is prepared for him, after which
he is anointed with costly perfumes, and
dressed in rich garments. In later times,
rooms, both public and private, were built ex-
pressly for the purpose of bathing. The pub-
lic baths of the Greeks were mostly connected
with the gymnasia, because a bath was taken
immediately after the athletic exercises. The
Romans imitated the Greeks in this matter,
and built magnificent baths in which both
males and females could bathe (in separate
divisions), and warm or cold baths could be
taken ; such establishments, indeed, were so ex-
tensive that even their ruins excite admira-
tion.

The Cold Bath. — The first efifect of the
cold bath (at a temperature say from 50° to
70°) is to produce a shock to the nerves of the
ckin. In the case of the cold bath as ordina-
rilv used, the application is short, and the more
near to the temperature of 50° F. the water is
the shorter it should be. Following the first
action is reaction, during which the blood re-
turns to the skin, the blood vessels of which
relax, and a pleasant sensation of glow, spread-
ing rapidly over the surface, is experienced.
This reaction is aided by rapid friction of the
skin, as by towels, and if, after drying, the
body is quickly clothed and exercise engaged
in, the total effect of the bath is stimulating,
inducing a feeling not only of warmth but also
of vigor. The length of time the cold may be
applied without interfering with the setting in
of a proper reaction depends on the individual.
A mere instant's immersion is sufficient for
some, others can bear several minutes, while
some could not bear complete immersion of the
body at all, a feeling of coldness and shiver-
ing lasting for hours after it. Obviously for
such persons the full cold bath is not suitable,
and the cold wet towel, cold wet sponge, wet
sheet, etc., may be used instead, and may grad-
ually lead up to the full cold plunge, which
may thus be made tolerable and enjoyable.
The cold bath is not usually suitable for the
old and the delicate. The action of the cold
water may be intensified by showering it or
spraying it on the body by means of various
arrangements of pipes, etc. The morning or
early part of the day is the suitable time for
all such kinds of baths. Persons who are thus
hjjbituated to the use of cold wate^ are less
susceptible to the influence of cold and can
stand longer exposure than others.

Tepid Baths, "(temperature 85° to 95°) pro-
duce neither depression nor excitement, and
are therefore suited for all. They are the best
when prolonged immersion is desired, as in
the treatment of chronic skin and nervous dis-
eases.

The Warm Bath (temperature 96° to 104°)
is particularly serviceable in removing feelings
of fatigue. It should quicken only slightly

BATH AND BATHING

the circulation, and bring an additional quan- 212°. Not only the activity of the skin, but

tity of blood to the skin. It is by this means the action of the heart and of breathing are

that it removes the tired feeling from ex- greatly increased. It is thus not suited for

hausted muscles, for it promotes the removal everyone, certainly not in its full form for any-

from the tissues of the waste products, which one with weak heart or vessels, and for very

have accumulated during the period of activ- full-blooded persons.

ity, and whose presence in the muscles is the The Ttirkish Bath. — The hot-air bath is
cause of the feeling of weariness. After pro- usually obtained with other accessories in the
longed labor, or a long fatiguing walk, or form of the Turkish bath. This bath was
prolonged exposure to damp and cold, or after, adopted by the Turks from the Romans, who
for example, the exertion of much dancing, derived it from the Greeks. The bather enters
nothing is so restorative and refreshing as a the dressing-room (Rom. vestiariuvi) which
warm bath. When employed for such pur- is heated to an ordinarily comfortalale tem-
poses, the person should end with a spray or perature. Beyond this room there are, in the
douche, or simple sponge of tepid water (70°) fully-equipped Turkish baths, three rooms,
if he is about to go to bed, or with a warm separated from the dressing-room by well-
spray, quickly reduced to cold, before dressing padded doors. The first of these corresponds
to go out. Warm baths are largely employed to the Roman tepidarium, the warm room, in
in feverish aflfeclions of children for promot- which the temperature is from 115° to 120°;
ing the action of the skin ; and they are a safe beyond this and separated from it by heavy
resort in the convulsions of children, cold be- curtains is the hot room, or calidarium. in
ing at the same time applied to the head. which the temperature ranges from 120° to

The hot bath (temperature 102° to 110°) 140°; and still beyond is the hottest room,

acts in a more pronounced way upon the heart called also the flue room, corresponding to the

and nervous system than the merely warm Roman laconicum. Here the temperature is

bath. If very hot it powerfully excites the not below 150°, usually 175° to 180°, but may

heart, whose action, indeed, it may stimulate be 200° and upward. Every Turkish bath has

to violence. The brain is also influenced by at least two rooms beyond the dressing-room,

the more copious flow of blood through it, due one in which the temperature may readily be

to the vigorous action of the heart. These ef- raised to 140° or thereby, and one beyond it

fects, however, are largely counterbalanced by in which the highest temperatures may be ob-

the increased flow of blood to the skin. But tained.

the prolonged use of hot baths is weakening. When a full Turkish bath is taken the fol-
and the temporary strain thrown upon the lowing is the usual course : The bather un-
heart and blood-vessels and brain would be dresses in one of the curtained recesses of the
hurtful to many. The bather should be im- dressing-room, girds a towel or similar cloth
mersed to the chin ; the hair is damped with round his loins, and carrying a bath-towel over
cold water, and a thin cold cloth is wrapped the arm passes into the warm room. Here he
about the head. Cold water may be drunk if stays only long enough to wet the hair with
desired. The bath should last 20 minutes, or cold water, and perhaps drink of it, and then
less if oppression is felt. It should conclude, passes on through the hot room, into the hot-
as directed for warm bath, with tepid douche test room. Spreading his towel over a chair
or sponging, or with warm spray quickly he reclines on it, wets his head with cold wa-
reduced to cold. The hot bath should not be ter, and drinks at his pleasure, but not too
used in the morning or early part of the day, copiously, of cold water, which the attendant
or at any time except before going to bed, un- will bring him. Here he remains 5 or 10
less the person is properly cooled down before minutes. By this time the whole body will be
dressing and going out. bedewed with perspiration ; and the bather

The Hot-air Bath is one of the most power- passes out into the room next in temperature,

ful ways of stimulating the activity of the the hot room, \yhere he reclines for another 10

skin. The person, unclothed, is placed in an or 15 minutes. Then he passes to the warm

apartment which is heated by means of fur- room, lower in temperature than the former,

naces, the air being dry. In a longer or and here he reclines till the attendant is ready

shorter time, according to the heat of the air for him, when he proceeds to the washing

and the condition of the bather, the perspira- room. Here he lies on a table and the attend-

tion bursts out upon the skin, becoming very ant goes over the whole body, rubbing the sur-

copious, so that the whole body is bathed in face, and thus removing all loose effete skin,

sweat. A very high temperature may be borne grasping and kneading the muscles, bending

so long as the air is quite dry, for the sweat joints and so on. He is then rubbed over

passes rapidly off irom the body in the form with soap, scrubbed and washed down, and

of vapor, removing a large quantity of heat, lastly douched with warm and then tepid and

and thus the temperature of the body does not cold water. From this room the bather passes

rise, unless the air is very hot, when the heat out quickly, plunges through a cold bath, and

of the body usually increases by two or three regains the dressing-room, where he is quickly

degrees. The same high temperature could not dried down with warm dry towels. He is then

be borne if the air were moist, as in the case enveloped in a dry bath-towel, and so attired

of a vapor bath, for then the air is saturated he lies down on his couch in the dressing-

or nearly so with moisture and cannot take up room, covered over with a light rug or blanket,

more, or can take up very little. Marked op- till his skin assumes its natural degree of

pre^sion. difficultv of breathing, fullness in the warmth. When the skin is cool and dry, usu-

head. faintness, etc., would then speedilv arise, ally in 15 or 20 minutes, the bather dresses

When the air is quite dry, however, a high deliberately, and may then go out. The or-

temperature, for examnle, that of 180° F., can dinary duration of the full bath, from the flue

usually be endured with ease, and even above room to the washing room., is from 40 minutes

BATH BRICK

to an hour. The full bath, however, is suited
chiefly for those accustomed to it, for the
healthy and robust.

The vapor bath acts upon the body much
as the hot-water bath does, but it acts more
powerfully, though the effect of the heat is
not so quick since vapbr is a slower conductor
of heat than water. This bath can. therefore,
be borne hotter than a water bath, but the
high temperature cannot be borne long, for the
vapor does not permit of the loss of heat from
the body as hot air does. The temperature of
the vapor bath cannot be comfortably endured
above 120° F. The vapor bath is characteris-
tic of the Russian baths. It is taken in a
chamber filled with vapor, which is thus not
only applied to the surface of the body but
also inhaled. This makes it still more oppres-
sive. It may be used, however, in a simple
form, in which the vapor is not breathed,
by the person sitting on a chair, surrounded
from the neck downward by blankets, which en-
velop the chair also and hang to the ground.
Under the chair is placed a shallow earthenware
or metal dish, containing boiling water to the
depth of 3 or 4 inches. In the water are
placed a couple of red-hot bricks. Or under
the chair may be placed a spirit-lamp, sup-
ported above it being a shallow pan contain-
ing boiling water. Such baths are very useful
for catarrh, for rheumatic and neuralgic pains,
sciatica, etc., as well as for cases where exces-
sive action of the skin is desired to relieve
deeper organs, for example the kidneys. Ten
to fifteen minutes are long enough for exposure
in the vapor bath.

Sea-Bathing. — Ordinary sea-bathing is of
course cold, and produces the stimulating ef-
fects described in regard to the cold bath.
There is besides the additional stimulus due
to the salt, so that sea-bathing acts as an in-
vigorating tonic. It is not, however, suited for
everyone, and is taken much too indiscrim-
inately. It is also indulged in without due pre-
caution. It is a very common error for persons
to remain in the sea too long, the result being
shivering, blueness of the skin, difficulty in re-
covering warmth, headache, etc. Persons who
are anaemic, — that is, of deficient quality of
blood, — ought not to indulge in sea-bathing
without advice, and failing advice had better
try first a salt-water bath at home. Persons
who have suffered from any internal complaint
ought also to refrain. The best time for sea-
bathing is in the morning. It should never be
indulged in immediately after a meal, when
the business of digestion is going actively for-
ward. A good time is before lunch or early
dinner, for which the brisk walk home after
the bath will prove an excellent appetizer.
Neither should sea-bathing be engaged in im-
mediately after very active exercise, when the
body is in s state of very active perspiration or
in a condition of fatigue. At the same time,
moderate exercise before the bath is unobjec-
tionable, and the body ought to be comfortably
warm. The person should undress quickly and
plunge in bodily, wetting the whole body at
once. During the bath exercise should be ac-
tive, as in continued swimming. Children,
because of the little resisting power of their
bodies are readily depressed by sea-bathing.
They may be gradually accustomed to it ; but
they ought not to be forcibly immersed to their

aversion and terror. Sea-bath? m;iy be imi-
tated at home by the addition of common salt
or sea salt to water. The benefits or open-air
bathing, — sea or river, — are not limited, of
course, to the action of the water, but are in-
creased by the action of the fresh air, the res-
piration of which is stimulated by the bath,
and by the exercise in the open air invariably
indulged in afterward.

There are many kinds of medicated baths,
which have, or are supposed to have, special
properties, valuable for diseased conditions, be-
cause of containing various saline substances
dissolved in them. Such baths may be arti-
ficially prepared by the addition of the salts
to the water, or natural mineral waters may
be used for the purpose. Mud-baths are
recommended for special reasons.

Various arrangements are employed for ac-
centuating the effect of the water, whether
used hot or cold, or for applying it to particu-
lar parts of the body. The spray is one well-
known variety of bath. The douche is a jet
of water directed upon some part of the body
through a 1I/2 inch pipe, the force of the wa-
ter, quantity discharged, and temperature
being capable of modification. It at first
lowers the vitality of the part to which it is
applied, but reaction sets in quickly, so that
its whole effect is stimulating, quickening tis-
sue change. The douche may be used hot or
cold, or one after the other in rapid succession,
a change which is most stimulating of all. In
old-standing complaints, thickenings about
joints, stiff joints, etc., it is a very useful ap-
plication. In the case of the descending
douche, the pipe is 10 to 15 feet above the floor
level, and for the horizontal douche the pipe
is 4 feet above floor level. In the former
case it is played first on the spine, and then
shoulders, hips, arms and legs in succession.
At the close it is directed on to the chest and
head, the force of the water being broken by
the hands. In the latter case the back, chest,
arms, and legs are douched in the order
named, while the patient rubs himself vigor-
ously. Before beginning the head is wet with
cold water, and is douched last, the force of
the water being broken. The process should
last scarcely two minutes.

The sitz-bath or hip-bath is a means of
limiting the application of the water to the
hips and neighboring parts. The form of the
bathing-tub is such that the person has the
bath in the sitting posture, the limbs and upper
part of the body being out of the bath. The
sitz-bath, hot or cold according to circum-
stances, is in much use for abdominal and
liver complaints, and specially for feminine
ailments. Its soothing effects used hot in such
disorders are marked. Altogether the use of
the bath, in association with treatment by
medicine, is of the highest value in numerous
disorders, rheumatic, gouty, digestive, lebrile,
etc. In particular, the Turkish bath, under
due superintendence, may produce surprising
results, from checking a simple cold upward.
See also Hydrotherapy.

Bath Brick, or Bristol Brick, an artificially
manufactured brick, of the usual form, but
formed of calcareous earth. It is used for clean-
ing various kinds of metal work, and in Eng-
land is manufactured from the silt left in the
river Parret in Somersetshire after high tides. 1

BATH BUN — BATH, HISTORY OF THE

Bath Bun, an English bun, or sweetened
cake or biscuit, made generally without cur-
rants.

Bath Chair, a small carriage or chair on
wheels, drawn by a chairman, and intended for
the conveyance of individuals or others for
short distances. It is so called because either
originally or principally used at Bath, where the
steepness of many of the streets rendered such
conveyances especially useful.

Bath, History of the. As the most an-
cient records of the human race refer to the
use of the bath it is probably safe to surmise
that the prehistoric peoples early discovered
the cleansing effect of water and were eager to
enjoy it. To the ancient Egyptians, as to the
more modern Mohammedans, it is a part of
their religious service, while among the early
Hebrews it was not only one of the first puri-
ficative duties but it was positively prescribed
by the ]\Iosaic law in certain specified cases of
uncleanness. Thus the Jew who had no bath
in the court yard of his house, bathed in the
streams, or, later, in the mixed, or public baths,
while, besides water, bran was often used for
ceremonial cleansing, especially by the women,
just as the modern Arabs, when unable to
obtain water, rub themselves clean with
sand. See Ablution.

The earliest and most common form of bath-
ing was, of course, that of swimming in riv-
ers, and bathing in such rivers as the Nile
•and the Ganges was supposed to possess a re-
ligious significance which tended to make the
practice a very popular one. The use of oils
and the greater luxury of perfumes became
customary on occasions of sanitary bathing at a
very early period. In later times the more
wealthy Romans possessed many kinds of oils
and pomades which they brought to the baths,
that their bodies might be anointed with them,
while even the poorest classes rubbed their bodies
with flour of lentils after the bath.

The first reference to such a convenience as
that of a public bath occurs in the Bible, where
it is stated that the bathing "pools*^ were some-
times sheltered by porticoes, but this was a
simple invention when compared to the perfect
bathing facilities which were afterward pro-
vided by the Greeks and Romans, while the
praise lavished upon the baths of Darius by
Alexander the Great iridicates that the Persians
must also have possessed beautifully appointed
bathing facilities.

The public baths, which began to be built in
Rome shortly after Clodius had succeeded in
supplying the city with water from Praeneste,
soon became one of the most popular institu-
tions of the nation and emperors vied with their
predecessors to construct the largest and most
elaborate establishments. As the result, enor-
mous buildhigs were erected and these contained
not only the bathing apartments but the gym-
nasia and libraries, or even theatres, and the
most able writers of that time admit their in-
ability to describe the magnificence and luxuri-
ous appointment of many of these palaces of
cleanliness and pleasure. For example, Seneca
says, ^*To such a pitch of luxury have we come
that we are dissatisfied if we do not tread on
gems in our baths." These baths, or thermce,
Vol. 2—25.

as they were called, contained swimming baths
warm baths, vapor baths, and baths of hot and
cold air.

Wherever the Romans settled they built pub-
lic baths, and wherever they found hot springs
or natural stufse, they made use of them, thus
saving the expense of heating, as at Baiae »nd
Bath. The charge made at a public bath was
only a quadraus, or about one quarter cent.

The delicacy of feeling concerning the bath-
ing together of sexes which is said to have ex-
isted in early times certainly did not extend to
tlie days of the Empire, when it was not at
all uncommon for men and women to make
use of the same bath and it was probably due
to this practice that the public baths came to be
condemned by the early Christians as places of
unbounded license. While admitting the useful-
ness of the bath from the standpoint of cleanli-
ness and health, the Church fathers insisted that
baths should be taken for such purposes only
and not for pleasure. It was at this time when
the bath reached the height of luxuriousness ;
when rich citizens had magnificent private baths
of their own attached to their villas, and when
elaborate private bathing houses might be had
for hire in all the cities ; conditions which con-
tinued until about the 5th century, when the
destruction of Rome's water supply by the
Huns and the many disasters which accompa-
nied the downfall of the Empire tended to turn
popular attention from the delights of the
thcrmcc. How thoroughly the bath afterward
fell into disuse, however, is a matter which
historians have been unable to determine. In
the East, of course, where the heat and dust
make its use obligatory, there has never been
any diminution in the practice, and while in
Europe, for a time at least, perfumes were used
to offset any disagreeable odors that might
arise from uncleanliness of the person, this
condition could not have existed for many cen-
turies, for, by the latter part of the 12th cen-
tury, the popularity of the bath had become so
well re-established that there was scarcely any
large city in Europe which did not possess well
patronized hot air bathing houses. Agaiii in
the 17th century, when the Turkish bath was
introduced, there was another revival of inter-
est in the matter of personal cleanliness, and
people of all classes flocked to the baths, or
Hummuns, as they were called, to enjoy the
new luxury that had been imported from the
East.

While the Turkish bath, not to mention the
Russian and Egyptian baths, are so similar to
the hot air baths of the Romans that many
authorities have regarded them as nothing more
or less than an outgrowth from the latter, the
fact that the principle of the vapor bath has •
been known to many nations, and has even
been found among savages, or races in an
early stage of civilization, has led to the more
recent and counter theory that the hot air boxes
of the Mexicans, the "medicine sweats'' of the
American Indians, the small baths of the an-
cient inhabitants of Scotland and Ireland, and
the larger vapor baths of Japan, like those of
Turkey and Russia, are of just as independent
origin as those of the more ancient Rome.
However that may be it is at least certain that,
while this luxurious form of bathing was
largely responsible for the neglect of the cold

BATH BUN — BATH HOUSES

bath and the sea-bathing, the virtues of which
have been appreciated only within comparatively
modern times, it is largely due to the pleasure-
able sensations resulting from this form of
bath that the various nations of the world
have not neglected those principles of cleanli-
ness upon which the good health of a people
so vitally depends.

J. R. Header,
Editor of ^American Year Book?

Bath Houses, Public. The public bath-
house was a matter of course in the cities of
southern Europe down to the end of the Roman
empire; one of the chief objects of public
expenditure and private munificence. The Ro-
mans borrowed it from the Greeks, but vastly
improved it, connecting it with a general system
of public recreation. Maecenas under Augustus
was the first private citizen to build a splendid
specimen and give it to the city of Rome ; and
after him each succeeding emperor strove to
outdo the others in enormous buildings of mag-
nificent architecture and sumptuous fittings, con-
taining not only all kinds of baths, — cold, hot,
swimming, vapor, hot air, and shower, — but
gymnasia, theatres, and libraries. Private per-
sons also founded them in provincial cities. But
after the barbarian deluge, both money and
water supply failed, and till very modern times
general cleanliness ceased to be a municipal
concern. The system first revived in Germany,
but only in cold swimming baths ; the first
enclosed bath houses with hot and cold water
were established in Liverpool, in 1842. The
movement spread but tardily in Great Britain, —
the first legislation of 1846 being little acted on,
— till about 1890, when city councils began to
take it up energetically with authorization from
Parliament ; but it then increased so rapidly
that almost every town or borough of 50,000
people now has its public bath open the year
round, as do very many smaller ones. In Ger-
many about 50 cities have them. On the Conti-
nent generally and in Scandinavia, only the
large cities are thus provided; but in Russia
they are almost universal in places of any size.

In the United States, though public baths
have existed for some 40 years in a few great
water-side cities, they were till a few years ago
confined to cold swimming-baths sunk in the
sea or river near the shore, and open only dur-
ing warm weather; of excellent service for the
comfort of those not too far off, but too lim-
ited in scope to be of the highest value to the
general public. Not only were they closed for
more than half the year, but to those who must
walk more than half or three quarters of a mile
to obtain a bath (their utility being for the poor),
their value as refreshment in hot weather was
neutralized by the needful exertion to reach
them. Their use, therefore, depended on their
distribution and relation to the water system.
Thus, in Boston, where six were established in
1866, with 300,00c patrons during the first sea-
son, and extended to 14 in 1897, they were so
located on the Charles River, at City Point, and
on South Bay, that a considerable part of
the poorer population were within fairly easy
distance of them. Only about a dozen United
States cities, however, had even these bathing
facilities till a few years since, and the first
general movement in favor of year-round hot
and cold batij': was a reflex from Germany,

about 1891. In that year the People's Baths
were built in New York by a private philan-
thropic association, and maintained by a small
fee; and in 1893 Chicago opened a small munici-
pal bath house. The first compulsory legisla-
tion was by New York state in April 1895
(though a bathing and washing association was
incorporated there in 1849) ; it obliged all cities
of over 50,000 people to establish public baths
and comfort stations, kept open the year round,
with both hot and cold water, and 14 hours a
day, and under such conditions as the local
board of health judged proper; river, lake, or
sea baths not to be deemed a compliance with
the act. Cities under 50,000, though not com-
pelled, were permitted to use their funds or
credit for the same object. The first city to
comply, and perhaps the first in the United
States to furnish such conveniences in their full
extent, was Yonkers, N. Y., not within the com-
pulsory section. This town opened one on
Labor Day, 1896; and another of brick, fire-
proof, in 1898, with accommodations for 400
daily baths. Within the act, Buffalo opened its
first in 1897 ; Albany, Rochester, Syracuse, and
Troy, have since complied ; and in New York
the first one, five years after the act was passed,
was opened in Rivington Street in a closely
packed quarter, during 1900, at a cost of
$100,000. It furnishes 3,000 baths a day of 20
minutes each, from 67 spray baths. In Phila-
delphia the Public Baths Association was organ-
ized in 1895 ; but the first to be opened was in
1898, in a crowded quarter between Fourth and
Fifth streets. It is a building of 2^/2 stories, 40
by 60, constructed of brick and iron, with con-
crete floors and iron partitions. It cost about
$30,000. It has no swimming pool, but only
shower baths — a system rapidly coming into
favor from its economy of space and water ;
the People's Baths and the Baron de Hirsch
Fund Baths in New York adopt the same plan.
The Philadelphia establishment has a public
laundry in connection with its own suit and
towel laundry, where women and men in sepa-
rate compartments can wash their clothing for a
small fee, and single men make much use of it
to wash their underclothing. Pittsburg, Pa., has
recently erected a permanent public bath. Some
of the old warm-season baths have since been
made permanent, as in Newark, N. J., which so
extended two in 1898, and in 1900 voted a third.
Boston from 1897 to 1899 increased its public
baths to 2>?>- — I4 floating, 10 beach, and 9 oth-
ers ; 17 south of the common and 16 north ; and
prepared to erect permanent structures in each
industrial section of the city. The first of these
was opened at Dover Street in 1898 — a fine
brick and granite structure, with marble parti-
tions and staircases, the whole with land costing
$86,000. It has gymnasiums also, and medical
directors for each se.x to give courses of train-
ing, and for cases of accident or sudden illness.
The intention is ultimately to make these baths
places of public recreation, corresponding to the
summer playgrounds ; thus reaching in the 20th
century the point at which the Romans had
arrived in the first. Brookline, adjoining Bos-
ton, has a handsomely appointed permanent
municipal bath house and so have Worcester,
Mass., and Providence. R. I. St. Paul, Minn.,
through the public spirit of Dr. Ohage, a Ger-
man physician, now has a public playground,
pavilion, etc., connected with permanent bath

BATH — BATHORI

houses on what was till recently a waste island
in the middle of the Mississippi, near the busi-
ness centre of the city and between two main
bridges. Like most of the other bath establish-
ments, it is free, save a small charge for soap
and towels ; has free instruction in swimming,
and is open every day, including Sundays. The
donor calls it an experiment in municipal social-
ism, being himself a socialist. A very recent
phase of the movement is the connection of the
system with the public schools. It began in
Germany, Gottingen leading the way in 1885
under the headship of the mayor and a professor
in the university. Thus far, in the United States
it is nearly confined to Boston and its suburbs ;
in 1900 a number of baths were put into the
Paul Revere school in the North End, and in
Brookline swimming is a regular part of the
school curriculum. As a means of public sani-
tation, preventing the spread of disease and
purifying the air, where the rooms are full of
children from the poorer quarters, it has much
to commend it.

Bath, Knights of the, an English order
concerning the origin of which antiquaries differ.
Henry IV., on the day of his coronation, con-
ferred the degree upon 46 knights. From that
time the kings of England have bestowed this
dignity previous to coronations, after births and
marriages of the royal issue, etc. Charles II.
created several Knights of the Bath, but after
his time the order fell into neglect, till 1725,
when George I. revived it. By the book of
statutes then prepared, the number of knights
was fixed at 38, namely, the sovereign, and Zl
knights companions. The king allowed the
chapel of Henry VII., in Westminster Abbey,
to be the chapel of the order. The limits of the
order were greatly extended by the prince
regent in 1815, to reward the distinguished ser-
vices of officers during the wars ; and again in
1847, when it was also opened to civilians. It
was further enlarged in 1861. It now consists
of three classes, each of which is subdivided into
(i) military members; (2) civil members, and
(3) honorary members, consisting of foreign
princes and officers. The first class consists of
Knights Grand Cross (G.C.B.) ; the second of
Knights Commanders (K.C.B.) ; and the third,
of Companions (C.B.). The dean of West-
minster is dean of the order. The ribbon of
the order is crimson, and its motto, "Tria juncta
in uno." The name is conjecturally derived
from the initiatory ceremony of bathing once
practised at the installation of a knight, as sym-
bolical of the purity thereafter required of him.

Bathom'eter, an instrument for measuring
the depth of the sea or any large body of water
without a sounding line, the name being derived
from bathos, depth. It was invented by Dr.
C. W. Siemens after 1859 as an adjunct to the
laying of submarine telegraphic cables, so as to
keep a continuous record of the sea depth below
a moving ship. The principle of the instrument
is based upon the gravitation of the earth,
total gravitation being represented by a column
of mercury, which rests upon a thin steel dia-
phragm embossed in such a way that its centre
can move within a small range freely up and
down under the influence of the rnercury col-
umn without encountering any frictional resist-
ance. The column ends in a cup, and mercury
is poured into both cup and pipe up to a certain

point, the space above being filled with water,
alcohol, or a liquid of less density, this latter ter-
minating in a spiral tube laid upon a scale at
the top of the instrument. The centre of the
diaphragm which supports the column of mer-
cury is carried by two or more carefully tem-
pered steel springs, so adjusted that their elastic
pressure balances exactly the dead weight of
the column of mercury resting upon the dia-
phragm, the result being that the diaphragm
retains its horizontal position. Inclosed in an
air-tight casing closed by a disc of plate glass,
the instrument records by an ingenious compen-
sating arrangement the natural balance of the
elastic and gravity forces on the scale, from
which readings are made. Consult Siemens,
'The Bathometer > (1879).

Bathori, ba'to-re, or Battori, a celebrated
Hungarian family which in the 15th century
became divided into two branches, one of which
gave Transylvania five princes, and Poland one
of its greatest kings :

1. Stephen: b. 1532; d. Grodno, 1586. He
entered the army, and so distinguished himself
that when the death of John Sigismund Zapolya,
nephew of Sigismund II., king of Poland, in
1571, left a vacancy in the sovereignty of Tran-
sylvania, Stephen Bathori, without courting the
honor, was unanimously elected. When the
throne of Poland became vacant by Henry of
Valois quitting the country in order to mount
the throne of France, Stephen Bathori was
elected to succeed him in 1575, and was crowned
along with his queen, Anne, daughter of Sigis-
mund Augustus, at Cracow, in 1576. He found
the kingdom torn asunder by faction, the peo-
ple enervated by long peace, the treasury
exhausted, and the army without discipline. He
therefore gave his first attention to internal
improvement, but had no sooner effected it
than he determined to recover the Polish terri-
tories of which the czar of Muscovy had man-
aged to possess himself by fomenting dissen-
sions. He accordingly declared war against
him, beat him at all points, and compelled him
to accept a disadvantageous peace. Under
Stephen Bathori, Poland enjoyed a comparative
tranquillity to which it had long been a stranger,
and he was meditating important constitutional
reforms, which promised to make that tran-
quillity permanent, when he died suddenly.

2. Sigismund, nephew of Stephen : d. 1613.
He became waiwode or prince of Transylvania
in 1581, shook off the Ottoman yoke, and, by
the great talents he displayed, had begun to give
hopes of reigning gloriously as an independent
sovereign, when, from mere fickleness and
eccentricity of character, he voluntarily resigned
his dominions to the Emperor Rudolph II. in
return for two principalities in Silesia, a cardi-
nal's hat, and a pension. With the same fickle-
ness, however, he immediately repented of the
act, and, availing himself of an invitation by
the Transylvanians, returned, and placed him-
self under the protection of the Porte. The tal-
ent which he had displayed, and the good for-
tune which had followed him in early life,
appeared now to have forsaken him ; the Imperi-
alists defeated him in every battle, and he was
obliged to throw himself on the mercy of the
emperor, who sent him to live out the rest of his
days at Prague.

BATHS OF AGRIPPA — B ATH YMETRY

Baths of Agrippa, the earliest of the Ro-
man thermae; erected by Marcus Agrippa in
the reign of Augustus. They stood in the Cam-
pus ?\Iartius, about 20 feet behind the Pantheon.
In 1881, on the removal of some houses, ruins
were found of a great hall paved with marble
and lined with fluted columns.

Baths of Caracal'la, one of the most mag-
nificent of the Roman thermae, in the southeast
part of the city, in which 2,300 men could bathe
at the same time. They were begun in 206 .\.v.
by Caracalla, and completed by Severus. There
were stadia for the athletes, galleries for the
exhibition of paintings and sculpture, libraries,
conversation halls, lecture-rooms, etc. The
mechanical skill displayed in their construction
was very great. The ruins which still remain
are among the most remarkable in Rome.

Baths of Diocletian, the most extensive of
the Roman thermae : in the northeast part of
the city, and covering most of the ground
between the Porta Collina and the Porta Vimi-
nalis. Over 3,000 persons could bathe in them
at the same time. They contained a library,
picture-gallery, odeum, etc. Michael Angelo
transformed the great hall of the Tepidarium
into a nave for the Church of S. Marie degli
Angeli. One of the laconica (hot rooms) forms
the vestibule of the church.

Baths of Titus, a structure on the Esqui-
Ime Hill in Rome ; built by the Emperor Titus.
Considerable ruins are found northeast of the
Coliseum.

Bathsheba, bath-she'ba, or bath'she-ba,
wife of Uriah, the Hittite, whose story is told in
2 Sam xi. David committed adultery with her,
then caused her husband to be slain, and after-
ward took her to wife. These sins displeased
Jehovah, who sent the prophet Nathan to David
with the parable of the ewe lamb. David bit-
terly repented, but yet was punished. Bathsheba
was the mother of Solomon, whose succession
to the throne she took pains to secure. She is
afterward mentioned in the history of Adonijah,
in the title of Psalms li., and among the ances-
tors of Christ (Matt. i. 6).

Bath'urst, Allen, (Earl), English states-
man: b. 1684; d. 1775. He was a zealous
opponent of the measures of Sir Robert Wal-
pole's ministry, and the intimate friend of
Bolingbroke, Pope, Addison, and other great
writers of the time.

Bathurst, Henry (2d E.\rl), son ot the pre-
ceding, English statesman: b. 1714; d. 1794. In
1771 he was made lord high chancellor of Eng-
land. He wrote "^Theory of Evidence,^ etc.

Bathurst, Henry (3d Earl), son of the sec-
ond earl. English statesman: b. 22 May 1762: d.
1834. In 1807 he became president of the board
of trade; in 1809 secretary for foreign affairs;
and in 1812 secretary for the colonies, a post
held by him for 16 years. He was also presi-
dent of the council under Wellington, 1828-30.

Bathurst, Ralph, Englisti clergyman: b.
1620; d. 14 June 1704. He was dean of Wells,
and wrote some elegant Latin poems, and was
one of the founders of the Royal Society of
London (q. v.), which was incorporated in 1660.

Bathurst, Africa, a towm on the island of
St. Mary's, near the mouth of the Gambia, and
capital of the British colony Gambia. Its trade

is chiefly in gum, bees'-wax, ground-nuts, hides,
ivory, and gold, bartered for cloths and cutlery.
Pop. 6,000.

Bathurst, Australia, the principal town in
the western district of the colony of New South
Wales, on the south bank of the Macquarie
River, 144 miles west of Sydney, 2,153 feet above
sea-level, and surrounded by hills. It has wide,
well-laid-out streets crossing each other at right
angles, with a central square planted with trees.
The public buildings include the Anglican and
Roman Catholic cathedrals, and churches for
the Baptists, Congregationalists, Wesleyans,
Presbyterians, and others; court-house, jail, and
town-hall ; post and telegraph offices ; a hos-
pital, numerous schools, a school of arts, etc.
There are several tanneries, a coach factory,
railway workshops, breweries, and flour mills.
Soap, candles, glue, boots and shoes, and fur-
niture are also extensively manufactured. Pop.
(1900) 9,069.

Bathurst Inlet, an inlet of the Polar Sea,
projecting due south about 75 miles out of
Coronation Gulf. It is in a direct line between
the magnetic pole and Great Slave Lake, and
about 300 miles from each.

Bathurst Island, the name of two islands:
(i) An island off the northeast coast of Aus-
tralia, just west of Melville Island, and sepa-
rated from the mainland of Australia by Clar-
ence Strait on the south, and from Melville
Island by Apsley Strait ; (2) an island in the
Arctic Ocean, discovered by Parry in 1819, lying
due south of Grinnell Land, and the most east-
ern of the group called Parry Islands. It is
separated from North Somerset on the south by
Barrow Strait, and from North Devon on the
east by Wellington Channel.

Batbyb'ius, the name given by Huxley, in
1868, to a supposed organism, a bit of unorgan-
ized protoplasm, found at the sea-bottom at
great depths. It was structureless, and con-
tained numerous calcareous concretions. Hux-
ley abandoned the idea that it was a living
organism. Afterward Bessels gave the name
^'^protobathybius^' to a similar slimy moss dredged
in Smith's Sound in 92 fathoms, possibly the re-
mains of protozoa or sponges. Bathybius was
not rediscovered by the Challenger expedition,
and Sir John Murray suspected that the sub-
stance was only a gelatinous precipitate of sul-
phate of lime from sea water mixed with alco-
hol.

Bath'ycles, Greek artist, supposed to have
flourished in the time of Solon, in the 7th cen-
tury B.C. He was a resident of Magnesia, in
Thessaly, on the Mreander, and constructed for
the Lacedaemonians the colossal throne of the
Amyclaean Apollo, at Amyclae, near Sparta.
Quatremere de Quincy, in his ^Jupiter Olym-
pien,^ has given an interesting view of the
splendid god and his sunerb throne, designed
from the description of Pausanias.

Bathym'etry, the art of measuring depths
in the sea, especialh' for the purpose of investi-
gating the vertical range of distribution of
plants and animals. An extensive series of stich
bathymetric measurements was made by H. M.
S. Challenger (1872-6), the deepest sounding
being 4,575 fathoms. In February looo the
L^nited States surveying ship Nero reported
that in surveying for a proposed telegraphic
cable line between Honolulu and Manila by way

BATISTE — BATRACHIA

uf Guam and Yokohama, she encountered the
greatest ocean depths on record; two casts
showing 5,160 and 5,269 fathoms respectively.

Batiste, ba-test, a fine, white, very compact
linen, distinguished by its delicate, firm, and
uniform threads from every other linen texture.
The name is derived either from the Indian
material bastas, or from one of the early manu-
facturers of it, Baptiste Chambray, who lived
in the 13th century, and from whom it was also
called the cloth of Chambray, or Cambray;
hence the English word cambric.

Batjan, bat-yan', one of the Molucca
Islands, lying southwest of Gilolo. It is gov-
erned by a native sultan under Dutch suzerainty.
The chief industry is the cultivation of spices.
Area, 835 square miles ; population from 12,000
to 13,000, of which the majority are Malays or
Alfores.

Batley, England, a municipal and parlia-
mentary borough, in the West Riding of York,
eight miles south of Leeds, and just north of
Dewsbury, with which it is united for parlia-
mentary purposes. The houses are chiefly of
stone, and rather irregularly built. Batley has
an ancient parish church in the Early English
style, a town-hall, a grammar and a technical
school, mechanics' institute, etc. The principal
manufactures are heavy woolen cloths, Batley
being the chief seat of the manufacture of heavy
woolens. There are also iron foundries, ma-
chine-works, collieries, etc. Pop. (1901) 30,300.

Batlle, bat-le, Lorenzo, Uruguayan states-
man : b. Montevideo, 1812. He commanded a
body of infantry in the nine years' siege of
Montevideo; was minister of war in 1866-8;
president of the republic from 1868 to 1872,
when he resigned the office and resumed his
place as general in the army.

Batna, bat'na, Algeria, a town of the de-
partment of Constantine, situated at the foot of
Mount Tugurt. It is an important military and
trading post. Pop. 8,381.

Baton, bat-on, or ba-ton, a short staflf or
truncheon, in some cases used as an official
badge, as that of a field marshal. The conductor
of an orchestra has a baton for the purpose of
directing the performers as to time, etc. In
heraldry, what is usually called the bastard bar,
or bar sinister, is properly a baton sinister.

Baton Rouge, La., city, parish-seat of East
Baton Rouge, and capital of the State. The
name is derived from the French, meaning red
baton or stick. The city is situated on the
eastern bank of the Mississippi River, 90 miles
northwest of New Orleans, and is on the Texas
and Pacific and the Yazoo and Mississippi Val-
ley Railroad. It is picturesquely built on a bluff
commanding an excellent view of the surround-
ing country. The houses are mostly of French
and Spanish architecture. The river below the
city is bordered by sugar-cane plantations, or-
chards of tropical fruits, private gardens, and
villas. It was the capital of the State from 1847
to 1864, when the seat of government was re-
moved to New Orleans. On i March 1882.
Baton Rouge was again selected as the capital
city. The State capital building here was com-
pleted in 1852 at a cost of $246,000. It was
partially burned during the Civil War but was
rebuilt in 1882. The Louisiana State University

was organized here in i860. The city also (.ob-
tains various State institutions, orphan asylum,
penitentiary, deaf and dumb, and blind asylums.
State agricultural and mechanical college, and
agricultural experiment station. There are
among other public buildings, the Court House,
City Hall, Post Office, Collegiate Institute, High
School building, and a National Soldiers' Cem-
etery.

There are varied and extensive manufactur-
ing interests, including cotton seed products,
lumber, sugar, molasses, brick, artificial ice, and
agricultural implements. The city has National
and State banks, several daily and weekly news-
papers. There is a large and growing trade
with the surrounding cotton and sugar growing
regions. The city has a real property assessed
valuation of $2,000,000, actual valuation $3,500,-
000, exclusive of the valuable City, Parish and
State property which is exempt from assess-
ment. In addition to above the personal as-
sessed property is $1,000,000, making a total as-
sessment of $3,000,000, real value $5,000,000.

Baton Rouge is governed under a charter
of 1898, by a mayor, elected every four years
and a city council, elected every four years. A
majority of the municipal officers are selected
by the council. The city was one of the earliest
French settlements in Louisiana. A conven-
tion which met here 21 Jan. 1861, adopted
the ordinance of secession on the 26th ; the
city was taken by the Federal army 7 May
1862. On 5 August the same year a Confederate
force numbering 5,000 under command of Gen-
eral John C. Breckenridge, attacked the Federal
garrison under General Thomas Williams, but
was repulsed after a fierce contest lasting two
hours. Gen. Williams was killed and both sides
lost heavily. The city was shortly afterward
evacuated but a month later was re-occupied by
the Federal troops who remained until the close
of the war. A former government arsenal here
was destroyed during the war. Pop. (1900)
11,269; (1903 est.) 12,500.

W. H. Bynum,

Mayor of Baton Rouge.

Batoni, ba-to'ne, Pompeo Girolamo, Italian
painter: b. Lucca, 1708; d. Rome, 1787. The
manner in which he executed his paintmgs was
peculiar. He covered his sketch with a cloth,
and began to paint the upper part on the left
hand, and proceeded gradually toward the right,
never uncovering a new place until the first
was entirely finished. Boni, who compares him
with Mengs, calls the latter the painter of
philosophy; the former, the painter of nature.
Batoni painted many altar-pieces and numerous
portraits, including those of the Emperor Joseph
and the Empress Maria Theresa in the imperial
gallery. His greatest work is his 'Fall of Simon
the Sorcerer,^ which was ordered by Cardinal
Albani for the church of St. Peter's at Rome,
and was intended to be executed in mosaic. His
< Magdalene,^ in Dresden, and his 'Return of
the Prodigal Son,> in Vienna, are celebrated.

Batrachia, the frogs and toads of the
Anura order of Amphibia (q.v.), comprising
the Ranidce frogs, the Biifonida ordinary toads,
the Hylidce tree frogs, the Pipidce Surinam toads,
and similar reptiles with the distinguishing
characteristic of development frorti the tailed
and gilled tadpole state to a tailless, but leg
and lung provided adult condition.

BxA.TTA — BATTERING RAM

Bat'ta, Africa, a province of the Congo
Free State, formerly independent. Its prin-
cipal towns are Batta and Cangon.

Batta, Sumatra, a district in the northern
part of the island, stretching between Sinkell
and Tabuyong, on the west, and the Bila and
the Rakan on the east. The soil is fertile,
and produces chiefly camphor, gum, benzoin,
cassia, cotton, and indigo. The language of
the Battas is a settled one, and extensively
■written. Bark or bamboo staves are used in
place of books, being written on from bottom
to top. Their literature consists chiefly of
tales of witchcraft, riddles, stories, etc. There
are three dialects. Pop. about 300,000.

Battalion, the tactical unit of command in
infantry — that is, the first body that is, as a
rule, used independently, and commanded by
a field officer (major or lieutenant-colonel).
In the United States army eight companies of
cavalry and artillery and 10 of infantry con-
stitute a battalion ; each infantry regiment has
one battalion and those in the cavalry and ar-
tillery have two.

English battalions are formed of 10 com-
panies for administrative, and eight for tactical
purposes. The first 25 regiments have two bat-
talions, the remainder, originally of one battal-
ion each, are linked in pairs according to
their territorial derivation. Linked battalions
are interchangeable as regards ofificers, and
each shares the honors and advantages of the
other. Two regiments of rifles have four bat-
talions each, and the three regiments of the
Guards seven battalions in all. The peace
strength of a battalion is about 400 men, but
varies; its war strength in the field is 1,000,
with one lieutenant-colonel, two majors, eight
captains, 16 subalterns, four officers of the
regimental staff (adjutant, paymaster, quarter-
master, and medical officer), and 50 sergeants.
The corporals and lance-corporals fall in with
the privates in the ranks, and therefore num-
ber among the rank and file.

The French infantry is divided into (i) in-
fantry of the line; (2) regiments of zouaves;
(3) regiments of tirailleurs Algericns; and (4)
battalions of chasseurs a pied. The 144 regi-
ments of infantry of the line have each four
battalions; a battalion (which is divided into
four field companies), consisting of 12 commis-
sioned officers, 54 non-commissioned officers,
and 264 soldiers — in all 330 men, raised in
time of war to 1,000. The regiments of zou-
aves have in peace 612 men in a battalion, and
in war 1,000. The tirailleurs Alger iens, who
in time of peace are stationed in Algeria, have
in peace 652 men in a battalion, and in war
1. 000. Finally, the chasseurs a pied have in
peace 468 men, and in war 1,000.

In Germany, with the exception of the Ii6th
(Hesse) regiment, the 148 line regiments have
three battalions. The yagers are formed into
26 separate battalions. To each line regiment
is attached a landwehr regiment of two bat-
talions, and these latter bear the same number
as the regular regiments to which they are
affiliated. The five Prussian Guard regiments
have 22 officers and 678 men per battalion in
peace time, the remaining regiments having 18
officers and 526 men per battalion, and the
yagers 22 officers and 526 men. On mobiliza-
tion for war all battalions are raised to a

strength of 22 officers and 1,000 men, with a
regimental staff of one commandant, one extra
field officer, and one aide-de-camp. Pioneer
battalions are practically field engineer bodies,
and are divided into pontoniers (for bridg-
ing), and sappers and miners (for siege
operations, demolition or construction of arti-
ficial defenses). They have each three field
and one depot company ; the former compris-
ing 15 officers and 650 men.

Battenberg, bat'en-barg, Alexander, Prince

of, Bulgarian ruler: b. 1857; d. 17 Feb. 1893.
He was the second son of the morganatic union
between Prince Alexander of Hesse and the
Countess von Hauke, who in 185 1 received
the title of Countess of Battenberg. In 1879
he was chosen Prince of Bulgaria, and in 1885,
without consulting Russia, proclaimed the
union of eastern P.umelia with Bulgaria. This
action exasperated both Russia and Servia, and
the latter took up arms against Bulgaria, but
was easily defeated by Alexander in the space
of two weeks. In August 1886, however, Rus-
sian partisans overpowered Alexander in his
palace at Sofia, forced him to abdicate, and
carried him off to Reni, in Russian territory.
Set free in a few days, he returned ; but after
a futile attempt to conciliate the czar he ab-
dicated in September, and, assuming the title
of Count Hartenau, retired to Darmstadt.

Battenberg, Henry Maurice, British sol-
dier: b. Milan, 5 Oct. 1858; d. 20 Jan. 1896.
He was the third son of Prince Alexander of
Hesse (see Battenberg, Alexander, above),
and in 18S5 married the Princess Beatrice of
England, j'oungest daughter of Queen Victoria.
He joined the British expedition of 1895
against Ashanti, and while on his way home
died at sea of a fever contracted during his
military service.

Battenberg, Louis Alexander, British
naval officer : b. Gratz, 24 May 1854. He was
the eldest son of Prince Alexander of Hesse
(see B.KTTENBERG, ALEXANDER, aDovc), and in
1884 married the eldest daughter of the
Princess Alice Maud Mary, grand duchess of
Hesse-Darmstadt, and second daughter of
Queen Victoria.

Battenberg, a village in the Prussian pro-
vince of Hesse-Nassau, from which the sons
of Prince Alexander of Hesse (see Batten-
berg, Alexander, above), derive their title of
princes of Battenberg.

Battens, pieces of timber of different
lengths, used for making floors, and also, after
being divided so as to be 2% inches wide and
i]4 thick, placed against walls to separate the
laths on which plastering is to be put from the
walls. In nautical affairs, battens are (i)
strips of wood nailed down over the tarpaulins
which cover the hatches ; (2) similar strips
fastened to portions of the rigging to prevent
injury from chafing; (3) light frameworks
placed on dining tables to keep the dishes from
sliding off by reason of the ship's motion, also
called fiddles; (4) thin strips of wood placed
in pockets on the leach of a sail to prevent
wrinkling or bagging.

Battering Ram (Lat. aries), the earliest,
simplest, and, until the improved usage of
artillery, the most effective machine for de-
stroying stone walls and the ordinary defenses

BATTERSEA — BATTERY

•of fortified towns. Its primitive form was a
.huge beam of seasoned and tough wood,
hoisted on the shoulders of men; who, running
with it, at speed, against the obstacle, wall,
.gate, or palisade, made what impression they
might against it. The ancients employed two
•different machines of this kind — the one sus-
pended, and vibrating after the manner of a
pendulum, and the other movable on rollers.
The swinging ram resembled in magnitude and
form the mast of a large vessel, suspended
horizontally at its centre of gravity, by chains
■or cords, from a movable frame. Ligatures of
waxed cord surrounded the beam at short in-
tervals, and cords at the extremity, opposite to
the head, served for the purpose of applying
human force to give the oscillatory motion.
Other cords, at intermediate distances, were
-also sometimes employed. The rolling ram
was much the same as the above in its general
'Construction, except that instead of a pendulous
motion, it received only a motion of simple
alternation, produced by the strength of men
applied to cords passing over pulleys. This
•construction seems to have been first employed
at the siege of Byzantium. These machines
were often extremely ponderous. Appian de-
clares that, at the siege of Carthage, he saw
two rams so colossal that loo men were em-
ployed in working each. Vitruvius afiirms that
the beam was often from lOO to 120 feet in
■length ; and Justus Lipsius describes some as
180 feet long, and two feet four inches in dia-
meter, with an iron head weighing at least a
ton and a half. In contrasting the effects of
the battering-ram with those of the modern ar-
tillery, we must not judge of them merely by
the measure of their respective momenta.
Such a ram as one of those described by Lip-
-sius would weigh more than 45,000 pounds,
and its momentum, supposing its velocity be
about two yards per second, would be nearly
•<)uadruple the momentum of a 40-pound ball
moving with a velocity of i.Coo feet per second.
But the operation of the two upon a wall
would be very different. The ball would prob-
ably penetrate the opposing substance, and
pursue its way for some distance; but the ef-
ficacy of the ram would depend almost entirely
upon duly apportioning its intervals of oscilla-
tion. At first it would produce no obvious
-effect upon the wall; but the judicious repeti-
tion of its blows would, in a short time, give
motion to the wall itself. There would first
be a barely perceptible tremor, then more ex-
tensive vibrations ; these being evident, the as-
sailants would adjust the oscillations of the
ram to that of the wall, till at length a large
portion of it, partaking of the vibratory im-
pulse, would, by a well-timed blow, fall to the
earth at once. This recorded effect of the ram
has nothing analogous in the results of modern
artillery.

Battersea, a district of London, in Surrey,
forming, with Clapham, a parliamentary
borough, on the right bank of the Thames,
across which there is communication by sev-
eral bridges. There is a fine public park in
Battersea, extending over 185 acres, and con-
taining a considerable sheet of water. There
is a Church of England training college for
schoolmasters and a Wesleyan for schoolmis-
tresses. Clapham and Wandsworth Commons
^re fine areas of unenclosed ground. Battersea

and Clapham send two members to Parlia-
ment — one for each division. Battersea par-
ish is a borough under the London Govern-
ment Act (1 899).

Battershall, Jesse Park, American chemist:
b. Troy, N. Y., 26 May 1851 ; d. Poughkeepsie,
N. Y., 12 Jan. 1891. He studied chemistry at
the Columbia School of Mines, Gottingen,
Leipsic, Geneva, and Tubingen. In 1879 he be-
came head of the analytical department of the
United States laboratory in New York, a
position held until his death. He has pub-
lished a translation of Naquet's ^ Legal Chem-
istry' (1876) ; *Food Adulteration and Detec-
tioh> (1887).

Batterson, Hermon Griswold, American
clerg>'man : b. Marbledale, Conn., 28 May 1827;
d. New York, March 1903. He was ordained
to the ministry of the Protestant Episcopal
Church in 1866, and held rectorships in San
Antonio, Texas ; Wabasha, Minn. ; Philadel-
phia, and Church of the Redeemer, New York,
1891. He published ^Missionary Tune Book'
(1868); ^Christmas Carols, and Other Verses'
(1877); 'Sketchbook of the American Epis-
copate' (1878, 2d ed. 1884) ; < Pathway of
Faith' ; 'Vesper Bells.'

Batterson, James Goodwin: b. Bloomfield,
Conn., 23 Feb. 1823 ; d. Hartford, Conn., 18
Sept. 1901. He was educated in the public
schools of Litchfield, Conn., and in 1845 be-
came an importer of and dealer in granite and
marble, with headquarters in Hartford. His
business grew into one of the most extensive
of its kind in the United States, controlling
large granite quarries in Westerly, R. I. He
took important contracts for public and pri-
vate buildings and supplied the stone for the
State capitol and Connecticut Mutual build-
ings in Hartford, the Mutual Life, Equitable
Life Insurance Companies' buildings, and Van-
derbilt residence in New York. He was the
first to use machinery for polishing granite
and devised many other improvements. In
1863 he founded the Travelers' Insurance
Company, and was its president until his death.
Throughout his life, though never holding
political office, he was one of the foremost
public figures of his city and State. He was
an enthusiastic student of political economy,
and wrote numerous articles and pamphlets on
the money question. He taught himself Greek
and became an acknowledged master of it ;
and he was equally accomplished in several of
the modern European languages, his versatility
and capacity for work being extraordinary. In
the last year of his life he wrote a poem of
some length, 'The Beginnings,' dealing \vith
the origin of the universe and life. Publica-
tions: numerous articles in 'The Traveler's
Record' ; 'Gold and Silver as Currency'
(1896).

Battery, The, a park of 21 acres forming
the southernmost point of New York, occupy-
ing the site of the original Dutch fortifica-
tions. In the early days of the city the
vicinity of the Battery was a very aristocratic
quarter, and some of the old houses are still
standing. The park now contains the Barge
Office and the Aquarium, formerly Castle Gar-
den (q.v.).

BATTERY

Bat'tery, in electricity, an apparatus for the
production of voltaic (or dynamic) electricity,
by chemical means, or by the direct transforma-
tion of heat energy (as in the thermopile). It
is admitted, that the first electric battery was
constructed by the Italian physicist Volta,
about the j'car 1800. Some 20 years before,
Galvani, a professor of anatomy at Bologna,
had observed the convulsive twitching of
frogs' legs, when their muscles and lumbar
nerves were simultaneously touched by differ-
ent metals that were themselves elsewhere in
contact, and he had rightly attributed the phe-
nomenon to electricity. Galvani, however, was
of the opinion that the electricity was of
physiological origin, its seat being within the
frogs' legs. Volta, on the contrary, believed
that the electricity was generated by the con-
tact of the dissimilar metals, and in this belief
he constructed the apparatus which is known
as his couronne de tasses, or '■'■ crown of cups.'^
Placing a series of cups in a circle, he par-
tially filled them with a solution of salt and
water, and introduced into each a pair of me-
tallic plates, one of these being zinc, and the
other either copper or silver. He connected
the zinc plate of each cup with the copper
plate of the next, completing the entire circle
in this way except at one place, where he at-
tached wires to the terminals, to lead away
the electricity generated. Very shortly after-
ward he constructed the "voltaic pile'^ on the
same general principle, except that he formed
it of disks of copper, zinc, and wet cloth,
which he piled up in the order : copper, zinc,
cloth, copper, zinc, cloth, etc., the lowest plate
of all being copper, and the highest zinc. The
wires for leading off the electricity were then
connected at the top and bottom of the ap-
paratus. It is commonly believed that the
*'pile*^ of zinc and copper disks was the first
form of his battery ; but according to Niaudet
this is an error, the column battery being an
afterthought, made with a view to produce an
instrument that might be easily transported
into hospitals for medical purposes. The phe-
nomena exhibited by Volta's **crown of cups*
were remarkable enough to attract the atten-
tion of the entire scientific world, and improved
forms of battery were soon devised. Cruik-
shank, Wollaston. Muncke, Young, Faraday,
and others contributed in this way, but the
most of the changes that were made related to
the mode of arranging the plates and other
similar details, and, save for the substitution
of dilute sulphuric acid for the salt solution,
no advance of a fundamental nature was made
until 1836, when John Frederick Daniell, an
English physicist, invented the battery that
bears his name, and which, in some respects,
has never been surpassed.

The earlier forms of battery, in which the
plates were immersed in a salt solution or in
dilute sulphuric acid, gave an electrical cur-
rent for a short time ; but hydrogen gas was
deposited upon the copper electrode by the pas-
sage of the current, thereby lessening the area
of the plate in contact with the liquid, and so
increasing the internal resistance of the cell.
It was found, too, that the products of de-
composition cut down the electromotive force
of the cell, by_ tending to establish an electro-
motive force in the opposite direction from
that in which the battery current first flowed —

a discovery that has since been put to good use
in the storage battery (q.v.). To remove
the hydrogen film that was deposited upon the
copper electrode, various artifices were adopt-
ed, such as agitating the solution, or vibrating
the copper plate so as to disengage the bubble.?,
of gas and allow them to rise to the surface
of the liquid and escape into the air, or rub-
bing the plate with a brush to achieve the
same end, or roughening it in some way so
that the hydrogen bubbles would not cling to
it so closely. All these methods were trouble-
some, and it was reserved for Daniell to de-
vise a form of cell in which the hj'drogen is
removed, automatically and very perfectly, by
chemical means. Within the usual containing
vessel of glass, he placed a smaller one made
of unglazed earthenware, and known as the
''porous cup." The outer compartment was
filled with dilute sulphuric acid, and contained
the zinc plate. The copper plate was placed
within the porous cup, and the space around it
was filled with crystals of copper sulphate, wa-
ter or dilute sulphuric acid being added until
the liquid stood at the same level on both sides
of the porous wall of the cup. When the elec-
tric current passes in a battery of this type,
the chemical action may be described in the
following way : The sulphuric acid, H^SOj, is
decomposed into hydrogen, and the radical SO4
(known as "sulphion*'). the sulphion going to
the zinc plate, with which it combines to pro-
duce zinc sulphate, ZnS04, a salt which dis-
solves as fast as it is formed, leaving a fresh
surface of zinc constantly exposed. The hy-
drogen of the primary decomposition goes to
the copper plate, but instead of being deposited
there, as in earlier forms of battery, it com-
bines with the copper sulphate present, reduc-
ing it to metallic copper and sulphuric acid>
according to the formula

CUSO4 + 2H = Cu + H=S04.
It is evident that the molecule of sulphuric
acid that was originally decomposed has now
been re-formed again, so that the total quan-
tity of acid present in the cell has not been
diminished. The metallic copper that is set
free does not interfere in any way with the
continued action of the cell, for it is deposited
upon an electrode that is already composed of
copper. The actual chemical phenomena that
occur in the Daniell battery may possibly be
more complicated than here indicated, but the
final results are the same as those given above.
The valuable feature of the Daniell cell is
the remarkable constancy of its electromotive
force. In some other respects, however, later
forms of battery are superior to it. Thus its
electromotive force, although quite constant,
is not very great (about 1.07 volts). In 1839
Sir William Robert Grove modified it by sub-
stituting strong nitric acid for the solution of
copper sulphate, and (since nitric acid will at-
tack copper) platinum plates for the copper
ones in Daniell's form. An electromotive force
as high as 1.9 volts has been observed with
this type of battery, the hydrogen that goes
to the platinum electrode being oxidized by
the nitric acid, with the formation of nitrous
acid and water. The chief objections to
Grove's battery are the nitrous fumes that it
gives ofif, and the expense of the platinum re-
quired. In 1843 Robert Bunsen found that the
latter objection could be readily overcome by

BATTERY

replacing the platinum electrodes by plates of
carbon. Except for this substitution, his bat-
tery is identical with Grove's, and will give
substantially the same electromotive force. It
is said that the idea of using carbon instead
of platinum occurred to Grove himself, and
that he made several public experiments with
carbon ; but these were not entirely successful,
and when Bunsen showed the feasibility of
using it, they had been forgotten. Many mod-
ifications of the Daniell battery have been pro-
posed. Of these the "gravity battery'^ is one
of the most interesting. It is identical in gen-
eral theory with the Daniell cell, but contains
no porous cup, the liquids being kept separate
by their different densities. The copper elec-
trode is placed in the bottom of the cell, and
the zinc is suspended near the top. The con-
taining vessel is nearly filled with a solution
of copper sulphate, a small quantity of solution
of zinc sulphate being floated on the top. The
copper sulphate solution, being the denser, re-
mains in the lower part of the cell, and the
surface of separation of the two liquids de-
scends, slowly, as the batter)' is used, owing to
the gradual diminution of the quantity of cop-
per sulphate present, and the corresponding in-
crease in the quantity of sulphate of zinc.
Gravity batteries, if carefully installed, are
quite serviceable, and need but little attention.
They are used to a considerable extent for tele-
graphic purposes, when dynamo-electric currents
cannot be had conveniently. Batteries in which
the depolarizing agent is a salt of chromic
acid are now used very commonly for work
in which a large current is wanted for a con-
siderable time. Bichromate of potassium is
the salt commonly employed as the depolarizer,
its use having been first suggested by Johann
Christian Poggendorff, a noted professor of
physics at Berlin. Bichromate of potash bat-
teries are made in various forms, some with
porous cups and some without. The com-
moner type has no cup, but consists of zinc and
carbon electrodes, immersed in a solution con-
sisting essentially of one ounce of bichromate
of potassium and one fluid ounce of concen-
trated sulphuric acid, to every lo ounces of
water. It is well to add, also, about i grain
of mercurous sulphate to each ounce of the
solution, in order to keep the zincs well amal-
gamated. A bichromate battery so constructed
has an electromotive force of about 2 volts, and
can be run on a comparatively low resistance
for some time without greatly falling off in its
voltage. It is not to be compared for con-
stancy, however, with the batteries of Daniell,
Grove, and Bunsen. All the batteries thus far
described should have their zincs well amalga-
mated, by rubbing with dilute sulphuric acid
and mercury till a bright, mirror-like surface
is obtained. The mercury does not enter into
any chemical relations with the other contents
of the cell, but it has the power of dissolving
zinc in preference to other substances that may
be present as impurities in the electrode to
which it is applied, and so keeping a fresh sur-
face of the pure metal constantly exposed to
the battery liquid.

The sal ammoniac cell invented by M.
Georges Leclanche is exceedingly useful for
ringing bells, operating telephones, lighting gas
jets, and other work where a transient current
is desired, though it *runs down'' (or loses its

electromotive force) rapidly when used for
any considerable time on a closed circuit, re-
covering again in a short time when left to
itself. In its original form it contained a por-
ous cup, in which was a carbon electrode, sur-
rounded by a mixture of pulverized carbon and
manganese dioxid. The outer compartment
contained the zinc electrode, and the liquid
used was a solution of sal ammoniac (am-
monium chloride) . In recent years the porous
cup has been commonly omitted, the depolariz-
ing mixture of carbon and manganese dioxid
being compressed into blocks and bound di-
rectly to the carbon electrode by means of rub-
ber bands. The electromotive force of the Le-
clanche cell is about 1.48 volts, when it has
been left at rest for some time. In the place
of the depolarizing compound given above, a
mixture of 55 parts of sulphur, 40 of gas-coke
powder, and 5 of shellac is also used. So-
called "dry cells'' have come into favor greatly
during the past few years. These cells are not
really dry, except in the sense that they do
not contain any free liquid that can run out if
the cell is inverted. They contain electrodes
of carbon and zinc, the space between which
is filled with a paste that acts as a depolarizer.
Many different compositions have been recom-
mended for the paste, among them the follow-
ing, which is said to give excellent results :
Charcoal, 3 parts ; graphite, i part ; peroxide
of manganese, 3 parts ; slaked lime, I part ;
"white arsenic" (arsenic trioxide), i part; a
mixture of glucose and starch, i part ; all by
weight. These are to be intimately mixed
while dry, and then worked into a smooth paste
with equal parts of a saturated solution of sal
ammoniac and a similar solution of common
salt, to which one tenth (by volume) of a sat-
urated solution of corrosive sublimate and one
tenth (also by volume) of hydrochloric acid
have been added. Dry batteries are not in-
tended for continuous service, but (like the
Leclanche element, to which they are closely
related) for the production of transient cur-
rents, at considerable intervals.

A form of battery, devised by Mr. Latimer
Clark for use in laboratories as a standard of
electromotive force, is now commonly employed
for this purpose in all exact electrical re-
searches, where the precise determination of an
electromotive force is important. As described
in his original paper (< Philosophical Transac-
tions' 1875), the cell contains zinc, sulphate of
zinc, sulphate of mercury, and mercury ; the
zinc and mercury forming the respective elec-
trodes. All the materials used must be chemi-
cally pure, both the mercury and the zinc
being distilled. The sulphate of mercury used
in the cell is the mercurous salt, Hg^SQj,
which is prepared by treating pure mercury
with an equal weight of pure concentrated sul-
phuric acid, the mixture being warmed, but
kept well below the boiling point (212° F.).
The white solid that is produced should be
removed before all of the mercury disappears,
in order to avoid the formation of the mercuric
sulphate (HgSOO, which is detrimental to the
battery, and which may be recognized, when
present in any considerable quantity, by its
transformation, upon addition of water, into a
yellow basic salt (perhaps HgS04.2HgO),
and free sulphuric acid. The mercury sul-
phate should be thoroughly washed, before use,

BATTEUX

to remove the last trace of free acid. The zinc
sulphate is used in the form of a saturated
solution, prepared by dissolving the compound
in boiling water, and then allowing it to cool.
The sulphate of mercury is made into a thick
paste with the zinc sulphate solution, and the
whole is then heated to 212° F., to expel any
air that may be present. The bottom of the
cell that is to be used is then well covered
with mercury (which is to serve as the posi-
tive electrode), after which the paste is poured
in. The zinc is suspended in the paste, and the
vessel is finally sealed with melted paraifin.
The positive connection is made by sealing a
platinum wire into the bottom of the cell, or
by running the wire down through the paste
to the mercury, protecting it by a glass tube.
When great accuracy is desired, numerous
minute precautions must be observed in the
manufacture of these cells, and also in their
subsequent use. Such details are to be found
chiefly in papers that have appeared in the
various scientific journals. (See, for example,
Glazebrook and Skinner, ^Philosophical Trans-
actions, A,^ 1892.) There is still some small
difference of opinion among the various au-
thorities as to the exact electromotive force
of the Clark cell, but it is certainly very close
to 1.433 volts at 60° F., and it varies about
C.00061' volt per Fahrenheit degree, being lower
at higher temperatures, and vice versa. Vari-
ous attempts have been made to devise an elec-
tric battery in which some substance other than
zinc shall be consumed, to furnish the electrical
energy. Iron has been used with some degree
of success, but, for one reason or another, iron-
consuming batteries have never come into gen-
eral favor. Magnesium batteries have also
been used to a limited extent ; a magnesium-
carbon element, with a bichromate of potas-
sium depolarizing solution, giving an electro-
motive force as high as 2.95 volts. The
expense of batteries consuming magnesium is
too great, however, to permit them to be used
for any but experimental purposes.

The ideal electric battery would be one in
which carbon is the substance consumed, and
inventors have turned their attention to this
particular problem with great energy, but with
no very considerable measure of success, al-
though there does not appear to be any theo-
retical reason why a practical and serviceable
battery of this sort may not be ultimately dis-
covered. A quarter of a century ago, M.
Jablochkoff constructed a cell in which the
liquid was melted nitrate of soda or nitrate of
potash, the negative electrode (or electrode to
be consumed) being of coke, while the posi-
tive one was of platinum or cast iron. The
coke electrode is brought to incandescence over
a part of its surface, before being immersed
in the liquid. Upon immersion the coke then
burns fiercely, obtaining its oxygen from the
melted nitrate, and sending forth large vol-
umes of carbon dioxid gas. While the com-
bustion continues, the cell is capable of gen-
erating quite a sensible electric current ; but it
does not appear that its electromotive force
has been determined with any great precision.
M. Jablochkoff's carbon-consuming battery
cannot be regarded as more than a scientific
curiosity, but it is nevertheless interesting, be-
cause it demonstrates the possibility of a
carbon-consuming battery. About 1895 Dr.

William W. Jacques devised a form of electric
battery which was thought, for a time, to ob-
tain its energy from the oxidation of carbon.
Each cell consisted of a cast-iron pot, which
served as a containing vessel, and at the same
time as the positive electrode. The negative
electrode was a stick of carbon, suspended cen-
trally in the cell. The liquid was caustic soda
or caustic potash, which was kept in a state
of fusion by means of a furnace, and through'
which a stream of air was blown, by means of
a kind of rose nozzle entering at the bottom
of the pot. The electromotive force of a sin-
gle cell of this battery is about 0.9 volt. Dr.
Jacques' theory of the cell was that the fur-
nace merely served to keep the caustic melted,
while the electric energy furnished by the bat-
tery had its origin in the oxidation of the car-
bon rods in the cells, the oxygen needed for
this oxidation being furnished by the blast of
air. In the course of some tests carried out
by Dr. Jacques and others with this idea in
mind, the loss in weight of the carbon rods
was compared with the output of electrical
energy yielded by the battery, the result being
that the apparatus showed an efficiency, in one
case, of no less than 87 per cent. Unfortu-
nately, investigations made by others do not
justify Dr. Jacques' hypothesis as to the origin
of the electrical energy in his battery. Thus
Mr. C. J. Reed showed that the disintegration
of the carbon is merely incidental, and that the
carbon can be replaced by iron, brass, copper,
gernian silver, or other metallic bodies, with-
out detriment to the battery. He also found
that the cell works much better and lasts much
longer, if the caustic potash is replaced by ni-
trate of potash ; and, finally, he proved that
a blast of common illuminating gas may be
substituted for the air, without lessening the
electrical yield of the apparatus. These results
established the fact, beyond doubt, that the
Jacques battery is not a galvanic battery at all,
but a form of the thermo-electric apparatus,
drawing its energy from the fuel that is con-
sumed in the furnace below the pots. The
chemical energy of the coal in the furnace is
first transformed into heat, and only later into
electrical energy. The battery is therefore
amenable to the second law of thermody-
namics (q.v.), which is the great obstacle that
the successful carbon-consuming battery must
avoid. See Electricity ; Storage Battery.

In lazv, the unlawful beating of another, or
even the touching him with hostile intent.
It is legitimate for a parent or a master to give
moderate correction to his child, his scholar, or
his apprentice. A person who is violently as-
sailed by another may strike back in self-
defense. He may do so also in defense of his
property. But to strike anyone in anger, how-
ever gently, without these justifications, ex-
poses one to the liability to be prosecuted for
assault and battery, the assault being the
menacing gesture and the battery the actual
blow. Wounding and mayhem are a more ag-
gravated kind of battery.

In military art. any work in which one or
more cannon are planted, and which may be
permanent or temporary. See Fortification.

Batteux, ba-te, Charles, French scholar,
honorarv canon of Rheims: b. Alland'huy, 1713:
d. 14 July 1780. He displayed his gratitude
to this city, in which he received his education,

B ATTH YANYI — BATTLE

hy the ode "^In Civitatem Remensem^ (i739),
which was much admired. In 1750 he was in-
vited to Paris, where he taught rhetoric in the
colleges of Lisieux and Navarre. He was after-
ward appointed professor of Latin and Greek
philosophy at the Royal College. In 1754 he
became a member of the Academy of Inscrip-
tions, and in 1761 of the French Academ3^ Bat-
teux left a large number of valuable works. He
did much service to literature and the fine arts,
by introducing unity and system into the nu-
merous canons of taste, which had gained a
standing among the French by the example of
many eminent men, particularly in regard to
poetry, and must be regarded as a valuable
writer on aesthetics, notwithstanding the higher
point of view from which this science is now
considered. Some of his most valuable works
are: 'Les Beaux-Arts reduits a unmeme
Principe,^ (1747) ; and *Cours de Belles-
Lettres ou Principes de la Litterature^ (1774).
These works were translated into several other
languages.

Batthyanyi, bot'ya-nye, Count Kasimir,
Hungarian statesman, minister of foreign affairs
■during the Hungarian revolution : b. 4 June
1807; d. Paris, 13 July 1854. From his earliest
childhood he took a lively interest in public af-
fairs, and after having, as member of the Hun-
garian diet, opposed the Austrian government,
he became, at the outbreak of the revolution, one
of the prominent champions of Hungarian in-
dependence, devoting his wealth and influence
to the promotion of this cause, and at the same
time distinguishing himself on various occa-
sions by his courage and skill on the battle-
field. After having officiated as governor of
various provinces, he became minister of for-
eign affairs, under the administration of Kos-
suth, and subsequently he shared his exile in
Turkey until 185 1, when he repaired to Paris,
where he died. Although sympathizing with
Kossuth in some respects, he differed from him
in others, and addressed, in 1851, a series of let-
ters to the London Times, in which he reflected
rather severely upon Kossuth's character as
statesman and patriot.

Batthyanyi, Count Louis, Hungarian pa-
triot: b. Pressburg, iSog; d. 6 Oct. 1849. He
entered the army as a cadet at the age of 16,
and on coming into possession of a large for-
tune, abandoned a military for a diplomatic
career, and in process of time attained the rank
of leader of the opposition in the Hungarian
diet. Upon the breaking out of the commo-
tions of 1848, Batthj'anyi took an active part in
promoting the national cause, and with a com-
pany of armed vassals came forward to assist
it in the field. On the entry of Windischgratz
into Budapest in January 1849, he was arrested
in the house of his sister-in-law, the Countess
Karolyi. After being conveyed to various places
he was finally brought back to Budapest, tried
by court-martial, and condemned to be hanged.
The execution of this sentence he prevented by
inflicting several wounds with a poinard on
his neck, and he was accordingly shot.

_ Batti'adae, a djmasty of Cyrene which
reigned from the 7th to the 5th century B.C.
The kings of this dynasty were: Battus I., the
founder of Cyrene; Arcesilaus I., his son; Bat-
tus II., son of Arcesilaus. who greatly increased
the power of Cyrene; Arcesilaus II., son of

Battus II.; Battus III., son of Arcesilaus II.;
Arcesilaus III., son of Battus III., who sub-
mitted to the Persian king; Battus IV., son of
Arcesilaus III. ; Arcesilaus IV., son of Battus
IV., the last king of Cyrene, killed in a revolu-
tion. He is celebrated in fourth and fifth
Pindaric odes.

Battik, an oriental production of the na-
tives of the Dutch East Indies, who decorate
their clothing with it ; also made in The Hague
for local use and export. Upon a piece of linen
various designs are outlined with a pencil.
When the design is completed, the ornamented
parts of the fabric are covered with a liquid
which possesses the quality of stiffening after
being applied. The parts not ornamented are
dyed the desired color. After the entire fabric
has been ornamented in this manner, it is boiled
in hot water so as to take the hard stuff out of
the battik. The dyed parts will then hold the
d3'e and the battik is ready. The Hague peo-
ple were the first to introduce battik into Eu-
rope It is made on linen, silk, velvet, and
leather, and is exported to all the principal cities
of Europe.

Battle, CuUen Andrews, American military
officer : b. Powelton, Ga., i June 1829. He was
graduated from the University of Alabama ;
admitted to the bar in 1852 and practised till
i860; was a Breckenridge and Lane Presiden-
tial elector, and accompanied William L. Yancy
in his canvass of Alabama. At the outbreak
of the Civil War he entered the Confederate
army, and during the war was wounded seven
times, promoted brigadier-general on the field
of Gettysburg, and major-general in October
1864. After the war he engaged in journalism
in Newbern, N. C.

Battle, Kemp Plummer, American educa-
tor : b. Franklin County, N. C, 19 Dec. 1831.
He graduated at the University of North Caro-
lina in 1849; was a member of the State conven-
tion of North Carolina in 1861 that passed the
ordinance of secession; State treasurer, 1866-8;
president of the University of North Carolina
1876-91 ; and afterward professor of history
there. His works include: ^History of the Su-
preme Court of North Carolina^ ; ^History of
Raleigh. North Carolina^ ; ^Trials and Judicial
Proceedings of the New Testament^ ; ^Life of
General Jethro Sumner,' as well as numerous
writings relating to the history of North Caro-
lina.

Battle, England, a market-town in Sussex.
It is situated in a valley nearly encircled by
wooded hills, seven miles northwest of Hast-
ings, and consists chiefly of one irregular street,
in which there are many old-fashioned build-
ings ; it is well supplied with water, and lighted
with gas. The church is ancient, and contains
some fine specimens of painted glass and nu-
merous antique monuments. There are places
of worship also for Wesleyans, Baptists,
Roman Catholics, and Congregationalists, and
endowed schools. Battle was long celebrated
for the manufacture of gunpowder. The
original name of this place was Senlac. and it
received its present name from the battle of
Hastings which was fought here. In memory
of the battle William the Conqueror erected a
great abbey, the ruins of which have a circum-
ference of about a mile. This building has al-
most entirel}^ disappeared, but interesting re-

BATTLE

mains of a subsequent building exist, including
the gateway, a beautiful specimen of the dec-
orated English style. One portion of this
building now forms a mansion, which until
very lately was the residence of Lord Rose-
bery's mother, the Duchess of Cleveland. See
Walcott, ^History of Battle Abbey^ (1867);
Duchess of Cleveland, <The Roll of Battle Ab-
bey^ (1889). Pop. (1901) 2,996.

Battle. The object of a war may be ob-
tained in two different ways : one party either
forces the enemy, by skilful manoeuvres, marches,
demonstrations, the occupation of advantageous
positions, etc., to quit the field (which belongs
to the province of strategy) ; or the hostile
masses approach each other, so that a battle
becomes necessary to determine which shall
keep the field. Troops may either meet by de-
sign or by chance. When they meet by chance,
and are thus obliged to fight, it is called a
rencontre. The rules for insuring a successful
issue, whether they respect the preparations for
the conflict, or the direction of the forces
when actually engaged, belong to tactics, in
the narrower sense of the word Strategy also
shows the causes which bring armies together,
and produce battles without any agreement be-
tween the parties. It may be sufficient to say,
in general, that armies in their marches (and
consequently in their meeting) are chiefly de-
termined by the course of the mountains and
rivers of a country. In ancient times and the
Middle Ages the battle-ground was often chosen
by agreement, and the battle was then a mere
trial of strength, a sort of duel ; but, in our
time, such trifling is done away with. War is
now carried on for the real or pretended interest
of a nation, or of a ruler who thinks or pre-
tends that his interest is that of the nation.
Wars are now undertaken for the purpose of
fighting, and battles are merely the consequence
of pursuing the purpose of the war. They arise
from one party's striving to prevent the other
from gaining his object. Every means, there-
fore, of winning the battle is resorted to, and
an agreement can hardly be thought of. In
this respect a land battle is entirely different
from a naval one. The former is intended
merely to remove an obstacle in the way of
gaining the object of the war; the destruction of
the enemy, therefore, is not the first thing
sought for. But the object of a naval engage-
ment is, almost always, the destruction of the
enemy ; those cases only excepted in which a
fleet intends to bring supplies or reinforcements
to a blockaded port, and is obliged to fight' to
accomplish its purpose.

As the armies of the ancients were not so
well organized as those of the moderns, and
the combatants fought very little at a distance,
after the battle had begun manoeuvres were
much more difficult, and troops, when actually
engaged, were almost entirely beyond the con-
trol of the general. With them, therefore, the
battle depended almost wholly upon the pre-
vious arrangements, and the valor of the
troops. Not so in modern times. The finest
combinations, the most ingenious manoeuvres,
are rendered possible by the better organization
of the armies, which, thus, generally at least,
remain under the control of the general. The
battle of the ancients was the rude beginning of
an art now much developed. It is the skill of the

general, rather than the courage of the soldier,
that now determines the event of a battle.

Battles are distinguished into offensive and
defensive. Of course, a battle which is offen-
sive for one side is defensive for the other.
Tacticians divide a battle into three periods —
that of the disposition, that of the combat, and
the decisive moment. The general examines
the strength, reconnoitres the position, and en-
deavors to learn the intention of the enemy.
If the enemy conceals his plan and position,
skirmishes and partial assaults are often ad-
visable, in order to disturb him, to obtain a
view of his movements, to induce him to ad-
vance, or with the view of making prisoners,
who may be questioned, etc. Since the gen-
eral cannot direct all these operations in per-
son, officers of the staff assist him ; single scouts
or small bodies are sent out, and spies are em-
ployed. Every means is made use of for ob-
taining information regarding the enemy, or
the ground on which the battle is likely to take
place. According to the knowledge thus ac-
quired, and the state of the troops, the plan of
battle, or the disposition, is made; and here
military genius has an opportunity to display
itself. To the disposition also belongs the de-
taching of large bodies which are to co-operate
in the battle, but not under the immediate com-
mand of the chief. The plan of the battle
itself, the position of the troops, etc., is called
the order of battle {ordre de bataille). This is
either the parallel, or the inclosing (if the
enemy cannot develop his forces, or you are
strong enough to outflank him), or the oblique.
When each division of troops has taken its po-
sition, and received its orders, and the weaker
points have been fortified (if time allows it),
the artillery placed on the most favorable points,
all chasms connected by bridges, villages, woods,
etc., taken possession of, and all impediments
removed as far as possible (whicn very often
cannot be done, except by fighting), then comes
the second period — that of the engagement.
The combat begins, either on several points at
a given signal, as is the case when the armies
are very large, and a general attack is intended,
as, for instance, at Leipsic, where three fire-
balls gave the signal for battle on the side of
the allies; or by skirmishes of the light troops,
which is the most common case. The artillery
endeavors to dismount the batteries of the
enemy, to destroy his columns, and, in general,
to break a passage, if possible, for the other
troops. The forces, at the present day, are
brought into action inostly in open order, and
not, as formerly, in long but weak lines. Here
the skill of the commanders of battalions is
exerted. Upon them rests the principal execu-
tion of the actual combat. The plans and or-
ders of a general reach only to a certain point ;
the chiefs of battalions must do the great work
of the battle. Before the battle, the general
places himself upon a point from which he can
see the conflict, and where he can easily receive
reports. A few men are near him as his body-
guard ; others take charge of the plans and
maps; telescopes are indispensable. He often
sends one of his aides to take command of the
nearest body of cavalry, in order to execute a
new movement quickly. He receives the reports
of the generals under him ; disposes of the troops
not yet in action ; strengthens weak points ;
throws his force on the enemy where he sees

BATTLE ABOVE THE CLOUDS — BATTLE CREEK

them waver ; or changes, if necessary, with a
bold and ingenious thought, the whole order of
battle. The general now uses every means to
bring on the third period of the battle — the
decisive moment.

In the Austro-German campaign of l866,
and the still more important Franco-German
campaign of 1870, great changes were developed
both in strategy and tactics. The changes in
strategy were due chieflv to the ease with which
the general could direct detached bodies of
troops over a wide area by means of the tele-
graph, and the facility with which troops, pro-
visions, and ammunition could be moved from
point to point by railway. The changes in tac-
tics, again, arose chiefly from the longer range
and quicker firing capacity of modern rifles, and
the greater importance attached to the massed
hring of long-range breech-loading artillery.
Still greater changes in tactics and strategy have
been brought about by such recent inventions as
those of smokeless powder and lyddite shells,
and in the Spanish-American and Anglo-Boer
wars these changes were made very manifest.
See also Strategy ; Tactics.

Battle Above the Clouds, The, the name
given to that portion of the battle of Chatta-
nooga fought on Lookout Mountain, Tenn., 24
Nov. 1863. See Chattanooga, Battle of.

Battle Axe, a military weapon much used
in the early part of the Middle Ages, particu-
larly by those who fought on foot. It was not
uncommon, however, among the knights, who
used also the mace, a species of iron club or
hammer. Both are to be seen in the different
collections of old arms in Europe. The Greeks
and Romans did not employ the battle axe,
though it was found among contemporary na-
tions. In fact, the axe is one of the earliest
weapons, its use as an instrument of domestic
industry naturally suggesting its application for
purposes of offense ; but, at the same time, it has
always been abandoned as soon as the art of
fencing, attacking, and guarding was cultivated ;
because the heavier the blow given with this
instrument, the more will it expose the fighter.
It never would have remained so long in use
in the Middle Ages had it not been for the iron
armor, which protected the body from every
thing but heavy blows. In England, Ireland,
and Scotland, the battle axe was much em-
ployed. r\t the battle of Bannockburn, King
Robert Bruce clave an English champion down
to the chin with one blow of his axe. The
Lochaber-axe remained a formidable weapon in
the hands of the Highlanders to a recent period,
and was used by the old city guard of Edin-
burgh. A pole axe is a long-handled battle axe.

Battle of the Books, The, a famous work
by Jonathan Swift, written in 1697, but re-
maining in manuscript until 1704. It was a
travesty on the endless controversy over the
relative merits of the ancients and moderns,
first raised in France bv Perrault. Its imme-
diate cause, however, was the position of
Swift's patron. Sir William Temple, as to the
genuineness of the ^Letters of Phalaris.^ The
work, was not taken with entire seriousness by
Swift's contemporaries.

Battle of the Salient. See Spottsvlvania
Court House, Battles of.

Battle Creek, Mirh., a city of Calhoun
County, situated on the Kalamazoo River at

its junction with the Battle Creek, and on the
Grand Trunk Western, Michigan Central, and
Detroit, Toledo & Milwaukee Railroads, 121
miles west of Detroit and 163 miles east of
Chicago.

Industries, Banks, Etc. — Battle Creek is lo-
cated in the midst of the best farming section
of the State and agriculture and fruit-growing
are carried on extensively. It is as a manu-
facturing city, however, that Battle Creek is
best known, having more than 70 factories m
active operation employing about 5,000 people.
The weekly pay-roll of factories alone is over
$100,000. There are large plants which make
more threshing machines, traction engines and
steam pumps than are made in any other city
in the world. There are also planing mills,
boiler works, brick yards, flouring mills, found-
ries, cigar factories, bof-ling works, ice
plants, ironworks, candy factories, a brewery,
pipe-organ factory, etc. The city is also noted
for the manufacture of cereal foods. The
Grand Trunk Western shops are located here,
this being the only division between Port
Huron and Chicago. There are two national,
two State and one private banks, with a com-
bined capital of $4SO,ooo, surplus $226,000, and
deposits $4.216000.

Societies, Buildings, Education, Etc. — Bat-
tle Creek has over 50 secret and fraternal so-
cieties, a Nature Club, a Musical Union, a
Woman's Club, a Woman's Lea^^ue which owns
a business block and has a noon-dav rest and
free dispensary, a Y. W. C. A. and Y. M. C. A.,
a company of State militia and the A.thelstan
Club, a social organization, composed of busi-
ness and professional men. The Young Men's
Christian Association building is the gift of
the late Charles Willard and cost $40,000. The
new public library costing $70,000 is also the
gift of Mr. Willard. A fine hospital costing
$35,000 was presented to the city by the late
John Nichols. Other interesting buildings are
the Post Theatre (costing $60,000), Post
Tavern, the Phelps Sanatorium, and Battle
Creek Sanitarium (q.v.). The city has over
20 churches and is known as one of the largest
centres of the Seventh Day Adventists (see
Adventists). There are 10 public schools, 100
teachers and over 4,000 children of school age.
a Catholic parish school, and three business
colleges. Over $90,000 was spent for school
maintenance in 1903. There are daily and
weekly papers and a number of monthly publi-
cations, some of them published in foreign
languages.

History, Government, Etc. — Battle Creek was
first settled in 1832 by families from New
York and New England and has always been
noted as a distinctively American city, the
percentage of foreign born citizens being rela-
tively small. It was incorporated as a ciry in
1859 and its government is under a general
charter and a council of 10 members, five of
whom are elected each year for a term of twQ
years. The city owns its own water system
with a capacity of over 1,500,000 gallons of
water per day; has paid fire and police depart-
ments, electric light and gas plants, and two
telephone systems. The city owns a splendid
park at Lake Goguac, and is an attractive sum-
mer resort on account of the numerous lakes
in the vicinity. Battle Creek stands third
among the cities of the State in the amount

BATTLE CREEK SANITARIUM — BATTLE-SHIP

of post-office business, exceeded only by De-
troit and Grand Rapids. Pop. (1904 census)
22,213.

Chas. E. Barnes,
City Editor '^Journal.^

Battle Creek Sanitarium, The, is a phil-
anthropic and humanitarian institution operat-
ing under a perpetual charter which compels
the use of all the profits gained to foster the
spread of humanitarian work. 'Wore than 60
branches of the parent institution have been
established in or near large cities in different
parts of the world, under the title of The
American Medical Missionary Association, and
each of these branches conducts a life-saving
business on Good Samaritan principles. The
organization began its work in the year 1866,
with almost no capital and only one patient, in
a small two-story frame house, in the then
small village of Battle Creek, Mich. The
incorporators believed that Christianity should
be expressed in works as much as in faith, in
curing the sick and healing the wounded, and
thus preparing the unfortunate for the reception
of moral and spiritual inspiration.

The Golden Rule is the foundation princi-
ple of the institution. It has grown from a
small beginning to the immense proportions of
the present time, with one of its buildings nearly
a thousand feet in length and six stories in
height and numerous other buildings radiating
from the main one and scattered about it in a
finely wooded park. Fire destroyed the old
building and all its contents, but it was soon
rebuilt larger and better than before, and has
grown to its present proportions.

Battle Cry of Freedom, The, a patriotic
song of the American Civil War by the well-
known composer, George Frederick Root
(1861).

Battle of Dorking, The, a realistic, mat-
ter-of-fact description of an imaginary inva-
sion of England by a foreign power, by Charles
Cornwallis Chesney. It appeared first in 'Black-
wood's Magazine^ in 1871, and has since been
reprinted under the title <The Fall of Eng-
land.' After the ignominious defeat of the
French at Sedan, Col. Chesney, professor of
military history at Sandhurst, foresaw a similar
fate for his own country unless it should re-
organize its army. He urged vigorous measures
of reform ; and as the necessity for these was
not perceived by the country at large, he con-
tributed to the press various articles, both tech-
nical and popular, among them 'The Battle of
Dorking.' The fleet and army are scattered
when war is declared, but the government has
a sublime confidence that British luck and pluck
will save the country now as hitherto. To uni-
versal surprise and consternation, the hostile
fleet annihilates the available British squadron,
and the enemy lands on the south coast. Vol-
unteers are called out, and respond readily; but
ammunition is lacking, the commissariat is un-
organized, and the men, though brave, have
neither discipline nor endurance. The decisive'
battle is fought at Dorking, and the British are
routed and England, without other alternative,
is compelled to submit to the humiliating terms
of the conqueror.

Battle of the Bloody Angle. See Spottsyl-
VANiA Court House, Battles of.

Battle of the Frogs and Mice, The, an

ancient Greek mock epic, written in hexameters.
Forriierly attributed to Homer. Modern critics
are of the opinion that the credit of authorship
should be given to Pigres (q.v.). Only 316
lines are now extant.

Battle-Ground, Ind., a town in Tippecanoe
County, where the famous battle of Tippecanoe
was fought between the United States troops
under Gen. Harrison and the Indians under
Tecumseh and his brother, "The Prophet," 7
Nov. 181 1.

Battle Hymn of the Republic, The, a cele-
brated poem by Mrs. Julia Ward Howe, pub-
lished in the 'Atlantic Monthly' in 1862, and
sung to the air, "John Brown's Body."

Battle of the Kegs, The. See Hopkinson,
Francis.

Battle, Law of, the contest between male
animals for possession of the females, among
barbarous nations. Among certain tribes of
the North American Indians the men wrestled
for any women to whom they were attached.
With the Australians the women were the con-
stant cause of war, both between the individ-
uals of the same tribe and between distinct
tribes. In mammals the male, says Darwin,,
appears to win the female much more through
the law of battle than through the display of
his charms. The most timid animals, even the
hare, will fight desperately, the duel only end-
ing by the death of one of the parties. Male
m.oles, squirrels, and beavers have been seen
fighting for their mate.

Battle Monument, a monument in Balti-
more, Md., erected in memory of those who fell
in defense of the city when it was attacked by
the English forces in September 1814.

Battle of the Spurs, a battle of Guinegate,
16 Aug. 15 13, in which the French cavalry
were defeated by the forces of Henry VIII. of
England and the Emperor Maximilian. It was
thus named on account of the numberless gilt
spurs gathered by the victors.

Battle, Trial by, or Wager of, an obsolete

method of deciding cases, whether civil or
criminal, by personal combat between the par-
ties or their champions in presence of the court..
A woman, a priest, a peer, or a person physi-
cally incapable of fighting could refuse such a
trial. This mode of trial ended in Scotland
with the close of the i6th century. See
Stephen, 'History of the Criminal Law of Eng-
land' (1883) ; Neilson, 'Trial by Combat^
(1890).

Battledore and Shuttlecock, a popular
game invented in the 14th century. The im-
plements are a bat shaped like a tennis racket
and strung with gut or covered with parch-
ment, and a shuttlecock consisting of a cork
stuck with feathers, which is batted to and fro
between the players.

Battleford, the chief town of the Saskatch-
ewan district of the Northwest Territories of
Canada, on the river Battle near its junction
with the North Saskatchewan, about 100 miles
from Prince Albert. The Riel insurrection be-
gan near Battleford. It was the capital of the
Northwest Territory, 1876-83. Pop. (1901) 797.

Battle-ship. See Naval Architf'^ture;,
Warships, Modern.

BATWA — BAUDISSIN

Batwa, bat'wa, a tribe of pygmies living
in the Wissmann Falls district of southern-
central Africa. They are sometimes less than
four feet high, but well shaped and well de-
veloped. They live in villages and are under
the protection of the Bakuba. Their food con-
sists of meat, wild roots, and a few vegetables
which they cultivate. Their weapons are
knives, bows and arrows, poisoned with the
juice of the root of a species of Euphorbia.
Their household furniture is very simple, and
they do not make pottery, weave, or work in
metals.

Bauan, bow^'an, or Bauang, Philippines, a
town of Luzon in the province of Babangas,
4 miles northeast of the town of Babangas,
Pop. 39,659-

Baucher, bo-sha, Frangois, French hippol-
ceist : b. Versailles, 1796; d. Paris, 14 March
1873. He is remembered because of his method
of training saddle horses and his book 'Meth-
ode d' Equitation basee sur des nouveaux ^rin-
cepes^ (1842).

Baucis, in mythology, a Phrygian woman,
the wife of Philemon. They received Jupiter
and Mercury hospitably, after these gods had
been denied hospitality in the whole country
w^hile traveling in disguise. A deluge destroyed
the remainder of the people, but Philemon
and Baucis, with their cottage, were saved.
They begged the gods to make their cottage a
temple, in which they could officiate as priest
and priestess, and that they might die together ;
which was granted. Philemon and Baucis are,
therefore, names often used to indicate faithful
and attached married people. See Philemon.

Baudelaire, bod-lar, Charles Pierre, French
poet; b. Paris, 9 April 182 1 ; d. 30 Aug. 1867.
In early life he resided for some time in the
East Indies, and on his return devoted himself
to literature. He first gained some reputation
by translations from the works of Edgar Allan
Poe, four volumes of which appeared in 1856-
65, regarded as masterpieces in their way. A
production, however, that caused greater sensa-
tion w'as a collection of poems designated 'Les
Fleurs du MaP (1857), which had to be ex-
purgated as the result of proceedings on the
part of the police authorities. This work gave
Baudelaire a high position as a writer of the
romantic school, and evidenced at the same time
his curious inclination for repulsive subjects.
A work of higher tone was his ^Petits Poemes
en Prose^ ; others being <Les Paradis Artifi-
ciels^ ; ^ Opium et Haschich^ ; a monograph on
Theophile Gautier; and ^R. Wagner et Tann-
hauser a Paris. ^ Apart from his verse, how-
ever, Baudelaire's finest work is contained in his
^Little Poems in Prose.^ All of these are ex-
quisitely written, and in many of them the
beauty of the thought is equal to the beauty of
the language. He united a remarkably keen ana-
lytic faculty with a powerful, sombre imagina-
tion. Brooding melancholy, curiously tinctured
with irony, inspires the solemn music and dream-
like imagery of his best verses. The writer
whom, in many respects he resembles most
strongly is Edgar Allan Poe. See James,
< French Poets and Novelists^ (1884) ; Assel-
ineau, < Charles Baudelaire et vie et son oeuvre'
(1889).

Baudens, bo-dan, Jean Baptiste Lucien,
French surgeon: b. Aire, 3 April 1804; d. 3 Dec.
1857. He w-as a surgeon in the French army in
Algeria 1830-41 and founded a hospital there in
which he taught surgery for nine years. He
published 'Nouvelle Methode des Amputations*
(1842); <La Guerre du Crimee* ; *Clinique des
Plaies d'Armes a Feu.^

Baudin, bo-dan, Nicolas, French sea-cap-
tain and botanist: b. on the island of Re, 1750;
d. 16 Sept. 1803. He entered the merchant
navy at an early age, and in 1786, went on a
botanical expedition to the Indies, sailing from
Leghorn under the Austrian flag, with a vessel
under his own command. His collections in
this expedition, and in a second which he made
to the West Indies, were presented by him, on
his return to France, to the government, which
promoted him to the rank of captain, and sent
him, in 1800, on a scientific mission to Australia.
He failed to penetrate the interior of that coun-
try, but made many interesting observations
on the coast. Half of his men died of fatigue
and exposure, and he himself soon breathed his
last at the Isle of France, on his return. Peron
accompanied him and wrote an account of the
voyage.

Baudin des Ardennes, bo-daii-daz-ar-den,
Charles, French vice-admiral: b. Sedan, 21
July 1784; d. Paris, 7 June 1854. In 1812
he conducted a small fleet safely into the harbor
of St. Tropez, though continually pursued by
English cruisers. In 1816, he resigned, and en-
tered the merchant service, but after the July
revolution re-entered the navy. In 1838, he was
promoted to the rank of rear-admiral, and re-
ceived the command of the expedition against
Mexico. His efforts to effect an amicable set-
tlement with the Mexican government proving
fruitless, he bombarded, 27 Nov. 1838, the for-
tress of San Juan de Ulloa, which surrendered
on the following day. Baudin treated the inhab-
itants with great consideration, and permitted
1,000 Mexican soldiers to remain in the city to
maintain order, but on the Mexican government
sending re-enforcements, he w^as compelled to
resort again to hostilities, which, on 5 December
of the same year, resulted in the disarming of
Vera Cruz, in the complete defeat of the Mexi-
can army, and in the restoration of peace be-
tween the two countries. On his return to
France, he was for a short time minister of
marine under Louis Philippe. In March 1848
he was appointed commander of the French
fleet in the Mediterranean, and remained sta-
tioned for some time during the Italian out-
break off the Neapolitan and Sicilian coast.
In the following j-ear he retired from active
service.

Baudissin, bow'dis-sTn, Wolf Friedrich
Karl, Count von, German litterateur : b.
Rantzau, 30 Jan. 1789; d. Dresden, 4 April
1878. After 1827 he resided at Dresden, where
he collaborated with Tieck and Schligel in a
noted translation of Shakespeare. The trans- "
lations contributed by Baudissin are those of
<Henry VIII.^ ; <Much Ado About Nothing^ ;
^Taming of the Shrew* ; * Comedy of Errors* ;
•^Measure for Measure* ; ^All's Well that Ends
Well* ; ^Antony and Cleopatra* ; ^Troilus and
Cressida* ; ^ Merry Wives of Windsor* ;
'Love's Labor's Lost^ ; ^Titus Andronicus* ;
^Othello*; <King Lear.* He published <Beo

BAUDISSIN — BAUERNFELD

Tonson und Seine Schule' (1836) ; and trans-
lations from Moliere (1865-7).

Baudissin, Wolf Wilhelm, German theo-
logian: b. Sophienhof, Holstein, 26 Sept. 1847.
He was professor at Strassburg, 1876-81, at
Marburg, 1881-1900, and at Berlm from 1900.
His publications comprise ^Translations An-
tiquse Arabicae Libri Jobiquse Supersunt^ (1870) ;
^Studien Zur Semitischen Religionsgeschichte'
(1870-8) ; ^Die Geschichte des Alttestament-
lichen Priesterthums untersucht^ (1889) ;
< August Dillmann^ (1895).

Baudrillart, bo-dre-yar, Henri Joseph
Leon, French political economist: b. Paris,
28 Nov. 1821 ; d. there, 24 Jan. 1892. He
edited the Constittitionncl and subsequently the
Journal des Economistes, and in 1881 was pro-
fessor in the Ecole des Ponts et Chausees.
He published ^Des rapports de la Morale et
de I'Economie Politique^ (i860) ; ^Manuel
d'ficonomie Politique^ (1857) ; ^Publicistes
Modernes* (1862); ^Histoire du Luxe^ (1878-
80) ; 'Les Populations Agricoles de la France^
(1880-8).

Baudry, bo-dre, Paul, French painter: b.
La Roche-sur-Yon,' 7 Nov. 1828; d. 17 Jan. 1886.
He studied in Paris and Rome. Among his best
known works are ^Punishment of a Vestal
Virgin^ (1857), and the ^Assassination of
Marat^ (1867). He was for 10 years employed
m decorating the foyer of the Grand Opera in
Paris. His famous 'Glorification of the Law-*
on the ceiling of the Palace of Justice gained
him the medal of honor in 1881 and is gen-
erally ranked as his masterpiece. He was
elected a member of the Academic des Beaux-
Arts in 1870.

Bauer, bow'er, Bruno, German philoso-
pher, historian, and Biblical critic of the ra-
tional school: b. Eisenberg, 6 Sept. 1809; d.
Berlin, 15 April, 1882. Among his works are:

* Critique of the Gospel of John' (1840);

* Critique of the Synoptic Gospels' (1840) ;
^History of the French Revolution to the Found-
ing of the Republic' (1847) ; 'History of Ger-
many during the French Revolution and the
Rule of Napoleon' (1846) ; 'Critique of the
Gospels' (1850-1) ; 'Critique of the Pauline
Epistles' (1850) ; 'Philo, Strauss, Renan, and
Primitive Christianity' (1874) ; 'Christus und
die Casaren' (1877). His work displays equal
learning and industry but his conclusions are
far from harmonizing with evangelical thought.

Bauer, Caroline, German actress: b.
Heidelberg, 29 March 1807 ; d. Ziirich, 18 Oct.
1878. She made her debut in 1822, and had
achieved a brilliant success, in comedy and
tragedy alike, when in 1829 she married Prince
Leopold, afterward king of the Belgians. Their
morganatic union was as brief as it was un-
happy; in 1831 she returned to the stage,
which she quitted only in 1844, on her marriage
to a Polish count. An English translation of
her 'Posthumous Memoirs' appeared in 1884.

Bauer, Edgar, German publicist, brother
of Bruno Bauer : b. Charlottenburg, 7 Oct.
1820; d. Hanover, 18 Aug. 1886. He published
various works of an historical and polemical na-
ture strongly tinctured with radicalism, and spent
five years in prison on account of his 'Streit der
Kritik mit Kirche und Staat.^ Other books by

him are 'Die Rechte des Herzogtums Holstein^
(1863) ; 'Die Deutschen und ihre Nachbarn*
(1870).

Bauer, Louis A., American mathematician:
b. Cincinnati, O., 28 Jan. 1865. He was astro-
nomical and magnetic computer for the United
States Coast and Geodetic Survey,' 1887-92;
docent in mathematical physics in the Univer-
sity of Chicago, 1895-6; chief of division of
terrestrial magnetism of Maryland Geological
Survey since 1896. He became assistant profes-
sor of Mathematics in the University of Cincin-
nati in 1897. He is an honorary member of the
Sociedad Cientifica Antonio Alzate of Mexico,
and a member of the Permanent Committee on
Terrestrial Magnetism and Atmospheric Elec-
tricity of the International Meteorological Con-
ference. He edits and publishes the 'Terrestrial
Magnetism.'

Bauer, Wilhelm, German inventor: b. Dil-
lingen, 1822; d. Munich, 18 June 1875. He
served as an artilleryman during the Schleswig-
Holstein war (1848), and, meanwhile, conceived
the plan of a submarine vessel for coast defense.
From 1851 to 1855 he vainly sought means from
Austria, France, and England to complete his
experiment, but Russia finally adopted his
scheme. He afterward made improvements in
torpedoes and in submarine guns.

Bauerle, boi'er-le, Adolf, Austrian drama-
tist and novelist: b. Vienna, 9 April 1786; d.
Basel, 20 Sept. 1859. He cultivated with much
success the field of popular comedy and local
farce in Vienna, where, in 1804, he founded the
Vienna Tlieatre-Gazette, until 1847 the most
widely read paper in the Austrian monarchy,
and now a valuable source for the history of the
stage in Vienna. Of his numerous plays the
following became known also outside of Aus-
tria : 'Leopold's Day' (1814) ; 'The En-
chanted Prince' (1818) ; 'The Counterfeit
Prima Donna' (1818) ; 'A Deuce of a Fellow'
(1820) ; 'The Friend in Need.' Under the
pseudonym Otto Horn he wrote the novels
'Therese Krones' (1855) and 'Ferdinand Rai-
mund' (1855), full of the personal element and
local anecdote.

Bauernfeind, bow'ern-fTnt, Karl Maximil-
ian von, German engineer and geodesist: b.
Arzberg, 18 Nov. 1818; d. 1894. He was pro-
fessor of geodesy and engineering in the engi-
neering school at Munich, and long a director
of the Technical School there organized accord-
ing to his plans. He invented the prismatic
cross employed in surveying, and named for
him, and . wrote 'Elemente der Vermessvmgs-
kunde' (1S56-8) ; 'Zur Briickenbaukunde'
(1854); 'Zur Wasserbaukunde' (1866).

Bauernfeld, bow'ern-felt, Eduard von,
Austrian dramatist: b. Vienna, 13 Jan. 1802; d.
Vienna, 9 Aug. 1890. He studied law and en-
tered the government service in 1826, but
resigned, after the revolutionary events of 1848,
to devote himself exclusively to his literary pur-
suits. A brilliant conversationalist, he soon be-
came a universal favorite in Vienna society.
Intimate from childhood with the genial paint-
er, Moritz von Schwind, and the composer,
Franz Schubert, he also kept up a lifelong inter-
course with Grillparzer. Among his comedies,
distinguished for their subtle dialogue and
sprightly humor, particularly the descriptions of

tJAUHIN — BAUMGARTEN

fashionable society have made his great reputa-
tion. The best known and most successful were
^Reckless from Love' (1831) ; ^Love's Proto-
coP (1831) ; ^Confessions' (1834); ^Domestic
and Romantic' (1835) ; <0f Age' (1846) ; <Kri-
sen' (1851); ^A.us der Gesellschaft' (1866).
His serious dramas were less popular. His col-
lected works were issued (1871-3).

Bauhin, bo-aii, Gaspard, Swiss botanist
.and anatomist: b. Basel, 1560; d. 1624. He was
at first intended for the Protestant ministry, but
having manifested a decided inclination for med-
icine and botany, was allowed to follow it, and
studied first at Basel and then at Padua. After
finishing his studies he traveled over many
parts of Europe, and in 1580 returned to Basel,
bringing with him a reputation which imme-
diately secured him the chair of Greek, and in
1589 that of anatomy and botaay. His fame
rests chiefly on his two works, "^Pinax Theatri
Botanici* and 'Theatrum Anatomicum, Botani-
cum.^ Gaspard and his brother, Jean Bauhin,
have been happily commemorated by Linnseus,
who gave the name Bauhinia to a genus of
plants.

Bauhin, Jean John, an eminent Sviriss
botanist: b. Basel, 1541 : d. 1613. He was a
brother of Gaspard Bauhin, and distinguished
himself by his ardor in natural history pur-
suits, in prosecuting which he traveled over
the greater part of the Alps, Italy, and the south
of France, preparing materials for a ^Historia
Universalis Plantarum Nova et Absolutissima,'
which occupied the larger portion of his life, but
was not published till 1650, 2,7 years after his
death. This work, in which he describes 5,000
plants, divided into 40 classes or books, is con-
sidered the first in which an attempt was made
•to give a regular form to systematic botany.

Bauhinia, a genus of more than 200 species
of tropical trees, shrubs or climbers of the nat-
ural order Lcgiiminoscc with beautiful, showy,
white to purple blossoms, unlike the usual
northern type of legume flower ; named in honor
of the brothers John and Gaspar Bauhin (q.v.).
B. porrccta, a West Indian tree, is called moun-
tain ebony from its dark-colored wood ; B.
racemosa, the maloo climber, and several other
East Indian climbing species are used for mak-
ing ropes ; B. variegata, a Malabar species is
used in tanning, dyeing, and medicine, and its
flower buds for pickles. In southern Florida
-and southern California several species are very
popular as ornamental plants, but in green-
houses few succeed because of the difficulty of
securing a dry enough atmosphere without in-
jury to the plants. B. natalensis, B. variegata,
and B. coryvibosa, probably the most satisfactory
greenhouse species, may be treated like olean-
ders during the winter and planted out of doors
in spring.

Baum, bownii, Friedrich, German military
officer in the British service in the Revolution-
ary war. He arrived in Canada in 1776, and in
Burgoyne's expedition acted as lieutenant-col-
onel of the Brunswick dragoons. He was sent
out with 800 men and two pieces of artillery
■on a foraging expedition. Near Bennington,
Vt., he was attacked by the New Hampshire
militia under Stark, and utterly defeated. He
himself was killed 16 Aug. 1777.

\'ol. 2 26.

Baum, L. Frank, American writer of pop'
ular juvenile books: b. Chittenango, N. Y., 15
May 1856. Among his publications are * Amer-
ican Fairy Tales'; 'Father Goose: his Book':
'Songs of Father Goose' ; <The Wonderful Citj-
of Oz' ; 'Navy Alphabet'; 'Army Alphabet.'

Baumann's bow'mans, Cavern (German,
Bauiiia)ins Hohle), an interesting natural cavern
in the Harz, about five miles from Blankenburg,
in a limestone mountain. It consists of six prin-
cipal apartments, besides many smaller ones,
everywhere covered with stalactites. The earthy
ingredients of these petrifactions are held in
solution by the water which penetrates the rock,
and deposits a calcareous stone. The name of
this cavern is derived from a miner, who entered
it in 1672, with the view of finding ore, but lost
his way, and wandered about for two days
before he could find the entrance.

Baumbach, bowm'ban, Rudolf, German
poet : b. Kranichfeld, Saxe-AIeiningen, 28 Sept.
1840 ; d. 22 Sept. 1905. After studying natural
science in Wiirzberg, Leipsic, Freiburg, and
Heidelberg, he lived in Austria and then at
Trieste, where he devoted himself exclusively
to writing. In 1885 he removed to Meiningen.
He most successfully cultivated the poetical
tale, based upon ancient popular legends. His
epics include 'Zlatorg,' a Slovenic Alpine leg-
end (1875, 37th ed. 1892) ; 'Horand and Hilda'
(1879); 'Lady Fair' (1881) ; 'The Godfather
of Death' (1884); 'Emperor Max and His
Huntsmen' (i88i8). His lyric collections are
'Songs of a Traveling Journeyman' (1878) ;
'Minstrel's Songs' (1882); 'From the High-
way' (1882) ; 'Traveling Songs from the Alps'
(1883) ; 'Adventures and Pranks Imitated from
Old Masters' (1883): 'Jug and Inkstand'
(1887) ; 'Thuringian Songs' (1891). He has
also published some excellent prose: 'False
Gold' (1878), a historical romance of the 17th
century; 'Summer Legends' (1881), a book
of fairy tales; and 'Once upon a Time' (1889).

Baume, bo-ma', Antoine, distinguished
French chemist and pharmaceutist: b. Senlis,
26 Feb. 1728; d. 15 Oct. 1804. He obtained the
professorship of chemistry in the College of
Pharmacy at Paris about 1752, was admitted a
member of the Academy of Sciences, chiefly
in return for some excellent memorials com-
municated to that body; wrote 'Elements of
Theoretical and Practical Pharmacy,' which
went through nine editions in France, and was
translated into most European languages, and
contributed by his discoveries to numerous im-
portant improvements in the arts, particularly
in the manufactures of sal ammoniac, soap, and
porcelain, in gilding, and the bleaching of silk.
His name is familiar from the areometer which
he invented, and which is still in use.

Baumeister, bow'mls-ter, Johann Wilhelm,
German veterinarian: b. Augsburg, 1804; d.
1846. In 1839 he was appointed a professor in
the Stuttgart School of Veterinary Medicine.
His 'Handbuch der Landwirtschaftlichen Tier-
kunde und Tierzucht.' condensed as 'Anleitung
zur Kenntnis des Aussern des Pferdes,' attained
a seventh edition in 1891.

Baumgarten, bowm'gar-ten, Alexander
Gottlieb, German philosopher of the school
of Wolff: b. Berlin. 1714; d. Frankfort-on-the-
Oder, 1762. He studied at Halle, and was for a
time professor extraordinary there. In 1740 he

BAUMGARTEN-CRUSIUS — BAUR

v;as made professor of philosophy at Frankfort-
on-the-Oder. He is the founder of aesthetics as
a science, and the inventor of this name. He
derived the rules of art from the works of art
and their effects. Hereby he distinguished him-
self advantageously from the theorists of his
time. (See /Esthetics.) His ideas of this
science he first developed in his academical
discussion, ^De Nonnullis ad Poema Pertinenti-
bus^ (1735)- George Fr. Meier's ^Principles
of all Liberal Sciences^ (1748-50) originated
from his suggestions. Eight years later, Baum-
garten published his ^/Esthetica^ (1750-8), a
work which death prevented him from complet-
ing. See 'Schmidt, Leibnitz und Baumgarten'
(1875).

Baumgarten-Crusius, bowm'gar-ten-kroo'-
ze-us, Ludwig Friedrich Otto, German theo-
logian: b. Merseburg, 31 July 1788; d. Jena. 31
May 1843. He studied theology in Leipsic; be-
came the university preacher in 1810; was ap-
pointed professor of theology at Jena, in 1817;
and became widely known as a foremost cham-
pion of religious liberty. He was a learned and
original thinker, but his writing is often obscure.
His publications include 'Introduction to the
Study of Dogmatics^ (1820) ; 'Manual of Chris-
tian Ethics^ (1827) ; 'Outlines of Biblical The-
olog}^ '(1828); 'Outlines of Protestant Dog-
matics^ (1830) ; 'Text-book of the History of
Doctrines^ (1832) ; 'Schleiermacher, His Meth-
od of Thought, and his Value* (1834) ; 'Con-
siderations on Certain Writings of Lamennais^
(1834), etc.

Baumgartner, Alexander, Swiss writer: b.
Saint Gall, 1841. He became a member of the
Society of Jesus in i860, and after completing
his theological studies in England, made a study
of Scandinavian literature in Stockholm and
Copenhagen. He has published 'Goethe's Ju-
gend-* (1879) ; 'Longfellow's Dichtungen^
(1878) <Calderon,> a festival play (1881) ;
<Gorthe und Schiller* (1886); 'Der Alte von
Weimar* (1886) ; a translation from the old
Icelandic of Eystein Asgninsson ; and a history
in eight volumes of the world's literature
(1897).

Baumgartner, bowm'gart-ner, Andreas
von, Austrian statesman: b. 23 Nov. 1793,
at Friedberg in Bohemia ; d. 1865. He was
connected for many years with the teaching
of mathematics and physics, especially after
1823, at the University of Vienna, until illness
forced him to relinquish his academical pur-
suits. Subsequently he became connected with
the direction of the imperial porcelain, tobacco,
and other manufactures in 1841, with the estab-
lishment of electric telegraphs, and at the end
of 1847 with the chief management of the con-
struction of railways. After the revolution of
March 1848, he occupied for a third time a seat
in the Austrian cabinet as minister of the min-
ing department and of public works. In May
1851, he became minister of finance and com-
merce, and in 1855 was made president of the
Austrian academy of sciences. In 1861 he en-
tered the House of Peers of the Reichsrath. His
principal works are on mechanical science ap-
plied to art and industry. His most popular
work is the 'Naturlehre,* which has passed
through many editions, and was a text-book in
all the schools of Austria.

Baumgartner, Herman, German historian!
b. 28 April 1825 ; d. 19 June 1893. He was a
professor of history in the University of Strass-
burg, 1872-89, and published 'Geschichte Span-
iens zur Zeit der Franzosischen Revolution*
(1861) ; 'Geschichte Spaniens vom Ausbruch der
Franzosischen Revolution bis auf unsere Tag*
(1865-71) ; 'Karl V. und die Deutsche Reforma-
tion* (1889).

Baur, bowr, Ferdinand Christian, one of

the most celebrated theologians of modern Ger-
many, founder of the "New Tiibingen School of
Theology** : b. Blaubeuren, where his father was
pastor, 21 June 1792; d. 2 Dec. i860. At the
University of Tiibingen, which he entered in
1809, he devoted five years to theological studies,
and in 1817 became professor in the seminar/
at Blaubeuren. While holding this position he
published his first work, 'Symbolism a:id My-
thology, or the Natural Religion of Antiquity*
(1824-5), by which his eminent theological abil-
ities were so clearly manifested that in 1826 he
received a call to Tiibingen as ordinary profes-
sor in the evangelical faculty of that university.
This position he continued to occupy till his
death. His chief works belong to the two de-
partments of the history of the Christian dog-
mas and New Testament criticism, in both of
which his views have had the most powerful
effect upon the theology of the present day.
His most important works belonging to the first
class are: 'The Christian Gnosis, or the Chris-
tian Philosophy of Religion* (1835) ; 'The
Christian Doctrine of the Atonement* (1838) :
'The Christian Doctrine of the Trinity and
the Incarnation* (1841-3) ; 'Compendium ot the
History of Christian Dogmas* (1847). To the
second class belong 'The So-called Pastoral
Epistles of the Apostle Paul* (1835) ". 'Paul the
Apostle of Jesus Christ, His Life and Labors,
His Epistles and His Teaching* (1845) ; 'Criti-
cal Inquiries Concerning the Canonic Gospels,
their Relation to One Another, their Origin and
Character* (1847). He also wrote the 'History
of Christian Doctrine from the Origin of Chris-
tianity Down to the End of the i8th Century, *"
a series of volumes between 1853-63.

Baur, Frederick Wilhelm von, Russian-
military engineer : b. Hanau, Germany, 1735 ; d.
St. Petersburg, 1783. He early adopted a mili-
tary life, entered the British service in 1755 and
in 1757 he obtained the rank of general, and'
engineer-in-chief. Frederick II. of Prussia en-
nobled him. In 1769 he entered into the ser-
vice of Catherine II., empress of Russia, and'
was employed against the Turks. The empress
had a high notion of his talents, and employed
him in making the aqueduct of Tsarskoe-Selo,
for supplying Moscow with water, and in deep-
ening the canal near St. Petersburg, at the end'
of which he constructed a large harbor, and
completed other important undertakings. Baur
had for his secretary the celebrated Kotzebue,
who directed in his name the German theatre at
St. Petersburg.

Baur, Gustav Adolf Ludwig, German the-
ologian : b. Hammelbach, 1816 ; d. 1889. He-
was appointed a professor at Giessen in 1847,
and in 1870 at Leipsic. He belonged to the-
Schleiermacher school and was the author of
'Grundzijge der Homiletik* (1848) ; 'Boetius
und Dante* (1874) ; 'Die Vorchristliche Erzie-
hung* (1884).

BAUSE — BAVARIA

Bause, bow'ze, Johann Friedrich, distin-
guished German engraver: b. Halle, 1738; d.
Weimar, 1814. He resided chiefly at Leipsic,
where he executed many highly esteemed en-
gravings. He was a member of several acade-
mies of fine arts.

Bausman, Benjamin, American Reformed
(German) clerg\'man : b. Lancaster, Pa., 28
Jan. 1824. He founded St. Paul's Reformed
Church, Reading, Pa., 1863, and has been its
pastor ever since. He has published 'Sinai and
Zion> (i860; 7th ed. 1885): 'Wayside Glean-
ings in Europe^ (1876) ; 'Bible Characters^
(1893) ; 'Catechetics and Catechetical Instruc-
tion' (1863) ; and edited The Guardian
(1867-82), and Refonnirtc Hausfreimd (1882).

Bausset, bo-sa, Louis Frangois (Cardixal),
French ecclesiastic: b. Pondicherry, India, 14
Dec. 1748; d. Paris, 21 June 1824. His father,
who held an important position in the French
Indies, sent young Bausset to France when he
was but 12 years of age. He was educated by
the Jesuits, and became bishop of Alais in 1784.
Having signed the protest of the French bishops
against the civil constitution of the clerg\% he
emigrated in 1791, but in the following year
returned to France, was soon arrested, and
imprisoned in the old Convent of Port Royal,
where he remained until after the fall of Robes-
pierre. After the restoration of Louis XVIIL,
in 1815, he entered the Qiamber of Peers;
the following year he became a member of the
French Academy; and, in 1817, he received the
appointment of cardinal. He wrote the 'His-
tory of Fenelon' (1808-9), at the request of the
Abbot Emery, who had in his possession the
MSS. of the illustrious Archbishop of Cam-
bray. The work had great success, and its
author was awarded, in 1810, the second decen-
nial prize of the Institute, for the best biogra-
phy. His 'History of Bossuet' (1814) was
less favorably received.

Bautain, bo-tah, Louis Eugene Marie,
French philosopher: b. Paris, 17 Feb. 1796; d.
18 Oct. 1867. He entered the Church, and be-
came a priest in 1828 ; resigned his professor-
ship in 1830; and later was suspended as a
priest because of his work, 'La Morale de
I'Evangile comparee a la Morale des Philoso-
phes' ; but was reinstated in 1841. He was made
dean of the Faculty of Letters at Strassburg
in 1838, and subsequently director of the College
of Juilly. At a still later period he was trans-
ferred to Paris, and made vicar-general of the
I^Ietropolitan Diocese. He was also appointed
a member of the theological facultj^ of Paris.
His writings include 'Philosophie-psychologie
Experimentale' (1839) ; 'Philosophic Morale'
(1842) ; 'Philosophic du Christianisme'
(1835) ; 'La Religion et la Liberte considerees
dans leurs Rapports' (1848) ; 'La Morale de
I'Evangile comparee aux divers Systemes de
Morale' (1855), etc.

Bautzen, bowt'sen, or Baudissin, bow'de-
sen. a manufacturing town in Saxony, noted for
its production of textile fabrics, leather, paper,
etc. It overlooks the River Spree. 30 miles
northeast of Dresden, and is encircled by a
wall and moat. The cathedral church of St.
Peter is used by both Protestants and Roman
Catholics, it being divided into two portions
for the purpose. The town contains many
schools, a museum, art gallery, and three libra-

ries. At Bautzen Napoleon, with 130,000 men,
defeated the allied armies of Russia and Prus-
sia, 20-21 May 1813. Pop. (1900) 26,000.

Bauxite, or Beauxite, bo'zit (from Baux,
or Beaux, near Aries, France, where it occurs),
a native, hydrated oxide of aluminum, having
the formula AI2O3.2H2O. It has a specific grav-
ity of about 2.5, and its hardness ranges from
I to 3. It occurs massive, in concretionary grains
showing a concentric structure, and in clay-like
deposits. Sesquioxide of iron is usually pres-
ent in considerable quantity. — sometimes to the
extent of 50 per cent, — part of it replacing alum-
inum, and part occurring merely as an impurity.
Bauxite is found in many parts of the world.
One of the most important deposits is at Irish
Hill, near Larne, County Antrim, Ireland, where
it occurs in the iron measures together with lig-
nite. At this place three layers of it are known,
having an aggregate thickness of about 50 feet.
The finest grade from Irish Hill is almost free
from iron, containing as little of that metal as
good china clay. Analyses have shown that the
color of bauxite is no criterion of the freedom
of the mineral from iron, since a white variety
containing 3.67 per cent of FcsOs is known,
while a certain strongly red variety showed,
upon analysis, but 3.75 per cent, and a yellow
specimen contained 14.39 per cent. In the United
States bauxite occurs in considerable quanti-
ties in Saline and Pulaski counties, Arkansas,
and in a deposit extending from Calhoun Coun-
ty, Alabama, eastward into Georgia. Bauxite
forms the principal ore of the metal aluminum,
which is obtained from it by the electrolysis of
a solution of bauxite in melted cryolite (see
Aluminum). The American deposits of baux-
ite are well suited to the production of alumi-
num, as ore can be had in quantity that contains
as little as i per cent of iron oxide, and 3 per
cent of silica. Bauxite, in some localities, is
undoubtedly an alteration product of basaltic
rocks, while m other localities (especially in the
United States) it has very likely been deposited
by hot springs. In addition to its use as an
ore of aluminum, bauxite forms an important
source of alum. Its clay-like form is known as
v.'ocheinite, on account of its occurrence at
Wo'chein, in Styria. (C. Willard Hayes, 'Baux-
ite.' 'Sixteenth Annual Report of the Lfnited
States Geological Survey.' Part 3 (Washington.
1896) ; Branner, 'The Bauxite Deposits of
Arkansas,' 'Journal of Geology,' Vol. V., 1897,
p. 263).

Bava'ria (German. Bayern; French, Ba-
Z'ii-rc), a kingdom in the south of Germany, the
second largest state of the empire, composed of
two isolated portions, the larger comprising
about eleven tw^elfths of the monarchy, bounded
on the east by Bohemia and Upper Austria ; on
the south by Salzburg and the Tyrol : on the
west by Wiirtemberg. Baden. Hesse-Darm-
stadt, and Hesse-Nassau : and on the north by
Hesse-Nassau, Weimar, !Meiningen, Reuss. Co-
burg, and the kingdom of Saxony. It lies be-
tween lat. 47° 19' and 50° 41' N., and Ion.
8° 53' and 13° 50' E. The smaller portion, the
Pfalz or Palatinate, lies west of the Rhine, which
forms its eastern boundary, and is separated
from the main body by Wiirtemberg. Baden, and
He??e-Darmstadt. It is included between lat.
48° 57' and 49° 50' N. ; and Ion. 7° 6' and 8° 31'
E. ; and is bounded south by Alsace-Lorraine,

BAVARIA

west by the Prussian Rhine provinces, and north
by Hesse-Darmstadt. Bavaria is estimated to
contain an area of 29,286 English square miles,
and is divided into eight circles (kreise), vi^hich
were formerly named after the rivers that
watered them ; but an edict of 29 Nov. 1837, gave
the circles new names and new boundaries. The
following table shows their names, areas, and
populations :

Circles

Pop.
1900

Oberbaiern (Upper Bavaria)....

Niederbaiern (Lower Bavaria)..

Pfalz (Palatinate)

Oberpfalz (Upper Palatinate)
and Regensburg (Ratisbon). . .

Oberfranken (Upper Franconia)

Mittelfranken (Middle Fran-
conia)

Unterfranken (Lower Franco-
nia) and Aschaffenburg

Schwaben (Swabia) and Neu-
burg

Total .

6,175,153

The capital is Munich (q.v.), and the other
principal cities are Nuremberg, Augsburg,
Wiirzburg, and Regensburg or Ratisbon (qq.v.).

Mountains. — Bavaria is a hilly rather than
a mountainous country. A large portion, more
especially south of the Danube, is a plateau
country of considerable elevation, and indeed,
the whole of the main portion of the kingdom
may be described as an upland valley, averag-
ing about 1,600 feet above the sea-level, inter-
sected by numerous large streams and ridges of
low hills. On all sides it is surrounded by
hills of a greater or less altitude, either quite
upon the frontier or only at small distances
from it. The whole southern frontier is formed
by a branch of the Noric Alps, offsets from
which_ project far into the southern plateau of
Bavaria. Besides numerous peaks which this
range contains, varying from 4,000 to 8,000 feet
high, the following may be named as being above
the latter number : The Zugspitze, 10.394 feet ;
the Watzmann, 9,470 feet ; the Hochvogel 8,460
feet : the Madeler Gabel, 8,650 feet. Passing
along the valley of the Inn and across the Dan-
ube, we come to the Bohemian frontier, formed
by the Bohmerwald mountains running south-
east to northwest and lowering down at the
valley of the Eger. The highest peaks in this
range are the Rachel, 5.102 feet, and the Arber,
5,185 feet. Crossing the Eger we meet with the
Fichtelgebirge, presenting the Schneeberg, 3.750
feet high, and the Ochsenkopf, 3,633 feet. West
from this range, and along the frontier of the
Saxon ducal territories and Hesse-Cassel, run
hills of moderate elevation, under various
names, Frankenwald. Rhongebirge, etc., no
peaks of which attain an elevation of more
than 3.327 feet. The western mountain boun-
dary of the Bavarian valley is formed north of
the Main by the Spessartwald range, and in
the kingdom of Wiirtemberg by the Alb or
Alp. The only noteworthy interior ranges are,
in the northwest the Steigerwald : and in the
northeast, running in a southwesterlv direction
from the Fichtelgebirge. the Francoiiian Jura;
a low limestone range, containing numerous re-
markable stalactitic caves. The Pfalz or Palat-
inate is traversed by the northern extremitv of
the Vosges. the highest peak in this locality
bemg the Konigstuhl, 2,162 feet.

Lakes. — The lakes of Bavaria are neither
very numerous nor of very great extent, though
many of them present exceedingly picturesque
scenery. The larger are all situated on the
upper part of the southern plateau ; the smaller
within the range of the Noric Alps. The most
remarkable of the former are. Lake Ammer,
about 10 miles long by 2'/^ broad, 1,736 feet
above the sea ; Lake Wiirm or Starnberg, about
12 miles long by 3 broad, 1,899 feet; and
Lake Chiem, 9 miles long by 9 to 4 broad, 1,651
feet above the sea. Of the smaller, the more
remarkable are Lake Tegner, about 3 miles
long, 2,586 feet ; Lake Walchen, 2,597 '< ^^^ va-
rious others upward of 2,000 feet above the
sea-level. Most of the lakes are well supplied
with fish.

Rivers. — Bavaria belongs wholly to the
basins of the Danube and the Rhme, with the
exception of a very small portion in the north-
east corner, wdiich through the Eger appertains
to the basin of the Elbe. The river Danube
intersects the main portion of the kingdom west
to east nearly in the centre, and before it enters
the Austrian dominions at Passau, where it is
still 925 feet above the sea, it receives on its
right bank the rivers Iller, Lech, and Isar,
which have their sources in the Noric Alps, be-
sides numerous smaller streams ; and on its left
bank, the Wornitz, Altmiihl, Nab, and Regen,
besides other lesser streams. The Main tra-
verses nearly the whole of the northern part
of this portion of the kingdom from east to
west, and is navigable for steam vessels from
Bamberg to the Rhine. Its principal affluents
are the Regnitz and the Saale. In the Palat-
inate there are no streams of any importance,
the Rhine being merely a boundary river.

Climate. — If we except the valley of the
Rhine, and the valley of the Main in lower
Franconia, Bavaria, even including the Pa-
latinate, is, in comparison with other German
states, a cold country. The average tempera-
ture of the year is about 47° F. ; winter, 30° ;
spring, 47° ; summer, 63° ; and autumn, 47°.

Soil, Vegetation, etc. — Bavaria is one of the
most favored countries in Germany in respect of
the fruitfulness of its soil, due, no doubt, in a
considerable degree, to the undulating nature
of the country, to the numerous streams by
which it is watered, and to being nearly wholly
composed of Jura limestone. In the plains and
valleys the soil is capable of producing all
kinds of crops, but not till lately were the nat-
ural advantages of the country turned to good
account. Ignorance and idleness opposed a bar-
rier to improvement, which it took the utmost
efiforts of an enlightened government, aided
by the general spread of education, to remove.
Now a spirit of agricultural enterprise pervades
the kingdom, improved methods of cultivation
have been introduced, and large tracts of waste
land have been reclaimed and brought under
the plow. The principal crops are wheat, rye,
barley, and oats ; but in some districts rice, spelt,
maize, and buckwheat are also raised. To these
productions of the soil may be added potatoes
(the cultivation of which is yearly increasing),
tobacco, and fruit, of which large quantities are
grown in the valleys of the Main and the Rhine.
In the circles of Mittelfranken and Schwaben-
Neuburg, the hop plant is cultivated to a con-
siderable extent, the quantity varying from 30,000
to 40,000 hundredweight per annum ; and the

BAVARIA

vine in the circles of Pfalz and Unterfranken.
The latter produces the Franconian wines; the
best vvines of the former are produced near
Deidesheim and Wachcnheim. The celebrated
Steinwein and Leistenwein are the produce of
the southern slope of the Marienburg, near
the town of Wiirzburg. The forests of Bavaria,
composed chiefly of fir and pine trees, cover
nearly a third of its entire surface and yield
a large revenue to the state ; much timber being
annually exported, together with potashes, tar,
turpentine, and other products peculiar to these
wooded regions. The principal mineral products
are salt, coal, and iron. Some of the mining
works belong to the state, and contribute some-
thing to the public revenue ; but the minerals
are not wrought to the extent they might be.
Coal mining gives employment to between 4,500
and 5,000 hands. Plumbago is found in several
places and is principally manufactured into pen-
cils. Porcelain clay of the linest quality like-
wise abounds in some localities, the best being
obtained in the districts of Wunsiedel in the
Upper Main. Lithographic stones are another
important production. In the rearing of cattle
and sheep the Bavarians are somewhat back-
ward. Swine are reared in great numbers in all
parts of the country, and poultry and wildfowl
are abundant. The wolves and bears with which
the forests of Bavaria were at one time infested
are nearly extinct.

Maniifactnrcs. — The manufactures of Ba-
varia are singly not very important, being mostly
on a small scale and conducted by individuals
of limited capital. The principal articles manu-
factured are linens, woolens, cottons, silks,
leather, paper, glass, earthen, iron, and stee!
ware, jewelry, etc., but the supply of some
of these articles is inadequate to the home con-
sumption. Of leather, paper, glass, and iron-
ware rather large quantities are exported. The
optical and mathematical instruments made at
Munich are the best on the Continent, and are
prized accordingly. But the most important
branch of manufacture in Bavaria is the brew-
ing of beer — the universal and favorite bever-
age of the country. There are upward of 5,000
brewing establishments in the kingdom, which
have been calculated to supply on an average
about 20 gallons a year to every individual of
the population. The beer, however, is not con-
sumed only in the country of its production, but
is sent to all parts of Germany, and even as
far as America and India. Spirits are also
largely distilled. A large portion of the indus-
trial population maintain themselves by weaving
linen, and by the manufacture of articles in
wood (some of which are of beautiful work-
manship), and by the felling and hewing of
timber. Notwithstanding its favorable geo-
graphical position and other natural advantages
the trade of Bavaria is comparatively limited.
Among the exports are corn, timber, wine,
cattle, leather, glass, hops, fruit, beer, iron, and
steel wares, machinery, fancy articles, colors,
lucifer matches, stoneware, etc. Among the im-
ports are coffee, cacao, tea, cotton, tobacco,
drugs, copper, oil, spices, dyestuffs, silk and silk
goods, lead, etc.

Transportation. — From its position Bavaria
enjoys a considerable portion of transit trade,
much facilitated by the good roads that traverse
the country in all directions. The means of
communication are now very complete. The

Danube, the Rhine, the Main, the Regnitz, etc^
afford ample scope for inland navigation, be-
sides the Konig Ludwig Canal, which connects
the Main at Bamberg with the Altmiihl a short
distance above its embouchure in the Danube,
thus establishing direct water communication
through the Rhine between the German Ocean
and the Black Sea. The railway system ( now
managed as a part of the imperial system of
railways) has been carried out on an extensive
scale. The lines are partly state property,
partly private. The number of miles in opera-
tion amounted in 1899 to 4,062, about 3,000 of
this total being state railways, the remainder
being private enterprises. The amount of debt
contracted for railways by Bavaria is
$250,000,000, forming over four fifths of the
total debt of the country. The receipts from
the railways are now generally sufficient to pay
the interest and charges on account of this
debt. The state also possesses two canals.

Education and Art. — The Department of
Education is under the superintendence of the
Superior Board of Education and Ecclesiastical
Aft'airs. A complete system of inspection is
established throughout the country ; the reports
of the inspectors including not only the number
and proficiency of the scholars, but also the
conduct of the teachers, the state of the build-
ings, and the nature and extent of the funds
available. It is necessary in Bavaria, before
admission can be obtained into any higher
school, to have passed a satisfactory examiuci
tion in the lower school. Not only must all
candidates for offices under the state pass exam-
inations, but examinations are held of appren-
tices in trade who wish to become masters, and
even of ofiicers in the army on promotion.
There are over 8,000 schools in Bavaria, at-
tended by more than 600,000 pupils. Attend-
ance on school is compulsory up to 14 years
of age. There are three universities in Bavaria
— two of which (^lunicli and Wiirzburg) are
Roman Catholic, and one (Erlangen) Protes-
tant. The University of Munich is attended by
about 3,500 students, and has about 170 pro-
fessors and instructors ; that of Wiirzburg has
80 professors and instructors, and about 1,350
students; and that of Erlangen 67 professors
and instructors, and about 1,100 students.
There are also several lycea, a number of gym-
nasia, numerous Latin, normal, and polytechnic
schools, besides academies of arts and sciences,
fine arts, horticulture, etc. The capital, Munich,
contains a library of 800,000 volumes, including
25,000 AISS. ; several scientific and literarj' insti-
tutions, academies, and national societies, and
extensive collections of works of art.

Bavaria enjoys the honor of having origi-
nated a school of painting of a high order of
merit, known as the Nuremburg school, found-
ed about the middle of the i6th century by
Albert Diirer, a native of that town, whose
works are little, if at all, inferior to those of
his great Italian contemporaries. Hans Hol-
bein, who excelled Diirer in portrait, though
far behind him in historical painting, is claimed
by Bavaria, but neither the precise locality nor
the date of his birth is known with certainty —
Augsburg, Basel, and Griinstadt being severally
named as the one, and the dates 1495 and 1498
as the other. To these celebrated names have
been added those of the eminent sculptors Kraft
and Vischer, both also Bavarians ; the former

BAVARIA

born about 1435 and the latter about the middle
of the same century. The masterpiece of the
latter distinguished artist is the bronze shrine
of St. Sebaldus in Nuremberg, esteemed a
marvel of art for beauty of design and delicacy
of workmanship. The most celebrated of
Kraft's works is the remarkable tabernacle in
stone, affixed against one of the columns of
the choir of the Church of St. Lawrence, also
in Nuremberg. The restoration of Bavarian
pre-eminency in modern times, in connection
with the fine arts, is, in a great measure, if not
entirely, owing to Louis L, whose love of art
and liberal patronage have rendered the capital
one of the most celebrated seats of the fine arts
in Europe.

Religion. — The religion of the state is
Roman Catholicism, which embraces more than
seven tenths of the population. The remainder
are principally Protestants and Jews. The pro-
portion between Catholics and Protestants has
scarcely varied during the last three quarters
of a century. All citizens, whatever their creed,
are equally admissible to the same public func-
tions and employments, and possess the same
civil and political rights. The articles of the
concordat concluded with the Pope are subordi-
nate in their application to the fundamental
law of the state. By an ordinance of Louis L
females are prohibitied from pronouncing any
monastic vow until after having passed their
33d year. The dioceses of Bavaria comprise
two archbishoprics, IMunich and Bamberg ; and
six bishoprics. Augsburg. Ratisbon. Eichstadt,
Passau, Wiirzburg, and Spires. The salaries
pre paid by the government. In Bavaria mar-
riage between individuals having no capital
cannot take place without the consent of the
principal persons appointed to superintend the
poor institutions, who, if they grant such lib-
erty where there are no means of supporting
the children that may spring from such mar-
riage, render themselves liable for their main-
tenance. The law is intended to prevent
improvident marriages.

People. — In personal appearance the Bava-
rians are stout and vigorous, well adapted to
bear the fatigues of war, and are generally con-
sidered good soldiers. They are accused of
being indolent and somewhat addicted to drink-
ing, but are brave, patriotic, and faithful to
their word. Their manners and customs toward
the close of the i8th century were described as
very coarse, and they were said to be deeply
imbued with superstitious bigotry ; but since the
more general diffusion of knowledge a great
change for the better has taken place. Manj'
of the peasantry wear long, loose, snuff-colored
coats, lined or edged with pink, and studded in
front with silver or white metal buttons, thrown
open to displaj- a smart waistcoat of various
and brilliant colors ; their hats are often orna-
mented with artificial flowers. Many of the
Bavarian women are handsome, lively and
graceful. They dress smartly and display much
taste in their attire. Some of them wear black-
silk handkerchiefs, decorated with flowers or
ribbons, tied tightly round their heads, some
caps of silver or gold tissue, and all have their
hair neatly braided. German is the language
spoken, with local peculiarities ; but they have
never been conspicuous for the cultivation of
their native tongue.

Constitution. — Bavaria was formerly a
member of the Germanic Confederation and
now forms part of the German empire. The
executive is in the hands of the king. The legis-
lature consists of two chambers — one of sen-
ators and one of deputies ; the former com-
posed of princes of the royal family, the great
officers of state, the two archbishops, the heads
of certain noble families, a bishop named by
the king, the president of the Protestant Gen-
eral Consistory, and any other members whom
the king may create hereditary peers ; the lat-
ter, of members chosen indirectly, one to every
31,500 persons of the total population. The
qualifications are that the candidate shall have
completed his 30th year, shall be a free and
independent citizen, and shall be a member of
the Catholic or the Reformed Church and pay
direct state taxes. The members are chosen
every six years unless the house is dissolved
by the king, and are generally convened once
a year, but are bound to assemble at least once
every three years. Each of the eight circles or
provinces has a provincial government consist-
ing of two boards, one for the management of
the police, schools, etc., and the other for the
management of financial affairs. The revenue
for the financial year 1900-1 was estimated at
about $105,000,000, and the public debt, includ-
ing railway debt, etc., was $350,000,000. The
army is raised by conscription, — every man
being liable to serve from i January of the year
in which he completes his 20th year, — and it
forms an independent part of the army of the
German empire. In time of peace it is under the
command of the king of Bavaria, but in time of
war it is piaced under that of the emperor of
Germany as commander-in-chief of the whole
German army. The period of service is three
years in the active force, four in the reserve, and
five in the landwehr ; and no Bavarian can set-
tle or marry, or accept of any definite appoint-
ment, till he has fulfilled his military liabilities.
On a peace footing the Bavarian army consists
in all of fully 63,000 men and 2,600 officers; on
a war footing, about twice this number.

History. — The Bavarians take their name
from the Boii, a Celtic tribe who inhabited the
districts which, when conquered by the Romans,
became the Roman provinces of Vindelicia and
Noricum. After the fall of the Western Empire
this territory was overrun by various Germanic
tribes who formed themselves into a confedera-
tion like that of the Franks and Marcomanni
and called themselves Boiarii. The confederacy
of the Boiarii was made tributary first to the
Ostrogoths and then to the Franks. Finally
the sovereignty over them was assumed by
Charlemagne, and on the death of that mon-
arch the kings of the Franks and Germans gov-
erned it by their lieutenants, who bore the title
of margrave, afterward converted into that of
duke, and latterly (1623) into that of elector.
In 1070 Bavaria passed into the possession of
the family of the Guelphs, and in 1180 it was
transferred by imperial grant to Otho, count of
Wittelsbach. On the extinction of the direct
line of that family in 1777, the elector palatine.
Charles Theodore, added the Palatinate and
the duchies of Juliers and Berg to the Bava-
rian dominions. In 1799 the Duke Maximilian
Joseph of Deux-Ponts came into possession of
all the Bavarian territories. The Peace of Lune-
ville (9 Feb. 1801) essentially affected Bavaria.

BAVIAD AND M^VIAD — BAXTER

While it lost all its possessions on the left
ibank of the Rhine, and also the lands of the
Palatinate on the right bank, it obtained, on
the other hand, by an imperial edict, an indem-
nification by which it gained, in addition to the
amount lost, a surplus of 2,109 square miles
and 216,000 inhabitants.

In 1805 Bavaria was raised, by the Treaty of
Presburg, to the rank of a kingdom, with some
further accessions of territory, all of which
were confined by the treaties of 1814 and 1815,
by which also a great part of the lands of the
Palatinate was restored. In 1848 the conduct
of the king of Bavaria, in maintaining an open
liaison with Lola ]\Iontez. had thoroughly
alienated the hearts of his subjects, and quick-
•ened that desire of political change which had
previously existed. The people, early in March
1848, demanded immediate convocation ot the
chambers, liberty of the press, public judicial
trials ; also that electoral reform should be
granted, and that the army should take an oath
to observe the constitution. The king having
refused to grant these demands, tumults
occurred, and King Louis announced his resig-
nation of the sceptre to his son, Maximilian II.,
under whom the reforms and modifications of
the constitution were carried out. Maximilian
died in 1864 and was succeeded by Louis II. In
the war of 1866 Bavaria sided with Austria, in
consequence of which it was obliged, by the
treaty of 22 August in the same year, to cede a
small portion of its territory to Prussia, and
to pa)"^ a war indemnity of $12,150,000. Soon
after Bavaria entered into an alliance with
Prussia, and in 1867 joined the Zollverein under
Prussian regulations. In the Franco-German
war of 1 870-1 Bavaria took a prominent part,
and since 1871 it has been one of the constit-
uent states of the German empire, represented
in the Bundesrath by 6, in the Reichstag by 48
members. In 1886 King Louis II. committed
suicide through alienation of mind. His brother
Otto succeeded, but he being also insane, his
uncle, Leopold, became regent.

Ba'viad and Maeviad, The, two satires,
by William Gift'ord. It was through these that
the author, who later w^as the first editor of the
^Quarterly Review,' became known. ^The Ba-
viad' (1792) is an attack on a band of English
writers, who had formed themselves into a kind
of mutual admiration society. It is an imitation
of the first satire of Perseus, and in it the
author not only attacks the "Delia Cruscans,'*
but all who sympathize with them. The
^Maeviad' (i795) is an imitation of the loth
satire of Horace, and was called forth, the
author says, "by the reappearance of some of
the scattered enemy."

Bavieca, ba-wya'ka, the favorite horse of
the Cid.

Bavius, Marcus and Maevius, still noto-
rious as two miserable poets and presumptuous
critics, satirized by Vergil. The words are
often used to signify bad or malevolent poets.

Bawbee, bor-be' (French, bas billon, "low^^
or "debased billon*'), a coin originally minted in
Scotland from an alloy of copper with a very
small amount of silver, called billon, and hav-
ing at different times a value varying from i^^
to 3 cents. The coin is no longer issued, but
the term is used in Scotland to mean a half-
penny (a cent) or a very small value.

Bax, Ernest Belfort, English socialist: b.
Leamington, 23 July 1854. He was educated in
London and Germany; followed journalism in
Germany as foreign correspondent in 1880-1 ;
and returning to England, became one of the
founders of the English socialist movement. In
1885 he aided in starting the Socialist Leag:ue.
He wrote a large number of works on social-
istic and historical subjects.

Bax'ter, Andrew, Scotch philosopher and
metaphysician: b. Aberdeen, 1686; d. 1750. He
was educated at King's College, Aberdeen, and
found occupation as a private tutor. About 1733
he published an 'Inquiry into the Nature of the
Human Soul ; Wherein the Immateriality of the
Soul is Evinced from the Principles of Reason
and Philosophy.' In 1741 he went abroad with
two of his pupils, and remained for some years
at Utrecht, where he contracted an acquaintance
with some of the Dutch literati. He returned to
Scotland in 1747. and resided at Whittingham,
East Lothian, where he died. He was the
author of a Latin treatise on the principles of
astronomy, entitled 'Matho sive Cosmotheoria,
Puerilis Dialogus,' which he afterward trans-
lated into English and published in two vol-
umes, i2mo. He was a staunch friend and cor-
respondent of John Wilkes, then quite a young
man.

Baxter, James Phinney, American author :
b. Gorham, Me., 2;^ March 1831. A successful
merchant and manufacturer ; he has been six
times mayor of Portland, Me., to which he pre-
sented the land and building for a public library.
A devoted student of the history of his native
State, he has published: 'George Cleeve of
Casco Bay' (1885); 'Journal of Lieut. W.
Digby' (1888); 'Sir Ferdinando Gorges and
His Province of Alaine' (1890) ; 'The Pioneers
of New France in New England' (1894). He
edited Vols. III., IV., V. and VI of the <Docn-
mentary History of Maine' (1889).

Baxter, Jere, American lawyer : b. Nash-
ville, Tenn , 11 Feb. 1852. He traveled in
Europe, studied law, and reported the decisions
of the supreme court of Tennessee, 9 volumes
He was prominent in railroad enterprises, par-
ticularly in schemes devoted to the opening up
of the mineral and timber resources of his State.
He was president of the Memphis & Charles-
ton R.R. before reaching the age of 30, and he
organized and built the Tennessee Central R.R.,
of which corporation he w-as president He was
instrumental in the founding and extension of
industrial towns, and was a member of the
Tennessee Senate.

Baxter, Lucy E. (B.\rnes), English art
writer : b. Mere, Wiltshire, about 1835 ; d. Flor-
ence, Italy. 10 Nov. 1902. She was the daugh-
ter of William Barnes, the Dorset poet, and
wrote over the pen name of Le.\der Scott.
After her marriage to Mr. S. T. Baxter in 1867,
she resided in Italy, where she was made an
honorary member of the Accademia delle
Belle Arti. She was the author of 'The Paint-
er's Ordeal' ; 'A Nook in the Apennines'
(1S79) ; lives of Fra Bartolommeo, Andrea del
Sarto, Fra Angelico, and Lucadella Robbia ;
<The Renaissance of Art in Italy' (1882) ;
^Alesser Agnolo's Household, a Unique Centa
Florentine Story' (1882) ; 'Ghiberbi and Dona-
tello' (1882) : <A Bunch of Berries' (1883) ;
^Sculpture, Renaissance and Modern' (1886) ;

BAXTER — BAY

< Tuscan Studies and Sketches^ (1887) ; <Life
of William Barnes^ (1888); <Vincigliata and
Mariano^ (1891): <The Orti Orcellari^ (1893);
'Echoes of Old Florence' (1894) ; *The Castle
of Vincigliata\(i897) ; <The Cathedral Build-
ers,' her most important work (1899) ; ^Filippo
di Ser Brunellesco' (1901).

Baxter, Richard, English divine: b. near
Shrewsbury, 1615; d. 8 Dec. 1691. After receiv-
ing a somewhat desultory and defective edu-
cation he was sent to London under the patron-
age of Sir Henry Herbert, master of the revels ;
but he soon returned to the country to study
divinity, and in 1638 received ordination in the
Church of England. In 1640 he refused to take
the oath of universal approbation of the doc-
trine and discipline of the Church of England,
usually known as the et ccctera oath, and in the
following year he became minister at Kidder-
minster, with the best results to the morality
of the town. When the civil war broke out he
sided with the Parliament, and after the battle
of Naseby accepted the appointment of chap-
Iain to Col. Whalle3^'s regiment. He is said to
have been, the whole of this time, a friend to
the establishment, according to his own notions.
In 1647 he retired, in consequence of ill health,
from his military chaplainship, and when he
recovered preached against the Covenant. He
even endeavored to persuade the soldiery not
to encounter the Scottish troops who came into
the kingdom with Charles II., and did not hesi-
tate to express an open dislike to the usurpa-
tion of Cromwell. The fact is that Baxter held
civil liberty to be of secondary consequence to
what he esteemed true religion, and appears, from
a sermon preached before Cromwell, to have
deemed the toleration of separatists and sec-
taries the grand evil of his government. After
the Restoration he was made one of the king's
chaplains and a commissioner of the Savoy
Conference to draw up the reformed liturgy.
The active persecution of the Nonconformists
soon followed ; and upon the passing of the act
against conventicles he retired, and preached
inore or less openly as the act was more or
less rigidly enforced. After the accession of
James II., in 1685, he was arrested for some
passages in his ^Commentary on the New Testa-
ment' supposed to be hostile to Episcopacy, and
was tried for sedition. The violence of Jef-
freys, who would hear neither the accused nor
his counsel, produced a verdict of guilty on the
most frivolous grounds. He was sentenced to
two years' imprisonment and a heavy penalty,
which, after a short confinement, the king remit-
ted. Henceforward Baxter lived in a retired
manner till his death. His wife cheerfully
shared all his sufferings on the score of con-
science, both in and out of prison. The charac-
ter of Baxter was formed by his age ; his fail-
ing was subtle and controversial theology; his
excellence, practical piety. In divinity he sought
to establish a resting place between strict Cal-
vinism and high-church Arminianism, by the
adrnission of election and the rejection of repro-
bation. Christ, he considered, died for some
especially and for all generally ; that is to say,
all possess the means of salvation. A body
called Baxterians long acknowledged these dis-
tinctions ; and the Nonconformist clergy, after
the Revolution, were divided between this body,
the pure Calvinists, and the high-church passive-
obedient Arminians. Baxter was a voluminous

writer; his ^Saints' Everlasting Rest,' and the
'Call to .the Unconverted,' have been extraor-
dinarily popular. In 1830 an edition of his
'Practical Works' appeared in 23 octavo vol-
umes. The chief authority for the facts of his
life is the 'Reliquiae Baxterianse* of Sylvester,
consisting of autobiographical matter.

Baxter, Robert Dudley, English political
economist : b. Doncaster, Yorkshire, 1827 ; d.
May 1875. He was educated at Trinity College,
Cambridge, and in 1866 became a member of
the Statistical Society of London. He wrote
and published 'Railway Extension and Its Re-
sults' (1866) ; 'National Income of the United
Kingdom' (1868) ; 'Taxation of the United
Kingdom' (1869) ; 'English Parties and Con-
servatism' (1870) ; 'National Debts of the
World' (1871), etc.

Baxter, Sylvester, American journalist: b.
West Yarmouth, Mass., 6 Feb. 1850. While on
the staff of the Boston Herald he was promi-
nent in pushing the metropolitan park system
and advocating a "Greater Boston." He has
written: 'The Cruise of a Land Yacht, a Boy's
Book of Mexican Travel' ; 'Berlin: a Study in
Municipal Government' (1890) ; 'The Boston
Park Guide.'

Baxter, William, American clergyman and
author : b. Leeds, England, 1820. He was pres-
ident of Arkansas College, Fayetteville ; when
it was burned in the Civil War, he removed to
Cincinnati. He has written 'The Loyal West
in the Time of the Rebellion' and 'Pea Ridge
and Prairie Grove, or Scenes and Incidents of
the War in Arkansas' (1864). His 'War
Lyrics,' originally published in 'Harper's
Weekly' were very popular at the time of their
publication.

Baxterians. See Baxter, Rich.\rd.

Bay, in architecture, a term used to signify
the magnitude of a building. Thus, if a barn
consists of a floor and two heads, where they lay
corn, they call it a barn of two baj's. These
bays are from 14 to 20 feet long, and floors
from 10 to 12 broad, and usually 20 feet long,
which is the breadth of the barn. It is also used
to denote the divisions of a church or cathedral
from floor to roof, as indicated by the pillars
or arches ; as, a church of eight bays.

In botany, the name of several trees and
shrubs, as sweet bay (Laurus nobilis) the laurel
(q.v.) of the poets, used for crowning heroes
in ancient times and for church decoration at
the present. It has stiff, dull-green leaves some-
times used to flavor culinary dishes. Its sweet,
fragrant, aromatic, cherry-like, purple fruits are
edible. This tree is widely cultivated for orna-
ment in Europe and America, and is probably
the most popular tub-plant used in open-air
restaurants, esplanades, etc., on account of its
ability to withstand neglect, abuse, and shear-
ing. Several hundred thousand specimens are
used annually on the two continents. The bay
laurel is better known as the cherry laurel
(Pruiius lauroccrasiis). Its leaves yield prus-
sic acid, and were at one time extensively used
as a poison. The loblolly bay (Gordonia lisi-
anthus), white bay (Magnolia glauca), and red
bay (Persea carolinensis), are well-known
natives of the southeastern United States. The
name rose bay is given to divers evergreen rho-
dodendrons, to oleander, and sometimes to
Epilobium angustifolium. The California bay-

BAY-BIRDS — BAY CITY

tree is Umbellularia californica. The bay-tree
from which bay rum (q.v.) is distilled is
Myrcia acris. See Laurel; AIagnolia.

In geography, an arm of the sea, extending
into the land. It is generally applied to smaller
bodies of water than gulfs, of the same general
geographical character, though the terms "gulf**
and "bay* are used sometimes interchangeably
and much to the confusion of geographical
science. The word is of Saxon origin and sig-
nifies an angle. It should properly be applied
only to arms of the sea which are widest at
their departure from the main line of sea coast,
or mouth, while "gulf* should be applied to
such bodies of water as the Gulf of California,
whose width is nearly the same throughout a
great part of their extent.

Bay-birds, or Beach-birds, a sportsmen's
name, in particular use along the south shore
of Long Island, N. Y., for snipe, curlews, sand-
pipers, avocets, and other limicoline birds that
frequent the shores and bays of estuaries. Com-
pare Shore-birds.

Bay City, Mich., county-seat of Bay
County, is located on the south bank of the
Saginaw River, four miles from its mouth on
Saginaw Bay, from which it takes its name,
and at the head of deep water navigation. It
is connected with the Michigan Central, Pere
Marquette, Grand Trunk, and Detroit & i^Iacki-
nac Railway systems, and io8 miles northwest
of Detroit. It is the principal market town of
a large area of the Saginaw Valley and "Thumb'*
region of the lower peninsula, the garden of the
State in an agricultural sense. The Saginaw
River is navigable to this point for the largest
lake vessels. West Bay City lies on the north
bank of the Saginaw River and directly oppo-
site Bay City. These cities will become one
municipality April I, 1905, an act of the legis-
lature having made this provision.

Manufactures. — Bay City is a large manu-
facturing town, the principal industries being
coal, salt, lumber, sugar, alcohol, beer, machin-
ery, and chemicals. It has the only alcohol plant
in the State which produces proof alcohol from
the refuse molasses, a by-product of the manu-
facture of beet sugar, and one of the largest
chemical plants in the world, manufacturing al-
kalis, soda ash, salt, etc. Three large beet sugar
factories are located in Bay City and two in
West Bay City. The development of coal min-
ing in the Saginaw Valley is of comparatively
recent origin, dating back only ten years, but
it has attained large proportions in Bay County,
a dozen mines, being in operation and others
being established. It is the port of entry of
150,000,000 feet of rough lumber imported an-
nually from Canada and Upper Michigan and
Lake Superior district. This product is worked
up in the planing mills, box factories and other
wood working plants of which there are more
than a score. A dozen saw mills are in opera-
tion and manufacture more than 100,000.000 feet
of lumber annually, the logs coming in by rail.
The Michigan Central Railroad alone brings to
Bay City nearly 100.000.000 feet of saw-logs
annually. Large quantities of forest products
are distributed by rail, fully 300,000.000 feet of
lumber besides vast quantities of shingles, cedar
poles, posts, railroad ties and hemlock bark being
handled in and out of the city annually. The

city has a large shade roller factory, wind mil!
factory, one of the largest industrial works in the
country, turning out machinery, another large
machinery plant, maple flooring plants, the
largest woodenware factory in the world, a num-
ber of breweries, a large flour mill and elevator,
two feed mills, and a large marine engine
plant, yacht building plant, and a large chicory
plant, considerable attention being paid to this
industry. The city has 87 incorporated manu-
facturing and business concerns with a capital-
ization of nearly $20,000,000.

Trade and Commerce. — The growth of the
commerce of Bay City has been steady. It has
also changed. Up to 20 years ago the manu-
facture of pine lumber was the chief industry on
the Saginaw River and there was produced in a
narrow strip of territory 18 miles long since 1851
an aggregate of 24,000,000,000 feet of manufac-
tured lumber. Of late years the pine industry
declined owing to the exhaustion of the pine
timber tributary to the mills, and mixed timber is
now chiefly manufactured. The lake shipments
of lumber which have exceeded 850,000,000 feet
in a single season have declined and lumber is
now brought in instead of being shipped out by
water, the product being worked up in factories
and shipped to consuming points by rail and
water, these consisting of lumber products, fish,
salt, coal, sugar and alcohol. The city also does
an extensive business in wholesale groceries,
supplies for mills and machinery generally. The
total business aggregates $50,000,000 annually.

Railroads and JVafcr Communication. — Bay
City is the division headquarters of the Michi-
gan Central Railroad, the ]\Iackinaw, Bay City &
Detroit, and Bay City and Jackson divisions cen-
tering here. It is also the northern terminal
of the C. H. D. & Pere Marquette system, the
northern terminal of the Grand Trunk, and the
southern terminal of the Detroit & Mackinac
Railroad. It has a street railway system of 35
miles and an interurban road extending 14 miles
south to Saginaw. Two interurban routes are
projected, one to Lapeer, Pontiac and Detroit,
the other to Caro, Cass City, Bad Axe and Har-
bor Beach. It is at the head of deep water
navigation on the Saginaw River, and is reached
by the largest lake vessels. Opposite Bay City
are two large ship-building plants and it has
also an extensive dry dock. The chief water
exports are lumber products, salt and coal, and
the imports are lumber products and merchan-
dise. It is reached by navigation from all ports
on the great lakes.

City and County Government. — Bay City is
the seat of the county government and contains
the county court-house and all county offices. It
has a fine city-hall building, erected at a cost of
$200,000. The charter election is held on the
first Monday in April of each year, the mayor
holding office two years, the comptroller four
years, and the treasurer and recorder two years.
The total expenses of the city government in
1903 were $177,576.18, and the valuation as as-
sessed for taxation purposes in IQ04 is $11,797,-
875. The bonded debt of the city is $600,000,
of which $342,000 are waterworks bonds. The
rate of taxation on $1,000 valuation in 1904 was
$18.19. which includes the school tax of $3.9.1-

Banks and Loan Comf>anics. — Bay City has
five banking institutions with an aggregate cap-
ital of $600,000; profits $367,651, and deposits

BAY ISLANDS — BAY STATE

amounting to $4,784,014, according to the state-
ment of 6 Sept. 1904. There are two building
and loan associations, the Mutual Building and
Loan Association of Bay County, capital $2,000,-
000; and the Savings Building and Loan Associ-
ation of Bay County, capital $1,000,000.

Churches and Charities. — Bay City is well
represented in its religious and charitable insti-
tutions. It has 2>^ churches and missions and 12
private and parochial schools. There are three
charitable institutions, the Children's Home, Lu-
theran Children's Home, and Woman's Home ;
three hospitals — the Mercy Hospital, under the
auspices of the Sisters of Mercy ; the Lewis
Hospital, and the Bishop Hospital. The city
also has 66 aid, benevolent, social, and other
societies, and 87 secret societies and lodges.

Newspapers. — Bay City has two daily news-
papers and several weekly publications.

Education. — Bay City has a fine high school
and nine other school buildings, employing in all
127 teachers, including the superintendent and
principals of the several schools. The school
census of 1904 shows 9,506 children of school age
in the city. A county normal training school
and kindergarten schools are maintained in con-
nection with the public school system. The city
maintains the Bay City Business College, Holy
Rosary Academy, conducted by the Dominican
Sisters; Mercy Hospital Training School for
Nurses ; Oral School for the Deaf, and Lutheran
and Catholic parochial schools. There are two
libraries — the Bay City Public Library, located
in the city-hall building, and having 24,000 vol-
umes ; the Bay County Bar Library.

Buildings, Parks, Suburbs, etc. — Bay City is
noted for its substantial business buildings, its
suburban attractions, and the beauty of its
homes. The city-hall, Masonic temple, and
Federal building are imposing structures. The
Bay City Club erected in 1904 a fine club house,
the Masonic Club meets in Masonic Temple,
the Elks Club owns its own building, as does
the Bay City Boat Club, and there are a num-
ber of private clubs. Bay City has a board of
trade with a membership of over 200. The city
has six public parks, and has an abundant sup-
ply of good water, obtained from Saginaw Bay.

History. — The Saginaw Valley, in the lower
portion of which Bay City is situated, derived
its name from the Indian appellation "0-saug-
e-nong,^' meaning ^'land of the Sauks,'^ a tribe
of red men who inhabited this locality more
than 350 years ago. Subsequently the Sauks
were nearly exterminated by the Chippewas,
and the latter ceded the territory to the United
States in 1819. The first settler located here in
1831, he being employed by the government as
an Indian farmer, in conformity to the provi-
sions of the treaty. There were two reserva-
tions, one of 2,000 and one of 1,000 acres,
embraced within what are now the corporate
limits of the city, the reservations being to
Stephen V. R. Riley, of Schenectady. N. Y.,
who had resided with the Indians many years,
married an Indian woman, by whom he had
three sens, the eldest, John Riley, being located
on the reservations referred to. In 1836 he sold
his land to a number of Detroit business men,
who organized the Saginaw Bay Company,
which began to lay out the future city. A large
hotel was framed and a dock and warehouse
built, but, the panic coming on soon, the com-

pany suspended and progress ceased for some
time. In 1840 three gentlemen purchased the
stock of the Saginaw Bay Company and became
the proprietors of what was known as Lower
Saginaw. There was a steady growth after
1844, due to the development of the white pine
lumber industry, the Saginaw River being the
outlet for streams that traversed the richest
pine forests then known in the United States.
The village of Bay City was incorporated in
1859, and retained its village organization until
1865, when it was given a city charter.

Population. — The Federal census taken in
1900 gave the city a population of 27,628, and
the State census taken in 1904 gave the city a
population of only 27,644, figures which are not
accepted as accurate. The population of West
Bay City slightly exceeds 13,000, so that when
the consolidation becomes effective, i April
1905, the greater Bay City will have a popula-
tion in excess of 40,000.

E. D. COWLES,
Editor '^Bay City Tribune.'*

Bay Islands, Honduras, a group of six
islands in the Bay of Honduras, 150 miles
southeast of Belize, known as Ruatan, Guanaja
(or Bonacca), Utilla, Barbareta, Elena, and
Morat. They were discovered by Columbus, 30
July 1502, and it was from Guanja that he
first sighted the mainland of America. Their
ownership was long a matter of dispute between
Spain and England^ and later between England
and the republic of Honduras. In 1852 the
group was declared a colony of Great Britain
by royal warrant, and this action involved the
United States in the dispute, that government
claiming that the seizure was a violation of the
Clayton-Bulwer treaty (q.v.). Negotiations
dragged along slowly for several years, but
finally Great Britain recognized the claim of
Honduras to the islands. A practical protector-
ate was, however, maintained by Great Britain
over the group, and the inhabitants (who num-
ber nearly 6,000) avowed British allegiance. In
1903 Great Britain formally renounced all juris-
diction, and title to the Bay Islands is now
clearly vested in Honduras.

Bay Lagoon, Philippines, a freshwater
lake in the northern part of Luzon. This lake
is connected with Manila Bay by the Pasig
River, and from its centre rises a high vol-
canic island. It is about 20 miles in extent
from north to south, and about 47 miles from
east to west. In 1899 it was made a naval head-
quarters for the United States.

Bay Psalm Book, the title of the first book
published in the American colonies. It was
printed by Stephen Daye at Cambridge, 1640,
and was the product of the joint labors of Revs.
Richard Mather, Thomas Wilde, and John
Eliot. It was revised in 1650 and was long in
use in New England.

Bay Salt, the coarse-grained salt found in
salt-marshes and along ocean shores, where it
is formed by the spontaneous evaporation of
sea-water. The name is supposed to refer to
the Bay of Biscay, on whose shores extensive
deposits of ^'bay salt^^ occur.

Bay State, the popular name of Massachu-
setts, which prior to the adoption of the United
States' Constitution had been known as the
Massachusetts Bay Colony.

BAYA — BAYARD

Baya, or Baya Sparrow, a sparrow-like
weaver-bird (Ploceus phillippinns), which the
people of India and the Malay countries often
keep about their houses, not only in cages, but
as a free pet trained to do a variety of clever
tricks, even to find small articles, to carry notes
to certain places, and to steal ornaments from
the hair of visitors. See Weaver Bird.

Bayad, a cat fish, Bagus bayad, a large edi-
ble fish found in abundance in the river Nile;
distinguished, however, from the electric cat-
nsh of the same waters.

Bayaderes, ba-ya-darz, in the East Indies,
yov.ng girls, from lO to 17 years of age, who
are instructed in dancing, singing, and acting
little plays. They are trained under the care of
women, who are experienced in all female arts,
and particularly in that of pleasing. These
procure from the lowest classes of the people
the most beautiful girls, of seven or eight years
of age, and instruct them in all the arts of their
profession (especially dancing and singing), the
object of which is to amuse the rich and minis-
ter to their passions. Their presence is con-
sidered necessary even at the smallest public
entertainments, though they are known to be
mere prostitutes. After their 17th year, when
their first charms have faded, they retire to
a pagoda under the protection of the Brahmins,
who scruple not to pocket the gains of their
prostitution. This word is from the Portu-
guese word bailadcira, from bailar^ to dance.

Bayamo, ba-yii'mo, Cuba, a town whose
name is indissolubly connected with the Ten
Years' war and the revolution of 1895. Thus
the Cuban national air received the name
*Bayamese Hymn.^ The republican movement
of 1868 originated here and in the neighboring
town of Yara ; and here Gen. Garcia received
the message that Lieut. Rowan delivered to him
before the war of 1898 between the United
States and Spain. Bayamo was founded in the
early years of the Spanish conquest. It is situ-
ated on an affluent of the Canto, Cuba's largest
river, in the province of Santiago.

Bayard, bi'ard, George Dashiell, Ameri-
can soldier: b. Seneca Falls, N. Y., 18 Dec.
1835; d. 14 Dec. 1862. Passing his boyhood in
Iowa, he entered West Point, 1852, and became
a cavalry lieutenant ; then captain in August
1861, colonel of volunteers in September, briga-
dier-general the following April ; and after
serving in the Shenandoah and northern Vir-
ginia campaigns, was mortally wounded at
Fredericksburg.

Bayard, James Asheton (ist), American
■statesman; b. Philadelphia, 28 July 1767; d. 6
Aug. 181 5. He was the son of Dr. James A.
(see Bay.\rd F.vmily) ; was adopted by his
uncle. Col. John (q.v.), graduated at Prince-
ton, 1784 ; studied law, and settled in Wilming-
ton, Del., permanently. In 1796 he was elected
(Federalist) Representative in Congress and
became the leader of the party in the House,
noted as a constitutional lawyer ; and when the
peculiar system of presidential elections at that
time had tied Jefferson and Burr for the presi-
■dencj^ though Jefferson was the only one really
voted for. Bayard threw his vote for Jeffer-
:son and elected him as the less obnoxious of the
two. John Adams appointed him minister to
France, but he declined. He served in the
House till 1803 ; in 1804 he was elected to the

Senate, and held the seat till 1813, voting against
the War of 181 2. He was made peace commis-
sioner in 1813 by Madison, and, declining the
ministry to Russia, was one of those who con-
cluded the Treaty of Ghent, December 1814-
but died shortly after his return.

Bayard, James Asheton (2d), American
statesman, son of the foregoing: b. Wilmington,
Del., 15 Nov. 1799; d. there, 13 June 1880. He
became a lawyer of high rank in Wilmington,
United States attorney for Delaware under Van
Euren, and was elected United States senator,
1851, 1857, and 1863, as a Democrat; but on the
last occasion the "iron-clad" oath of allegiance
being required of public officers at that time,
Mr. Bayard entered a protest against it as a
violation of State rights, and resigned his seat
at once on taking it. His successor, George R.
Riddle (q.v.), dying four years later after the
war, he accepted an election to fill out his
own unexpired term, to March 1869; during
most of the time was chairman of the Judi-
ciary Committee, and gained an honorable celeb-
rity for his punctilious sense of public honor
in the matter of the Credit Mobilier (q.v.). His
son, Thomas F. (q.v.), was chosen to succeed
him by the same legislature which had elected
himself, the only instance of the kind in Ameri-
can history. He lived quietly at Wilmington
during the remainder of his life.

Bayard, John, American patriot: b. Bohe-
mia Manor. Md., 11 Aug. 1738; d. 7 Jan. 1807.
(For his descent, see Bayard Family.) He
was a prominent Philadelphia merchant, mem-
ber of the Sons of Liberty, and later of the
Provincial Congress, 1774-5, and of the Coun-
cil of Safety; colonel of infantry at the bat-
tles of Brandywine, Germantown, and Prince-
ton ; member of the State board of war, and
speaker of its House. He furnished arms to
Congress and fitted one of the earliest efficient
privateers. In 1785 he was elected to Congress.
Somwhat impoverished by his sacrifices in the
Revolution, he removed permanently to New
Brunswick, N. J., where he was mayor, county
judge, and leading magnate. He was a firm
Federalist, of high character.

Bayard, Nicholas, American colonial offi-
cial : b. Alphen. Holland, about 1644 ; d. New
York, 1707. (See Bayard Family.) He was
double nephew ot Peter Stuyvesant, by blood
and marriage : became his private secretary and
surveyor of the province, secretary of it after
the English conquest, and mayor in 1685. He
was commander-in-chief of the militia of the
province, and one of the three resident coun-
cilors ; and had to flee to Albany for his life
on Leisler's usurpation after Andros' over-
throw, but was made councilor anew on Leis-
ler's downfall. On Kidd's arrest for piracy in
1699, Bayard, like all Gov. Bellomont's officials,
was accused of complicity, and visited London
to clear himself; but the old hates of the Leis-
ler time pursued him, and on charge of attempt-
ing to introduce popery, piracy, and slavery into
New York he was condemned to death for high
treason. William's death intervening, however,
he was released and restored to his possessions
by an order in council.

Bayard, ba-yar, Pierre du Terrail (Chev-
alier de), French soldier: b. Chateau Bayard,
near Grenoble, 1475; d. 30 April 1524. He was
descended from one of the most noble families

BAYARD

in Dauphiny, and at the age of 13 became page
to the Duke of Savo\', at that time an ally of
France. Charles VIII., struck by his skill and
grace in riding, asked that he be transferred to
his service, and accordingly, as a preparation
to being attached to the royal suite, j-oung
Bayard was placed in the household of Paul of
Luxembourg, Count de Ligny. where he was
taught all the feats of arms and niceties of chiv-
alry which were then held necessary to consti-
tute a gentleman and a soldier.

His first experience in war was in the wild
and daring march of Charles VIII., with a small
unsupported army, through the whole length of
Italy, to invade the kingdom of Naples, which
was won and lost in a few days with equal
ease; and in that campaign, he greatly distin-
guished himself, taking, with his own hand, a
stand of colors in the battle of Verona. After
this, while serving in an invading army in Italy,
after a battle fought near i\Iilan, in the heat of
pursuit he entered that citj^ pell-mell with the
fugitives, and was made prisoner, but, in con-
sideration of his astonishing valor, was sent
back without ransom by Ludovico Sforza,
together with his horse and arms. In Apulia
he defeated a Spanish corps commanded by
Alonzo de Soto-Mayor, who broke his parole
and slandered Bayard, in return for which the
latter challenged and slew him in single com-
bat, and afterward covered the retreat of the
whole French army, and defended the bridge
over the Liris, now the Garigliano, single-
handed against half an army. For this feat he
received an augmentation of his armorial bear-
ings, a porcupine bristling with spears, with
the motto Vires agminis u)ius habct.

A real type of the ideal knight-errant of
romance, wherever honor was to be won or
danger incurred, Bayard was there. Desper-
ately wounded in the assault of Brescia, he was
carried to the house of a nobleman who had
fled, abandoning his wife and daughters to the
fate which befalls women in a sacked city, and
from which the wounded enemy alone preserved
them. Half-recovered from his wounds, he
joined Gaston de Foix before Ravenna, where
with his own hand he took two Spanish standards
and converted a retreat of the enemy into
a rout. In the subsequent wars with Ferdinand
the Catholic of Spain he displayed the same
chivalric valor and the same generalship among
the Pyrenees which he had displayed in his
boyhood among the passes of the Alps and
Apennines. In the dark days which clouded the
latter years of Louis XII., when Henry VIII.
brought his English archers to back the Ger-
man Maximilian in Flanders, and Terouanne
and Tournay went down, with but feeble resist-
ance, before the allies, Bayard was the same in
adverse as he had been in prosperous fortunes.
Made prisoner at the disgraceful battle of the
Spurs, it was again his glory to be taken under
circumstances of such honor that, once more, he
was dismissed, with his horse and arms, unran-
somed. It was, however, in his noon of man-
hood that his glory shone the brightest. When
Francis I. invaded Italy after his accession to
the throne of France, it was Bayard who was
the precursor of his march ; who made Prosper
Colonna, at the very moment of his belief that
he had ambushed and surprised him, his pris-
oner : who. in a word, paved the king's wav to
the magnificent battle of Marignano. In that

tremendous conflict, he did prodigies, and more
than any or all beside to change what once
seemed a lost fight into a victory. At its close
his sword conferred the accolade on the shoul-
der of his king, Francis I., who deemed it honor
enough to take knighthood at the hand of such
a paladin as Bayard. The fortunes of war,
proverbially fickle and changeful, were never
more so than at this epoch ; and when, a short
time later, Charles V. invaded Champagne, his
wonderful defense of the open town of
Mezieres alone prevented his penetrating to the
heart of France, of which, by this exploit, he
deserved, as he obtained, the name of savior.
His next war was his last. Genoa, ever an
unwilling conquest of the French arms, revolted ;
and, under the command of Bonnivet, Bayard
was sent to reduce the city to obedience and
chastise the rebels. In the first instance success
attended their advance ; but, after the surrender
of Lodi fortune again changed, and, foot by
foot, the French were beaten out of their con-
quests. In retreating through the Val d'Aosta
the French rear was beaten, Bonnivet was
severely wounded, and the safety of the army
was committed to Bayard, if he perchance might
save it. In passing the river Sesia in the pres-
ence of a superior enemy, as Bayard was cover-
ing the rear and pressing hard upon the Span-
iards, who were fast giving way before his
impetuous charge, he was shot through the
right side by a stone from an arquebus, which
shattered his spine. **Jesu, my God !* he cried,
"I am a dead man.^^ And then commanding
that he should be placed erect, in a sitting pos-
ture, with his back against a tree, with his face
to the Spaniards, and the cross-hilt of his
sword held up as a crucifix before him, he con-
fessed his sins to his esquire, sent his adieux
to his king and country, and died in the midst
of weeping friends and admiring enemies. With
his fall the battle was ended. The French lost
everything, — standards, drums, baggage, ord-
nance, — and their retreat to France became a
flight. But there was most grief that they had
lost Bayard. His body remained in the hands
of the Spaniards; but they embalmed and re-
turned it to France unsolicited. A simple bust,
with a brief and modest Latin inscription, in the
church of the Minorites, in Grenoble, erected in
1823, is the only monument to one of the purest
and most beautiful characters in mediaeval his-
tory, the chevalier sans peur et sans rcproche.

Bayard's life was written by Symphorien
Champier in 1525, and two years later by his
secretary, Jacques Jofifrey, known as the 'Hoyal
servitor." Other accounts have been translated
by E. Walford (London, 1867).

Bayard, Richard Henry, American sena-
tor, elder brother of James A. (2d) : b. Wil-
mington, Del., 1796; d. 4 March 1868. He
graduated at Princeton, 1814, and became a
lawyer in Wilmington. He was United States
Senator 183^-45, resigning for a few weeks
in 1839 to be chief justice of Delaware, but ac-
cepting an immediate re-election ; then charge
d'affaires at Brussels 1850-3. Returning, he
lived in Philadelphia till his death.

Bayard, Samuel, American jurist, son of
Col. John: b. Philadelphia, 11 Jan. 1767; d. 12
May 1840. He was valedictorian at Princeton,
1784. and practised law in Philadelphia till 1791,
when he was made clerk of the United States

BAYARD — BAYER

iupreme court. From 1794 to 1798 he was in
London as agent to prosecute American claims
before the British admiralty court ; after his
return was presiding judge of Westchester
County till 1803, lawyer in New York 1803-6,
then removed permanently to Princeton, X. J.
He was one of the founders of Princeton Theo-
logical Seminary, the American and New Jer-
sey Bible societies, and the New York Histori-
cal Society.

Bayard, Thomas Francis, American states-
man, son of James A. (2d; : b. Wilmington,
Del., 29 Oct. 1828; d. 26 Sept. 1898. He was
intended for a business career, and was placed
in a New York house, his elder brother being
designed to carry on the family succession for
public life; but, the latter dying in 1848, Thomas
returned to Wilmington, studied law with his
father, and was admitted to the bar in 1851.
He was appointed United States district-attor-
ney, but resigned the next year ; removed to
Philadelphia 1855 and practised law two years,
then returned permanently to Wilmington. He
and his father were peace Democrats, unalter-
ably opposed to the war, publicly denounced
it, and gave no help to its prosecution. Elected
to the Senate to succeed his father, he took his
seat 4 ^larch 1869, and served by successive re-
■elections till 1885. He was one of the leading
Democratic figures, member of the Finance, Ju-
diciary, and other important committees, and
its president pro tern, in 1881 ; was on the
Electoral Commission of 1876 ; continued to
champion the party doctrines, and was one of
the most prominent candidates for the presi-
dency before both Democratic national conven-
tions of 1880 and 1884. On 4 March 1885 he
was appointed secretary of state in the Cabinet
of President Cleveland; and in this position had
his share of important and vexatious questions.
such as the Bering Sea seal-fishery matter, and
treaties with Great Britain and Russia. He was
United States ambassador to Great Britain
1893-7, in Cleveland's second term, the first
British minister to hold the title of ambassador.

Bayard Family, a remarkable succession
of American public leaders, statesmen, and ju-
rists, identified for two and a half centuries
with the Middle States from New York to
Maryland, and for a century and a quarter al-
most continuously in public service. They
descended from a family of French Huguenot
refugees, whose ancestor was a Paris theolog-
ical professor driven to Holland to escape perse-
cution about 1580. His son Samuel became a
•wealthy Amsterdam merchant and married^ the
accomplished, energetic, and capable sister
(Anna) of Peter Stuj'vesant, the last governor
of the Dutch New Netherlands, who himself
married Bayard's equally accomplished sister
Judith, a great lady of her time. Samuel died
in Holland: and his widow with her three sons
accompanied her brother to Manhattan Island,
where she took up an estate of 200 acres, includ-
ing the site of the Astor Library. Of these
sons, Nicholas became secretary of New Nether-
lands and later of English New York payor,
commander-in-chief of the colony's militia, and
practically the head of the colony — a perilous
honor which twice brought him to the verge of
destruction. His brother Peter, however, though
not personally conspicuous, became the ancestor
of the distinguished Bayards of the 18th and

19th centuries. Peter's son Samuel joined the
Labadists (see Labadie, Je.\n;, a sect of com-
munists otherwise much like the Quakers, and
removed to Maryland. Of his grandsons. Col.
John was a leading Philadelphia merchant, pa-
triot, and soldier, representative in Congress,
a county magnate in Marjdand till after the
Revolution, later judge and Federalist pillar;
his son Samuel, lawyer, clerk of the supreme
court, United States claim agent, and judge,
was one of the founders of the New York
Historical Society and the American Bible So-
ciety. Col. John's twin brother, Dr. James A.,
was father of James A., the noted Federalist
statesman of Jefferson's and Madison's time,
leader of the Federalists in the House of Rep-
resentatives, and the one whose vote gave the
presidency to Jefferson instead of Burr, senator,
and peace commissioner. The two sons of the
latter James A., Richard H. and James A. (2d),
were both United States senators of distinction
from the State of Delaware, the one a Whig and
the other a Democrat — the only instance of
the kind in United States history; the former
also chosen chief justice of Delaware. The son
of James A. (2d), Thomas F., was also senator
to succeed his father ; so that father, two sons,
and grandson represented Delaware in the
Senate 47 years between 1805 and 1885. Thomas
F. was further a member of the Electoral
Commission of 1876, and secretary of state
under Cleveland. This unique record of distin-
guished public position is the more notable that
it has been on the highest plane of public
character as well as capacity — conspicuous for
dignity, probity, and scrupulous sense of those
official proprieties which shun the appearance of
evil and therefore bar out its reality.

Bayazid, or Bayezeed, Turkey in Asia,
a town in the pashalic of, and 140 miles south-
east from Erzeroom, southwest of Mount Ara-
rat, from the base of which it is separated^ by
a lava-covered plain 10 miles wide. It is situ-
ated on the declivity of a rugged eminence, the
summit of which is fortified and surrounded
bj^ a wall and ramparts. The town is in a
ruinous state; most of the houses are small
and ill built, and the streets are extremely
filthy. Besides the extensive palace of the
pasha, the town contains two Christian churches,
three mosques, and the famous monastery of
Kara-Keleeseh. celebrated for its beautiful arch-
itecture and antiquity. The inhabitants consist
chiefly of Kurds and Armenians. Kurdish is
the common language of the place. Some trade
is carried on with Persia, on the frontiers of
which the town is situated. It was occupied and
held by the Russians for a time in 1877. Pop.
5,000. '

Bayazid, ba-ya-zed', I. and II. See Baj.vzet.

Baybay, biiT'baT, Philippines, a town of the
province of Leyte, situated on the west coast,
40 miles southwest of Tanaban. Pop. 17)367-

Bayberry. See Caxdle Berry.

Bayer, bi'er. Gottlieb Siegfried, German
philologist, grandson of Johann Bayer: b.
Konigsberg, 1694: d. St. Petersburg, 21 Feb.
1738. He displayed from his earliest childhood
a singular passion for Chinese and other East-
ern languages. He studied the Coptic at Berlin,
under La Crosse, Arabic at Halle, under Solo-
mon Negri, and at the same time opened _ a
correspondence with the missionaries in India,

BAYER — BAYLE

in order to obtain more information about the
Sanskrit and Hindustanee. On the foundation
ot the academy of sciences in St. Petersburg
in 1726, he became professor of Greek and Ro-
man antiquities. Besides his extraordinary
knowledge of languages, Bayer was an eminent
historical and archasological scholar. His mon-
ument is his work published in 1730, ^Museum
Sinicum, in quo Sinicae linguje et literaturse
ratio explicatur,^ containing a Chinese grammar,
a grammar of the dialect of Shin-Shu, and
many interesting notices on Chinese literature.

Bayer, Johann, German astronomer: b.
Augsburg, 1572; d. 1660. He is celebrated for
a large work published in 1603, under the title
of ^Uranometria,^ and republished in 1627
under the title of *Coelum Stellatum Chris-
tianum,^ which contains a minute description
and a catalogue of the constellations. He
changed the name because he had withdrawn
the heathen names of the constellations, and
supplied their names by others taken from the
Bible, taking those of the northern constellations
from the New, and those of the southern con-
stellations from the Old Testament, and giving
the names of the 12 apostles to the signs of the
zodiac. His letters were adopted by Flamsteed
and others, and are now universally used, but
the heathen names have kept their ground. He
contributed much to the simplification of astro-
nomical science, by avoiding the old unintel-
ligible nomenclature and by denoting the stars
m every constellation by the letters oi the
Greek alphabet in their order. Bayer was also
a good student of law and an able theologian.
He was settled as minister over different
parishes, and so zealous in his advocacy of
Protestantism that he was called "Os Protestan-
tium.*' The Emperor Leopold ennobled him.

Bayer, Karl Robert Emerich von, German
novelist, who wrote under the pseudonym of
Robert Byr: b. Bregenz, 15 April 1835. He is
a very popular and exceedingly prolific story-
teller, and his voluminous fictions have had a
wide circulation. Among his best-known novels
are <The Struggle for Life> ; * Masks' ; < A Se-
cret Dispatch' ; ^The Road to Fortune' ;
^Meadow Maidenhair' ; ^The Ironworm.'

Bayeux, ba-ye, an ancient town of France,
department Calvados, about 16 miles northwest
of Caen. It possesses many antique houses of
singular appearance, and has a beautiful cathe-
dral dating from the 12th to the 15th century,
and having a crypt under the choir several
centuries earlier. Its noble portal and three
towers render it especially noteworthy. The
local industries include the manufacture of
porcelain and lace, bonnet-making and cotton
spinning. There is a public library and mu-
seum, in which one of the most interesting relics
of the Middle Ages is preserved. See Bayeux
Tapestry. Pop (1896) 7,900.

Bayeux Tapestry, a celebrated piece of
medieval embroidery of sewed work originally
found in the cathedral of Bayeux, in the library
of which town it is still preserved. The fact
that such a tapestry existed was brought to
light by M. Lancelot, who communicated a
description of an illuminated drawing of a por-
tion of it to the Academy of Inscriptions and
Belles-lettres in 1724. This led to the discovery
of the tapestry itself in 1728, whereupon various
speculations arose as to its date, its origin, and

its purport. According to tradition it is a con-
temporary representation of the invasion and
conquest of England by the Normans, and the
discussions upon it have proved that tradition
is right. It is thus not only valuable as a relic
of the art of the Middle Ages, but it has also
great historical value, inasmuch as it supplies
several details of the great event which it por-
trays which are not found in the chroniclers,
and also gives us an exact picture of Norman
costumes and manners. It contains 1,512 figures
with inscriptions in Latin giving the names and
subjects. It is supposed to have been worked
by the needle of Matilda, queen of William the
Conqueror, assisted by her attendants, and tc
have been presented by Odo, bishop of BayeuX;
the half-brother of William, to the church in
which it was found. Whether this be so or
not, it is regarded as certain that the tapestry
is not later than the nth century. During the
French Revolution the tapestry was in great
danger of being destroyed. In 1803 it was
removed to Paris by order of Napoleon, and
when he was meditating the invasion of Britain
he caused it to be carried from town to town
and exhibited between the acts in the theatres.
It was brought back to Bayeux in 1804, when
it was placed in the hotel de ville, instead of
the cathedral, its former resting-place. The
length of the tapestry is 230 feet, and its height
20 inches. It is in an excellent state of preser-
vation. There are good representations of it
produced photograpically. Consult J. C. Bruce's
'Bayeux Tapestry' (1885). See Tapestry,

Bayfield, Matthew Albert, English clergy-
man : b. Edgbaston, 17 June 1852. He was edu-
cated at the King Edward's School, in Birming-
ham, and at Clare College, Cambridge ; was assis-
tant master in the Blackheath School, 1875-9,
and in Marlborough College, 1879-81 : head-
master's assistant in Malvern College, 1881-90;
headmaster of Christ College, Brecon, 1890-5,
and headmaster of Eastbourne College, 1900.
He published editions of 'Ion, Alcestis, and
Medea,' and also 'Septem contra Thebas' (with
Dr. Verrall) ; 'Iliad' (with Dr. Leaf) ; 'Latin
Prose for Lower Forms.' etc.

Bayle, bal, Pierre, French critic and phi-
losopher: b. Carlat, near Foix (Languedoc),
1647; d. Rotterdam, 28 Dec. 1706. At the age
of 19 he entered the College of Puy-Laureps,
to finish his studies. All books were eagerly
devoured by him; his taste for logic led him
particularly to study religious controversies, but
Amyot's 'Plutarch' and 'Montaigne' were iiis
favorite works. In Toulouse he studied philos-
ophy with the Jesuits. The arguments of his
professors, and still more his friendly discus-
sions with a Catholic priest who dwelt near
him, confirmed his doubts of the orthodoxy of
Protestantism, so that he resolved to change his
religion. His family, however, tried all means
to regain him, and after 17 months he returned
to his old faith. To escape from the punish-
ment of perpetual excommunication which
the Roman Catholic Church then pronounced
against apostates, he went to Geneva, and thence
to Copet, where Count Dohna intrusted him
with the education of his sons, where he studied
the philosophy of Des Cartes. But after some
years he returned to France and settled in
Rouen, where he was employed in tearhir.g.
In 1675 he obtained the philosophical chair at

BAYLEN — BAYLISS

Sedan, where he taught with distinction until
the suppression of this academy in 1681. He
was alterward invited to discharge the same
duties at Rotterdam. The appearance of a comet
in 1680 induced him to pubHsh, in 1682, his
'Pensees Diverses sur la Comete,' in which he
discussed various subjects of metaphysics, mor-
als, theology, history, and politics. It was fol-
lowed by his 'Critique Generale de I'Histoire
du Calvinisme de Maimbourg.^ This work,
received with equal approbation by the Catholics
and Protestants, and esteemed by Maimbourg
himself, excited the jealousy of his colleague,
the theologian Jerieu, whose * Refutation du P.
Maimbourg^ had not succeeded, and involved
Bayle in many disputes. He afterward under-
took a periodical work, *Nouvelles de la Repub-
lique des Lettres,^ in 1684.

The death of his father and of his two
brothers, together with the religious persecu-
tions in France, induced him to write his 'Com-
mentaire Philosophique' on the words of the
Gospel : ^'Compel them to come in'' ; which is
not equal in merit to his other works. Bayle
himself was unwilling to acknowledge it ; but
Jurieu, who probably recognized its author by
the zeal with which toleration is defended in
this work, attacked it with violence, and his
influence was sufficient to lead the magistrates
of Rotterdam to remove Bayle from the office in
1693.

He now devoted all his attention to the com-
position of his *Dictionnaire Historique et Cri-
tique,^ which he published in 1696. This was
the first work which appeared under his name.
Jurieu opposed him anew, and caused the con-
sistory, in which he had the greatest influence,
to make a severe attack upon him. Bayle
promised to remove everything which the consis-
tory deemed offensive ; but finding the public
had other views, and preferring the satisfaction
of his readers to that of his judges, he left the
work, with the exception of a few trifles,
unaltered. He found two new enemies in Jac-
quelot and Le Clerc, who both attacked his
religion : others persecuted him as the enemy
of his sect and his new country.

The best editions of his ^Dictionnaire His-
torique' are that of 1740, in 4 volumes folio
(Amsterdam and Leyden), and that in 16 vol-
umes, published 1820-4 at Paris.

Baylen, bi-lan', or Bailen, a town of Spain,
province of Jaen, at the foot of the Sierra Mor-
ena, 22 miles north of Jaen. It commands the
road leading from Castile into Andalusia, and
derives its celebrity from the events which took
place in its vicinity leading to the "Capitulation
of Baylen," signed 20 July 1808, when Gen.
Dupont, and about 20,000 French troops under
his command, surrendered to the Spaniards on
condition of their being conveyed to France by
the Spanish government ; but the latter stipula-
tion was not carried into effect. The incapacity
of Dupont was mainly instrumental in bringing
about this result, which inspired the Spaniards
with confidence, and was always regarded by
Napoleon as the principal source of the French
disasters in the Peninsula. Pop. (1887) 8,580.

Bayley, James Roosevelt, American theo-
logian: b. New York, 23 Aug. 1814; d.
Newark, N. J., 3 Oct. 1877. He studied at
Trinity College, Hartford, and became a min-
ister of the Protestant Episcopal Church; but,

in 1842, was converted to the Roman Catholic
faith ; and, after studying at Paris and Rome,,
was ordained a priest in 1844. He accepted
the chair of belles-lettres at St. John's College,
Fordham, and was its acting president in 1846.
After serving as secretary to Archbishop
Hughes, he was consecrated the first Bishop
of Newark, N. J., in 1853. In 1872 he be-
came Archbishop of Baltimore, INId. He was
the founder of Seton Hall College and several
other institutions. His < Pastorals for the Peo-
ple,' and * History of the Catholic Church on
the Island of New York,' are his chief writ-
ings.

Bayley, Richard, American physician: b.
Fairfield, Conn., 1745; d. Staten Island, N. Y.,.
17 Aug. 1801. After studying medicine in Eng-
land, chiefly in the London hospitals and under
Dr. Hunter, he returned to America in 1776
as a surgeon in Gen. Howe's army, but settled
in New York the following year. He was the
first professor of anatomy in Columbia College
(1792), and for a time health officer of the port
of New York, where his vigorous advocacy of
proper quarantine laws was finally successful.
A careful student of his profession, he suggest-
ed a new method of treatment for croup, and
maintained (1797) that in its origin, yellow
fever was due to local causes and was not
contagious. He published: < Cases of the An-
gina Tracheatis, with the Mode of Cure^
(1781) ; ^ Essay on the Yellow Fever' (1797);
^Letters on Yellow Fever' (1798).

Bayley, William Shirley, American geolo-
gist: b. Baltimore, Md., 10 Nov. 1861. He
graduated at Johns Hopkins in 1883, and since
1887 has been assistant geologist of the Lake
Superior division of the United States Geolog-
ical Survey, and since 1886 associate editor of
the ^American Naturalist.' He is the author
(with Prof. C. R. Van Hise) of the < Report
on the Geology of the Marquette Iron District
of Michigan' and has been a frequent contrib-
utor to scientific journals.

Baylies, ba'liz, Francis, American states-
man, member of Congress from Massachusetts
for several sessions: b. 1784; d. Taunton, Mass.,
28 Oct. 1852. In the presidential contest which
finally resulted in the election of John Q.
Adams, he threw the only electoral vote for
Jackson that was given from New England.
He was for a short time minister to Brazil.
He published in 1828 a history of the old colonj^
of Plymouth.

Bayliss, Clara Kern, American author: b.
near Kalamazoo. Mich., 5 March 1848. She was
married to Alfred Bayliss in 1871. and has pub-
lished ^In Brook and Bavou' (1897) ; 'Lolami.
the Little Cliff Dweller' (1901).

Bayliss, Jeremiah Henry, American Meth- ^
odist Episcopal clergyman: b. Wednesbury>
England, 20 Dec. 1835 : d. Bay View, Mich., 14
Aug. 1889. He was educated at Genesee College,
N. Y., and was prominent as pastor of Park
Avenue and Trinity churches, Chicago; Roberti
Park and Trinity churches, Indianapolis ; Cen-
tral Church, Detroit ; and Walnut Hills Church,
Cincinnati. He edited the Western Christian
Advocate in 1884 and 1888.

Bayliss, Sir Wyke, English artist: b-
Madeley, 21 Oct. 1835; d. London 6 April 1906.
He was educated at the Royal Academy, and was

BAYLOR — BAYNES

president of the Royal Society of British Art-
ists from 1888. His paintings inckide < La Sainte
Chapelle^ (1865); *St. Mark's, Venice' (1880);
*St. Peter's, Rome' (1888); ^The Cathedral,
Amiens' (1900) ; ^The Golden Duorno, Pisa'
(1892), etc. His publications include "^The Wit-
ness of Art' (1876) ; '^The Enchanted Island'
(1888) ; ^The Likeness of Christ Rex Regum'
(1898) ; "^Five Great Painters of the Victorian
Era' (1902).

Baylor, Frances Courtenay. See Barnum,
F. C. B.

Baylor, Robert Emmett Bledsoe, Ameri-
can lawyer : b. Lincoln County, Ky., 10 May
1793; d. Gay Hill, Tex., 6 Jan. 1874. I" the
War of 1812 he served under Col. Boswell and
took part in the engagement near Fort ]^.Ieigs.
Admitted to the bar in Kentucky, he later re-
moved to Alabama (1820), acquired a large
practice, and became prominent in politics, being
a representative in Congress, 1829-31. Later he
emigrated to Texas, then a republic, and was
a district judge for 25 years, A loyal member
of the Baptist denomination, he gave largely in
money and land to establishing one of its col-
leges at Independence (1845), and in recogni-
tion of his munificence it was named Baylor
University (q.v.).

Baylor University, a co-educational insti-
tution in Waco, Tex., controlled by the Baptist
Church. It was founded in 1845 on a charter
granted by the republic of Texas, and named
for Robert E. Baylor (q.v.). Its first location
was in Independence, Tex. ; it was provided
with a university course in 185 1 ; in 1861
President Burleson (who had been its head for
10 years) and the entire faculty resigned and
organized a university in Waco, Tex., giving
it the name of that city. The two institutions
were consolidated in 1882, the earlier one being
removed to Waco, and President Burleson con-
tinuing at the head of the institution. At the
close of 1901 the university reported : Profes-
sors and instructors, 47 ; students, 436 ; volumes
in the library, 11,000; grounds and buildings
valued at $200,000; benefactions, $82,100; in-
come, $125,000; number of graduates, 660.

Bayly, Ada Ellen, a popular English nov-
elist, best known as Edna Lyall : b. Brighton,
about 1859 ; d. Eastbourne, 9 February 1903.
She has written ^Won by Waiting' (1879) ;
<Donovan' (1882); ^We Two' (1884); ^n
the Golden Days' (1885); <Knight Errant'
(1887); ^Autobiography of a Slander' (1887);
< Derrick Vaughan, Novelist' (1889) ; <A Har-
dy Norseman' (1889) ; ^Doreen' (1894) ; ^How
the Children Raised the Wind' (1895); ^Auto-
biography of a Truth' (1896) ; *^ Wayfaring
Men' (1897); < Hope the Hermit' (1898); <In
Spite of All' (1901) ; 'The Hinderers' (1902),
•etc. Although her novels are decidedly ro-
mantic, their aim is to depict the development
•of character.

Bayly, Lewis, Welsh prelate: d. 26 Oct.
163 1. He was the author of 'The Practice of
Piety,* a very popular religious book which had
great influence on Bunyan. It not only passed
through many English editions, but was also
translated into the Indian language by John
Eliot, and was used by him in his work among
the Indians.

Bayly, Thomas Haynes, English song-
writer and author : b. Bath, England, 13 Oct.
1797; d. London, 22 April 1839. He began the
study of law under his father, and later went
to St. Mary Hall, Oxford, in order to prepare
for the Church ; but abandoned both and devoted
himself to literature. He gained great popu-
larity with some songs, and several dramas and
novels by him also hit the public taste. With
Henry Bishop he published 'Melodies of Va-
rious Nations.' Among his songs some of the
best-known are: 'I'd Be a Butterfly' ; 'The Sol-
dier's Tear' ; 'We Met — 'twas in a Crowd' ;
and 'She Wore a Wreath of Roses.' His best
play is 'Perfection'; among his novels are
'The Aylmers' ; and 'A Legend of Killarney.'
'Loves of the Butterflies'; and 'Songs of the
Old Chateau,' are volumes of songs and ballads;
and his other works include 'Kindness in
Women,' a collection of tales; 'Parliamentary
Letters and other Poems,' and 'Rough Sketches
of Bath.'

Bayly, Thomas Henry, American states-
man: b. Accomac County, Va., 1810; d. 22 June
1856. He was admitted to the bar in 1830, and
was for several years a member of the General
Assembly of his State. In 1842 he was elected
judge of the circuit superior court of law, an
office which he resigned in 1844, when elected
a representative in the national Congress ; and
by successive re-elections he held the latter po-
sition till his death. As chairman of the Com-
mittee on Ways and Means, he was the leader
of the house during many sessions, and was
highly respected by men of all parties, as well
for his urbanity and dignity, as for his ability.
The family home in which he died was estab-
lished by his ancestors from England in 1666,
and it is remarkable that he held just the same
public offices that had been filled by his father.

Baynam, William, American surgeon: b.
Caroline County, Va., 1749; d. 8 Dec. 1814. He
completed his medical education in London,
where he resided for 16 years, and was long
assistant demonstrator to the professor of anat-
omy and surgery in St. Thomas' Hospital. He
was probably unsurpassed in his time as an
anatomist, and performed many remarkable
operations. He furnished some excellent prepa-
rations in the museum of Cline and Cooper in
London, and wrote various papers for medical
journals.

Bayne, Peter, Scottish writer: b. Fodderty,
Scotland, 19 Oct. 1830; d. London, 10 Feb.
1896. He studied theology at Edinburgh and
philosophy under Sir William Hamilton, and
was editor successively of the Glasgow Com-
vionwealth ; Edinburgh Jl'ituess; London Dial;
and Weekly Rcvieiv; and associate editor of the
Christian World. He was author of 'The
Christian Life: Social and Individual' (1855);
'Essays Biographical, Critical, etc' (1859) ; 'Life
and Letters of Hugh Miller' (1871); 'Testi-
mony of Christ to Christianity' (1862) ;
'The Days of Jezebel,' a drama (1872) : 'The
Chief Actors in the Puritan Revolution'
(1878); 'Life of Martin Luther' (1887).

Baynes, Thomas Spencer, English philos-
opher: b. Wellington. Somersetshire, March
1823 ; d. 29 May 1887. He was educated at Bath,
Bristol College, and the University of Edin-
burgh, where he became (1851-5) assistant to
Sir William Hamilton, then professor of logic.

BAYOMBONG — BAYRHOFFER

In 1857 he was appointed examiner in logic and
mental philosophy in the University of London;
became (1S57-154) assistant editor of the Daily
News, to which he contributed many noteworthy
articles on the American Civil War, and at
this time wrote for several literary journals,
such as the ^Athenjeum' and the 'Literary
Gazette.^ In 1864 he was elected professor of
logic, rhetoric, and metaphysics in the Univer-
sity of St. Andrews. Besides his contributions
to reviews he published a translation of the
'Port Royal Logic,^ with notes (1851); and
an 'Essay on the New Analytic of Logical
Forms* (1852). He was appointed editor of
the ninth edition of the 'Encyclopaedia Britan-
nica* (being subsequently assisted by Prof.
Robertson Smith).

Bayomboiig, bi-yom-bong', Philippines,
the capital of the province of Nueva Vizcaya,
Luzon, situated on the Magat River. It is the
centre of a fertile rice and tobacco region. Pop.
3,691.

Bayonet, a straight, sharp-pointed weapon,
generally triangular, intended to be fixed upon
the muzzle of a rifle or musket, which is thus
transformed into a thrusting weapon. It was
probably invented about 1640, in Bayonne, though
this is doubtful, but was not universally intro-
duced until after the pike was wholly laid aside,
in the beginning of the i8th century. About
1690 the bayonet began to be fastened by means
of a socket to the outside of the barrel, instead
of being inserted as formerly in the inside. A
variety of the bayonet, called the sword bayonet,
is now quite widely used, especially for the
short rifles of the light infantry, the carbines
of the artillery, etc. It is a compound of the
sword and the bayonet, as its name indicates,
having a sword-like blade with only one edge,
and being capable of. being fastened to the
muzzle of the gun like the bayonet. The bat-
tle of Spire, in 1703, was the first in which
charges of infantry were made with fixed bay-
onets. Opinions as to the present utility of
bayonets differ widely, many authorities consid-
ering them of little importance, while others
assert just the contrary. While the result of
a battle is often determined by che employment
of smokeless powder and long-range and rapid-
firing rifles in surprises and night attacks the
bayonet may be used to advantage as was fre-
quently proved in the Boer war (1889-1902).
See also T.\ctics.

Bayonne, ba-yon, a cathedral town in the
department of the Basses-Pyrenees, France. It
is situated at the confluence of the Nive and
the Adour, about four miles from the Bay of
Biscay. These rivers form a harbor capable of
admitting vessels of considerable size. They
divide the town into three parts, namely. Great
Bayonne on the left bank of the Nive, Little
Bayonne between the rivers, and St. Esprit on
the right bank of the Adour. A citadel, built by
Vauban, on the summit of an eminence in the
suburb, commands the harbor and the city. The
cathedral is a beautiful building dating from
1213, restored in the iqth century and furnished
with two towers. The arsenal, one of the
finest in France, and the mint are among the
other buildings of Bayonne. The city has a
considerable trade with Spain, Portugal, and
South America, and masts and other timber for
ship-building, from the Pyrenees, are exported
Vol. 2 — 27.

to Brest and other ports of France. The hams
of Bayonne are famous. Ships are built, and
woolens, chocolate, soap, etc., are manufac-
tured. Among the lower class the ancient Bis-
ca3-an or Basque language is spoken. Catherine
de Medici had an important interview with the
Duke of Alva in Bayonne, June 1565, at which
it is said the massacre of St. Bartholomew was
arranged. The meeting of Napoleon with the
king of Spain, Charles IV., and the prince of
the Asturias, took place here in May 1808, when
the latter transferred their rights to the Spanish
territories in Europe and India to the French
emperor. Pop. (1896) 22,278.

Bayonne, ba-yon', N. J., a city in Hudson
County on New York harbor, the Kill von Kull,
and Newark Bay, and the Central R.R. of N. J. ;
seven miles southwest of New York. It was
formed by the union of a number of former vil-
lages (Pamrapo, Bayonne, Centerville, and Ber-
gen Point), and is principally engaged in coal-
shipping and the exporting and refining of
petroleum, the works for the latter being con-
nected by pipe lines with New York, Philadel-
phia, Baltimore, and other cities. Other indus-
tries are the manufacture of chemicals, ammonia
and colors. The residential part of the city is
very attractive, containing fine homes of New
York business men. Its public library contains
11,000 volumes. Pop. (1900) 32,722.

Bayonne Conference, a conference held at
Bayonne, June 1565, between Charles IX. of
France, the queen mother, Catherine de Medici,
Elizabeth, queen of Spain, and the Duke of
Alva, envoy of Philip II., to arrange plans for
the repression of the Huguenots.

Bayonne Decree. On 17 April, 1808,
Napoleon directed the capture and sale of all
vessels entering the ports of Spain, France, Italy,
and the Hanse towns, under the American flag,
and by the provisions of this declaration, known
as the Bayonne Decree, France is supposed to
have confiscated more than 300 American ves-
sels. The decree was issued ostensibly with
the view of helping the United States to enforce
the embargo of 1807 and on the presumption
that all such vessels must be sailing under false
colors and thus indirectly benefiting the English
cause.

Bayonne, Treaty of, a treaty of peace
agreed to 4 May 1808, and signed on the next
day, between Napoleon I. and Charles IV., king
of Spain. The latter resigned his kingdom, and
Napoleon I. engaged to maintain its integrity,
and to preserve the Roman Catholic religion.
His son, Ferdinand VII., confirmed the cession
10 IMay.

Bayou, bl'oo, probably a corruption of the
French word boyau, a "gut" or "channel." Its
strict signification is a stream which is not fed
by springs, but flows from some other stream or
from a lake ; but it is not unfrequently used
in America as synonymous with "creek." The
term is very little employed except in the States
of Louisiana; Texas, and Arkansas.

Bayou State, the name often given to the
State of ^Mississippi.

Bayreuth, bl'roit. See Baireuth.

Bayrhoffer, blr'hof-fer, Karl Theodor, Ger-
man Hegelian philosopher and radical politician:
b. Marburg. 1812; d. Jordan. Wis., 3 Feb. 1888.
He was professor of philosophy at Marburg,

BAZA — BAZIGARS

taking the chair in 1845, but in 1846 his radical
views caused his expulsion. During the brief
rule of liberalism in Hesse, he was chosen presi-
dent of the chamber; but, in 1853, was forced
to fl€e to the United States. Among other
works he wrote *^0n Catholicism in Germany^ ;
^Idea and History of Philosophy^ ; ^Funda-
mental Problems of Metaphysics,^ etc.

Baza, ba'tha (ancient Basti) , a city of Spain,
in the province of and 53 miles east-northeast
from Granada, in a valley north of the Sierra
Baza. The environs yield wine and hemp ;
sheep, cattle, and mules are reared ; and there
are some manufactures. Baza is farned in early
Spanish history, more especially in that of
Granada. In 1489 it was taken from the Moors
by the Spaniards, after a siege of nearly seven
months. In 1810 the French, under Marshal
Soult, here defeated the Spaniards under Gen-
erals Blake and Freire. Pop. (1897) 11,992.

Bazaine, ba-zan, Frangois Achille, French
military officer': b. Versailles, 13 Feb. 1811 ; d.
28 Sept. 1888. He entered the army in 1831,
served in Algeria, in Spain against the Carlists,
and in the Crimean war. He joined the Mexi-
can expedition under Gen. Forey, was present
at the siege of Puebla, and shortly afterward
was the first to enter the city of Mexico. In
1863 he obtained the chief command, was made
a marshal of France in 1864, and remained in
Mexico with the Emperor Maximilian. When
Napoleon III. abandoned the emperor, Bazaine
tried vainly to persuade him to abdicate the
throne voluntarily. In 1870, at the outbreak
of the Franco-Prussian war, he commanded
the 3d army corps, and capitulated at Metz,
after a seven weeks' siege, with an army of
170,000 men. For this act he was tried by
court-martial in 1871, found guilty of treason
and condemned to death. This sentence was
commuted to 20 years' seclusion in the Isle of
St. Marguerite, off the south coast of
France, from which he escaped and retired
to Spain. His widow, who had clung faith-
fully to him in his adversity and had plot-
ted successfully for his escape, died in the city
of Mexico, 8 Jan. 1900. She was a woman of
aristocratic birth and much beauty. See La
Brugere, 'L'affaire Bazaine^ (1874) '■> L'Heris-
son, <La legende de Metz> (1888).

Bazalgette, baz-al-jet', Sir Joseph William,
English civil engineer : b. Enfield, England,
1819; d. London, i March 1891. As chief engi-
neer of the London board of works he built
many miles of sewers and embankments, three
of the Thames bridges, and the well-known
Thames embankments. He was an expert au-
thority on questions of municipal engineering.

Bazan, ba-zan, Don Caesar de. See Don

C^SAR DE BaZAN.

Bazan, ba-than', Emilia Pardo. See Par-
do Baz.\n, Emilia.

Bazancourt, ba-zaii-koor, Ce'sar (Baron
de), French military historian: b. Paris, 1810; d.
there, 25 Jan. 1865. He was official historiog-
rapher to Napoleon III., whom he accompanied
in several campaigns. He published 'L'expedi-
tion de Crimee jusqu'a la prise de SebastopoP
(1856) ; ^La campagne d' Italie de 1859^ ;
*Les expeditions de Chine et Cochinchine'
(1861-2) ; ^Histoire de Sicile sous la domination
des Normands^ (1846); and the novels:

< Georges la Montagnard (1851) ; < Noblesse
Oblige' (1851); *La Princess Pallianci' (1852).
Bazancourt, Jean Baptiste Marin Antoine
Lecat de, French general: b. Val-de-Molle
(Oise), 19 March 1767; d. 17 Jan. 1830. He
took an active part in the Italian campaigns ;
distinguished himself and was wounded at the
siege of St. Jean d'Acre; fought in the battle
of Austerlitz, and was a member of the court-
martial which, on 21 March 1804, pronounced
the sentence of death upon the Duke d'Enghien.
In 1806 he was appointed commander of the
legion of honor, and in 1808 promoted to the
rank of brigadier-general, while in the same
year he was created baron of the empire, and
went as commander to Hamburg with a mission
connected with the continental blockade. He
withdrew from service in 1815.

Bazar, or Bazaar, a market-place in the
East, the word being Arabic in origin. Some
bazars are open, some covered over. As the
Orientals live almost entirely out of doors, the
bazars of populous cities, besides their mercan-
tile importance, are of consequence as places of
social intercourse. In the Oriental tales, — for
instance, in the ^Arabian Nights,' — the bazars,
occupy a very conspicuous place. The word
bazar has also been imported into Europe,
where it is used in much the same sense as in
the East. Among English-speaking people it is
frequently applied to a temporary sale of fancy
goods contributed gratuitously, and sold to
raise a special fund.

Hazard, ba-zar. Saint Amand, French
socialist : b. Paris, 1791 ; d. 29 July 1832. After
the Restoration, he helped to found the Revo-
lutionary Society of the ^'Amis de la Verite,*
and in 1820 an association of French Carbonari.
In 1825, impressed with the necessity of a total
reconstruction of society, he attached himself
to the school of Saint-Simon, and became one
of the editors of a journal termed ^Le Produc-
teur.' In 1828 he delivered at Paris a series of
lectures, the substance of which was published
in the 'Exposition de la Doctrine de Saint-
Simon' (1828-30), of which the first part was
by Bazard, the second being chiefly the compo-
sition of Enfantin. He and Enfantin became
the acknowledged leaders of the school. After
the July Revolution (1830), a larger scope was
afforded to the Saint-Simonians. The masses
were attracted by the doctrine that all social
institutions ought to have for their end the
moral, intellectual, and physical amelioration of
the poor. In a short time, Bazard and his
friends had created a new society, living in the
midst of the old, with peculiar laws, manners,
and doctrines. But Bazard's connection with it
was of short duration. He differed from En-
fantin on the doctrine of the emancipation of
women, and in 1831 seceded in disgust. His ef-
forts to found a school of his own proved un-
successful, and, during a heated discussion with
his former friend, Enfantin, he was struck with
apoplexy, from the effects of which he died.

Bazarjik, ba-zar-jek', a town in eastern
Bulgaria, situated north of Varna. An impor-
tant fair is held here annually. It was twice
captured by the Russians, in 1774 and 1810.
Pop. (1888) 10,717-

Bazigars, ba-ze-garz', a tribe of nomadic
Indians dispersed throughout the whole of Hin-
dustan. They are divided into seven castes;

BAZOCHE — BEACH

their chief occupation is that of jugglers, acro-
bats, and tumblers, in which both males and fe-
males are equally skilful. They present many
features analogous to the gj'psies of Europe.

Bazoche, ba-zosch, or Basoche (a corrup-
tion of Basilica), a brotherhood formed by the
clerks of the Parliament of Paris at the time
it ceased to be the Grand Council of the French
king. They had a king, chancellor, and other
dignitaries ; and certain privileges were granted
them by Philip the Fair early in the 14th cen-
tury, as also by subsequent monarchs. They
had an annual festival, having as a principal
feature dramatic performances in which satirical
allusions were freely made to passing events.
The representation of these farces or satires
was frequently interdicted, but their develop-
ment had a considerable effect on the dramatic
literature of France. The order was suppressed
13 Feb. 1793.

Baztan, baz-tan', or Bastan, a Pyrenean
valley in the extreme north of Spain ; having
a length of nine miles, and an average breadth
of four miles. It is inhabited by about 8,000
people, who form, under Spanish supervision,
a diminutive republic, at the head of which is
the mayor of Elizondo. The citizens of this
republic rank with the Spanish nobility and
hold special privileges, which were granted them
for former services to the Spanish crown.

Bdellium, del'li-um, an aromatic gum
found in different countries, but brought chiefly
from Arabia and India. It resembles myrrh in
its appearance, and is hence often fraudulently
substituted for it. It is obtained from Balsa-
modetidron mokul and B. ro.vburgii. It has a
sweet smell but bitter taste, softens readily be-
tween the fingers before the fire, and dissolves
partially in alcohol and still more in water. A
better variety of bdellium is that produced by
the west African B. africanum; it is used in
plasters.

The bdellium mentioned in Scripture, in He-
brew bedholachh, is rendered in the Septuagint
of Gen. ii. 12, anthrax (literally, ^'burning coal")
= the carbuncle, ruby, and garnet (Liddell and
Scott), the red sapphire (Dana) ; while in
Num. xi. 7 it is translated krystallos^=^rock.
crystal. Some modern writers, following the
Septuagint translation, make it a mineral, as
are the gold and onyx stone with which it is
associated in Gen. ii. 12, while the Rabbins
Bochart and Gesenius consider that it was a
pearl or pearls.

Beach, Alfred Ely: b. Springfield, Mass.,
I Sept. 1826; d. I Jan. 1896. He was a son of
Moses Yale Beach, and after receiving an edu-
cation in the ]Monson Academy at Monson,
Mass., he was associated with his fatlier in the
publishing business of the New York Sun. In
1846 he formed a partnership with his life-long
friend and schoolmate, Mr. Orson D. Munn, of
Monson, Mass., and purchased the < Scientific
American^ from Rufus Porter, combining with
the business of publishing that of soliciting pat-
ents. In 1853 he invented the first typewriter
which printed raised letters on a strip of paper,
intended for the blind, and was awarded a gold
medal at the Crystal Palace Exposition. In
1867 he constructed a suspended tube 8 feet
in diameter by 100 feet long, through which
passengers were carried back and forth in a
tightly fitting car, as the air was exhausted from

or forced into the tube by a rotating fan. He
also devised means for transporting letters
through a tube under the street, by which they
could be conveyed directly to the post-office
when dropped into a street letter-box.

His most important invention, — a shield for
tunneling under streets or rivers without dis-
turbing the surface, — was made in 1868, and
became known as the Beach shield. It resem-
bled a gigantic hogshead with the heads re-
moved, the front circular edge being sharp, and
the rear end having a thin iron hood. This
cylinder is propelled slowly forward through the
earth by several hydraulic rams forced out
from the rear of the shield, by the operation of
a single hydraulic pump, against the completed
tunnel in the rear. By this method only the
amount of earth to be occupied by the tunnel
is excavated. After the shield is forced for-
ward the hydraulic rams are pushed back, and
in the thin hood at the rear a new section of
the tunnel is constructed. In 1869, by means
of such a shield, Mr. Beach constructed a tun-
nel nine feet in diameter under Broadway, New
York, from the corner of Warren Street south
to a point opposite the lower side of Murray
Street, and in 1870 a car was sent to and fro
on tracks through this tunnel by pneumatic
power — the first underground transit in New
York. From 1872 to 1876 Mr. Beach edited an
annual publication entitled "Science Record,"
published by the '^Scientific American.^ In
1876 he originated the 'Scientific American Sup-
plement,^ devoted to the publication of scientific
matters in extenso, taken largely from exchanges
and foreign publications. He was also instru-
mental in beginning the publication of the 'Sci-
entific American Builders' Monthly.^

Beach, Charles Fisk, American clergy-
man and lawyer: b. Hunter, N. Y., 5 Sept. 1827.
He studied theology at Auburn Theological Semi-
nary, N. Y., was pastor of Presbyterian churches
1854-73, editor and publisher National Presby-
terian 1873-95, and was admitted to the bar
1896. He has published *The Muzzled Ox^
(1866) ; 'The Christian Worker > (1869) ; 'Com-
mentaries on the Law of Trusts and Trustees'
(1897) ; 'Monopolies and Industrial Trusts'
(1898).

Beach, Charles Fisk, Jr., American legal
writer : b. Kentucky, 4 Feb. 1854. He was
called to the bar in New York 1881, and prac-
tised in that city till 1896, but since the last
named date has practised in London and Paris.
His especial field is railway and corporation law,
and he has published treatises on 'Receivers'
(1887); 'Wills' (1888); 'Railways' (1890);
'Private Corporations' (1891) ; 'Modern Equity
Jurisprudence' (1892); 'PubHc Corporations'
(1893) : 'Modern Equity Practice' (1894) ; 'In-
junctions' (1895) ; 'Insurance' (1895) ; 'Con-
tracts' (1897) ; 'Contributory Negligence' (3d
ed. 1899).

Beach, David Nelson, American clergy-
man : b. Orange, N. J.. 30 Nov. 1848. Enter-
ing the Congregational ministry he was suc-
cessively pastor of Congregational churches in
Westerly, R. I., 1876-9; Wakefield. Mass.,
1879-84; Cambridge, Mass., 1884-96; Minneapo-
lis (1896-8), Denver from 1899. He was active
in banishing the saloon from Cambridge and has
been prominent in advocating a modified Nor-
wegian liquor system in Massachusetts. He has

BEACH — BEACH-FLEA

written < Plain Words on Our Lord's Work^ ;
*The Newer Religious Thinking^ ; "^How We
Rose^ ; *^The Intent of Jesus.^

Beach, Frederick Converse, American
editor: b. New York, 27 March 1848, Li 1855
he removed to Stratford, Conn., where he re-
ceived an education at public and private schools.
In 1864, as a pastime, he began the practice of
photography with his father, Alfred Ely Beach
(q.v.), and has continued his interest in the art
ever since. In 1866 he suggested to the com-
missioner of patents the utility and practicability
of photo-lithographing the United States pat-
ents, a plan which was subsequently adopted.
In 1868 he graduated from the Sheffield Sci-
entific School of Yale University with the
degree of Ph.B. In 1869, after engaging in the
business of patent solicitor at Washington, D. C,
he returned to New York and was appointed
assistant superintendent of the construction of
the Beach pneumatic tunnel under Broadway,
New York. (See Beach, Alfred Ely.) Sub-
sequently he took up the manufacture of electri-
cal instruments. In 1877 he entered the office
of the ^Scientific American,^ assisting his father,
and after the latter's demise he became one of
the editors.

He has made extensive experiments in pho-
tography and written much relating to the art.
In 1884 he founded the Society of Amateur
Photographers of New York, the name of which
was afterward changed to the Camera Club of
New York. In 1885 he assisted in organizing
the American Lantern Slide Interchange. In
1889 he was instrumental in establishing a
monthly magazine entitled "-The American Ama-
teur Photographer.^ In 1902 he was appointed
editor-in-chief of the ^Encyclopedia Americana,^
the policy of which it was determined should
give full credit to all matters pertaining to
America and Americans.

Beach, Mrs. H. H. A. (Amy Marcy Cheney),
American composer : b. Henniker, N. H.. 5
Sept. 1867. She studied music from child-
hood, and made her first appearance in public
as a pianist at the Boston Music Hall when 16
years old. She has composed a mass in E flat ;
'The Rose of Avontown,^ a cantata for female
voices ; a Gaelic symphony : a symphony, an-
thems, songs, and compositions for various mu-
sical instruments and full orchestras.

Beach, Harlan Page, American mission-
ary: b. South Orange, N. J., 4 April 1854. He
was graduated at Yale in 1878 and at Andover
Theological Seminary in 1883. During 1878-80
he taught at Phillips Andover Academy; in
1883 he went to China as a missionary, remain-
ing there seven years. Soon after his return he
became head of the School for Christian
Workers, Springfield, Mass., and in 1895, edu-
cational secretary of the Student Volunteer
Movement for Foreign Missions. His publica-
tions include: ^Dawn on the Hills of T'ang*
(1898); 'Knights of the Labarum ; or Four
Typical Missionaries^ (1898) ; 'New Testament
Studies in Missions' (1899) ; 'Protestant Mis-
sions in South Africa' (1900) ; ^Geography and
Atlas of Protestant Missions' (1902).

Beach, Miles, American jurist: b. 1840; d.
1902. He graduated at Union College, Schenec-
tady, studied law, and practiced in Troy.
When 27 years of age he removed to New
\"ork and in 1879 was elected judge of the court

of common pleas, holding that office till 1894,
when he passed to the bench of the supreme
court of the State.

Beach, Moses Sperry, American inventor
and editor: b. Springfield, Alass., 5 Oct. 1822;
d. 25 July 1892. He was the son of Moses
Yale Beach (q.v.), and in 1845 he married
Chloe Buckingham, of Waterbury, Conn., and
in the same year became joint proprietor, with
George Roberts, of the Boston Daily Times.
Soon after this he became associated with his
father and brother in the publication of the
New York Sun, and acquired the sole owner-
ship of it in 1851, transferring it in 1868 to
Charles A. Dana. It was while he was con-
ducting the publication of the Sun that he
invented and made several important improve-
ments in printing-presses, which were patented,
a few now being in use. Among them were
the feeding of roll paper to the press instead of
flat sheets, apparatus for wetting the paper prior
to printing, and another improvement for cut-
ting ot¥ sheets after printing; also a method of
adapting newspaper presses to print both sides
of the sheet at the same time, as is now cus-
tomary. In 1867 he visited the Holy Land, on
the steamer Quaker City, in company with the
distinguished party of which "Mark Twain" was
a member, and whose experiences formed the
basis of Twain's book, 'The Innocents Abroad.'
Mr. Beach brought back an olive-tree from the
Mount of Olives, from which was made a pul-
pit stand that is at present in Plymouth Church,
Brooklyn.

Beach, Moses Yale, American inventor
and pulalisher: b. Wallingford, Conn., 15 Jan.
1800; d. 17 July 1868. He received a common-
school education and before he was 21 married,
and with a partner opened a cabinet factory at
Northampton, Mass. In 1822 he established
himself at Springfield, Mass., where he was very
successful. He expended considerable money on
a stern-wheel steamboat, the first to ply on the
Connecticut River above Hartford. A powder
engine intended for its propulsion proved inef-
fective. In 1829 he obtained an interest in a
paper-mill and removed to Saugerties, N. Y.,
where his inventive faculty produced a rag-
cutting machine, which he patented and which
is still used in all paper-mills. In 1835 he pur-
chased from his brother-in-law, Benjamin Day,
the New York Sun, the first penny paper (then
a comparatively new sheet), and to Mr. Beach
was due the subsequent growth and popularity
of that newspaper. In 1846 President Polk sent
Mr. Beach on a secret mission to Mexico. In
1857 Mr. Beach retired from active business and
settled in his native town, where he died.

Beach. See Coastj Dune; Ocean; Lake;
Shore.

BeacJi-flea, one of a group of small amphi-
pod Crustaceans {Orchestia agilis) which abound
under sea wrack near high-water mark. When
the dry weed is lifted they will be seen leaping
like fleas, by means of the last three pairs of
abdominal legs. They are brown, of the same
color as the weed and wet sand beneath, about
a quarter of an inch in length or about one half
as large as the larger and more southern kind of
beach-flea (Talorclicstia longicornis) , which is
nearly an inch long. Consult: Arnold, ^Sea
Beach at Low Tide.'

BEACH-GRASS — BEACONSFIELD

Beach-grass. See Ammophila.

Beach-pea, a leguminous plant growing on
beaches. See also Lathyrus.

Beach Plants, the usually sparse vegeta-
tion of sea and lake shores above the water-line
and below the cliffs or dunes, notable for its
resemblance to the vegetation of deserts. The
plants of sea beaches are closely similar to
those of fresh-water shores, and not, as might
be inferred, different on account of the salt con-
tent of the soil as an influencing factor. (See
Halophytes). Bordering the water is a strip
of sand or gravel where, on account of summer
wave action, land plants cannot gain a foot-
hold, and where, because of exposure to sun and
air, water plants are unable to live. Contiguous
to this border is a zone of vegetation almost
wholly restricted by winter wave action to an-
nuals. Still farther back from the water is the
region of perennials especially characterized by
rosette plants and plants with underground stor-
age organs. This region is safe from wave ac-
tion at all times. Beach plants, like desert
plants (see Xerophytes) are capable of with-
standing more intense heat, cold, and light, and
more violent winds than any other plants of or-
dinary climates. Other common terms for this
vegetation are littoral, shore, and strand plants.
See Distribution of Plants.

Beach-plum,
Beach-robin.

See Plum.
See Brant-bird.

Beaches, Raised, terraced, level stretches
of land, consisting of sand and gravel, and ly-
ing at a considerable distance above and away
from the sea, but bearing sufficient evidences of
having been at one time sea beaches. They are
quite common along the coasts of continents in
the higher latitudes. In California such terraces
occur as high as 1,500 feet above the present sea-
level, while the coasts of Scotland are marked
by a series of terraces succeeding each other at
distances of from 10 to 25 feet. That the ma-
terials composing the beaches were deposited
beneath the sea is proven by the marine charac-
ter of the fossils which are often found in
abundance. The existence o*f raised beaches is
of importance to the geologist, as it affords di-
rect evidence of changes of level between the
sea and the land in comparatively recent times,
and explains the widespread occurrence of sedi-
mentary rocks over continental areas. Many
large lakes are also fringed by terraces, but in
this case they have resulted from a lowering of
the water level and not from coastal movements.
See also Lake; Shore; etc.

Beachy Head, England, a promontory on
the coast of Sussex, about three miles southwest
of Eastbourne ; height 564 feet. Here a com-
bined Dutch and English fleet, under Lord Tor-
rington was defeated by a French fleet, under
Tourville, in 1690. In 1828 a revolving light
was erected here, 285 feet above the level of the
sea, visible in clear weather from a distance of
28 miles.

Beacon, a conspicuous mark or signal
either used to alarm the country in case of in-
vasion, or as a guide to mariners. The alarm
beacon was usually fire placed on the tops of
high hills, the flames of which could be seen
at a great distance by night, and the smoke by
day. They were in great use for rousing the
Border on an invasion either by Scotch or Eng-

lish. A beacon to mariners is either a landmark
erected on an eminence near the shore, or a
floating signal moored in shoal water.

Beacon Hill, one of the original three hills
of the peninsula of Boston. It is north of Bos-
ton Common, and received its name from the
fact that the public beacon was fixed upon its
summit in the earliest colonial period. It has
been much reduced in height, and the State
House now occupies its highest position. Bea-
con Street extends in a westerly direction over
the hill, skirting the Common and Public Gar-
den, See Boston.

Beaconsfield, bek'ons-feld or be'kons-feld,
Benjamin Disraeli, (Earl of), English states-
man: b. 21 Dec. 1804; d. 19 April 1881. He was
the eldest son of Isaac DTsraeli (see DTsraeli,
Isaac), the well-known author of the ^Curiosi-
ties of Literature^; his mother also being of
Jewish race. Little is known of his early edu-
cation, though it is certain he never attended a
public school or a university. In 1817 he was
baptized into the Church of England. He was
apprenticed to a firm of attorneys, but did not
remain long in this uncongenial occupation. His
father's position gained him an easy entrance into
society, and before he was 20 he was a fre-
quenter of such salons as those of Lady Bless-
ington.

In 1826 he published ^Vivian Grey,' his first
novel, a work which became very popular, and,
considering the youth of its author, displays re-
markable cleverness and knowledge of the world.
He now traveled for some time, visiting Italy,
Greece, Turkey, and Syria, and gaining experi-
ences which were afterward reproduced in his
books. In 1831 another novel, ^The Young
Duke,' came from his pen. It was followed at
short interval? by 'Contarini Fleming,' ^Alroy,'
•^Henrietta Temple,' ^Venetia,' ^The Revolu-
tionary 'Epic' (a poem), etc.

His father having acquired a residence near
High Wycombe, Buckinghamshire, young Dis-
raeli attempted to get elected for this borough
in 1832. He came forward as a Radical or
"people's" candidate as against the Whigs, and
he was supported by the Tories, as well as by
Hume and O'Connell, but was defeated. At the
general election after the passing of the Reform
Bill he again unsuccessfully contested High Wy-
combe, and the like ill-fortune attended him on
another attempt in 1835, as also at Taunton the
same year. On the latter occasion he appeared
in the character of a decided Tory, and his
change of political opinions naturally occasioned
a good deal of comment. To this period be-
longs the noted passage of arms between him
and O'Connell. which was signalized by a
strength of language happily rare between public
men in these days.

At last, however, he gained an entrance to the
House of Commons, being elected for Maidstone
in 1837. His first speech was treated with ridi-
cule ; he had to stop abruptly and sit down but
he finished with the prophetic declaration that
the time would come when the House would
hear him. _ In 1839 he married the widow of his
colleague in the representation of Maidstone, a
lady 15 years older than himself. At the gen-
eral election of 1841 he was sent to Parliament
by Shrewsbury. He had now gained some repu-
tation, and for some years he was an enthusias-
tic supporter of Sir Robert Peel. About this

BEACONSFIELD — BEADS

time he became a leader of what was known as
the «Young England*' party, the most prominent
characteristic of which was a sort of sentimental
advocacy of feudalism. This spirit showed it-
self in his two novels of ^Coningsby; or. The
New Generation,^ and 'Sybil; or. The New Na-
tion,' published respectively in 1844 and 1S45.

For some years previous to the downfall of
Sir Robert Peel in 1846 he was most persistent
and bitter in his hostility to this statesman,
whom he had so recently supported, being the
advocate of protection against the free-trade pol-
icy of Sir Robert. His clever speeches of this
period greatly increased his reputation, and by
1847 he was recognized as one of the leaders of
the Tory party. Having acquired the manor
of Hughenden in Buckinghamshire, he was in
the above year elected for this county, and he re-
tained his seat till raised to the peerage nearly
30 years later. In 1847 he published his novel
of 'Tancred; or. The New Crusade,' a sorne-
what extravagant production containing enig-
matic allusions to the great "Asian mystery."

His first appointment to office was in 1852,
when he became chancellor of the exchequer un-
der Lord Derby. The following year, however,
the ministry was defeated, and Mr. Disraeli
again became leader of a Conservative Opposi-
tion. He remained out of office till 1858, when
he again became chancellor of the exchequer
with Lord Derby as his chief. As on the for-
mer occasion his tenure of office was but short ;
a reform bill which he had introduced causing
the defeat of the government and their resigna-
tion after an appeal to the country. During the
next six years, while the Palmerston govern-
ment was in office, Mr. Disraeli led the opposi-
tion in the lower House with conspicuous ability
and courage. He spoke vigorously against the
Reform Bill brought forward in 1866 by the
Russell-Gladstone ministry; but when, soon
after, he came into power along with his chief,
Lord Derby, the demand for reform was so
urgent that he had to bring in a reform bill him-
self. Accordingly, in August 1867, a measure by
which the parliamentary representation was re-
formed became law, being piloted through Par-
liament by Mr. Disraeli with remarkable tact
and dexterity.

In February 1868 he reached the summit of
his ambition, becoming premier on the resigna-
tion of Lord Derby, but being in a minority
after the general election he had to give up
office the following December. In 1874 he again
became prime minister with a strong Conserva-
tive majority, and he remained in power for six
years. This period was marked by his elevation
to the peerage in 1876 as Earl of Beaconsfield,
and by the prominent part he took in regard to
the Eastern question and the conclusion of the
Treaty of Berlin in 1878, when he visited the
German capital. In the spring of 1880 Parlia-
ment was rather suddenly dissolved, and, the
new Parliament showing an overwhelming Lib-
eral majority, he resigned office, though he still
retained the leadership of his party. Not long
after this, the publication of a novel called
^Endymion' (his previous one. ^Lothair,^ had
been publi.shed 10 years before) showed that
his intellect was still vigorous. His physical
powers, however, were now giving way, and he
died, after an illness of some weeks' duration.
His wife had died in 1872 after having been
created Viscountess Beaconsfield.

Among others of his writings, besides those
already mentioned, are: 'A Vindication of the
English Constitution^ (1834) ; "^Alarcos, a Trag-
edy' (1839) ; and 'Lord George Bentinck, a Po-
litical Biography' (1852). Lord Beaconsfield
was one of the most remarkable men of the 19th
century. If not possessed of actual genius he
was endowed with great intellectual power, and
he had astonishing tenacity of purpose and
showed remarkable tact and ability in managing
men. As a parliamentary speaker and debater
he had few rivals, and in wit, sarcasm, epigram,
and other rhetorical devices he was a master.
His novels are fatally open to criticism on many
grounds, and it is doubtful if they will long
maintain the place they at present hold. Their
popularity has been largely owing to their au-
thor having so frequently introduced real per-
sons into them under a more or less penetrable
disguise, and presented them in a more or less
favorable light.

Beaconsfield, Africa, a town of Cape Col-
ony, in Griqualand West, formerly known as Du
Toit's Pan. It lies a little to the east of Kim-
berley, with which it is connected by tramway,
and is, like it, an upgrowth of the diamond
fields. It is well supplied with churches, schools,
and hotels. Pop. (1891) 10,478.

Beaconsfield, England, a market-town in
Buckinghamshire, 24 miles west by north of
London. It is situated on high ground, and its
name is supposed to have originated from a bea-
con once set up there. The remains of Edmund
Burke, who resided at Gregories in this parish,
are deposited in the parish church ; and the
churchyard contains a monument in honor of the
poet Waller, to whom the manor belonged, as it
still does to his descendant.

Beadle, (i) An officer in an English
university, whose chief business is to walk with
a mace in a public procession. The universities
of Oxford and Cambridge have each three es-
quire beadles (or bedels), one being attached
to each of the faculties of law, medicine and arts,
and divinity. The former university has also
three yeomen beadles, and the latter one. (2)
An inferior parish officer, whose business is
generally to execute the orders of the vestry, by
whom he is appointed. These parochial beadles
were originally officers given to the rural deans
to cite the clergy and church-officers to visita-
tions, and for other purposes.

Beads, small perforated ornaments, gen-
erally of a round shape and made of glass, but
also of gold, silver, and other metals, paste,
coral, gems, etc. The use of them as ornaments
belongs to very early times, and this use, still
continued, has made them an important article
of trade with savage tribes. Glass beads are
supposed to have been manufactured by the
Phoenicians more than 3,000 years before Christ.
Beads have been found in the ruins of Assyrian
temples, also as decorations of Egyptian mum-
mies, and in the graves of the ancient Greeks,
Romans, and Britons. The manufacture of
glass beads was introduced into modern Europe
by the Italians, and in the neighborhood of
Venice it is still an important branch of in-
dustr3^ On the island of Murano alone several
thousand workmen are employed in this manu-
facture. Birmingham is the chief seat of the
manufacture of beads in Great Britain. For
their use in religion, see Rosary.

BEADS — BEALE

Beagle, a small hunting dog; in general
appearance a diminutive fox hound, solidly built,
well set upon straight fore legs, with plenty of
bone in proportion to its size, good hard feet,
and a broad, deep chest with ample lung capa-
city. It is of good disposition, and clever and
industrious in the field. In color and marking
it much resembles the fox hound, black, white,
and tan being the more common colors, and
these in more or less solid or pied masses. In
its original home, Great Britain, there are both
rough and smooth varieties, but the typical
American beagle is smooth-haired. Beagles vary
in height from 12 to 15 inches, and while ex-
cellent trackers are not so fast but that they
can be followed on foot, a very common sport in
Great Britain. Their voices are exceedingly
musical and justify the name sometimes given
them of "buglers.*' They are principally used
for rabbit-hunting. In former times a very di-
minutive breed was in favor ; according to one
authority, no larger than well-grown kittens — ■
so small, in fact, that it is said a whole pack
could be carried afield in a pair of panniers
slung across a pony's back.

Beagle, The, a small ship of the British
navy which in 1828-34 was employed, under the
command of Capt. (afterward Admiral) Fitz-
roy, in making surveys of the coast of Patagonia
and other South American shores and waters,
and later making a voyage around the world.
The expedition had for its naturalist the fa-
mous Charles Darwin.

Beagle Island, an island discovered by
Admiral Fitzroy during a voyage in H. M. S.
Beagle (q.v.). The channel of the same name
is on the south side of the island of Tierra del
Fuego.

Beak, or Bill, the projecting jaws or
snout of a bird or other animal, when prolonged
into an instrument for seizing or penetrating ob-
jects, and formed of hard materials, as bone, or
covered with a rigid envelope, as of horit or
chitin. It is most characteristic of birds, where
it is called "bill" or "neb,** and forms the prin-
cipal means for obtaining, as well as devouring
food (except in most birds of prey), and where
it takes on a great variety of shapes and cha-
racteristics adapted to special habits and pur-
poses. (See Birds.) A more or less similar
prolongation of mouth-parts occurs in many
other animals, however, and receives a similar
name. Among mammals, the duckbill (q.v.) is
a conspicuous example of a true mammal with
the lips formed into a horny bill much like that
of a duck, and similarly used. The turtles have
horny, projecting, parrot-like jaws of the same
sort ; and a curious imitation of this occurs
among cephalopod mollusks. The prolonged
jaws of various fishes, as of gars ("billfish"),
sturgeons, etc., receive the term (technically
rostrum), and these are often bird-like, as in the
case of the spoon-billed catfish (q.v.). The term
is also borrowed by entomologists to describe the
elongated mouth-parts of many insects, such as
blood-sucking flies; juice-sucking plant-bugs,
weevils, and other forms. The prolonged tubu-
lar or trough-like parts (canals) of many gas-
tropod shells protecting the siphon, and the
prominent umbos of such bivalve shells as the
cockles, clams, and fresh-water mussels, are also
lermed "beaks.'^

Beal, bel, George Lafayette, American

military officer: b. Norway, Me., 21 May 1825;
d. II Dec. 1896. When the Civil War broke out
he was captain of the Norway light infantry,
and with this company was mustered into the
I St Maine regiment for the three months' cam-
paign. At the end of this service he was com-
missioned colonel of the 19th Maine infantry,
which took part in the battles of Cedar Moun-
tain and Antietam and covered the retreat of
Gen. Banks from Winchester to Williamsport,
Va. He was mustered out with his regiment
in May 1863 ; volunteered again ; was made colo-
nel of the 29th Maine, and promoted to brigadier-
general of volunteers 30 Nov. 1864, for his
services in the Red River campaign. On 15
Jan. 1866 he was mustered out of service with
the brevet of major-general of volunteers. In
1880-5 he was adjutant-general of Maine, and
in 1888-94, State treasurer.

Beal, Samuel, English Orientalist. He
was educated at Trinity College, Cambridge,
graduating therefrom in 1847. Some time after,
he entered the royal navy as chaplain, and in
that capacity saw active service in China and
Japan. He made a close study of the Chinese
and Japanese languages, and on his retirement
from the navy in 1877 was elected professor of
Chinese at University College, London. His
principal work was tracing the early history of
Buddhism in original Chinese records, and the
results of his work were given to the world in
several volumes, notably: ^The Catena of
Buddhist Scriptures^ (1872) ; <The Legend of
Buddha' (1876) ; < Buddhist Records of the
Western World' (1884) ; ^Life of Hienen-
Fsiang' (1888); etc. He also catalogued a
large series of Japanese Buddhist works.

Beal, William James, American botanist:
b. Adrian, Mich., 11 March 1833. He graduated
at the University of Michigan in 1859; taught
in various institutions 1859-70, since which
tirne he has been professor of botany in the
Michigan Agricultural College. He is a Fellow
of the American Society for the Advancement
of Science, and was president of the natural
history section of this society in 1883 ; first presi-
dent of the Association of Botanists of the
United States Experimental Stations in 1888,
etc. His works include ^Grasses of North
America' (2 vols.) ; <The New Botany' ; < Plant
Dispersal' ; etc.

Beale, Dorothea, English teacher: b. Lon-
don, 1831. She became mathematical tutor in
Queen's College in 1850, and later, Latin tutor
in the school ; head teacher in the Clergy School,
in Casterton, in 1857 ; and principal of Chelten-
ham Ladies' College in 1858. Her publications
include ^Text-Book of English and General His-
tory' ; 'Chronological Maps' ; 'Report on Girls'
Education Commission of 1864' ; 'Work and
Play in Girls' Schools.' In 1880 she became
editor of the 'Ladies' College Magazine.'

Beale, Edward Fitzgerald, American diplo-
matist: b. Washington. D. C, 4 Feb. 1822; d.
22 April 1893 ; graduated at the United States
Naval Academy 1842, and at the beginning of
the Mexican war was assigned to duty in Cali-
fornia under Commodore Stockton. After the
war he resigned his naval commission and was
appointed superintendent of Indian affairs for
California and New Mexico. He was commis-
sioned brigadier-general in the army by Presi-

BEALE — BEAN

dent Pierce. He served in the Union army in
the Civil War, and at its close engaged in stock-
raising in Los Angeles, Cal., till 1876, when
President Grant appointed him United States
minister to Austria.

Beale, Lionel Smith, English physician
and biologist: b. London, 5 Feb. 1828; d. 28
March 1906. He was the son of Lionel John
Beale, M.R.C.S. He was educated at King's
College School and King's College, London,
later becoming an honorary Fellow. In 1852 he
established a laboratory for chemical and micro-
scopical studies, and in the following year became
professor of physiology and general and morbid
anatomy in King's College. London. In the
same college he held in succession the professor-
ships of pathology and of the principles and
practice of medicine, but in i8g6 he retired from
the latter post. He was a Fellow of the Royal
Society, and for some years acted as treasurer
of the Royal Microscopical Society. His pub-
lished works deal with medical, anatomical,
physiological, and biological subjects, the micro-
scope, etc. Among the most important are
*How to Work with the Microscope' ; ^Proto-
plasm; or. Life, Matter, and Mind*; <Life and
Vital Action in Health and Disease' ; *The
Physiological Anatomy and Physiology of Man'
(in collaboration with Dr. Todd and Sir W.
Bowman) ; * Disease Germs' ; 'Life Theories
and Religious Thought' ; 'The Mystery of
Life' ; etc.

Beall, John Young, Confederate guerrilla:
b. Virginia, i Jan. 1835 ; d. 24 Feb. 1865. He
was appointed acting master in the Confederate
naval service in 1863. On 19 Sept. 1864 he and
a number of followers took passage on the Lake
Erie steamer Philo Parsons and at a given signal
took possession of the vessel, making prisoners
of the crew. They also scuttled another boat,
the Island Queen, and tried to wreck a railroad
train near Buffalo, N. Y. In spite of a procla-
mation of Jefferson Davis assuming responsibil-
ity for this expedition, Beall was hanged on
Governor's Island, N. Y., on the ground that, if
acting under orders, he should have shown some
badge of authority.

Beam, in architecture, a long, straight
and strong piece of wood, iron, or steel, espe-
cially one holding an important place in some
structure, and serving for support or consolida-
tion ; often equivalent to girder (q.v.). In a bal-
ance it is the part from the ends of which the
scales are suspended. In a loom it is a cylin-
drical piece of wood on which weavers wind the
warp before weaving ; also the cylinder on which
the cloth is rolled as it is woven. In ship-
building, one of several strong transverse pieces
of timber stretching across the ship from one side
to the other, to support the decks and retain the
sides at their proper distance, with which they
are firmly connected by means of strong knees,
and sometimes of standards. They are sus-
tained at each end by thick stringers on the
ship's side called shelf-pieces. The main-beam
is next abaft the main-mast. The greatest beam
of all is called the midship beam. A ship is said
to be "on her beam-ends" when she lies en-
tirely on her side, so that the beams are almost
at right angles to the surface of the water. An
object is said to be ''a-beam" when it is in a line
with the beams of the ship, and accordingly at
right angles to its length.

Beam Engine. See Steam Engine.

Beam-tree, White {Pyrus aria), a Euro-
pean and Asiatic tree of the natural order
Rosacea, rarely exceeding 50 feet in height, often
cultivated in dry and exposed situations for
its ornamental leaves, which are bright dark-
green above and light beneath ; and for its large
terminal corymbs of flowers which appear in late
spring followed by showy orange-red or scarlet,
acid and astringent fruits which resemble those
of the service-berry (q.v.), and which are used
to make a kind of beer. Its hard, fine-grained
wood is made into cog-wheels. It is closely re-
lated to the mountain-ash (q.v.).

Bean, Nehemiah S., American inventor: b.
Gilmanton, N. H., 1818; d. 20 July 1896. He
learned the machinist's trade, and in the winter
of 1857-8 built his first steam fire engine, which
he named the Lawrence, and sold it to the city
of Boston. In 1859 he took the management of
the Amoskeag Locomotive Works in Manches-
ter, where he had been employed in 1847-50.
During 1859 he built the ''Amoskeag Steam Fire
Engine No. i," the first of a class of engines
which now is used everywhere.

Bean, Tarleton Hoffman, American ich-
thyologist : b. Bainbridge, Pa., 8 Oct. 1846. He
graduated at Columbian University, Washington,
D. C, 1876. He was editor of the 'Proceedings
and Bulletins' of the United States National
Museum, Washington, 1878-86, and of the 'Re-
port and Bulletin of the United States Fish
Commission,' Washington, 1889-92; was assist-
ant in charge of the division of fish culture in
the United States Fish Commission, 1892-5, and
curator of the department of fishes in the United
States National Museum, 1880-95. I" 1893 he
represented the United States Fish Commission
at the World's Columbian Exposition, and in
1895 at the Atlanta Exposition. In 1895 he be-
came director of the New York Aquarium, and
in 1899 was appointed director of forestry and
fisheries of the United States Commission to the
Paris Exposition of 1900. His works include
'The Fishes of Pennsylvania' ; 'The Salmon and
Salmon Fisheries' ; 'Oceanic Ichthyology' (with
George Brown Goode) ; etc. He has also con-
tributed articles to 'Forest and Stream.'

Bean (Jsl. E. bene, ben; A. S. bean, a
"bean"), a plant of the natural order Legumino-
sccc, or legumes. Originally the smooth kidney-
shaped, flat-sided seed of the broad bean, Vicia
faba, it is now applied to various genera, usually
with a specific epithet, as Lima bean, etc.

The broad bean {Vicia faba) is the bean of
history. Its origin is doubtful, but it is probably
a native of southwestern Asia and northern
Africa. It is much grown in Europe, especially
in England, but the hot dry summers prevent ito
cultivation in most parts of the L'^nited States.
It is grown successfully in the maritime prov-
inces of Canada, and in other parts, with corn
and sunflowers, to make ensilage. It is an an-
nual plant, growing from two to four feet high,
erect, with thick angular stems ; flowers usu-
ally white with black on the wings. The pods,
which contain the thick flattened seeds, vary
from two to four inches up to 18 inches long.
The common varieties are the Broad Windsor
and Mazaj'an ; they are quite hardy and should
be sown early. The soils best suited are heavy
loams and clays. The green seeds are eaten as
a vegetable, or, if allowed to mature, are ground

BEAN

and used as feed for horses and cattle. The
straw is fed to cattle.

The kidney-bean of Europe is known in the
United States as the bean Phaseolus vulgaris;
it embraces all the common field, garden, snap,
and string beans, both bush and climbing. The
French know it as the haricot. It is probably
a native of South America, and was introduced
into Europe during the i6th century. Over 150
varieties are in cultivation ; the growers usually
group them into bush- and pole-beans. The
bush-beans embrace the *'field beans" grown for
dry shelled seeds, also the green-podded and
yellow-podded garden, string, or snap beans.
The pole-beans are usually grown for use
while green. Bush-beans do well on a good
warm loam. The yellow-podded varieties and
pole-beans require a richer soil. They should
not be planted until danger from frost is
over, and require constant cultivation while
growing. Leading field varieties are white
marrowfat, nav}' or pea bean, medium, and the
kidneys : in string-beans, early Valentine, string-
less green-pod, refugee, etc. : in yellow-podded
beans, black wax, golden wax, kidney, and
white : in pole-beans. Limas, large Lima, dreer
Lima, etc. See Bulletins 87 and 115, Cornell
Experiment Station. For forcing pole-beans un-
der glass, see Bailey's ^Forcing Book' ; Bulle-
tin 62, New Hampshire Experiment Station,
Durham.

The Lima bean (P. lunatus) is the most pop-
ular pole-bean. It is of South American origin,
but is now grown in various parts of this coun-
try, most of the seed being raised in California.
The short, flat, slightly kidney-shaped seeds are
enveloped in flat, broad pods. The soy-bean
(q.v.) (Soja hispida or Glycine hispida) is a
bushy, erect, hairy plant which bears pea-like
seeds in small pods. It is a native of China and
Japan, where it is largely grown. It is used for
forage and soiling. The cowpea (q.v.) (Vigna
catjang) is generally used for forage, soiling,
hay, and green manuring. The scarlet runner
(P. multiflorus) is a perennial. It is grown
largely for ornament, but in England the seeds
and pods are eaten as a vegetable. The Adzuki
bean (P. radiatus) is a native of Japan, and a
recent introduction in America. (See Bulletin
32, Agricultural Experiment Station, Kansas).
The frijole {P. spp) is grown in the southwest-
ern States and in Mexico, where it is a staple
food.

Other important Oriental beans, but not very
cornmon here, are: Mungo-beans (P. mungo) ;
various species of Dolichos, as the asparagus-
bean (D. sesqiiipedalis) ; and the locust or carob
bean( Ceratonia siliqua), the pods of which are
sold by confectioners as St. John's bread. The
sweet pulp which surrounds the seed is eaten,
especially in the Mediterranean. The pods and
seeds are ground and used extensively as feed
for cattle and other animals. The velvet-bean
(Muciina utilis) is often grown for ornament;
also for forage and soil renovation in the south-
ern States. It only ripens seed in the Gulf
States and Florida. The beans and pods, when
ground, are fed to cattle. The cooked green
beans have caused illness in those who have
eaten them. The sea-beans of the Florida coast
are transported bj^ ocean currents from the
tropics. In 1809, 15.004 acres of green beans
were grown, yielding 1512.642 bushels, or an
average of ICK).S bushels per acre. The four

leading States in bean cultivation are New York,
New Jersey, Florida, and Virginia. These fur-
nish about half the supply.

Uses and Feeding Values. — The seeds and
sometimes the pods are used, either green or
dry, as food for man and animals. Some spe-
cies are grown for forage, hay, or green manur-
ing. Owing to their nitrogen-gathering pro-
pensities they all aid in soil-renovation.

The average percentage composition of:

a
'S

J3
<

> ^a
- a

v*^

3 a

Dry s

lelled beans. . .

12.6

22. i;

29.6

T.8

■^■'=^

1605 calories

Fresh

shelled beans. .

^«.q

P 4

29.1

0.6

7,0

740 "

Fresh

string beans. .

89.2

2-3

7-4

0-3

0.8

195 "

With man, on an average, 90 per cent of the
dry matter is digestible ; 80 per cent of the pro-
tein ; 96 per cent of the nitrogen-free extract ;
and 80 per cent of the ether extract. String-
beans or green-shell beans are usually boiled
and served in various ways. In composition
they compare favorably with other vegetables.
Dry beans are baked with salt pork or beef
and used for soups and other dishes. They are
a cheap, nutritious food, rich in starch and in
the proteid, legumin ; hence they may be used
to replace meat in the diet. If the skins are
removed they are easier of digestion and are
not so liable to cause flatulence; the latter is due
to the production of methane by fermentation
in the intestines. Shell- and string-beans are
preserved by evaporation or canning. String-
beans are also preserved with salt. Cooked dry
beans are canned. Bean flour consists of beans
ground. Bean meal is used in Europe as feed
for horses, cattle, and hogs. Bean cake is the
residue after the oil has been extracted : it is
fed to cattle in northern China. Bean curd is
eaten by the natives of northern China.

Bean Diseases. — Pod-rust ; anthracnose
(Colletotrichuni lindeniuthianiim), a fungus
which attacks the stems, leaves, and fruit. The
disease may be carried over in the seed, the
affected ones may be recognized by the yellow
or brown discoloration. A black discoloration
with ensuing brittleness marks the progress of
the disease on the leaves. The selection of
sound seed, immediate removal of infected
plants, and spraying with Bordeaux mixture,
are recommended. The bean-rust (Uromyces
phaseoli) appears as small brown, nearly circu-
lar, and slightly elevated dots on the leaves.
These discharge a brown powder, the spores
of the disease. Spraying with Bordeaux mix-
ture is recommended. Blight (Phytophtlwra
phaseoli^ attacks the Lima bean. Spraying with
copper compound is recommended. The bean-
weevil (Bruchus obtectns) may injure the beans
when stored. After harvesting, treat the seed
two or three times, at intervals of three or four
weeks, with carbon bisulphide.

Consult: De Candolle, ^Nativity of the Bean' ;
Gray and Trumbull, '^Origin of Cultivated
Plants,'' ^American Journal of Science.' XX\^I.,
130: Sturtevant, ^American Naturalist.' (1887, p.
332; Wittmack, ^Ber. der Deutschen Bot. Gesell-
schaft,' VL 374 (1888).

S. Eraser.

BEAN-GOOSE — BEARD

Bean-goose (Anser segetum), a species of
European wild goose, distinguished from the
true wild goose {A. ferns) by its comparatively
small and short bill, which, as far as the nos-
tril, is black, and above it of a reddish flesh
color, whereas that of the gray lag, or true wild
goose, is orange-red, with a touch of grayish-
white. They feed generally on high grounds,
considerably inland, selecting particularly young
wheat, stubbles sown down for grass, and, in
spring, fields sown with beans, their fondness
for which is supposed to have given them their
name. They breed chiefly within the Arctic
Circle, but their nests are often found in large
numbers in the Hebrides. The bean-goose be-
ing rather less than the common wild goose, but
having the same color, is sometimes provincially
called the small gray goose.

Bean, St. Ignatius, a seed vi^hich yields
strychnin.

Bean Weevil, a beetle, Brunchus ohtectiis,
which is smaller than the pea-weevil, measuring
.15 of an inch in length. Compared with that
insect it is lighter and more uniform in color,
being of a tawny gray, without the white spots
so conspicuous in B. pisi. The uniform tawny
gray eljlra are spotted with a few oblong dark
spots, situated between the striae ; tye antennae
also differ in having the four basil joints more
reddish than in B. pisi, while the terminal joint
is red. The legs also are much redder. The
eggs are laid on the outside of the bean; the
young hatch and bore in, and there may be 8
or 10 grubs in a single bean. The chrysalis
lies in a cavity in the bean just large enough
to receive its body. The best remedy is to
carefully examine the beans in the autumn
and before sowing time, when the presence of
the weevil can be easily detected by the trans-
parent spots made by the larva. These should
be burned and such beans as are apparently
uninjured should be soaked for a minute in
boiling-hot water, so that no beetles be over-
looked.

Bear, or Bere, a species of barley (q.v.).

Bear Flag War, a rising against the Mexi-
can government in 1846, by a small body of
emigrants from the United States who had set-
tled in California, thought to have been incited
by Capt. John C. Fremont. He was then com-
manding a small detachment of American troops
in California and a few Americans having pro-
claimed a republic in Sonoma and raised a flag
on which was a figure of a bear, Fremont
joined the insurgents with his troops. The
Mexican war began in the following July and
the Bear Flag war then became a part of the
American scheme for the conquest of Califor-
nia.

Bear Lake, Great, a body of v^^ater in
Canada, so named on account of its situation
directly under the Arctic Circle, and therefore
under the constellation Ursa Major. It is of
very irregular shape, having five arms project-
ing out of the main body, and its greatest diame-
ter is 150 miles. The principal supply of the
lake is Dease River, which enters it from the
northeast. Its outlet is on its southwestern ex-
tremity, at the bottom of Keith Bay. through
Bear Lake River, which empties into Mackenzie
River. The surface of Bear Lake is not more
than 200 feet above the Arctic Ocean; conse-

quently, its bottom must, like many of the north-
western lakes, lie considerably below the level
of the sea. Great Bear Lake abounds in fish
of many varieties, among which the herring-
salmon is noted. The second land expedition,
under Franklin, in 1825, wintered on the western
shore of this lake, near its outlet, where they
built Fort Franklin. Dr. Richardson, a mem-
ber of the expedition, mentions a curious cir-
cumstance concerning the singing of birds of
this lake, that when they first appeared after
the long Arctic winter they serenaded their
mates at midnight, and were silent during the
day. The waters of the lake are so clear that
a white substance can be distinctly discerned at
the depth of 90 feet. This lake is situated about
250 miles east of the Rocky Mountains, about
the same distance south of the Arctic Sea, and
400 miles northwest of Slave Lake. It is the
basin of a water-shed of about 400 miles di-
ameter.

Bear Mountain, the designation of a hill
some 750 feet in height, situated in the north-
eastern part of Dauphin County, Pa. In its
vicinity are valuable deposits of anthracite coal.

Bear River, a river in Utah about 400
miles long, which rises in a spur of the Rocky
Mountains, about 75 miles east of Great Salt
Lake, takes first a northwesterly and then a
southeasterly direction, forming nearly a letter
V, of which more than half the entire length
is in Oregon territory, and finally empties into
the Great Salt Lake. Its valley is about 6,000
feet above the sea-level. At the bend of the
river in Oregon, and about 45 miles from Lewis
River, are found the famous Beer and Steam-
boat springs, which are highly impregnated
with magnesia and other mineral substances.

Bear State, a popular nickname for Ar-
kansas.

Bearberry, the name of the Arctostaphylos,
a genus of plants belonging to the order Erica-
cecE (heathworts). It includes the two species,
A. uva ursi and A. alpina, both of which are
American. They are sometimes ranked under
the genus Arbutus. The flowers are rose-
colored, the berry of the Uva ursi is red, while
that of the other is black. The INIanzanita of
California is A. manzanita or A. pungcns. It
reaches a height of 30 feet, and forms dense
thickets, impenetrable by man or cattle. By
reason of an active glycoside, arbutin, bearberry
is a very efficient urinary antiseptic, useful in
cystitis, pyelitis, and urethritis. The arbutin is
decomposed in the urine into hydrochinon and
other bodies. Its antiseptic properties are due
to the phenal hydrochinon. The extract of the
plant is used for dyeing and tanning leather.

Beard, Charles, English Unitarian clergy-
man : b. Manchester, England, 2y July 1827; d.
Liverpool, 9 April 1888. He was pastor of
Renshaw Street Chapel, Liverpool, editor of the
Theological Rcviciv, 1864-79, and author of
^Outlines of Christian Doctrine^ (1859) ; ^The
Soul's Way to God> (1875) ; 'The Hilbert
Lectures,^ his most important work and one
much esteemed (1883) ; <The Universal Christ^
(1888); 'Martin Luther> (1889).

Beard, Daniel Carter, American artist and
author: b. Cincinnati, Ohio, 21 June 1850. He
first engaged in civil engineering and surveying;
went to New York in 1878 and studied art, and

BEARD

has since become widely known as a book and
magazine illustrator. He founded and became
teacher of the department of animal drawing in
the Woman's School of Applied Design, believed
to be the first class of this character in the
world. Besides his illustrative work he has
published * Moonlight^ ; ^Six Feet of Romance' ;
* American Boys' Handy Book'; < American
Boys' Book of Sport,* etc.

Beard, George Miller, American physician
and hygienic writer : b. Montville, Conn., 8 May
1839; d. New York, 23 Jan. 1883. He made a
specialty of the study of stimulants and nar-
cotics, hypnotism, spiritualism, etc. Among his
works were: 'Our Home Physician' (1869);
^Eating and Drinking' (1871) ; 'Stimulants and
Narcotics' (1871); 'American Nervousness'
(1881); 'Sea-Sickness' (1882).

Beard, Henry, American painter: b. Ohio,
1841 ; d. New York, 19 Nov. 1889. He was a
son of James Henry Beard, and nephew of Wil-
liam Holbrook Beard ; served in the Union army
during the Civil War; at its close applied him-
self to painting, particularly animal life ; and,
after his removal to New York, in 1877, was
chiefly engaged in illustrating books and peri-
odicals.

Beard, James Henry, American painter: b.
Buffalo, N. Y., 1814; d. 4 April 1893. He be-
came a portrait painter in Cincinnati, and painted
the portraits of Henry Clay and other distin-
guished men. In 1846 he exhibited his 'Caro-
lina Emigrants' at the National Academy in
New York, of which he was elected an honorary
member in 1848. In 1870 he removed to New
York, and in 1872 was elected a full member
of the National Academy. Subsequently he de-
voted himself to animal painting. Among his
better known works are: 'Mutual Friend'
(1875); 'Consultation' (1877); 'Blood Will
Tell' (1877) ; 'Don Quixote and Sancho Panza'
(1878); 'Heirs at Law' (1880); 'Which Has
Pre-emption?' (1881) ; 'Detected Poacher'
(1884) ; 'Don't You Come Here' and 'The
Mississippi Flood' (1885) ; 'A Barnyard' and
< 'LI Yer Gimme Some? Say!' (1886).

Beard, Richard, American theologian: b.
Sumner County, Tenn., 27 Nov. 1799; d. Leb-
anon, Tenn., 2 Dec. 1880. He was graduated
from Cumberland College, Princeton, Ky., in
1832; was professor of languages there, 1832-8;
president 1843-53. Li 1854 he was called to the
chair of systematic theology in Cumberland
University, Lebanon, Tenn., a position held un-
til his death. He was one of the ablest scholars
and most conspicuous figures in the Cumberland
Presbyterian Church. He published 'Wiiy I
Am a Cumberland Presbyterian' (1874) ; 'Sys-
tematic Theology,' a standard work regarded as
the crystallization of the Cumberland Presby-
terian form of thought and faith.

Beard, Thomas Francis, commonly known
as Frank Be.\rd, American artist : b. Cincinnati,
6 Feb. 1842 ; d. 1905. During the Civil War he
served in the 7th Ohio regiment, and acted as a
special artist for the Harper publications. As
an artist he devoted himself especially to
character sketches. From the age of 12 he
contributed pictures to the leading American
magazines. As a lecturer he had great success
before Chautauqua and other audiences. He
accompanied his talks by crayon sketches on a

blackboard. The title of his first lecture was
"Chalk-Talk," whence the word originated. In
1881 he occupied the chair of aesthetics at
Syracuse University. He has published: 'The
Blackboard in the Sunday-school' (1880) ; and
a number of short stories.

Beard, William Holbrook, American

painter: b. Painesville, Ohio, 13 April 1825; d.
New York, 20 Feb. 1900; brother of James H.
Beard. He was a traveling portrait painter
from 1846 till 1851, when he settled in
Buffalo, N. Y. After several years of for-
eign study and travel he settled in New
York in i860. In 1862 he was elected a mem-
ber of the National Academy. His works in-
clude genre and allegorical pictures, but he was
most popular in painting animals, especially
bears, whose actions he humanized in a satirical
and pleasing manner. He made many studies
of decorative architecture. Among his most
popular works are: 'Power of Death' (1859);
'Bears on a Bender' (1862) ; 'Bear Dance'
(1865); 'March of Silenus' (1866); 'Flaw in
the Title' (1867) ; 'Darwin Expounding his
Theories' and 'Runaway Match' (1876); 'Di-
vorce Court' (1877) ; 'Bulls and Bears in Wall
Street' (1879) ; 'Voices of the Night' (1880) ;
'Spreading the Alarm' (1881) : 'In the Glen'
(1882); 'Cattle Upon a Thousand Hills'
(1883); 'Who's Afraid?' (1884); 'His Maj-
esty Receives' and 'Office Seekers' (1886), etc.
He published 'Humor in Animals,' a collection
of his sketches (1885).

Beard, the hair on the chin, cheeks, and
upper lip of men. It differs from the hair on
the head by its greater hardness and its form.
The beard begins to grow at the time of pu-
berty. The connection between the beard and
puberty is evident from this, among other cir-
cumstances, that it never grows in the case of
eunuchs who have been such from childhood ;
but the castration of adults does not cause the
loss of the beard. According to Caesar, the Ger-
mans thought, and perhaps justly, the late
growth of the beard favorable to the develop-
ment of all the powers. But there are cases in
which this circumstance is an indication of fee-
bleness. It frequently takes place in men of
tender constitution, whose pale color indicates
little power. The beards of different nations
afford an interesting study. Some have hardly
any, others a great profusion. The latter gen-
erally consider it as a great ornament ; the for-
mer pluck it out ; as, for instance, the American
Indians. The character of the beard differs
with that of the individual, and, in the case of
nations, varies with the climate, food, etc.
Thus the beard is generally dark, dry, hard, and
thin in irritable persons of full age ; the same
is the case with the inhabitants of hot and dry
countries, as the Arabians, Ethiopians, East In-
dians, Italians, Spaniards. But persons of
very mild disposition have a light-colored, thick,
and slightly curling beard ; the same is the case
with inhabitants of cold and humid countries,
as Holland, Britain, Sweden. The difference of
circumstances causes all shades of variety. The
nature of the nourishment likewise causes a
great variety in the beard. Wholesome, nutri-
tious, and digestible food makes the beard soft ;
but poor, dry, and indigestible food renders it
hard and bristly.

BEARD MOSS — BEARDSTOWN

In general the beard has been considered
with all nations as an ornament, and often as
a mark of the sage and the priest. Moses for-
bade the Jews to shave their beards. With the
ancient Germans the cutting off another's beard
was a high offense : with the East Indians it is
severely punished. Even now the beard is re-
garded as a mark of great dignity among many
nations in the East, as the Turks. The custom
of shaving is said to have come into use in mod-
ern times during the reigns of Louis XIII.
and XIV. of France, both of whom ascended
the throne without a beard. Courtiers and in-
habitants of cities then began to shave, in order
to look like the kmg, and, as France soon took
the lead in all matters of fashion on the con-
tinent of Europe, shaving became general ; but
it was only from the beginning of the i8th cen-
tury that shaving off the whole beard became
common.

The English clergy by and by, probably in
imitation of those of western Europe, began to
shave the beard, and until the time of Wil-
liam the Norman, the whole of whose army
shaved the beard, there prevailed a bearded
class and a shaven class, in short, a laity and a
clergy, in England. In forbidding the clergy
to wear beards Gregory VII. (1084) appealed
to the custom of antiquity. The higher classes
indulged in the moustache, or the entire beard,
from the reign of Edward III. down to the
17th century. The beard then gradually de-
clined, and the court of Charles I. was the last
in which even a small one was cherished.
Shaving, among many ancient nations, was the
mark of mourning; with others it was the
contrary. Plutarch says that Alexander intro-
duced shaving among the Greeks by ordering
his soldiers to cut off their beards ; but it ap-
pears that this custom had prevailed before
among the Macedonians. The Romans began
to shave about 296 B.C., when a certain Ticinius
Mena, a barber from Sicily, introduced this
fashion. Scipio Africanus was the first who
shaved every day. The day that a young man
first shaved was celebrated, and the first hair
cut off was sacrificed to a deity. Hadrian, in
order to cover some large warts on his chin,
renewed the fashion of long beards ; but it did
not last long. In mourning the Romans wore
a long beard, sometimes for years. They used
scissors, razors, tweezers, etc., to remove the
beard. The public barbers' shops (tonstrincc),
where the lower classes went, were much re-
sorted to; rich people kept a shaver (tensor)
among their slaves. Army regulations gener-
ally prohibit the wearing of beards, while in
the navy beards are permitted. Physicians sug-
gest that the beard should be suffered to groM
3n the chin and throat where tendencies tc
throat diseases exist.

Beard Moss (usnea harhata), a lichen of
gray color. See also Usnea.

Beardslee, Lester Anthony, American
naval officer : b. Little Falls, N. Y., i Feb.
(838; d. near Augusta, Ga., 11 Nov. 1903. Ap-
pointed acting-midshipman 5 March 1850, he
..eryed in the East Indies in 1851-5, partici-
nating in one battle and several skirmishes
with the Chinese army at Shanghai. Gradu-
ating from the Naval Academy 1856, he passed
chrough all grades of the service to rear-admiral
1895, and was retired I Feb. 1898. During the

Civil War he commanded the monitor Nan-
tucket in the attack of the ironclad fleet on the
defenses of Charlestown Harbor, 7 April 1863,
and captured the Confederate steamer Florida
at Bahia, Brazil. In 1870 he took the steam-tug
Palos to the East Indies, carrying on her the
first United States flag through the Suez Canal.
In 1879-80 he discovered, surveyed, and named
Glacier Bay, Alaska. He is the author of a
number of valuable official reports, especially
those on ^The Strength of Metals,' * Resources
of Alaska,' and 'Present Condition of Affairs
in Hawaii-" (1897), published as Senate execu-
tive documents; "^The Strength of Wrought
Iron and Chain Cables' {li

Beardsley, Aubrey, English author and
illustrator: b. Brighton, 1874; d. Mentone,
France, 16 March 1898. After receiving a
grammar school education, he began working
for London periodicals and publishers in 1892 ;
and soon became widely known by his striking
designs for posters and book covers. In 1894 he
became art editor of 'The Yellow Book,' and
while supplying it with illustrations, contributed
drawings also to the 'Savoy' and 'Le Courrier
Frangaise.' He illustrated 'Bons Mots' (1892) ;
Malory's 'La Morte d'Arthur' (1893) ; Oscar
Wilde's 'Salome' (1894) ; 'The Rape of the
Lock' and 'An Album of Fifty Drawings'
1896) ; and wrote and illustrated 'The Story of
Venus and Tannhauser' (1895) ; and a novel,
'Under the Hill' (1896).

Beardsley, Eben Edwards, American Epis-
copal clergyman and writer : b. Stepney, Conn.,
1808; d. 22 Dec. 1891. He was for many years
rector of St. Thomas's Church at New Haven.
He wrote 'History of the Episcopal Church in
Connecticut' (4th ed. 1883), and lives of 'Sam-
uel Johnson, First President of King's College,
New York' (1874) ; 'William Samuel Johnson,
President of Columbia College' (1876) ; and
'Samuel Seabury, First Bishop of Connecticut'
(1881).

Beardsley, Samuel, American jurist: b.
Hoosic, N. Y., 9 Feb. 1790; d. Utica, N. Y., 6
May i860. On leaving the common school he
took up the study of medicine, but abandoned
it for law. In 1813 he was a member of the
militia that defended Sackett's Harbor. Two
years later he was admitted to the bar, and
became judge-advocate of the militia. In 1823
he was State senator from the Fifth District of
New York. He was appointed attorney for the
Northern District of New York by President
Jackson, and was a member of Congress in
1831-6 and 1843-5. From 1836 to 1838 he
was attorney-general of the State of New York.
He became associate judge of the supreme court
of New York in 1844, and three years later
succeeded Judge Bronson as chief justice. On
his retirement he devoted himself to the prac-
tice of his profession.

Beardstown, 111., a city in Cass County,
45 miles northwest of Springfield, on the Illinois
River. The St. Louis division of the Burlington
Route has its repair and other shops at Beards-
town. There are manufactures of flour, lum-
ber, and window screens as well as important
cooperage works. The city has a fine park and
two great bridges across the river. It was set-
tled in 1832 and received a city charter in
1896. Pop. (1900) 4,827.

BEARER COMPANY — BEARINGS

Bearing, in navigation and surveying, sig-
nifies the angle made by any given line with a
north and south line. The bearing of an ob-
ject is the direction of a line from the observer
to that object.

In architecture, the space between the two
fixed extremities of a piece of timber, or between
one of the extremities and a post or wall placed
so as to diminish the unsupported length. Also
and commonly used for the distance or length
which the ends of a piece of timber lie upon
■or are inserted into the walls or piers.

In mechanics, (a) The portion of an axle
•or shaft in contact with the collar or boxing,
(b) The portion of the support on which a
gudgeon rests and revolves, (c) One of the
pieces resting on the axle and supporting the
framework of a carriage, (d) One of the chairs
supporting the framework of a railway carriage
or truck.

In Jieraldry, a charge; anything included
within the escutcheon. Generally in the plural,
as armorial bearings.)

Bearer Company, a British organization
■for removing wounded soldiers from the field
of battle to the dressing station or temporary
hospital, which is part of the equipment of the
bearer company, and where first aid can be
given to them. The bearer company, first intro-
duced into the British army in 1873, comprises
the medical and other officers for discipline and
supply duties, over 30 non-commissioned officers
and men, trained as sick bearers of the medical
staff corps, about 100 attendant untrained bear-
ers from the Militia Reserve, six ^'batmen® and
drivers of the Army Service Corps. Tents for
the personnel and for the dressing stations are
•carried, and a bearer company also has ambu-
lances, surgery wagons, equipment, supply, and
water carts, requiring over 100 horses. A modi-
fied organization for mountain warfare com-
prises muleteers, mules, and a special kind of
•cacolets or litters. Half a bearer company is
attached to each army corps on active service,
forming the link between the battalion stretcher
bearers and the field hospitals.

Bearings, Anti - friction. Anti - friction
bearings are bearings involving the principle
of rolling friction, as distinguished from
sliding friction. An ordinary shaft turning
in a plain journal slides around on a layer
of some lubricating substance. If the lubri-
cant IS good and properly applied, little energy
or power is lost in the heat produced by
rubbing friction. If not, then much heat is pro-
•duced, often to such an extent that the oil or
grease is set on fire, dried up, thereby causing a
so-called "hot box'* or journal. The starting
friction of a plain journal differs very greatly
from the friction of motion. The reason is that
while at rest under a heavy load, the film of
the lubricant is penetrated, and contact of metal
to metal is established. To overcome this con-
tact, until the bearing has moved far enough to
drag the film of oil between the points of contact
again, requires much more power. Careful tests
show the coefficient of rest to be from .09 to
.13, as compared with .05 to .08 for the co-
efficient of motion. Bearings involving rolling
friction are entirely different in this respect.
No lubricant other than enough to prevent rust-
ing is needed. Between the shaft and the wheel
or other bearing is interposed some shape, made

of hardened metal that rolls between the two
surfaces. Rollers and balls are the two forms
adopted to accomplish this purpose. During the
last decade rapid evolution has taken place in
the design and range of use to which such bear-
ings are applied. Improved manufacturing
methods in the way of production of large balls
are bringing this "type rapidly to the front for
large work, such as trolley and steam car bear-
ings, shafting, and many other uses not formerly
possible commercially, because of cost.

The latest improvements have also very
greatly advanced the possibilities of the bearing
of the ball type. It is the invention of C. H.
Chapman, interposing smaller balls between the
working, or load carrying balls, in such a way
as to prevent all rubbing, sliding or wedging
tendencies, thus eliminating all wear, and indefi-
nitely prolonging the life of a bearing. Ad-
vanced designers of this bearing have learned
also to skilfully combine the materials, dimen-
sions and design of same in such a way as to
successfully perform what has hitherto been
thought too heavy work for ball or roller bear-
ings. The saving of such a bearing as made
by the American Compound Bearing Company
oyer the plain journal is very remarkable. Tests
give the following comparative results :

Bearing Starting Friction Running Friction

Plain
Ball

.100
.009

•OS
.005

It is seen that the starting friction for this
ball bearing is not appreciably greater than the
running friction, and that under all conditions
the running friction of this compound bearing
(the highest refinement of anti-friction bear-
ing), is less than one tenth of the friction of
the best lubricated plain journal.

By referring to the cut it will be noted that B
is the load-carrying ball, B' the idler, P the re-
taining tube or float for B' , C the cup, K the
cone, and 5" the journal sleeve.

The idler B' is so placed, that its centre is
coincident with a line connecting the centres of
each of the adjacent load-carrying balls B, and
is positively and automatically held in position
by a loose free tube F that floats with the load-
carrying balls, but not in frictional contact with
any of the balls when the same are under load,
during which time the idler balls are maintained

BEARN — BEARS

in the same relative position by rolling contact
with the load-carrying balls.

An important and unique function of the
compound features of the bearing is the differ-
ential compensating movement of the journal
between the shaft and the balls, insuring a
positive revolution of the load-carrying balls
under all conditions.

For the class of journals that are called upon
to start frequently, the saving in power is ex-
ceedingly great, and the necessity of saving
power is bringing about the very general use of
anti-friction bearings. Incidentally, there are
other very important advantages in the decrease
of annoyance and expense of lubrication, hot
boxes and dirt attending the use of all plain
journals. The use of anti-friction bearings as a
means of saving power in all transmission prob-
lems is attracting increased attention among all
mechanical engineers.

Henry Souther,
Engineer of the American Compound Bearing

Company.

Beam, ba-arn, a former province of
France, at the foot of the Pyrenees, with the
title of a principality ; about 42 miles long and
36 broad. It now forms part of the department
of the Basses-Pyrenees. It belonged, with Na-
varre, to Henry IV., when he obtained the
crown. The plain country is very fertile, and
the mountains are covered with fir-trees, while
within are mines of copper, lead, and 'iron ;
and the little hills are planted with vines, which
yield good wine. Pau is the chief town. There
is a peculiar and well-marked dialect, — the
Bearnese, — spoken in this district, which has
much more affinity with the Spanish than with
the French. It contains a certain number of
Greek elements, which some believe to have
been derived from the ancient Greek colonists
established in Gaul. The people have retained
many Old- World manners, customs, and super-
stitions, as well as their old costume. See Bor-
denare, 'Histoire de Beam et Navarre^ (1873).

Bears, a family (Ursidce) of large, heavy,
long-haired, plantigrade, carnivorous mammals,
scattered throughout all the northern hemi-
sphere, and some parts of the tropics. They
are absent from Africa (except the Atlas Moun-
tains, which zoologically belong to Europe),
and from Australasia. In their structure and
dentition they are allied to the dogs on one
hand, and to the badgers, weasels, skunks, etc.,
(Musfclidcc), on the other. The head is broad,
and the jaws extended and rather narrow, but
not so powerful as those of dogs or hyenas ;
while the teeth are complete and large, the
molars especially being broad and tuberculous,
fitting them well for crushing the vegetable
fare so largely eaten by this group. The skele-
ton is massive, the limbs of great strength and
furnished with long and powerful claws for
digging, and for use in fighting. The whole sole
of the foot rests upon the ground, leaving a
footprint much resembling that of a man. Ordi-
narily they move about rather slowly and clum-
sily, yet all except the heaviest bears climb
trees, and the largest scramble over rocks or ice
with surprising agility; and all, when urged by
rage or fear, can get over the ground at great
speed, their gait being a lumbering but effective
gallop. Their ears, though small, are highly
developed, and their hearing is perhaps of more

service to them than is their eye-sight ; but
neither equals in keenness the nose, which
seems to be extremely sensitive. In respect to
food, bears are truly omnivorous, taking flesh,
fish, or vegetable materials as circumstances
favor. They seize such small animals of the
woods as cannot avoid them, and near settle-
ments raid the herds of swine and flocks of sheep^
and cattle, especially in search of the young
ones. All bears eat fish, and some, like the
Polar and the Kadiak bear, live almost wholly
upon this diet, catching the fishes cleverly from
the shore by a stroke of the paw, or going into
the water after them. Reptiles, crabs, crayfish,
etc., are eaten also ; and insects form a large
part of their fare, especially ants and honey-
making bees and wasps. They dig up ant hills-
and overturn rotting logs and stumps for the
former, and search out and tear to pieces the
combs of the latter, well protected against stings
by their long hair. They also eat succulent
leaves and herbage, certain roots, fruit, and es-
pecially sweet acorns and berries, of which
they are exceedingly fond. The Rocky Moun-
tain Indians used to burn over certain tracts of
mountain-side annually in order to keep the
oaks low and promote the growth of certain
berry-bearing bushes in order to attract the
bears. They drink a great deal of water, enjoy
going into it, and will swim long distances.

Bears are nowhere very numerous, each pair
or family occupying a district and keeping it
fairly well to itself. When, as frequently hap-
pens, three or four are seen together, they are
likely to be old and young of the same family.
Their home is usually some cave or crevice
among rocks, a hollow tree, a tangle of wind-
thrown logs, or a dense thicket. There, in the
early spring, are born the young, usually two,
sometimes four ; and in the case of the Arctic
species, this often happens under the snow, be-
fore the female is released from her hibernation.
The young remain with the mother until fully
grown ; and when they are little she guards
and controls them with great solicitude, and
will rush at an intruder. At other times bears
are rather shy and will usually endeavor to re-
treat, yet when brought to bay, fight with great
courage, and are among the most dangerous
animals men can encounter. Their attack is
made with both teeth and claw, striking down
or clasping the foe in a crushing embrace, and
then tearing him with the teeth. They can
easily be tamed, however, remain friendly and
prove intelligent and docile to a limited ex-
tent. They submit well to confinement, endure
change of climate, and breed readily in captiv-
ity. The close family likeness throughout the
group has made their distinction into natural
species a matter of much dispute and uncer-
tainty. Everyone recognizes the great white
^*Polar^* or *^ice'^ bear of the Arctic region
(Ursus maritiimts) as distinct. Its elongated
body, long, pointed head, slender limbs, large,
hairy-soled feet, and cream-white coat, are quite
unlike the features of any other. Large speci-
mens are nine feet or more in length, and have
enormous strength. These bears are numerous
throughout the icy circumpolar regions, and
wander a vast distance away from the coast on
the ice, sometimes swimming many miles. They
often winter and their young are born on the
floes. They live mainly upon seals, young wal-
ruses, and fish, which they scoop out of the

BEARS

furf and from the coast rivers where they come
to spawn, but in summer obtain various other
kinds of food, including marine grass and shore
herbage. The writings of Arctic explorers
abound in accounts of this wide-spread species,
and should be read by those who wish to know
more of their habits. Another sub-Arctic bear
that seems undoubtedly distinct is the glacier or
^'blue'* bear of the Mount St. Elias Alps on the
coast of Alaska (q.v. ) first described by Dall in
1895. and named Ursiis cmmonsi. It is the
smallest of all bears — not larger that a half-
grown grizzl}', and bluish black, with a dorsal
stripe, the ears and the outer surfaces of the
limbs jet black; black and silver is the prevalent
color of the sides, neck, and rump ; the belly
and inside of the legs are white ; sides of the
nose bright tan color. Very little is known of
its habits, or of the extent of its limited range.

The other American bears, called black, griz-
zly, cinnamon, Barren-Ground, brown, Kadiak,
and so on, are so confusingly alike that some
conservative naturalists regard them all as
merely varieties of one species, altered by cli-
mate and food, and a tendency to individual
variation ; and it has even been said that there
was no real specific distinction between them
and the Old World bears, which also present
differences that blend confusingly together
when many specimens are compared. Others
regard the differences not only of specific value,
but even place some of the forms in separate
genera. The latest monographer of the Ameri-
can UrsidcE recognizes no less than eight spe-
cies on this continent, besides the Polar bear,
and the spectacled bear of the Andes {Ursus
ornatus), which is thought by others to be
merely an isolated variety of the black bear,
that somehow has acquired whitish rings arovmd
its eyes. The black bear (Ursus Amcricanns)
is the most wide-spread of these, being found
in all the forested regions of the continent
north of -Mexico, and still remaining wherever
a large patch of forest, or a range of moun-
tains or rough hills give it a harbor, whence it
may raid the pasture-lots and pig sties of
frontier farmers, especially in early spring,
when wild food is scarce. Black bears climb
trees easily, travel about a great deal, and are
often captured and tamed. They are timid and
secretive, and rarely are dangerous unless
wounded or cornered and enraged. The
color of this bear is properly black, but
brown, reddish ("cinnamon*'), or even yel-
lowish examples are frequently seen. The
nose is always tan-colored. In size they
average about five feet, and never reach the
dimensions of a large grizzly. The bears of
Florida and of Texas are each regarded by
some as separate species, but most naturalists
consider them to be merely geographical races.
The Barren-Ground bear {Ursus richardsoni)
is a large whitish-brown species dwelling on
the brushy plains northwest of Hudson Bay,
which there is good reason to believe is an iso-
lated American race of the European brown
bear.

The grizzly bear (Ursus Jwrribilis) of the
mountains of western North America is one of
the largest, and perhaps the most to be feared,
of any of the family. It is found from the
Black Hills and the Badlands of Dakota west-
ward to the Pacific coast, and from Mexico to
northern Alaska. A large specimen is nine feet

in length, and will weigh 1,000 pounds, but the
size varies greatly. So does the color, which
ranges from reddish-brown to hoary gray.
Hence several varieties are recognized by hunt-
ers, such as "cinnamons," "silvertips" (in which
the tips of the hairs are white), and "grizzlies."
The typical form may be described as yellowish-
brown, with a reddish mane, black dorsal stripe,
and dark-colored legs. In form they are mas-
sive, with broad, squarish heads, and immensely
muscular bodies. They cannot, or at any rate,
do not, climb trees, but they scramble about
the roughest mountains or through a dense
forest with surprising agility, and can run very
rapidly on occasions. They seem rarely if ever
to hibernate, and go about alone or in pairs,
eating all sorts of food, but seizing and pulling
down large prey when an opportunity offers.
In former days even a bull buffalo was unable
always to resist their strength, and they con-
stantly attacked them and the deer. At pres-
ent the cattle and horses upon the ranges in
some parts of the west suffer from their rav-
ages. Though so mighty, and when at bay or
enraged probably not less dangerous to encoun-
ter than a lion or tiger, they will usually avoid
and flee from man, and do not seem quarrel-
some, the tradition of a constant enmity be-
tween them and the black bears not finding
support in facts. The grizzly is easily the most
terrible of the game animals of North America,
and one of the most formidable in the world ;
but different bears vary greatly in tempera-
rnent and according to circumstances. The In-
dians and experienced hunters of the west, how-
ever, have learned to hold all of the race in the
highest respect. Much the same statement will
apply to the Barren-Ground bear, already men-
tioned, and to the Alaskan bears to be spoken
of presently. The grizzly is still to be found
throughout most of its range, though no longer
numerous except in the wilder parts of the
Rocky Mountains, in the northern parts of the
Sierra Nevada, and in the high mountains
northward from Oregon to Alaska, where the
largest ones are now to be obtained. The
Kadiak bear is a brownish species or variety
(Ursus middendoiiE) dwelling on Kadiak Is-
land, Alaska, and the neighboring mainland.
Specimens of it exceeding in size any other bear
have been obtained, and weighing 1,200 pounds.
Whether it will prove to be a distinct species
remains to be seen. The same may be said of
Dalli or the Sitka bear (Ursus dalli). Both
are dark-brown or grizzled, and difficult to dis-
tinguish externally from other bears of the
north.

The bears of the Old World have been di-
vided into many species by earlier naturalists,
but are now regarded as more nearly connected.
The best known is the common brown bear of
Europe and Asia (Ursus arctos). It is of large
size, reaching about eight feet in length in the
bigger European specimens, and is usually of
some shade of yellowish-brown, reddish-brown,
or black, but varies greatly. It is exceedingly
difficult to distinguish from the American bears,
and passes by indeterminate variation into the
so-called species of Siberia, Japan, and the
Himalayan region, the differences being such
as might come from varying climate and habi-
tat ; thus those of the high Himalaya are small-
er and lighter in color, etc. Although long ago
extinct in Great Britain, it still lingers in the

BEAS — BEAT

wilder, more mountainous parts of Europe, and
is numerous in the forests of Russia, the Cau-
casus, on the Lebanon range of Asia Minor
(where it is called the Syrian bear), in the
Atlas Mountains of Morocco, and throughout
Asia north of the Himalayas. The largest are
those of Kamchatka, where they are numer-
ous and bold, and live in summer almost wholly
on salmon, as do the Kadiak and other Alas-
kan bears east of Bering Sea. This is the bear
most often seen in menageries, where it breeds
readily ; and which is led about by "bear-
tamers,** and taught certain clumsy "dancing**
tricks. The Thibetan or "blue** bear {Ursus
pruinosus), is a little known species regarded
as distinct. Two other quite distinct species of
bear belong to the Indo-Malayan region. One
is the sloth-bear or honey-bear of India, a
large animal which in its jungle home is one of
the most dangerous carnivores of the Indian
forests, yet is often tamed and led about the
country by Hindu jugglers, who called it
<<aswail,** etc. It is black, unusually shaggy,
and has a prolonged mobile snout, a very long
tongue and no teeth in the front of the mouth
(after the milk teeth drop out), making its fa-
cial grimaces very comical. Another very dis-
tinctive feature is the large yellowish crescent
on its breast. It is an agile climber, and ex-
ceedingly fond of robbing the nests of honey-
making bees. These facts are recorded in its
name (Ursiis or Melurstts}, labiatus.

The Malayan sun bear, or "bruang** (Ursus,
or Helarctos, Maylayanus)^ is a smaller species
inhabiting the forests of the Malayan Peninsula,
and islands eastward to Borneo. Its coat is
short and fine, black in color, marked on the
breast with a white or orange crescent, and the
lips and tongue are remarkably long and flexi-
ble. It feeds mainly on ants, which it gathers
with its glutinous tongue after digging up their
hills, to which its long claws are well fitted.

Fossil bears, commonly called "cave bears,**
have been found in the Quaternary bone-
breccia .of many caves of Europe, North
and South America. Some are closely al-
lied to or identical with living species :
others, as the California and South American
cave bears, are referred to a distinct genus,
Arctotheriiim. In the Tertiary strata of the
Old World occur remains of a series of animals
{Amphicyon, Hyacnarctos, etc.) which appear to
connect the bears with primitive Canidcc, indi-
cating that they are an offshoot of the dog fam-
ily. See also Cave Bears.

Bibliography. — For structure and relation-
ships of this group, consult : Flower and Lydek-
ker, 'Mammals, Living and Extinct* (1891).
For modern and contrasting ideas of classifica-
tion : Lydekker, 'Proceedings of Zoological So-
ciety of London, for 1897,* page 412 ; Merriam,
'Proceedings Biological Society of Washing-
ton,* p. 65 (1896). For habits and hunting,
such general works as Brehm. 'Thierleben* ; the
Standard, Royal, and Allen's 'Natural His-
tories* ; Mayne Reid, 'Bruin, or the Grand
Bear Hunt* (1864); Aflalo, 'Sport in Europe*
(1901) ; the works of Jerdon, Blanford, and
Bl3'th on the mammals of Persia, India, and
eastward ; and the writings of sportsmen-natur-
alists, especially Baker, Hornaday, Kinloch, Pol-
lok. Sanderson, Shakespeare, and Wallace. For
American bears, consult Richardson. 'Fauna
Boreali Americana^ (1829) ; Audubon and

Bachman, 'Quadrupeds of North America^
(1846) ; Merriam, 'Mammals of the Adiron-
dacks* (1882); Marey (editor), 'Sport with
Rod and Gun* (1892) ; Shields (editor), 'Big
Game of North America* (1890) ; Porter,
'Wild Beasts* (1897) ; and the writings of
sportsmen in the Rocky Mountains, especially
Baillie-Grohman, 'Fifteen Years of Sport, etc.*
(1900).

Beas, be'as, or Bias (the ancient Hypha-
sis), one of the five great rivers of the Punjab,
having its rise at the Ratanki Pass, on the
south side of the Santch Mountains, a branch
of the Himalaya system, in lat. 32° 21' N. ; Ion.
^7° 22' E. ; where the former attain an elevation
of 13,300 feet. Its entire course is about 215
miles. The Beas has been considered larger
than the Sutlej, which it joins 35 miles to the
southeast of Amritsar, but it is greatly inferior
to that river in the length of its course ; and,
though they have about the same breadth, the
Sutlej has the greater volume of water. The
united stream, below the point of junction, is
called the Ghara or Gharra.

Beasts of Prey, is not a scientific term,
but, as in the case of the phrase "birds of
prey,** represents merely the idea of an assem-
blage of such mammals as prey upon other
creatures. The greatest number, and most
prominent examples, belong to the order Carni-
vora, whose members subsist mainly upon flesh,
and some of which, as the cats, bears, and
wolves, are the most powerful, deadly, and
dangerous animals of the world. These have
acquired bodies with great strength and endur-
ance in chasing and leaping, seizing and hold-
ing; teeth adapted to cutting and piercing;
sharp muscular claws ; and a high degree of
intelligence in the wiles of hunting, and of
courage and pertinacity in attacking their prey
or defending their gains against rivals. Their
digestive organs are simplified and adapted to
the assimilation of flesh, of which a less quan-
tity is required than in the case of an animal
subsisting on vegetable fare, because it is
already in a concentrated, partly elaborated
form ; but as the obtaining of it is occasional
and often interrupted by long intervals, all
beasts of prey are likely to kill and eat exces-
sively when opportunity offers, in instinctive
preparation for a possible fast. To provide
against the loss of heat during the periods of
famine, rather than as a provision against
low temperature, most beasts of prey are clothed
in dense, hairy coats of hair, or "fur.** Not
all the beasts of prey belong to the Carnivora,
for animals with similar structures and adapta-
tions are to be found in other orders of mam-
mals, whose basal structure is very different.
The blood-sucking bats, for example, have
teeth roughly similar to those of a dog ; and
some of the apes are savage and powerful and
have carnassial teeth. The most precise parallel,
however, is found in the predatory marsupials of
Australia, such as the Zebra wolf. Tasmaniafl
devil, and several others, which have the equip-
ment and habits of true beasts of prey.

Beat, in music, the beating or pulsation
resulting from the joint vibrations of two sounds
of the same strength, and all but in unison.
Also a short shake or transient grace-note
struck immediately before the note it is intended
to ornament. The Greeks employed the up b^aa'*

BEARS.

.ii American Blaok.Bsar.(Ursus Americanus).
2. Brown Bear (Ursus arctos).

3. Black Bear of the Himalayan Mountains (.Ursus torquatus).

4. Malay Bear (Ursus Malayanusi.

BEATIFICATION — BEATTIE

(arsis) to denote the accented, and the down
beat (thesis) to signify the unaccented part of
the measure, but in modern practice the down
beat denotes the accented and the up beat the
unaccented.

Beatifica'tion, in the Roman Catholic
Church, an act by which the Pope declares a
person beatified or blessed after his death. It
is the first step to canonization, or the raising
one to the honor and dignity of a saint. No
person can be beatified till 50 years after his
or her death. All certificates or attestations of
virtues and miracles, the necessary qualifications
for saintship, are examined by the Congregation
of Rites at Rome. This examination often
continues for many years, and embraces a num-
ber of different steps or stages, at one of which
a functionary known popularly as the "devil's
advocate" brings forward all possible objections,
and points out all weak points in the evidence
brought forward in favor of the reputed saint.
When the question has been finally debated in
successive meetings of the congregation, the
Pope at last gives his decision, and the beatifica-
tion may then take place in the Vatican. Beati-
fication differs from canonization in this, that
"whereas the cultus of a canonized saint belongs
to the universal Church, and churches and altars
can be freely erected in his or her honor, and
images, pictures, or statues of him or her dis-
played without special permission, in the case of
one of the Blessed it is otherwise. The honor
and veneration which are authorized in their
regard are limited and partial ; and because the
cultus of one of them is permitted to one coun-
try, or city, or order, or branch of an order,
it does not follow that it should be practised
elsewhere ; and the attempt to extend it with-
out special permission is condemned." Compare
Addis & Arnold's Catholic Dictionary. See

C.\N0NIZATI0X.

Beating the Bounds, a periodical survey
or perambulation by which the boundaries of
parishes in England are preserved. It is, or
was, the custom that the clergyman of the par-
ish, with the parochial officers and the boys
of the parish school, should, on Ascension Day,
march to the boundaries, which the boys struck
with willow rods. A similar ceremony in Scot-
land is called riding the marches. In the New
England colonies parallel duties were performed
by "perambulators" and in Virginia by "pro-
cessioners." The custom is of Teutonic origin.

Beatitude, the Christian term meaning the
highest degree of happiness of which our nature
is susceptible, and applied particularly to the
state of the elect in heaven. It was a favorite
topic of discussion among the scholastic theo-
logians, who divided it into subjective and ob-
jective, perfect and imperfect, and made our
eternal happiness consist in the vision of God
perfecting the intellect and will in possessing
Supreme Truth and God. Recent theologians
have generally made beatitude consist in honor-
ing God and sharing his perfections, a sublime
though indefinite conception. Though the state
of beatitude be incomprehensible to us. yet the
belief in it is a motive in the present life which
begets heroism in the midst of misfortune, and
an adherence to virtue in the midst of evils.
The Beatitudes is the name given particularly
to the beginning of the separate clauses in
Christ's Sermon on the Mount.
Vol. 2—28.

Beaton, David, Scottish prelate and cardi-
nal : b. 1494; d. St. Andrew's, 29 May 1546. He
studied at St. Andrew's, Glasgow, and Paris, was
for years Scottish resident in France, and in
1537 was consecrated bishop of Mirepoix in
that country. Pope Paul III. raised him to
the cardinalate in 1538, and next year he became
primate of Scotland. He had much influence
with James V., and after his death (1542) set
himself to oppose the English party, to which
the Reformers belonged. Upon the coronation
of the young Queen Mary, he was made chan'
cellor, and became also legate a latere from
Rome. He now began to renew the persecution
of heretics, and among the rest the famous
Protestant preacher George Wishart suffered,
being strangled and burnt at the stake, on the
twofold charges of sedition and heresy. But a
conspiracy had been formed against him, and he
was assassinated at his own castle of St. An-
drews. He was a man of great ability and
recent historical research has cleared his char-
acter from many former calumnies.

Be'atrice, a wntty, lively character in
Shakespeare's *^Much Ado About Nothing,' who
marries Benedick by the contrivance of the
friends of each.

Beatrice Cenci, ba-a-tre'cha chen'che, a
i6th century Roman girl whose picture was
painted by Guido Reni, and whose career is the
subject of Shelley's tragedy ^The Cenci.'

Beatrice Portinari, ba-a-tre'cha p5r-te-na'-
rc; the Beatrice of Dante's poems: b. about
1266; d. 1290. She was the daughter of a
wealthy citizen of Florence, and wife of Simone
de Bardi. She was but eight years of age, and
Dante nine, when he met her first at the house
of her father. He saw her only once or twice,
and she probably knew little of him. The story
of his love is recounted in the ^Vita Nuova,'
which was mostly written after her death,

Be'atrice, Neb., a city and county-seat of
Gage County, on the Big Blue River, and sev-
eral railroads ; 40 miles south of Lincoln, the
State capital. It is the seat of the State Insti-
tution for Feeble Minded Youth ; and has a
handsome court-house. United States govern-
ment building. Holly system of waterworks,
electric light and street railway plants, public
library, three national banks, excellent water
power, flour and planing mills, tile and barbed
wire works, creamery, iron foundry, and manu-
factories of gasoline engines, wind mills, and
farming implements. It was incorporated as a
town, 187 1, and as a city, 1873. Pop. (1900)
7.875.

Beatrix (be-a'triks) Antelope, an Arabian
oryx Oryx beatrix) , resembling the beisa but
without black markings on the haunches. See
Oryx.

Beattie, be'ti, Francis Robert, Canadian-
American educator : b. near Guelph, Ontario,
1848. He was educated at Toronto University,
studied theology at Knox College, Toronto, and
at the Presbyterian College in Montreal. He
was pastor at Baltimore and Cold Springs, On-
tario, in 1878-82. and at Brantford in 1882-8.
In 1888 he became professor of apologetics in
the Presbyterian Theological Seminary in Co-
lumbia, S. C. where he remained till 1893. and
then accepted the chair of systematic theology
and apologetics in the Presbyterian Theological

BEATTIE — BEAUCLERK

Seminary, Louisville, Ky. His writings include
<An Examination of Utilitarianism^ (1884) ;
< Methods of Theism^ (1887) ; 'The Higher
Criticism; or, Modern Critical Theories'
(1888) ; 'Radical Criticism, an Exposition and
Examination of the Radical Critical Theory of
the Old Testament Scripture' (1895); 'Presby-
terian Standards' (1896), etc.

Beattie, ba'te, James, Scotch poet: b. Kin-
cardineshire, 25 Oct. 1735 ; d. Aberdeen, 18 Aug.
1803. He obtained a scholarship at Aberdeen,
and subsequently became assistant in the Aber-
deen grammar school, and married the daughter
of the head schoolmaster. After this event he
began to be distinguished as a writer, and in
1771 commenced the publication of his work
called the 'Minstrel.' This obtained for him
the patronage of Lord Errol, and caused him to
be appointed professor of moral philosophy and
logic in Marischal College. In 1765, he pub-
lished a poem, the 'Judgment of Paris,' which
failed of any celebrity. The work which gained
him the greatest fame was an 'Essay on the
Nature and Immutability of Truth,' in oppo-
sition to sophistry and skepticism. It was de-
signed as a reply to Hume, and was so much
in demand that in four years five large editions
were sold ; and it was translated into several
languages. He was urged by the archbishop
of York and the bishop of London to take
orders in the Church of England, a proposal
which he declined. While in London he be-
came intimate with Dr. Johnson, Dr. Porteus,
and other distinguished literary characters. In
1783, he published 'Dissertations, Moral and
Critical,' and the 'Evidences of the Christian
Religion,' written at the request of the bishop
of London. In 1790 he published the first
volume, and in 1793 the second, of his 'Elements
of Moral Science' ; subjoined to the latter was
a dissertation against the slave trade.

Beatty, John, American legislator: b.
Bucks County, Pa., 10 Dec. 1749; d. Trenton,
N. J., 30 May 1826. He was educated at
Princeton, and took up the study of medicine
with Dr. Rush of Philadelphia. He fought with
distinction through the Revolutionary war,
reaching the rank of colonel ; was delegate to the
Continental Congress in 1783-5 ; speaker of the
House ; served in the convention which adopted
the Federal Constitution ; was a member of Con-
gress in 1793-5 ; and secretary of State of New
Jersey in i 795-1805.

Beatty, be'ti, John, American military offi-
cer : b. Sandusky, Ohio, 16 Sept. 1828. He fought
on the Union side in the Civil War, rising from
private to brigadier-general, and showing in-
trepid courage at Stone River, 1862-3. He was
a member of Congress in 1868-74, and Republi-
can presidential elector-at-large in 1884. He has
written 'The Citizen Soldier; or. Memoirs of
a Volunteer' (1876); 'The Belle o' Becket's
Lane' (1882).

Beau Brummel. See Brummel, George
Bryan.

Beaucaire, Monsieur, the principal figure
in a story of the same name by Booth Tarking-
ton (1900), drarnatized 1901. Beaucaire is a
French prince living incognito in the fashion-
able society of Bath, England, nea'r the end
of the 18th century.

Beaucaire, b5-kar, a small, well-built,
commercial city of France, in the department of
the Card, on the Rhone opposite Tarascon, with
which it communicates by a fine suspension-
bridge, at the commencement of the Beaucaire
and Aigues-Mortes Canal, and connected with
several lines of railway. It has a commodious
harbor for vessels which come up from the
Mediterranean, seven leagues distant, consider-
able commerce and some manufactures ; but is
chiefly famous for its great fair (founded in
1217, by Raymond II., Count of Toulouse), held
yearly from 21 to 28 July. Merchants from
all parts of Europe, and even from the coast of
Africa, attend with their goods ; and almost
every kind of article, however rare, is to be
purchased here ; though silks, woolens, printed
cottons, leather, wool, wine, brandy, olive-oil,
and fruits, are the chief objects of sale. Pop.
(1890) 9,020.

Beauchamp, b5-shan, Alphonse de, French
historian and publicist: b. Monaco, 1767; d.
Paris, I June 1832. Under the Directory he had
the surveillance of the press, a position which
supplied him with materials for his 'History of
La Vendee' (1806). He contributed to the
'Moniteur' and the 'Gazette de France.' Among
his chief works are the 'History of the Conquest
of Peru' (1807) ; the 'History of Brazil'
(1815) ; and the 'Life of Louis XVIII. ' (1821) ;
'Life of Julius Caesar' (1821). The 'Memoirs
of Fouche' is also with reason ascribed to him.

Beauchamp, bech'am, William Martin,

American clergyman and author : b. Coldenham,
N. Y., 25 March 1830. Ordained to the Prot-
estant Episcopal ministry in 1863, he filled rec-
torships at Northville, N. Y., 1863-5, and Bald-
winsville, N. Y., 1865-1900. He has published
'The Iroquois Trail; or Foot Prints of the Six
Nations' (1892) ; 'Indian Names in New York'
(1893) ; and a valuable series of archseological
studies published as Bulletins of the New York
State Museum, namely, 'Aboriginal Chipped
Stone Implements of New York' (1897) ; 'Pol-
ished Stone Articles used by the New York
Aborigines' (1897) ; 'Earthenware of the New
York Aborigines' (1898) ; 'Aboriginal Occupa-
tion of New York' (1900) ; 'Horn and Bone
Implements of the New York Indians' (1902) ;
'Metallic Bone Implements of the New York
Indians' (1902).

Beauclerk, bo'klark, Topham, one of Dr.

Johnson's favorite friends: b. December 1739;
d. II March 1780. He was the only son of
Lord Sidney Beauclerk, third son of the first
Duke of St. Albans, and in general appearance
much resembled his great-grandfather, Charles
II. He studied at Oxford, and his conversa-
tional talents so much charmed Johnson that
when "The Club" was founded, in 1763, he
was one of the nine members who originally
formed it. When he went to Italy, in 1762,
Johnson wrote to his friend Baretti, warmly
commending Beauclerk to his kindness. In
1765 he accompanied Johnson on a visit to Cam-
bridge. A short time before his death, Johnson
said of him : "He is always ready to talk,
and is never exhausted" ; and when communicat-
ing his death to Boswell, he said : "His wit
and his folly, his acuteness and maliciousness,
his merriment and reasoning, are now over.
Such another will not often be found among
mankind."

BEAUFORT — BEAUHARNAIS

Beaufort, bo-for, Frangois de Vendome

(Due de), French naval officer, grandson of
Henry IV.: b. Paris, January 1616; d. 25 June
1669. He is peculiarly known by the conspicu-
ous part he took in the civil war of the Fronde.
On the accession of Louis XIV.. the queen-
regent treated him very favorably, but was soon
dissatisfied with his impertinent manners. Her
displeasure threw him on the side of the mal-
contents, and he became one of the leaders of
the Frondeurs. He was extremely popular with
the Parisians, and was consequently called le
roi des Italics, and he exercised a powerful
influence on the common people against Car-
dinal Mazarin, who was twice driven out of
France. In 1664 and 1665 he successfully led
attacks against the corsairs of Africa ; in 1666
was at the head of the fleet which was to join
the Dutch to make war against England ; lastly,
in 1669 he went to the assistance of the Vene-
tians, then besieged by the Turks in the island
of Candia ; fought bravely and was killed in a
sally.

Beaufort, bu'fert, or bo'fert, Henry, Eng-
lish cardinal, natural son of John of Gaunt, and
half-brother of Henry IV., king of England ;
d. Winchester, 11 April 1447. He became bishop
of Lincoln, 1398, whence he was translated to
Winchester, and in 1403 was made chancellor.
In 1426 he received a cardinal's hat, and was
appointed legate in Germany. In 143 1 he
crowned Henry VI. in Paris. Shakespeare de-
picts him in his 'Henry VI.,^ but it is ques-
tionable whether the likeness is true to history.

Beaufort, Margaret, English countess: b.

^ 1441 ; d. 1509. She was daughter of John, first
Duke of Somerset, and mother of Henry VII.,
king of England. She was three times married,

- namely, to Edward Tudor, Earl of Richmond,
in 1455 ; Henry Stafford, son of the Duke of
Buckingham, and to Lord Stanley, a minister
of Edward IV. In the Wars of the Roses, she
and her son Henry became more or less danger-
ous to the Yorkists and were for a long time in
retirement or exile.

Beautort, bu'fert, N. C, city, port of entry
and county-seat of Carteret County, at the
mouth of Newport River, 167 miles east of
Raleigh. The harbor here is the finest in the
State. At Cape Lookout, 11 miles to the south-
east, is a lighthouse 156 feet high. Pop. (1900)
2,195.

Beaufort, S. C, a town and county-seat
of Beaufort County; on the Port Royal River,
and the Charleston & W. C. R.R. ; 15 miles
from the ocean and 80 miles southwest of
Charleston. It is midway between Charleston
and Savannah ; has an excellent harbor, and
is the centre of the phosphate trade of the
State. It was founded in 171 1, and for many
years prior to the Civil War was a noted health
and pleasure resort, especially for the cotton
planters interested in the plantations on the

■ adjoining Sea Islands. It is still a popular sum-
mer and winter resort, principally engaged in
phosphate mining, and with large exports of
cotton, yellow pine and cypress lumber, rice,
and sweet potatoes. In the fiscal year ending 30
June 1900, the imports of merchandise here ag-
gregated in value $81,042, and the exports,
$181,908. Pop. (1900) 4,110.

Beaufort Scale, an instrument for measur-
ing the apparent force of the wind, so called

from Admiral Beaufort who introduced it into
the English navy about 1805. It is now in
common use among navigators. Twelve num-
bers are embraced in the scale.

Beaugency, bo-zhoh-se, a town of France,
in the department Loiret, 16 miles southwest of
Orleans, on the side of a hill, above the Loire,
here crossed by a stone bridge of 26 arches.
The town was formerly surrounded by a wall
flanked by towers and bastions, parts of which
still remain. The square donjon tower of Beau-
gency, 115 feet high, is a remarkable structure
of high antiquity, probably of the loth or nth
century, though the e.xact date of its erection
is unknown. The articles manufactured here
are principally cloth and leather. There are also
some distilleries and a considerable trade in
wine. In the Franco-German war Gen. Chanzy
was defeated here by the Grand-Duke of Meck-
lenburg on 7 and 8 Dec. 1870. Pop. (1896)
3.305-

Beaugrand, bo-graii, Honore, Canadian
journalist: b. Lanoraie, P. Q., 24 March 1849.
In 1865 he joined the French army in Mexico
under Marshal Bazaine, and, after the failure
to establish Maximilian as emperor, accompanied
the army to France. In 1867 he went to New
Orleans, where he engaged in newspaper work.
He served subsequently as a journalist in Bos-
ton and St. Louis, and, returning to Canada,
founded La Patrie in Montreal in 1879, as an
organ of the French Liberal Party. He sold
this paper in 1897. In 1887 he established a
paper in the English language, the Montreal
Daily News. He was mayor of Montreal
1885-7, and a delegate from Montreal to the
Congress of the World's Chambers of Com-
merce in London in 1896. His publications in-
clude 'Melanges; Trois Conferences^ (1888);
*Lettres de Voyage^ (1889) ; and a novel,
'Jeanne la Fileuse.^ He was decorated with
the Cross of the Legion of Honor in 1885, and
became commander of that order in 1889. He
is also an officer of the Academy of France;
a commander of the Order of Nicham Iftikar
of Tunis, etc.

Beauharnaus, bo-ar-na, Alexandre (Vis-
count de), French soldier: b. Island of Marti-
nique, 1760; d. Paris, 23 July 1794. He served
with distinction as major in the French forces
under Rochambeau which aided the United States
in their Revolutionary War, and married Jo-
sephine Tascher de la Pagerie. afterward the
wife of Napoleon. At the breaking out of the
French Revolution he was chosen a member of
the National Assembly, of which he was for
some time president, and which he opened, after
the king's departure, with the following words :
^'^Messicurs, le roi est parti cette nuit: passons
a I'ordrc du jour?'' In 1792 he was general
of the army of the Rhine, but retired in 1793,
in consequence of the decree removing men
of noble birth from the army. He was falsely
accused of having promoted the surrender of
Mainz, was sentenced to death, and guillotined.
His children, Eugene and Hortense, were adopt-
ed by Napoleon on the latter's marriage to
Beauharnais's widow,

Beauharnais, Eugene de, French general:
b. 3 Sept. 1781 ; d. Munich, 21 Feb. 1824. He
was the son of Alexandre Beauharnais, who
was guillotined in 1794, and Josephine Tascher
de la Pagerie, afterward wife of Napoleon and

BEAUHARNAIS — BEAUMARCHAIS

Empress of France. During the French Revo-
lution Eugene entered the mihtary service, and
after his father's death joined Hoche in La
Vendee, and subsequently studied for a time in
Paris. In 1796 Josephine was married to Napo-
leon Bonaparte, then commander-in-chief of the
army of Italy, and Eugene accompanied the
great warrior in his campaigns in Italy and
Egypt. In 1805 he was created a prince of France
and viceroy of Italy, and after the peace of 13
Jan. 1806, married the Princess Augusta Amelia
of Bavaria. In 1807 Napoleon made him Prince
of Venice, and declared him his heir to the
kingdom of Italy. He administered the govern-
ment of Italy with great prudence and modera-
tion, and was much beloved by his subjects. He
conducted himself with great prudence on the
occasion of the divorce of Napoleon from his
mother. In the disastrous retreat from Moscow
he did not desert the wrecks of his division
for a moment, but shared its toils and dangers
with the soldiers, and encouraged them by his
example. To him and to Ney France was in-
debted for the preservation of the remains of
her army during that fatal retreat. On the de-
parture of Napoleon and Murat he was left in
the chief command, and showed great talent at
that dangerous conjuncture, and at the battle of
Liitzen, 2 May 1813, by surrounding the right
wing of the enemy, he decided the fate of the
day. Napoleon sent him from Dresden to the
defense of Italy, and after the fall of Napoleon
he concluded an armistice with Count Belle-
garde, by which he delivered Lombardy and all
upper Italy to the Austrian s. Eugene then went
immediately to Paris, and thence to his father-
in-law at Munich. He was at the Congress of
Vienna. On the return of Napoleon from Elba
he was obliged to leave Vienna and retire to
Baireuth. By an ordinance of the king of Ba-
varia, his father-in-law, he was created Duke of
Leuchtenberg, November 181 7. The Bavarian
principality of Eichstadt was bestowed upon him,
and his posterity declared capable of inheriting
in case of the failure of the Bavarian line.
Prince Eugene, under a simple exterior, con-
cealed a noble character and great talents.
Honor, integrity, humanity, and love of order and
justice were the principal traits of his character.
Wise in the council, undaunted in the field, and
moderate in the exercise of power, he never
appeared greater than in the midst of reverses.
See Aubriet, "^Vie Politique et Militaire d'Eu-
gene Beauharnais, Vice-roi d'ltalie.^

Beauharnais, Frangois (Marquis de). French
nobleman: b. La Rochelle, 12 Aug. 1756; d.
Paris, 10 Jan. 1819. He violently opposed the
motion of his younger brother, the Viscount
Alexandre, to take from the king the chief
command of the army, and would not listen to
any of the amendments proposed, saying, ^'^11
n'y a point d'amcndenicnt avcc I'honnenr?^ He
was called in consequence of this, Le feal Beau-
harnais sans Amcndcincnt. In 1792 he formed
the project of a new flight of the royal family ;
but the arrest of his companion, the Baron
Chambon, prevented the execution of the plan.
He was appointed major-general in the army
of the Prince of Conde, and wrote, in 1792,
to the president of the National Assembly, pro-
testing against their unlawful treatment of the
king, and offering to appear himself among his
defenders. When Bonaparte became first con-
sul, the marquis sent him a letter, in which

he exhorted him, by the glory which he would
gain by such a course, to restore the sceptre to
the house of Bourbon. Having at last recog-
nized the emperor he was sent by him as ambas-
sador to Florence and Madrid ; but having after-
ward fallen into disgrace he was banished.

Beauharnais, Hortense Eugenie, wnfe of
Louis Bonaparte, and queen of Holland : b.
Paris, 10 April 1783 ; d. Arenenberg, Switzer-
land, 3 Oct. 1837. She was the daughter of
x-\lexandre Beauharnais and Josephine, after-
ward wife of Napoleon. She was to have mar-
ried Desaix; but on 7 Jan. 1802, in compliance
with the wish of Napoleon, became the wife of
Louis, who also gave up a former attachment
for the marriage. The union was not happy;
and Hortense returned to Paris, and lived a
dissolute life there apart from her husband.
Prominent among her lovers was the Comte de
Flahaut, for whom she composed her popular
air, '^Partant pour la Syric/'^ as he was leaving
Paris for Germany, and Admiral Veruel, a
Dutch naval officer. The former is believed to
have been the father of M. de Morny, universally
recognized as the illegitimate half-brother of
Napoleon III., whom he greatly aided in becom-
ing emperor ; and to the latter is attributed the
paternity of Napoleon III. himself. It is known
that Louis Bonaparte had a warm dispute with
his brother, the emperor, touching this child,
which he averred to be none of his, and that
his unwillingness to recognize it as such was
only overcome by the most decided measures on
the part of Napoleon. After the separation of
Napoleon and Josephine, Hortense remained on
intimate terms with the former. When the
Bourbons came back in 1814, she alone of all
the Bonaparte family remained in Paris. After
the Hundred Days, she lived in Augsburg, in
Italy, and in Switzerland, devoted to her sons,
and greatly beloved by the people with whom
she came in contact, who found her a kind
and gentle benefactress. When her sons had to
flee, after participating in an unsuccessful at-
tempt at revolution, in Italy, in 1831, she went
for a time to Paris, and was kindly received
bj' Louis Philippe. She possessed much literary,
as well as social talent.

Beaulieu, bo-lye, Jean Pierre, Austrian
military officer: b. Namur, 26 Oct. 1725; d.
near Linz, Austria, 22 Dec. 1819. He served in
the Seven Years' war; was promoted a major-
general for his successful operations against
the Belgian insurgents in 1789; commanded at
Jemappes in 1792; was defeated by Napoleon,
in 1796, while commander-in-chief of the forces
in Italy, in the battles of Montenotte, Millesimo,
Montesano, Mondovi, and Lodi.

Beaulieu, bu'li, a village in Hampshire,
England, six miles southwest of Southampton.
It contains the remains of an abbey founded
by King John and much visited by students
of mediaeval architecture. Within the limits of
Beaulieu Manor exemption from arrest for debt
was enjoyed till very recent years.

Beaumarchais, bo-mar-sha, Pierre Augus-
tin Caron de, French dramatist: b. Paris,
1732 ; d. May 1799. He was the son of a watch-
maker, who destined him for his trade, and
early gave striking proofs of his mechanical and
also of his musical talents. He was afterward
the teacher of the harp to the daughters of
Louis XV., and was admitted into their society.

BEAUMARIS — BEAUMONT

By a rich marriage he laid the foundation of
the immense weahh which he afterward accumu-
lated by his speculations, and which was also
increased by a second marriage. In the mean-
time he occupied himself with literature and
published the dramas of * Eugenie' (1767), and
<Les Deux Amis^ (1770). The first still holds
its place on the stage. He showed all his talents
in his lawsuit against Goezman and Lablache,
when he wrote against the former (who be-
longed to the parlcnient Maupeou, so called,
which was engaged in a dispute with the minis-
try) his celebrated ^Memoires^ (1774), which
entertained all France. The fame of his
<Memoires> alarmed even Voltaire, who was
jealous of every kind of glorj-. ^The Barber of
Seville' (1775) and the ^Marriage of Figaro'
(1784) have given him a permanent reputation.
In 1792 he wrote ^La Mere Coupable,' but
never regained his former fame. His last work
was <Mes Six Epoques,' in which he relates
the dangers to which he was exposed in a revo-
lution in which a celebrated name, talent, and
riches, were sufficient causes of proscription.
He still possessed, at the age of more than 60,
all the vigor of his youth, but was afflicted with
deafness. He lost about 1.000,000 livres by his
famous edition of the works of Voltaire (1785),
and still more at the end of 1792 by his attempt
to provide the French army with 60,000 mus-
kets. In 1809 an edition of his works appeared
in seven volumes ; a later edition in one volume
came out in 1835. Beaumarchais was a singular
instance of versatility of talent, being at once
an artist, politician, projector, merchant, and
dramatist. He was passionately fond of celeb-
rity. His 'Marriage of Figaro' excited one of
those extraordinary sensations for which Paris
has always been remarkable. The English mod-
ifications and versions of this comedy convey
but a slight notion of the mischievous subtlety
and deep spirit of intrigue in the original.
See Lomenie, 'Beaumarchais et son temps' ;
'Beaumarchais et ses oeuvres' ("1887); 'Histoire
de Beaumarchais' ('1886) ; Lescure, 'Eloge de
Beaumarchais' (1887) ; Bonnefou. 'Etude sur
Beaumarchais' (1887) ; Hallavs' 'Beaumarchais^
C1897).

Beaumaris, bo-mar'is, a seaport town of
North Wales, Isle of Anglesey. It is situated
on the west shore of the Menai Strait, near its
junction with the Irish Sea, where it expands
into a good roadstead called Beaumaris Bay.
It consists of several well-paved streets ; hovises
in general, good, particularly in the principal
street, terminated bv the ancient castle of Beau-
maris, erected by Edward I. ; while many mod-
ern dwellings of very handsome aonearance
have lately been erected. The chief public build-
ines, exclusive of the churches, are the town-
hall, a commodious and handsome edifice, the
county-hall, the grammar-school, police office,
and public libran,-. The chief place of worship
is the Church of St. Mary, a spacious and ele-
gant structure in the later style of Enrrlish archi-
tecture, with a lofty, square, embattled tower ;
and several chapels. The harbor is safe and
commodious, and may be entered at any state of
the tide. Beaumaris is now a favorite water-
ing-place. Pop. (1901) 2,310.

Beaumont. Francis, b. 1585; d. t6i6;
Fletcher. John. b. 1576; d. 1615 : English poets

and dramatists, well known for their work in
collaboration.

Francis Beaumont, third son of Sir Francis
Beaumont of Grace Dieu in Leicester, one of
the Justices of Common Pleas, was admitted
gentleman commoner at Broadgates Hall, Ox-
ford, in 1597, and was entered at the Inner
Temple, London, 3 Nov, 1600. He married Ur-
sula, daughter of Henry Isley of Sundridge,
Kent, probably in 1613, and left two daughters,
one a posthumous child. He was buried in
Westminster Abbey.

John Fletcher, son of Richard Fletcher,
Bishop of London, was entered as a pensioner
at Bene't College, Cambridge, 1591. His father,
as Dean of Peterborough, attended Mary Qu<-"en
of Scots at Fotheringay, and was later rapidly
promoted to the sees of Bristol, Worcester, and
London. He was a successful courtier and a
favorite of the queen, though he suffered a loss
of favor shortly before his death in 1596. The
dramatist received by bequest a share in his
father's books, but apparently little other prop-
erty. He was buried 29 Aug. 1625, in Saint
Saviour's, Southwark.

Although the biographical details of the
friendship_ and collaboration of the two dram-
atists are involved in uncertainty, it seems prob-
able that Fletcher began writing plays for the
London theatres as early as 1604-5, and that
his friendship with Beaumont was established
by 1607, when both prefixed commendatory
verses to Jonson's 'Volpone,' and 'The Woman
Hater,' probably by Beaumont alone, was pub-
lished. In 1612, in the address to the reader
prefixed to the 'White Devil,' Webster praises
"the no less worthy composures of the both
worthily excellent Master Beaumont and Master
Fletcher," ranking them on equal terms with
such scholars and experienced dramatists as
Chapman and Jonson, and apparently above
Shakespeare, Dekker, and Heywood. Before
1612, the reputation of Beaumont and Fletcher
as dramatists must have been well established.

By 1612, indeed, the work of their collabora-
tion was accomplished, for there is no direct
evidence that Beaumont wrote anything for the
public stage after that date. The most famous
collaboration in the history of English litera-
ture, therefore, comprises only some half dozen
years. During this time the dramatists, we
are told, lived as brothers, sharing everything
in common ; and so intimate was their associa-
tion as writers that it is only recently that
criticism has been able to separate their shares
in the authorship of the plays with any degree
of probability. Fletcher's energies seem to have
been devoted exclusively to the theatre; but
Beaumont wrote verses to the Countess of Rut-
land, and elegies on the Lady Markham, Lady
Penelope Clifton, and the Countess of Rut-
land ; and also a masque for the Lady Eliza-
beth's marriage in 1613, performed with great
splendor by the gentlemen of the Inner Temple
and Gray's Inn. 'Salmacis and Hermaphro-
ditus,' 1602, may possibly have been written
by him ; it is so assigned in the entry of 1639
in the Stationer's Register. Eight plays may be
assigned to this period before 1612 with con=;id-
erable certainty, each being the result of collab-
oration except where the contrary is indicated:

BEAUMONT

*Tbe Woman Hater^ (by Beaumont alone) ;
<Tlie Knight of the Burning Pestle > (Beau-
mont) ; the ^Faithful Shepherdess^ (Fletcher) ;
<Philaster'; ^The Coxcomb^; <The Maid's
Tragedy* ; ^Cupid's Revenge* ; <A King and
No King.* Eight other plays may be assigned
before 1612 with more or less probability: *The
Woman's Prize* (Fletcher) ; *Wit at Several
Weapons* (first version) ; * Love's Cure* ;
^Thierry and Theodoret* ; ^Monsieur Thomas* ;
^Four Plays in One* ; ^The Scornful Lady* ;
^The Captain. >

The brief period of their collaboration came
at the climax of the astonishingly rapid and
varied development of the Elizabethan drama.
It was during these years that Jonson and
Shakespeare were at their greatest ; but a grow-
ing critical consciousness among the dramatists
themselves and an increasing patronage from
the court seemed to promise for the drama a
future even greater in achievement than its
past. Gentlemen by birth and breeding, at-
tached to the court rather than the people, Beau-
mont and Fletcher naturally joined with Jon-
son in viewing the plays of their predecessors
with critical, though doubtless appreciative
minds, and in seeking for a more cultivated
audience and a more critical art. Their atti-
tude toward the preceding drama is indicated
by their abandonment of several species long
popular but by this time falling under Jonson's
attacks. Beaumont and Fletcher in their col-
laboration made no use of the historical matter
of the chronicles or of the methods or specta-
cles of the chronicle play ; nor did they use the
story of blood vengeance, which had been pop-
ularized by Kyd in <The Spanish Tragedy,^
transformed by Shakespeare into ^Hamlet,*
and was still the prevailing type of tragedy.
Some of their earlier plays were experiments
that further attest their reforming attitude.
Beaumont's *^ Woman Hater* was a comedy in
Jonson's manner; and his ^Knight of the Burn-
ing Pestle,* written under the inspiration of
*Don Quixote,* was a burlesque on contempo-
rary plays of adventure. Fletcher's 'Faithful
Shepherdess* was an attempt to replace the
abortive pastorals of earlier playwrights by a
genuine and elaborate pastoral tragi-comed}' on
the model of ^11 Pastor Fido. * These plays
won the praise of the critical, but even the mani-
fest genius of the two latter was impotent to
avert the disapproval of a public unused to such
innovations.

Their other plays, though hardly less novel
in character, and affording full opportunity for
the authors' gifts of invention and language
succeeded in captivating the public. These suc-
cesses, the result of a constant attention to
theatrical effectiveness, comprised two distinct
classes of plays, the comedies and the heroic
romances, both immediately popular and both
of large influence on the later history of the
drama.

Their comedy has its resemblances and con-
nections with preceding drama ; but it is a dis-
tinct departure from Jonson's comedy of "hu-
mours," and it marks out a line of development
that led to the plays of the Restoration. A lively
plot, abounding in surprises, combines in a
love story the manners of the day and the ex-
citements of romance, an overflowing wit and
tio morals. Its full development belongs to

Fletcher's later years; 'The Scornful Lady*
is perhaps the best representative of the col-
laboration.

The romances, sometimes tragic and some-
times tragi-comic, also mark important innova-
tions. The period immediately preceding them
had been distinguished by Shakespeare's trage-
dies, the prevalence of realistic comedy, and
the absence of sentimental or romantic comedy
or tragi-comedy. The return to romance seems
to have been established by 'Philaster,* and
resulted in six plays that form the most dis-
tinctive product of the collaboration.

Other plays of the collaboration and many
later written by Fletcher might be grouped with
these; but the six plays, 'Four Plays in One,*
'Thierrj' and Theodoret,* 'Philaster,* 'The
Maid's Tragedy,* 'Cupid's Revenge,* <A King
and No King,* serve to define the type, and re-
fumble one another so closely in material, con-
struction, characterization, and style that a single
analysis will serve for all.

Their plots are usually original, and are
mgenious complications of suspense and sur-
prise. Like most preceding tragedies, they
deal with royal or noble persons, foreign local-
ities, and the plots and passions that convulse
kingdoms ; but there are no battles or proces-
sions, and the action is mainly confined to the
rooms of the palace or an adjoining forest. A
story of gross sensual passion is usually con-
trasted with one of idyllic sentiment ; and a
great variety of incidents are designed to keep
the interest at fever heat. A girl disguised as
a page is stabbed by the man whom she loves ;
a woman accused of adultery defies her ac-
cusers ; the hero is saved from the tyrant by a
timely insurrection — such idyllic or melodra-
matic material as this is skilfully constructed
into a number of telling theatrical situations,
leading through a series of surprises to start-
ling climaxes or catastrophes. In the ingenuity
of their structure even more than in the choice
of their material, the romances marked a de-
parture from preceding plays. Their dramatis
pcrsoiicB belong to the impossible and romantic
situations, and are usually of certain types,—
the sentimental or violent hero ; his faithful
friend, a blunt outspoken soldier ; the senti-
mental heroine, often disguised as a page that
she may save the hero ; the evil woman who
makes most of the trouble; and the poltroon,
usually a comic personage. With the addition
of a king, some persons of the court, and some
from the lower ranks, the cast is complete.
Even at their best such plays afford little that
is valuable in the revelation of character or the
criticism of life ; yet the masterpieces of the
class, 'Philaster* and 'The Maid's Tragedy,*
take almost if not quite the highest rank after
Shakespeare, because of the skill of their inven-
tion and the felicities and vigor of their poetry.

Both romances and comedies delighted their
own age. and the young authors were quickly
established among the poets of highest rank in
bcth critical and popular estimation. There is
evidence that their heroic plays suggested
Shakespeare's change from tragedy to romance,
and tliat 'Philaster* led somewhat directly to
'Cymbeline.* Certainly both comedies and ro-
mances were much imitated by dramatists of
the next 30 years. Their freedom in versifica-
tion, their emphasis on stage situation rather

BEAUMONT

than interpretation of character, their heedless-
ness of morahty, and their fondness for the
abnormal and sensational, all led to the deca-
dence of the drama ; but much of what is worthy
as well as what is unworthy in the drama of
the 17th century may be traced back to their
initiative. They were ranked above Shakespeare
and Jonson by their contemporaries, and their
plays remained the favorites of the theatre dur-
ing the Restoration. By the beginning of the
l8th century, pseudo-classicism brought them
into disrepute with the critics, and a chastened
stage condemned their immorality. During the
two centuries since they have never recovered
their position on the stage, but numerous edi-
tions of their plays testify to their continued
favor with the reading public.

After 1612 Fletcher continued for 13 years
to write plays with unabated energy, display-
ing even greater versatility of invention and wic
than when writing with Beaumont, but becom-
ing more addicted to his mannerisms and more
careless of moral decency. About 1613 he seems
to have collaborated with Shakespeare on
*Henry VIII. ^ and *The Two Noble Kinsmen, >
and the association with the great master
brought forth some of his finest passages. He
was, indeed, frequenth^ engaged in collaborating
with various authors, and especially with Mas-
singer. *The Queen of Corinth,* <The Double
Marriage,* *^The Laws of Candy,* "^The Little
French Lawyer,* *The False One,* ^The
Prophetess,* and ^The Spanish Curate* are
some of the plays most certainly to be ascribed
to this partnership, and most typical of the two
authors. Fletcher, however, did not require
collaboration for stimulus. In <Bonduca*
he produced one of the most vivid of our his-
torical tragedies; and in a series of romances
and comedies, of which ^The Little French
Lawyer,* *The Chances,* ^The Wild Goose
Chase,* and ^The Lo^'al Subject* are among
the best, he gave continued evidence of his ex-
traordinary fertility both as a playwright and
as a poet.

Most of the characteristics of these later
plays maj', however, be traced in the period of
Fletcher's collaboration with Beaumont ; and,
though modern criticism has denied to the latter
a share in the majority of the plays long pub-
lished under his name it is difficult to separate
the sentiments and opinions of the two friends
or to divide their contribution to the develop-
ment of the drama.

The following plays were printed separately,
many of them several times before 1647, wdien
the first collected edition appeared. The dates
are for the first editions. 'The Woman Hater,*
1607; ^The Faithful Shepherdess,* 1609 (?);
*The Knight of the Burning Pestle,* 1613 ;
^Cupid's Revenge,* 1615; <The Scornful Lady,*
1616; <The Maid's Tragedy,* 1619; <A King
and No King,* 1619; <PhiIaster,* 1620; 'Thierry
and Theodoret,* 1621 ; 'The Two Noble Kins-
men,* 1634; 'The Elder Brother,* 1637; 'Rollo,
or the Bloody Brother,* 1639; 'Monsieur
Thomas,* 1639; 'Wit Without Money,* 1639;
'The Coronation,* 1640; 'The Night Walker,*
1640; 'Rule a Wife and Have a« Wife,* 1640.
In 1647 appeared the first folio entitled, "Come-
dies and Tragedies written by Francis Beau-
mont and John Fletcher,** and containing the
following plays "never before printed** : 'The

Mad Lover,* 'The Spanish Curate,* 'The Lit-
tle French Lawyer,* 'The Custom of the Coun-
trj',* 'The Noble Gentleman,' 'The Captain,*
<The Beggar's Bush,* 'The Coxcomb,* 'The
False One,* 'The Chances,* 'The Loyal Sub-
ject,* 'The Laws of Candy,* 'The Lovers'
Progress,* 'The Island Princess,* 'The Hu-
morous Lieutenant,* 'The Nice Valour,* 'The
Maid in the Mill,* 'The Prophetess,* 'The
Tragedy of Bonduca.* 'The Sea Voyage,* 'The
Double Marriage,* 'The Pilgrim,' 'The Knight
of Malta,* 'The Woman's Prize,* 'Love's
Cure,' 'The Honest Man's Fortune,* 'The
Queen of Corinth,* 'Woman Pleased,* 'A Wife
for a Month,* 'Wit at Several Weapons,* 'The
Tragedy of Valentinian,* 'The Fair Maid of
the Inn,* 'Love's Pilgrimage,* 'Four Plays in
One,* 'The Mask of the Inner Temple' and
Gray's Inn.* In 1679 appeared the second
folio, containing all the plays of the 1647 folic
and the 17 previously published and also '"The
Wild Goose Chase' (4to 1652). 'The Faith-
ful Friends' and 'Sir John Van Olden Barna-
velt* remained in manuscript and were not
printed until the 19th century. With the ex-
ception of a few plays already noted as by
Beaumont alone, Fletcher seems to have had
at least a share in all of these plays and in
'Henry VIII.' See Drama; Elizabethan Lit-
erature — The Drama.

Bibliography. — Collective editions of Beau-
mont and Fletcher w^ere published in 1711 ;
1750, edited by Theobald, Seward, and Sym-
son, 10 vols.; 1778, 10 vols.; 1812, ed. Henry
Weber, 14 vols. ; 1843-6, ed. Alexander Dyce, I'l
vols. ; and there have been various reprints of
these editions. Dyce's edition has long re-
mained the standard, but there are now in
course of publication two editions of the com-
plete works ; one of which, vol. i. appeared in
1904 under the general editorship of A. H.
Bullen ; vol. i of the other in 1905, under the
editorship of A. R. Waller.

The most important of recent critical dis-
cussions are: 'Francis Beaumont, a Critical
Study,* by G. C. Macaulay (1883); 'The In-
fluence of Beaumont and Fletcher on Shakes-
peare* by A. H. Thorndike (1901); 'The
Chronicle of the English Drama,* by F. G.
Fleay (vol. i, pp. 164-229) ; and articles by
Robert Boyle in Englische Studicn (1881-1887),
and by E. F. Oliphant, Englische Studicn (1890-
92). Separate plays with critical introductions
and notes are published in 'Belles Lettres
Series* (Boston).

Ashley H. Thorndike,
Professor of English, Cohiuibia University.

Beaumont, Sir George Rowland, English
art patron: b. Dunmow, Essex, 6 Nov. 1735; d. 7
Feb. 1827. He possessed considerable skill as a
landscape painter, but was noted more especially
as a munificent patron of the arts. The estab-
lishment of the National Gallery was mainly
owing to his exertions, and 16 of its fine paint-
ings, chiefly landscapes, including one by N.
Poussin, three by Claude, and the 'Blind Fid-
dler* of Wilkie, were his gifts. Wordsworth
dedicated to him his 'Elegiac Musings* (1830).

Beaumont, bo-mon, Gustav Auguste de la
Bonniere de, French publicist : b. 16 Feb.

BEAUMONT

1802; d. Tours, 6 Feb. 1866. He early entered
upon the legal profession, and, in 1831, was sent
with De loqueville to study the penitentiary
system of the United States. He was elected
deputy in 1839, and, in 1848, vice-president of
the Constituent Assembly. He was subsequently
ambassador to London and Vienna. Beaumont
first became known as a writer by his publishing,
in conjunction with M. de Tocqueville, *Traite
du Systeme Penitentiaire aux Etats-Unis et de
son application a la France^ (1832). Among his
other works may be named, * Marie, ou I'Esclav-
age aux Etats-Unis^ (1835) — a work some-
what resembling ^ Uncle Tom's Cabin* ; and
^LTrlande sociale, politique, et religieuse*
(1839)-

Beaumont, bo'mont. Sir John, English
poet: b. Leicestershire, 1582; d. about 1627. He
was an elder brother of Francis Beaumont, the
dramatist, and studied at Broadgate Hall (now
Pembroke College), Oxford. In 1605 he suc-
ceeded to his father's estates on the death of
his elder brother. He began writing poetry at
a comparatively early age, and in 1602 published
anonymously a mock-heroic piece entitled *The
Metamorphosis of Tobacco.* He was created
a baronet in 1626. In 1629 his son. Sir John,
published a collection of his poems under the
title ^Bosworth Field, with a Taste of the Va-
riety of other Poems left by Sir John Beau-
mont'

Beaumont, Joseph, English poet : b. Had-
leigh, Suffolk, 13 March 1616; d. 23 Nov. 1699.
He was educated at Peterhouse College, Cam-
bridge, where he gained great distinction.
Elected a Fellow in 1636, he was ejected with
others in 1644 owing to royalist sympathies,
and while living in retirement wrote *^ Psyche,*
an epic poem (1648). On the restoration of the
monarchy he became a royal chaplain, and after
a brief term as master of Jesus College he was
appointed in 1663 master of Peterhouse. He
received the regius professorship of divinity at
Cambridge in 1674.

Beaumont, William, American surgeon : b.
Lebanon, Conn., 1785; d. St. Louis, 25 April
1853. He is principally noted for his discoveries
regarding the laws of digestion and for his
experim.ents upon the body of Alexis St. Mar-
tin. In 1822 Beaumont was stationed at Michil-
limackinac, Michigan. On 6 June, St. Martin, a
young man 18 years of age, in the service of the
American fur company, was accidentally shot,
receiving the whole charge of a musket in his
left side, from a distance of about one yard,
carrying with it portions of his clothing, and
fracturing two ribs, lacerating the lungs, and
entering the stomach. Notwithstanding the se-
verity of the wound, Beaumont undertook his
cure, and by careful and constant treatment and
attention, the following year found him enjoy-
ing good health with his former strength and
spirits. In 1825 Beaumont began a series of
experiments upon the stomach of St. Martin,
showing its operations, secretions, the action of
the gastric juices, etc.; these experiments he
was obliged to discontinue after a few months,
but renewed them at various intervals until his
death ; his patient during so many years pre-
senting the remarkable spectacle of a man en-
joying good health, appetite, and spirits, with

an aperture opening into his stomach two and a
half inches in circumference, through which
the whole action of the stomach might be ob-
served.

Beaumont, Texas, city and county-seat of
Jeflferson county : situated on the west bank of
the Neches River ; on the So. Pacific, Sabine,
and East Texas, Gulf, Colorado and Santa Fe,
Gulf and Interstate, Kansas City So., and Beau-
mont, Sour Lake and W. R.R.'s ; 80 miles north-
east of Houston and 22 miles distant from the
Gulf of Mexico.

Industries. — Beaumont is an important ship-
ping point; is at the head of tidewater naviga-
tion and has a number of important industries,
among which are oil refineries, rice mills, stove
and iron works and lumber. Oil was discov-
ered in the Beaumont fields in 1901, when there
was opened up a series of gushers, the most re-
markable in the history of the oil industry.
That oil was there had long been known and
several men had lost fortunes trying to get at
it, but it was not until the wells were sunk on
Spindle Top that success came. The structure
of Spindle Top appears to be that of a dome
with steep sides and rather flat summit. The
equipment of the refineries, the pipe lines, and
transportation and storage facilities for this in-
dustry alone, represent an investment of over
$45,000,000. The lumber industry has assumed
great proportions, the city being the natural
headquarters for this business and the annual
output now exceeds 360,000,000 feet of yellow
pine. The cultivation of rice was begun some
years ago; the belt extending along the coast of
Louisiana and Texas produces more rice than
is consumed in this country; and the largest rice
mill in Texas is located at Beaumont.

Public Buildings, Banks, Churches, etc. —
Among the most notable public buildings are
the new Federal Court-house and Post-ofifice,
costing over $200,000, the Jefferson County
Court-house, city hall. Y. M. C. A. building,
and the Sisters Hospital. Religious services are
held in churches representing nearly all de-
nominations. A theatre has been erected at a
cost of about $100,000. There are four banks
with a combined capital of $600,000 and doing
an annual business of $25,000,000.

Educational Institutions and Public Works.
— For the public education there are a fine new
high school with manual training department
and several ward schools. Bell Austin Institute
is located there. About 20 miles of street are
paved with brick and shell ; a complete sewerage
system has been installed ; a new waterworks
system has been completed at a cost of over
$300,000; and there are well appointed fire and
police departments.

History, Government, and Pof^ulation. — Beau-
mont was first settled in 1836. being plotted by
John Grisby, Joseph Pulsifer, Henry Millard,
and Thomas B. Huling. It was incorporated
under the general law in 1881 and granted a
special charter in 1889, the affairs of the com-
munity now being administered by a mayor and
council of six members, elected biennially.
About 80 per cent of the population are white,
the remainder negroes. Pop. (1900) 9,427;
(1905) about 25,000. Death rate 13.4.

H. G. Sp.\ulding.
Secretary Chamber of Coninicrce.

GENERAL P. G. T. BEAUREGARD.

BEAUNE — BEAUVAIS

Beaune, bon, Florimond de, French mathe-
matician : b. Blois, 1601 ; d. there, 1652. He
materially developed the Descartes method in
geometry and was the first to treat systemat-
ically the question of superior roots of numerical
equations. What is styled "Beaune's Problem,"
solved only by Jean Bernouilli, depends on the
determination of a curved line from the prop-
erty of its tangent. He was the first to treat in
a systematic way superior and inferior roots of
numerical equations.

Beaune, a town of France, in the depart-
ment Cote d'Or, 23 miles south-southwest of
Dijon. As early as the 7th century it was a
fortress under the name of Belna. It is sur-
rounded with planted ramparts, which furnish
a pleasant promenade ; is well built, and has a
notable Church of Notre Dame, dating from
tne I2th centur}'. and a large hospital, founded
in 1443 by Nicholas Rollin, chancellor of Philip
the Good, Duke of Burgundy. Beaune has also
a public library containing about 50,000 volumes
with 500 manuscripts, a very fine public garden,
a theatre, etc. The trade is chiefly in Burgundy
wines, to one of which the town gives its name,
and in agricultural produce. The manufactures
include woolen cloth, cutlery and leather. There
is a statue erected in 1849, to the celebrated
mathematician Monge, who was born there.
Pop. (1896) 11,808.

Beauregard, bo're-gard, Pierre Gustave
Toutant, American Confederate general : b.
New Orleans, 28 May 1818; d. there, 20 Feb.
1893. After studying military science at West
Point he joined the artillery, but was after-
ward transferred to the engineers. In the Mexi-
can war of 1846-7 he distinguished himself, and
was promoted major. On the outbreak of the
Civil War he resigned in order to enter the
Confederate army, and was placed in command
of the city of Charleston, South Carolina. On
12 April 1861 he reduced Fort Sumter, and later
in the same year led the Confederates to victory
in the battle of Bull Run. At the battle of
Shiloh in the following year he assumed the
command on the death of Gen. A. S. Johnston,
but though very successful on the first day he
was ultimately compelled to retreat to Corinth,
Miss., which he had to evacuate shortly after-
ward. From September 1862, till April 1864,
he defended Charleston against the siege opera-
tions of Gen. Gillmore and Admirals Dupont
and Dahlgren. In October 1864, became com-
mander of the military division of the West,
in which capacity he strove without success
to resist Sherman's victorious advance, and in
April 1865 he and J. E. Johnston surrendered.
He was afterward a railroad director, adjutant-
general of Louisiana, and manager of the Lou-
isiana State Lottery. In 1866 the chief command
of the Rumanian army was tendered him,
and in 1869 that of the army of the khedive of
Egypt, both of which he declined. He published
^The Principles and Maxims of the Art of
War' (1863). and * Report of the Defense of
Charleston' (1864).

Beaurepaire-Rohan, bo-r'-par-ro-an, Hen-
riques de, Brazilian geographer of French
extraction : b. province of Piauhy, about 1818 ;
d. 1894. He traveled extensively in the region
south of Rio de Janeiro, publishing the results
of his tour in a volume called ^Descripgao de
uma viagem de Cuyaba' ao Rio de Janeiro'

(1846). The Brazilian government subsequently
employed him to gather statistics relating to the
interior provinces, and he was at one time lieu-
tenant-general in the Brazilian army. His Etu-
dios acerca da organizgao da Carta geographica
e da historia physica e politica do Brazil' (1877)
is a work of great importance.

Beausobre, bo-s6br, Isaac de, French
Protestant historian: b. Niort in France, 1659;
d. Berlin, 1738. He was at first intended for the
law, but his own inclinations were decidedly in
favor of the Church ; and in 1683 he became
Protestant minister of Chatillon-sur-Indre. In
the persecuting spirit of the time the Church
had been closed by fixing the royal seal upon
the gate. Beausobre held special services in
his own house, and being for this reason obliged
to flee, sought an asylum at Rotterdam. Shortly
after he became chaplain to the Princess of
Anhalt at Dessau, which he quitted in 1694,
when he became minister to French Protestants
at Berlin. He enjoyed much of the favor both
of Frederick William I. and of the crown-
prince, afterward Frederick the Great. His most
remarkable work is the ^Histoire Critique de
Manichee et du Manicheisme' (1734) ; and he
also wrote ^Histoire de la Reformation'
(1785-6).

Beautiful Snow, a popular poem first pub-
lished in * Harper's Weekly' in 1858. Its au-
thorship has had various claimants but has
been definitely assigned to John W. Watson.

Beauty and the Beast, an ancient story
very evidently a myth of the Sun and the Dawn.
In all the variants the hero and the heroine
cannot behold each other without misfortune.
One of the earliest forms of the story is the
Vedic myth of ^Urvasi and Puriiravas.' An-
other is the Sanskrit Bheki, who marries on con-
dition she shall never see water ; thus typifying
the dawn, vanishing in the clouds of sunset.
In Greek myths we find a resemblance in some
features of "^Orpheus and Eurydice' ; and the
name of Orpheus in its Sanskrit form of Arbhu,
meaning the sun. hints quite plainly at a solar
origin of this cj'cle of tales. A more marked
likeness exists in the myth of Eros and Psyche
by Apuleius, and in the Scandinavian tale of
the ^Land East of the Sun and West of the
Moon,' related by ]\Iorris in <The Earthly Para-
dise.' More or less striking parallels are seen
in the Celtic ^Battle of the Birds' ; in the 'Soar-
ing Lark,' by Grimm; in the Kaffir 'Stor\' of
Five Heads' : in Gaelic, Sicilian, and Bengal
folk-lore ; and even in as remote a quarter as
Chile. The tale is told in Straparola's *Piace-
voli notti' (1550) ; in Madame Villeneuve's
'Contes Marines' (1740), and is the basis of
Gretry''s opera, 'Zemise et Azor.'

Beauty. See Esthetics ; Art.

Beauvais, bo-va (ancient Bratuspantium,
Bellovacum), a town of France, capital of the
department of Oise, 54 miles north of Paris. It
stands in a rich valley enclosed by wooded hills,
at the confluence of the Avelon with the The-
rain ; and though poorly built, derives great
interest from its antiquity. It existed in the
time of the Romans, and in 1472 resisted an
army of 80.000 Burgundians under Charles
the Bold. The principal edifice is the unfinished
cathedral of Saint Pierre, consisting of choir
and transept. It has the loftiest stone vault in
the world, and beautifully painted glass, exe-

BEAUVOIS — BEAVER

cuted by the most celebrated masters of the art.
The choir was built in 1225-72. The town-house
is the finest modern structure. The principal
manufacturing establishment is the Gobelins
branch tapestry and carpet manufactory, famed
for the beauty of its products, and employing
about 400 hands; and there are also manufac-
tures of woolens, buttons, brushes, gold and sil-
ver lace, etc. It has also large bleachfields, tan-
neries, and dyeworks. Beauvais is the seat of
a bishop, and had a population in 1896 of
16,371-

Beauvois, bo-vwa, Ambrose Joseph Pali-
sot de, French naturalist: b. Arras, 1752; d.
1820. He visited Africa, the West Indies, and
America, in connection with his favorite pur-
suits in natural history, and was rewarded by
the discovery of the jaws and molar teeth of the
great mastodon, on the banks of the Ohio. He
afterward returned to France, and devoted the
remainder of his life to the arrangement and
publication of his collections. Comparatively
few of them had arrived in safety, but out of
the wreck he managed to procure materials for
the important publications on which his fame
chiefly rests. The most valuable is his ^ Flore
d'Oware et de Benin. ^ One of the most curious
plants contained in it has been named after him
Belvisia.

Beaux, bo, Cecilia, American artist: b.
in Philadelphia. She studied under William
Sartain, and at Paris. She has four times
gained the Mary Smith Prize of the Pennsyl-
vania Academy of Fine Arts, and has been
awarded the same academy's gold medal and
Temple gold medal. She has received similar
honors from the National Academy of Design,
the Philadelphia Art Club, Carnegie Institute,
and the Paris Exposition of 1900.

Beaux-arts, bo-zar, Academic des. See

Academy of Fine Arts, The.

Beaux' Stratagem, a well known comedy
by the English dramatist, George Farquhar
(q.v.).

Beaven, Thomas, American Roman Cath-
olic prelate : b. Springfield, Mass., 1849. He was
educated at the Jesuit colleges of Holy Cross,
Worcester, Mass., and Georgetown, D. C. After
holding pastorates at Spencer and Holyoke,
Mass., was consecrated Bishop of Springfield
in 1892.

Beaver, James Addams, American military
officer and statesman : b. Millerstown, Pa., 21
Oct. 1837. He was graduated at Jefferson Col-
lege, Canonsburg, Pa., in 1856 ; and for a time
practised law. He served in the Federal army,
1861-4 ; and was retired v-^ith the rank of briga-
dier-general of volunteers (22 Dec. 1864). He
then resumed the practice of law ; became major-
general of the Pennsylvania State militia ; was
defeated as Republican candidate for governor
in 1882; elected in 1887; president of the board
of trustees of the Pennsylvania State College ;
vice-moderator of the Presbj^erian General
Assem.bly in 1888 and 1895 ; and member of the
President's commission on investigation of the
War Department in 1898.

Beaver, Philip, English naval officer: b.
in Lewknor, Oxfordshire, England, 28 Feb.
1766; d. Table Bay, South Africa, 5 April 1813.
He served during the American Revolutionary
War in the royal navy. After the war he under-

took to establish an agricultural colony on
Bulama Island, on the west coast of Africa,
and in April 1792 left England with three ships
and 275 white colonists, expecting that the latter
would not only cultivate the soil, but would do
much toward civilizing the negroes. The
enterprise proved a failure and he returned to
England in 1794. Subsequently he distinguished
himself in the naval service.

Beaver, Pa., a borough and county-seat
of Beaver County, on the Ohio River, and the
Pennsylvania and the Pittsburg & L. E. RR.'s ;
28 miles northwest of Pittsburg. It has natural
gas, abundant water power, large coal and oil
shipping interests, a public park, national bank,
and daily and weekly newspapers, and is the
seat of Beaver College (Methodist Episcopal).
Pop. (1900) 2,348.

Beaver, a large aquatic rodent animal
of the northern part of the world, named by
Linnaeus, Castor fiber, and representing the
family Castoridcs. It is distinguished from its
nearest relatives, the marmots, not only by adap-
tation to an aquatic life, and the possession of
large, fully webbed hind feet, which form the
principal instrument for swimming, but especial-
ly by its extraordinary tail, which is exceedingly
broad and covered with a horny integument
resembling scales. A large beaver is about two
feet in length from the root of the tail to the
nose, and the tail will be nearly a foot long.
Such a one will weigh about 35 pounds. Its
flesh is edible, but not particularly good. The
fur is exceedingly close and fine, and when freed
from the long hairs that are scattered through
it and overlie the under coat, forms one of the
most valuable furs of commerce and one which
figured largely in the early history of North
America. It is owing, indeed, to the eagerness
with which men have sought for this valuable
commodity, going farther and farther into the
wilderness in search of the animal, that the
beaver has almost disappeared from large re-
gions where it was once numerous. Originally
it was widespread throughout Europe and north-
ern Asia, but became extinct in the British Is-
lands in the 12th century, and it remains else-
where in Europe only in a few of the wilder
streams of Norway and some of the tributaries
of the Rhone and the Danube, where it is under
roj'al protection. In some cases colonies of cap-
tives have re-established themselves in parks,
notably that of Lord Bute, in England. It still
exists, however, in eastern Siberia, whence a
large number of its skins are annually sent to
market.

When America was first entered by Euro-
peans, the beaver was found inhabiting almost '
all of the woodland streams of the whole '
northern continent, from the Arctic Circle down
to Central Mexico. Its temperament and man-
ner of life made it an easy prey, and prevented
it from adapting itself to changed conditions
as did its neighbor, the muskrat. It rapidly
disappeared, therefore, wherever civilization pro-
gressed or trapping was systematically carried
on, and now no beavers are to be found south of
the rivers that flow into Hudson Bay, except in
the northern parts of the Rocky Mountains and
in a few remote and scattered places like the
forests of Maine and the Lake Superior region,
where they are more or less protected by law.
A few survive, nevertheless, in the wild ranges

BEAVER

■of the southern Alleghenies and along the bor-
lers of Mexico. The principal use to which
6eaver fur was put was for the making of hats ;
and it is probable that had not the method of
tnaking hat-coverings from silk been discovered,
the animal would long ago have become extinct,
and also its South American substitute, the
coypu or nutria.

The life of the beaver is remarkably interest-
ing on account of the skilful structures by
which it keeps itself surrounded with a suffi-
cient depth of water, and so maintains access to
a continuous supply of food. The food of the
beaver consists mainly of the bark of hard-
wood trees, such as the maple, linden, birch,
•poplar, and the like. It never eats the bark of
the coniferous trees, and beavers are not found
living in forests composed entirely of coniferous
trees, nor are beavers able to live in a treeless
country. They are gregarious and dwell in
colonies, which in favorable circumstances, may
persist for centuries. From time to time a pair
of young beavers will wander away from such
a colony and seek a new place in which to start
afresh. They will choose a sluggish stream in
the woods, preferably where the ground is low
and level, and there will dig for themselves a
burrow in the bank, the entrance of which is
Sselow the surface of the water. The tunnel
will lead upward into the earth above the level
of high water, and there be enlarged into a
chamber in which will be placed a bedding of
grass, etc. They are likely to make an opening
from this chamber into the air, and, as if for
defense or concealment, will pile over this open-
ing a little heap of brush, in which perhaps may
be seen the germ of the architectural ability
which the species have so highly developed. It
is necessary to their scheme of life that the
water in the stream should never fall so low in
summer as to expose the entrance of the bur-
row ; moreover, it is necessary that this water
should be so deep that in winter the ice will not
freeze to the bottom, but that, on the contrary,
there shall remain room enough between the
ice and the bed of the creek for them to store
there a supply of winter food. In order to
maintain this requisite level of water the beav-
•ers throw a dam across the stream below their
settlement, holding the water back to a sufficient
height. For this purpose they choose a place
where the water is not more than 2^^ feet deep
and the bottom is firm, and beginning in the
centre of the channel they place there, length-
wise of the current, a number of long sticks
which they hold down by piling upon them mud
and stones, moved into place with their dex-
terous fore feet. They procure these roles by
cutting off small trees with their front teeth,
which are exceedingly large and strong and
are faced with' a hard yellow enamel. As the
back part of the tooth consists of softer material,
it wears away more rapidly, leaving the front
with a chisel-like edge, which is always sharp.
Standing on their hind feet, they gnaw round
and round the stem of a tree until it falls ; and
are able to cut down trees i8 inches in diameter,
"but this is only done in procuring their winter
supplies. From its foundation in the centre the
■dam is carried each way to the shore. As the
beavers increase in number and the young ones
grow up, they settle in the immediate neighbor-
liood until after a few years a considerable
colony will have arisen. During all this time

work progresses upon the dam, each beaver
gathering drift-wood, branches, and logs from
the shore, stones, mud, pieces of sod, and every-
thing available for the purpose, and working it
into the structure of the dam. The work is
carried on only at night and especially on
pleasant moonlight nights, when they seem to be
extremely busy from sunset till sunrise. There
is no superintendence, but each one possessed
with an instinct for industry, does whatever
seems to it best. The result is a mere tangled
heap, having a long slope and comparatively
tight surface on the upper side, which some-
times in a low, swampy region, will stretch for
several hundred feet and hold back a large
pond or morass, largely grown up to grass, but
having many channels running through it.
Meanwhile each family of beavers has erected
for itself upon the bank of the pond or upon
some islet adjacent to one of the channels, a
conical house or lodge, the interior of which
may be a room six or seven feet in breadth,
which has no opening into the air, but is entered
from beneath the water by two channels, one of
v/hich is commonly used, while the other forms
a means of escape in case of invasion by a mink
or some other aquatic enemy. These houses are
more solidly constructed than even the dam ;
and when frozen in winter are so thick and
strong that nothing less than a bear is able to
break into them. These houses are largest and
strongest in the cold northern regions. During
the summer beavers go ashore and obtain from
time to time such bark as they want for food,
and also feed largely upon the roots and stems
of the flags, lilies, and other water plants. In
winter, however, when the pond is covered with
ice and the banks with snow, the beavers would
be unable to obtain such food, and to escape
starvation are obliged to store in the autumn
a sufficient supply to last them through the
winter. They do this by felling large trees near
the water's edge and cutting them up into such
portions as they can manage to roll or drag into
the water. These are floated away and sunk at
the doors of their houses, where they are weight-
ed or stuck into the mud to prevent their floating
away, imtil a sufficient pile has been procured.
Piece by piece this store is taken into the house
during the winter, and, the bark having been
eaten off, the sticks are thrown out to be used
in the spring as material for repairing and ex-
tending the dam.

It will be apparent that a colony of beavers
would soon exhaust the supply of trees bearing
edible bark within reach of the shore of their
stream, unless they had some means of reach-
ing new and more distant supplies. In truth,
where the banks are steep, this soon happens,
and the beavers must then seek a new place.
Where the forest is low and level, however, they
w-ill excavate canals which are gradually ex-
tended farther and farther into the woods on
each side of the pond, and so enable themselves
to reach more and more fresh trees. In some
of the swampy forests about the headwaters of
the Mississippi which was perhaps the head-
quarters of beaver life in this country, these
canals have been known to extend several hun-
dred feet, and in such places colonies of beavers
have maintained an existence of more than 200
years. These channels are kept free from weeds
and of a proper depth ; and the most important
service which the dam renders is to maintain

BEAVER DAM — BEBEL

the right level of water in these canals, so
that they may always be used as the avenues of
the industrious community.

The American beaver seems to have carried
its architectural work to a higher degree of
perfection than the European beaver was ever
known to do, although in Siberia, where similar
climatic conditions prevail, and it is necessary
for them to erect houses impervious to the great
cold and to the attacks of marauding animals,
they come near to equaling their American
cousins. There is little record of such struc-
tures being made primitively in central Europe,
and the beavers now living in the streams of
Germany and Austria make few attempts at
either dams or houses, but are content to dwell
in their bank-burrows.

The substance called castoreum is obtained
from two glandular pouches in the beaver,
closely connected with the organs of reproduc-
tion, and probably of service in attracting the
sexes to one another in the rutting season. It
is a secretion having a powerful, peculiar, pun-
gent odor, and was formerly in demand for
medicinal purposes. At present its only use is
as a scent-bait for traps. Fossil remains of
beavers have been found as far back as the
middle of the Tertiary period. Fossils of small-
sized species, with some distinctive peculiarities,
occur in the Miocene rocks of the western
United States; and a huge beaver (Trogon-
therium) existed in Europe in the Pliocene age.

Beaver Dam, Wis., a city of Dodge
County, situated on Beaver Dam Creek, and on
the Chicago, M. & St. P. R.R. It is the seat
of Wayland Academy, has a library of 10,000
volumes and several parks. It is in an agricul-
tural district and has a considerable trade; it
is also well provided with water-power and has
numerous manufacturing interests, including
flour mills, iron works, machinery manufactures,
etc. Beaver Dam was settled in 1841 and in-
corporated in 1856. The revised charter of 1889
provides for a mayor and a city council, to be
elected biennially. Pop. (1900) 5,128.

Beaver Falls, Pa., a borough in Beaver
County, situated on the west bank of the Beaver
River, about four miles from its confluence with
the Ohio River, and seven miles north of Beaver,
the county-seat, and on branches of the Lake
Shore and Pennsylvania R.R.'s. The water-
power furnishes excellent facilities for manufac-
tories ; there is an abundant supply of coal and
natural gas, and the manufactures consist of iron
bridges, axes, saws, glassware, gas engines, and
steel products. There are four banks, a Car-
negie library, and a commodious post-office
building. Beaver Falls is also the seat of Ge-
neva College (Reformed Presbyterian). Re-
ligious services are held in 17 church edifices.
Beaver Falls was settled about 1800 by a few
families of pioneers, and was called Brighton
until 1868, when it was incorporated as a bor-
ough. The affairs of the community are admin-
istered by a burgess and council of 12 members
elected irregularly every three years. Until
1868 the town was only a small village, but in
that year the Harmony Society bought up nearly
the entire tract of land and laid it out into lots,
thus starting the growth in population, until it
now is the largest town in Beaver County. Pop.
(1900) 10,054.

Beaver Islands, a group of islands situated
in the north part of Lake Michigan in Charlevoix
County, and interesting as the scene of a short-
lived Mormon colony. The largest town, Saint
James, on Big Beaver Island, was settled in
1847 by James J. Strang, a Mormon elder, driven
away from the parent Mormon community
because his claims conflicted with those of Brig-
ham Young. In the little colony which he called
Saint James, after himself, Strang exercised
the authority of king and high priest, and was
implicitly obeyed. In 1849 he introduced polyg-
amy, which did not spread rapidly and led to
withdrawals and troubles with the ^'gentiles.*^
Strang was assassinated in 1856 and the colony
dispersed. There are several lighthouses on
the island. Pop. of Saint James (1900) 420; of
Peaine township, ^J"^-

Beaver State, a popular designation of
Oregon.

Beaverwood. See Magnolia.

Bebber, Wilhelm Jakob van, Prussian:
meteorologist and writer : b. Grietham-Nieder-
rhein, 10 July 1841. He was educated at Bonn
University and for several years was a teacher.
He became rector of the high school at Weis-
senburg-am-Sand in 1875. Since 1879 he has-
been chief of the weather telegraphing depart-
ment of the German Seewarte at Hamburg.
Among his works are a < Hand-book of Prac-
tical Meteorology > (1885-6), and a ^Manual of
Meteorology^ (1890).

Bebee'rine, an uncrystallizable basic sub-
stance, CiaHsiNOs, extracted from the bark
of the bebeeru or greenheart-tree (Nectandra
rodicei), of Guiana. In pharmacy, the sulphate
of bebeerine is a valuable medicine, being used,
like quinine, as a tonic and febrifuge. Unfor-
tunately, owing to the supplies of the bark be-
ing uncertain, the drug is sometimes scarce and
difficult to obtain. Bebeerine is thought, by
some chemists, to be identical with buxine.

Bebee'ru, a tree (Nectandra rodicei) of the
laurel family. See Greenheart.

Bebel, ba'bel, Ferdinand August, German

socialist : b. Cologne, 1840. He was apprenticed
to the turner's trade, and acquired a practical
knowledge of the difficulties and disabilities of
workingmen. He settled in Leipsic in i860,
joined various labor organizations, and became-
one of the editors of the Volkstaat and of
the better known Voruidrts. Membership in the
North German Reichstag was followed by
his election to the German Reichstag, of which
he was a member from 1871 to 1881, and which
he entered again in 1883, being the acknowledged
leader of his party therein. Bebel's earnest-
ness, large sympathy, and wide range of know-
ledge impress his hearers, although his appear-
ance and manner in the Reichstag did not at
first win them. These qualities are also charac-
teristic of his books, among which are: *^Our
Aims' (1874) ; *The German Peasant War*
(1876) ; 'The Life and Theories of Charles
Fourier' (1888) ; 'Women in Socialism, the
Christian Point of View in the Woman Ques-
tion' (1893).

Bebel, Heinrich, German humanist: b.
1472; d. 1518. He was an alumnus of Cracow
and Basel universities, and from 1497 professor

BEC — BECHSTEIN

•of poetry and rhetoric at Tubingen. His fame
rests principally on his *^Facetise' (1506), a curi-
ous collection of bits of homely and rather
<,oarse-grained humor and anecdote, directed
inainly against the clergy ; and on his ^Triumph
of Venus,-* a keen satire on the depravity of his
time.

Bee, a celebrated abbey of France, in Nor-
mandy, near Brionne, now represented only by
some ruins. Lanfranc and Anselm were both
connected with this abbey.

Beccafico, bek-a-fe'ko, the Italian name of
the small olive-brown garden-warbler (Sylvia
hortnisis), called in England "pettychaps,'^
which has the habit of pecking holes in the rind
of ripening figs and other fruits, in search of
small insects. The damage done is very slight.
These birds were eaten with much delight by
the ancient Romans, and are still in high favor
on Grecian, French, and Italian tables, especially
in Venice. An annual feast made on beccaficos
is called Beccaficata. The term is also applied
in continental Europe, rather indiscriminately,
to different kinds of sylvan warblers when fat
and in condition for the table.

Beccafumi, Domenico, bek-ka-foo'me, do'-
tna-ne'ko, surnamed Mecherino, Italian painter :
b. near Sienna, i486; d. Sienna, 1551. As
a shepherd boy amusing himself with drawing
figures on the sand, he attracted the attention of
a wealthy man, from whom he takes the name
of Beccafumi, who, discerning his genius, sent
him to Sienna to study drawing. He there saw,
admired, and tried to imitate the paintings of
Perugino, but having heard much of Raphael
and Michael Angelo, obtained means from his
patron to travel to Rome. After much study of
the masterpieces of the Vatican he returned to
Sienna and enriched its churches and its city
with many noble frescoes, and painted an altar-
piece in the museum there. He drew and col-
ored well, possessed strong inventive powers,
was thoroughly acquainted with perspective, and
excelled particularly in foreshortening, but he
was not free from mannerism, and his heads are
in general deficient in both dignity and beauty.
He was buried with pomp in Sienna cathedral,
among some of the finest monuments of his
genius. His paintings include: <St. Catherine
receiving the Stigmata^ (Sienna), *^ Madonna
and Child> (Berlin), 'Marriage of St. Cath-
erine' (Rome), etc. He also gained distinction
as a sculptor and engraver.

Beccaria, Cesare Bonesana, Marchese di,
bek-ka-re'a, cha'sa're bo-na-sa'na, mar-ka'se
de, Italian author: b. Milan, 1735 (or 1738) 5 d.
November 1794. He was early excited by Mon-
tesquieu's 'Persian Letters,' to the cultivation
of his philosophical talents, and was afterward
favorably known as a philosophical writer by
his noble philanthropic 'Crimes and Punish-
ments' (1764), and several other works. With
the eloquence of true feeling and a lively
imagination he opposes capital punishments and
torture. This work led to the establishment of
more correct principles of penal law, and con-
tributed to excite a general horror against
inhuman punishments. He is also known in
Italy as the author of a philosophical grammar
and theory of style, 'Ricerche intorno alia
Natura dello Stilo' (Milan 1770), and of sev-
eral good treatises on style, rhetorical orna-

ment, etc., contained in the journal 'II Caffe,*
edited by him in conjunction with his friends,
Visconti, Verri, and others. In 1768 a chair of
political philosophy was created for him at
Milan.

Beccaria, Giovanni Battista, jo-va'ne bat-
tes'ta, Italian philosopher: b. Mondovi, 1716; d.
27 April 1781. He went to Rome in 1732, where
he studied, and afterward taught grammar and
rhetoric ; at the same time applymg himself with
success to mathematics. He was appointed pro-
fessor of philosophy at Palermo, and afterward
at Rome. Charles Emanuel, king of Sardinia,
invited him to Turin in 1748, to fill the profes-
sorship of natural philosophy at the university
there. He paid much attention to the subject of
electricity, and published 'Natural and Artificial
Electricity* (Turin 1735), besides many other
valuable works on this subject. In 1759 the
king employed him to measure a degree of the
meridian in Piedmont.

Becerra, Gaspare, be-ther'ra, gas-pa'ro,
Spanish artist: b. Baeza, Andalusia, 1520; d.
Madrid, 1570. He studied for some time in
Rome under Michael Angelo and others, and on
his return became sculptor and painter to Philip
II. He adorned the palace of Madrid with sev-
eral frescoes, and also executed works in sculp-
ture and architecture.

Beche, bash. Sir Henry de la, English
geologist: b. 1796; d. 1855. He founded the
geological survey of Great Britain, which was
soon undertaken by the government, De la
Beche being appointed director-general. He
also founded the Jermyn Street Museum of
Economic or Practical Geology, and the School
of Mines. His principal works are: 'Geology
of Jamaica' ; 'Classification of European Rocks' ;
'Geological Manual' ; 'Researches in Theoreti-
cal Geology' ; 'Geology of Cornwall, Devon,
and West Somerset' ; etc.

Beche-de-Mer, bash-de-mar, the French
name for the dried flesh of holothurians. It is
largely cured in the South Sea Islands.

Becher, Johann Joachim, beH'er,^ yo'han
yo'a-Him, German chemist : b. Speyer, '1635 ; d.
1682. He traveled and resided in various parts
of Germany, Holland, Italy, Sweden, and Great
Britain, investigating Cornish and Scotch mines.
He wrote a number of works on chemistry, the
chief of which is entitled 'Physica Subterranea.'
In it he expounds his views on the composition
of inorganic bodies, the constituents of which,
according to him, are three earthy principles, the
vitrifiable, the combustible, and the mercurial.
The metals consist of these three earths in dif-
ferent proportions, and whenever a metal is
calcined the combustible and mercurial earths
are expelled, and the vitrifiable earth forms the
residual calx. When these principles are com-
bined with water different salts are formed, and
a fundamental acid, which exists in all the others.
This theory was subsequently developed by
Stahl, who, by means of the principle of
phlogiston (q.v.) explained not only the calci-
nation of metals, but the phenomena of combus-
tion in general.

Bechstein, Johann Matthaus, beH'stin, yo'-
han ma-ta'oos, German naturalist : b. Waltcr-
shausen, Gotha, 1757; d. 1822. He studied the-
ology for four years at Jena, but never felt in
his element unless hunting in the fields or roam-

BECHSTEIN — BECKE

ing the forest. After teaching for some time he
resolved to devote himself to his favorite pur-
suits, and in 1800 the Duke of Saxe-Meiningen
made him director of the Forest Academj^ of
Dreissigacker, in the vicinit}-^ of his capital. This
academy, under Bechstein's management, became
one of the most celebrated establishments of the
kind in Germany. His chief work is his ^Nat-
ural History of Germany,^ in four volumes. In
Great Britain he is best known by a treatise on
singing-birds.

Bechstein, Ludwig, loodViH, German poet
and novelist : b. 1801 ; d. i860. > He is chiefly
remembered for ^The Legend Treasure and
the Legendary Cycles of Thuringia^ (1835-8) ;
* German Fairy-Tale Book' (1845, 41st ed.
1893) ; and others. Among his epical poems are:
<The Children of Haymon' (1830) ; ^The
Dance of Death' (1831); <New Natural His-
tory of Pet Birds' (1846), a humorous didactic
poem; and ^Thuringia's Royal House' (1865).
Of his numerous novels, chiefly historical, the
best known is ^Journeys of a Musician'
(1836-7).

Bechuanaland, bet-choo-a'na-land, Africa,
an extensive British territory in the southern
part of the continent, so named from its chief
inhabitants, the widely spread race of people
called Bechuanas. It may be said to extend
from the Orange River on the south to the
Zambesi on the north, having the German terri-
tory on the west and the former South African
republic (Transvaal), etc., on the east. The
Bechuanas belong to the great Kaffir race, and
are divided into tribal sections, each of which
has a chief. Many of them live in villages or
towns, some of which are of considerable size.
They work with skill in iron, copper, and ivory,
and engage in husbandry, cattle-breeding, and
hunting. Bechuanaland is a portion of an ele-
vated plateau 4,000 to 5,000 feet above the level
of the sea, and though so near the tropics, is
suitable for the British race. In winter there
are sharp frosts, and snow falls in some years.
The rains fall in summer, and then only the
rivers are full. It is an excellent country for
cattle ; sheep thrive in some parts, and there
are extensive tracts available for corn lands;
but it is not a wheat country on account of the
summer rains. Though apparently subject to
droughts, it is not more so than Cape Colony,
and the greater portion will be available for
farming operations when the necessary dams
have been constructed. It can be reached from
Cape Town, Fort Elizabeth, Durban, Delagoa
Bay, and the Zambesi, the railway from the
former being extended to Kimberley, Vryburg,
Mafeking, Palachwe, Tati, and Buluwayo. There
are extensive forests to the northeast, and to
the west lies the Kalahari desert, which only
requires wells dug to make it inhabitable.

The enormous quantities of buck which roam
over the land attest the productiveness of the
soil. Gold has been found near Sitlagoli, and
there are indications of gold-bearing quartz
reefs in many directions. Diamondiferous soil
is also said to exist in several localities ; indeed,
diamonds were discovered at Vryburg in the
autumn of 1887.

The province of Stellaland is principally
inhabited by Boers, and the remainder of the
country by Bechuanas. The Bechuanas are a
black race possessing a language in common

with the Bantu races of South Africa, extend-
ing as far north as the equator. Their ancestors-
are said to have come from the north, and pro-
gressing southwest, met the Hottentots from
the Cape of Good Hope journeying north. The
Bechuanas have divided up within the last 15&
years, and comprise the Bahurutse, Bamang-
wato, Bakwena, Bangwaketse, Barolongs, Bat-
lapins, and Batlaros. Each tribe has an animal
as an emblem, or heraldic sign, which it is said
they hold in esteem. Since 1832 they have been
at enmity with the Matabele, and in later years
the Transvaal Boers have on one pretext or
another endeavored to occupy their country.
During the native risings in 1878 the Bechuanas
invaded Griqualand West, and were in turn
subdued by British volunteers as far as the
Molopo. When the British government with-
drew from Bechuanaland in 1880, the natives,
being helpless, were left to the mercy of the
Boers of the Transvaal, whose harsh treatment
in 1882 and 1883 led to the Bechuanaland expe-
dition in 1884. At the beginning of the 19th
century the Bechuanas were further in advance
in civilization than other nations of South
Africa, and they are still ahead in this respect.
The system of government among the Bechu-
anas would be termed in Europe local govern-
ment. All important matters are decided in the
public assembly of the freemen of the town, but
matters are previously arranged between the
chief and headmen. During the Boer-British
war of 1899-1900, Mafeking was ^.he scene of
one of the most determined and successful
defenses in history. See Baden- Powell.

Beck, James Burnie, American law^yer: b,
Dumfriesshire, Scotland, 13 Feb. 1822; d. 3 May
1890. He came to the United States when a
youth and settled in Kentucky, and was grad-
uated at the law school of Transylvania Uni-
versity in 1846. He practised law in Lexington,
Ky., for 20 years. He was elected a Democratic
representative to Congress in 1866, 1868, 1870,
and 1872 ; and United States senator in 1876,
1882, and 1888.

Beck, Karl, Austrian poet: b. Baja. Hun-
gary, I May 1817; d. Vienna, 10 April 1879,
His poems reflect the passionate temperament
of his Hungarian countrymen in sonorous
verses of consummate finish. Among his works
are 'Nights' ^ (1838); <The Poet Errant'
(1838) ; 'Janko' (1842), a romance in verse;
'Songs of the Poor Man' (1847) ; 'Jadwiga'
(1863), a tale in verse; 'Mater Dolorosa*
(1854), a novel.

Beck, Lewis Caleb, American scientist: b.
Schenectady, N. Y., 4 Oct. 1798; d. Albany,
N. Y., 20 April 1853. A man of remarkable
and wide scientific attainments, he graduated
at Union College 1817. and became professor
of chemistry and natural history at Rutgers
College 1830-37 and 1838-53 ; professor of chem-
istry and pharmacy at Albany Medical College
1841-53 ; and State mineralogist of New York
1837. His publications include 'Gazetteer of
Illinois and Missouri' (1823) ; 'Salt Springs at
Salina' (1826) ; 'Mineralogy of New York'
(1842), his most important work; and 'Botany
of the United States North of Virginia' (1848).
Cf. Gross, 'American Medical Biography.'

Becke, George Louis, Australian author:
b. Port Macquarrie, New South Wales, 1848. He
went to sea at the age of 14 and has spent his life

BECKENHAM — BECKET

trading in the South Pacific. His publications
are *By Reef and Pahn> (1894); ^ South Sea
Stories* ; The Ebbing of the Tide^ (1896) ; and
with W. Jeffery, ^A First-Fleet Family^
(1896); ^Pacific Tales^ (1897); <Wild Life in
Southern Seas> (1897); <Ridan the DeviP ;
<Tom Wallis> (1900); 'Edward Barry> ;
<Tessa, the Trader's Wife\- 'By Rock and
PooP ; Breackley Black Sheep* ; 'York the Ad-
venturer' (1901) ; 'The Strange Adventure of
James Shervinton* ; 'The Jalasco Brig* (1902) ;
'Rodman the Boat Steerer ; 'Naval Pioneers of
Australia* and 'Admiral Philip' (1899) ; 'The
(Tapir of Banderah* (1901).

Beckenham, England, a town of Kent,
situated southeast of London. It is one of the
English municipalities which have experimented
in "municipal socialism,'* as it owns its electric
lighting plant and public ba4;hs, and has charge
of the work of a technical institute. Pop.
(1901) 26,300.

Becker, August, German poet and novelist:
b. 1828; d. 1891. He was the author of 'Young
Friedel, the Minstrel' (1854), a lyrical epic;
and of the novels 'The Rabbi's Bequest' (1866) ;
'Proscribed' (1868); 'The Carbuncle' (1870);
'My Sister' (1876), descriptive of the doings
of Lola Montez and the events of 1848 in
Bavaria; 'Painter Fairbeard' (1878); and 'The
Sexton of Horst' (1889).

Becker, Christiane Luise Amalie Neu-
mann, kris-te-an' loo-es' a-ma'le-e noi'man,
German actress: b. Krossen, 15 Dec. 1778; d.
Weimar, 27 Sept. 1797. She was the daughter
of Johann Christian Neumann, the actor. She
performed in both tragedy and comedy, and
was a friend of Goethe, wiio, after her death,
made her the theme of his elegy, ' Euphrosine.'

Becker, George Ferdinand, American geol-
ogist : b. New York, 5 Jan. 1847. He graduated
at Harvard University in 1868; was instructor
of mining and metalurgj' in the University of
California in 1875-9; was attached to the United
States geological survey since 1879, and special
agent of the loth census, 1879-83. He \vas ap-
pointed a special agent to examine into the
mineral resources of the Philippine Islands in
1898. His publications include 'Geology of the
Comstock Lode* ; 'Statistics and Technology
of the Precious Metals* (with S. F. Emmons) ;
'Geology of the Quicksilver Deposits of the
Pacific Slope' : etc.

Bec"ker, Karl Ferdinand, German philolo-
gist: b. Liser, 14 April 1775; d. Offenbach, 5
Sept. 1849. He was the author of 'Ausfuhrliche
Deutsche Grammatik' ; 'Handbuch der Deutsch-
en Sprache' ; etc.

Becker, Karl Ferdinand, German musi-
cian: b. Leipsic, 17 July 1804; d. Leipsic, 26 Oct.
1877. He wrote 'Systematisch-chronologische
Darstellung der Musikalischen Literatur' (1836-
39); 'Die Hausmusik in Deutschland' (1840);
etc.

Becker, Karl Friedrich, German historical
writer: b. Berlin, 1777; d. Berlin, 15 March
1806. He wrote various popular works on his-
torical topics, the best known being 'The
World's History for Children and their Teach-
ers^ (1801-53. a truly successful undertaking.

Becker, Nikolaus, German song writer:
b. Bonn, 8 Jan. 1809; d. 28 Aug. 1845 : known as
the author of the Rhine song, 'They Never

Shall Obtain It, the Free, the German Rhine,^
which became immensely popular throughout
Germany, and provoked Alfred de Musset's
'We Have Had it, Your German Rhine,' and
Lamartine's more conciliatory 'Peace-Marseil-
laise* (1841).

Becker, Oskar, political fanatic: b. Odessa,
Russia, 1839; d. Alexandria. Egypt, 1868. In
1861 he attempted, at Baden-Baden, to kill King
Wilhelm I. of Prussia, by shooting at him with
a pistol at a distance of but three paces. The
king fortunately escaped with only a slight
wound in the neck. Becker's motive for the act
was his belief that the king was unable to unite
Germany. Though sentenced to 20 years' im-
prisonmnent he was pardoned by the king on
condition of living out of Germany ever after.

Becker, Rudolf Zacharias, German author:
b. Erfurt, 9 April 1752; d. 28 March 1822. He
first became known by an essay on the theme,
"Is it useful to deceive the people?" which
gained a prize from the Berlin Academy of Sci-
ences in 1799. His theory was that happiness
depended on the gratification of an innate desire
for improvement. In 1782 he took charge of a
school at Dessau and published a journal for
youth. A work in two volumes, entitled 'A
Little Book of Needful Help ; or. Instructive
Tales of Joy and Sorrow in the Village of
Mildheim,' became such a favorite with the
public that over 500,000 copies were soon dis-
posed of. He also produced other works and
journals, and the extensive transactions in them
led him, in 1797, to set up a publishing and
bookselling establishment at Gotha, which is
still continued by his son. On 30 Nov. 181 1 he
was arrested by Davoust on suspicion of con-
spiring against Napoleon, and was imprisoned
at Magdeburg till April 1813. On this impris-
onment he wrote a book, which still has a his-
torical value.

Becket, Thomas a, archbishop of Canter-
bury, the Saxon hero, priest, and martyr of
England in the reign of Henry II. : b. London,
1 1 19, or, according to some writers, 21 Dec.
1 1 17; d. Canterbury, 29 Dec. 11 70. He was the
son of a Saxon and a Syrian lady, whose union
was said to have been brought about in the
following extraordinary manner : Gilbert, the
father of Thomas, having gone to the Holy
Land in the second crusade, was made a prison-
er ; but while in durance a Syrian damsel, be-
coming enamored of him and being converted
by him to Christianity, contrived to effect his
liberation, after which, with little chivalry or
gratitude, the Saxon crusader returned home
as best he might, leaving the lady by the sea-
banks of Tyre. But, with a love and faith
stronger than that of the deserted Carthaginian
queen, the fair Saracen followed her recreant
lover, and, although she knew but two words
of any European language, the names of her
lover and of the city where he dwelt, by the
repetition of those two words. "London" and
"Gilbert," and by the display of her tears, her
beauty, her jewels, and her gold, she at length
made her way to the already famous metropolis,
and there, with well-deserved good fortune,
found her Gilbert, both free and willing to re-
ward her undoubting trust by taking her to his
home and to his heart, all of which is pure ro-
mance. Of so strange a union Thomas was
said to be the offspring; but, if possible, his

BECKET

own fortunes were stranger yet. He was at
first educated by the canons of Merton, and
continued his studies in the schools of Oxford,
London, and Paris. On the death of his father
he was admitted into the family of Theobald,
archbishop of Canterbury, and, with his per-
mission, went to the Continent for the purpose
of studying the civil and canon law. He at-
tended the lectures of Gratian at Bologna, and
of another celebrated professor at Auxerre.
Concerning his early life little more is known;
but it is recorded that his first appearance at
the court of Henry was made in the humblest
guise, bearing his fortunes on his back in the
shape of a not too sumptuous garb, riding a
spavined jade with galled withers and bare ribs,
which moved the insolent mirth of the Norman
courtiers. He soon, however, obtained high
favor with the king, who, it was alleged, was
in some sort under obligation to him, as if he,
acting as agent for Theobald, had obtained from
the Pope letters prohibitory of the crowning of
Eustace, the son of Stephen, by which that de-
sign was defeated. This service not only raised
Becket in the esteem of the archbishop, but in
that of King Henry H., and was the foundation
of his high fortune. In 1158 he was appointed
high-chancellor and preceptor to Prince Henry,
and at this time was a complete courtier, con-
forming in every respect to the humor of the
king. He was, in fact, his prime companion,
had the same hours of eating and going to bed,
held splendid levees, and courted popular ap-
plause. In 1 1 59 he made a campaign with the
king in Toulouse, having in his own pay 700
knights and 1,200 horsemen; and it is said he
advised Henry to seize the person of Louis,
king of France, shut up in Toulouse without
an army. This counsel, however, so indicative
of a Becket's energy, being too bold for the
lay counselors of one of the boldest monarchs
of the age, was declined. In the next year he
visited Paris to treat of an alliance between
the eldest daughter of the king of France and
Prince Henry, and returned with the young
princess to England. He had not enjoyed the
chancellorship more than four years when his
patron Theobald died, and King Henry was so
far mistaken as to raise his favorite to the
primacy, on the presumption that he would aid
him in those political views, in respect to
Church power, which all the sovereigns of the
Norman line embraced, and which, in fact,
caused a continual struggle till its termination
by Henry VIII. It is narrated that when Henry
announced his intention of having Becket pro-
moted to the primacy left vacant by the death of
Theobald, Becket prophetically remarked: «I am
certain that if, by God's disposal, it were to so
happen, the love and favor you now bear towards
me, would speedily turn into bitterest hatred.»

Becket was consecrated archbishop in 1162,
and immediately assumed an austerity of con-
duct which formed a very natural prelude to
the course which he was to follow. Pope Alex-
ander III. held a general council at Tours in
1 163, at which Becket attended and made a
formal complaint of the infringements by the
laity on the rights and immunities of the
Church. On bis return to England he began
to act in the spirit of this representation, and to
prosecute several of the nobility and others
holding Church possessions, whom he also pro-
ceeded to excommunicate. Henry, an able and

politic monarch, was anxious to recall certain
privileges of the clergy, which withdrew them
from the jurisdiction of the civil courts; and it
was not without a violent struggle, and in the
interests of peace, that Becket finally acqui-
esced. The king soon after summoned a con-
vocation or parliament at Clarendon, to the
celebrated ^constitutions'* of which, although
the archbishop swore that he would never as-
sent, he at length yielded, but afterward refused
to affix his signature, and by way of penance
suspended himself from his archiepiscopal func-
tions till the Pope's absolution could arrive.
Finding himself the object of the king's dis-
pleasure, he soon after attempted to escape to
France; but being intercepted, Henry, in a
parliament at Northampton, charged him with a
violation of his allegiance, and all his goods
were confiscated. A suit was also commenced
against him for money lent him during his
chancellorship, and for the proceeds of the
benefices which he had held vacant while in
that capacity. In this desperate situation he
with great diffiulty and danger made his escape
to Flanders, and, proceeding to the Pope at Sens,
humbly resigned his archbishopric, which was,
however, restored. He then took up his abode
at the abbey of Pontigny, in Normandy, whence
he issued expostulatory letters to the king and
bishops of England, in which he excommuni-
cated all violators of the prerogatives of the
Church, and included in the censure the princi-
pal officers of the Crown. Henry was so ex-
asperated that he banished all his relations and
obliged the Cistercians to send him away from
the abbey of Pontigny ; from which he removed,
on the recommendation of the king of France,
to the abbey of Columbe, and spent four years
there in exile.

After much negotiation a sort of reconcilia-
tion took place in 11 70, on the whole to the
advantage of Becket, who, being restored to
his see with all its former privileges, forthwith
prepared to return to his lon^ vacant see.
After a triumphant entry into Canterbury the
young Prince Henry, crowned during the life-
time of his father, transmitted him an order to
restore the suspended and excommunicated prel-
ates, which he refused to do, for the reason that
the Pope alone could grant the favor, though
the latter had authorized him to inflict the cen-
sure on them. The prelates immediately ap-
pealed to Henry in Normandy, who in a state
of extreme exasperation exclaimed, ^*What an
unhappy prince am I, who have not about me
one man of spirit enough to rid me of a single
insolent prelate, the perpetual trouble of my
life!*^ These rash and too significant words
induced four of the attendant barons, Reginald
Fitz-Urse, William de Tracy, Hugh de Morville,
and Richard Breto, to resolve to wipe out the
king's reproach. Having laid their plans, they
forthwith proceeded to Canterbury, and having
formally required the archbishop to restore the
suspended prelates, they returned in the evening
of the same day (29 Dec. 1170), and, placing
soldiers in the courtyard, rushed with their
swords drawn into the cathedral, where the
archbishop was at vespers, and, advancing to-
ward him, threatened him with death if he still
disobeyed the orders of Henry. Becket, without
the least token of fear, replied that he was ready
to die for the rights of the Church; and mag-
nanimously added, *I charge you in the name of

BECKETT — BECKWITH

the Almighty not to hurt any other person here,
for none of them have been concerned in the late
transactions.** The confederates then strove to
drag him out of the church ; but not being able
to do so on account of his resolute deportment,
they killed him on the spot with repeated
wounds, all which he endured without a groan.

The perpetrators of the deed repented, one
of them, de Tracy, taking a voyage to Rome,
and expiating the enormity in the Holy Land.
Henry H. did penance at the saint's tomb.

Thus perished Thomas Becket in his 52d
year, a martyr to the cause which he espoused,
and a man of unquestionable vigor of intellect.
He was canonized two years after his death, and
miracles abounded at his tomb. In the reign
of Henry HI. his body was taken up and placed
in a magnificent shrine erected by Archbishop
Stephen Langton ; and of the popularity of the
pilgrimages to his tomb the 'Canterbury Tales'
of Chaucer will prove an enduring testimony.
See *Life,' by John Morris, and ^Thomas
Becket,' by R. A. Thompson.

Beckett, Arthur William, a, English jour-
nalist and novelist (son of Gilbert Abbot a
Beckett, q.v. ) : b. Fulham, 25 Oct. 1844. Beside
fulfilling other journalistic engagements he was
on the staff of *^ Punch' 1874-1902, edited the
Sunday Times 1891-5, and the 'Naval and
Military Magazine' 1896. In addition to sev-
eral comedies he has published 'Comic Guide to
the Royal Academy,' with his brother Gilbert
(1863-4) ; ^Fallen Amongst Thieves' (1869) ;
<Our Holiday in the Highlands' (1874) ; ^The
Shadow Witness' and 'The Doom of St. Qui-
rec,' with Burnand (1875-6) ; 'The Ghost of
Grimstone Grange' (1877) ; 'The Mystery of
Mostyn Manor' (1878); 'Traded Out'; 'Hard
Luck' ; 'Stone Broke' ; 'Papers from Pump
Handle Court, by a Briefless Barrister' C1884) ;
^Modern Arabian Nights' (1885); 'The Mem-
ber for Wrottenborough' (1895) ; 'Greenroom
Recollections' (1896) ; 'The Modern Adam'
(1899) ; 'London at the End of the Century'
(1900).

Beckford, William, English writer, famous
in his time for his immense wealth, eccentrici-
ties, and literary talents: b. London, 1761 ; d.
Bath, 2 May 1844. When only 10 years old he
"was in receipt of an income, through the death
of his father, of more than $500,000 a year.
Under the direction of Lord Chatham he re-
ceived a careful education, and at an early age
gave evidence of unusual abilities. His first
work, a satirical essay entitled, 'Biographical
Memoirs of Extraordinary Painters,' in which
he ridiculed the English artists of his time, was
published before he was 20 years of age. After
this he spent some time in traveling on the
Continent, an account of which he published
half a century later with the title, 'Italy, with
Sketches of Spain and Portugal' (Lond., 2 vols.
1834). On his return to England he entered the
House of Commons for a short time as mem-
ber for Hindon, but soon became tired of this
career, and withdrew to Portugal, where he
bought an estate in the neighborhood of Cintra,
and lived in familiar intercourse with the royal
family of Portugal. After the lapse of some
years he appeared again in England, and began
in 1796 to erect a splendid edifice upon his
estate of Fonthill, which he furnished with
more than royal luxury, and continually en-
voi. 2 — 29.

larged with new buildings. Here he resided till
1822, when, owing to the loss of two large
estates, which had been successfully claimed in
Chancery by other owners, he was obliged to
sell Fonthill for £330,000. He then settled at
Bath, where he began to occupy himself anew
with building and collecting works of art. His
literary fame rests upon his eastern tale 'Va-
thek,' which he wrote in French, and published
at Lausanne in 1784, and which made a remark-
able impression upon Byron.

Beckham, John Crepps Wickliffe, Ameri-
can statesman : b. Bardstown, Ky., 1867. In
1893 he began the practice of law ; elected to
the Kentucky legislature 1894-7; speaker 1898;
elected lieutenant-governor 1899, and became
governor upon the death of Goebel, 3 Feb. 1900;
elected governor on the Democratic ticket in the
fall of the same year.

Beckmann, Johann, German writer on ag-
riculture and natural history: b. Hoya, Hanover,
4 June 1739; d. Gottingen, 4 Feb. 1811. He
studied theology at Gottingen, but soon applied
himself to natural philosophy and chemistry.
For a short time he was professor of natural
philosophy and history at a gymnasium in St.
Petersburg. He resigned this, and coming back
through Sweden, made the acquaintance of
Linn?eus and was allowed to see how the
Swedish mines were worked. Having returned
to Gottingen, he was made professor of philoso-
phy there in 1766, and in 1770 ordinary pro-
fessor of economy, which office he held for over
40 years. He published several scientific works,
which once were popular, but the best known
of his productions is called 'Contributions to
the History of Discovery and Inventions.' of
which several translations have been published
in England, where (with corrections and addi-
tions extending it to the present time) it con-
tinues to be a favorite work.

Beckwith, Sir George, English military
officer: b. 1753; d. London, 20 March 1823. His
scene of action was largely in America — in the
United States and the West Indies. He fought
with the English in the American Revolution in
1776-82, and was entrusted with important dip-
lomatic commissions in 1782-91, as there was
then no British minister to the United States.
In 1804 he was made governor of St. Vincent,
and four years later governor of Barbados. As
England was then at war with France he or-
ganized an expedition and conquered Marti-
nique, for which he obtained the thanks of the
House of Commons. Later (1810) he con-
quered Guadeloupe, the last possession of the
French in that part of the world. When he
returned to England, after nine years' service in
the West Indies, a set of silver plate was given
to him by the legislature of Barbados, and the
king conferred upon him armorial distinction.

Beckwith, James Carroll, American genre
painter: b. Hannibal, Mo., 23 Sept. 1852. He
was a pupil of Carolus Duran, in Paris, and
became a member of the National Academy in
1894. Among his paintings are 'Under the
Lilacs' and 'The Falconer.'

Beckwith, John Watrus, American Epis-
copal bishop : b. Raleigh, N. C, 9. Feb. 1831 ; d.
24 Nov. 1890. He was graduated at Trinity
College, Hartford, in 1852; ordained priest in
1855; labored in Mississippi and Alabama till

BECKX — BED

after the close of the Civil War ; was then called
to the rectorship of Trinity Church, New Or-
leans; and while there was elected bishop of
Georgia, being consecrated in Savannah, 2 April
1868. He was an eloquent preacher, and pub-
lished several sermons and addresses.

Beckx, Pierre Jean, beks, pe-ar zhon,
French general of the order of Jesuits : b. near
Lou vain, Belgium, 8 Feb. 1795 ; d. Rome, 4
March 1887. The success of the Jesuits, espe-
cially in non-Catholic countries, was greatly
due to his tact and energy.

Becky Sharp, the heroine in Thackeray's
^Vanity Fair.^ She has been accepted as the
type of the shrewd, conscienceless adventuress
whose sole purpose is to rise in the world and
who allows nothing to interfere with it.

Becque, Henri Frangois, bek, oii-re fran-
swa, French dramatist: b. Paris, 9 April 1837.
He was the pioneer of realism on the Parisian
stage, producing ^The Prodigal Son^ (1868) ;
*The Abduction' (1871) ; ^The Ravens'
(1882); (The Parisian' (1885); etc.

Becquer, Gustavo Adolfo, bek-kar', goos-
ta'vo a-dol'fo, Spanish poet and novelist:
b. Seville, 17 Feb. 1836; d. Madrid, 22 Dec.
1870. His lyrics, chiefly elegiac, show much
feeling, and his tales and legends are among
the best creations of modern Spanish prose.

Becquerel, Alexandre Edmond, bek-rel,
a-lex-aiidr ad-nioh, French physicist: b. Paris
(son of Antoine Cesar Becquerel, q.v.), 24
March 1820; d. Paris, 13 May 1891. He was
decorated with the cross of the Legion of Honor
in 1851, and was appointed professor of physics
in the Conservatoire des Arts et Metiers in 1853.
Besides his conjoint labors with his father he
made important researches on the nature of
light and its chemical effects, on phosphores-
cence, and on the conductivity and magnetic
properties of many substances. He wrote
< Light, Its Causes and Effects' (1868).

Becquerel, Antoine Cesar, an-twan sa-zar,
French physician, and member of the Institute:
b. Chatillon-sur-Loing, 7 March 1788; d. Paris,
18 Jan. 1878. In early life he served in the
French army in Spain as an officer of engineers.
In 1815 he resigned his commission as chef de
bataillon of the engineers and devoted himself
to scientific pursuits. In 1829 he became pro-
fessor of physics in the Museum of Natural
History. He was a voluminous writer on chem-
istry and electricity, and his industry in the col-
lecting of facts was remarkable. His principal
works are: ^Traite d'Electro-Chimie' ; 'Traite
de Physique AppHquee a la Chimie et aux Sci-
ences Naturelles' ; "^Elements de Physique Ter-
restre et de Meteorologie' (1847) ; and *^Traite
de I'Electricite et du Magnetisme' (1855). He
invented a new psychometer in 1866.

Becquerel, Antoine Henri, 6h-re, French
physicist: b. Paris, 15 Dec. 1852 (son of Alex-
andre Edmond, and grandson of Antoine Cesar
Becquerel, qq.v.). In 1892 he became professor
of physics in the Natural History Museum, and
in 1895 held a similar position at the Polytechnic
School. His investigations have largely dealt
with such subjects as the magnetic rotation of
polarized light, phosphorescence, the ultra-red
rays, light-absorption, etc. He is perhaps best
known in recent years by his researches con-
cerning the invisible rays given off by uranium,

radium, thorium, etc., called, in his honor,
Becquerel rays — a mixture of Roentgen and
cathode rays.

Becse, bech'e, Hungary, the name of two
towns situated on the river Theiss. Old Becse.
is on the right bank, 48 miles south of Szegedin.
Pop. (1901) 18,865. New Becse is on the left
bank, five miles east of Old Becse. Pop. (1901)
7,752. Both towns carry on an extensive trade
in grain.

Bed, in modern domestic use, a frame-
work (bedstead) supporting a mattress or
cushion, with coverings, on which to take repose
or sleep. Originally a bed consisted merely of
a lair or hollowed-out place in the earth, such
as is made by a wild animal ; then the skins of
beasts were employed to render the spot more
comfortable, and such skins form the beds of
many savage tribes of the present day. Rushes,
leaves, husks, twigs, and straw came in time
to supplement or replace the skins, and when
the Romans invaded Britain they taught the
natives to sew their straw within sacks. In the
progress of luxury feathers came to take the
place of the harder straw, and their use was
made the basis of charges of effeminacy against
the Roman patricians. The feather bed still
persists among the older nations of Europe, but
as feathers are bad conductors of caloric they
do not permit that free radiation of heat from
the body which is essential to comfort and
health, and the hair mattress has very largely
supplanted it. The feather bed was particularly
unserviceable in cases of sickness, as it did
not permit of the patient's easily changing his.
position. Modern mattresses are sometimes
made of felt, of pure hair, or of layers of hair
and cotton, stuffed more or less tightly into a
casing of strongly woven material called tick-
ing. Pillows are made of materials similar to-
those of the mattress, and the bed-coverings of
almost any fabric suited to the taste and purse
of the owner, from coarse cotton sheets or
blankets to the finest wool or silk. In the
northern countries of Europe the downy feath-
ers of the eider duck are largely used for bed-
coverings, their slow radiation of heat, men-
tioned above, permitting the retention of the
bodily heat combined with extreme lightness.

Bedsteads have for thousands of years
ranged from a mere platform, designed merely
to keep the bedding off the floor, to enormous
structures of solid costly woods or ivory, mag-
nificently decorated with carvings, or inlaid
with precious metals and gems. They were
frequently surmounted by canopies, and sur-
rounded with curtains to keep off drafts, or
with nettings to exclude flying insects. The
bedding was supported within the framework on
a network of cord, which later was supplanted
by cross-bars or slats of wood. Sometimes bed-
steads were built with such lofty platforms that
a short stepladder was necessary for ingress
and egress. The four-post bedstead held its
own for centuries, but within the last 50 years
their close curtains, valances, and canopies have
given way before the more hygienic iron or
brass bedstead, almost entirely free from drap-
eries and fitted with metallic springs or woven-
wire mattresses, some of the latter being so
elastic, though firm, and giving such general
support to the body, as to render thick mat-
tresses almost unnecessary. Wooden bedsteads

BED-SORE — BEDBUG

are still in considerable use, however ; but they
are mostly free from the objectionable features
of the four-post bed.

Folding-beds have had considerable vogue
for a long period, being designed for economy
of space in small rooms. Truckle or trundle
beds, were formerly used for similar economic
reasons, and consisted of a low platform on
wheels to admit of its being run under the
larger bed by day, and was occupied at night
by children or servants. Other forms of space-
saving beds are folding cots, and lounges con-
structed over a box-body wherein the bedding
may be concealed by day.

Special forms of bed have been contrived for
the benefit of sick and wounded persons, not-
ably mattresses of material impervious to air
or water and filled with those fluids.

In French history, the bed of justice was
the throne on which, before the Revolution of
1789. the king used to sit when he went to
Parliament to look after the affairs of State,
the officers of Parliament attending him in
scarlet robes. As this interference of the king
with the Parliament was not compatible with
free government, sitting on the bed of justice
came to signify the exertion of arbitrary power.

In law, a divorce from bed and board is
the divorce of a husband and wife to the extent
of separating them for a time, the wife receiving
support, under the name of alimony, during
the severance.

In mechanics, a bed is the foundation piece
or portion of anything on which the body of it
rests, as the bed-piece of a steam engine ; the
lower stone of a grinding-mill ; or the box, body,
or receptacle of a vehicle.

Bed-sore, an ulcer due to long-continued
pressure on certain bony prominences of the
body, due to protracted maintenance of the re-
clining position. The buttocks, shoulder-blades,
and heels are the most frequently affected sites.
In certain diseases, notably in myelitis, or in-
flammation of the spinal cord, bed-sores may
develop very rapidly, within ten days to two
weeks. Here the nerve-fibres governing the tone
of the skin are affected. In long-continued dis-
eases, however, necessitating the reclining pos-
ture, bed-sores develop largely from lack of
careful nursing. A due amount of attention paid
to absolute cleanliness, care for the skin, careful
turning, and use of air-cushions or the water-
bed, are often effective in preventing them.
Alcohol and water, equal parts, is one of the
best washes. If ulcers develop in spite of all
precautions, they should be surgically treated.
Oxid of zinc ointment, balsam of Peru, aristol
powder, or bismuth powder, may all be used,
alone or in combination.

Bed of Justice (Fr. Hi de justice), formerly
a solemn ceremony in France, in which the king,
with the princes of the blood royal, the peers,
and the officers of the crown, state, and court,
proceeded to the Parliament, and there, sitting
upon the throne (which in the old French
language was called lit, because it consisted of
an under cushion, a cushion for the back, and
two under the elbows), caused those commands
and orders which the Parliament did not ap-
prove to be registered in his presence. The
Parliament had the right of remonstrating in
behalf of the nation against the royal com-
mands and edicts. If the king, however, did not

choose to recede from his measures, he first
issued a written command (lettres de jussion)
to the Parliament, and if this was not obeyed
he held the lit de justice. The Parliament was
then, indeed, obliged to submit, but it after-
ward commonly made a protest against the pro-
ceeding. Louis XV. held such a lit de justice
in 1763, in order to introduce certain imposts,
but on account of the firm resistance of the
parliaments was finally obliged to yield. The
last lits de justice were held by Louis XVI. at
Versailles, 6 Aug. 1787.

Bedamar, ba-da-mar', a character (a Span-
iard of noble birth) in Saint Real's < Conjura-
tion des Espagnols contre la Republique de
Venise,^ the source of Otway's ^Venice Pre-
served.^

Bedarieux, ba-da-re-iir, France, a town in
the department of Herault, on the left bank of
the Orb, 18 miles north from Beziers. It is
well built, and is one of the busiest and most
thriving commercial and manufacturing towns
of the same size in France. It has manufactures
of fine and common cloth, woolen stuffs, floss
silk, worsted and cotton stockings, hats, soap,
olive-oil ; tanneries, dye-works, paper and glass
works, and a brass foundry. It has also a trade
in wine and brandy. Pop. (1901) 5,802.

Bedbug, a hemipterous insect {Cimex or
Acanthias lectularius). The body is broad, two
and a half lines in length, flat and wingless;
it is a rust red color with fine brown hairs. By
its shape it is adapted for living in cracks be-
tween boards in furniture, etc., and by its long,
slender beak it sucks the blood of its victim.
This insect lays eggs throughout the warmer
months of the year, the generations succeeding
each other as long as the temperature is high
enough. The eggs are oval, white, and the
young bugs hatch in about eight days, escaping
by pushing off a lid at one end of the shell.
They are white, transparent, differing from the
perfect insect in having a broad, triangular
head, and short and thick antennae. The bedbug
is said to live as a parasite on domestic birds,
such as the dove. A nest of swallows swarming
with alleged bedbugs was once found on a court-
house in Iowa. Trestwood states that the bed-
bug is II weeks in attaining its full size; it
molts about five times. De Geer has kept full-
sized individuals in a sealed bottle for more
than a year without food. The cockroach is
the natural enemy of the bedbug and destroys
large numbers, as does also the Reduvius and
certain kinds of ants. In Europe a small black
ant, Monomoriuui, is said to clear a house o^
them in a few days. Houses have been cleaned
of them after being thorough^ fumigated with
brimstone, or by the use of insect powder
blown into the cracks and crevices where they
live. They are also easily destroyed by painting
the cracks with corrosive sublimate dissolved in
alcohol. Temporary relief may be had by
sprinkling insect powder over the sheets of the
bed one is to occupy. As the bedbug was known
to Aristotle, who supposed it arose spontane-
ously from sweat, it is probable that it originated
about the Mediterranean Sea, for it was not
known to have occurred in England before the
17th century.

Bibliography. — Osborn, ^Insects Affecting
Domestic Animals^ (Dept. of Agriculture Bulle-
tin) ; Sutherland, H., <The Book of Bugs.'

BEDDOES— BEDE

Beddoes, Thomas Lovell, English drama-
author: b. Sliiffnal. Shropshire, 1760; d. 1808.
He distinguished himself both at school and at
Oxford by his knowledge of ancient and mod-
ern languages and literature. The great dis-
coveries in physics, chemistry, and physiology
irresistibly attracted him. He continued his
studies with success in London and Edinburgh.
In his 26th year he took his doctor's degree,
afterward visited Paris, and formed an acquaint-
ance with Lavoisier. On his return he was
appointed professor of chemistry at Oxford.
There he published some excellent chemical
treatises, and observations on the calculus,
scurvy, consumption, catarrh, and fever. Daz-
zled by the splendid promises of the French
Revolution, he offended some of his former
admirers, and excited such a clamor against him
by the publication of his political opinions that
he resigned his professorship. He then com-
posed his ^Observations on the Nature of
Demonstrative Evidence,' in which he endeav-
ored to prove that mathematical reasoning
proceeds on the evidence of the senses, and
that geometry is founded on experiment. He
also published the 'History of Isaac Jenkins,'
which was intended to impress useful moral
lessons on the laboring classes in an attractive
manner. After his marriage in 1794 he formed
the plan of a pneumatic institution for curing
diseases, particularly consumption, by means of
factitious airs or gases. With the assistance of
the celebrated Josiah Wedgewood, he succeeded
in opening this institution in 1798. As super-
intendent of the whole, he engaged young
Humphry Davy, the foundation of whose future
fame was laid here. The chief purpose of the
institution, however, was never realized, and
Beddoes' zeal gradually relaxed, so that he
relinquished it a year before his death. In the
last years of his life he acquired considerable
reputation by his 'Hygeia,' in three volumes.

Beddoes, Thomas Lovell, English drama-
tist and physiologist: b. Clifton, 20 July 1803;
d. Basel, 26 Jan. 1849. He published 'The
Bride's Tragedy* while an undergraduate at Ox-
ford, and led an eccentric life, ultimately com-
mitting suicide. His work was largely frag-
mentary, but his posthumous 'Death's Jest-
Book; or, the Fool's Tragedy* (1850) received
the high praise of such judges as Landor and
Browning. It was begun in 1825, and occupied
him till his death, being mostly written while he
was studying medicine in Germany. In 1890
Mr. Gosse edited an edition of his poetical
works in two volumes, with a memoir.

Bade, Beda, or Boeda, known as "The Ven-
erable Bede,** English historian and scholar, was
born in 673 at the double monastery of Wear-
mouth and Jarrow, in the county of Durham,
and died in the same monastery in 735. At
the age of seven he was intrusted to Benedict
Biscop, abbot of Wearmouth, and one of the
best equipped scholars of the age, who. to-
gether with Ceolfrith, abbot of Jarrow, directed
his education. All the rest of Bede's life was
spent in the monastery of Wearmouth and jar-
row. In his nineteenth year he was made
deacon, and in his thirtieth year, priest. He never
held positions of higher dignitv, refusing the
office of abbot because its duties would have

interfered with his chosen work of "learning,
teachmg, and writing." Under Bede, North- •
umbna became one of the great centres of
learning in Europe. Bede himself gave in-
struction in Latin, Greek, Hebrew, astionomy,
mathematics, grammar, rhetoric, and music, in
short in all the subjects which constituted
the learning of the Middle Ages. His knowl-
edge was encyclopedic in character, and though
all directed towards the service of the church,
seems to have been imparted with a vivacity
and charm that endeared him greatly to his
pupils. Besides attending to his monastic duties
and his work as teacher, Bede wrote volumi-
nously. In a brief summary of the main events
of his life at the conclusion of his 'Historia
Ecclesiastica,* finished in 731, he gives a list
of his works amounting to nearly forty titles.
His activities did not cease, however, with the
completion of his great history, and at the very
hour of his death, as is narrated by his pupil,
St. Cuthbert, he was engaged in dictating a
translation of the Gospel of St. John, now un-
fortunately lost. Cuthbert states that Bede was
a lover of Anglo-Saxon poetry, but the only
extant writings in the vernacular which can be
connected with his name are two lines of a poem
known as Bede's 'Death Song,* quoted by Cuth-
bert. The body of his writings consists of
exegetical treatises on the books of the Old
and New Testaments, and of treatises on scien-
tific, rhetorical, and historical subjects, all
written in Latin. His reputation as a mathe-
matician was very great, and for five centuries
following his death, his works were standard
throughout Europe. For modern readers, how-
ever, Bede's most interesting and important
achievements lie in the field of history. His
greatest work is his 'Ecclesiastical History*
(Historia Ecclcsiastica G cutis Anglorum), a
history of England from the earliest Roman
occupations to the year 731. It is written in a
charmingly simple and pure style, and is re-
markable for a degree of critical judgment such
as one would not expect in a monk of the 8th
century who had never lived outside his monas-
tery. It was translated into West Saxon by
Alfred the Great, or under his direction, and
it was largely used for the earlier entries of the
'Anglo-Saxon Chronicle.* It is still the main
source of our information concerning England
for the period which it covers.

Bibliography. — For Bede's works, consult
Migne, 'Pairologia; Cursus Completus,* (vol.
00) ; Giles, 'Opera Omnia* (London 1843).
The separate edition of the 'Historical Works,*
by Plummer (Oxford 1896), contains much
valuable material, among other things the letter
of Cuthbert narrating Bede's death. The West
Saxon translation of the 'Historia* is printed
in Wiilker, 'Bibliothek der Angelsachsischen
Prosa* (vol. IV., 1899). For estimates of the
character and work of Bede, consult Bright,
'Chapters of Early English Church History*
(3d edition 1897; Brooke, 'English Literature
from the Beginning to the Norman Conquest*
(1898); Hunt, 'The English Church from its
Foundation to the Norman Conquest* (1899).
George P. Kr.\pp,
Trisfmcfor in English, Columbia University.

Bede, Adam, a character in the novel of
the same name, by George Eliot. He is a

BEDEAU — BEDFORD

carpenter with some knowledge of books. He
loves Hetty Sorel, but marries Dinah Morris
(q.v.).

Bedeau, be-do, Marie Alphonse, French
general : b. Vertou, near Nantes, 1804 ; d. Nan-
tes, 1863. He won his military fame in Algeria,
where he was active in the operations against
the Algerians and became general of brigade.
He was in Paris at the outbreak of the revolu-
tion of 1848, and was subsequently vice-presi-
dent of the constituent assembly. As he opposed
Louis Napoleon, he went into exile after the
coup d'etat of December 1851.

Bedeguar, bed'e-gjir, or Sweetbriar
Sponge, a mossy roundish gall somewhat re-
sembling a chestnut burr in size and form, but
generally more or less reddish or purplish. It
is caused by a poisonous fluid injected into the
plant by a gall-fly (Rlwdites rosce), the larvae
of which may be found feeding upon the plant
juices. Like many other vegetable substances,
it was believed to be useful in medicine in cases
of sleeplessness, diarrhoea, scurvy, stone, worms,
etc.

Bedel, be-del', Timothy, American army
officer: b. Salem, N. H., about 1740; d. 1787. In
the Revolutionary War he was in command of
the American force near Montreal, which sur-
rendered without resistance when attacked by
Brant's Indians. He was sick at the time, and
the surrender was made by the officer second in
command, yet Arnold placed the blame on
Bedel.

Bedell, be-del', Frederick, American physi-
cist : b. Brooklyn, N. Y., 12 April 1868. He
graduated at Yale in 1890, and at Cornell in
1892, and was assistant professor of physics at
the last named, 1892-1900. He has established
a high reputation for his investigations in alter-
nating currents of electricity. Publications :

* Principles of the Transformer^ (1896) ; with
A. C. Crehore, ^Alternating Currents^ (4th ed.
igoi) ; and numerous special articles in the *^ Sib-
ley JournaP and ^Physical Review.'

Bedell, Gregory Thurston, American cler-
gyman: b. Hudson, N. Y., 27 Aug. 1817; d. 11
March 1892 In early life he was rector of the
Protestant Episcopal Church of the Ascension,
New York. In 1859 he was consecrated assis-
tant bishop of Ohio, and in 1873 bishop of that
State. He wrote ^The Divinity of Christ' ;
'The Profit of Godliness' ; *The Age of Indif-
ference' ; ^Episcopacy — Fact and Law'; 'A
Canterbury Pilgrimage' ; ^A Votive Pillar' ;

* Memorial of Bishop Mcllvaine' ; and ^Pastoral
Theology.'

Bedell, William, English clergyman: b.
Black Notley, Essex, 1570; d. 1642. He studied
at Cambridge, became minister of St. Ed-
mundsbury in Suffolk, and in 1604 went to
Venice as chaplain to the ambassador. Sir
Henry Wotton. Here he remained for eight
years and became intimately acquainted with
the celebrated Fra Paolo Sarpi, who taught him
Italian and was taught theology in return.
While here Bedell translated the English prayer-
book into Italian. On his return to England he
resumed the duties of his curacy, but left it in
1615 for the living of Horingsheath. Here he
remained for 12 years, and quitted it to become
provost of Trinity College, Dublin. He under-
took several important reforms, and successfully
accomplished them through the admirable man-

ner in which he tempered firmness with pru-
dence. In 1629 he was appointed to the united
sees of Kilmore and Ardagh, but thinking the
duties of one sufficient, he retained only Kil-
more and insisted on resigning Ardagh. He
next turned his attention to the Roman Catho-
lics, and labored assiduously to convert them
to Protestantism. He caused the prayer-book
to be translated into Irish and read regularly
every Sunday in the cathedral. The New Testa-
ment had already been translated, but Bedell
had the honor of perfecting the boon by pro-
curing the translation of the Old Testament.
In 1641, on the breaking out of the rebellion,
his house was for some time the only English
one in the county of Cavan which remained
uninjured; but at last he was so far involved in
the common fate that he was carried off to the
castle of Cloughboughter, where he was impris-
oned with many others, the only exception in
his favor being that he was not put in irons.
His works are few and of comparatively little
importance. His biography has been written by
Bishop Burnet.

Beden, the Arabic name, in Palestine, of
the local species of ibe.x {Capra sinaitica), which
ranges throughout Palestine and along both
shores of the Red Sea. It varies little from
other ibexes except in having the great horns
of the bucks more compressed, and the knobs
on their front at less regular intervals. The
general color is yellowish, with conspicuous
dark markings on the front of the fore legs,
chest, and back. See Ibex.

Bedesman (Saxon, bead, a prayer), was a
common suffix to the signature at the end of
English letters in the 15th and i6th centuries,
and equivalent to petitioner. The Fasten let-
ters, 1460-80, furnish many examples. Sir
Thomas More, writing to Cardinal Wolsey,
styles himself ®Your humble orator and most
bounden bedesman.'' Margaret Bryan, the gov-
erness of Princess Elizabeth, signs herself, in
writing to a superior, **Your dayly bede-wonian."

Bedford, Gunning, American patriot; b.
Philadelphia, Pa., about 1730; d. Sept. 1797. He
was a lieutenant in the French war ; entered
the Revolutionary army with the rank of major;
was wounded at White Plains ; became niuster-
master-general in 1776; was a delegate to the
Continental Congress ; and was elected governor
of Delaware in 1796.

Bedford, Gunning, American lawyer; b.
Philadelphia, Pa., 1747; d. 30 March 1812. He
was graduated at Princeton in 1771 ; became a
lawyer ; acted for a time as aide-de-camp to
Gen. Washington ; represented Delaware in the
Continental Congress " in 1783-6; and became
attorney-general of the State, and United States
judge for the district of Delaware.

Bedford, Gunning S., American physician:
b. Baltimore, Md., 1806; d. New York, 5 Sept.
1870. He was graduated at Mount St.
Mary's, Emmittsburg, Md., 182;; ; took his medi-
cal degree in Rutgers Medical College, 1829;
and spent some years in special study in Europe.
In 1833 he was appointed professor in the medi-
cal college at Charleston, S. C. ; subsequently
was called to the Medical College, Albany, N. Y. ;
and in 1836 settled in New York. He made
a specialty of obstetrics ; was one of the pro-
jectors of the University Medical College ; and
introduced into the United States obstetrical

BEDFORD — BEDFORD MISSAL

clinics for the gratuitous treatment of poor
women. His principal publications, "^Diseases
of Women and Children' and ^Principles and
Practice of Obstetrics,' have had a large cir-
culation in the United States and Europe.

Bedford, Jessie (Elizabeth Godfrey),
English novelist : b. Hampshire, England. Under
the pen name of Elizabeth Godfrey she has pub-
lished in America several musical novels which
have been popular. Her most important works
are: ^The Harp of Life'; <Poor Human Na-
ture'; 'The Winding Road' (1902).

Bedford, John Plantagenet (Duke of),
regent of France, third son of Henry IV. of
England: b. 20 June 1389; d. 1435. Shake-
speare, who calls him Prince John of Lancaster,
introduces him in his plays of Henry IV. as
distinguishing himself by liis youthful courage
in the battle of Shrewsbury in 1403, and forrn-
ing a kind of moral contrast to his more dissi-
pated brother, the Prince of Wales. During the
reign of Henry V. he participated in the farne
acquired by the conquest of France ; but his
talents were fully displayed when, after the
death of that king, he became regent of France,
having been appointed to this post by Henry in
his will. At Verneuil, in 1424, he displayed his
military talents ; and the difficulties which he
experienced in endeavoring to maintain posses-
sion of the conquered provinces in France
afforded frequent occasion for the manifesta-
tion of his ability. The greatest blemish in his
character is his cruel execution of the Maid of
Orleans in 1431. He survived this event about
four years, and dying at Rouen, was buried in
the cathedral of that city.

Bedford, John Russell (Duke of), English
nobleman: b. 1766; d. 1839. He was versed in
literature, fond of science, and a passionate
lover of agriculture, to the improvement of
which he devoted years of his life and the
expenditure of vast sums of money. He was
the father of the celebrated statesman, Lord
John Russell (q.v.).

Bedford, England, a parliamentary and
municipal borough, situated on the Ouse, county
town of Bedfordshire. The chief buildings are
the law courts, a range of public schools, a
large infirmary, county jail, etc., and several
churches. The town is rich in charities and edu-
cational institutions, the most prominent being
the Bedford Charity, embracing grammar and
other schools, and richly endowed. There is an
extensive manufactory of agricultural imple-
ments; lace is also made, and there is a good
trade. John Bunyan was born at Elstow, a
village near the town, and it was at Bedford
that he lived, preached, and was imprisoned.

Bedford, Ind., a city and county-seat of
Lawrence County, 65 miles southwest of Indian-
apolis on the Baltimore & O. S. W. and other
R.EL's. It has 24 large quarries of building-
stone, the working of which is the chief industry,
but there are also railroad shops, veneering-mills,
etc. The court-house and other public buildings
are fine stone «difices. Pop. (1900) 6,1x5.

Bedford, Nova Scotia, a village of Hali-
fax County, situated on the Intercolonial R.R.,
north of the city of Halifax. Its site is very
picturesque, and it is a favorite summer resort.
Pop. about 1,500.

Bedford, Pa., the county-seat of Bedford
County, situated on a branch of the Juniata
River, and on the Pennsylvania R.R., Bedford
division, 94 miles southwest of Harrisburg. It
is a place of considerable historic interest, as
it was for some time an important military
post, was once Washington's headquarters, and
in 1794 the headquarters of the troops sent to
suppress the Whiskey Rebellion. Bedford
Springs, a favorite summer resort, is located
about a mile from Bedford. The chief industry
is the mining and manufacture of iron. Pop.
(1900) 2,167.

Bedford, Quebec, a town in Missisquoi
County, situated near the northern end of Lake
Champlain, on the Canadian P. R.R. Its chief
manufactures are knitting-needles, gloves, and
farming implements. Pop. (1901) 1,364.

Bedford City, Va., a town and county-seat
of Bedford County, on the Norfolk & W. R.R.
It has a picturesque situation at the base of the
Blue Ridge Mountains, with an elevation of
over 1,000 feet. It is the seat of the Randolph
Macon Academy (Methodist Episcopal), of the
Belmont Seminary (Presbyterian), of the St.
John's Institute for Girls (Episcopal), and of
the Jeter Female Institute (Baptist). It is in
a tobacco-growing region, is ine centre of the
trade for its district, and has a number of tobacco
factories, as well as several other industries,
including a woolen-mill, flouring-mills, and
foundry. Pop. (1900) 2,416.

Bedford Level, England, a large tract of
low-lying land, comprising about 400,000 acres
in Cambridge, Norfolk, Suffolk, Huntingdon,
Northampton, and Lincoln counties, formerly
full of fens and marshes, and in rainy seasons
for the most part under water. Peterborough
Fen, which is that part of the level running into
Northamptonshire, and extending between Peter-
borough and Crowland, contains between 6.000
and 7,000 acres. One seventh part of the level
is situated in Huntingdonshire. Nearly the
whole of the Isle of Ely, which forms the north-
ern division of Cambridgeshire, consists of thiv
marshy ground. The southeastern part of Lin-
colnshire, usually termed Holland, extending to
the river Witham on the north, is also included
in the Bedford Level. About 63,000 acres i.re
situated in Norfolk, and 30,000 in Suffolk. It
derives its name from Francis, Earl of Bedford;,
who in the 17th century expended large sums
of money in attempting to drain the district.
Numerous cuts have been made, intersecting
everj^ part, some so large and deep as to serve
as navigable canals. In the Isle of Ely two of
these cuts, the Old and New Bedford rivers,
running nearly parallel to each other, are navi-
gable for over 20 miles. Wind-mills and cteari-
engines raise the water to such a height as to
admit of its being carried off to its proper
channel; but the expense has sometimes greatly
exceeded the value of the land reclaimed; and
the great cuts and embankments constructed in
recent times have rendered the drainage nciw
tolerably effective. A great part of the level is
under cultivation, and produces grain and some
other crops in considerable quantities ; but there
is still enough fen to form shelter for vast num-
bers of wild fowl.

Bedford Missal, a book made for John
Plantagenet. Duke of Bedford (q.y.) ar d his
duchess. This rich volume is 11 inched Jong,

BEDIVERE — BEDSTRAW

7J/2 broad, and 2^ thick, bound in crimson vel-
vet, with gold clasps, on which are engraved
the arms of Harley, Cavendish, and Hollis,
■quarterly. It is embellished with 59 large mini-
ature paintings, with over 1,000 of a small size;
and among them are to be seen several portraits
•of persons of eminence. It was purchased by
Edward Harley, Earl of Oxford, from Lady
Worsley, great-granddaughter to W. Seymour,
second Duke of Somerset, who figured in the
reign of Charles I. ; and descended from Lord
Oxford to his daughter, the Duchess of Port-
land. In the year 1786, when the collection of
the duchess was brought to sale, it was pur-
chased by a Mr. Edwards for $1,100, and was
sold again at the sale of the collection of that
•gentleman, in the year 1815, when it brought
$3>.350, and came into the possession of the
Duke of Marlborough. On coming to the ham-
mer once more it strongly attracted the atten-
tion of book-collectors and antiquaries, and
realized the unprecedented sum of $5,350, being
sold at that price (June 1833) to Sir John Tobin
of Liverpool. It is now lodged in the collec-
tion of the British Museum. In a historical
point of view it is interesting on account of its
pictorial embellishments, some of which have
been engraved by Virtue for his portraits to
illustrate the ^History of England.^ For the
antiquarian and the student of the fine arts it is
one of the most interesting monuments of that
age. The antiquarian Cough published a work
describing the Bedford Missal. Dibdin, in his
^Biblioniania,^ gives an account of it.

Bedivere, bed'i-ver. Sir, in Arthurian
legend, one of King Arthur's most trusted
knights. It was Sir Bedivere who cast the
sword Excalibur into the lake and carried the
dying Arthur to the vessel in which he was
borne away to Avalon.

Bedlam, a corruption of Bethlehem, the
name of a religious foundation granted in 1547
by Henry VIII. to the corporation of London,
and by them applied to the purpose of a hos-
pital for the insane. The place was originally
within the city boundaries, but in 1814 a new
building was erected in St. George's fields, on
the south side of the Thames, which was called
New Bethlehem, or vulgarly, Bedlam. The
patients, who had been discharged partially
cured, and went about begging, were called Bed-
lam beggars, or Tom-o'-Bedlams.

Bed'lington, a coal-mining town of Eng-
land on the river Blyth in Northumberland, il
miles north of Newcastle. Pop. (1901) 18,750.

Bedlington Terriers. See Terrier.

Bedloe's, or Liberty Island, an island in
New York harbor ; ceded to the United States
government, in 1800 ; the site of Fort Wood,
erected in 1841 and mounted with "j guns. It is
now the location of Bartholdi's colossal statue
of ^Liberty Enlightening the World,' presented
by France to the United States. See Liberty,
Statue of.

Bedmar', Alphonso de la Cueva (Marquis
te), Spanish politician and cardinal: b. 1572; d
Oviedo, 1655. He was sent in 1607 by Philip
III. as ambassador to Venice, and rendered him-
self famous by the conspiracy against Venice
■which St. Real has so well described. Not-
withstanding the circumstantiality with which
the details are given by St. Real, the very

existence of the conspiracy is still considered by
many a very difficult historical problem. The
probability is that the conspiracy was real, but
that the Senate, satisfied with having discovered
it, and not willing to break altogether with
Spain, did not think it advisable to give it much
publicity. It forms the subject of Otway's
tragedy, ^Venice Preserved.' Bedmar was
obliged to save himself by flight to avoid
the fury of the populace, but he did not lose
the favor either of his own sovereign or of the
Pope. By the former he was appointed gov-
ernor of the Low Countries, where his severity
and rigor made him universally detested; and
from the latter he received a cardinal's hat.

Bednur, bed-noor', or Bednore, a decayed
city, now a village, of Mysore, India ; in the
midst of a basin in a rugged tableland of the
Vi'estern Ghats, at an elevation of more than
4,000 feet above the sea, 150 miles northwest of
Seringapatam. It was at one time the seat of
government of a rajah, and its population
exceeded 100,000. In 1763, it was taken by
Hyder Ali, who pillaged it of property to the
estimated value of ii 2.000,000, and subsequently
established an arsenal here.

Bedott', Widow, the literary name of Mrs.
Francis Miriam Whitcher, author of the once
famous ^ Widow Bedott Papers.'

Bedouin, bed'oo-en or bed'oo-in, the name
given to the nomadic Arabs, as distinguished
from those settled in towns and villages and
engaged in agriculture and manufactures.
The Bedouin inhabit the deserts of Arabia
and northern Africa, and are lean and short, but
very active and capable of enduring great
fatigue. They live mainly by 'hunting and pas-
toral occupations, and very little agriculture is
carried on. Their food consists mostly of the
produce of their herds, and they enjoy excellent
health. Their temperament is cheerful, and
they are honorable in their dealings with one
another or with guests. Many of them, how-
ever, partly support themselves by robbery, but
the statements regarding their marauding pro-
pensities seem to have been exaggerated They
live in tents, but frequently, when traveling, they
sleep in the open air. Their religion is pro-
fessedly Mohammedan, but is of a very simple
character. The women grind corn and weave
coarse cloths, and many of the tribes barter
horses, camels, cattle, etc., for various neces-
saries, such as arms and cloth. Some tribes gain
part of their subsistence by escorting travelers,
pilgrims, etc., across the deserts. They are
monogamous, but divorce is easily obtained and
frequent. Though generally very ignorant, they
are by no means unintelligent ; and they possess
the lively fancy of most Eastern nations. The
head of a tribe is the shclk, and they have also
judges known as cadis. See Burckhardt, ^ Notes
on Bedouins and Wahabys' (1830) ; Blunt,
< Bedouin Tribes of the Euphrates' (1879).

Bedreddin Hassan, bed-red-den' hjis'san,
the hero of the amusing cream tart story in the
•^Arabian Nights Entertainments.'

Bedstraw, Galium, a genus of about 200
annual or perennial herbs with four-angled
stems, natives mostly of the colder climates,
whether of latitude or altitude, in the northern
hemisphere. The species, which are mostly
harsh-feeling weeds, are often attractive for
their regular whorls of leaves and their pani-

BEE — BEE-EATER

cles of profuse minute, white, yellow, green or
purple blossoms which in some species are used
by florists to add *"misty delicacy and airy
grace^' to bouquets especially of sweet peas, ana
lo cover rock-work in and out of doors. The
two species most cultivated for this purpose
are G. mollugo (European) sometimes called
baby's breath (see Gypsophila), and G. boreale
(American). Yellow bedstraw or cheese ren-
net (G. vernutn), a species with yellow flowers,
is used for curdling milk. Its flower sprays
yield a yellow dye when boiled in alum solu-
tions and its roots a red one, said to rival mad-
der as a wool dye. For this use attempts at
cultivation have been made in England. This
species, together with G. irifidum and G. boreale,
redden the bones and milk of animals that eat
them in quantity. Goose grass or cleavers (G.
Aparinc), a troublesome weed common to
Europe, Asia, and America, yields a seed some-
times used as a substitute for cofifee. It is noted
for the hooked prickles of its stems, fruits, and
leaves. In China B. tuberosum is cultivated for
its farinaceous tubers. Some species, for in-
stance, G. mollugo and G. rigidum, have been
tried in cases of epilepsy and others in cutane-
ous disorders.

Bee, a name applied to those Hymenoptera
which stand at the head of the order, and are
represented by the bumblebee and the honey-
bee. They differ from the wasps in the mouth
parts being longer, especially the tongue or pro-
boscis. Each hind tibia is hollowed, broad, and
so modified as to form a "honey-basket.^' The
hairs are more or less spinulose or plumose,
often of use in carrying pollen. Bees are soli-
tary or social in their habits, and form nests con-
sisting of either a single or many cells, and of
varying materials and degrees of complexity.
There are two families of bees: (i) Andrenidce,
comprising solitary bees, with the labian or
under lip flattened and very short. They exca-
vate nests in turf and in grassy sunny fields,
making a deep pipe or hole, with short lateral
galleries in which the grub feeds and grows.
The species of Halictus and Andrena comprise
the most common wild bees. They entertain
guest bees (Nomada). See Guest-bees.

The family Apidce includes the species of
Bombus (see Bumblebee), Xylocopa (see Car-
penter Bee) ; stingless bees (Melipona), and
the honeybee (q.v.) Apis melliflca. In the bees
the labium is usually produced into a long,
slender, hairy proboscis, which is. bent under
the body. It is very long in Anthropora, and in
Englossa longer than the body. The basal
joints of the labial palpi are longer than the
others. The mouth-parts are complicated and
adapted for manifold purposes connected with
nest- or cell-building and the collection of nec-
tar and pollen. Indeed the bees stand at the
head of the insect series, whether we take into
account their structure, mode of development,
habits, instincts, and differentiation of the sexes,
though the flies (Diptera) are in their way
more specialized, but the specialization of cer-
tain parts in flies is accompanied by the degen-
eration and atropy of others. The humble-bee
besides its ordinary use in nest-building employs
its jaws to cut holes in flowers in order to reach
the nectar.

The transformations of the bee are complete.

The larva is a footless maggot incapable of ex-
tended locomotion and lives in its cell where it
is fed by the workers, or lives on pollen or
honey stored up in the cell ; the food is always
derived from plants or other bees, although
honeybees have been observed licking meat. The
cells of the honeybee are open, the workers,
feeding the larvse with a mixture of honey and
pollen, the honey being specially adapted to be
digested by the young. The larva transforms
into the pupa within its cell, previously spinning
a slight cocoon, or in the case of the honeybee
simply closing the mouth of its cell with a cover
of silk.

The sting of the queen bee is curved, of the
worker straight ; it is composed of three pairs
of processes arising from the under side of the
segments near the end of the abdomen, wherein
is the poison-sac.

Besides male and female, there are in the
social species numerous barren females or work-
ers, in which the ovaries are small and unde-
veloped. Occasionally worker bees are capable
of laying eggs and producing young. The dif-
ference between the workers and the fertile fe-
males or queen is now known to be due to the
difference in the food given to the larvae ; that
of the queen larva being richer in nitrogenous
substances than that fed to the larval workers.
Thus heredity has nothing to do with the mat-
ter ; the larvse of the workers and of the queen
inherit the same peculiarities; the barrenness
and smaller size of the worker bee is the result
of being fed with different food.

Bees are essential agents in the fertilization
of flowers, in setting fruit, and were it not for
them it is now supposed that we should not
have had the irregular flowers of the pea and
other papilionaceous plants. , It is a notable fact
that the incoming or origin of flowers and of
the bees and other insects which visit them
was geologically about the same time. At any
rate bees ensure the existence of flowers and
the latter have modified bees.

The number of known species of bees is up-
ward of 5,000. They abound in all parts of
the world, especially the tropics; while humble-
bees (Bombus) reach the polar regions and live
as alpine forms on high mountain plateaux and
ranges. For the different kinds of bees, see
also Bee-keeping; Bumblebee; Cabfenter Bee;
Honeybee; Leaf-cutting Bee; Mason Bee;
Stingless Bee; also Insect.

Bee-birds, birds that devour bees, especially
the honeybee. Not many birds have this habit,
the bees being protected against most birds by
their stings. A few fly-catching birds, however,
have learned how to avoid being stung, and
catch not only bees but wasps, take them to
a perch and beat them, so as to kill them, and
probably get rid of the sting before swallowing
them. Notable among these are the European
and African bee-eaters (q.v.). The American
kingbirds (q.v.), also catch bees, but not as
frequently as is popularly supposed, and are
known in the southern States as "bee-martins. '*

Bee-eater, a small, richly plumaged, and
graceful bird of southern Europe and northern
Africa, whose food consists almost wholly of
bees and wasps, and which haunts the neighbor-
hood of the hives of honeybees and devours
these useful insects in great numbers. The bee-

BEES.

1. Drone.

2. Queen.

3 . Worker, with front view of each .

4. Italian bee.

5. Egyptian bee.

6. Comb with open and closed cells,

(a), queen cell.

7. A swarm; 8-15, Bee enemies.

8. Hornet.
0. Bee wolf.

10. Wasp.

I la, Male; iib, female, and iic,
larvae of the May worm.

12, 12a. Bee beetle and larva.

13, 13a. Bee fly and larva.

14, 14a. Wax moth and larva.

15, Bee louse, enlarged.

BEE-KEEPING

Bee on the wing.

Bee on Red Clover.

eaters are related to the kingfishers, and like
them dig deep nesting-holes in earthen banks,
and lay pure white eggs.

Bee-keeping. Few persons who see the little
boxes of honey in the market realize the import-
ance and extent of the bee-keeping
industry of this country. Careful
estimates, based on United States
statistics, and the output of large
factories for the manufacture of
bee-hives and honey-boxes, show
that at least 125,000,000 pounds
of honey is annually produced,
making an aggregate of 5,000 car-
loads, or a train 35 miles long. The aggregate
value of this, at a conservative figure, is $10,-
000,000. When it is remembered that Califor-
nia alone, in a good year,
can produce 500 car-
loads of honey, and that
a good many of the other
States produce from 50
to 100 carloads, one can
form some idea of the
commercial possibilities
wrapped up in so small
an animal as the bee.

The honey resources of
the great West are very
largely dependent on al-
falfa and mountain sage.
In the north-central and
eastern States, clover and
basswood, in the south-
central, tupelo, palmetto, catclaw, mesquite, and
guajilla.

There are several races of bees — Apis dor-
sata, or the giant bee of India and of the Philip-
pines ; A. Indica, of India ; A. Horca, and A.
mellifica. From a commercial standpoint, the
last mentioned is by all odds the most im-
portant. It comprises the black or German
bees of this country ; the Italians, from the
southern part of Italy; the Syrians, of Palestine;
the Cyprians, from the island of Cyprus ; the
Carniolans, from Austria ; and the Tunisians,
from North Africa. But the most important of
all of these varieties is the Italian. They are
the most industrious and the gentlest. They,
together with the black or German bees and
their crosses, incorrectly termed ^hybrids,* are
used most extensively in the United States —
in fact, throughout almost all the civilized world.
Three Kinds of Hive Bees. — There are three
kinds of bees in the hive ; namely, the workers,
or undeveloped females ; the
queen, a fully developed fe-
male ; and the drone, or the
male bee. The queen lays all
the eggs of the hive, and may
as many as 3,000 a day.
Notwithstanding there may be
from 10,000 to 100,000 bees in
a single colonj^ the queen will
be the mother o.f the whole
colony. The drones are incapa-
ble of gathering honey, and
serve only one purpose — that of fertilizing or
fecundating the young queens, which act takes
place in the air. The workers gather all the
honey and pollen, fill all the combs, and rear
the young or baby bees. As soon as the mating

season is over, the drones are shoved out of the
hives and allowed to starve^

How to Handle Bees. — There is a general
impression to the effect that the ordinary honey-
bees are vicious, ever in a towering rage, ready
to attack any one who comes near their hives.
This is a great mistake. Under certain condi-
tions, when their habits are known, they can
be handled almost like kittens ; will permit one
to tear their hives apart, rob them of their
months and months of hard earnings — the
honey and the wax — without even offering to
sting. But an inexperienced or awkward per-

Queen Bee.

Bee-Smoker.

son may infuriate them to fearful vengeance.
To bring them into a state of subjection it is
only necessary to blow smoke into the entrance
and over the combs, when, if the motions about
the hive are careful and deliberate, they will
offer no attack. Smoke, when intelligently
used, disarms opposition, puts the bees in a quiet
state, and enables their owner to do with them,
within reasonable limits, whatsoever he will.

The bee-smoker is simply a smaU bellows
attached to a sort of tin cup having a suitable
snout from which
the smoke is
blown by the ac-
tion of the bel-
lows, forcing air
through the cup in
which there is a
slow-burning fuel.
Besides the bee-
smoker, the bee-
keeper generally
uses a bee-veil
made of mo.squito-
netting, Brussels
net, or any suitable
material, the same
fastened to the
rim of the hat, and tucked inside of the coat,
collar or under the suspenders. Gloves are
sometimes used by very timid persons or be-
ginners; but as a general thing all work with
the bees is performed with the bare hand.
Stings are, of course, occasionally received ; but
beyond a sharp momentary pain no permanent
effect will be felt after the first season; for the
system of the bee-keeper very soon becomes

BEE-KEEPING

inoculated so that no swelling takes place.
There are many who receive from ten to twenty
stings a da}% without any ill effects; but if one
will work carefully he will receive almost no
stings.

Marketable Products of the Hive. — These are
beeswax, comb and extracted honey, propolis or

Section of Comb Honey.

bee-glue (sometimes used for making shoe
polishes), and "apis mellifica,** a homeopathic
preparation taken from the poison sacs at the
root of the stings of bees. While beeswax is
an important product, and commands a good
price in the United States, comb and extracted
honey are the main sources of revenue to the
bee-keeper.

Comb honey is usually put up in little square
or oblong boxes, of which something like
50,000,000 are made and used in the United
States annually. The honey in these boxes
retails all the way from 12 to 20 cents. Ex-
tracted is honey in the liquid form, throw^n
from the combs by means of centrifugal force
in a honey-extractor, hence the name. There
are bee-keepers who make a specialty of pro-
ducing honey in the comb, and others the same
product free from the comb. The first men-
tioned can not be adulterated nor manufactured,
newspaper reports to the contrary. One bee-
keeper of considerable standing and prominence
has had a standing offer of $1,000 for a single

Comb Honey Super.

sample of artificial comb honey so perfect as to
deceive the ordinary consumer. Notwithstand-
ing that this offer has been broadly published
over the United States for over twenty years,
no one has ever claimed it.

It may be well to explain that a partial basis
for these canards lies in the fact that bee-keep-
ers use a commercial product known as "comb
foundation,*' which is nothing more or less than
sheeted wax, about an eighth of an inch thick,
embossed on both sides with indentations hav-
ing the exact shape and form of the bottom of
the cells of honey-comb — hence the name. It
is put into the hive, where the bees draw it
out into comb. This is as far as the skill of
man can go ; hence there is no such thing as
artificial comb; much less, artificial comb honey.

The business of producing comb honey re-

Bee Hive for Comb Honey.

quires some knowledge of the trade. Hives and
supers require to be specially constructed, and
so arranged that the little boxes containing
strips of comb foundation shall be accessible to
the bees where they can construct the founda-
tion into comb, fill the cells with honey, and
seal them over. When their owner finds that
his little servants are busily at work in the

Uncapping Can.

fields ; that the combs are beginning to whiten
and to be bulged with honej^ in what is called
the brood-nest, he puts on his honey-boxes in

BEE-KEEPING

the part of the hrVe he calls the "super.^^ These
are allowed to remain on during the height of
the honey-flow until they are filled and capped
over, when they are removed and others put
in their place.

The business of producing extracted (or
liquid) honey requires the same intelligent care
and attention. Instead of section-boxes, how-
ever, an extra set of combs, or "brood-frames,''
as they are called, are put in the upper story,
the same being placed above the lower or brood
part of the hive. When these are filled with
honejs and capped over, they are removed from
the hive by first shaking the bees off, taken to
the extracting-house, and extracted. The thin
film of wax covering the comb is shaved off
with a thin-bladed knife specially designed for
the purpose. After the combs are uncapped
they are put in the honey-extractor, and re-
volved at a high rate of speed. The honey flies
out of the comb by centrifugal force against the

Honey Extractor.

sides of the extractor, when the combs are re-
versed, exposing the other surfaces, which are
emptied in a like manner. They are next re-
turned to the hive to be filled by the bees, when
the process may be repeated as long as the
season lasts.

Stvarming. — At the beginning of or during
what is called the honey-flow, when the colony
has reached a high state of prosperity, and the
combs are being filled with honey, a swarm is
liable to come forth between the hours of nine
and three o'clock. Three-fourths of the bees,
including the queen, are pretty sure to come out
with a rush, filling the air with thousands and
thousands of them. The bees hover about in
the air for fifteen or twenty minutes, when they
will in all probability cluster on some bush or
tree. They will wait here for two or three
hours, or perhaps as many days, at the end of
which time they will take wing again and go
direct into some hollow tree or cave where they
will take up new quarters and start housekeep-
ing anew. The young bees, with one or more
young queens, are left to take care of the old
hive.

In ordinary practice it is a custom for the
bee-keeper to rehive the swarm by taking the
bunch of bees, as soon as it clusters, and putting
it into another hive. Or he can, if he chooses,

clip the old queen's wings, preventing her flight
with the swarm ; and when the bees come forth
she will crawl out of the entrance to be cap-
tured by her owner; and as soon as her subjects
return, which they will do to find their royal
mother, they are allowed to go into a new hive
on the old stand, while the old hive is carried
to another location in the bee-yard.

Robbing. — There are certain times during the
season when no nectar is secreted by the flow-
ers. It is during such periods as this that the
bees will rob each other if they can, or help
themselves at candy-stands or to the house-
wife's fruit-preserves during the canning sea-
son. When sweets can be obtained in consider-
able quantity, either from a weak colony unable
to defend itself, or from man, the bees are apt
to become furious, and their craze is not unlike
that of gold-hunters when gold is discovered in
large quantities. There is a rush ; and when
the sweets are suddenly cut off, the bees are in-
clined to be cross, and to sting. The wise and
careful bee-keeper will see to it that the en-
trances of his weak colonies are properly con-
tracted so that the sentinels or guards can
protect themselves from intrusion from other
bees.

Feeding. — The bee-keeper may, perhaps, take
all the honey away from his bees, or nearly so,
as his honey will bring two or three times as
much as any cheap syrup costs him. Sometimes
he finds it profitable to take the honey all away
and give them syrup made of granulated sugar.
The purpose of this, of course, is to keep them
from starving during the time no honey is com-
ing in from natural sources or during the win-
ter.

Uniting. — After the honey- flow, and just be-
fore winter comes on, there are liable to be
many weak colonies. It is a common practice
to put two or more of these together so as to
make one strong stock. The combs from two or
three different hives are put into one hive, and
the bees are confined for several days w-ith wire
cloth over the entrance, when they are allowed
to fly. Some of them will return to their old
stands, but the majority of them will remain. _

Wintering. — Two methods are in vogue in
the colder portions of the United States. One
is, to put the colonies in double-walled hives,
packed under chaff cushions, and contracting
the entrances down to shut out as much cold as
possible. The other is, to put the summer hives
into a dry dark cellar as soon as cold weather
comes on, leaving them there till spring.

Diseases of Bees. — Bees are subject to dis-
eases, like all domestic animals, such as dysen-
tery, paralysis, and foul and black brood. Dys-
entery, as its name signifies, is a sort of bowel
trouble due to the retention of the feces for an
extended time during winter. If the bees are
shut up without a chance for flight (for they
never void their feces inside of the hive except
when confined), their intestines become dis-
tended, and this finally results in purging. The
only remedy is warm weather and a flight.
Paralysis is a form of palsy that seems to affect
the adult bees. Their bodies become swollen
and shiny, the affected individuals crawling out
of the entrance, and running into the grass to
die. The remedy is to sprinkle powdered sul-
phur over the combs. Foul brood and black
brood are germ-diseases that affect bees in the

BEE-KILLER — BEECH

larval or imago state. The little maggots be-
come brown or black, and die, the dead matter
finally assuming a sodden, gelatinous, or ropy
condition. When it attacks a colony shake the
bees into a clean hive, and put them on frames
of foundation. For three or four days feed
them sugar syrup. The old combs, including the
frames, must be burned. If the hive has been
soiled by the tainted honey or dead matter, it
must be scalded out or held over flames for a
few seconds. Any honey taken from the hive
may be rendered safe to give to the bees by
boiling it for two hours.

Bibliograpliy.— Root. <A B C of Bee Cul-
ture> (1903) ; Miller, <Forty Years Among the
Bees;^ Langstroth, ^The Honey-Bee,> revised
edition (1889); Hutchinson, ^Advanced Bee
Culture' (1902) ; Cook, < Manual of the Apiary'
(1902) ; Root, ^Quinby, New Bee-keeping;'
and the following periodicals: ^American Bee
Journal,' published in Chicago, 111.; ^Gleanings
in Bee Culture,' Medina, Ohio; * Bee-keepers'
Review,' Flint, Mich.: < American Bee-keeper,'
Fort Pierce, Fla. ; ^Progressive Bee-keeper,'
Higginsville, Mo.

E. R. Root,
Author of ^A B C of Bee Culture'' and Editor
of '■Gleanings in Bee Culture.'

Bee-killer, one of the robber-flies (q.v.), of
the dipterous family Asilidcc, some of which are
known to seize with their sharp lancet-shaped
beak bumblebees and honeybees, and suck their
blood. This species Trupanca apivora, the bee-
killer, captures the honeybee while on the wing,
and one such fly has been known to kill 141 bees
in a single dav. These flies are stout-bodied,
hairy or bristly, with a long abdomen ; the
mouth-parts are much developed and adapted
for piercing. The maggots live in the soil, prey-
ing on the grubs of beetles, or on the roots of
plants.

Bee-larkspur. A well-known flowering
plant. Delphinium grandiHorum.

Bee-line. The shortest route to any place,
that which a bee is assumed to take ; though, in
fact, it often does differently in its flight through
the air.

Bee-louse (Braula coeca) is a parasite on
the honeybee, occurring on the thorax espe-
cially of the queen bee — rarely on the drones.
Benton states that he has at one time removed
as many as 75 from a queen, though the num-
bers do not generally exceed a dozen. It is the
sole member of a family (Braulidce) of flies
closely allied to the horse flies (Hippoboscidcv)
and the bat-ticks (q.v.). The bee-louse is about
one twentieth of an inch in length, entirely with-
out wings, and somewhat spider-like in appear-
ance. On the day the maggot or larva hatches
from the egg it sheds its skin and turns to an
oval puparium of a dark-brown color. It has
frequently been imported to this country on
queens with attendant bees but has gained no
foothold.

Bee Moth, or Wax Moth, a moth belong-
ing to the family Gallcridce; specifically, Gai-
leria mellonella, the larva of which feeds on
wax in hives. The worm is yellowish-white
with brownish dots. It constructs silken galler-
ies running through the comb of the bee-hive on
which it feeds. When about to transform it
spins a thick white cocoon Two broods of the

moth appear, one in the spring, the other in Au-
gust, and the caterpillars mature in about three
weeks. It may become a most troublesome pest
in the apiary.

Bee-orchis, the name of a species of orchis,
the Ophrys apifcra It is so called because a
part of the flower resembles a bee. It is large,
with the sepals purplish or greenish-white, and
the lip brown variegated with yellow.

Bee-tree, a forest tree inhabited by honey-
making bees, which have taken possession of
some natural hollow and filled it with combs.
Such a tree may be found by accident, or by
deliberate hunting. Those in search take to
the edge of the woods a box of diluted honey,
and when they see bees near them, open the
bait to which one by one the bees will be at-
tracted. The direction of their flight is then
carefully observed ; the bait is moved to an-
other point, and new observations taken, and
the converging lines followed until they inter-
sect at the tree. As most of these bee tree
colonies are escaped swarms the capture of the
bees themselves is more important than merely
to get such honey as may be there. The best
plan is therefore to climb to the nest, if pos-
sible, and gather the combs and contents to be
let down in a pail or basket, or else saw out
the whole section of the tree containing the
nest and lower it to the ground. Full direc-
tions for this complicated proceeding are given
by Root, ^A B C of Bee Culture' (1903).

Beech, a small genus (Fagus) of handsome
forest trees of the natural order Fagacece, di-
vided by some botanists into two genera : Eufa-
gus, containing five species natives of the north-
ern hemisphere ; and Nothofagus, embracing 12
species indigenous to the southern hemisphere.
The American beech (Fagus ferruginea), and
the European or common beecli (F. sylvatica),
are closely similar. They often attain heights
exceeding 80 feet, and diameters greater than 2>\
feet. The former has smooth, light-gray bark, a
broad round head, and leaves which turn yellow
before they fall in the autumn ; the latter has
dark-gray bark, is more ovate in general out-
line and has shining leaves which persist during
most of the winter. The tree scarcely bears
fruit before the 50th year of its age, and then
not every year. After the 140th year, the wood-
rings become thinner. The tree lives for about
250 years. Some stems are fluted, some even
twisted. The roots stretch far away, near to
the surface of the soil, partly above it. Young
beeches are useful for live hedges, as they bear
pruning, and as their branches coalesce by being
tied together, or by rubbing each other. Ampu-
tations of limbs, and deep incisions in the tree,
soon become obliterated by the bark, which con-
tains a peculiar periderma. The dead leaves are
often used by the poor of Europe for stuffing
beds and pillows. Each yields pleasant, edible,
three-angled nuts, usually in pairs in prickly in-
volucres. These nuts are eaten by swine, deer,
and poultry, and in France, and to some extent
elsewhere, are pressed to extract a mild culinary
long-keeping oil. Both species thrive in light,
limy loams, upon which formations they often
become the leading species of tree, covering large
tracts. They do not grow in damp situations.
Their reddi.sh-brown, solid, hard but brittle
wood makes excellent fuel, and is largely used

BEECH TREE (Fagus sylvatica).

BEECH DROPS — BEECHER

for making tool handles where bending- and
twisting are not expected. The wood is not dur-
able in contact with soil, but since it is remark-
ably lasting when immersed in water, it is
largely used in dams, water-mills, sluices, etc.
The wood of the European species is preferred
to that of all other species, except walnut, for
making shoes (sabots), in France, since it is
remarkably resistant to the entrance of water.
The bark is sometimes used in tanning. Both
species are used in ornamental planting on ac-
count of their symmetrical forms, the colors of
their bark and foliage, which latter is remark-
ably free from the attacks of disease and insects.
The European species has produced a large num-
ber of varieties, of which the copper or purple
beech is probably the best known in America.
F. Sicboldi, a native of eastern Asia, is some-
times planted for ornament. F. Ciinninghami,
the "myrtle tree'* of Tasmania, is a large tree
with leathery birch-like leaves. F. betuloidcs, a
Terra del Fuegian species, is a striking feature
of the winter landscape on account of its ever-
green foliage. Its wood is used for flooring ves-
sels, and is exported to the Falkland Islands
and elsewhere for roofing. Blue or water
beech, better known as American hornbeam
(Carpiiins aincricana), is a common tree in damp
woods and along streams. It is not a member
of this genus. See Hornbe.a.m.

From the wood of the beech an especially
pure form of creosote is obtained that is largely
employed in the treatment of chronic lung dis-
orders. See Creosote.

Beech Drops, a plant parasite on beech
tree roots. See Cancer Root.

Beecher, Catherine Esther, American edu-
cator and philanthropist, eldest daughter of Ly-
man Beecher: b. East Hampton, L. I., 6 Sept.
1800; d. Elmira, N. Y., 12 May 1878. Her
faith and life were nearly wrecked at 22 by the
loss of her betrothed, Prof. A. M. Fisher of
Yale, in a shipwreck, and she lived unmarried,
plunging into work as a relief ; but she had the
Beecher energy which could hardly have re-
mained quiet in any case. From 1822 to 1832
she managed a girls' school in Hartford, Conn.,
with remarkable success and repute ; she wrote
some of her own class-books, one on mental and
moral philosophy being afterward used in col-
leges. From 1832 to 1834 she kept a similar
school in Cincinnati, in order to be with her
father, who was at the head of Lane Seminary ;
but her health compelled her to abandon it. For
the rest of her life she worked with heart and
soul to advance the education of women and
girls, physical and social, as well as intellectual
and moral, for she believed in the full harmony
of all inborn human qualities. She organized
a ^^National Board of Popular Education, » to
train women teachers, especially for the South
and West, and traveled and wrote extensively
in this behalf. As with most persons of much
force, she had many ^^fads'^ and eccentricities ;
but she was a high-minded, accomplished, and
charming woman, full of wit and executive
capacity. Her first work was on the ^Difficulties
of Religion^ (1836) ; among others were ^True
Remedy for the Wrongs of Women^ (1851) ;
^Physiology and Calisthenics' (1856) ; <^Common
Sense Applied to Religion' (1857) ; ^Woman's
Profession as Mother and Educator, with Views
in Opposition to Woman Suffrage' (1871).

Beecher, Charles, American clergyman,
son of Lyman Beecher : b. Litchfield, Conn., 7
Oct. 1815 ; d. Haverhill, Mass., 21 April 1900. He
was educated successively at the Boston Latin
School, the Lawrence Academy at Groton, Alass.,
and at Bowdoin College, graduating 1834. He
then studied theology under his father at Lane
Seminary, Ohio, and in 1844 was ordained
pastor of a Congregational church at Fort
Wayne, Ind. Leaving there in 185 1, he was pas-
tor in Newark, N. J., till 1854, and in 1857 took
charge of a church in Georgetown, Mass. He
lived in Florida, 1870-7, and was State superin-
tendent of public instruction there for two years,
and was stated supply at Wysox, Pa., in 1885.
His best work was in the selection of the music
for the famous ^Plymouth Collection' of hymns,
he having fine musical taste. He wrote ^The In-
carnation' (1849) ; ^ David and His Throne'
(1855); <Pen Pictures of the Bible' (1855);
'Redeemer and Redeemed' (1864) ; 'Spiritual
Manifestations' (1879); and 'Eden Tableau'
(1880). He also edited his father's autobiogra-
phy and correspondence (1863).

Beecher, Charles Emerson, American
palaeontologist: b. Dunkirk, N. Y., 9 Oct. 1856;
d. New Haven, Conn., 14 Feb. 1904. He grad-
uated at the University of Michigan 1878, stud-
ied under Prof. James Hall at Albany, N. Y. ;
in 1888 was given a position in this department
at Yale ; in 1892 was made professor of histor-
ical geology ; and in 1892 succeeded Prof. O.
C. Marsh as professor of palaeontology and cu-
rator of the geological collections. He has writ-
ten over 50 papers for scientific periodicals, and
the proceedings of scientific societies, chiefly on
evolution, especially as illustrated by the growth
and structure of trilobites, and on the classifi-
cation of trilobites and brachiopods ; a number
of these and similar studies on other organisms
were collected as 'Studies in Evolution' (1901)^
one of the Yale bicentennial publications. He
also published a memoir on the Brachiospongida
in the Yale Peabody Museum IMemoirs (i88q).

Beecher, Edward, American clergyman,
son of Lyman Beecher : b. East Hampton, L. I.,
27 Aug. 1803; d. Brooklyn, N. Y.. 28 July 1895.
Graduating at Yale 1822, he studied theology at
Andover and New Haven, and in 1826 was or-
dained over Park Street Church in Boston ;_
which he left in 1830 to take the presidency of
Illinois College, Jacksonville, III. a theological
school, whence many of Dr. Beecher's pupils
went to be pastors and teachers in the new West.
He returned to Boston in 1844 as pastor of the
Salem Street Church ; in 1856 went to the Con-
gregational church at Galesburg, 111., remaining
till 1872, also holding for some j-ears a profes-
sorship of exegesis at Chicago Theological Sem-
inary. He had been a regular writer for the
Christian Union since 1870, and in 1872 re-
tired from the ministry, removed to Brooklyn
and devoted himself entirely to writing and
missionary work, contributing to the Christian
Union, and editing the Congregationalist for six
years. Of his books, the two most discussed
were 'The Conflict of Ages' (1853), and 'The
Concord of Ages' (i860), a transference into
terms of Christian theology of the doctrines of
pre-existent and continuously existent souls and
the dualism of good and evil, the struggle of
the two being prolonged into a future life and
good finally triumphant. Besides sermons, etc.,

BEECHER

he also published a < History of the Alton Riots ^
(Cincinnati 1837); *Baptism> (r8so) ; ^Papal
Conspiracy Exposed^ (1855) ; ^History of Opin-
ions on the Scriptural Doctrine of Future Retri-
bution^ (1878).

Beecher, Henry Ward, American clergy-
man, eighth son of Lyman Beecher : b. Litch-
field, 24 June 1813; d. Brooklyn, N. Y., 8 March
1887. He was the offspring of a union which
has produced some of the world's greatest in-
fluences, and in theory ought always to produce
them — of a stern, energetic, high-principled
father, with a sweet and beauty-loving mother,
giving power and continuity to sensibility and
sympathetic emotion. Macaulay and Victor Hugo
are notable instances in this respect. He had a
rather bare, hard childhood, under a father and
stepmother who both considered duty and en-
joyment hardly compatible. The great genial
orator who shouted down and won over hostile
mobs was a shy and sensitive boy ; the editor,
author, and book-lover had a wretched inem-
ory, disliked study, and wanted to go to sea.
But the religious atmosphere was around him :
^'converted'^ in a revival, he decided to train
for the ministry, entered the Boston Latin
School in 1826, then the Mount Pleasant School
at Amherst, graduated from Amherst College
1834, and began a theological course under his
father at Lane Seminary. He revolted at his
father's sulphurous theology, however, and for
a short time in 1837 was editor of an anti-
slavery paper in Cincinnati, fervid love for
humanity holding first place with him then as
always. Later in the year he took charge of a
country church at Lawrenceburg, Ind., and mar-
ried Eunice White Bullard, of West Sutton,
Mass., to whom he had been seven years en-
gaged. In 1839 he was called to a church in
Indianapolis, then a town of 4,000 people, re-
maining there eight years and becoming widely
known both as a revivalist of great power and
a preacher of delightful humor and originality.
In 1847 he was called to Brooklyn to take
charge of a new church of nine members, called
Plymouth Church. He held this pastorate for
40 years, lacking a few months; and for the
most of the time the church was not only a
Mecca to the vast class seeking to retain Chris-
tianity while forced to discard very much in
the way of theology, but the fountain of a stream
of influence acting powerfully on the moral and
social, and sometimes the political tendencies,
of the age. He preached on whatever related
to the public welfare, probed every evil and
championed every reform, especially of intem-
perance and slavery. His outspoken courage,
strength of thought, and fe :ity of expression,
his exhaustless wealth of eloquent rhetoric,
humor and pathos, dramatic force, and apt
analogy and illustration, not only drew to hear
him one of the largest permanent congrega-
tions in the United States — his immense church
with its seating capacity of nearly 3,000 being
constantly crowded — but made his pulpit one
of the most famed and influential of the Eng-
lish-speaking world ; his utterances forming
a basis of action for many. He was not a the-
ologian m any sense, and his influence rested
on his abstinence from credal logic: he was
the spokesman of those who fear that if they
compute their doctrinal latitude they may dis-
cover much more than thev wish to' know and

prefer to keep the fruits of faith by evading
exact definition rather than lose them by a
rigid self-inquiry. To the orthodox of his day
he seemed an underminer ; though to many at the
present he seems conservative enough. He be-
lieved in the divinity of Christ, in immortality,
in special providences and miracles, in the Bible
as a divine revelation by fallible human instru-
ments ; he did not believe in eternal punish-
ment (which he publicly denied in 1878), elec-
tion and reprobation, the fall of Adam, the
vicarious atonement, or imputed sin and right-
eousness ; and he declared the orthodox Deity
^*barbaric, heinous, hideous.^' He gave his
whole soul to the work of preaching, often de-
livering several discourses in a single day; but
such was his physical and mental vigor that he
accomplished work in several other directions
sufiicient in each case for an able and lusty man.
He was one of the giants in oratory of the
anti-slavery time ; and none of the champions of
the cause was more hated and reviled than '*the
abolitionist Beecher,^' whose work was ex-
celled only by that of his great sister, and who
left his pulpit in the Fremont campaign to
denounce the Kansas crime, joining the Re-
publican party on its inception and traveling
great distances to speak at its meetings. Yet
he was not an abolitionist like Phillips and
Garrison: and like Lincoln and the mass of
the Republicans, held that Congress could
not interfere with slavery in the South, but
only prevent its extension. The pro-slavery
party drew no fine distinctions, however, and
the northern Democratic papers all through
this period are filled with denunciation and
caricature of him. His series of speeches in
England in the fall of 1863 helped to turn the
tide of English opinion in favor of the North.
The prime element of his success was his
enormous physical vitality : he tired out the
mobs which howled him down, by actual bodily
endurance and power of lungs, before he began
the splendid addresses which made them at least
enthusiastic admirers of himself, if not perhaps
converted believers in the Union. He had the
^^rapture of the strife'^ which Attila knew : he
loved to be the target of a ring of opponents as
well as John Quincy Adams, though without his
bitterness, and was as instant and unfailing in
retort ; a dozen taunts hurled at him in a
breath met a dozen crushing but never malicious
answers. He was for many years one of the
most popular lecturers and after-dinner speak-
ers in America. Of his set orations, those at
the Burns centennial of 1859, and by govern-
ment request at Fort Sumter, in April 1865,.
on the anniversary of its capture by the Con-
federates are most famous. He occupied sev-
eral editorial positions: editing the Independent
1861-3 ; founding the Christian Union, editings
it 1870-81 ; was a fertile sketch writer,
and wrote a novel and a ^Life of Christ.' Be-
sides this, he was an enthusiastic amateur farmer,,
and loved outdoor nature passionately, as well
as art and the drama. His open, impressible,
sensitive nature responded readily to all things
that stimulate the intellect, the heart, or the
soul. He was essentially a man of impulses
and inspirations, trusting to the spontaneous
suggestion of the moment, often not even mak-
ing notes for a sermon ; but like all men who
make any impress on the world, kept himself
filled with material for inspiration to work on.

HENRY WARD BEECHER.

BEECHER

both from books and life. He always lamented
that it had not been permitted him to lead a
life of scholarship ; but in fact he did not lead
it because he was not willing to pay the price
for it, of abstinence from leadership in the politi-
cal and social life of the time. He never lacked
courage to take a side, right or wrong, and often
grieved and alienated large bodies of his friends
by doing so when passions were hot. He was
a firm adherent of the Seward-Johnson policy of
reconstruction in 1866, despite the terrible re-
sults to which its prematurity led ; sympathized
with the Greeley movement in 1872; and braved
a threatened disruption of his church in 1884
by voting and speaking for Cleveland. He be-
lieved in and advocated free trade and woman
suffrage. So brave and impulsive a nature was
always shocking the conventions of his order.
Naturally, he was forever perpetrating indiscre-
tions in speech, to the delight of his enemies
and the discomfiture of his friends. Tact was
unfortunately not a large inheritance of most
of Lyman Beecher's children, and the paucity
of Henry Ward's share was the cause of many
an inept and unfortunate public utterance;
while his fertility of comparisons and analogies
often led him into pithy exaggerations and a
humorous extravagance of language which his
opponents could easily disprove in the letter.

In 1874 Mr. Beecher's former associate and
later successor in the editorship of the Inde-
pendent, Theodore Tilton. charged him with
criminal intercourse with Mrs. Tilton. A com-
mittee of Plymouth Church examined the case
and exonerated Mr. Beecher ; but Tilton had
brought suit for $100,000 against him, and after
a six months' trial the jury disagreed, a week's
confinement and 52 ballots showing three for the
plaintiff and nine for the defendant. The long
public scandal seriously affected Beecher's in-
fluence with the outside public, but his own con-
gregation stood loyal to him; and while his ^Life
of Christ^ was unsalable, and the last two vol-
umes not published till long after his death, his
sermons and some of his essays remain popular.

Mr. Beecher's first literary work was done
in his Indianapolis pastorate, where he edited
an agricultural paper, and wrote for it articles
afterward republished as "^Fruits, Flowers, and
Farming^ ; and published his first book, ^Lec-
tures to Young Men' (1844). For 20 years
after coming to Brooklyn he contributed regu-
larly to the Independent, signing with a (*),
whence the two-volume collections of 1855 and
1858 were termed "Star Papers.*' He was also
for some time a regular contributor to the
New York Ledger of "Thoughts as They Oc-
cur,'* collected in 1864 as ^Eyes and Ears' ; and
wrote serially for it his one novel, ^Norwood'
(1867). His sermons were reported in full
after 1859, and the collected volumes are termed
'Plymouth Pulpit.' A two-volume selection
revised by the author was issued by Lyman Ab-
bott in 1868; other compilations from them are
'Life Thoughts' and 'Notes from Plymouth
Pulpit' (1859); 'Pulpit Pungencies' and
'Royal Truths' (1866) ; 'Morning and Even-
ing Devotional Exercises' (1870) ; and 'Com-
forting Truths' (1884). For some years, also,
his prayers, of great charm and high quality as
compositions, were taken down by stenographers
and a collected volume issued in 1867. Other
of his works are: 'Freedom and War' (1863) ;
'Aids to Prayer' (1864) ; 'Lecture-Room

Talks' (1870) ; 'Yale Lectures on Preaching*
3 vols. 1872-4) ; 'Evolution and Religion'
(1885). Individual sermons and addresses
were published also, such as 'The Strike and Its
Lessons' (1878) ; 'Doctrinal Beliefs and Un-
beliefs' (1882), 'Wendell Phillips' (1884); 'A
Circuit of the Continent' (1884). He also
edited the famous 'Plymouth Collection' of
hymns (1855); and 'Revival Hymns' (1858).
His life was written before his death by Lyman
Abbott (1883), and Samuel Scoyille (1888);
see also 'Autobiographical Reminiscences of
Henry Ward Beecher,' by T. J. Ellinwood, who
was his private stenographer for 30 years.

Mr. Beecher's wife, Eunice White Bul-
LARD, was born in West Sutton, Mass., 26 Aug.
1812; d. Stamford, Conn., 8 March 1897. She
wrote articles for periodicals, some of them
afterward collected: also 'From Dawn to Day-
light' (1859), a story of her early married life;
'Motherly Talks with Young Housekeepers'
(1875); 'Letters from Florida' (1878); 'AH
Around the House' (1878) ; and 'Home'
(1883).

Beecher, James Chaplin, American clergy-
man, son of Lvman Beecher : b. Boston, Mass.,
8 Jan. 1828; d. Elmira, N. Y., 25 Aug. 1886.
He graduated at Dartmouth 1848, studied the-
ology at Andover, and in 1856 was ordained
a Congregational clergyman ; thence till 1861
was chaplain of the Seamen's Bethel in Canton
and Hong Kong, China. Entering the Civil
War as a chaplain, he rose to the rank of brevet
brigadier-general and subsequently held pasto-
rates in Owego, N. Y., 1867-70, Poughkeepsie
1871-3, and Brooklyn 1881-2. After 1864, a suf-
ferer from mental troubles, his last three years
were passed in much distress, and he finally
committed suicide.

Beecher, Lyman, American theologian: b.
New Haven, Conn., 12 Oct. 1775 ; d. Brooklyn,
N. Y., 10 Jan. 1863. He was a blacksmith's
son and himself a blacksmith's helper and far-
mer's lad in boyhood. Entering Yale College
at 18, he graduated in 1797, studying also the-
ology under President Dwight till 1798, when
he became supply at East Hampton, L. I., and was
ordained there 1799, remaining till 1810. His re-
markable pulpit oratory gained national repute
from a sermon in 1804 on Alexander Hamilton's
death at Burr's hands — an occasion which made
more than one reputation, all utterances being
eagerly scanned from the excitement and party
feeling. In 1810 he was called to Litchfield,
Conn., the seat of a celebrated law school and
other educational institutions, at a time when
New England was the intellectual autocrat of
the country, and towns were few and small ;
and soon became recognized not only as the
foremost man in the Congregational body, but
one of the greatest of American preachers.
About 1814 a half-dozen sermons of his against
intemperance, then a common vice among even
the clerg\', were not onh'' widely read in America
and England, but were translated into several
foreign languages. He also took a foremost
part in organizing Bible and missionary socie-
ties, etc. ; and his courage, power, and energy
made many look to him for guidance and suc-
cor in trouble. This came in a flood during the
next decade, when the Unitarian movement,
under Channing and its other great early lead-
ers, was sweeping the Congregational churches

BEECHER

around Boston off their feet; and Mr. Beecher,
in 1826, at the urgency of intiuential clergj^men,
accepted a call to the Hanover Street Church
in Boston to stem the tide, which his polemic
ardor perhaps aided in doing. In 1832 he ac-
cepted the presidency of Lane (Theological)
Seminary near Cincinnati, Ohio, which had been
endowed on the express condition of his taking
charge of it, to strengthen Calvinism in the
rapidly growing West ; he remained there till
1852, holding also the chair of sacred theology,
and was its titular president till death. He was
also pastor of the Second Presbyterian Church
in Cincinnati 1832-42. In 1833 the famous phi-
lanthropist Arthur Tappan, the chief founder
of Lane, sent the students a report of the pro-
ceedings of the Philadelphia abolition conven-
tion of that year; the students, partly southern,
at once fell into disputes on the subject of
slavery. The trustees vainly tried to check the
meetings and discussions ; Kentucky slavehold-
ers came over and urged violent suppression of
these meetings and threatened the destruction
of the seminary. The trustees in terror for-
bade all further discussion of slavery, and
therefore all the students deserted in a body.
The most of the anti-slavery wing refused to
return, and their supporters founded Oberlin
College; a few came back, and Mr. Beecher and
his son-in-law Calvin E. Stowe tried for many
years to build up the seminary again, but in
vain. Shortly after this, in 1835, he was tried
as a heretic and hypocrite, first before his own
church and then before the Presbyterian Synod,
for his ^'moderate Calvinism** ; he was acquitted,
but the Old School and New School contro-
versy finally split the church in 1838, Mr.
Beecher adhering to the New School party. In
1852 he resigned the presidency of Lane and
returned to Boston, to prepare his works for
publication ; but was striken with a slow paraly-
sis of the brain, which enfeebled his mind for
many years before his death. Despite the im-
pressions of the extreme orthodox party, he
was of the firmest doctrinal faith, though his
theology was of his own make, and his humor-
ous audacities of speech often shocked digni-
fied propriety. His boundless energy, boldness,
unconquerable will, and personal magnetism,
were those of a natural leader of men ; while his
unsurpassed logical power, his intense and com-
pact expression, and above all his entire sin-
cerity and spirituality of purpose, winged with
his racy and picturesque wit, set him above
every other American clergyman of his time
in popular influence. See his "^ Autobiography
and Correspondence,^ edited by his son Charles,
1865.

Beecher, Thomas Kinnicutt, American
clergyman, son of Lyman Beecher: b. Litch-
field, Conn., 10 Feb. 1824; d. Elmirr., N. Y., 14
March 1900. He studied at Illinois College, of
which his brother Edward was president, gradu-
ating in 1843. He was principal of a Phila-
delphia grammar-school 1846-8, of the Hartford
(Conn.) High School till 1852. He then re-
moved to Williamsburg (Brooklyn). N. Y., and
founded a Congregational Church, which he left
two years later for the pastorate of a church
in Elmira, N. Y., where he spent the rest of
his life, well-known as an unsectarian philan-
thropist and moral teacher, writer, and lec-
turer, editing for many years a weekly depart-

ment in Elmira newspapers to discuss current
questions, often with rasping originality and
always with independence. He was nominated
for a variety of offices by nearly every known
political party, but never elected. He was a
chaplain in the Army of the Potomac four
months in 1863. In 1870 he published a series
of lectures as a book, entitled *Our Seven
Churches* (of Elmira) ; and in 1901 a posthu-
mous collection of his juvenile stories was
issued, ^In Tune with the Stars.^

Beecher, Willis Judson, American clergy-
man and author : b. Hampden, Ohio, 29 April
1838. He was graduated from Hamilton Col-
lege in 1858, and from Auburn Theological
Seminary in 1864, and filled several Presbyte-
rian pastorates. From 1865-9 he was professor
of moral science and belles-lettres in Knox Col-
lege, 111., and in 1S71 became professor of the
Hebrew language and literature in Auburn
Seminary. He has published: ^Farmer Tomp-
kins and his Bible' (1874) ; '■Drill Lessons in
Hebrew* (1883) ; ^ Index of Presbyterian Min-
isters in the United States 1706-1881' (1883) ;
'Old Testament Notes' (1897) ; and hundreds
of articles in newspapers, periodicals, cyclopae-
dias and reference books.

Beecher Family, The, an extraordinary
American family of religious and humanitarian
leaders, mostly of such salient and frequently
eccentric originality, combined with immense
energy and independence of thought, that the
human race was once said to consist of ''men,
women, and Beechers.** They were all de-
scendants of Lyman Beecher of New Haven,
Conn., himself one of the most notable of
them; a famous clergyman, orator, and con-
troversialist, who had 13 children, so many of
whom rose to national or even international
distinction that he was said to be "the father
of more brains than any other man in America.*'
Eight of them were boys, seven living to ma-
turity, and nearly all of them to extreme old
age, all becoming Congregational ministers ;
and the greatest, Henry Ward, said of them
that "only one tried to escape the ministry, and
he did not succeed.*' But so great was the in-
trinsic force of the blood that the daughters
were no whit inferior in persistence of energy
and originality of ideas, that marriage did not
in the least quench their outside work and influ-
ence, and that one of them has shown the
highest creative genius and left the most en-
during memorials of the entire family. The
difference in work and sympathies of father and
children resulted from difference of generation
rather than of spirit. Lyman Beecher's prob-
lems were mainly religious. He lived at
the threshold of the new material development
of the country, when it seemed that the en-
grossing task was to prevent its relapsing to
heathenism ; at the beginning of the great lib-
eralizing flood of new scientific knowledge,
when there seemed a danger of all Christianity
being swept away with the cosmology it rested
on ; and before the humanitarian questions in
this prosperous country had come to the fore.
He was nearly 60 when the slavery problerr
first showed signs of becoming acute ; more than
60 when Father Mathew established his first
temperance society across the water ; and at
no period would he ever have favored woman
suffrage, which one even of his notable daugh-

BEECHEY — BEEF-TEA

ters wrote against. But his influence was in-
tensely strong in creating the loftj'- spirit that
fed humanitarianism. It is an encouragement
to large families, as so often in history, that the
greatest of his children were among the younger
ones : Airs. Stowe was the sixth and Henry-
Ward Beecher seventh, while the most forceful
of the others, Isabella (Mrs. Hooker), was the
eleventh. In their order, the ones who grew up
were Catherine, William Henry, Edward, Mary,
George, Harriet, Henry Ward, Charles, Isa-
bella, Thomas, and James. Catherine, robbed
of the betrothed of her youth, gave herself to
work for her sex, though not with quite the
aspirations of most recent women of her type,
and perhaps did as much good in training culti-
vated wives and mothers as if they had remained
unmarried teachers. William Henry was a
home missionary and clergyman in Ohio, and
a clergyman in the East. Edward was a clergy-
man, editor, and theological writer, who tried
to pour antique Zoroastrianism into modern
molds. !Mary married in Hartford, Conn., and
became the mother of Frederick Beecher Per-
kins and grandmother of Charlotte Perkins
Stetson. George died by accident at 34, while
filling a western pastorate. Harriet, author of
^ Uncle Tom's Cabin,^ and of a mass of other
works which would give any other author one
of the foremost places in American letters, has
a secure immortality from her masterpiece.
Henry Ward, creator of the greatness
of Plymouth Church, a Moses of liberal Con-
gregationalism, anti-slavery and temperance
leader, ardent in all work for humanity and the
elevation of the mass, need not be further cha-
racterized. Charles, clergyman and admirable
musician, is gratefully remembered for his work
in compiling the * Plymouth Collection^ of
hymn-tunes. Isabella married John Hooker, a
Hartford lawyer fully in sympathy with her,
and has been for many years one of the stanch-
est champions of woman's rights and upholder
of all good causes. Thomas, for some 40 years
located in Elmira, N. Y., was noted as an able
and independent thinker on all public questions,
which he discussed with ability and high-
mindedness. James C. was clergyman, soldier,
and clergyman again, till shadows overclouded
his mind and brought on a tragic death. Al-
together, the family is one of the most useful
as well as distinguished of the American intel-
lectual aristocracy.

Beechey, Frederick William, English ad-
miral, the son of Sir William Beechey the
painter: b. London 1796; d. 28 Nov. 1856. He
entered the navy at the age of 10, and in 181 1
was present in an engagement off Madagascar,
in which three French frigates were captured.
In 1818 he accompanied Lieut, (afterward Sir
John) Franklin in an expedition to discover the
northwest passage, and the following year took
part in a similar enterprise with Capt. Parry.
In 1821 he was commissioned, with his brother
H. W. Beechey, to exainine by land the coasts
of north Africa. During the years from 1825
to 1828 he was engaged as commander of the
Blossom in another Arctic expedition, by way
of the Pacific and Bering Strait. Of this he
published an account: ^Narrative of a Voyage
to the Pacific and Bering Strait' (1831),
and subsequently a description of the botany
and zoology of the regions visited. In 1854 he
was raised to the rank of rear-admiral.
Vol. 2 — 30.

Beechey, Sir William, eminent English
portrait painter : b. Burford, Oxfordshire, 12
Dec. 1753; d. Hampstead, 28 Jan. 1839. He en-
tered a conveyancer's office, but soon abandoned
it, and determined to make painting his profes-
sion. In 1772 he was admitted to the Royal
Academy. A large equestrian picture of George
HI. secured his election as a Royal Academician
and procured him the honor of knighthood.
He was afterward constantly and lucratively
employed. He died in 1839 at the advanced age
of 86. His attitudes and expression are gen-
erally good, but marks of carelessness are
apparent in some of his latest pictures. Two
portraits by him are contained in the Metropoli-
tan Museum of Art in New York.

Beeching, Henry Charles, English clergy-
man and author: b. 15 May 1859. He was edu-
cated at Balliol College, Oxford, was rector of
Yabbendon, Berkshire, 1885-1900, and has been
professor of theology at King's College, London,
from 1900. He has published editions of Mil-
ton, Vaughan, Daniel, Drayton, and several
anthologies of verse, and is author of ^Love in
Idleness' (1883) ; 'Love's Looking Glass'
(1891) ; *^ Seven Sermons to Schoolboys' (1894) ;
'In a Garden and Other Poems' (1895) ; 'Pages
from a Private Diary' (1898) ; 'Conferences
on Books and ]\Ien' (1900) ; 'Inns of Court
Sermons' (1901) ; 'Religio Laici' (1902) ;
'Jane Austen' (1902) ; 'Two Lectures on
Poetry.'

Beef. See 'Meat.

Beef-eater. See Buffalo-bird.

Beef-eaters, a popular name for the yeomen

of the guard of the sovereign of Great Britain, a
body instituted in 1485. There are now one
hundred in service, and seventy supernumeraries.
They are dressed after the fashion of the time
of Henry VII. The warders of the Tower
of London, who wear a similar uniform, are
also so called.

Beef-tea, a preparation made from raw
beef and often employed in nursing. It is ser-
viceable for stimulation or for nourishment
largely according to the method of its prepara-
tion. As usually made, or as prepared from
ready-made beef extracts, it has very little food
value, but is a strong heart stimulant. When
fresh beef is finely chopped and its juice
squeezed from it and flavored, to take away the
raw taste, the extract obtained is rich in the
muscle juices and is highly nutritious. It
is often thus prepared for infants and invalids.
If, however, the juice thus obtained is mixed
with water and the compound is boiled, as ie
the usual manner, all of the muscle proteids
are coagulated, as a scum, and the muscle salts,
or extractives remain in solution. The nutri-
tious portions, the scum, is thrown away and
the extractives retained in the tea. In this form
the nutritive value is slight unless the coagula-
ted proteid is retained. Ordinary meat extracts
are mixtures of the meat extractives, xanthin,
hypoxanthin, creatin, creatinin, etc. These are
heart tonics but not nourishing. Their use is
contraindicated in irritable hearts, in gout,
and in any condition in which it is thought that
the patient is not breaking down the normal
amount of proteid matter. Broths are made
of other meats. See also Dietetics; Foods for

BEEF-WOOD — BEERS

Beef-wood, a popular name for the wood
of several Australian trees of the genus Casua-
rina (q.v.), which forms the type of a family
CasuarinacecE. The trees have been compared
to gigantic horse-tails. They have pendent
leafless branches, and apetalous monoecious
flowers, the male ones being in spikes, and the
female in heads. The wood is of a reddish
color (whence the name), hard, and close-
grained, and used chiefly for fine ornamental
work.

Beehive Houses, the archaeological desig-
nation given to ancient dwellings of small size
and somewhat conical shape, found in Ireland
and Scotland. They are formed of long stones
without cement, each course overlapping that
on which it rests. Sometimes they occur singly,
at other times in clusters, and occasionally have
more than one apartment. Some of them are
found near ancient oratories, and were therefore
probably priests' dwellings, and certain groups
are encircled bj' a stone wall for defense. They
are assigned to various dates between the "th
and the 12th century.

Beelzebub, be-el'ze-bub (Hebrew, ^^the god
of flies"), a deity of the Moabites or Syrians.
This term is applied in the Scriptures to the
chief of the evil spirits (Matt. xii. 24; Mark iii.
22, etc.). The correct form is probably Beelze-
bul, but in the Syriac and Vulgate the final let-
ter is b. The alteration in that letter from b
to / may have been due to euphonic reasons, or,
as has also been maintained, zebul may have
signified "dwelling^^ or "dung." In order to
conceive how this name came to be given to
one of the greatest of the imaginary spirits of
evil it must be remembered what a terrible tor-
ment insects often are in the East. We find
that almost all nations who believe in evil
spirits represent them as the rulers of disgust-
ing, tormenting, or poisonous animals — flies,
rats, mice, reptiles, etc. The Greeks wor-
shipped several of their chief deities under the
character of protectors against these animals ;
for instance, Apollo Smintheus, the destroj^er
of rats. Christ was charged by the Jews with
driving out demons by the power of Beelzebub
(Matt. xii. 24). Compare 2 Kings i. 2.

Beer, bar, Adolf, Austrian historian: b.
Prossnitz, Moravia, 27 Feb. 1831. His publica-
tions include: ^History of International Com-
merce^ (1860-64; '•Holland and the Austrian
War of Succession* (1871) ;*^ The First Partition
of Poland-* (1873-4) '> "'The Austrian Commer-
cial Policy in the Nineteenth Century^ (1891).

Beer, Michael, German dramatist, brother
of the composer Meyerbeer : b. Berlin, 1800 ; d.
Munich, 22 March 1833. He became known to
the literary world by five tragedies, of which
his ^Struensee-* is the best. His complete
works were published at Leipsic in 1835, and
his * Correspondence' in 1837.

Beer, Wilhelm, German astronomer:
brother of the preceding: b. 4 Feb. 1797; d.
27 March 1850. He was a Berlin banker, and in
1849 became a member of the Prussian Diet.
His astronomical labors were associated with
those of the astronomer, Miidler. He built an
observatory, chiefly devoted to the observation
of the planet Mars and the moon. The crown-
ing labor of the two astronomers was a map
of the moon, published in 1836, upon which the

Lalande prize was conferred by the French
Academy.

Beer, be'er. See Ale and Beer ; Brewing.

Beer-money, in the British army, a pay-
ment of one penny a day. formerly given to non-
commissioned officers and soldiers when on home
service, instead of a daily portion of beer and
spirits. The custom was established in 1800,
and abolished in 1873, when the stoppages for
rations were also abolished.

Beere, be'er, Mrs. Bernard (Fanny Mary
Whitehead), English actress: b. Norwich. Eng-
land, 1859. She was the daughter of Wilby
Whitehead and began her stage career in 1878
at the London Opera Comique. On her mar-
riage she retired a short time from the stage,
presently returning to it as Mrs. Bernard Beere,.
and her acting in * Fedora* and "^Diplomacy* at-
tracted much favorable comment. In 1892 she
visited the United States professionally. In 1900
she married H. C. S. Olivier.

Beers, be'erz, Ethel Lynn, American poet:
b. Goshen, N. Y., 13 Jan. 1827; d. 10 Oct. 1879.
She was the author of ^AU Quiet Along the
Potomac, and Other Poems^ (1879), and was a
descendant of John Eliot, the apostle to the In-
dians.

Beers, Henry Augustin, American author:
b. Buffalo, N. Y., 2 July 1847. He graduated
from Yale in 1859; became tutor there in 1871,
and professor of English literature in 1880. He
has published, among other works, ^A Century
of x\merican Literature* (1878) ; ^The Thank-
less Muse.-* poems (1886) ; "^From Chaucer to
Tennyson* (1890) ; 'Initial Studies in American
Letters* (1892) : "^A Suburban Pastoral, and
Other Tales' (1894); ^The Ways of Yale'
(1895) ; 'History of English Romanticism in the
Eighteenth Century' (1899) ; 'History of Eng-
lish Romanticism in the Nineteenth Century'
(1901).

Beers, Jan van, barz, yan van, Flemish
poet : b. 22 Feb. 1821 ; d. 14 Nov. 1888. From
i860 he was professor at the Athenaeum in Ant-
werp. His principal works, full of sentiment and
melodious quality, are 'Youth's Dreams'
(1853); ^Pictures of Life' (1858), and 'Senti-
ment and Life' (1869).

Beers, be'erz, Nathan, American soldier:
b. Stratford, Conn., 1753; d. New Haven, 10
Feb. 1849. While still quite young he went with
his father to New Haven and was a member of
a military company formed there in 1774, which
was commanded by Benedict Arnold. Imme-
diately on the receipt of the news of the battle
of Lexington the company was called together
by their captain, and Beers with 39 others vol-
imteered to accompany him to the seat of war.
They immediately set out, and, as they passed
throuffh Pomfret, were joined by Gen. Putnam.
Beers received a lieutenant's commission in the
army in 1777, and served until 1783. He after-
ward engaged in mercantile afi^airs. and in 1798
was chosen steward of Yale College, a position
which he resigned in 1819.

Beers, William George, Canadian dentist:
b. Montreal, 5 May 1843. He was educated in
his native city, and having entered the dental
profession, he founded the first dental journal in
Canada, and remained its editor for several
years. In 1900 he was editor of 'The Dominion
Dental Journal' (Toronto), and dean of the

BEERSHEBA — BEET SUGAR

Provincial Dental College, as well as professor
of dental pathology, therapeutics, and materia
medica in McGill University. He wrote the first
book on the game of lacrosse, and js regarded
as its originator. He organized and captained
the first lacrosse team that visited England in
1876, and also the second one in 1883. He is
noted as a lecturer and public speaker, and since
1862 has been a constant contributor to the prin-
cipal American magazines.

Beersheba, be-er-she'ba (now Bir-es-Seba,
"the well of the oath"), the place where Abra-
ham made a covenant with Abimelech, and in
common speech representative of the southern-
most limit of Palestine, near which it is sit-
uated. It is now a mere heap of ruins near
several wells, though it was a place of some
importance down to the period of the Crusades.

Beeswax, a solid fatty substance secreted
by bees, and containing in its purified state three
chemical principles — -myricin, cerin, and cero-
lein. It is not collected from plants, but elab-
orated from saccharine food in the body of the
bee. It is used for the manufacture of candles,
for modeling, and in many minor processes.

Beet (AS. bete; Lat. beta), a plant of the
genus Beta, natural order Chenopodiaccc. There
are several species, mostly biennials, with stalked,
smooth, ovate leaves, with flowers borne on tall
leafy stems. B. vulgaris is generally recognized
as the only species of economic importance ; the
slender-rooted variety, or sea-beet, is found
growing wild in sandy soil, near the sea, in
Europe and western Asia. De Candolle re-
garded it as the original type. It has been in
cultivation since 200-300 B.C., and to-day the nu-
merous varieties may be classified under one of
five sections, although the divisions are arbi-
trary and of no great importance.

Garden Beets. — These usually have small
tops, with turnip-shaped to tapering roots of
medium size, fine-grained, smooth, regular, gen-
erally red but sometimes yellowish or whitish in
color. Among popular varieties are Early Blood,
Eclipse, Bassano, and Egyptian turnip. The soil
best suited is a loose, rich, deep, clean, well-
tilled loam. Well-rotted barnyard manure with
some potassic fertilizer is often applied. Seed
is sown as soon as possible in the spring, for the
early crop, with other sowings until June to en-
sure a succession ; in rows, varying from one
foot apart, where intensive gardening is prac-
tised, to three feet where horse labor is used.
The plants are thinned from four to six inches
asunder in the rows, care being taken to leave
only one plant in a place. Thinning is often
done when the young plants are large enough to
sell as "greens. * The late crop, if required for
winter use, must be stored before frost. Beets
are sometimes forced under glass.

Mangold Wiirsels or Mangels are a large,
coarse form raised for cattle-feeding. Stand-
ard varieties include Mammoth long red. Golden
tankard, and Globe. Seed is sown as early as
possible in the spring, in rows two to three feet
apart, and the plants allowed to stand 12 to 16
inches asunder in the row. To ensure a good
crop the land must be in a high state of cultiva-
tion and well supplied with plant-food. They
may be grown on alkali soils.

Sugar-Beeis. — The varieties are rather small-
growing, and nearly always yellowish or whit-
ish in color. They contain a high percentage of

sugar, which has been increased by selection and
cultivation. They are extensively grown in Eu-
rope and in the northern and western States.

Chard or Swiss Beets have comparatively
large leaves with succulant leaf-stems, which
are cooked and eaten like asparagus. See Chard.

Foliage Beets are grown for ornamental pur-
poses. The luxuriant foliage is of many colors
and varied in markings. Brazilian, Chilean, Vic-
toria, and Dracena-leaved are well-known va-
rieties. They may be raised from seed, like other
beets, and the roots lifted in fall and kept over
winter.

Uses and Feeding Value. — As a vegetable the
root of the garden beet is boiled, pickled, and
used as a salad ; and the tops are boiled as
"greens.'' The contain on an average 88.5 per
cent water ; 1.5 per cent protein ; 8 per cent ni-
trogen-free extract; i per cent ash; o.i per cent
ether extract, and 0.9 per cent crude fibre. Man-
gels are fed to cattle; they contain from 7 per
cent to 15 per cent dry matter, of which about 88
per cent is digestible ; an average percentage
composition may be taken as: water, 90.9; pro-
tein, 1.4; nitrogen-free extract, 5.5; ether ex-
tract, 0.2; ash, I.I ; crude fibre, e.g. About 77
per cent of the protein or 96 per cent of the
nitrogen-free extract is digestible. The dry
matter of mangels and corn silage are of about
equal value for feeding, but as the cost of pro-
duction in mangels is double that in corn, stock-
men in the United States have not paid much
attention to them.

Enemies. — Beets are sometimes injured by
the beet-fly, otherwise they have few insect ene-
mies. They are sometimes attacked by rust, rot,
leaf-spot, and scab. Spraying with Bordeaux
mixture will prevent the leaf diseases. Scab at-
tacks the root, and as it also attacks the potato
these crops should not be grown in succession.

Beet pulp is a by-product of sugar-beet fac-
tories, consisting of sliced sugar-beets after the
sugar is removed. It contains about 10 per cent
dry matter, the remainder being water, and in
the wet condition must be fed at once or held in
silos. It may be fed to milch cows, fattening
steers, and sheep, and ranges in value from half
to two thirds the value of corn silage. Some
of the factories have erected sheds and feed larg'^
quantities of it to stock with the addition of hay
and grain. Samuel Eraser,

Instructor in Agronomy, Cornell University.

Beet Sugar, the sugar obtained from the
beet, similar to cane sugar ; but inferior in sweet-
ening power. The discovery of sugar in the
beet was made by a German chemist, Mar-
graff, as early as 1747. No practical re-
sults followed his discovery, however, as the
cost of obtaining sugar from the beet l^
laboratory methods was too high as com-
pared with that of cane sugar. Little progress
was accomplished until about SO years later,
when another German chemist, Achard, suc-
ceeded in extracting sugar from the beet root on
a comparatively large scale. In 1812 a manu-
factory was in operation in Silesia, in which,
under Achard's direction, about 20 quintals of
beets were worked up daily, and about five
pounds of raw sugar extracted from every quin-
tal. The high price of sugar prevailing at that
time all over the European continent by reason
of the blockade, and the great interest and fa-
vorable attitude taken by the different continental
governments toward the new experiment, caused

BEET-SUGAR INDUSTRY

it to be a success for a short time. Napoleon is-
sued an imperial decree in the early part of his
reign, establishing this industry in France, and
in 1S12 he ordered the building of 10 factories
and placed Delessert in charge of their construc-
tion. In 1830 attempts were made in the United
States to introduce the cultivation of the sugar-
beet. It was not, however, till 1876 that the
first successful beet-sugar factory was built, be-
ing erected in Alvarado, Cal., since when the
production of beet sugar in the United States
has increased by leaps and bounds.

Beet-sugar Industry, The. The produc-
tion of sugar-beets and of beet sugar in the
United States is now assuming such proportions
that, with the increase of .factories and the
marked popular interest, it has become one of
the leading subjects demanding consideration
from agriculturists. There is probably no other
industry in this country that has developed so
rapidly and now absorbs so large a share of
public attention as that of beet sugar.

Attempts were made to establish the industry
in Massachusetts in 1841. There were also ef-
forts in this direction in Illinois, Wisconsin, and
California between 1863 and 1876, and much was
claimed for the industry at this time by news-
paper writers, capitalists, and leading farmers.
In California, after a long period of unprofitable
production, it achieved its first success. The
failure of these early attempts seems now very
natural as we look back over the history of agri-
cultural progress in the United States. The
beet-sugar industry belongs to the domain of
agriculture, and the problems it presents are
agricultural. These early efforts were simply
ahead of their time in the course of agricultural
development, and they failed in the establishment
of the beet-sugar industry for want of the proper
methods of farming and the proper conditions
underlying the farming industry.

At the time of the first attempts at sugar-beet
production, agriculture comprehended simply the
primary features. Its products were confined
mainly to cereals, forage crops, and live stock,
and the production and marketing of raw ma-
terials was its main object. The farmer in those
early days did not concern himself with enter-
prises dependent on the concentration of efforts
in the production of finished products. Land
could be purchased for a few dollars per acre.
If the prospective farmer did not have the money
to buy the land he could enter a claim on Gov-
ernment land. His whole ambition was to pro-
duce something quickly and pay for the lands and
primary improvements. This was accomplished
by raising corn, wheat, oats, cattle, and hogs.
The open public domain offered a free pasture.
Gradually the eastern sections became more
densely settled, and farm lands became more
expensive. Crude production was accomplished
more cheaply by the Western farmer. Later,
owing to development of transportation facilities,
the agriculture of this country had to compete
with the cheap labor of Europe. The colonial
extension of European countries brought areas
into competition with American farms in turning
out crude products, and with labor much cheaper
even than that of Europe. The problem became,
how to turn crude material into something that
would represent not merely the labor but tlie skill
and ingenuity of the American people, thus sup-
plying our own markets and those of the world
with finished products. The American farmers

found, as the manufacturers had found before
them, that their success depended upon the su-
perior skill and artisan ability of Americans as
compared with Europeans and their colonists.
'^Necessity is the mother of invention,** and de-
mand and necessity united in the evolution of a
new system. This began in the East, working
westward, in the production of butter, cheese,
prepared meats, flour, eggs, poultry, etc. Later
came the establishment of other industries, work-
ing up crude products of the farm into finished
articles. We became producers of syrups,
canned vegetables, canned fruits, etc., until man-
ufacturing reinforced farming from ocean to
ocean. When all this was accomplished, the
time was ripe for the success of the beet-sugar
industry.

Industrial Features. — It is one of the marked
features of American industrial life that the
people as a mass have always shown a readiness
to forego immediate benefits, and, even at con-
siderable expense to themselves, to encourage
industrial development. As a result this country
has made a record among the nations of the
earth unparalleled in rapid development, accumu-
lation of wealth, and hold on the trade of the
world.

One of the chief items of cost in the produc-
tion of anything is labor. In this country it is
contended that the laborer is not only entitled
to earn a living, but to live comfortably, to be
able to educate his family, and to acquire a com-
fortable home. There is no position in life, so-
cial, financial, or political, to which the laboring
man may not aspire. While this means much
for the citizen, it adds materially to the cost of
production. This country to-day is the concern
of the nations of the earth in being able to main-
tain a balance of trade in its favor through its
agricultural and industrial productions, and this
balance is constantly increasing. The sugar in-
dustry is supported by American enterprise and
spirit, and under this American policy it is rap-
idly assuming a prominent position in the long
list of successful industries.

There are two sides to the proposition of es-
tablishing a sugar factory in any particular com-
munity: (i) That of the farmer, involving
agricultural conditions; and (2) that of the
manufacturer or those financially interested in
the enterprise.

Problems for the Farmer. — The leading diffi-
culties of the farmer may first be noticed. To
begin with, he is unacquainted with the methods
of cultivating the sugar-beet plant, and his first
experience usually proves unsatisfactory. He is
accustomed to certain methods in farming. As
a rule he is conservative, and thinks, from his
long experience in farming, that he knows how
to farm. He undertakes to apply methods suc-
cessful in the cultivation and production of other
crops. He is not inclined to listen to those who
are posted in methods applicable to the new crop.
Eventually he finds out his mistake. He finds
that in growing sugar-beets he must apply prin-
cipleSj in many case, the reverse of those neces-
sary to other crops. For instance, he has been
accustomed to growing large ears of corn, large
hogs, and large steers ; but in the case of sugar-
beets he finds that the first question is not one
of size, but of quality. He must grow beets of
a certain size, purity, and sugar content. In or-
der to accomplish this he must give careful
attention to the work of preparing the land,

BEET-SUGAR INDUSTRY

planting the seed, bunching, thinning, and culti-
vating. He finds that attention to details counts
in results at the harvest in the profits on the
crop. He learns that the whole process is a very
laborious and expensive one, entirely unlike any-
thing he has attempted before. To be successful
he must apply the methods of the gardener to a
field crop. He must have a rich soil, and the
proper rain conditions at the proper time. These
facts can only be learned through experience.

The Question of Labor. — The labor problem
is important in the cultivation of sugar-beets.
At certain stages of their growth they require
a considerable amount of labor. This labor is
very tiresome. As a rule, the farmer, if he
grows beets to any extent, does not have on his
farm sufficient labor to do the work of thin-
ning and bunching, hoeing, and harvesting the
sugar-beets ; nor does any farming community
possess to any considerable extent the labor
necessary to grow the beets that a factory will re-
quire in a campaign. It will cost about $30 an
acre in sections where sugar-beets are grown
under rainy conditions, and about $40 to $45 an
acre in sections where beets are grown by irri-
gation, to cover the cost of seed, preparation of
seed-bed, bunching and thinning, hoeing, culti-
vating, harvesting, and delivering to the factory.
These estimates apply to growing sugar-beets
when it is properly done. In the farming com-
munities of foreign countries, as a rule, a large
amount of suitable labor can be secured in the
neighborhood, because these neighborhoods are
more thickly settled ; the whole population is
willing to do the laborious, tedious work re-
quired, and whole families work at it, including
the father, mother, and children. In this coun-
try, as a rule, the farmer, his older sons, and
hired hands must attend to the outdoor work.
It has been found necessary for sugar-beet
growers to resort to the cities and towns for the
extra labor required. Most of this work comes
about the time the public schools are closed, and
boys from 12 years up are employed for bunch-
ing and thinning the beets, for hoeing them
during the season, and to aid in the harvesting
by pulling, cleaving the tops, and loading the
beets into wagons. In the cities also live many
foreigners from Holland, Russia, Sweden, and
other places, who are thoroughly familiar with
this kind of work. These people are willing to
move out into the fields and live in tents ; they
make contracts at so much per acre for bunching
and thinning, hoeing, weeding, and harvesting.
Since the agitation and starting of the beet-
sugar industry in this country, foreigners are
coming here with a view to securing employment
of this kind. While the labor question is a seri-
ous one, it is one capable of solution by careful
and detailed attention.

Proble)ns for the Manufacturer. — The manu-
facturer or the capitalist who builds a factory
finds that he has even more problems to w^ork
out than the farmer, and, like the farmer, he
usually discovers that he is entering a field that
is entirely new to him. Before establishing his
plant the prospective manufacturer must thor-
oughly investigate certain conditions: (i) The
water supply, for he must have an abundant sup-
ply of pure water for the use of the factory.
(2) The fuel supply, as the factory must be lo-
cated in a section where cheap fuel can be se-
cured (the fuel usually used is coal, but on the
Pacific coast petroleum is used to a large extent,

and in some of the mountain States it is found
that wood is the cheapest fuel). (3) A market
for the product (this factor should be thoroughly
canvassed and settled prior to establishing a
factory; the fact that the manufacturer is pro-
posing to establish a factory on a particular line
of railroad can generally be used to secure by
contract low freight rates for the future in ship-
ping both beets and the finished product — •
sugar). (4) The supply of lime (the local
quarries of lime rock must be investigated to
see if the quality is suitable and the supply suffi-
cient, as a large amount will be required).

The general conditions having been found
satisfactory, and the factory being built, other
problems arise. In the beginning only a limited
amount of skilled labor is employed. Eventually
every employee of the factory will become skilled
in his particular part. After two or three cam-
paigns have passed the factory will have worked
out the details of producing the best product at
the least cost with the machinery which it has.
When this point shall have been reached those
interested will be prepared to estimate the cost
of production of beet sugar. The difference in
cost of production at a new factory and at one
operated for a considerable time is much greater
than one unacquainted with the subject would
suppose.

Statistics of the Industry. — The recent cen-
sus shows the rapid growth of the beet-sugar in-
dustry in this country. Thirty-one factories had
been established before the end of the century.
Since that time 11 other factories have been put
in operation, located at the following places,
and having the daily capacities named : Lyons,
N. Y., 600 tons; Rockyford, Col., 1,000 tons;
Sugar City, Col., 500 tons ; Bingham Junction,
Utah, 350 tons ; Provo, Utah, 350 tons ; Lansing,
Mich., 600 tons ; Saginaw, Mich., 600 tons ; Salz-
burg, Mich., 400 tons; Loveland, Col., 1,000 tons;
Menomonee Falls, Wis., 500 tons ; and Logan,.
Utah, 400 tons.

At the following places factories are either
in process of erection or preparations have been
made for building in 1902 : Sebewaing, Mich.,
600 tons ; Carrollton, Mich., 600 tons ; Mount
Clemens, Mich., 600 tons ; Crosswell, Mich., 600
tons ; Greeley, Col., 800 tons ; Eaton, Col., 500
tons; Fort Collins, Col, 500 tons.

At the following places companies have been
organized and capitalized, and there is every in-
dication that they will mature their plans and
erect factories in time to engage in the beet-
sugar campaign of 1902 or 1903 : Saginaw,
Mich., two factories, 500 tons each ; Chesaning,
Badaxe. Grand Rapids, and Lapeer, Mich. ;
Sioux City, Iowa ; Longmont, and Lamar, Col. ;
Bear River Valley, Utah; Phoenix, Ariz.;
Cheyenne, Wyo. ; Los Angeles. Cal. .

At many other places preliminary organiza-
tions have been formed which are only awaiting
developments assuring more settled conditions
affecting the sugar industry.

Methods of Groiving Sugar-Beets. — It would
be quite difficult to give general directions and
rules for growing sugar-beets applicable to all
localities and conditions. Often expert sugar-
beet growers, at public meetings and in the
agricultural press, give minute directions cov-
ering all the details of this intricate process.
Others, each well versed in the process of grow-
ing sugar-beets, get into arguments and disputes
as to the right method. In such cases each.

BEET-SUGAR INDUSTRY

may be correct in a measure. The occasion
for such disagreements Hes in the fact that each
person has in mind the right method for a par-
ticular locaHty or set of conditions. A careful
study of -the different sections of the United
States where sugar-beets are grown will lead
to the conclusion that there is no single road
to success in growing sugar-beets. Every local-
ity has settled conditions which will materially
modify any set of methods that might apply to
some other one. There are some settled rules,
of course, but it is an actual fact that the vari-
ous agricultural districts of this country will
have to work out each for itself the right
method. The person who argues that the
ground must be plowed in the fall in order to
receive the benefit of winter frosts is not
offering any argument to the Pacific coast, for
instance, where many beets are grown, and he
who insists that the ground should be rolled in
all instances after planting will hazard the crop
if his directions are followed in many parts
of Nebraska and other sections where the soil
is sandy and there are strong winds. In such
cases a smooth surface offers an excellent op-
portunity for the wind to carry along the sharp
grains of sand, cutting off the plants and de-
stroying the crop.

There can be no general fixed rules applying
to the kinds and application of fertilizers. Gen-
eral principles are all right when accompanied
with the underlying reasons, but they must
always be modified to meet local conditions.

With the development of the industry in all
the sections which have the necessary conditions,
and the acquirement of ample experience both
by the farmers in the production of beets and
by manufacturers in the making of sugar, there
will come many improvements, and eventually
a cheapening of production, a result of great
importance to all concerned in the success of
the industry, because eventually the beet-sugar
industry in the United States will have to meet
a sharper competition with foreign sugar pro-
ducers.

There are some things settled, however, about
growing sugar-beets. It will generally be con-
ceded that the ground should be plowed deep,
and in most instances subsoiled. Before the
seed is planted, the ground must be thoroughly
pulverized by harrowing and by rolling, even
if the surface has to be afterward roughened.
Advantage must be taken of the general and
prevalent rain conditions. The ground must be
moist enough to germinate the seed, either by
rainfall or irrigation. Rainfall is best when it
can be obtained. In some localities either is
used, according to circumstances. Seeds are
planted at depths of from half an inch to two
inches, according to the prevailing conditions
in the particular locality. The beets must be
planted near enough together to produce a beet
of a certain size. This spacing depends, again,
upon the locality and the nature and fertility of
the soil. The size and quality of the beet de-
pend materially on the right kind of spacing.
The beets must be thoroughly cultivated, hoed,
and hand-weeded, because cultivation tends to
conserve the moisture of the soil, and clean
fields permit favorable action of sun and air.
This close cultivation should be kept up
until the beet tops thoroughly shade the ground
and reach a size when it would be injuri-
ous to operate among them further with a

plow and hoe. The beets should be harvested
as soon as possible after they are ripe, because
then they contam the most sugar and the highest
purity. It is evident that the entire crop of
beets in the neighborhood of a factory cannot be
harvested at once. In many localities some will
have to be siloed. Harvesting-time will depend
a great deal upon circumstances connected with
the operation of the factory. The sooner the
beet is harvested after it is ripe the better, be-
cause further rainfall may start a new growth,
producing new lateral roots and new leaves,
thus greatly reducing the sugar content and
purity of the beets.

Benefits to the Fanner. — No statement of
facts with reference to any new crop would be
complete or would indicate the advisability of its
introduction unless it showed the benefits to
be derived. Of course, profit and loss in any
enterprise is the first consideration.

It has already been stated that it costs about
$30 per acre to produce sugar-beets and to
market the crop where rain conditions prevail.
This is without taking into consideration the
rent of the land, but it includes the farmer's time
and everything else that enters into the cost of
production. The average j'ieid is about 12 tons
per acre. Probably this cost of production will
be gradually reduced because of improvements
in implements and methods. The beets grown
have a gross value at the factories of $4 to
$4.50 per ton (in States paying no bounty).
This gives a gross return per acre of $48 to
$54, and a net profit of $18 to $24. It must be
kept in mind that these are averages of gross
and net proceeds. It is never very encouraging
to consult the average of agricultural crop sta-
tistics ; indeed, it is often said that ^*the average
crop does not pay.** If one should take the fig-
ures of the average crop of corn in Iowa, for
instance, or the average crop of wheat in Min-
nesota or Kansas, and compute the proceeds at
the average market price, and deduct therefrom
the cost of production, the results would show
a very small remuneration or an actual loss,
quite discouraging to one who has not investi-
gated this subject.

Taking what seem to be the most authentic
figures, the cost of producing sugar-beets in sec-
tions where they are grown by irrigation is
about $40 per acre. An average of 13 tons per
acre can be produced, having a higher sugar
content, and worth $4.50 to $5 per ton, making
the gross proceeds $58.50 to $65, and the net
profit $18.50 to $25 per acre. These figures give
to the farmer in each case a profit greatly more
satisfactory than in the case of other crops.
But the successful farmer will never be satisfied
with the average proceeds of any crop, and it is
to him we must look for the results that give
the more encouraging inducements to beet cul-
ture. Many growers receive as high as $75 and
some as high as $100 per acre for their beets,
these high results depending upon the superior
quality of the land and the superior skill of
the one producing the beets. If a farmer has
poor land or is a poor farmer, he is not in a
position to expect much in planting any kind
of crop. These statements are sufficient to give
a farmer who is experienced in all other kinds
of crops a fair insight into the situation.

There are indirect benefits in sugar-beet
growing that the farmer must take into consid-
eration, along with the direct, as follows : He

BEET-SUGAR INDUSTRY

learns that sugar-beets are a very valuable crop
to grow for his slock. It is estimated that
they are worth two thirds as much for feeding
as for production of sugar. They may enter
into a food ration for any kind of stock. The
farmer growing beets for a sugar factory re-
tains for feeding the beets that have been
*' docked,** or that are liable to be. He con-
structs root-cellars and stores them away, and
they enter largely into all animal food rations
for winter feeding. For stock-feeding sugar-
beets have both a nutritive and a sanitary
value.

The high cultivation that must be given to
the land through deep plowing, thorough har-
rowing, and constant weeding and cultivating
finally makes the land of superior quality for
any purpose. It will grow better corn or wheat,
and at a less expense, on account of the ab-
sence of weeds and grass. Finally, through ro-
tation, other fields are brought under this high
state of cultivation, until the whole farm is at
its best condition of soil fertility and produc-
tiveness.

The method that has brought this about
serves as an object-lesson to the farmer and
the farming neighborhood. A better cultivation
will prevail, and the science of farming will
become several degrees higher on account of
experience in sugar-beet cultivation.

After the beets are delivered to the fac-
tory, and the sugar has been extracted, it is
found that the pulp (which will amount to 50
per cent in weight of the beets worked) is
almost as valuable for feeding purposes as the
original beets themselves. It is a very cheap
feed and sells for 35 to 50 cents per ton. It
enters naturally and profitably into the food
rations of all kinds of stock. It is especially
valuable for steers, lambs, brood mares, and
brood sows, but reaches its highest use as ani-
mal food when fed to the dairy cow. The
farmers in the neighborhood of a beet-sugar
factory feed large quantities of it. They appre-
ciate its nutritive and sanitary value. Pulp
feeding gives an impetus to animal industry of
all kinds. It offers a stimulus to the estab-
lishment of butter and cheese factories, to the
erection of feeding-pens, and to the whole
stock-feeding industry. Its use is one of the
strong reasons for establishing the industry.

The beet-sugar industry opens up at once a
large demand for labor, not only in the factory
itself, but on the farm. It is one of the things
in which the farmer can invest with the assur-
ance that he has a sure market and a fixed price
for his crop to begin with.

Benefits to Other Industries. — The estab-
lishment of a beet-sugar factory opens up not
only a large field for the employment of labor,
but also a field for the employment of capital.
It becomes at once a market for considerable
crude material to be used in conducting the
business. First and most important it furnishes
a market for the beets. Then the factory is a
large consumer of coal, and as the factories are
often established in communities having local
coal fields they become at once local markets
for a local product. The amount of coal neces-
sary to work up a certain amount of beets is
generally computed at about 17 per cent by
weight, or, in case of an ordinary factory of 350
tons capacity, about 60 tons of coal per day, or
6,000 tons for a full campaign of 100 days. A

factory also consumes a large amount of lime
rock, which of necessity must also be a local
product. It usually consumes lime rock to the
extent of about 10 per cent of the crude weight
of beets worked, which in the case of a 350-ton
factory would be 35 tons of lime rock per day,
or 3,500 tons for the campaign. It consumes
about one fifth as much coke as lime, or a little
less than 700 tons during a campaign.

The establishment of a factory in a commu-
nity necessitates considerable transportation of
crude products — beets, coal, and lime rock —
to the factory, and in carrying the finished prod-
uct to the market. It stimulates banking and
almost all kinds of mercantile business through-
out the community.

The Future of the Industry. — The follow-
ing figures will give an idea of the possibilities
for the expansion of the beet-sugar industry in
the United States :

CONSUMPTION, PRODUCTION, AND IMPORTATION OF
SUGAR.

TONS.

For 1 90 1 the total consumption of sugar in

the United States was 2,372,000

Adding to this the average yearly increase,
based on an estimate for twenty years, the
consumption of sugar for 1902 will be.... 2,478,000
To meet annual requirements there must be
imported into the United States proper this
2,478,000 tons, less what this country man-
ufactures. The home production for 1902
should be about as follows:

Cane sugar of the South 300,000

Beet sugar of the North and

West 185,000

485,000

Balance imported 1,993,000

Requirements from outside for 1902 will be

in round numbers 2,000,000

Of this amount from insular possessions, free
of duty, there will be received —

From Porto Rico about 100,000

From Hawaii about 300,000

400,000

There must be secured from strictly

foreign sources, duty paid 1,600,000

It is the ambition of those encouraging
the beet-sugar industry to establish factories
enough at least to furnish this foreign importa-
tion. Making due allowance for failure of facto-
ries to reach in actual production their full capa-
city under ideal conditions, it would require 500
factories having a daily capacity of 500 tons of
beets to produce the sugar imported, or a suf-
ficient number of cane-sugar factories to pro-
duce an equal amount of sugar. As a matter
of fact, there is likely to be a rapid increase in
both beet-sugar and cane-sugar factories. But
for convenience the calculations here made are
based on the supposition that the increase will
be in beet-sugar factories only. In. order to
equip and build these factories it will require
an investment of capital of $250,000,000. This
vast sum of money must be expended in this
country for building materials and machinery
and in the employment of the labor necessary
to construct and equip the factories. The an-
nual requirements of these factories will be as
follows :

ANNUAL REQUIREMENTS OF 5OO BEET-SUGAR
FACTORIES.

They will require of beets tons.. 18,750,000

pay farmers for the beets $84,375,000

require of coal tons.. 3,187,500

pay the coal-dealers $ 9,562,500

require of lime rock tons. . 1,875,000

pay to the quarries for lime rock.$ 3,750,000

BEETHOVEN

They will require of coke tons. . 375,oOo

pay to the coke-dealers for coke..$ 3,000,000
expend for labor in the factories. $19,000,000

In addition to the foregoing list large amounts
of money will be paid for mill supplies,
transportation, etc. As working capital to ope-
rate these factories $135,000,000 will be required.
This sum being in use, however, for about four
months in the year, the interest charged thereon
is equal to an interest charge on $45,000,000 for
one year. It should be remembered that the
above estimates do not include the capital
already invested in the business and the opera-
tions of the factories already built, the state-
ment of which is as follows :

PRESENT DEVELOPMENT OF THE BEET-SUGAR
INDUSTRY.

Capital invested in factories, equipment, and

grounds $30,000,000

Beets purchased annually tons.. 1,875,000

Cash paid for beets purchased annually .... $ 8,437,500

Coal consumed annually tons.. 318,750

Cash paid for coal annually $ 956,250

Lime rock purchased annually tons.. 187,500

Cash paid for lime rock annually $ 375,000

Coke purchased annually tons.. 37,500

Cash paid for coke annually $ 300,000

Cash paid for labor annually $ 1,900,000

Operating capital annually employed $ 5,000,000

Also there is a considerable amount an-
nually expended for crude material and various
other things. It hardly seems possible that an
industry which affects so many people over
such a wide scope of country can fail to re-
ceive anything but the most friendly, careful,
and fostering consideration on the part of those
who shape industrial affairs.

The immensity of future demands, it seems,
answers effectually those who feel that the
industry might be overdone. Attention should
be called to the fact that not only are present
demands great, but that the rate of increase of
consumption is considerable. According to
careful statistics for the last 19 years, consump-
tion of sugar in this country has been increas-
ing at the average rate of about dVs per cent
annually. Charles F. Saylor.

Beethoven, Ludwig Van, the greatest or-
chestral composer of the 19th century : b. Bonn
16 Dec. 1770; d. Vienna 26 March 1827. While
classed among the German masters, the Dutch
Van in his name (which is not a sign of no-
bility) indicates his descent from a family in the
Netherlands, the world's musical centre in the
15th and i6th centuries. This family moved in
1650 from Louvain to Antwerp. Beethoven's
grandfather was a bass singer and a conductor ;
his father was a tenor, who did not lead an ex-
emplary life ; his income was only $150 a year,
wherefore it is not surprising that he eagerly
availed himself of his son's musical talent and
exploited it. He personally taught Ludwig to
play the violin and the clavier, in the hope of
making of him a *wonder-child'^ like Mozart.
While Ludwig was not remarkably precocious
(he_ even shed tears over his music lessons),
he is said to have written a funeral cantata at
II, and in the same year was taken on a concert-
tour by his father, who, to make his perform-
ances seem more remarkable, represented him as
being two years younger. Before he had reached
his I2th_year the organist Neefe spoke of him
as ''■playing with force and finish, reading well
at sight, and, to sum up all. playing the greater
part of Bach's 'Well Tempered Clavier,' a feat.

which will be understood by the initiated. If
he goes on as he began, he will certainly become
a second Mozart.*'

Mozart himself appears to have been of this
opinion, for when he heard young Beethoven
improvise in Vienna he exclaimed to the by-
standers, "Keep your eyes on him ! He will
give the world something to talk about !" This
was in 1787. Beethoven had been sent to
Vienna in the hope that he might be able to
take lessons of Mozart; apparently he did take
a few, but the illness of his mother made him
hasten back to Bonn. Although Bonn was a
small town, it had quite a musical atmosphere,
and Beethoven had good opportunities to be-
come acquainted with the operas and the con-
cert pieces then in vogue. He was only 13
when he got a position as assistant court organ-
ist, and subsequently he played the pianoforte
accompaniments at the rehearsals of the opera
orchestra. He also played the viola. His first
salaried position ($63 a year) was as assistant
organist under Reicha. The most important
occurrence of the Bonn period was the forma-
tion of an intimate friendship with Count von
Waldstein, to whom he subsequently dedicated
one of his best sonatas. The Count had
promptly recognized his genius, and it was
probably owing to his suggestion that the
elector of Cologne, Max Franz, decided to pro-
vide the young musician with the means for
going to Vienna again and there continuing his
studies with Haydn, to whom Beethoven had
already been introduced when Haydn stopped
at Bonn, in 1790, on his way to London. It was
in November, 1792, nearly a year after Mozart's
death, that Beethoven entered Vienna, which
was to remain his home till the end of his life.
The lessons from Ha3^dn were duly arranged
for and the first was given in Havdn's house
en Dec. 12, the payment being eight groschen
(about 20 cents). But Haydn, like most
creators, was not a good teacher and although
Beethoven took lessons of him more than a
year, he soon began to take his exercises for
correction to Schenk before showing them to
Haydn. He subsequently took lessons of the
pedantic contrapuntist Albrechtsberger, who,
however, complained that his pupil was unwill-
ing to " do anything in decent style " and had
too little respect for rules — this last being a
peculiarity which he, fortunately, soon began
to manifest in his compositions. To these com-
positions he was so lucky as to be able to devote
nearly all his time. From his father he re-
ceived no pecuniary assistance, but there were
several sources of income. Prince Lichnowskj-^
gave him an annual stipend of 600 florins, and
when, in 1809. an attempt was made to entice
him to Kassel, where a position as Kapellmeister
was offered him, some of his princely friends
gave him an additional annuity of 4,000 florins,
to chain him to Vienna. This lasted only till
1811, but at this time he was already deriving
a considerable income from the sale of his
works. Many of his letters show that he knew
how to make a good bargain. Had it not been
for a spendthrift nephew, of whom he was very
fond, and for whom it was found at the time of
his death he had even placed 7,000 florins in the
bank, he would have never suffered any financial
tribulations such as Mozart and Schubert had
to endure all their lives.

BEETHOVEN.

BEETHOVEN

It was fortunate that the Kassel offer was re-
fused, and that an earUer attempt (in 1796) to
win him for Berlin had also led to naught;
for Vienna was the proper place for Beethoven.
It was at that time the world's musical centre,
owing largely to the unusual interest taken in
music by the aristocratic circles. To under-
stand the significance of this fact we must bear
in mind that at that time there were few public
concerts ; it was the nobility who maintained the
orchestras and patronized the great artists, the
audiences being invited guests. Beethoven
brought with him from Bonn letters of intro-
duction to leading members of the aristocracy,
and thus found himself at once " in the swim."
He had not yet done anything very remarkable
as a composer and was at first admired chiefly
for his improvisations on the pianoforte; but
gradually a sense of his greatness dawned on
his patrons, who bore patiently all his eccentrici-
ties. While recognizing the advantage of being
intimate in the houses of the aristocracy, he
never truckled to rank and refused to submit
to the intricate and artificial rules of court
etiquette. At the same time he expected the
aristocrats to behave like ladies and gentlemen ;
one day when a young man talked loudly while
he was playing, he suddenly stopped and ex-
claimed : " I play no longer for such hogs.''
His attitude toward wealth is illustrated by his
once sending back his brother's card on which
*Johann van Beethoven, land proprietor* was
printed, after writing on the back : " Ludwig
van Beethoven, brain proprietor."

In the homes of some of his aristocratic
friends he gave lessons' to the women and girls.
He did this unwillingly, looking at the time thus
spent as filched from his compositions. He often
failed to keep his appointments and was apt to
be irascible and bearish ; but his fair pupiis
were only too glad to put up with all this for
the sake of the benefit they got from his lessons.
He was, at the same time, a great admirer of
women and often in love, although none of his
infatuations appear to have lasted more than
seven months. He was never married, for al-
though he repeatedly proposed he was each time
refused. These love affairs call for mention
because they had an influence on not a few
of his compositions. A well-regulated house-
hold was a blessing he greatly needed. His
eccentric habits were forever forcing him to
change his lodgings and he seldom could keep
a servant longer than a few weeks. If his cook
brought him a bad egg he threw it at her. He
often got angry when the servants laughed at
the sight he presented while composing — tossing
his hands about, beating time with his feet, and
singing or rather, growling. His rooms pre-
sented scenes of great disorder. His gastro-
nomic habits were unwise, and the dyspepsia
they gave rise to was responsible for much
melancholy and for many of the outbreaks of
ill-temper for which he became notorious as he
grew older. While naturally of an affectionate
disposition (as instanced in his fondness for his
nephew) and alwaj^s fond of jokes, he would,
on occasion, insult and abuse his best friends
on sliffht provocation ; but these outbursts of
irascibility were usuallj' followed by the most
abject apologies. He was, in short, like his
music, highly emotional and regardless of rules.

The chief cause of his growing moroseness
and irritability was the difficulty of hearing
which began in 1798 and gradually ended in
complete deafness. In 1802 (25 years before
his death) he wrote in his last will: **0 ye,
who consider or declare me to be hostile, ob-
stinate, or misanthropic, what injustice ye do
me ! Ye know not the secret causes of that
which to you wears such an appearance® ; and
he proceeds to speak of his hearing, which had
been growing more and more defective for
six years, and which made him „hun people,
as he did not wish to say constantly : "Speak,
louder — bawl — for I am deaf." His last appear-
ance in public in concerted music was in 1814.
Two years lat^r he began to experiment with,
ear-trumpets, his collection of which is now in
the Royal Library of Berlin. His attempts to
conduct after this usually led to mortifying
and pathetic scenes. The last was in 1824,
when, although totally deaf, he insisted on con-
ducting his ninth symphony ; he could not even
hear the applause which followed it. All com-
munication with him was, in the last years of
his life, carried on with the aid of pencil and
paper. The autopsy showed that not only were
the auditory nerves practically paralyzed, but
there were other advanced troubles (the liver
was tough as leather and shrunk to half its
normal size), which made it remarkable that
he should have retained his vitality so long.
The immediate causes of death were inflamma-
tion of the lungs and dropsy. A week before
his death he was still busy with letters and with
plans for new compositions, including a tenth
symphony, a requiem, and music to Faust. He
died during a violent thunder and hail storm,
about six o'clock on March 26, 1827. The
Viennese, who had been neglecting him during
the last few years, because of the Rossini furore
(in 1823 no operas but Rossini's were sung
in Vienna, and the whole musical atmosphere
was affected by them), now realized their loss
and a crowd of 20,000 persons attended the
funeral. He was buried in the Wahringer Fried-
hof, but in 1888 his remains were transferred,
with those of Schubert, to the Central Ceme-
tery. Statues of him were erected at Bonn in
1845, in Vienna in 1880, in Brooklyn in 1894,
at Leipsic (Max Klinger) in 1902. In 1815 the
freedom of the city of Vienna had been con-
ferred upon him.

A certain wildness was given to Beethoven's
appearance by his long, abundant hair, which
was always in a state of disorder. He was
strongly built and muscular, but below rnedium
stature, his height being five feet five inches.
His small black eyes were bright and piercing,
his forehead broad and high, his ' complexion
ruddy. His friend Schindler wrote that when
a musical idea took possession of his mind,
<'there was an air of inspiration and dignity in
his aspect; and his diminutive figure seemed to
tower to the gigantic proportions of his mind.'^
Already in Bonn his friends used to note the
occasions when he was "in his raptus?^ These
moments of inspiration would come to him at
any time and anywhere — in his room, in the
streets of Vienna, and particularly in the coun-
try. He was extremely fond of nature and
country life, and spent his summers in the
picturesque regions near Vienna. A sketch

BEETHOVEN

book was always in his pocket, and into this he
•otted his ideas as they came. Afterward he
revised and re-revised these sketches. "There
is hardly a bar in his music*, says Grove, **of
which it may not be said with confidence that
it has been rewritten a dozen times. Of the
air 'O hoffnung,' in <Fidelio,^ the sketch
books show i8 attempts, and of the concluding
chorus 10.'^ These sketches have been collected
by Nottebohm and printed; they give an in-
teresting and instructive insight into the work-
shop of genius. Another curious fact regard-
ing h's creative power is that like Wagner's, it
matured slowly. Mendelssohn wrote his best
piece, the < Midsummer Night's Dream ^ overture
at the • age of 17; Schubert was 18 when he
wrote his wonderful ^Erlking;^ but Wagner
was 28 when he wrote his first really original
opera (^The Flying Dutchman^), and Beet-
hoven 29 when he composed his first symphony,
and that might have been almost as well written
by Mozart or Haydn.

It is customary to divide Beethoven's compo-
sitions into three groups, following the sugges-
tions of a Russian, W. von Lenz, who, in 1852,
issued a book entitled "^Beethoven et ses trois
styles.' The first group, in which t'le influence
of his predecessors is still more or less obvious,
includes, among many other things, the first
two symphonies, the septet, the first six string
quartets, the aria ^Ah perfido' the song
'Adelaide,' etc.; the second, which shows Beet-
hoven in the full vigor of his manhood, orig-
inality and creative power, begins after the
year 1800, and includes six symphonies, from
the third (Eroica) to the eighth, the opera
^Fidelio,' the violin concerto, the Coriolan
overture, the Egmont music, the Rasumovsky
quartets, the Kreutzer sonata, the 'cello sonata
in A, 14 sonatas for pianoforte, etc. ; the third,
which begins after a period of great tribulation
and depression in his life, includes the last five
pianoforte sonatas, the string quartets op. 127,
130, 131, 132, 135, the ^Missa solemnis,' the
ninth symphony, the ^Ruins of Athens,' etc.
Concerning some, at least, of the works of this
third period opinion is still divided. There are
critics who think that, partly in consequence of
his deafness, Beethoven had become garrulous,
incoherent, and vague, whereas others profess to
find in the compositions of this period the high-
est summit of all musical creativeness.

A better way than Lenz's of considering the
achievements of Beethoven's genius is to cast
a glance at each class of his compositions by
itself. The eminent English critic, Dr. Hueffer,
wrote that "Beethoven is in music what Shakes-
peare is in poetry, a name before the greatness
of which all other names, however great, seem to
dwindle." This is an exaggeration. There is,
in reality, only one department of music — the
symphony — 'in which Beethoven is incontestably
pre-eminent; in all the others he has his equals,
and in some his superiors. In the Lied, or art-
song, he is far inferior to Schubert and half a
dozen other masters; in the grandeur of choral
writing he never equalled Bach and Handel;
his 'Fidelio' is not equal to the best operas of
Mozart, Weber, Wagner, Gounod, Bizet, and
Verdi ; his pianoforte compositions are harmoni-
cally less fascinatinsr. and less idiomatic in style,
than Chopin's and Schumann's, and in the realm

of chamber music there are works of Haydn
Mozart, Brahms, and particularly Schubert and
Schumann, quite equal to the best of Beet-
hoven's. His weakest works are in the depart-
ment of vocal music, especially the Lied. He
once said to Rochlitz : "Songs I do not like
to write." He looked on them as bagatelles into
which it was hardly worth while to put his best
ideas. Hence, among his songs, there are only
a few which show his genius to advantage.
The best of them are ^Adelaide,' 'Die Ehre
Gottes,' and 'Li questa tomba.' (Consult Finck's,
'Songs and Song Writers,' pp. 28-34.) One
of the most judicial biographers, Wasielewski,
remarks : "While Beethoven wrote a good deal
for the voice, he cannot be considered a vocal
composer in the proper sense of the word.
Full appreciation of the real nature of the human
voice, the subtle knowledge of its resources
which we admire in Handel and Mozart, he
did not possess. His realm was instrumental
music." Nevertheless, there is much that is of
great beauty in his vocal works, which include
the opera 'Fidelio,' the oratorio 'Christus am
Oelberg,' two masses, a sonata, 66 songs with
pianoforte, 18 canors, 7 books of English,
Scotch, Irish, Welsh, and Italian songs with
pianoforte, violin, and 'cello; etc. He himself
considered his second mass — -'Missa solemnis'
■ — • his most successful work, but the musical
world is much more enamored of his 'Fidelio.'
which, while conventional in the first act, rises
in the second to such a sublime level of drama-
tic expressiveness that it is to be much regretted
he never found time to execute his other
operatic plans, which included a Macbeth, a
Faust, and an Alexander. The history of
'Fidelio' and its four overtures is of particular
interest, but the limits of space forbid its inser-
tion.

For pianoforte there are 38 sonatas, 5 con-
certos, 21 sets of variations, and more than
50 short pieces — bagatelles, rondos, preludes,
landlers, etc. Hans von Biilow spoke of Bach's
'Well-Tempered Clavichord' as the Old Testa-
ment of music and Beethoven's sonatas as the
New, "in both of which we must believe ;" and
he declared that the mere technical mastery of
these sonatas is "the task of half a life-time."
They mark a tremendous advance over all his
predecessors excepting Bach. In wealth of
melodic ideas and rhythmic variety, as well as
in structural finish, and especially in emotional
expressiveness, they far surpass all previous
works of their kind; yet it was not till several
decades after the composer's death t'nat they
began to be generally appreciated and played
in public. The pendulum then swung to the
opposite extreme, and every Beethoven sonata
was supposed to be a peerless masterwork
which is far from being true. (Read the ad-
mirable comments on all these works in chap
VII of J. S. Shedlock's 'The Pianoforte
Sonata'). In the matter of form Beethoven
was by no means the pedant many of his ad-
mirers would have him. The orthodox sonata
is supposed to consist of four movements ; but
of his 38 sonatas only 15 have four movements ;
II have 3, and 6 have only two; moreover, his
two-movement sonatas are by no means
"torsos," as some have foolishly called them ;
they include op. 90 and op. 11 1, two of his very

BEETLE

best works, the op. iii being in fact, his last
word on the subject.

The chamber music includes 8 trios for piano
and 'cello; 5 trios, 16 quartets, and 2 quintets
for strings ; 10 sonatas for piano with violin,
5 with 'cello, 1 with horn, 3 sextets and i septet
for strings and wind instruments ; 2 octets for
wind. The quartets have been made tolerably
familiar, but among the other works here re-
ferred to there are many gems of which the
public is still unaware. t>ut it is when we come
to the orchestral works — the 11 overtures, and
9 symphonies — that we see Beethoven in his
real grandeur. Of these works Richard Wag-
ner, who worshipped Beethoven, has written
most eloquently; (see index to vol. I of Glase-
napp's ^Wagner Encyclopadie,^ or to Ellis's
translation of Wagner's prose works ; Grove's
'Beethoven's Nine Symphonies' gives an excel-
lent analysis for amateurs) . Concerning the sym-
phonic works, Wagner wrote: "He deveioped
the symphony to such a fascinating fulness of
form and filled this form with such an unheard-
of wealth of enchanting melody, that we stand
to-day before the Beethoven Symphony as be-
fore the boundary line of an entirely new epoch
in the history of art; for with them a phe-
nomenon has appeared in the world, with which
the art of no time and no nation has had any-
thing to compare even remotely. '' It is not only
that Beethoven's symphonies are longer than
those of Haydn and Mozart, or broaaer and
richer in melody, more varied in rhythm, and
fuller in minute details of elaboration ; what
particularly distinguishes them is their greater
emotionality and more powerful contrasts of
moods. On the one side we have (as in the
pianoforte sonatas) those soulful, tearful adagios
which are a specialty of Beethoven; on tile other
the humorous scherzo, which he put in place
of the dainty, graceful minuet of his predeces-
sors. This symphonic scherzo was really a
new thing in music, for while there is much
fun in Haydn, it is of a much lighter quality.
In Beethoven's there are elements of grimness
and the grotesque; with an undercurrent of
melancholia as in the scherzos of Chopin. In
the art of dyeing the music in deeper and more
varied orchestral colors Beethoven's sym-
phonies and overtures also mark a great ad-
vance over his predecessors.

While Beethoven stands at the head of com-
posers of the classical school, an almost equal
claim to distinction lies in this that in his works
are to be found many of the germs which
Weber, Schubert, Mendelssohn, Schumann, and
others developed iiito the German roman-
tic school. Among these germs are his
inclination to shatter the sonata form (particu-
larly in the last movement of the ninth sym-
phony, which is epoch-making in its bold uncon-
ventionality) ; his disposition to allow his ideas
to shape the form in which they are to be ut-
tered ; the subjective expressiveness of his music,
which has five times as many expression marks
as Mozart's; the use of characteristic (realis-
tic) orchestral colors ; his way of playing the
pianoforte and conducting an orchestra, with
tempo rubato, or frequent modification of pace ;
and above all, his sanctioning of Programme
music by his 'Pastoral Symphony,^ which il-
lustrates episodes in the country — a scene at
a brook, the merrymaking of peasants, the song

of birds, and a thunderstorm. It is also signifi-
cant of his romantic inclinations that toward
the end of his life he conceived a plan of giving
poetic titles to all his sonatas and even to the
separate movements. Tae 'Moonlight sonata,^
it is well to remember, did not get its inap-
propriate name from him. Of the books relat-
ing to Beethoven several have already been
referred to. Of the biographies the best was
written in English by the American A. W.
Thayer and Dublished, in a German version
only, in three vols. (1866-77). An English
edition, revised, with a final volume, is in prepa-
ration. Thayer also furnished a useful 'Chron-
ologisches Verzeichniss' of Beethoven's works,
of which a complete edition was printed by
Breitkoff and Hartel in 1864-67. Pending the
appearance of Thayer's great work, the best
treatise is Grove's, in his 'Dictionary of Music
and Musicians •• (vol. I, pp. 162-209). Crowest's
biography is a fair compilation in one volume.
Other biographers are Wasielewski, Schindler,
Marx, Nohl, Wilder, Wegeler, and Ries. Nohl's
'Beethoven and his Contemporaries' contains
many literary "snap-shots." Analyses of his
sonatas and symphonies have been written by
Elterlein (English version) and . Reinecke.
Kullak's 'Beethoven's Piano-playing' is ex-
cellent. Other critical and analytical works are
by Ulibischeff, Wagner (essay), Harding,
Diirenberg, Alberti, Lorenz, Helm, Nottebohm,
and Frimmel. His letters have been printed in
several volumes by Nohl, Kochel, Schone, Had-
den. They are not nearly so interesting as
Schumann's, Mendelssohn's, Wagner's, Liszt'?,
and Berlioz's. Henry T. Finxk,

Musical Critic, '-Evening Post,'' N. Y.

Beetle, an insect of the order Coleoptera
Beetles are distinguished from all other insects
by the elytra or thickened fore wings, which
are not actively used in flight, the hind wings
being especially adapted for that purpose. The
elytra cover and encase, thus protecting, the
posterior segments of the thorax and the abdo-
m.en. The prothoracic segment is greatly en-
larged, often exarated in front, to receive the
head. These characters are very persistent.
There are few aberrant forms and the order is
remarkably homogenous and easily limited. The
head is free from the thorax; it is scarcely nar-
rowed behind, and its position is usually hori-
zontal. The eyes are usually quite large, and
there may be one or two oceli — not more. The
antennae are usually inserted just in front of the
eyes, and rarely between them. They are either
filiform where the joints are cylindrical, as in
the ground beetles (Carabidcc), not enlarging
toward the end, or serrate, as in the Elatcridcc,
where the joints are triangular and compressed,
giving thereby a serrate outline to the inner
edge ; or clavate as in the Silphidce, where the
enlarged terminal joints give a rounded, club-
shaped termination ; or lamellate, when the ter-
minal joints are prolonged internally, forming
broad, leaf-like expansions, as in the Scarabccida,
while the geniculate antenna is produced when
tlie second and succeeding joints make an angle
with the first. The mandibles are always well
developed as biting and chewing organs, be-
coming abnormally enlarged in the stag-beetles
(Lucanus), while in certain Scarabceida: they

BEETLE

are small and membranous. The maxillae pre-
pare the food to be crushed by the mandibles.
The greatly enlarged prothorax is free and
movable.

In the running species, as carabidce, the hind
wings being useless are aborted, and very rarely
in some tropical Lampyridcc and Scarabaidce
both pairs of wings are wanting in both sexes,
though, as in the glow-worm and some of its
allies the females, are apterous. The legs are
well developed, as the beetles are among the
most powerful running insects ; the hindermost
pair of legs becoming oar-like in the swimming
Dytiscidce and some Hydropliilidcr, while in the
Gyrinidce both pairs of hind legs become broad
and flat. The number of tarsal joints varies
from the normal number five, to four and three
joints, the terminal joint as usual being two-
clawed. These claws are known to be wanting
only in Phancnis, a scarabasid, and the aberrant
family, Stylopida. According to the number
of the tarsal joints the families of the Coleop-
tera have been grouped into the Pentarnera
(five-jointed) the Tcframera (four-jointed), the
Trhnera (three-jointed), and the Heteromera,
which are four-jointed in the hind pair, while
the first and second pairs are five-jointed. The
abdomen, usually partially concealed by the
wings, is sessile, its base broad; in form it is
usually somewhat flattened.

A few genera are capable of producing
sounds by rubbing the limbs or elytra over finely
wrinkled surfaces, which in Trox are situated
on the side of the basal segments of the abdo-
men, and in Strategus on the tergum of the
penultimate segment of the abdomen, while such
a surface is found in Higyriis on the surface of
the elytra.

The larvse when active and not permanently
enclosed (like the curculio) in the substances
that form their food, are elongated, flattened,
wormlike, with a large head, well developed
mouth-parts, and three pairs of thoracic feet,
either horny, or fleshy and retractile, while there
is often a single terminal prop-leg on the termi-
nal segment of the body and a lateral horny
spine. The wood-boring larvre of the Ceramhy-
cid(e are white, soft, and more or less c^dindrical,
while those of the CurcnUonida; are footless or
nearly so, and resemble those of the gall-flies,
both hymenopterous and dipterous.

The pupse have free limbs, and are either
enclosed in cocoons of earth, or, if wood-borers,
in rude cocoons of fine chips and dust, united
by threads, or a viscid matter supplied by the
insect. None are known to be coarctate. though
so:7ie CoccmeJl(P transform within the old larva-
skin, not rejecting it, as is usual in the the group,
while other pnpre are enclosed in the cases in
which the larva lived. In some Staphylinidce
the pupi shows a tendency to become obtected,
the limbs being soldered to the body, as if were
enclosed in a common sheath. Generally, hov/-
ever, the antennse are folded on each side of
the_ clypeus, and the mandibles, maxillse and
labinl palpi appear as elongated papillre. The
wing-pads being small are shaped like those of
the adult Meloe, and are laid upon the posterior
femora, thus exposing the meso- and meta-thorax
to view. The tarsal joints lie parallel on each
side of the middle line of the body, the hinder
pair not reaching to the tips of the abdomen,

which ends in a pair of acute, prolonged, forked,
incurved horny hooks, which must aid the pupa
in working its way to the surface when about
to transform into the beetle.

The number of known living species is be-
tween 100,000 and 200,000, and over 10,000 spe-
cies are known to inhabit the United States.
About 1,000 fossil species are known.

Coleoptera have been the favorites of ento-
mologists. They have been studied when in
their perfect state, more than any other insects,
but owing to the difficulty of finding their lar-
vae and carrying them through the successive
stages of growth, the early stages of compara-
tively few species are known. The metamor-
phoses are complete, and in this respect the
beetles are much in advance of the orders of
net-veined insects in which the transformations
are incomplete. Many beetles, as the .species
of Cetonia, etc., visit flowers to collect and eat
the pollen, and in doing so bring about the
fertilization of those flowers.

ClassHication. — The systematic arrangement
of the Coleoptera is in an unsettled state. The
tiger and ground beetles are generally consid-
ered to be the "highest'' Coleoptera, but in
reality they appeared to be allied to what were
the more prim.tive and generalized types, while
what are by some authors regarded as the
"lowest'' beetles, that is, the weevils, are the
most specialized or most highly modified. As
all our classifications begin with the more primi-
tive or earliest forms, and end with the most
specialized, we should begin with the Carabi-
dce or ground beetles, as being the nearest repre-
sentatives of what are supposed to be the earliest
beetles. We would, therefore, adopt provision-
ally Sharp's primary divisions of Coleoptera,
with some important changes. His first division
or series comprises the lamellicorns (May beetle,
etc.), and his s-^cond the Adelphaga or ground
beetles. This order should be reversed.

Series i. Adelphaga {Carahidce of some au-
thors). Antenna; long, slender, filiform; tarsi
five-jointed; maxillae highly developed, three-
lobed, the outer palpus shaped. (Ground and
tiger beetles.)

Series 2. LamelUcornia. Antennae short, the
terminal joints leaf-like; tarsi five-jointed.

Series 3. Polymorpha. Antennae either club-
like or serrated, variable in shape, as are the
number of joints of the tarsus. (Buprestidcv,
spring-beetles, etc., including many families.)

Series 4. Heteromera. Front and middle
tarsi five-jointed, hind tarsi four-pointed; other
characters very variable. Tenebrionidce, Can-
tharidcr, or blister-beetles (q.v.), etc.

Series 5. Phytophaga. Tarsi four-jointed
but with a small additional joint at the base of
the fourth joint; sole usually densely pubescent.
(Boring or longicorn beetles ; Cerambycidce,
leaf-beetle, potato beetle.)

Series 6. Rhyncophora. {Weevils.^ Head
prolonged in front to form a beak ; palpi much
reduced; tarsi four-jointed, but with an ad-
ditional minute joint at the end of the fourth.
The term Isomer a was applied by Le Conte and
Horn to a combination of series i, 2, 3, and 5.
Phytogeny. — The Coleoptera are supposed by
Braver and also Packard to have descended
from some tj'pe allied to a Campodea-Mke an-
cestor. The larvae of the ground beetles are

BEETLEHEAD— BEGAS

allied by their long legs and biting mouth-parts
to the common Campodca-Uke progenitor ; they
appear to have undergone the least modification
from the shape of the primitive coleopterous
larva ; the footless grubs of boring beetles,
longicorns and weevils, being secondary forms.
Thus the Coratidcc and next after them the
rose-beetles {Stapliylinidcc) have been regarded
as the nearest to the earliest type of beetles.

Fossil beetles. — The earliest known remains
of Coleoptera are five specimens from the car-
boniferous strata of Silesia, of which four are
wing covers and one is a pronotum ; these have
been referred by Karsch to the families Cara-
bidcr or Tcncbrionida;. In the lower Jurassic,
however, comparatively well preserved remains
of six families {Carabidce, Dytiscidcc, Elateridcc,
Scarabccidce, Ccramoycidcc, and ChrysomelidcB)
have been detected showing that early in the
Mesozoic era, nearly all the principal types of
beetles had appeared ; whence we naturally sup-
pose that their ancestors evolved during the
Carboniferous period, though their remains have
not yet been discovered. During the Tertiary
age beetles became more abundant, and a
greater number of species belonging to existing
genera have been found. The Oligocene fresh-
water deposits of Aix and Provence, of Floris-
sant, Colorado, contain many kinds of beetles,
as also does the Miocene amber of the Baltic
coast in Prussia, and the lignite of Bohemia, as
well as the fresh-water marls of Germany, Utah,
and Wyoming. Of the weevils 350 Tertiary
species have been described, their hard bodies
accounting for their preservation.

Bibliography. — The writings of Say, Harris,
and others; especially Le Conte and Horn;
^Rhynchophora of America north of Mexico^
^Classification of the Coleoptera of North
America.'

Beetlehead. See Black-bellied Plover.

Beets, bats, Nicolaus, Dutch poet and
writer: b. Haarlem, 13 Sept. 1814. He studied
theolog}' at Leyden, and after serving at Heem-
stede, near Haarlem, he was in 1854 appointed
to the pastorate of Utrecht, and in 1874 to the
chair of theology there. His poetical works
have been collected (4 vols., 1873-81). Through
the earlier pieces runs a strong vein of misan-
thropic sentiment, due probably to Byron, some
of whose works he translated into Dutch (2
vols., 1835-7). His prose writings include
'Camera Obscura' (13th ed., i38o), a series of
tales and sketches of life and scenery in Hol-
land, published under the pseudonym of Hilde-
braxd; they display keen observation and con-
siderable humor. Besides several critical works,
he published in theologv, notes on the life of St.
Paul (3d ed., 1858), and ^Stichtelijke Uren'
(new ed., 8 vols., 1872).

Befana, ba-fa'na (Italian, Befania. '^Epipli-
eiiy^^), a figure, generally representing an old
woman, which is exhibited in Italy on the day
of Epiphany by children, or in shops, etc.,
where things for children are sold. In Ger-
many presents are given to children on Christ-
mas Eve, and in France on New Year's even-
ing, but in Italy on the day of Epiphany, and it
is said that the befana brings them to good
children.

Beg, or Bey, ba, a title of honor among the
Turks, meaning "lord.'* The beg is, in some
parts of the empire, inferior to a pasha.

Bega, ba'ga, Cornelius, Dutch painter : b.
Haarlem, 1620; d. 16 Aug. 1664. He was a
pupil of Ostade, whose manner he imitated.
The subjects of his paintings are commonly the
amusements of the Dutch peasantry and the in-
terior of cottages and taverns. When the plague,
in 1664 visited Holland, a young ladj', whom hd"
loved, was attacked by it, and was abandoned
by her friends. Bega remained by her side,
rendering her every attention till her last mo-
ment, but caught the fatal infection and died.

Begarelli, ba-ga-rel'le, Antonio, Italian de-
signer, styled AxTONio of Modexa-: b. Modena,
about 1498; d. 1565. By his contemporaries he
was considered the greatest designer of his day.
He was a friend of Correggio and co-operated
with him in decorating the cathedral at Parma,
furnishing many of the designs and models for
the artist's pictures. His groups were com-
monly of life size or heroic, and were greatly
admired by Michael Angelo. He influenced
strongly the succeeding Lombard artists in the
matter of design. His 'Descent from the
Cross,' the most significant of his remaining
works, still adorns the Church of San Fran-
cesco at Modena.

Begas, ba'gas, Karl, Prussian painter : b.
Heinsberg, near Aix-la-Chapelle, 30 April 1794;
d. Berlin, 23 Nov. 1854. He studied first under
Philippart, and in Paris under Gros. His first
work, a copy of the Madonna della Sedia, at-
tracted the attention of the king of Prussia, who
appointed him painter of the Prussian court.
His productions comprise historical, genre, and
portrait paintings, of which the most important
are 'Henry IV. at the Castle of Canossa' ; the
'Sermon on the Mount' ; 'Christ on the Mount
of Olives' ; the 'Lorelei' ; and the portraits of
Humboldt, Schelling, Ritter, Ranch, Cornelius,
and Meyerbeer. He was a member of the Berlin
Academy of Fine Arts.

Begas, Karl, German sculptor (son of the
preceding) : b. 1845. He studied in the studio
of his brother Reinhold and at the Berlin Acad-
emy of Art. Among his most important works
are the Franco-Prussian memorial unveiled at
Cassel in 1898; the groups in the Berlin "Siega-
salle," of Alargrave Otho IV. and Frederick
William ; the statue of Knobelsdorf in t'.ie Ber-
lin Museum, and those of Columbus and Aris-
totle in the L^niversity of Kiel.

Begas, Oscar, German artist (eldest son of
Karl Begas, 1 794-1854) ; b. 1828. d. 1883. He
painted portraits with astonishing ability at the
age of 12, and in 1852 won a scholarship which
gave him two years of study in Italy, where
he painted his 'Hour of Gossip,' now in the
Berlin National Gallery. His work is mainly
portraiture.

Begas, Reinhold, German sculptor (son of
Karl Begas, 1794-1854) : b. Berlin, 1831. He
studied in Rome, and in 1866 settled in Berlin,
where he has not only executed many important
works in the strict line of his profession, but
painted many portraits of women, and produced
important architectural designs. Among his
most characteristic works are a statue of Schilr

BEGG— BEGGING THE QUESTION

ler (1863) ; ^Borussia,' a colossal statue in the
Ruhmeshalle in Berlin (1885) ; <The Fountain
of Neptune/ in the Schlossplatz, Berlin (1882) ;
the sarcophagus of Emperor Frederick III., in
the Potsdam Mausoleum (1892); ^Germania/
a colossal equestrian statue on the new Reich-
stag building; and a statue of Bismarck.

Begg, Alexander, Canadian author : b. Que-
bec, 19 July 1840. He was educated in Aber-
deen, Scotland, and in St. John's, P. Q. He
was the pioneer of Canadian trade (1867) in
Manitoba and in the Northwest Territories.
During the rebellion of 1869 he advocated rep-
resentative government for the people. In 1878-
84 he was deputy treasurer of the province of
Manitoba. He was commissioner for Manitoba
to the Dominion Exhibition in 1879, and had
charge of the Manitoba exhibits through On-
tario, Quebec, and the Maritime Provinces in
1879-80. His works include ^Dot it Down' ;
<The Creation of Manitoba'; <A Story of the
Saskatchewan' ; '■A Practical Guide to Mani-
toba' ; ^Ten Years in Winnipeg'; ^A History
of the Northwest' (3 vols.), etc.

Begg, James, Scottish Free Church theo-
logian : b. New Monkland, Lanarkshire, 1808 ;
d. Edinburgh, 29 Sept. 1883. Entering the min-
istry in 1829 he joined the Free Church ranks
in 1843, at the time of the Disruption, and was
minister for the rest of his life at Newington,
a suburb of Edinburgh. He was one of the
most narrow of theological leaders and bitterly
antagonistic to anything distantly approaching
liberality. He opposed the use of hymns and
church organs and did much to keep the Free
, Church as unprogressive as possible. Among
'ihis writings are *A Handbook of Popery'
(1852) ; <Seat Rents Brought to the Test of the
Scripture, Law, Reason, and Experience'
(1838) ; "^The Use of Organs and Other Instru-
ments of Music in Christian Worship Indefen-
sible' (1866).

Beggar-my-neighbor, a game at cards, usu-
ally played by two persons, who share the pack,
and, laying their shares face downward, turn up
a card alternately until an honor appears. The
honor has to be paid for by the less fortunate
player at the rate of four cards for an ace, three
for a king, two for a queen, and one for a
knave ; but if in the course of payment another
honor should be turned up, the late creditor be-
comes himself a debtor to the amount of its
value.

Beggar-Tick, a troublesome weed. See
Burr Marigold.

Beggars, a term first applied to the 300
Protestant deputies under Henri de Brederode
and Louis de Nassau, who protested against the
establishment of the Inquisition in Holland in
April 1566. The Dutch patriots assumed this
designation when they rebelled against Spain in
1572.

Beggar's Lice, a coarse weed also called
Dog's Tongue.

Beggar's Opera, The, a play by John Gay,
was first presented in 1728, exciting a "tempest
6f laughter." Its object was to satirize the
predatory habits of *polite" society in thief-
infested London, and to hold up to ridicule
Italian opera. The chief characters are thieves

and bandits. Captain Macheath, the hero, the
leader of a gang of highwaymen, is loved by the
ladies and feared by all but his friends — with
whom he shares his booty. Peachum, the "re-
spectable" patron of the gang, and the receiver
of stolen goods, betrays his confederates from
self-interest. Macheath is married to Polly
Peachum, a pretty girl, who really loves her hus-
band, and remains constant under many vicissi-
tudes. Macheath engages to marry others, but
this gets him into trouble. Being betrayed, he is
lodged in Newgate. His escape, recapture, trial,
condemnation to death, and reprieve, form the
leading episodes in his dashing career. After his
reprieve he makes tardy acknowledgment of
Polly, and oromises to remain constant to her
for the future. Polly is an interesting dramatic
character, at least three actresses having at-
tained matrimonial peerages through artistic in-
terpretation of the part. Gay's language often
conforms to the coarse taste and low standards
of his time ; and the opera, still occasionally
sung, now appears in expurgated form. Its best-
known piece is Macheath's famous song when
two of his inamoratas beset him at once :

" How happy could I be with either
Were t'other dear charmer away!"

Beggarweed, or Tick Trefoil (Desmodi-
um), a genus of about 150 species, mostly herbs
of the natural order Lcguyninoscc, natives of
warm and temperate climates. Some of the spe-
cies, notably the Florida beggarweed (£>. tortuo-
sum or molle) are used in Florida and else-
where as fodder plants and as green manures on
light soils. Like the clovers these plants can
assimilate free nitrogen from the air. The spe-
cies mentioned yields heavy crops of highly nu-
tritive hay which is relished by stock. At the
Louisiana Experiment Station six tons of hay
per acre is reported. The plant is an annual
from 3 to 10 feet tall, has pinnate leaves, small
flowers in racemes and flat, jointed pods which
adhere to clothing and animals by their hooked
hairs. The plant has been found to do well
in the West Indies and as far north as Virginia.
About 10 native species worthy a place in the
flower-garden have been offered for sale by
dealers in native plants, but not generally by
seedsmen. D. gyrans, the telegraph plant, a pur-
ple flowered perennial, native of southern Asia,
is sometimes raised in hot-houses on account
of the interesting movements of its leaflets when
exposed to favorable temperature and sun-
shine.

Beggiatoa, one of the bacteria of the fam-
ily Beggiatoacccc. They are of sanitr-ry interest
as indicating the character of the water in which
they grow, — it usually contains sulphur, — and
their presence in large quantities in a water
supply is usually held to mean that the water
is contaminated and should be investigated.
Their growth in natural sulphur waters is to be
expected.

Begging the Question, in logic, is the as-
sumption of a proposition which in reality in-
volves the conclusion. Thus, to say that par-
allel lines will never meet because they are par-
allel is simply to assume as a fact the very
thing you profess to prove. The phrase is a
translation of the Latin term, petitio principii,
and was first used by Aristotle.

BEGONIA.

Leaf of the Countess Pandolfini Begonia.

BEGIN — BEH AIM

Begin, ba-zhan, Louis Nazaire, Canadian

clergyman ; educated at the College of St. Mi-
chael de Bellechasse, the Seminary of Quebec,
Laval University, and the Grand Seminary of
Quebec. About the time of his graduation from
the last institution its trustees decided to found
a theological department in connection with La-
val University, and it was their wish that the
faculty of this theological school should be
educated in Rome. Therefore Dr. Begin, who
had been elected a member of the faculty,
was sent to Rome in 1863, and remained abroad
till 1868. During this time he traveled exten-
sively and studied many branches of theology.
On his return to Quebec he was appointed pro-
fessor of dogmatic theology and ecclesiastical
history in Laval University and held the chair
till 1884. He became principal of the Laval
normal school in 1885 ; was appointed bishop
of Chicoutimi in 1888; coadjutor to Cardinal
Taschereau, with the title of archbishop of Cy-
rene, in i8gi ; and in 1894 became administra-
tor of the Province of Quebec. His works in-
clude *La Primaute et ITnfaillibilite des Souver-
ains Pontifes,* ^La Sainte Ecriture et la Regie
de Foi> (1874); <Le Culte Cfitholique^ (1875)-

Beglerbeg, ba-lcr-ba', or more accurately,
Beylerbegi, ba-ler-ba'e, "prince of princes,''
or "lord of lords," is the title among the Turks
given to the governor of certain provinces, but
is not very commonly employed at the present
day. The governors of Rumili, of Anatolia, and
of Svria, in particular, have this title. See
Beg. '

Begon, Michel, be-goii, me-shel, French ad-
ministrator : b. Blois, France, 1638 ; d. Rochefort,
4 March 17 10. He was a naval ofificer, and suc-
cessively intendant of the French West Indies,
of Canada, of Rochefort, and La Rochelle. He
is celebrated for his love of science, and the well
known genus of plants. Begonia, was named
in his honor.

Begonia, Beefsteak Geranium, or Elepliant's
Ear. A genus of about 350 species of succu-
lent tropical herbs or under-shrubs of the nat-
ural order Begoniacecc, most abundant in Mex-
ico and Central and South America. Since the
introduction of the iirst species (B. nitida) into
England in 1777 about 150 species have been util-
ized by horticulturists, who have produced thou-
sands of varieties noted for the superb coloring
of either or both their flowers or foliage. In
general the plants are characterized by variable,
lop-sided (except in one group), alternate, en-
tire, or lobed leaves ; axillary cymes of usually
large monoecious flowers, varying in all shades
of red, also white and j'ellow; numerous sta-
mens free or basally united ; two to four styles ;
branched or twisted stigmas ; and three-winged
capsular, often colored, fruits containing nu-
merous tiny seeds. The cultivated varieties may
be grouped into: (i) Summer-flowering or tu-
berous-rooted, which produce large single and
double flowers ; (2) winter-flowering or fibrous-
rooted ; (3) semi-tuberous or Socotrana. with.
peltate leaves ; (4) ornamental-leaved, or rex,
Asiatic species an-d their descendants, with re-
markably handsome or striking foliage. There
are also hybrids between members of these
groups. Each group demands somewhat difi^er-
ent cultural treatment, but in general the tu-
berous sorts are started from seeds, and the
tubers thereafter used from year to year ; other

varieties are usually increased by means of
cuttings, either of the stem or of the leaf, by
various methods almost confined to this group
of plants. The varieties are usually easy to
cultivate, but some, especially the tuberous sorts,
are somewhat sensitive to dryness of atmos-
phere and hot sun, which usually accounts for
the poor behavior of these plants in house?
heated by hot air, steam, or hot water. For
description of species grown in America, and for
details of propagation, cultivation, etc., consult
Bailey and Miller, 'Cyclopedia of American Hor-
ticulture' (N. Y. 1900-2). Consult also: Dry-
sander, *The Genus Begonia,^ in 'Transactions
of the Linnean Society,' Vol. I (1789) ; Klatsch.
*Begoniaceen-Cattungen und Arten,' 12 plates
(1855); De Candolle, <Prodromus,' Vol. XV.
(1864) ; Ravenscroft, ^Begonia Culture for Ama-
teurs' (1894); Wynne, * Tuberous Begonias.'

Beguines, beg-en', Beguins, beg-inz, or
Beguinae, beg-wi-ne, the women who live in
communities, the members of which dwell not
in one household, as in convents, but in a group
of small cottages surrounded by a wall, with
a chapel in the centre. They vow poverty and
chastity so long as they remain in the beguinage
as their village is called. They are the associa-
tions of praying women which arose in the
Netherlands in the 13th century, the first being
formed at Nivelles, Brabant, in 1226, and spread
rapidly in the adjoining countries. They said
they originated from a certain St. Begga, Duch-
ess of Brabant, in the 7th century ; but it is be-
lieved that they were founded by Lambert le
Begue, a priest of Liege, in the 12th century.
Mosheim rejects both statements. They used to
weave cloth, live together under a directress,
and leave on being married, or indeed whenever
they pleased. They still exist in some of the
Belgian towns, notably at Ghent, also in Ger-
many, and at least in one beguinage in France,
where they are renowned as makers of lace,
though under different rules from those formerly
observed. The corresponding communities of
men were called Beghards, but these were sup-
pressed in 1650 by Pope Innocent X.

Begum, ba'giim (a feminine form corre-
sponding to beg, or bey), an Indian title of
honor equivalent to princess, conferred on the
mothers, sisters, or wives of native rulers. The
Begum of Oudh is well known in Indian his-
tory.

Behaim, ba'him, Martin, a famous cos-
mographer: b. Niiremberg about 1430; d. Fayal.
29 July 1506. He is distinguished as one of
the most learned mathematicians and astrono-
mers of his age. He was engaged in com-
merce, and traveled for the purpose of carry-
ing on his business, from 1455 to 1479: but
also devoted himself to the study of the mathe-
matical and nautical sciences. He w-ent from
Antwerp to Lisbon in 1480, where he was re-
ceived with marks of distinction. He sailed
in the fleet of Diego Cam on a voyage of dis-
covery (1484-6), and explored the islands on
the coast of Africa as far as the river Zaire. He
is also said to have discovered, or at least
to have colonized, the island of Fayal, where he
remained for several years, and assisted in the
discovery of the other Azores. He was after-
ward knighted, and returned to his native coun-
try, where he constructed a terrestrial globe in
1492, which bears the marks of the imperfect

BEHAM — BEHN

acquaintance of that age with the true dimen-
sions of the earth. Some ancient Spanish his-
torians assert that he made many discoveries,
and that he gave to his friend Columbus the idea
of another hemisphere. Robertson (in his < His-
tory of America^ ) and others contradict this
slatement. It is also rejected by Irving.

Beham, ba'ham, Bartel, German painter
and engraver: b: Niiremberg, 1496; d. Rome,
1540. He studied painting under Albert Diirer
and later in Italy, and engraving under Marc
Antonia Raimondi. Among his paintings are
* Christ Bearing the Cross, ^ ^A Woman Raised
from the Dead by the True Cross,^ and * Marcus
Curtius Leaping into the Gulf.-* Among his
prints are a portrait of William, Duke of Ba-
varia, •• ^Adam, Eve, and Death Before a Tree,^
^The Virgin Suckling a Child, ^ "^Lucretia,^
< Cleopatra,' *^ Apollo Causing Marsyas to be
Flayed,' and ^Christ Giving His Charge to Saint
Peter. >

Beham, Hans Sebald, German painter and
engraver: b. Nuremberg. 1500; d. Frankfort,
22 Nov. 1550. He studied under Albert Diirer,
and was one of his ablest scholars, but rendered
his talents worse than useless, both to himself
and society, by employing his pencil for the most
profligate purposes. The disgust produced by
his licentiousness drove him from his native
town to Frankfort-on-the-Main, where dissipa-
tion made his downward progress very rapid.

Behar, be-har', an extensive province of
British India, now a part of the presidency of
Bengal; pop. about 25,000000 in 1901. It was
ceded to the British by the Mogul shah Alum
in 1765, on condition of an annual payment of
26 lacs of rupees. It is intersected by the Gan-
ges, and produces much opium,' indigo, sugar,
cotton, and saltpetre. Gaya, the birthplace of
Buddha, and the scene of one of Vishnu's incar-
nations, is in the province, and is visited by
vast numbers of pilgrims. Other places of im-
portance in the province are Baha, Chapra, and
Patna.

Be'hemoth, the name of an animal de-
scribed in Job xl. IS, to the end. It is evidently
an herbivorous animal ; but commentators and
naturalists are not agreed as to the particular
species. Bochart, Gesenius, and the generality
of English commentators think the description
most applicable to the hippopotamus ; others
think it was the elephant. Nor would it mili-
tate much against this interpretation that the
elephant is not a native of the country in which
the scene of the poem is laid. The author of
the book of Job, whether ]\Ioses or not, may
have been familiar with life in Egypt and Arabia,
and if so, would naturally introduce scenery
and adjuncts Egyptiairor Arabian, or both com-
hined ; and that the elephant was well known in
Egypt is proved not only by the use of ivory
in the arts, specimens of which are preserved in
abundance, but also by the representation of the
animal itself on early Egyptian monuments.

Behistun, ba-his-toon', a mountain near a
village of the same name, not far from Kerman-
shah. in Persian Kurdistan, celebrated for the
sculptures and cuneiform inscriptions cut upon
one of its rocky sides, which rises almost perpen-
dicularly to the height of 1,700 feet. These
works are about 300 feet from the ground, and
were executed by the orders of Darius I., king
of Persia. The inscriptions set forth his gene-

alogy, enumerate his 19 victories obtained
against the rebels in different provinces of his
empire, and proclaim the final pacification of the
latter, and his gratitude to God. The sculptures
consist of a large tablet, on which are repre-
sented a king with his foot upon a prostrate
man, two long-speared warriors behind him,
nine captives chained together by the neck
before him, and above the whole a mythological
figure. The inscriptions are executed with great
neatness, and the whole monument is very well
preserved, the rock, which had been carefully
polished, having been coated with a hard sili-
cious varnish, much harder, indeed, than the
limestone beneath. The mountain was well
known in ancient times, being mentioned by
Diodorus under the name of Bagistanon. The
same writer states also that an inscription and
figures were engraved upon the rock by the
orders of Semiramis, but these if they ever ex-
isted, have now disappeared. Rawlinson was
the first to copy and decipher the Behistun in-
scriptions.

Behm, bam, Ernst, German geographer:
b. Gotha, 4 Jan. 1830; d. there, 15 March 1884.
In 1856 he became Dr. Petermann's chief
assistant in editing the famous geographical
periodical *^Mitteilungen,' to the editorship of
which he succeeded on his chief's death in 1878.
In 1872 he began, in conjunction with H. Wag-
ner, the useful ^Population of the Earth,' in-
tended as a statistical supplement to the 'Mitteil-
ungen' ; and from 1876 he undertook the sta-
tistical department of the '^Almanach de Gotha.'
His more extended writings of this nature are
marked by fullness, accuracy, and marked lu-
cidity of arrangement.

Behn, ban, Aphra, or Aphara, English
novelist and dramatist: b. Wye, Kent, 1640; d.
London, 16 April 1689. She went to Surinam
when she was very A'oung, and remained there
some years, during which time she became ac-
quainted with the American prince, Oroonoko,
whom she made the subject of a novel, subse-
quently dramatized by Sothern. On her return
to England she married Mr. Behn, a London
merchant, but was probably a v/idow when se-
lected by Charles II. to acquire intelligence on
the Continent during the Dutch war. She took
up her residence at Antwerp, and it is said that,
by means of one of her admirers, she obtained
notice of the intention of the Dutch to sail up
the Thames, and transmitted the news to Eng-
land. This intelligence being discredited, she
returned to England, and devote.d herself to
intrigue and writing for support. She published
three volumes of poems, by Rochester, Etherege,
Crisp, and others, with some poetry of her own ;
and wrote 17 plays, the heartless licentiousness
of which was disgraceful both to her sex and
to the age which tolerated the performance of
them. She was also the author of a couple
of volumes of novels, and of the celebrated love-
letters between a nobleman and his sister-in-
law (Lord Gray and Lady Henrietta Berkeley).
Pope, in his ^Character of Women,' alludes to
INIrs. Behn, under her poetical name of Astrea.

' The stage how loosely does Astrea tread,
Who fairly puts her characters to bed.'

She was buried in the cloisters of Westminster
Abbey. An edition of her works was published
in 1872.

BEHRENDS — BEISA

Behrends, ba'rens, Adolphus Julius Fred-
srick, American clergyman: b. Nymwegen,
Holland, i8 Dec. 1839; d. Brooklyn, N. Y.,
22 May 1900. He was successively pastor of a
Baptist church at Yonkers, N. Y., 1868, and of
the First Baptist Church in Cleveland, Ohio, 1873 ;
of the Union Congregational Church, Providence,
R. I., 1876, and of the Central Congregational
Church in Brooklyn, 1883-1900. Hex published
* Socialism and Christianity^ (1886) ; 'Philoso-
phy of Preaching^ (1890) ; 'The Old Testament
Under Fire^ ; 'The World for Christ. ■• He was
a forcible writer and very popular as a pulpit
orator.

Behrens, ba'rens. Bertha, popular German
novelist, who has written over the signature,
W. Heimburg: b. Thale, 1850. She completed
^Das Eulenhaus,* a posthumous novel by E.
Marlitt, whose successor as contributor to Die
Gartenlaube she became, and among her own
novels may be named 'Aus dem Leben meiner
Alten Freunden^ (1878, 8th ed. 1890) ; 'Lum-
penmijllers Lieschen^ (1879) ; 'Ihr einziger
Bruder' (1882); 'Waldblumen' (1882); 'Daz-
umeP (1887); ^Trudchens Heirat' (1884);
'Umfreund Schuld^ O895) ; 'Antons Erben^
(1898).

Behring, ba'ring, Emil Adolf, German
physician : b. Hansdorf, 1854, and since 1895 di-
rector of the Hygienic Institute in Marburg. He
has published 'Die Blutserumtherapie' (1892) ;
'Bekampfung der Infektionskrankheiten' (1894)
and is widely known for his discovery of diph-
theria serum.

Behring, ba'ring or be'ring. See Bering.

Beige, a light, woolen fabric, made of
wool of the natural color; that is, neither dyed
nor bleached.

Beijerland, bi'er-lant, a fertile island in
the Netherland province of South Holland at the
mouth of the Maase. It produces great quanti-
ties of flax. Pop. 13,300.

Beilan, ba-lan', a town and pass in the
north of Syria, on the Gulf of Iscanderoon.
The pass has more than once been of military
importance, and was in 1832 the scene of a
battle between Turks and Egyptians. The town,
1,584 feet above the Mediterranean, has 5,000
inhabitants.

Beilstein, bil'stin, Freidrich Konrad, Rus-
sian chemist : b. St. Petersburg, 1838. In
J866 he became professor of chemistry in St.
Petersburg Institute of Technology. He has
\)ublished 'Anleitung zur qualitaten Chemische
Analyse,^ which has been widely circulated
(1867) ; 'Die Chemische Grossindustrie auf der
Weltausstellung in Wien^ (1873) : and a cele-
brated 'Handbuch der Organischen Chemie^
(1800-1901).

Beira, ba'ra, a province of Portugal,
bounded chiefly by the River Douro on the
north, by Spain on the east, and by the Tagus
and Portuguese Estremadura on the south, and
by the Atlantic on the west. It was formerly
divided into Beira Alta (High Beira), and Beira
Baixa (Low Beira). Its extent is 9,248 square
miles, and the pop. (1900) 1,518,406. The capi-
tal is Coimbra. It is traversed by jhe Serra
d'Estrella, and well watered by the Douro,
Vol. 2 — 31.

Tagus, etc. Though not fertile in grain, the
produce of' wine and olives is considerable. The
heir-apparent of the Portuguese crown is styled
Prince of Beira. For purposes of administration
the province is subdivided into the districts of
Aveiro, Visien, Coimbra, Guarda, and Castello
Branco.

Beira, a seaport on the coast of Portu-
guese East Africa, at the mouth of the Pungwe
River, a little to the north of Sofala. It is the
nearest port to the gold-fields of Mashonaland,
and a railway through Fontesvilla, Chimoio,
Massikesse, and New Umtali to Salisbury was
completed in 1899. Beira has a good harbor
protected by a sand-bank. There is a hospital,
an English church, and about 1,600 inhabitants,
of whom about 700 are Europeans.

Beiram, ba'ram. See Bairam.

Beirut, or Beyrout, be-rut, or ba-root',
(ancient Berytus), a flourishing seaport of
Syria, 60 miles northwest of Damascus. It stands
on a tongue of land projecting into an open
bay, and spreading out toward the land into a
beautiful plain, backed by the mountains of
Lebanon. It consists of the old town, com-
posed generally of narrow dirty streets, the resi-
dence of the poorer classes, and the business
place of the merchants ; and of the new town,
which stretches around it. The latter, with its
modern houses, carriage roads, and gardens, — •
its churches, colleges, schools, and hotels, — has
little or nothing of the Oriental in its compo-
sition. Beirut has rapidly increased since 1844
when its population was only 8,000, its rise
being largely due to the extension of the silk
tidde, of which it is the centre. The better
protection afforded both to foreigners and na-
tives by its being the residence of the consuls-
general has also contributed to its prosperity.
It is the seat of a consulate of the United States.
Besides silk its principal exports are olive oil,
cereals, sesame seed, tobacco, and wool. Ship-
building is carried on here ; an English company
completed waterworks here in 1875 and gas
works were built by a French comoany in 1886.
Besides a Scottish school for Jews, there is an
American-Syrian mission in Beirut, printing an-
nually thousands of Arabic Bibles and having
a school and hospital connected with it. In
ancient times Beirut was a large and important
Phoenician city, and under the Romans was long
celebrated for its school of jurisprudence. The
Byzantine Emperor Theodosius II. raised it to
the rank of a metropolis. After being destroyed
by an earthquake in 551, it again rose to a con-
siderable town in the time of the Crusades. In
later times it was long in the possession of the
Druses. It was bombarded and taken by the
British on 29 Aug. 1840. There is a railway
to Damascus. Pop. estimated (1901) 120,000.

Beisa, bi'sa, a large Abyssinian antelope
{Oryx beisa). dififering from the gemsbok prin-
cipally in lacking the tuft of hair on the throat
and by the black patch on the front of the
face being completely separated from the cheek
stripe. This is probably the animal called oryx
by the ancients, and may be the animal from
which is derived the legend of the unicorns.
Its straight horns (about 36 inches long) when
seen in profile might easily appear as one.
Herds of beisas are still numerous upon the
plains of Somaliland. See also Gemsbok ; Oryx.

BEISSEL — BEKE

Beissel, bi'sel, Johann Conrad, German
mystic: b. Eberbach, 1690; d. Ephrata, Pa., 1768.
He studied theology at Halle, but having been
banished in 1720 for his Pietistic opinions he
emigrated to Pennsylvania, settling first at Ger-
mantown and later in Lancaster County. In
1724 he returned to Germantown and adopted
the Dunker faith, but his views as to celibacy
and his observance of Saturday as the Sabbath
were unacceptable to his neighbors, and he
therefore established a sect of Seventh Day
Dunkers. He attempted a hermit life, but his
fellow believers gathered about him and in 1735
he founded the famous Settlement of Ephrata,
Pa. (q.v.), and remained at its head till his
death. He was the author of the earliest volume
of German poetry published in America, ^Gott-
liche Liebes und Lobestone^ (1730), and pub-
lished several collections of hymns, such as
*The Voice of the Lonely and Forsaken Turtle
Dove — that is, of the Christian Church ; by a
Peaceable Pilgrim traveling to Tranquil Eter-
nity^ (1747) ; and ^Paradisiacal Wonder-Play'
(1766). In the latter are found the ^Brother
Song' of the sect with its 215 stanzas, and the
^Sister Song' with 250. He was known at
Ephrata as Friedsam, and on his tomb may be
read the inscription : "Here rests an outgrowth
of the love of God, "^Friedsam,' a solitary
Brother, afterward a leader, ruler, teacher of the
Solitary and the Congregation of Christ in and
around Ephrata." See *Chronicon Ephrateuse'
(1786) ; Sachse, ^German Sectarians of Penn-
Bylvania' (1899-1900).

Beit, Alfred, German colonial financier:
b. Hamburg, Germany, 1853 ; d. London, Eng-
land, 16 July 1906. He was educated in the
schools of his native city, emigrated to South
Africa in 1873, and was a diamond merchant in
Kimberley 1875-88. He became partner in the
hanking firm of Werner, Beit & Co. in 1888.
On the discovery of gold in the Transvaal he
purchased mining lands on an extensive scale,
and prior to the Boer war in 1899 was chief
partner in mines producing annually $90,000,000
of gold. He was a director of the Rand and
Bulfontein mines, of the Rhodesia railways, of
the Bechuana Railway Trust, and the Trans-
vaal Consolidated Lands Company. His busi-
ness offices were in Bishopsgate Street, London,
and his wealth was estimated at over $100,000,000.

Beit-el-Fakih, bat-el-fa'ke, a town of
Arabia, in Yemen, 32 miles south-southeast of
Hodeidah, and "]-] northeast of Mocha. It is
celebrated for its trade in Mocha coffee, which
is chiefly grown in the neighborhood. Pop.
about 8,000. The word Beit, signifying a house
or hut, is prefixed to the name of various other
small towns and villages in Arabia.

Beitullah, bat-ul'la, the name of the build-
ing in Mecca within whose enclosure the Caaba
(q.v.) is located.

Beitzke, bits'ke, Heinrich Ludwig, German
historian: b. Muttrin, 15 Feb. 1798; d. 10 May
1867. His publications include ^History of the
German War for Freedom' (1855) ; ^History
of the Russian War — Year of 1812' (1856);
* History of the Year 1815' (1865), etc.

Beja, ba'zha (anciently Pax Julia), a town
of Portugal, in the province of Alemtejo, 85
miles southeast of Lisbon. It stands on a height,
surrounded by walls flanked with 40 towers, and

is defended by an old fort. It was founded by
the Romans, and some Roman remains are still
visible. The town has two annual fairs and has
an extensive trade in cattle and agricultural
products. Pop. (1900) 8,895.

Bejapur, be-ja-p6r' (anciently Vijayapura,
the impregnable city), a town of Hindustan in
the Bombay presidency, near the borders of the
Nizam's dominions, about 245 miles southeast
of Bombay, and near the right bank of an
afiiuent of the Krishna. From the great extent
of the ruins here it would seem to have been
formerly one of the largest cities of India. In
its present state it may be described as two
towns adjoining each other — the fort on the
east, and the old town on the west. The former,
though much less than the latter, has one entire
and regular street 50 feet wide and nearly 3
miles long. Some of the mosques and mauso-
leums of Bejapur are elaborately elegant, but the
prevailing character is solid and massive. The
great dome of Mahomet Shah's tomb is visible
far ofif. The fretwork on the ceilings and ver-
andahs, the panels covered with passages of the
Koran in bas-relief, and the stone trellises pierced
with a mesh-work of Arabic characters, are all
in the richest style of Oriental sculpture.
Among the religious structures is a Hindu tem-
ple, built in the earliest style of Brahmanical
architecture. There are here some guns of
enormous size; one cast in 1549 is the largest
piece of brass ordnance extant. Bejapur has
become the chief town of Kaladgi district, and
some of the old palaces are now used for public
purposes. Pop. about 17,000. See Ferguson,
"^Ancient Architecture in Hindustan' (1847) ;
Ferguson, ^The Study of Indian Architecture'
(1867).

Bejar, ba'jar, a town of Spain, in the
province of Salamanca, 41 miles south of the
town of that name. It is surrounded by old
walls, and has considerable manufactures of
cloth. Lord Hill defeated a French force here
in 1813. In its vicinity are warm sulphur
springs. Pop. (1895) 12,140.

Beke, Charles Tilstone, English traveler:
b. Stepney, Middlesex, 10 Oct. 1800; d. Bromley,
Kent, 31 July 1874. In his 20th year he entered
on a business career, and was thus led to visit
Italy. On his return he studied law at Lin-
coln's Inn, and in 1834 he followed up several
archaeological articles in periodicals by publishing
^Origines Biblicse, or Researches in Primeval
History.' In 1837-8 he was British consul at
Leipsic, and in 1840 set out on his first journey
to Abyssinia. Returning in 1843 he was awarded
the gold medals of the Royal Geographical so-
cieties of London and Paris, and again engaged
in business. He subsequently made several
efforts to open up commercial intercourse with
Abyssinia, and in 1861-2 he traveled in Syria,
Palestine, and Egypt. When the news of the
detention of several British subjects by the king
of Abyssinia arrived in 1864, Beke went out to
secure their release, and was temporarily suc-
cessful, but ultimately King Theodore had to be
coerced by war. In the direction of the military
operations Beke's knowledge of the country
proved of the utmost value, and in 1870 he
received a civil list pension of $500 per annum.
In 1873 he set out for Egypt in order to explorf
the country traversed by the Israelites, and to
locate Mount Sinai. His published works com-

BEKES — BELA

prise: ^The Sources of the Nile^ (i860) ; <The
British Captives in Abyssinia' (1865) ; ^King
Theodore and Mr. Rassam' (1869) ; ^The Idol
in Horeb' (1871) ; ^ Jesus the Messiah' (1872) ;
< Discoveries of Sinai in Arabia, and of Midian'
(1878).

Bekes, ba'kash, a market town of Hun-
gary, and capital of the county of the same
name, at the junction of the Black and White
Koros, 41 miles southwest of Grossvvardein ;
formerly strongly fortified. Chief productions
— flax, cattle, wheat, wine, and honey, in all of
which the trade is considerable. Pop. (1900),
25,087.

Bekker, bek'ker, Elizabeth, Dutch novel-
ist: b. Vlissingen, 24 July 1738; d. The Hague,
5 Nov. 1804. She married Adriaan Wolff, a
Reformed Church minister at Beemster, who
died in 1777, and lived afterward in closest
friendship with Agathe Deken, who also collab-
orated in her most important works, ^History
of Sara Burgerhart' (1782) ; ^History of Wil-
liam Leevend' (1784-5) ; 'Letters of Abraham
Blankaart' (1787-9) ; 'Cornelia Wildschut'
(1793-6).

Bekker, Immanuel, German scholar, dis-
tinguished by his recensions of the texts of
Greek classics: b. Berlin, 21 May 1785; d. there,
7 June 1871. He studied in Halle, and, in
181 1, became professor of philology in his native
city. The results of his researches in the li-
braries of France, Italy, England, and Germany,
appear in his numerous recensions of texts de-
rived solely from MSS., and independently of
printed editions. The writers included in these
recensions are Plato, the Attic orators, Aristotle,
Thucydides, Theognis, Aristophanes, as well as
Livy and Tacitus.

Bel, bal, Karl Andreas, Hungarian histo-
rian, son of Matthias Bel (q.v.) : b. Presburg,
1717; d. 1782. He was professor of poetry at
Leipsic and was author of 'De Vera Origine
et Epocha Plunnorum, Avarum Hungaronum in
Pansonia' (1757) ; 'De Maria Hungarijc non
Rege sed Regina' (1744).

Bel, Matthius, Hungarian historian: b.
Orsova, 1684; d. 1749. He was distinguished as
a theologian and historian, and became rector
of the Protestant schools at Neusohl. He wrote
on the history of Hungary alone, and achieved
much distinction. His writings are even now
much valued for reference purposes.

Bel, bel, one of the most important gods
of the Babylonian mythology ; mentioned in
Scripture, in Is. xlvi. i ; Jer. i. 2 ; li. 44 ; in the
Septuagint. in Baruch vi. 40, and in the apocry-
phal additions to the Book of Daniel, as well
as by classical authors. Much light has recently
been thrown on Bel's characteristics and position
in the heavenly hierarchy, by the examination of
the cuneiform tablets and sculptures. It has
been ascertained that, prior to 1600 B.C., the
highly interesting Turanian people called Acca-
dians, the inventors of the cuneiform writing,
who wielded extensive authority in western
Asia before the Semitic Assyrians and Babylon-
ians had come into notice, worshipped as their
first triad of gods, Anu, ruling over the heaven ;
Elu, Belu, or Bel, over the earth ; and Ea, over
the sea. Bel's three children, or three of his
children, were Shamas, the sun-god ; Sin, the
moon-god ; and Ishtar, the Accadian Venus.

Sayce shows that some first-born children were
vicariously offered in sacrifice by fire to the
sun-god. From the Accadians the observance
of human sacrifice passed to various Semitic
tribes and nations. Bel's name Elu identifies
him with the Phoenician El, who, in a time
of trouble, offered his first-born son, ''the be-
loved," on a high place, by fire. It is not
settled whether or not Bel was the same also
as the Phcenician Baal. To the wrath of Bel the
deluge was attributed. In Scripture times he
was known exclusively as a Babylonian divinity,
being distinguished from both Nebo and Mero-
dach. In the later Babylonian empire, however,
Merodach came to be generally identified with
Bel, though sometimes distinguished from him,
being called "the lesser Bel.''

Bel and the Dragon, certain apocryphal
chapters added to the canonical Book of Daniel.
The Jews do not consider them part of their
Scriptures. They were penned probably by an
Alexandrian Jew, the language used being not
Hebrew, nor Aramaean, but Greek. The story
of Bel and the Dragon tells how Daniel enlight-
ened Cyrus, represented as having been a de-
vout worshipper of Bel, by proving that the
immense supplies of food laid before the idol
were really consumed, not by it or by the inhab-
iting divinity, but by the priests and their
families. On Cyrus urging that the dragon,
also worshipped, was at least a living God,
Daniel poisoned it, for which he was thrown
into a lion's den, where the Prophet Habakkuk
fed him. Ultimately he was released, and his
persecutors put to death.

The above narrative must not be confounded
with one called also 'Bel and the Dragon,'
translated by Fox Talbot from the cuneiform
tablets. Mr. Talbot believes that the dragon,
seven-headed, like the one in Revelation, would,
if the tablets were complete, prove the same
being that seduced some of the heavenly "gods,"
or angels, from their allegiance (Rev. xii. 4;
Jude vi), for which he was slain by Bel. The
resemblance is not to the apocryphal book now
tmder consideration, but to the combat between
Michael and the Dragon in Rev. xii. 7-17.

Bela, ba'16, the name of four Hungarian
kings of the Arpad dynasty. Bela I., son of
Ladislaf, competed for the crown with his
brother Andrew, and was obliged to take refuge
in Poland. Having there obtained assistance,
he returned at the head of a powerful force,
defeated his brother, who perished in the action,
and mounted the throne in 1061. He immedi-
ately began a series of important reforms, and
was contemplating others when he was sud-
denly cut oil in 1063. Bela II., surnamed the
Blind, because his eyes had been put out in
early life by his uncle, succeeded to the throne
in 1 131, and at first seemed inclined to act with
moderation and justice, but the vindictive spirit
of his queen involved him in quarrels with his
nobles, and his own intemperate habits brought
on a disease which terminated his life in 1141.
Bela III. succeeded his brother, Stephen III.,
in 1 173, and held the reins of government with
a strong hand, vigorously correcting the abuses
and putting down the turbulent spirit which
the troubles of previous reigns had engendered.
He also repelled incursions of Bohemians, Poles,
and Austrians, and retaking the towns of which
the Venetians had possessed themselves, com-
pelled them to accept of peace in 1189. He died

BELARIUS — BELCHITE

in 1 196, and was succeeded by Emeric, one of
two sons by his queen, a sister of Philip Augus-
tus, king of France. Bela IV. succeeded his
father, Andrew II., in 1235, and was shortly
after obliged to collect an army to oppose the
Tartars, who had invaded the country. In the
battle which ensued he was signally defeated,
and obliged to take refuge in Austria, where he
was detained prisoner, and only recovered his
liberty by the payment of a heavy ransom. The
Tartars having retired in 1242 Bela regained his
throne, and made it his object to repair the
results of their invasion. He subsequently estab-
lished his rule over Bosnia and northern Servia,
and died in 1270.

Bela'rius, a character of prominence in
Shakespeare's ^Cymbeline.^ Exiled by King
Cymbeline, he carries away with him the two
sons of the monarch and rears them as his own.

Belas'co, David, American dramatist: b.
San Francisco, 25 July 1859. He appeared on
the stage in 1874, but soon forsook it for play-
writing. Alone and in collaboration, he is the
author of the plays *Lord Chumley' ; ^The
Wife> ; (The Charity BalP ; <The Girl I Left
Behind Me> ; <The Heart of Maryland' ;
^Zaza' ; 'May Blossom' ; <Men and Women' ;
'La Belle Russe' ; 'Valerie' ; Du Barry' ;
'Hearts of Oak' ; 'Naughty Anthony' ; etc.

Belbeis, bel-bas', a town of Egypt, 29
miles north-northeast of Cairo, near the rail-
way to Suez and on the border of the desert,
formerly of some importance as being on the
route to the E^st. The ruins of the ancient
Bubastis are in its neighborhood. Pop. about

8;000.

Belch, Sir Toby, a roistering character in
Shakespeare's comedy, 'Twelfth Night.'

Belcher, Sir Edward, English admiral and
hydrographer : b. Halifax, N. S., 1799; d. 18
March 1877. Having taken part as midshipman in
the defense of Gaeta and the battle of Algiers, he
was in 1819 appointed to the Myrmidon sloop,
destined for the African station, and in 1825
became assistant surveyor to the Bering Strait
discovery expedition under Capt. Beechey. In
1829 he was promoted to the rank of com-
mander, and served on the coast of Africa, and
of Portugal, rendering on the latter occasion valu-
able services to the British residents by protect-
ing their property during the political troubles
in Portugal. Subsequently he was engaged for
a number of years in a voyage round the world
in the surveying vessel. Sulphur. In 1841 he
explored the inlets of the Canton River, and
materially assisted in securing the triumph of
the British army. In acknowledgment of these
services, he was knighted. Afterward he was
employed on board of the Samarang, on sur-
veying service in the East Indies, and was
severely wounded while assisting the rajah of
Sarawak, Sir James Brooke, to subdue the
pirates of Borneo. From 1852 to 1854 he com-
manded the expedition in search of Sir John
Franklin. On his return to England, he was
tried before a court-martial for voluntarily aban-
doning the ships. The case against him, how-
ever, was not legally supported, he was acquit-
ted, and his sword returned to him, but while
some of the other officers were commended, his
name was passed over in significant silence. In
1872 he became rear-admiral. He published 'The

Last of the Arctic Voyages' (1855) ! ^Narrative
of a Voyage to the East Indies.'

Belcher, Jonathan, colonial governor of
Massachusetts : b. Cambridge, Mass., 8 Jan.
1681 ; d. Elizabethtown, N. J., 31 Aug. 1757.
He was graduated at Harvard, in 1699, and
spent six years in Europe before returning to
Boston, as a merchant. From 1730 to 1741 he
was governor of Massachusetts and New Hamp-
shire, a dispute over his salary causing his
removal. In 1747 he was made governor of
New Jersey and gave it a successful adminis-
tration. He enlarged the charter of the Col-
lege of New Jersey (Princeton) and gave that
institution, among other benefactions, his own
valuable library. 'The Belcher Papers' were
issued by the Massachusetts Historical Society,
1893.

Belcher, Thomas Waugh, Anglican cler-
gyman: b. Bandon, Ireland, 1831. He was edu-
cated at Trinity College, Dublin, and in the
medical schools of Faris and Vienna and sub-
sequently took orders in the Established Church.
He has published 'Our Lord's Miracles of Heal-
ing Considered in Relation to Some Modern
Objections and to Medical Science' (1872) ;
'Hygienic Aspects of Pogonotrophy' (1864) ;
'Reformation for Drunkards' (1862) ; 'Is
Christ the Head of His Church in England'
(1881); 'Apostolic Contumacy'; 'Life of Rob-
ert Brett' (1889). He has been rector of
Frampton-Cotterell, Bristol, from 1886.

Belching, the raising of gases from the
stomach. There is always a certain amount of
air in the stomach, taken in by the act of swal-
lowing and a certain amount of carbon dioxid
is thought to be formed by the mucous mem-
brane of the stomach ; but under abnormal and
diseased conditions new gases may be formed,
causing much discomfort. Rapid eating, bolting
one's food, and drinking large quantities of
water very rapidly cause an abnormal amount
of air to be swallowed. This often causes
extreme distress imtil it is belched out. In
abnormal states of digestion quantities of gas
are formed from the fermentation of the food ;
some of these are acetylene gas, carbon dioxid,
marsh gas, sulphuretted hydrogen, hydrogen,
oxygen, and nitrogen. Lack of free hydro-
chloric acid is one of the most important factors
in this gas formation. The symptoms are usu-
ally excessive escape of gases just preceding
or closely following a meal. The gases gradu-
ally begin to form two to three hours after the
meals eaten. They increase in amount, cause
distress, and may be belched occasionally, mak-
ing one taste one's meal. While eating, the new
food dilates the stomach, causes distress, some-
times attacks of palpitation of the heart, and
when the stomach is overdilated the gases are
belched forth, sometimes in large gusts. The
treatment consists primarily in more careful
eating, but if one deliberately chooses to eat and
suffer afterward, various digestants such as
pepsin, or pancreatin, sodimn bicarbonate, taken
before the meal ; weak hydrochloric acid may be
be taken with the meal, as well as sips of very
hot water. These all aid somewhat in diminish-
ing the excessive amount of fermentation. See
Indigestion.

Belchite, bel-che'ta, a Spanish town, 22
miles south-southeast of Saragossa, noted as the
scene of a victory gained 18 June 1809, by the

BELDEN — BELFAST

French, under Sachet, over the Spanish forces
under Blake. Belchite has some manufactories
of woolens. Pop. (,i8g7) 3,409.

Belden, James Jerome, American politi-
cian : b. Fabius, N. Y., 30 Sept. 1825 ; d. Syra-
cuse, N. Y., I Jan. 1904. He received a com-
mon school education, became a contractor and
amassed a fortune in building railroads. Enter-
ing politics he became a local and State Repub-
lican leader; was elected mayor of Syracuse;
jelected to Congress from 1887 to 1896; and was
'chairman of the National Republican Committee.

• Belding, Mich., city in Iowa County: on
the Detroit. L. &. N. R.R. ; 139 miles northwest
from Detroit. It has silk mills, basket, casket
and furniture factories, machine shops, paper
box factories and other industries. The first
silk mill in the West was erected here. Pop.
(1900) 3,282.

Belem, ba-lln', a tow^n of Portugal, on the
right bank of the Tagus, two miles west-south-
west of Lisbon, of which it may be considered
a suburb. It contains a fine church and a mon-
astery, the former containing the remains of
Camoens and Vasco da Gama.

Belem'nites, a name for straight, solid,
tapering, dart-shaped fossils, popularly known as
arrow-heads, thunder-bolts, finger-stones, etc.,
but in reality the internal shell or skeleton of
a molluscous animal allied to the squid or sepia,
and the type of an extinct family, BelcrnnitidcE.
The fossil remains of the animal are met with
in the rocks of the upper secondary, both in this
country and other parts of the world ; and they
are particularly abundant in the strata of the
green sand formation in New Jersey. The part
preserved, often detached from the loose strata,
is a pointed cone sometimes eight inches long,
of brown color and stony material, resembling
in shape the head of a dart or javelin, whence
their name. Belemnites are one of the earliest
known fossils.

Bele'rium, or Bolerium, the ancient ap-
pellation of Land's End in Cornwall, England,
but the origin of the name is uncertain.

Belfast, the chief commercial and manu-
facturing city of Ireland, the capital of the prov-
ince of Ulster, on the river Lagan at the head of
Belfast Lough, about 86 miles north-northeast
of Dublin. The greater part of it is built on low
alluvial land on the banks of the Lagan, not
more than six feet above high-water mark. The
country around is extremely beautiful ; the posi-
tion of the town renders its appearance from a
distance by no means imposing, but the Lough
itself presents a fine scene ; and the slopes of the
hills that bound it and partly encircle the town
are thickly studded with the villas and country
houses of the merchants. The sewerage has
been improved. The streets are spacious, regu-
lar, and well lighted and macadamized ; the
houses, mostly of brick, are well built — many
of them very handsome. Tramways and the
electric light have been introduced. Four bridges
cross the river, one of them an elegant struc-
ture of five arches, each of 50 feet span. The
public buildings and institutions are in keeping
with a city of its size and importance. Among
the numerous churches all the chief religious
bodies are represented, the Presbyterians pos-
sessing the greatest number of places of wor-

ship. Many of the churches are handsome build-
ings. Saint Anne's, the oldest of the Episcopal
(Church of Ireland) churches, is about to be
removed and the site occupied by a cathedral,
of which the foundation stone was laid in 1899.
Trinity, a fine specimen of Gothic ; and St.
George's, adorned with a beautiful portico, are
also deserving of notice among the Episcopal
churches. The more modern of the Presby-
terian churches, as well as those of other denom-
inations, display increasing taste. St. Pat-
rick's serves as the Roman Catholic Cathedral,
but is architecturally inferior to St. Malachy's.
The secular buildings include the new city hall.
Queen's College, a massive pile in the later
Gothic style, with a fagade 600 feet in length,
erected at a cost of £30,000; the Presbyterian
Theological College ; the Methodist College, a
handsome building erected in 1868 at a cost of
£30,000 ; the municipal buildings ; the county
court-house ; the commercial buildings and ex-
change ; the buildings for the customs and inland
revenue; the post-office; the offices of the Ulster
Bank, the Bank of Ireland, the Provincial Bank,
the Belfast Bank, the National Bank, the Scot-
tish Amicable, Scottish Provident, and North
British and Mercantile Assurance companies;
the grand opera house ; the Theatre Royal ; the
county jail ; the Ulster Hall ; the Albert memorial
clock tower, 143 feet high ; etc. Of the educa-
tional institutions the most prominent is Queen's
College, first opened to students in 1849, with a
president and over 20 professors and lecturers.
Candidates for the ministry of the Presbyterian
Church of Ireland receive a training in the Gen-
eral Assembly's Theological College. The Meth-
odist College and the Campbell College (a sec-
ondary school) are important institutions; while
the Royal Academy and the Royal Academical
Institution also deserve mention. There is a
free public library belonging to the city. The
charitable institutions are very numerous and
important. In the city there are six extensive
public parks, besides the borough cemetery. Bel-
fast is the centre of the Irish linen trade and
manufacture, having within itself the great
majority of the spinning-mills and power-loom
factories in Ireland, some of them of immense
size and of imposing appearance. The spinning
of flax and weaving of linen are indeed the sta-
ple industries of the city, and have increased at
a remarkable rate in modern times. The cotton
manufacture, once of importance, is now of little
moment. There are two large shipyards, and in
their yard and engineering works Messrs. Har-
land and Wolfif employ some 10,000 hands, and
have turned out some of the finest vessels afloat,
one of their triumphs being the great steamer
Oceanic, built for the White Star line. There
are also breweries, distilleries, flour-mills, oiL
mills, saw-mills, foundries, printing and litho-
graphic works, tan-yards, chemical works, jerated
waterworks, rope works, tobacco manufactories,
felt manufactories, etc. The commerce of Bel-
fast surpasses that of any other Irish seaport,
and is rapidly increasing. By its customs reve-
nue it is the fifth port in the United Kingdom.
Belfast Lough, which forms the approach by sea,
is a fine sheet of water between the counties of
Down and Antrim, about 14 miles in length and
6 in breadth at the entrance, narrowing toward
the city. By dredging, a straight channel has
been provided to accommodate large vessels.
New docks have been constructed, giving a total

BELFAST — BELGIOJOSO

harbor area of over lOO acres. One of the grav-
ing docks is 825 feet long. The most impor-
tant branch of traffic by sea is across the channel.
A large fleet of steamers ply regularly between
Belfast and London, Plymouth, Bristol, Liver-
pool, Fleetwood, IMorecambe, Barrow, White-
haven, Ardrossan, Glasgow, Dublin, Waterford,
etc. There is also an extensive direct trade with
British North America, the Mediterranean,
France, Belgium, Holland, and the Baltic. In
1786 only 772 vessels (34,287 tons) entered the
port; whereas in 1899, 11,263 vessels, with a
burden of 2,539,199 tons, entered in the foreign,
colonial, and coasting trades, while 11,172 ves-
sels of 2,454,829 tons were cleared. Over
2,000,000 tons entered in the trade with Great
Britain. Much of the inland trade is carried
on by the Lagan Navigation, which connects the
town with Lough Neagh ; the Ulster Canal, con-
necting Lough Neagh with Enniskillen ; and by
three systems of railway, namely, the Great
Northern, the Belfast, and Northern Counties,
and the County Down. Belfast is comparatively
modern. In 1637 it obtained the privilege of
levying certain duties on goods and became a
regular seaport ; but its prosperity subsequently
was much impeded by the Civil War. Early in
the i8th century it was described as a hand-
some, thriving town, but its period of modern
prosperity dates from about 1830. The harbor
is under the management of an independent
board. Belfast returns four members to Parlia-
ment. An American consul is resident here.
Pop. (1901) 348,965.

Belfast, Maine, a city and county-seat of
Waldo County, it the head of Penobscot Bay,
and on the Maine C. R.R. ; 30 miles from the
ocean, and 132 miles northeast of Portland. It
has a fine harbor, a large domestic trade, and
important manufactures, including iron works,
shoe factories, lumber mills and chemical works.
The public library contains 5,000 volumes. The
most notable industry is ship-building, begun
here in 1793. Belfast was settled in 1770; was
invested by the British in 181 5, and was given a
city charter in 1853. Pop. (1900) 4,615.

Belfort, bel-for, a fortified town of France,
department of Haut Rhin, on the Savoureuse,
47 miles northeast of Besangon. It is well built,
and has an ancient castle situated on a lofty
rock, a fine parish church, barracks, town house,
court of primary resort, public library contain-
ing 20,000 volumes, and a communal college.
Manufactures — hats, clocks, wax tapers, iron
wire, sheet iron, etc. There are also breweries,
tanneries, and iron furnaces. The principal
trade is in grain, wine, brandy, and liquors. Iron
is extensively worked in the neighborhood. In
1814 Belfort was besieged by the allies without
success. In the Franco-German war it was
invested by the Germans, 3 Nov. 1870, and after
holding out with great bravery, capitulated, 16
Feb. 1871. In recognition of the bravery which
the garrison had shown in its defense, it was
allowed to march out with full military honors.
This defense is commemorated by the huge
*Lion of Belfort' in front of the citadel, the
work of Bartholdi. Belfort, with the district
immediately surrounding it, is the only part of
the department of Haut Rhin, which remained
to France on the cession of Alsace to Germany,
26 Feb. 1871. Pop. (1896) 27,715.

Belfry, a bell-tower or bell-turret. A bell-
tower ma}' be attached to another building, or
may stand apart; a bell-turret usually rises above
the roof of a building, and is often placed above
the top of the western gable of a church, the
terms bell-cote, bell-gable, being also used. The
part of a tower containing a bell or bells is also
called a belfrj^. Strictly speaking, a belfry is a
civil and not an ecclesiastical one, and in the
Middle Ages, the bells in the municipal belfry
became the symbols of popular freedom. The
detached bell tower is of frequent occurrence on
the continent of Europe, and in England the
cathedral of Chichester and a few parish
churches possess such an adjunct. In the United
States such structures are infrequent, but in
the town of Waterville, N. Y., is a detached belfry
or clock-tower with quarter chimes, and Brown
University at Providence is soon to have a hand-
some detached clock tower erected within its
grounds.

Belgae, a group of German and Celtic
tribes who inhabited the country extending from
the Atlantic Ocean to the Rhine, and from the
Marne and Seine to the southern mouth of the
Rhine, which is united with the Meuse. From
time to time, until the period of Cjesar, German
nations pushed forward beyond the Rhine, partly
expelling the Celts from their seats, partly unit-
ing with them ; and from this union sprang a
mixed nation, which, in its language as well as
in its manners, resembled the Germans more
than the Celts. According to the testimony of
Caesar, they were the most valiant of the Gauls.
Belgic tribes seem also to have settled in early
Britain.

Belgard, bel'gard, a town of Prussia, in
Pomerania, at the junction of the Leitnitz with
the Persante, with an old castle. Iron, cloth,
and wood are manufactured, and there is an
important horse market. Pop. (1895) 7,386.

Belgaum, bel-gam', a town of Hindustan,
in the district of Belgaum, Bombay presidency,
on the eastern slope of the western Ghauts, 2,500
feet above the sea. It consists of a native town,
fort, and cantonments, and contains the usual
courts and offices, a school for the children of
natives of rank, and various other schools. In
1818 the fort and town were taken by the British
after a gallant resistance by the Peishwa's
forces. From the salubrity of the climate and
the purity of the water, Belgaum has been
selected as a permanent military station. It car-
ries on a trade in salt, dry fish, dates, etc. ; and
cotton is manufactured. Pop. (1901) 26,200.

Belgic Confession, a credal statement put
forth in French in 1561 by Guido de Bres of
Brabant and others, and sent to Philip II. of
Spain to persuade him to tolerate the Calvinistic
faith. In 1562 it was published in the ver-
nacular, and subsequently in Dutch and German,
and was acknowledged by the synods of Ant-
werp (1566) and Dort (1619).

Belgiojoso, bel-j6-y6's6, Cristina (Princess
of), Italian patriot: b. Milan, 28 June, 1808; d.
there, 5 July 1871. She took a prominent part
in the revolution of 1830, and was exiled by
the Austrian government. She lived in Paris
for several years and then returned to Italy in
1847, and in the revolution of 1848, offered her
whole fortune to the patriot cause and equipped
several hundred volunteers at her own expense.
After a second exile of some years she returned

BELGIOJOSO — BELGIUM

under the amnesty of 1856. regained her prop-
erty, and supported the policy of Cavour. She
was the editor of several different periodicals
in the interest of Italian liberty, and was the
author of several books, among them < Souvenirs
of Exile^ (1850) ; ^History of the House of
Savoy^ (i860) ; and ^Reflections on the Actual
Condition of Italy ^ (1869).

Belgiojoso, a town of northern Italy, in
the province and eight miles southeast of Pavia.
It is situated in a beautiful and fertile plain
between the Po and the Olona, and is well built,
containing a parish and an auxiliary church.
The old castle, in which Francis I. was tem-
porarily lodged after being taken prisoner at the
battle of Pavia, in 1525, has been converted into
a magnificent chateau, surrounded by fine gar-
dens. Pop. 4,000.

Belgium (French, Belgique; German, Bel-
gian), a kingdom of Europe, bounded north by
Holland, northwest by the North Sea, west and
south by France, and east by the duchy of Lux-
emburg, Rhenish Prussia, and Dutch Limburg;
greatest length, northwest to southeast, 165
miles ; greatest breadth, north to south, 120
miles; area, about 11,400 square miles. Belgium,
in shape, resembles a triangle, which has its ver-
tex in the west ; the base resting on Germany on
the east, the shorter side facing Holland and the
sea, and the larger forming the frontier of
France. For administrative purposes it is
divided into nine provinces — Antwerp, South
Brabant, East Flanders, West Flanders, Hainaut,
Liege, Limburg, Luxemburg, and Namur. These
provinces do not differ much in area, and are so
arranged as to form a compact and commodious
division of the kingdom. South Brabant, which
from containing Brussels, the capital, may be
considered the metropolitan province, occupies
the centre, while the others cluster round, and,
with the exception of the extreme provinces of
Luxemburg and West Flanders, actually touch it.

The following table shows the areas of the
different provinces, with their population, on 31
Dec. 1900:

Provinces

Area in
sq. miles

Pop-
ulation

1,093
1,268
1,158
1,249

1,437
1,117
931
1,706
1,414

819,000

1,263,807

1,029,971

805,236

1,142,934

820.175

240,796

219,200

346,512

Flanders, West

Luxemburg

11,373

6,687,651

Physical Features. — A general idea of the
surface of the country may be obtained by
regarding it as an inclined plane, somewhat rug-
ged, and considerably elevated in the southeast,
from which it slopes, more or less gradually,
north and west, till it sinks into low plains, only
a few feet above the level of the sea. The ele-
vated districts are formed by ramifications of
the Ardennes, which, entering Belgium from
France, stretch along the south of Namur,
occupy the greater part of Luxemburg, and
attain their culminating point in the southeast
of Liege at Stavelot, in the neighborhood of
Spa, where the height exceeds 2,000 feet. The
rocks appear to rest on primary formations; but

those which reach the surface generally consist
of slate, old red sandstone, and mountain lime-
stone. Proceeding northwest, in the direction
of the dip, these rocks take a cover, and the coal
formation becomes fully developed. This coal
field is a continuation of that of the north of
France, and stretches through Belgium in a
northeast direction, occupying the greater part
of the province of Hainaut, and a considerable
part of that of Liege, and skirting the provinces
of Namur and Luxemburg. It contains numer-
ous workable seams, both of coal and iron.
North and west, beyond the limits of this coal
field, a more recent formation is found, covered
by deep beds of clay and sand, the former pre-
vailing more in the interior, and the latter near
the coast, where it has been drifted into hillocks
or downs, and forms the only barrier against
the encroachments of the sea. Some of the clay
in this district is fit for the manufacture of fine
pottery ; but the greater part of it is fit only for
coarse ware, or for bricks.

In accordance with the general slope of the
surface already mentioned, the main streams of
Belgium have a northern direction ; and the
whole country lies within the basin of the Ger-
man Ocean. In the southeast, where the sur-
face is elevated and broken, numerous torrents
descend with rapidity ; and becoming confined
within rocky, precipitous, and richly wooded
banks, often furnish, if not the grandest, the
most picturesque and enchanting of landscapes.
On reaching the lower country their speed is
slackened, and their augmented volume moves
along in a slow, winding course. Only two of
them, — the Meuse and the Scheldt, — have a
magnitude which entitles them to the name of
rivers; but so important are these two in them-
selves, and so numerous their affluents, that no
country in Europe is better supplied with water
communication. Besides the Scheldt or Schelde,
and Meuse or Maas, the navigable streams are
the Ambleve, Demer. Dender, Darme. Dyle,
Lys, Great Nettie, Little Nethe. Ourthe, Rupel,
Sambre, Yperlee, and Yser. The climate of Bel-
gium bears a considerable resemblance to that
of the same latitudes in England. Though sub-
ject to sudden change, it is on the whole tem-
perate and agreeable. Luxemburg and Namur,
where the surface is high, and the numerous
hills and dales which diversify it both cheer the
animal spirits and freely circulate an air at once
keen and pure, are most favorable to health and
longevity. The only parts of the country which
can be considered unhealthy are the low flats
which prevail in Flanders, and the polders or
rich alluvial tracts which have been gained from
the rivers by embankment, chiefly in Antwerp.
There agues and other diseases engendered by
a humid and sluggish atmosphere are prevalent.

Woods and Forests. — Nearly one fifth of the
whole surface of the kingdom is occupied by
wood. The distribution of it, however, is by
no means equal ; and hence, while the two Flan-
ders and Antwerp fall far below the average
amount, Luxemburg and Namur rise far above
it, and are very densely wooded. In these prov-
inces extensive tracts are covered with natural
woods, in which the wolf and wild boar still
have their haunts. These woods are the remains
of the ancient forest of Ardennes, which Caesar
describes as stretching far out into France from
the banks of the Rhine. They consist of hard
wood, principally oak, which is often of great

BELGIUM

size, and furnish large quantities of the most
valuable timber. By carefully dressing the stools
after it is cut, a fine oak copse is raised, the
cuttings of which annually produces many tons
of bark, which not only supplies the tanneries
of the country, but leaves a considerable sur-
plus for exportation, chiefly to England, while
the wood unfit for the carpenter is partly
employed as fuel and partly converted into
charcoal for the use of the iron works, where
the superiority of the iron smelted and wrought
by it is well known. South Brabant also pos-
sesses several fine forests, among others that
of Soignies, with which the field of Waterloo
has made us familiar. In the other provinces
scarcely anything deserving the name of forest
is seen. Wood is distributed over them in occa-
sional patches, and more frequently in the form
of hedge-row. The timber thus grown is by no
means small in aggregate amount, and forms
a well-known feature in the rich rural land-
scapes which the old Flemish masters loved to
paint; but taking into account the injury which
the cultivated crops sustain from it, it is very
questionable whether it ought to be regarded as
a source of profit either to individual proprietors
or to the country at large. The timber itself,
consisting principally of various kinds of pop-
lar, is soft and of an inferior description.

Agriculture. — The greater part of the coun-
try is well adapted for agricultural operations,
and the inhabitants have so happily availed
themselves of their natural advantages that they
early began, and in some respects still deserve,
to be regarded as the model farmers of Europe.
In the high lands traversed by the Ardennes the
climate is ungenial, and the soil so shallow and
stony as almost to forbid the labor of the plow.
Here the occupants display their skill, not so
much by what they do, as by what they refrain
from attempting. Instead of vain endeavors to
force the growth of corn where it could never
yield an adequate return, they have been con-
tented to turn the natural pastyres of the dis-
trict to the best account by employing themselves
chiefly in the raising of stock. In particular
they produce a hardy breed of horses, which,
being admirably adapted for light cavalry, are
largely exported to France for that purpose,
while vast herds of swine are fed almost at no
expense on the mast of the forests. At the same
time no part of the surface is allowed to lie
waste. Where arable land occurs it is carefully
applied to its proper use. Even the vine has not
been forgotten, and sunny slopes on which little
else could have been grown have been made
to yield a tolerable wine. In the Ardennes val-
leys an inferior quality of tobacco is raised.

In the opposite extremity of Belgium, chiefly
in the province of Antwerp, and partly in that
of Limburg, an extensive tract occurs which
strikingly contrasts in appearance with the hilly
districts of the southeast, but is perhaps still
less adapted for the ordinary operations of agri-
culture. This tract, known by the name of
Campine, is a vast expanse of moorland waste
of the most dreary appearance, a dead monoto-
nous flat composed for the most part of barren
sand, in which the ordinary heaths and lichens
will scarcely grow. The greater part of this
tract seems destined to remain forever in its
natural state, but whenever a patch of more
promising appearance occurs the hand of indus-
try has been at work, and corn fields and green

pastures have become not infrequent even in the
Campine. Agricultural colonies, partly free and
partly compulsory, have been planted in different
parts of the district. The former consist of
persons generally in poor circumstances who
have voluntarily engaged in reclaiming barren
tracts as the means of procuring a maintenance
and saving them from the degradation of pau-
perism. The latter consist of convicts, who,
liaving forfeited their liberty, give compulsory
labor as the penalty of their offenses. By the
united exertions of both a wondrous improve-
ment has been made, and on parts of this waste
some of the finest cattle of the country are
raised, and much dairy produce of excellent
quality is obtained. Still, however, about 300,000
acres remain untouched.

With the exception of the two districts just
described, there is no part of Belgium in which
agriculture does not flourish ; but the hus-
bandry which has been so much lauded is seen
in its greatest perfection in the two Flanders.
Its excellence is owing not to any superior know-
ledge of what may be called the theory of agri-
culture, nor to any remarkable ingenuity in the
invention of implements by which its opera-
tions are more efficiently or more cheaply per-
formed, but chiefly to an innate spirit of econ-
omy and industry — an economy which carefully
appropriates every gain, however small, and an
industry which grudges no labor, however great,
provided it is possible, by the application of it,
to obtain an additional amount of valuable prod-
uce. In fact, the Flemish husbandry partakes
more of the nature of garden than of field cul-
ture. In many of its operations, no doubt, horse
labor is employed. The plow and the harrow
are in frequent requisition, but the implement on
which the greatest dependence is placed is the
earliest and simplest of all — the spade. To give
full scope for the use of it, the ground is par-
celed, out into small fields of a square form,
which have their highest point in the centre, and
slope gently from it in all directions toward the
sides, where ditches of suiificient size carry off
the superfluous water as it filters into them. To
promote this filtration the ground is trenched to
a uniform depth, so that the slope of the sub-
soil corresponds as nearly as possible to that
of the surface. In performing this trenching a
considerable degree of skill and ingenuity is
displayed. The performance of the whole at
once would be a formidable and not a very effi-
cient process. In a few years a new subsoil
would be formed, and the trenching would
require to be renewed. This is rendered un-
necessary in the following manner : The land is
laid out in ridges about five feet wide, and when
the seed is sown it is not covered as usual by
the harrow, but by earth dug from the furrows
to the depth of two spits, and spread evenly over
the surface. By changing the ridges and throw-
ing the furrow of the previous year into the
ridge of the next, the whole ground becomes
furrow in the course of five successive crops,
and is consequently trenched to the depth of
about 18 inches. This process of trenching never
ceases, and is unquestionably one of the most
important characteristics of the Flemish hus-
bandry.

The only other process particularly deserv-
ing of notice is the care and skill manifested in
securing an adequate supply of manure. Every
farm is fully stocked, and the cattle, instead of

BELGIUM

being grazed in the fields, are fed at home, in
winter on turnips and other roots, and in sum-
mer on green crops carefully arranged, so as to
come forward in regular succession, and yield a
full supply of rich, succulent food. In addition
to this, every homestead has a tank, built and
generally arched with brick, into which all the
liquids of the cattle sheds are conveyed, and
have their fertilizing properties mcreased by the
dissolution of large quantities of rape cake. This
liquid manure is of singular efficacy in promot-
ing the growth of fla.x, which enters regularly
into the Flemish rotation, and is perhaps the
most valuable crop of all, the produce of an
acre being not Infrequently sold for $250. As
this crop is one of the most exhausting which
can be grown, and requires the richest manure,
while it yields none, the growth of it to any
great extent must, without the aid of the tank,
have been impossible. At present, in Flanders
alone, the value of fla.x annually raised has been
estimated to amount to $7,500,000.

About two thirds of the whole kingdom is
under cultivation, and nearly eight ninths profit-
ably occupied, leaving only about one ninth
waste. Of this last the far greater part belongs
to the comparatively barren districts of the
southeast and northeast, already described ; and
hence, in the more favored provinces, particu-
larly those of South Brabant, the two Flanders,
and Hainaut, the quantity of waste is so very
small that the whole surface may be regarded
as one vast garden. It is an error, however, to
assert, as is sometimes done, that Belgium raises
more corn than it consumes. For many years
the import has considerably exceeded the export.
Considerable attention has been paid in Belgium
to the raising of stock, and the breeds both of
cattle and horses are of a superior description.
The horses of Flanders in particular are admira-
blj' adapted for draught, and an infusion of
their blood has contributed not a little to form
the magnificent teams of the London draymen.
In general, however, Belgium stock of all kinds
is inferior to that of England.

Mines. — The mineral riches of Belgium are
great, and, after agriculture, form the most
important of her national interests. They are
almost entirely confined to the four provinces of
Hainaut, Liege, Namur. and Luxemburg, and
consist of lead, manganese, calamine or zinc,
iron, and coal. The lead is wrought to some
extent at Vedrin, in Liege ; but the quantity
obtained forms only a small part of the actual
consumption. Manganese, well known for its
important bleaching properties, is obtained both
in Liege and Namur. The principal field of
calamine is at Liege, where it is worked to an
extent which not only supplies the home demand,
but leaves a large surplus for export. All these
minerals, however, are insignificant compared
with those of iron and coal. The former has
its seat in the country between the Sambre and
the Meuse, and also in the province of Liege.
At present the largest quantity of ore is mined
in that of Namur. The coal field, already
described, has an area of above 500 square
miles. The export is about 5,000,000 tons, form-
ing one of the largest and most valuable of all
the Belgian exports. Nearly the whole of the
coal thus exported is taken by France. There
cannot be a doubt that this export adds largely
to the national wealth ; but a question has been
raised as to the policy of thus lavishly dispos-

ing of a raw material which is absolutely essen-
tial to the existence of a manufacturing com-
munity, and the quantity of which, though
great, is by no means inexhaustible. One obvi-
ous effect of the great foreign demand is to
raise the price, and thus place some of the most
important manufacturing interests of the coun-
try in an unfavorable position for competing suc-
cessfully with so formidable a rival as Great
Britain. Besides minerals, properly so called,
Belgium is abundantly supplied with building
stone, pavement, limestone, roofing slate, and
marble. Of the last, the black marble of Dinant
is the most celebrated. In 1899 the products
of 1,601 quarries were valued at $11,100,000; of
the iron mines, $200,000 ; of 220 coal mines
(22,072,000 tons), $54,900,000.

Manufactures. — 'ihe industrial products of
Belgium are very numerous, and the superiority
of many of them to those of most other coun-
tries is confessed. The fine linens of Flanders,
and lace of South Brabant, are of European
reputation. Scarcely less celebrated are the car-
pets and porcelain of Tournay, the cloth of
Verviers, the extensive foundries, machine
works, and other iron and steel establishments
of Liege, Seraing, and other places. The cot-
ton and woolen manufactures, confined chiefly to
Flanders and the province of Antwerp, have
advanced greatly. Other manufactures include
silks, glass and glassware, hosiery, paper, beet
sugar, beer. There were 17 pig iron works in
operation in 1899; 46 iron manufactories; 15
steel works ; 123 sugar factories, and 25 refiner-
ies ; and 240 distilleries.

Trade and Commerce. — The geographical
positi(jn, the admirable facilities of transport,
and the indefatigable industry of the inhabitants,
early combined to place Belgium at the very
head of the trading countries of Europe. The
gradual rise of competitors still more highly
favored has deprived her of this pre-eminence,
and with the limited extent of her seacoast it is
not to be expected that she can ever take high
rank as a naval state; but her trade is still of
great importance, and within recent years has
made a rapid advance. Her coal and iron, and
the numerous products of her manufactures, fur-
nish in themselves the materials of extensive
traffic; while the possession of one of the best
harbors in the world (Antwerp), situated on a
magnificent river, which directly, or by canals,
stretches its arms into every part of the king-
dom, and now made accessible by a system of
railways with every kingdom of central Europe,
naturally renders Belgium the seat of a transit
trade even more important than that which it
monopolized during the Middle Ages. This she
owes chiefly to the admirable system of rail-
way communication which, in the exercise of
an enlightened policy, was early established
throughout the kingdom. This system has its
centre at Malines, from which a line proceeds
north to Antwerp ; another west to Ostend ;
another southwest through IVIons, and on to the
Northern R.R. of France, which communicates
directly with Paris, and another southeast to
Liege, and on into Prussia, where it first com-
municates with the Rhine at Cologne, and
thence by that river and by rail gains access
both east and south to all the countries of cen-
tral Europe. In addition to these great trunks,
one important branch connects Liege with
Namur :\nd Mons ; and another from Antwerp,

BELGIUM

after crossing the west trunk at Ghent, passes
Courtray, and proceeds directly toward Lille.
The ramification is thus complete ; and there
is not a town in Belgium of any importance
which may not now, with the utmost facility,
convey the products of its industry by the safest
and speediest of all means of transport. The
railways have a length of about 2,goo miles,
three fourths belonging to the state. The value
of the general commerce in 1900 was : Imports,
$718,885,000, and exports, $659,501,950; imports
for home consumption, $443,140,000; exports of
Belgian produce and manufactures, $384,580,000;
transit trade, $274,920,000.

The articles of import for home consump-
tion include grain and flour, raw cotton, wool,
hides, coffee, tobacco, chemicals, oil-seeds, yarn,
timber, petroleum, etc. The exports are princi-
pally coal, yarn (chiefly linen and woolen), cere-
als, machinery, flax, woolens and cottons, chemi-
cals, steel and iron, glass and glassware, sugar
(raw and refined), zinc, manure, eggs, etc. The
trade with Great Britain has grown considerably
of late years ; for while in 1869 the exports to
Great Britain amounted to $46,957,015, and the
imports of British produce from Great Britain
to $20,017,675, these were in 1898 respectively
$107,670,000 and $69,254,500. The chief exports
to Great Britain are silks, woolen 3^arn, cottons,
flax, glass, eggs ; the chief imports cottons,
woolens, raw cotton, metals, and machinery.
The trade with France is even greater than
with Great Britain. The external trade is
chiefly carried on by means of foreign (Brit-ish)
vessels, and the great bulk of the shipping
enters and clears from the port of Antwerp. Of
the tonnage entered in 1896 only about seven
per cent belonged to the Belgian flag. The total
burden of the Belgian mercantile marine is over
113,250 tons. Important results are expected
from the Association Belgo-Hollandaise, an in-
ternational association of Belgian and Dutch
manufacturers and business men founded in
1903 to effect a closer commercial union between
the two countries. The trade with the United
States is important, Belgium being classed as
fifth in the value of its imports from this coun-
try and seventh in the exports it sends hither.

People. — The Belgian population is the
densest in Europe, and is composed of two dis-
tinct races — Flemish, who are of German, and
Walloons, who are of French extraction. The
former, by far the more numerous, have their
principal locality in Flanders; but also prevail
throughout Antwerp, Limburg, and part of
South Brabant. The latter are found chiefly in
Uainaut, Liege, Namur, and part of Luxemburg.
The language of each corresponds with their ori-
gin — the Flemings speaking a Germanic dialect,
and the Walloons a dialect, or rather a corrup-
tion, of French, with a considerable infusion of
words and phrases from Spanish and other
languages. This distinct mixture of races, and
the repeated changes of masters to which they
have been subjected, have necessarily been very
unfavorable to the formation of a national char-
acter. Still, in some leading features there is a
remarkable uniformity in the population.
Though the position of the country between
.France and Germany has made it the battle-
field of Europe, the inhabitants show few
warlike tendencies, and are unwearied in
pursuing arts of peace. The fact bears

strong testimony to the patient endurance of the
Belgians, but bespeaks, perhaps, a deficienc}^ of
physical and moral courage.

Almost the entire population belong to the
Roman Catholic Church. Protestantism is fully
tolerated, and even salaried by the state, but
cannot count above a mere fraction (some
10,000) of the population among its adherents.
An interesting circumstance connected with this
state of matters is, that Belgium early embraced,
and at one time seemed on the eve of being
gained to the Reformation. Persecution did
what perhaps it has never done in any other
part of the world — not only forced the people
back to a religion which they had given up, but
induced them to return to it as willing con-
verts. The country is divided into six dioceses,
each of which possesses an ecclesiastical semi-
nary. Monks and nuns are numerous, especially
the latter (over 25,000). Education is in a very
unsatisfactory state. At the census of 1890
nearly 27 per cent of the population above 15
years of age could neither read nor write. By
law each commune must have an elementary
school, and the expense of primary instruction
falls partly upon the communes, partly upon
the state. In all the towns colleges and middle-
class schools have been established, where a
superior education may be obtained ; while a
complete course for the learned professions is
provided by four universities, two of them, at
Ghent and Liege respectively, established and
supported by the state; one at Brussels, called
the Free University, foimded by voluntary asso-
ciation ; and one at Louvain. called the Catholic
University, controlled by the clergy. French
is the official language of Belgium and in gen-
eral use among the educated classes, and there
can scarcely be said to be a national literature.
Of late, however, patriotic feelings, to which the
Belgians were too long strangers, have acquired
new strength; and one of its first manifesta-
tions has been an eager desire to cultivate the
vernacular Flemish, which differs little from
Dutch.

. The population generally is moral, and
apparentl}' in comfortable circumstances. The
far larger proportion of it is rural ; and though
landed property is ve'ry much subdivided, the
Belgians, instead of exhibiting the wretchedness
so common among the small occupiers in Ire-
land, manage, by a happy combination of agri-
cultural with other industrial employments, to
derive from their little holdings all the neces-
saries and not a few of the comforts of life. It
is not to be denied, however, that in some of
the provinces, particularly in Flanders, popula-
tion, in so far at least as it can be maintained
by agricultural resources, has reached its limit,
and that a deficiency of other employment, par-
ticularly spinning and hand-loom weaving, has
placed large numbers on, if not within, the
verge of pauperism. In Flanders and South
Brabant a fourth of the people is dependent on
total or occasional relief ; and pauper riots have
repeatedly occurred. Still the population con-
tinues to move on, as if with accelerated pace.

Government. — The Belgian constitution com-
bines monarchical with a strong infusion of the
democratic principle. The executive power is
vested in a hereditary king ; the legislative in the
king and two chambers, — the Senate and the
Chamber of Representatives, — the former elected
for eight years, the latter for four, but one half

BELGIUM

of the former renewable every four years, and
one half of the latter every two years. The
senators are elected partly directly, partly indi-
rectly (by the provincial councils), and must be
40 j-^ears of age. Their numbers depend on pop-
ulation. The deputies or representatives are
elected directlj^ one for every 40,000 inhabitants
at most. All citizens of 25 years of age are
electors, and according to certain qualifications
one elector may have three votes. Each deputj^
is allowed $800 per annum, and a free railway
pass between his place of residence and the
capital. The army is raised by conscriptioi\, to
which every able man who has completed his
19th year is liable, and also by voluntary enlist-
ment. The peace strength of the army in 1899
amounted to 51.270 officers and men; in time
of war the total strength is about 140,000 men.
Besides this standing army there is a garde
civique, numbering about 43,000 men in time of
peace, in addition to which there are 90,000 non-
active men belonging to this force. The navy
is confined to a few steamers and a small flotilla
of gunboats. The estimated revenue for 1902,
chiefly from railways, customs, excise, and direct
taxation, was $97,808,000; the estimated expend-
iture, $97,668,880. About one fourth of the
expenditure is in payment of the interest of the
national debt, the total of which in 1901 was
$530,179,630. The coins, weights, and measures
are the same, both in name and value, as those
of France.

History. — The history of Belgium as a sepa-
rate kingdom, beginning in 1830, when it was
constituted an independent European state,
would not truly represent the life of the people,
or account even for the events of the period
embraced in it. Situated between the two lead-
ing states of Europe, and deeply interested in
all the political agitations resulting alike from
their rivalries and their alliances, the Belgian
people often changed masters. Moreover, the
Belgian territory contained within itself one
leading element of the dissensions which raged
around it. The two great races of diff'erent
origin and habits, the Celtic and Teutonic, or
Latin and German-speaking peoples, whose dif-
ferent policies have divided Europe from the
time of the Romans, were combined in its popu-
lation, the Walloon provinces, Hainaut, Namur,
Luxemburg, being nearly allied to the French,
while Flanders, Brabant, and Limburg approxi-
mated more in character and language to the
Germans. Thus not only were the great rivalries
of Europe represented here in miniature, but
their compression within the narrow limits of
what is now one of the smallest of European
states, has resulted in the formation of a dis-
tinct national character. While, therefore, the
chief events in which Belgium was interested
prior to 1830 are matters of European history,
a brief outline of them is needed here to give
a distinct conception of the character of the
people which they contributed to form.

The territory anciently known as Belgian
differed considerablj^ from that which has
assumed the name in modern times. Accord-
ing to Caesar the territory of the Belgje, who
were one of the principal tribes of ancient Gaul,
extended from the right bank of the Seine to
the left bank of the Rhine, and to the ocean.
This district continued under Roman sway till the
decline of the empire, and subsequently formed
part of the kingdom of Oovis, who subdued

nearly the whole of Gaul from the Rhine to the
Mediterranean. The Franks at this time did
not recognize the law of primogeniture. On
the death of a monarch his dominions were
divided among his sons, the more ambitious of
whom again strove to reunite them under their
own sway. Thus the Frankish kingdoms under
the descendants of Clovis were subject to con-
tinual vicissitudes, in which the Belgian terri-
torj^ shared, forming successively a portion of
the kingdoms of Metz, Soissons. and Austrasia,
till the whole was reunited under Charlemagne
or Charles the Great. This great conqueror and
administrator, the first who strove to unite the
states of Europe in a civilized commonwealth,
was of Belgian extraction. It was at Landen
and Herstal, on the confines of the forest of
Ardennes, that his predecessors, the great may-
ors of the palace, held sway, while his own
capital was established at Aix. Charlemagne
in great measure destroyed his own work by
adopting the Frankish custom of dividing his
kingdom among his sons at his death. This
practice, which had proved so disastrous to the
djmasty of Clovis, was continued for some time
in his family, but was ultimately abolished in
France. It long prevailed among the principalities
of Germany, hindering their unity, and con-
tributing to the ascendency of France in Europe.
Thus Belgium fell to Lothaire, the grandson
of Charlemagne, forming part of the kingdom of
Lotharingia, which was dependent on the Ger-
man empire; but by the treaty of Verdun (843)
Artois and Flanders were united to France.

For more than a centurj- this kingdom was
contended for by the kings of France and the
emperors of Germany. In 953 it was conferred
by the Emperor Otto upon Bruno, Archbishop
of Cologne, who assumed the title of archduke,
and divided it into two duchies : Upper Lorraine,
containing modern Lorraine, Lu.xemburg, and
the dioceses of Metz, Toul, Verdun, and the
Palatinate ; and Lower Lorraine, containing Bra-
bant, Guelders, the bishoprics of Cologne, Liege,
and Cambray. These duchies were temporarily
reunited under Gonthelan I., Duke of Lower
Lorraine, who acquired Upper Lorraine in 1033.
Among the dukes of Lower Lorraine may also
be mentioned Godfrey of Bouillon, the great
Crusade leader, who, in 1099, was crowned king
of Jerusalem.

The feudal sj-stem, which had established
itself over the greater part of Europe, likewise
prevailed in the Belgian territory, which in the
nth centiu-y was divided into duchies, counties,
and marquisates, under the sway of chiefs
owing allegiance to' the empire, or other of the
greater princes, but exercising an almost abso-
lute dominion over their own subjects. Thus
were formed the counties of Holland, Brabant,
Zealand, Friesland, Namur, Hainaut ; the duchies
of Limburg, Guelders, Juliers, Luxemburg; the
marquisate of Antwerp, and others. In the
frequent struggles which took place during this
period, Luxemburg, Namur, Hainaut, and Liege
were usually found siding with France, while
Brabant, Holland, and Flanders commonly took
the side of Germany. The princes and the peo-
ple, however, particularlj^ of Flanders, were not
always found on the same side.

The I2th and 13th centuries were distin-
guished by a general uprising of the industrial
communities, which had begun to grow in
importance throughout Europe, against the

BELGIUM

feudal system. This movement was very strongly
manifested throughout the Netherlands, less
strongly perhaps in Belgium than in Holland.
In both countries prosperous municipalities
began to arise and assert their freedom ; but the
spirit of centralization, more strongly developed
among the Latin-speaking races, prevailed more
in the southern provinces, while the love of
individual liberty, more characteristic of the
German races, was more strongly manifested in
the north. Many of the towns of Flanders and
Brabant, however, became extremely democratic.
Ghent in particular distinguished itself for the
violence and frequency of its revolts against its
rulers.

From this time the popular and civic element
began to count for something in- political com-
binations. If one potentate secured the alliance
of a count, another might strengthen himself
by secretly encouraging insurrection in his
towns. The people of Flanders often allied
themselves with the English, with whom their
commercial intercourse and their love of free-
dom gave them man}' common interests and
feelings, and both their own counts and the
French monarchy often felt the effects of this
alliance.

The battle of Courtray in 1302 greatly weak-
ened the feudal authority, but the ascendency
of the popular element led to various excesses.
The organization of popular power was reserved
for a later age, and the battle of Rosebeque,
1382, in which the Ghentese under Philip van
Artevelde (who had offered the crown of
France to Richard II. of England as the price
of his assistance) were totally defeated, restored
the authority of the nobles. In. 1,384, Flanders
and Artois fell to the house of Burgundy by
the marriage of the Duke, a scion of the French
crown, with Margaret, daughter of Louis II.,
Count of Nevers, the last ruler of these prov-
inces. By a succession of happy marriages, by
purchase, or by force, Holland, Zealand, Hain-
aut, Brabant, Limburg, Antwerp, and Namur
had all by 1430 become the inheritance of the
same house. In 1442 the duchy of Luxemburg
was acquired, and in 1470 Guelders and Fries-
land. This extraordinary prosperity induced
Charles the Bold, who succeeded in 1467, to
attempt to unite his territories by the conquest
of Alsace, Lorraine, and Liege, and raise his
duchy to a kingdom. The details of this enter-
prise, which forms one of the most exciting epi-
sodes in European history, belong more imme-
diately to the history of France. It ended in
his defeat and death at the battle of Nancy in
1477. His daughter, Mary, who succeeded him,
carried the fortunes of her house still higher, or
rather she carried them into a house still more
fortunate than her own, by her union with the
Archduke Maximilian, son of the Emperor
Frederick. Her splendid possessions had been
coveted by many potentates, and there were five
candidates for her hand, among whom the most
important were the dauphin, son of Louis XL,
and the archduke.

It now became the part of France to excite
troubles in Flanders. The policy of Maximilian,
conformably to the traditions of the house of
Austria, was directed to the aggrandizement of
his house. He was frequently at feud with his
Netherlandish subjects, whose manners he took
little pains to understand, and for whose liber-
ties he had little respect. Wars and leagues

succeeded each other, which belong to the his-
torj' of the great states of Europe. The Nether-
lands were by this union again brought under
the German empire, and especially under the
house of Austria, destined soon to become the
most powerful in Europe. In 1512 they were
formed into a division of the empire, under the
title of the circle of Burgundy. East Friesland
was included in the circle of Westphalia. On
being called to the empire, Maximilian con-
ferred the government of the Netherlands on his
son, Philip the Fair, under whom they began to
experience the material advantages of an alli-
ance with the house of Austria. The vast Euro-
pean possessions of this house opened up to its
subjects the greatest facilities of the age for
commercial intercourse, while the discovery of
America gave them in addition the commerce of
a new world. The industrial skill and enter-
prise of the Netherlanders fitted them much
more than the Spaniards, whose haughty dis-
position made them apt to substitute rapacity for
industry, to derive permanent benefit from these
opportunities. Margaret, the aunt, and Mary,
the sister of Charles V., who succeeded to the
government of the Low Countries, exercised it
in many respects wisely and well. The former,
a patroness of arts and letters, kept her court
surrounded with poets, artists, and men of
learning. A Council of State, consisting of the
governors or stadtholders of the 17 provinces,
assisted them in the administration of affairs,
and such was the prosperity of the country that
more than one of the cities of the Netherlands
rivaled in extent and opulence the capitals of
the greatest European kingdoms. This bright
day was too soon clouded. The reign of Charles
V. is less distinguished for the political strug-
gles excited by a too prosperous ambition, which
shook nearly every nation of Europe, than for
the religious dissensions, and the social troubles
resulting from them, which attended the dawn
of the Reformation. The reformed opinions
made great progress in the Netherlands : but
here again a remarkable illustration was afforded
of the strength of those differences of race,
language, and sentiment which divided their
populations. In Holland, as in Germany, the
Reformation triumphed. On the Belgian terri-
tory, especially where the Walloon or French
element of the population prevailed, although
these opinions spread widely, they yielded at
length, as in France, to the force of authority,
or the sentiment of unity. In 1535 Mary pub-
lished at Brussels an edict condemning all here-
tics to death. An insurrection excited by perse-
cution was suppressed by Charles V. in 1540,
and the Netherlands were inseparably united by
the law of primogeniture with the crown of
Spain. No union could have been more unfor-
tunate. The bigotry of the Spanish branch of
the Austrian family has become proverbial, and
a country torn with religious dissensions could
not have found itself under a worse rule.

Charles V., himself a Netherlander, born in
Ghent, and still more his son, Philip II., of
Spain, strove to extinguish tlie reformed opin-
ions among the Netherland subjects in seas of
blood. Philip discarded all respect for the liber-
ties of the Netherlands, and subjected them
under his governors, particularly the Duke of
Alva, to all the horrors of a hostile military
rule. Thousands of victims perished by every
variety of execution which a barbarous cruelty

BELGIUM

:COuld devise, hanging, beheading, burning,
drowning, interring alive ; to which tortures and
imprisonments were added in still greater num-
ber. During this period of desolation, great
numbers of artisans, abandoning their country,
carried elsewhere, especially to England and
Germany, which sympathized with their opin-
ions, the arts which had enriched their own
country, and which now acquired through them
a wider scope, and contributed to the industrial
progress of Europe. William of Orange, the
Silent, now made himself the champion of the
liberties of his country. Supported chiefly by
the northern states, thwarted by the jealousy of
the Flemish nobles, and opposed by the Walloon
provinces, which remained faithful to Spain, and
even supplied her with troops, he at length suc-
ceeded in freeing the seven northern states, and
forming them into the confederation of the
United Provinces, whose independence, declared
in 1 581, was ultimately acknowledged by Spain.
These events belonged chiefly to the history of
Holland.

Requesens, the successor of Alva, had tried
too late a more humane policj'. At Antwerp and
Ghent the Spanish soldiers broke out into
excesses. The confederates assembled in the
latter town signed the pacification of Ghent, pro-
claiming liberty of conscience, and convoking
the Estates-General. The Estates called in the
aid of France, and offered the crown to Henry
HI., who declined to accept it, dreading the
Roman Catholic league in his own country. It
is a special feature of the history of those daj'S,
that while the great rulers, particularly those of
France and Germany, persecuted their reformed
subjects, each was ready to protect the Protes-
tant subjects of the others when opposed to their
political policy. The success of the revolution-
ary party, consummated in the north, was at
length checked in the southern provinces bj' the
ability of Alexander Fames, Duke of Parma,
the Spanish commander, and by the reactionary
spirit evoked in the provinces themselves,
strengthened by the emigration of many influen-
tial reformers to the northern states, and the
Belgian Netherlands remained attached to Spain.
From 1596 to 1633 the Spanish Netherlands were
transferred to the Austrian branch of the family
by the marriage of Isabella, daughter of Philip
II., with the Archduke Albert of Austria. On
the death of Isabella they reverted to Spain.
By the Treaty of Rastadt in 1714 they were
again placed under the dominion of Austria.
During this period they were the subject of con-
tinual intrigues, and frequently of open warfare
among the European states. Twice conquered
Ijy Louis XIV., conquered again by Marlbor-
ough, coveted by Holland, Spain, Germany,
France, and England, they lay continually open
to the invasions and the struggles of foreign
armies, and it was at this period especially that
they were, as they have been called, the battle-
field of Europe. Some portions of maritime
Flanders, Brabant, and Limburg, which had
remained to Spain, were during this period con-
quered and annexed by Holland, while France
acquired Artois and Walloon Flanders, the
south of Hainaut, and part of Namur and Lux-
emburg, including the important towns of Douai,
Lille, Valenciennes, Dunkirk, and many others.
From 1714 Austria was left in undisturbed pos-
;session of the remainder of the southern Nether-
lands. Joseph II., styled the Philosophical

Emperor, excited by his reforms a revolt, headed
or stimulated by the monks of Flanders and
Brabant, whom he had dispossessed of their
convents. The Estates of the two provinces
refused to vote the imposts, and were dissolved.
The populace took to arms. The Virgin was
proclaimed generalissimo of the patriot army.
The Austrian army concentrated at Turnhout
was totally defeated. After applying in vain for
assistance to Holland and France, neither of
which could be expected to have much sympathy
with their movement, the insurgents were at
length subdued, and the Austrians re-entered
Brussels, October 1790. Soon after the whole
Netherlands were conquered by the revolutionary
armies of France, and the country was divided
into French departments, a change which, as
might be expected, provoked as much resistance
as the people were able to offer. When Napoleon
ruled France, his brother Louis became king of
Holland.

Just before the battle of Waterloo, fought on
Belgian territory, had once more changed the
fate of Europe, Belgium was united by the Con-
gress of Vienna to Holland, under the title of
the kingdom of the Netherlands. This fusion
had much to recommend it. The ports and
colonies of the north formed a suitable comple-
ment to the arts and industry of the south. The
Flemings and the Dutch spoke the same lan-
guage and had the same origin ; but there
remained outside of this harmony the W^alloon
provinces, French in language and extraction.
A most injudicious measure of the Dutch gov-
ernment, an attempt to assimilate the language
of the provinces by prohibiting the use of
French in the courts of justice, excited an oppo-
sition, which, encouraged, by the success of the
French revolution of 1830, broke out into revolt.
The electoral system, moreover, gave the pre-
ponderance to the northern provinces, though
inferior in population, and the interests of the
provinces were diametrically opposed in mat-
ters of taxation. Belgium was agricultural and
manufacturing, Holland commercial ; the one
wished to ta.x imports and exports, the other
property and industry. In the chambers three
different languages were spoken, Dutch, Ger-
man, and French ; and the members frequently
did not understand each other. Nothing but the
most skilful government could have overcome
these difficulties, and no statesman appeared fit-
ted to grapple with them. The revolutionary
movement became general in the south, and the
Dutch troops, at first successful before Brussels,
were finally repulsed, and compelled by the arri-
val of fresh bands of insurgents from all quar-
ters, to retire. The Flemings saluted the volun-
teers of Liege, Mons, and Tournay by the
ancient title of Belgians, and this name, which
properly distinguished only a section of the peo-
ple of the southern provinces, became henceforth
recognized as the patriotic designation of the
whole.

A convention of the great powers assembled
in London to determine on the affairs of the
Netherlands and stop the effusion of blood. It
favored the separation of the provinces, and
drew up a treaty to regulate it. In the mean-
time the National Congress of Belgium offered
the crown to the Duke of Nemours, second son
of Louis Philippe, and, on his declining it, they
offered it, on the recommendation of England,
to Leopold, Prince of Saxe-Coburg, who acceded

BELGOROD — BELIEF

to it under the title of Leopold I., on 21 July
1831. In November of the same year the tive
powers guaranteed the crown to him by the
Treaty of London. Some disputes with Holland
in regard to the partition of territories still
remained. A convention was concluded between
France and England to bring these differences to
a close, and in 1839 Holland acceded to a treaty,
by which Belgium surrendered to her portions
of Limburg and Luxemburg, which she had
retained since 1830.

During the reign of Leopold, a prosperous
period of 34 years, Belgium became a united
and patriotic community. Arts and commerce
flourished, and a place was taken in the family
of nations upon -which the Belgian people could
look with complacency. On the outbreak of
the French revolution of 1848 Leopold declared
his willingness to resign the crown if it \vas
contrary to the wishes of his subjects that he
should retain it. This declaration disarmed the
Republican party, and confirmed the stability of
the monarchy at a critical moment. During his
reign Belgium concluded various treaties of
commerce, with Great Britain in 1851 and 1862,
and with France in 1861. Leopold H. succeeded
his father in 1865. In recent years the chief
feature of Belgian politics has been a keen
struggle between the clerical and the liberal
party. At the elections in June 1878, the lib-
erals gained a majority, which they lost in 1884,
and failed to regain in 1890. Soon after fol-
lowed a revision of the constitution, and at the
elections in 1894 the clericals were returned with
a great majority over liberals and socialists
combined. In 1885 Leopold II. became sov-
ereign of the Congo Free State (q.v.).

Bibliography. — Balau, ^Seventy Years of the
History of Belgium^ (1815-84) ; Banderkinken,
'History of the Formation of the Belgian Prin-
cipalities in the Middle Ages^ ; Delplace, 'Bel-
gium Under French Rule^ ; 'Belgium in the
Reign of William I.^ ; Essars, 'History of
Banking in All Nations ; Banking in Belgium' ;
Juste, 'History of Belgium' ; 'Memoirs of Leo-
pold, King of the Belgians' : Moke. 'History of
Belgium' ; Nothomb. 'Political and Historical
Essay on the Belgian Revolution' ; Pirenne,
'History of Belgium' ; 'Thonissen, 'Belgium in
the Reign of Leopold I.' ; Van Bruyssel, 'His-
tory of Commerce in Belgium.'

Belgorod, byel' go-rot, or Bielgorod, a
town in Russia, government of, and 76 miles
south from the town of Kursk, on the Donetz.
It is the seat of an archbishop's see, and has
important fairs. Pop. (1897) 21,800.

Belgrade, the capital of the kingdom of
Servia, situated in the angle formed by the junc-
tion of the Save with the Danube, overlooked
by a citadel on a rocky eminence about 160 feet
high. The town has been almost entirely trans-
formed in recent times, and now contains a num-
ber of fine buildings and wide streets, being
provided with the electric light, tramways, tele-
phones, waterworks, etc., and having generally
the aspect of any modern European town. It
contains the roj'al palace, residences of various
ambassadors or ministers, the chief courts and
government departments, archiepiscopal cathe-
dral. Protestant church and school, high school
or college, gymnasia, military school, national
library of 80,000 volumes, national museum, etc.
The most numerous places of worship are the

Greek-Catholic. There are no industries of any
importance, but trade, however, is active, Bel-
grade being the chief emporium of the king-
dom, the place to which most of the imports and
exports of Servia are brought, and through,
which a large transit trade passes between Aus-
tria and Turkey. It is now connected by rail-
way with Budapest and with Constantinople and
Salonica. and carries on a large shipping trade
by the Danube, and also the Save. Lender the
name of Singidunum, Belgrade was the station
of a Roman legion, and in later years was sev-
eral times destroyed in the contests of the
Byzantines, Bulgarians, and Hungarians. Being-
the key of Hungary, it was long an object of
fierce contention between the Austrians and the
Turks. It was taken by the latter in 1521 and
held by them till 1688, when it was retaken by
the imperial army. Two years afterward it
was again captured by the Turks, who perpe-
trated every sort of atrocity in the conquered
city, besides killing 1,200 of the garrison. From
this period it remained in possession of the
Turks till 1717, when it was besieged by Prince
Eugene. After a desperate conflict between the
contending ai.nies the Turks were defeated. In
1739 the Turks came into possession of it by
treaty, retaining it till 1789, when it was taken
by the Austrians. It was restored by treaty to
the Turks in 1791 ; since which time it has-
shared the varying fortunes of Servia. In con-
sequence of a quarrel with the Servians it was
bombarded by the Turkish garrison in 1862. In
1867 it was evacuated by the Turks altogether,
and since the Treaty of Berlin (July 1878). has-
been the capital of an independent state. An
American consul resides here. See Servia,
Pop. (1900) 69,097.

Belgrand, bel-gran, Marie Frangois Eu-
gene, French civil engineer: b. Ervy, 23.
April 1810; d. 8 April 1878. He designed the
gigantic sewerage system and water supply sys-
tem of Paris, and published 'La Seine' ; 'Les
Tranvaux Souterrains de Paris' ; 'Les eaux
Anciennes de Paris' ; etc.

Belgravia, the name given to the fashion-
able quarter of London south and west of Bel-
grave Square. Till the early part of the 19th
century the district was a marshy farm. The
district was drained and filled in about 1825.

Belial, be'li-al or bel'yal. By the trans-
lators of the English Bible, this word is often
treated as a proper name, as in the expressions,
"son of Belial," "man of Belial." In the Old
Testament, however, it ought not to be taken as
a proper name, but it should be translated
"wickedness," or "worthlessness." To the later
Jews Belial seems to have become w'hat Pluto-
was to the Greeks, the name of the ruler of the
infernal regions : and in 2 Cor. vi. 15 it seems
to be used as a name of Satan, as the personifi-
cation of all that is bad.

Belief. In a general sense belief is the
assent of the understanding to the truth of a
proposition, but in a technical and theological
sense, has come to be used as a mental exercise
somewhat depending upon the volition of the
individuaJ. The w-ord is used to mean the accept-
ance of a proposition, statement, or fact as-
true on the ground of evidence, authority, or
irresistible mental predisposition ; the state oi
trust in and reliance on a person, thing, or prin-
ciple; as also for the fact believed, and some-

BELINDA — BELIZE

times specifically for the Apostles' Creed. Be-
lief is by some distinguished from knowledge,
inasmuch as the latter rests on evidence, while
belief rests on authority. Belief should, some
say, not be used of facts occurring in one's
own experience, or principles of which the
opposite implies absurdity, such as the axioms
of geometry. These we know, and, according
to this view, the term should be limited to cases
where a proposition is accepted without evi-
dence, or where such evidence as is available
implies only probability. On the other hand,
the psychologists of what is called the intuitive
school are accustomed to regard as beliefs the
fundamental data on which reasoning rests ; and
to say that all knowledge rests ultimately on
belief. Belief, they say, may admit of all degrees
of confidence, from a slight suspicion to full
assurance. There are many operations of mind
in which it is an ingredient — consciousness,
remembrance, perception. Kant defined opinion
as a judgment which is insufficiently based, sub-
jectively as well as objectively; belief, as sub-
jectively sufficient but objectively inadequate;
knowledge, as both subjectively and objectively
sufficient. The strongest beliefs may, of course,
be false ; beliefs in ghosts, astrological prog-
nostications, etc., are usually treated as supersti-
tions. Beliefs as such rest on grounds regarded
as sufficient by the person believing, who is pre-
pared to act on his belief; but their grounds may
have absolutely no validity for any other per-
son. Such beliefs are nevertheless very real.
On the other hand there are many propositions
accepted traditionally, and spoken of as beliefs,
which are not real, vital abiding truths for
those who nominally accept them ; which have
no influence on character or mental tone, and on
which those w^ho hold them would not be pre-
pared to act. Faith is a word used in very much
the same sense as belief, but especially signifies
the acceptance of and reliance on the truths of
religion.

Bibliography. — Newman, "^Grammar of As-
sent^; < Bain, "<^ The Emotions and the WilP
(1800); Spencer, <Psycholog}'> (1881); Mill,
'Analysis of the Phenomena of the Human
Mind' (1869); James. ^Psychologj'^ (1890);
Brentano, 'Psychologic' (1874) ; Verbrot, <Die
Psychologic des Glaubens' : Balfour, 'The
Foundations of Belief ; Hume, 'Inquiry' (1894) ;
Ward, 'The Wish to Believe' (ir

Belinda, a novel by Maria Edgevvorth.
Belinda Portman goes to spend the winter in
London with Lady Delacour, a brilliant and
fashionable woman; at her house she meets
Clarence Hervey for the first time. Various
obstacles keep the lovers apart, but the story
ends happily with the marriage of Her\'ey and
Belinda.

Belisa'rius, famous Byzantine general: b.
about 505 ; d. 565. To him the Emperor Justinian
chiefly owed the splendor of his reign. Belisa-
rius first served in the bodyguard of the emperor,
soon after obtained the chief command of an
army of 25,000 men stationed on the Persian
frontiers, and in the year 530 gained a complete
victory over a Persian army of not less than
40,000 soldiers. The next year, however, he lost
a battle against the same enemy, who had forced
his way into Syria — the only battle w^hich he
lost during his whole career. He was recalled
from the army, and soon became at home the

support of his master. In the year 532 civil
commotions, proceeding from two rival parties,
who called themselves the green and the blue,
and who caused great disorders in Constanti-
nople, brought the life and reign of Justinian
into the utmost peril, and Hypatius was already
chosen emperor, when Belisarius with a small
body of faithful adherents restored order.
Justinian, with a view of conquering the domin-
ions of Gelimer, king of the Vandals, sent
Belisarius with an army of 15,000 men to Africa.
After two victories he secured the person and
treasures of the Vandal king. Gelimer was led
in triumph through the streets of Constantino-
ple, and Justinian ordered a medal to be struck
with the inscription Belisarius gloria Roman-
arum, which has descended to our times. By
the dissensions existing in the royal family of
the Ostrogoths in Italy, Justinian was induced
to attempt to bring Italy and Rome under his
sceptre. Belisarius vanquished Vitiges, king of
the Goths, made him prisoner at Ravenna (540),
and conducted him, together with many other
Goths, to Constantinople. The war in Italy
against the Goths continued ; but Belisarius,
not being sufficiently supplied with money and
troops by the emperor, demanded his recall
(548). He afterward commanded in the war
against the Bulgarians, whom he conquered in
the year 559. Upon his return to Constanti-
nople he was accused of having taken part in a
conspiracy. But Justinian was convinced of his
innocence, and is said to have restored to him
his property and dignities, of which he had been
deprived. His history has been much colored
by the poets, and particularly by Marmontel, in
his otherwise admirable politico-philosophical
romance. According to his narrative, the
emperor caused the eyes of the hero to be
struck out, and Belisarius was compelled to beg
his bread in the streets of Constantinople. Other
writers say that Justinian had him thrown into
a prison, which is still shown under the appella-
tion of the Tower of Belisarius. From this
tower he is reported to have let down a bag
fastened to a rope, and to have addressed the
passengers in these words : "Give an obolus to
Belisarius, whom virtue exalted, and envy has
oppressed." Of this, however, no contemporary
writer makes any mention. The blind Belisarius
forms the subject of a noted painting by Gerard.
Tzetzes, a slightly esteemed writer of the 12th
century, was the first who related this fable.
Certain it is, that, through too great indulgence
toward his wife. Antonina. Belisarius was
impelled to many acts of injustice, and that he
evinced a servile submissiveness to the detestable
Theodora, the wife of Justinian. See Hodg-
kin, 'Italy and her Invaders' (1880-5) ; Bury,
'Later Roman Empire' (1893).

Belize, be-Iez' (sometimes written Belice
or B.\lize), the capital of British Honduras.
Lat. 17° 29' N. ; Ion. 88° 8' W. It has been sug-
gested that the name is derived from the French
balise, a beacon, but more probably it is a cor-
ruption of Wallace, a Scotch buccaneer named
Peter Wallace, with 80 companions, having
erected houses enclosed with a rude palisade at
this point after the Spaniards abandoned Bacala,
leaving a large part of the rugged, uninviting
north coast of the Gulf of Honduras unoccu-
pied, save by freebooters, during the latter half
of the 17th century. Accordingly the name
Walls, Balis, or Belize was applied by the

BELKNAP — BELL

natives and Spaniards to the settlement, the
river on which it was situated, and subsequently
to the whole region occupied by the English
(see Bancroft's "^History of Central America,^
II., 624). Wood-cutting was the chief occupa-
tion of this piratical establishment. The value
of the forests attracting other settlers, Belize
was attacked by the authorities of Yucatan, who
sought to expel them as trespassers, in 1733.
Various unsuccessful attempts with the same
object were made in subsequent years, the most
formidable in 1754. Again in 1779, war existing
between England and Spain, the governor of
Yucatan organized an expedition against Belize ;
and Spain's last effort to regain possession by
force was made in 1798. Before that time the
settlers had organized a government. It is an
interesting fact that, originating as it did, the
town has become, with its population of more
than 5,000, its church, schools, and hospital, a
centre for the maintenance of good order. It
has the characteristic features of a small Eng-
lish colonial capital, — the governor's house, etc.
See Honduras, British. Marrion Wilcox,
Authority on Latin-America.
Belknap, George Eugene, American naval
officer : b. Newport, N. H., 22 Jan. 1832 ; d. Key
West, Fla., 7 April 1903. He was appointed
midshipman in the navy in 1852 ; became lieu-
tenant-commander in 1862; commander in 1866;
captain in 1872 ; commodore in 1885 ; and rear-
admiral in 1889; and was retired in 1894. He
took part in the capture of the Barrier Forts
on the Canton River, China, in 1856 ; and in the
Civil War was present at the bombardment of
the forts and batteries in Charleston Harbor,
and in both of the attacks on Fort Fisher. In
1873, while engaged in deep sea sounding in the
north Pacific Ocean, he made discoveries con-
cerning the topography of the bed of the ocean
that found high favor among scientists. He
was appointed superintendent of the United
States Naval Observatory in 1885, and, among
other works, published ^Deep Sea Soundings.^

Belknap, Jeremy, American clergyman:
b. Boston, Mass.. 4 June 1744; d. there, 20 June
1798. He graduated at Harvard in 1762 ; was
pastor of the Congregational Church in Dover,
N. H., 1767-86, and of the Federal Street Church,
in Boston, 1787-98; and was active for the
American cause during the Revolution. The
Massachusetts Historical Society, organized in
1790, recognizes him as its founder. In 1792 he
became an overseer of Harvard College. He
was the author of a ^History of New Hamp-
shire* (1784-92) ; <A Discourse Intended to
Commemorate the Discovery of America by
Columbus;, with Four Dissertations' (1792) ;
^An Historical Account of Those Persons Who
Have Been Distinguished in America,' gen-
erally known as the 'American Biography,' etc.

Belknap, William Goldsmith, American
military officer: b. Newburg, N. Y., 14 Nov.
1794; d. near Fort Washita, 16 Nov. 1852. He
distinguished himself in the attack on Fort Erie,
in August 1814; was retained in service on the
reduction of the army, in 1822. having been, in
1818, one of the assistant professors of tactics
in the military academy. He became a captain
in 1822, and was brevetted for faithful service,
10 years afterward. In 1842 he was appointed
major of the 3d infantry, and, having .served in
Florida during the war, was made lieutenant-

colonel b}' brevet. He served on the general
staff at Buena Vista, and received a sword of
honor from the citizens of his own State, for his
services in that battle. He also received the
brevet of brigadier-general. From December
1843 to May 1851 he was in command of his
regiment, and of the troops in the Cherokee
nation (Arkansas). In May 1851 he was ordered
to upper Texas for the purpose of keeping the
Indian tribes within the lines, and while there
contracted a fever, of which he died.

Belknap, William Worth, American mili-
tary officer, son of Gen. W. G. Belknap :
b. Newburg, N. Y., 22 Sept. 1829; d. Wash-
ington, D. C, 13 Oct. 1890. In 1861 he
entered the Union army as major of the 15th
Iowa Volunteers and was engaged at Shiloh,
Corinth, and Vicksburg; but became most
prominent in Sherman's Atlanta campaign. He
was promoted to brigadier-general, 30 July
1864, and major-general, 13 March 1865. He
was collector of internal revenue in Iowa from
1865 to 13 Oct. 1869, when he was appointed
secretary of war, which office he occupied till
7 March 1876. He resigned in consequence of
accusations of official corruption. Subsequently
he was tried and acquitted.

Bell, A. See Bell, Nancy R. E. M.

Bell, Acton. See Bronte, Anne.

Bell, Alexander Graham, American sci-
entist, inventor of the telephone : b. Edinburgh,
Scotland, 3 March 1847. He was a son of
Alexander M. Bell (q.v.), and was educated at
the Edinburgh high school and university, and
trained by his father in the latter's system for
restoring speech to deaf-mutes. In 1870 he
removed with his father to Canada, and in 1872
came to Boston as professor of vocal physiology
in Boston University, where he taught his fath-
er's system with success. He had long been
experimenting on the electrical transmission of
sound, had designed and partly constructed a
speaking telephone while in Canada, and on 14
Feb. 1876 took out a patent for it. At the Cen-
tennial Exposition in Philadelphia that year he
exhibited it to multitudes, including foreign sci-
entists, who applauded it warmly; it was still
crude, but a company was formed to float it,
inventive genius was turned toward perfecting
it, and it rapidly assumed a practical commer-
cial form. A number of other telephones were
almost immediately brought forward, with claim
to priority of invention, and years of protracted
and costly law suits followed ; but the Bell Com-
pany finally established its right before the
United States Supreme Court, has held a virtual
monopoly of the business in tjiis country, and
has made its owners and Prof. Bell very
wealthy. In 1880 he invented the photophone,
a telephone in which the sound is conveyed by
a vibratory beam of light instead of a wire : it
has transmitted articulate sounds about 700 feet,
but has not been practically used. He has also
invented the graphophone, a form of the phono-
graph for recording and reproducing speech,
which is coming largely into use for the teach-
ing of languages. He has never abandoned his
first field, however, the instruction and advance-
ment of deaf-mutes, has investigated and writ-
ten much on this subject, and published his
papers through the Volta Bureau, which he
founded ; and has been president of the Ameri-
can Association to Promote Teaching of Speech

ALEXANDER GRAHAM BELL.

BELL

to the Deaf. He has especially urged that the
poHcy of educating deaf-mutes in asylums is
pernicious, as forcing them to intermarry, and
increasing the births of children so afflicted.
He has been president of the National Geo-
graphic Society, and regent of the Smithsonian
Institution. The French government in 1881
awarded him the Volta prize. Among his mono-
graphs are a * Memoir on the Formation of a
Deaf Variety of the Human Race.-*

Bell, Alexander Melville, Scottish-American
educator: b. Edinburgh, i March 1819; d. Wash-
ington, D. C, 7 Aug. 1905. He was a distin-
guished teacher of elocution in his native city; in
1865 removed to London to act as a lecturer in
University College ; and in 1870 went to Canada
and became connected with Queen's College,
Kingston. He invented the system of « visible
speech, " in which all the possible articulations of
the human voice have corresponding characters
designed to represent the respective positions of
the vocal organs. This system has been success-
fully employed in teaching the deaf and dumb to
speak. Besides writing on this subject he wrote
on elocution, stenography, etc.

Bell, Andrew, Scottish educator, author
of the mutual instruction or "Madras* system
of education: b. St. Andrews, 27 March 1753;
d. Cheltenham, England, 27 Jan. 1832. He was
educated at the university of his native town,
resided for seven years in Virginia, and on
returning took orders in the Church of Eng-
land. In 1787 he went to India, where he
became manager of the institution for the edu-
cation of the orphan children of European sol-
diers at Madras established by the East India
Company. The superintendence of this asylum
was undertaken by Dr. Bell, who, having no
object in view but the gratification of his benev-
olence, refused the salary of 1,200 pagodas
(£480) which was attached to it. Failing to
retain the services of properl}^ qualified ushers,
he resorted to the expedient of conducting his
school through the medium of the scholars them-
selves. It was in the mode of conducting a
school by means of mutual instruction that the
new method of Dr. Bell consisted ; and its
value as an abbreviation of the mechanical part
of teaching, and where large numbers were to
be taught economically, could not be easily over-
estimated at the time. His system, however, is
now abandoned. From the commencement of
his experiment he made the scholars, as far as
possible, do everything for themselves ; they
ruled their own paper, made their own pens,
etc., while the teacher only directed them. 1 he
maxim of the school was that no boy could do
anything right the first time, but he must learn
when he first set about it, by means of his
teacher, so as to be able to do it himself ever
afterward. After superintending the school for
seven years he found it necessary for his health
to return to Europe. On his arrival he published
in 1797 a pamphlet, entitled ^An Experiment in
Education made at the Male Asylum of Madras,
in which he gave an account of his system. The
first place in England where the system was
adopted was the charity school of St. Bo-
tolph's, Aldgate, and gradually, especially
through the influence of Joseph Lancaster, it
was widely carried out in England, and indeed
in almost every other civilized country. Dr.
Bell acquired in later life the dignity of a pre-
^'ol. 2 — 32.

bendary of Westminster, and was master of
Sherborn Hospital, Durham. He employed him-
self during his latter years in writing several
works on education, among which the most val-
uable were: *The Elements of Tuition*; ^The
English School* ; and 'Brief Manual of Alutual
Instruction and Discipline.-* Before his death
he gave over to trustees £120,000 three per cent
stock for education, half of it for the purpose
of founding an academy in his native city. See
'Life by Southey* (1844) ; Meiklejohn, <An
Old Educational Reformer* (1881).

Bell, Andrew James, Canadian educator:
b. Ottawa, 12 May 1856. He was educated at
the University of Toronto, and at Breslau Uni-
versity; became professor of Latin and litera-
ture in Victoria University in 1889. He is an
active member of the Canadian Institute, and
has contributed some important papers to its
' Tran.sactions.*

Bell, Benjamin Taylor A., Scotch-Cana-
dian mining expert : b. Edinburgh. 2 July 1863.
He went to Canada in 1882, and became editor
of the 'Canada Mining Review.* and of the
'Canada Mining, Iron, and Steel Manual.* In
1890 he was appointed by the Dominion gov-
ernment, with Dr. Selwyn, to conduct the excur-
sions through the mining and industrial centres
of Canada of the Iron and Steel Institute of
Great Britain, and the Verein Deutscher Eisen-
hiittenleute. The same year he organized the
General Mining Association of the Province,
and in 1892 was instrumental in uniting the
coal, gold, and other mineral interests of Nova
Scotia into a like organization.

Bell, Sir Charles, Scottish anatomist: b.
Edinburgh, November 1774; d. near Worcester,
England, 28 April 1842. He studied anatomy
under his brother, John Bell (q.v.), and had
scarcely reached manhood before he had proved
himself to be a first-rate anatomist as well as
an excellent lecturer. In 1804, being already
known by his published works, he went to Lon-
don, and in 181 1 published an essay entitled 'A
New Idea of the Anatomy of the Brain,* con-
taining the important discovery of the distinc-
tion between sensory and motor nerves, on
which his fame chiefly rests. It at once attracted
general attention, established his reputation, and
was doubtless the main ground on which, on the
accession of William IV., he was selected for
the honor of knighthood. In 1812 he was
appointed surgeon to the Middlesex Hospital, to
whose prosperity he afterward greatly contrib-
uted. In 1824 he accepted the chair of anatomy
and surgery to the London College of Surgeons,
and in 1836 that of surgery in the University of
Edinburgh. His principal works are 'Anat-
omy of Expression* (1806) ; 'System of Opera-
tive Surgery* ; 'Anatomy and Physiology,* with
his brother John; 'Animal Mechanics* (1828) ;
'Nervous Svstem* (1830) ; and the Bridge-
water Treatise on the Hand* (1833). There
is a life in French by Pichot (1859), and in
1870 a selection from Sir Charles Bell's corre-
spondence was published.

Bell, Currer. See Bronte. Charlotte,

Bell, Ellis. See Broxte, Emily Jane.

Bell, George Joseph, Scottish lawyer,
brother of Sir Charles and John Bell: b. Edin-
burgh. 26 March 1770; d. 1843. He passed as
advocate in 1791, and became one of the first

BELL

authorities on the subject of mercantile jurispru-
dence and the law of bankruptcy. This distinc-
tion he earned for himself b> the publication of
a work which first appeared in 1804, under the
title of a * Treatise on the Laws of Bankruptcy,^
but in subsequent editions was extended and ap-
peared as 'Commentaries on the Laws of Scot-
land and on the Principles of Mercantile Juris-
prudence. ■" This work, notwithstanding recent
changes in the law, is still a standard. Besides
the work above mentioned, he published ^Prin-
ciples of the Law of Scotland,^ the loth edition
of which was issued in 1897; and other works.

Bell, Henry, Scottish engineer, the first
successful applier of steam to the purposes of
navigation in Europe : b. Torphichen, Linlith-
gowshire, 7 April 1767; d. Helensburgh, 14
Nov. 1830. He practised for several years, at
Glasgow, the craft of a house carpenter, but in
1808 removed to Helensburgh, where he contin-
ued to prosecute his favorite task of mechanical
scheming, without much regard to the ordinary
affairs of the world, though he became proprie-
tor of baths there. The application of steam to
navigation had already been attempted by Mr.
Miller of Dalswinton (among others), who,
in 1788, had a vessel constructed, propelled by
a small engine and paddle-wheel, the scene of
operations being a loch on his own propert}''
in Dumfriesshire. Some further experiments
were made, yet the scheme had no practical
result for several j-ears. Henry Bell seems to
have turned his attention to the subject before
the end of the century, and in January 1812
produced the Comet, a vessel 40 feet long,
which was found in a great measure to answer
the purpose contemplated. This vessel could
make way against a head tide in the river at the
rate of five miles an hour, and continued to
ply on the Clyde for a number of years. It may
be mentioned, that Mr. Robert Fulton, an Amer-
ican engineer, had launched a boat upon this
principle in 1807, and that it performed long
voyages upon the Hudson River ; but it has
been proved that Fulton had derived assistance
in the construction of his vessel from Bell,
who must therefore be allowed the praise of
having done, in his own country, what all other
men, notwithstanding the superior advantages
of skill and capital, had failed in doing. Bell
lived to see the bosom of the Clyde dotted far
and wide by innumerable copies of his own
invention; to know that steamboats promised to
give a new turn to the art of general warfare ;
yet he reaped for himself little advantage.
While mankind at large were enjoying the
blessings which he had pointed out to them, he
approached the confines of old age with the
prospect of hardly the average comforts which
attended that stage of existence in the humbler
walks of society. Touched by his condition, a
number of benevolent individuals instituted a
subscription in his behalf, and it is creditable
to the good feeling of the citizens of Glasgow
and other places that a considerable sum was
raised. The trustees on the river Clyde also
gave him an annuity of iioo, which he enjoyed
for several years, the half of which sum was
continued to his widow. A monument was
erected to his memory at Douglass Point on the
Clyde.

Bell, Henry Glassford, Scottish law5'er
and author: b. Glasgow, 1803; d. 1874. He

founded the Edinburgh ^Literary JournaP 1S28.
was admitted to the bar in 1832 and became
one of the most esteemed Scottish mercantile
lawyers of his day. He published a spirited
defense of Mary Queen of Scots, (1830;,
^Summer and Winter Hours^ (1831) ; ^My Old
Portfolio^ (1832); 'Romances and Minor
Poems' (1866).

Bell, Henry Haywood, American naval
officer: b. North Carolina, 1807; d. 11 Jan.
1868. He was appointed a midshipman in 1823,
and served on the Grampus when she was en-
gaged in clearing the coast of Cuba of pirates.
For many years he served with the East Indian
squadron, and commanded one of the vessels
of the squadron which, in November 1856 de-
stroyed four forts near Canton, China. Shortly
after the outbreak of the Civil War he became
fleet captain of the Western Gulf squadron.
He commanded one of the three divisions of the
fleet which captured New Orleans, and was sent
to raise the United States flag over the custom
house and the city hall. In 1865 he took com-
mand of the East India squadron with the rank
of commodore : in 1866 was promoted to rear-
admiral ; and, in 1867, retired. He was drowned
at the mouth of the Osaka River, Japan.

Bell, Henry Thomas Mackenzie, English
poet and critic : b. Liverpool, 2 IMarch 1852.
His collections of verse include 'The Keeping
of the Vow^ (1879) ; 'Verses of Varied Life*
(1882); 'Old Year Leaves* (1883); 'Spring's
Immortality* (1896) ; 'Pictures of Travel*
(1898). He has also published such critical
works as 'Charles Whitehead* (1884) ; ^Chris-
tina Rossetti* (1898).

Bell, Hillary, American dramatic critic:
b. Belfast, Ireland, 1857; d. New York, 9
April 1903. After coming to the United States
he painted portraits for some years and subse-
quently engaged in journalism and was the
dramatic and musical critic of the New York
Press. He also edited the "^Insurance Econo-
mist,* and was a vice-president of the JMutual
Reserve Life Insurance Company. The life-size
portrait which he painted of Ada Rehan as
Katharine in 'The Taming of the Shrew,* was
presented by Augustin Daly to the Shakespeare
Memorial at Stratford-on-Avon.

Bell, Isaac, American philanthropist: b
New York, 4 Aug. 1814; d. there, 30 Sept. 1897.
He began his business life in a banking house
when 14 years old, and in 1836 became interested
in large financial and other concerns. About
this time he began to devote himself to the
work of benevolent institutions, and was presi-
dent of the department of charities and correc-
tion 1857-73. It was principally through his
efforts that the Bellevue Hospital, and also the
Bellevue Hospital Medical College, were found-
ed. In connection with the first institution he
established the system of ambulance service.
He was also largely instrumental in the estab-
lishment of the Normal College, and was re-
sponsible for the schoolship Mercury, which
came under the control of the department of
Charities and Correction, and of the St. !Mary's,
as well, loaned by the Navy Department to the
Department of Education, of which he was also
for a long time a member. During the Civil
War he was active in raising and disbursing
money for the benefit of New York volunteers.

BELL

and in aiding soldiers' wives, widows, and
orphans.

Bell, James, Scotch geographer: b. Jed-
burgh, 1769; d. 1833. After receiving a liberal
education he served an apprenticeship to the
weaving business, and in 1790 commenced the
manufacturing of cotton goods upon a large
and respectable scale. In the universal depres-
sion occasioned by the shock of the French
Revolution in 1793, he was reduced to the con-
dition of a common warper ; but having relin-
quished that line of life, he was about the year
1815 engaged to improve the * Glasgow System
of Geography,* a work which had met with con-
siderable encouragement, and was now, chiefly
by the labors of Mr. Bell, extended to five
volumes. It was well received by the public,
and formed the basis of his principal work, *A
System of Popular and Scientific Geography,'
published at Glasgow in six volumes. His
'Gazetteer of England and Wales' was in the
course of publication at the time of his death.

Bell, James, Canadian physician: b. North
Gower, Ont., 10 Oct. 1852. He graduated at
McGill University in 1877 ; became house sur-
geon of the Montreal General Hospital the same
year, and medical superintendent of it in 1881.
In 1885 he became a member of the hospital
staff as assistant surgeon, and in 1886 full sur-
geon. In 1894 he was made consulting surgeon
to the General Hospital, surgeon of the Royal
Victoria Hospital of Montreal, and professor
of clinical surgery in McGill University.

Bell, James Franklin, American soldier:
b. Shelbyville, Ky., 9 Jan. 1856. He was grad-
uated from the United States Military Academy
1878; served on the plains in the 7th United
States Cavalr}-. 1878-94: and was aid to Gen.
J. W. Forsyth in California, Arizona, and
Washington. He went to the Philippines with
the original expedition in 1898, and his military
career there has been of the most daring and
brilliant kind. As colonel of the 36th regiment
of volunteers, he was not attached to any brig-
ade, but acted as a free lance, reporting only
to his division commander. He received a medal
of honor for most distinguished gallantry in
action 9 Sept. 1899, near Porac, in Luzon.
While in advance of his regiment he charged
seven insurgents with his pistol and compelled
the surrender of the captain and two privates
under a close and hot fire from the remaining
insurgents, who were concealed in a bamboo
thicket. In December 1900 he was made a
brigadier-general in the regular army, being
promoted over more than 500 captains, 200 ma-
jors, 98 lieutenant-colonels, and TJ colonels.

Bell, James Montgomery, American sol-
dier: b. Williamsburg, Pa.. I Oct. 1837. He
entered the 86th Ohio infantry, and served with
distinction throughout the Civil War, being
twice brevetted for gallant and meritorious
services in the battles of the Wilderness and
Ream's Station, Va. Entering the regular army
as 2nd lieutenant in 7th Cavalry, 1866, he took
part in the Cheyenne and Arapahoe war,
1867-9; the Sioux wars, 1876-81, and the Nez
Perces war. 1877. He received a brevet-com-
mission of lieutenant-colonel for gallant services
in action against the Indians at Canon Creek,
Montana. 13 Sept. 1877. He commanded in

southern Luzon, Philippine Islands, 1900-1, and
was appointed brigadier-general of volunteers,
Jan. 20, 1900.

Bell, John, Scotch traveler: b. Antermony,
1691 ; d. there, i July 1780. Having gone to
St. Petersburg in 1714, after the completion of
his studies, he happened to be in that city when
an embass3' was being sent to the Sophy of
Persia, and was appointed medical attendant
to the ambassador. On his return from Persia
to the Russian capital in 1718 he found another
embassy preparing to set out for China, and
through the influence of the ambassador whom
he had attended to Persia he obtained an ap-
pointment in it also. The embassy arrived at
Pekin *'after a tedious journej' of exactly 16
months." The embassy returned in January
1722. The war between Russia and Sweden
was now concluded, and the czar had determined
to undertake an expedition into Persia, at the
request of the sophy, to assist that prince against
the Afghans, his subjects, who had seized upon
Kandahar and possessed themselves of several
provinces on the frontiers toward India. Bell's
former journey to Persia gave him peculiar
advantages, and he was accordingly engaged to
accompany the army to Derbend, from which
he returned in December 1722. In 1737 he was
sent to Constantinople by the Russian chancel-
lor, and Mr. Rondeau, the British minister at
the Russian court. He seems now to have
abandoned the public service, and to have set-
tled at Constantinople as a merchant. About
1746 he married a Russian lady and returned to
Scotland. The only work written by him is
his 'Travels from St. Petersburg in Russia to
Various Parts of Asia' (1763).

Bell, John, distinguished Scotch surgeon:
b. Edinburgh, 12 May 1763; d. Rome, 15 April
1820. He was a brother of Sir Charles and
George Joseph Bell, and after completing his
professional education traveled for a short time
in Russia and the north of Europe; and on his
return began to deliver lectures on surgery and
midwifery. These lectures, delivered between
1786 and 1796, were very highly esteemed, and
speedily brought him into practice as a consult-
ing and operating surgeon. The increase of his
private practice, indeed, rendered it necessary
for him, in 1796, to discontinue his lectures, and
from that time forward he devoted himself to
his patients, and to the preparation of the sev-
eral publications of which he was the author.
Patients came to him from all quarters, both of
Scotland and England, and even from the Con-
tinent ; and during that interval he performed
some of the most delicate and difficult operations
in surgery. Early in 1816 he was thrown by
a .spirited horse, and appears never to have en-
tirely recovered from the effects of the accident.
He was the author of ^The Anatomy of the
Human Body' (1793-1802; 3d edition, with
plates by Charles Bell, 181 1) ; ^Engravings of
the Bones, Muscles, and Joints,' illustrating the
first volume of the ^Anatomy of the Human
Body,' drawn and engraved by himself (1794,
3d edition) ; 'Engravings of the Arteries,'
illustrating the second volume of the 'Anatomy
of the Human Body' (i8or) ; * Discourses on the
Nature and Cure of Wounds' (1795) ; "^The
Principles of Surgery' (i 801-8) ; 'Letters on
Professional Character'; 'Observations oa
Italv.'

BELL

Bell, John, American statesman: b. near
Nashville, Tenn., 15 Feb. 1797; d. Cumberland
Iron Works, Tenn., 10 Sept. 1869. Graduating
at Cumberland College (now University of
Nashville) in 1814, he practised law until 1827,
when he was elected to Congress. He received
successive re-elections until 1841 when he be-
came secretary of war in President Harrison's
cabinet, but resigned when President Tyler
withdrew from the Whig party. From 1847 to
1859 he was senator from his State. He was
chairman of several important committees, and
vigorously opposed the Kansas-Nebraska bill
and the Lecompton constitution framed for
Kansas. In May i860 he was nominated for
President by the Constitutional Union party
(q.v.), but was defeated. During the Civil
War he took no active part in politics.

Bell, John, English sculptor: b. Hopton,
Suffolk, 181 1 ; d. 25 March 1895. His best-
known works are the •■ Eagle Slayer^ ; *Una and
the Lion^ ; 'The Maid of Saragossa^ ; 'Imo-
gen^ ; ' Andromeda ■• ; statues of Lord Falkland,
Sir Robert Walpole, Newton, Cromwell, etc.,
and the Wellington Memorial in Guildhall. He
was one of the sculptors of the Guards' Monu-
ment in Waterloo Place, London, and the Prince
Consort Memorial in Hyde Park. He was the
author of several professional treatises and of
a drama, "^Ivan: a Day and a Night in Russia.^

Bell, Lilian, American novelist: b. Ken-
tucky, 1867. In 1900 she was married to Arthur
Hoyt Boyne, but continues to write under her
maiden name. Her writings include 'The Love
Affairs of an Old Maid^ (1893) ; *A Little Sis-
ter to the Wilderness^ (1895); 'The Under
Side of Things^ (1896) ; 'From a Girl's Point
of View^ (1897) ; 'The Instinct of Stepfather-
hood^ (1898) ; 'As Seen By Me' (1900) ; 'The
Expatriates' (1900) ; 'Yessum' (1901) ;
'Abroad With the Jimmies' ; 'Hope Loring' ;
'Sir John and the American Girl.'

Bell, Sir Lowthian, English manufacturer
and politician: b. Newcastle-on-Tyne, 1816; d. 20
Dec. 1904. He was mayor of his native city
1854-62, sat in the House of Commons for
Hartlepool 1875-80, and was made a baronet
in 1885. He founded the Clarence Iron Works
on the Tees. His publications include 'The
Chemical Phenomena of Iron Smelting' (1872);
' Report on the Iron Manufacture of the United
States, and a Comparison of It with That of
Great Britain' (1877).

Bell, Nancy R. E. Meugens, English art
writer : b. Lambelh, London. Until her mar-
riage to A. G. Bell in 1882 she wrote over the
signature N. D. Anvers. She has published
'Elementary History of Art' ; 'Masterpieces of
the Great Artists' ; 'Life of Gainsborough' ;
'Representative Painters of the 19th Century' ;
'St. Antony of Padua' ; 'An Old Educational
Reformer: J. M. D. Meiklejohn' ; '^Memoirs of
Baron Le Jeune' ; 'Science Ladders Series'
(8 vols.) ; 'Raphael' ; 'Lives and Legends of
the Saints' ; 'The Saints in Christian Art.'

Bell, Robert, Irish journalist and miscel-
laneous writer: b. Cork, 16 Jan. 1800; d. Lon-
don. 12 April 1867. He settled in London in
1828, edited an important weekly paper, the
Atlas, for several years, and afterward the
'Monthly Chronicle,' 'Mirror,' and 'Home
News.' He compiled several volumes of 'Lard-

ner's Cabinet Cyclopaedia' ; wrote three plays,
'The Ladder of Gold,' a novel (1856) ; 'Hearts
and Altar,' a collection of tales (1852), and did
a great deal of miscellaneous literary work ; but
is best known by his annotated edition of the
'British Poets,' the first volume of which ap-
peared in 1854, and which was carried through
29 volumes.

Bell, Robert, Canadian geologist: b. To-
ronto, Ont., 3 June 1841. He was educated at
McGill and Queen's universities, and in 1867
joined the Canada Geological Survey, and in
1900 was an assistant director of it. In 1861 he
was elected a member of the American Institute
of Mining Engineers; in 1881 became a Fellow
of the Royal Society of Canada; and in 1888-9
was a member of the Ontario Commission,
which reported on the mineral resources of that
province. During his connection with the geo-
logical survey, he made more extensive explora-
tions throughout the Dominion than any other
man. He was the author of about 130 reports
and papers, a list of which is found in the
'Biblio of the Royal Societ3^'

Bell, Robert Stanley Warren, English
writer, editor of 'The Captain' : b. Long-Pres-
ton, Yorkshire, 27 June 1871. He has published
'The Cub in Love' (1897) ; 'The Papa Papers'
(1898); 'Bachelorland> (1899); 'Tales of
Greyhouse' ; 'Love the Laggard' (1901).

Bell, Samuel, American statesman: b.
Londonderry, N. H., 9 Feb. 1770; d. Chester,
N. H., 23 Dec. 1850. He passed his boyhood
upon his father's farm, graduated at Dartmouth
College in 1793, and was admitted to practise
law in 1796. He rapidly achieved distinction in
his profession, and in 1804 was elected a repre-
sentative to the State legislature, an office to
which he was twice re-elected ; and during his
last two terms held the position of speaker of
the house. He declined the attorney-generalship
in 1807, after v/hich he was successively a mem-
ber of the State senate, and of the executive
council, a judge of the supreme court, and in
1819 governor of the State. To the latter office
he was re-elected four times in succession, till
in 1823 he was elected to the senate of the
United States, an office to which he was also
re-elected. He retired from public life upon the
expiration of his second term in 1835.

Bell, Samuel Dana, American jurist: b.
Francestown, N. H., 9 Oct. 1798; d. 31 July
1868. He was graduated at Harvard in 1816;
studied law in Exeter ; and began practice in
Meredith. He became a member of the legisla-
ture about 1825, and was the clerk of that body
for several years. In 1830, 1842, and 1867, he
was a member of the commissions appointed to
revise the State 'Statutes.' In 1855 he was
appointed justice of the supreme court of New
Hampshire, and in 1859, became chief justice
of the court, which office he held till 1864. He
joined the New Hampshire Historical Society
soon after its organization, and the Manchester
Public Library was founded largely through his
efforts.

Bell, Thomas, English zoologist: b. Poole,
Dorset, 1792; d. Selborne, Hampshire, 1880. He
studied medicine at Guy's and St. Thomas'
hospitals, London, became a member of the
Roj'al College of Surgeons in 1815, and soon
secured a large practice as a dentist. In 1832
he was appointed professor of zoology in King's

BELL-SMITH — BELL

College, London, a post which he held almost
to the last. Latterly he lived for a number of
years at Selborne in the residence that had
belonged to the celebrated Gilbert White. His
best-known separate works are his histories of
^British Quadrupeds^ ; ^British Reptiles' ; and
^British Stalk-eyed Crustacea,' published in
Van Voorst's series. In 1877 he published an
excellent edition of White's * Natural History of
Selborne.'

Bell-Smith, Frederic Marlett, English art-
ist : b. London, 26 Sept. 1846. He went to
Canada in 1866, and was for seven j-ears art
director at Alma College, St. Thomas, and
teacher of drawing in the public schools of Lon-
don, Ont. About 1888 he became a portrait and
figure painter ; but he is best known as a
painter of landscapes. In 1894 he produced
< Lights of a City Street,' his greatest achieve-
ment up to that year, and later, two canvases
depicting incidents connected with the death of
Sir John Thompson.

Bell, a hollow vessel, which, by its vibra-
tions when struck, gives forth sounds ; whence
its name, from the old Saxon word hcllan, to
bawl or bellow. It is an instrument of great
antiquity, being spoken of by Hebrew writers,
as in Ex. xxviii., in which golden bells are pre-
scribed as appendages to the dress of the high
priest, that notice may thus be given of his
approach to the sanctuary. And at this day the
bell is used for a similar purpose before the
priest, in Roman Catholic countries, as he pro-
ceeds to administer the Holy Viaticum to the
soul that is passing away ; and so when the
bell is tinkled, fn administering the sacrament,
by the same priest, it is in pursuance of a cus-
tom, founded on the ancient Hebrew use of the
bell. More intimately than any other instru-
ment are bells associated with the religious and
imaginative, as also with the most joyous and
the saddest feelings of mankind. The metal
from which bells are usually made (by found-
ing), is an alloy, called bell-metal, commonly
composed of 80 parts of copper and 20 of tin.
The proportion of tin varies, however, from
one third to one fifth of the weight of the cop-
per, according to the sound required, the size
of the bell, and the impulse to be given. The
clearness and richness of the tone depend upon
the metal used, the perfection of its casting,
and also upon its shape ; it having been shown
by a number of experiments that the well-known
shape with a thick lip is the best adapted to give
a perfect sound. The depth of the tone of a
bell increases in proportion to its size. A bell
is divided into the body or barrel, the ear or
cannon, and the clapper or tongue. The lip or
sound bow is that part where the bell is struck
by the clapper.

The sound of a bell is a compound tone, pre-
senting five and in many instances more notes
to the ear. There is a great difference between
the harmonics of a bell and of a vibrating string.
In the case of the former a minor third is not
infrequently one of the loudest tones next to
the fundamental tone. When a bell is properly
struck the first note which attracts the atten-
tion of the ear is known as the strike note, tap
note, or fundamental, and forms what is called
<'the" note of the bell. The low sound heard
after the strike note has lost its intensity is
called the hum note, and the octave above the

strike note the nominal. There are also present
a minor third and a perfect fifth in the first
octave, and a major third and a perfect fifth in
the second octave. Very few bells agree with
these conditions. Generally the hum note is a
sixth or seventh, and in rare cases a ninth
below the strike note. The nominal is some-
where about an octave or a ninth above the
strike note, and the other notes diverge accord-
ingly. Bells that are swung are more likely to
conform to the conditions than those that are
struck.

Bells were used very early in the form of
cymbals and hand bells in religious services. In
Egypt the feast of Osiris was announcef
through the ringing of bells. Bronze bells have,
been found in Assyria. Bells of gold were worn
by Aaron and the high priests of the Jews on
the border of their robes, and in Athens the
priests of Cybele used them in their offering!
The Romans also used bells which they called
tintinabula, to announce the public assemblies,
and, according to Suetonius, Augustus had a
bell suspended before the temple of Jupiter. In
the Christian churches a similar custom early
came into use, though it is not known that in
the first Christian churches divine service was
announced by any such method. They were
used, however, in the early monasteries to
announce the hours of prayer. Generally they
were made of tubes struck with a hammer. They
are said to have been first introduced into
Christian churches about 400 a.d., by Paulinus,
bishop of Nola in Campania (whence campana
and nola as old names of bells) ; although their
adoption on a wide scale does not become
apparent until after the year 550, when they
were introduced into France. They are rung
to summon monks and choir nuns to the office,
and the people to mass, to announce the Angelus,
to toll during funerals, and peal on occasions of
joy. They are blessed with elaborate ceremo-
nies and consecrated or "baptized" in honor of
some saint.

Until the 13th century they were of com-
paratively small size, but after the casting of the
Jacqueline of Paris (6I/2 tons) in 1400, their
weight rapidly increased. Among the more
famous bells are the bell of Cologne, 11 tons,
1448; of Dantzic, 6 tons, 1453; of Halberstadt,
714, 1457; of Rouen, 16, 1501 ; of Breslau, ir,
1507; of Lucerne, 7V2, 1636; of Oxford, 7^,
1680; of Paris, i2f/5, 1680; of Bruges, io34,
1680; of Vienna, 17^, 1711; of Moscow (the
monarch of all bells), 193, 1736; three other
bells at Moscow, ranging from 16 to 31 tons,
and a fourth of 80 tons, cast in 1819; the bell
of Lincoln (Great Tom), 55^2, 1834; of York
Minster (Great Peter), 10^, 1845; of Montreal,
131/3, 1847; of Westminster (Big Ben), 151/,
1856; (St. Stephen), 1314, 1858; the great
bell of St. Paul's, 171^, 1882. Others are the
bells of Ghent (5), Gorlitz (lO-M), St. Peter's,
Rome (8), Antwerp (7>4). Olmutz (18), Brus-
sels (7), Novgorod (31), Pekin (53^)-

Bells, as the term is used on shipboard, are
the strokes of the ship's bell that proclaim the
hours. Eight bells, the highest number, are
rung at noon and every fourth hour afterward,
that is, at 4, 8, 12 o'clock, and so on. The inter-
mediary periods are indicated thus: 12:30, i
bell ; I o'clock, 2 bells ; i :30, 3 bells, etc., until
the eight bells announce 4 o'clock, when the
series recommences 4 :30, i bell ; 5 o'clock, 2

BELL-BIRD — BELLA

bells, etc. The even numbers of strikes thus
always announce hours, the odd numbers half
hours. See Gatty, <The Bell: Its Origin and
Uses* (1848) ; Lukis, ^Church Bells and Their
Founders-' (1857) ; Andrews, * History of
Church Bells> (188O ; Otte, ^Glockenkunde*
(1884) ; Tyack, <A Book About Bells' (1899).

Bell-bird, the name given to birds in va-
rious parts of the world, which utter bell-like
notes; especially the "campanero" (Chasnwrliyn-
CHS niveus) , one of the chatterers of the South
American family, Cotingidcc. It resembles, in
form and size, the North American wax-wing,
but is pure white, and has a remarkable append-
age upon its forehead. This consists of a
fleshy, tapering caruncle, which is black, thinly
covered with star-like tufts of minute feathers.
This caruncle ordinarily hangs loosely down
at the side of the beak, but in moments of
excitement becomes swollen and much extended,
reaching a length of even five inches. This
seems to be produced by air forced into its
elastic tissues from the bird's lungs, and occurs
whenever the characteristic notes are uttered.
The bird's voice has been described by many
travelers as like the sound of a loud, clear bell,
which rings out over the forest at mid-day,
when most other birds are silent. Waterton
said : ^*You hear his toll and then a pause for
a minute, then another toll, and then a pause
again, and then another toll, and so on.'* Others
have compared the sound to a blow upon an
anvil, and all agree that it can be heard a great
•distance. Several other species exist in cen-
tral and southern South America, all of which
have caruncles, and utter extraordinary, ring-
ing notes ; but the former belief, that the loud
voice was aided by these hollow appendages, is
now known to be erroneous. These birds go
about in small flocks, which flit through the
tree-tops, and feed mainly upon forest fruits.
They have been particularly studied by J. J.
Quelch, a naturalist of British Guiana, an
account of whose interesting investigations will
be found in ^The Field' of London, for 26 Nov.
1892.

In Australia, the name *bell-bird" is given to
one of the honey-suckers (q.v.), whose ching-
ching is welcomed by travelers in the forest as
an indication that water is near. The "bell-
bird* of New Zealand is another honey-sucker
(Anthornis inelanura), whose voice, usually
heard in chorus, resembles the tinkling of a
silver bell.

Bell, Book, and Candle, a solemn mode of
excommunication, used in the Roman Catholic
Church. After the sentence is read, the book
is closed, a lighted candle thrown to the ground,
and a bell tolled as for one dead. See also
Excommunication.

Bell-flower. See Campanula.

Bell, Liberty, the bell in Independence
Hall, Philadelphia, that was rung to announce
the adoption of the Declaration of Independence
by the Continental Congress. The bell was cast
in London by Robert Charles, and cost about
$500. The specifications provided that it was to
be made by the best workmen, to be examined
carefully before being shipped, and to contain,
in well-shaped letters around it, the inscription :
"By order of the Prov.nce of Pennsvlvania. for
the State House in the City of Philadelphia.
1752." An order was given to place underneath

this the prophetic words from Leviticus xxv.
10: "Proclaim liberty throughout the land and
to all the inhabitants thereof." The reason for
the selection of this text has been a subject of
much conjecture, but the true reason is apparent
when the full text is read. It is as follows :
"And ye shall hallow the 50th j^ear and pro-
claim liberty throughout the land and to all
the inhabitants thereof." In selecting the text
the Quakers had in memory the arrival of Wil-
liam Penn and their forefathers more than half
a century before. In August 1752, the bell ar-
rived, but though in apparent good order, it
was cracked by a stroke of the clapper while
being tested. It could not be sent back as the
captain of the vessel who had brought it over
could not take it on board. Two skilful men
undertook to recast the bell, a bell being pro-
vided which pleased very much. But it was
found to be defective also. The original bell
was considered too high in tone, and in an
attempt to correct this fault, too much copper
was added. There were a great many witticisms
on account of the sound failure, and the ingen-
ious workmen undertook to recast the bell,
which they successfully did, and it was placed
in condition in June 1753. On Monday, 8 July
(not the 4th), at noon, true to its motto, it
rang out the memorable message of "Liberty
throughout the land and to all the inhabitants
thereof." For j^ears the bell continued to be
rung on every festival and anniversary, until it
eventually cracked 8 July 1835, while being
tolled in memory of Chief Justice Marshall.
An ineffectual attempt was made to cause it to
continue serviceable by enlarging the cause of its
dissonance and chipping the edges. It was re-
moved from its position in the tower to a
lower storj^ and only used on occasions of
public sorrow. Subsequently, it was placed on
the original timbers in the vestibule of Inde-
pendence Hall, and in 1873 was suspended in a
prominent position immediately beneath where
a larger bell, presented to the city in 1866, now
proclaims the passing hours. In 1893 it was
taken to Chicago and placed on exhibition at
the World's Columbian Exposition.

Bell Rock, a dangerous reef of sunken
rocks on the east coast of Scotland, about 12
miles from Arbroath, and directlj^ in the way
of vessels making for the firths of Forth and
Tay. The Inchcape or Bell Rock reef was long
the terror of seamen, and on it numerous vessels
were wrecked. At a very early period the
Inchcape Rock was unhappily too well known,
and tradition has it that one of the Abbots of
Aberbrothock succeeded in placing a bell upon
it (hence the name), in such a way as to be
rung by the motion of the waves, to warn sail-
ors of its proximity. The legend tells us that
a notorious Dutch sea pirate cut the bell from
the rock, and on returning with his ship laden
with spoils from one of his piratical expeditions,
he and his crew perished, as an old historian has
it, "by the righteous judgment of God," for
want of the signal which he had so wantonly
removed. On this legend Southey has founded
his well-known ballad of 'Sir Ralph the Rover.*
The lighthouse on the rock was designed by
Robert Stevenson in 1800.

Bella, Stefano Delia, Italian engraver: b.
Florence, 1610; d. 1664. In 1642 he went to
Paris, where he was employed by Cardinal

BELLADONNA — BELLANGE

Richelieu. Returning to Florence he became
the teacher in drawing of Cosmo, the son of the
great duke. It is said that he engraved 1,400
plates.

Belladon'na, or Dwale, Deadly Nightshade,

{Atropa Belladonna), a perennial disagreeable-
smelling herb of the natural order Solanacece;
is a native of the region from southern Europe
to India, but widely naturalized in civilized
countries. It is a low, spreading plant which
sometimes attains a height of six feet; has en-
tire, ovate leaves ; purple, bell-shaped, nodding
axillary flowers, single or in pairs ; and shining,
black, sweetish berries as large as large currants.
The plant has long been reputed poisonous but
is used in medicine, especially by oculists, be-
cause of its property of dilating the pupil of
the eye. It is said to derive its name, belladonna
(^'beautiful laciy")> from its use as a cosmetic
for distending the pupil and giving the ej'e a
bright glistening appearance and also from the
use of the juice for staining the skin. Its
names, deadly night shade, and dwale (which
latter is believed by some to come from the
same source as the French deuil, sorrow, and by
others from the Anglo-Saxon dull, because of its
stupefying effects), refer to popular belief in the
plant's poisonous properties. The generic name
came from Atropos, the fate who cut the thread
of life.

Belladonna Lily. See Amarvllidace.i:.

Bellaire, bel-lar', Ohio, a city in Belmont
County, on the Ohio River, and several rail-
roads ; five miles south of Wheeling, W. Va.
The river is here crossed by a costly iron rail-
road bridge. Bellaire is the centre of a region
rich in coal, iron, cement, brick, clay, and lime-
stone, and has manufactories of stoves, glass,
carriages, boilers, and foundry and machine shop
products. The city has a national bank, high-
grade educational institutions, daily and weekly
newspapers, and an assessed property valuation
of over $3,000,000. Pop. (1900) 9.912.

Bel'lamont, or Bellomont, Richard Coote

(E.\RL of), royal governor of New York and
Massachusetts: b. 1636; d. New York, 5 IMarch
1701. To these ofifices he was appointed in May
1695, but did not arrive in New York until
May 1698. He went from New York to Boston
in May 1699, and was received by 20 companies
of soldiers and a vast concourse of people. His
administration was uneventful, his time having
been occupied in the pursuit of the pirates who
infested the coast, one of whom, the notorious
Kidd, he secured and sent to England in 1700.
He was disliked by the aristocratic party in New
York, but very popular in New Hampshire and
Massachusetts. Hutchinson speaks of Bellamont
as being a hypocrite in a pretended devotion to
religion. It appears, however, that while living
at Fort George, in New York, he passed much
time in meditation and contrition for his youth-
ful excesses. He was accompanied to America
by his countess. See De Reyster, ^Life and Ad-
ministration of Richard, Earl of Bellamont^
(1869).

Bellamy, Edward, American writer: b. in
Chicopee Falls, Mass., 29 March 1850; d. there,
22 May 1898. He was educated in Germany;
admitted to the bar; was on the staflf of the
Evening Post of New York in 1871-2: and on
his return from the Sandwich Islands in 1877,

founded the Springfield News. He is best
known by his novel ^Looking Backward' (1888),
a socialistic work, of which an immense num-
ber of copies were sold in two years. This led
to the formation of Nationalist clubs, in which
work Mr. Bellamy took active part. His other
books are ^Six to One: a Nantucket Idyl*
(1878); ^Dr. Heidenhoff's Process' (1880);
*^Miss Ludington's Sister' (1884) ; ^Equality'
(1897); 'The Duke of Stockbridge' (1901), a
sequel to 'Looking Backward.'

Bellamy, Elizabeth Whitfield ( C R o m ) ,
American novelist, writing under the pseudonym
Kamba Thorpe: b. Quincy. Fla., 17 April 1838;
d. 1900. She published 'Four Oaks' (1867) ;
'Little Joanna' (1876); 'Old Man Gilbert'
(1888) ; 'The Luck of the Pendennings.'

Bellamy, George Anne, English actress:
b. 1727; d. 1788. She was the natural daughter
of Lord Tyrawley, by whom she was educated.
Having forfeited his favor by going to live with
her mother, she secured an engagement at
Covent Garden in 1744, and appeared with Quin
as Monimia in 'The Orphan.' Mrs. Bellamy's
professional career was brilliant ; but her extrav-
agance and profligacy were notorious. In 1785,
after many alternations of fortune, a free bene-
fit released her from the debtors' prison, and in
the same year she published an ^Apology' for
her life.

Bellamy, Jacobus, Flemish poet: b. Flush-
ing, 1757; d. 1786. In 1772 the second secular
festival in commemoration of the foundation of
the republic was celebrated throughout Holland.
His genius, suddenly inflamed by the love of his
native land, rendered him a poet, and his first
productions met with success. He studied Latin,
made himself better acquainted with his mother
tongue, and composed several pieces of merit
sufficient to induce the Society of Arts at The
Hague to incorporate them in its collections.
In 1785 he published his patriotic songs under
the title 'Vaderlandsche Gezangen,' which se-
cured him a place among the first poets of his
nation. Bellamy sung likewise the praise of love.
A biographical account of him has been written
by G. Kniper.

Bellamy, Joseph, American clergj-man
and educator: b. North Cheshire, Conn., 20 Feb.
1719; d. 6 March 1790. In 1740 he became pas-
tor of the church in Bethlehem, Conn., where
he remained until his death. About 1742 he
established a divinity school, in which many
celebrated clergymen were trained. Among his
published works, besides his 'Sermons,' are
'True Religion Delineated' (1750) ; <The
Nature and Glory of the Gospel' (1762),
and 'The Half-Way Covenant' (1769).

Bellamy, Samuel, a notorious pirate, was
wrecked in his ship, the Whidah, of 23 guns and
130 men, off Wellfleet, on Cape Cod, in April
1717, after having captured several vessels on
the coast. Only one Indian and one English-
man escaped of his crew. Six of the pirates,
who had been run ashore when drunk a few
days previous, by the captain of the captured
vessel, were hung in Boston in November 1717.

Bellange, bel-lan-zha, Hippolyte, French
painter: b. Paris 1800; d. 1866. Attention was
first directed to him by his painting of 'The Re-
turn of Napoleon from Elba,' exhibited in 1834.
He was director of the museum at Rouen,

BELLARMINO — BELLE ISLE

1837-53. Among his many noted battle pieces
are ^Battle of Wagram^ (1837); "^Kellerman's
Charge at Marengo^ (1847) ; ^Battle of the
Alma> (1855); ^Assault on Malakoff^ (1859);
<The Guard Dies> (1866;.

Bellarmino, bel-lar-me'no, or Bellarmine,
Roberto Francesco Romolo, Italian cardinal
and celebrated controversialist : b. Monte Pul-
ciano in Tuscany, 4 Oct. 1542; d. Rome, 17 Sept.
1621. At the age of 18 he entered the College of
Jesuits, where he soon distinguished himself; and
his reputation caused him to be sent into the
low countries to oppose the progress of the re-
formers. He was ordained in 1569 by Jansenius,
Bishop of Ghent, and placed in the theological
chair of the University of Louvain. After a
residence of seven years he returned to Italy,
and was sent by Sixtus V. to France, as com-
panion to the legate. He was made a cardinal
on account of his learning, by Clement VIII.,
and in 1602 created Archbishop of Capua. At
the elections of Leo XI. and Paul V. he was
thought of for the pontificate, and might have
been chosen had he not been a Jesuit. Paul V.
recalled him to Rome, on which he resigned his
archbishopric without retaining any pension on
it as he might have done. Bellarmino had the
double merit with the court of Rome of sup-
porting her temporal power and spiritual su-
premacy to the utmost, and of strenuously op-
posing the reformers. The talent he displayed
in the latter controversy called forth similar
ability on the Protestant side ; and for a num-
ber of years no eminent divine among the re-
formers failed to make his arguments a particu-
lar subject of refutation. The great work which
he composed in this warfare is- entitled "^A Body
of Controversy,^ written in Latin, the style of
which is perspicuous and precise, without any
pretension to purity or elegance. He displays
a vast amount of Scriptural learning, and is
deeply versed in the doctrine and practice of the
Church in all ages. His maxims on the right
of pontiffs to depose princes caused his work
on the temporal power of the popes to be con-
demned at Paris. On the other hand, it did not
satisfy the court of Rome, because it asserted,
not a direct, but an indirect, power in the popes
in temporal matters ; which reservation so of-
fended Sixtus v., that he placed it among the
list of prohibited books. His society thought so
highly of his sanctity, that proofs were collected
to entitle him to canonization ; but the fear of
giving offense to the sovereigns whose rights he
oppugned has always prevented a compliance
with the ardent wishes of the Jesuits. His con-
troversial works were published at Prague in
1721, and again at Mayence in 1842. Of his
other works the most important is his ^Chris-
tians Doctrinae Applicatio' (1603) — a work
originally composed in Italian, but since trans-
lated into all European languages. He left an
autobiography, which was re-issued and an-
notated by Dollinger and Reusch (1887).

Bellary, bel-la're, or Ballari, a town in
India, in the presidency of Madras, capital of a
district of the same name, 280 miles northwest
of Madras. It is the headquarters of the troops
belonging to the districts of Bellary and Kada-
pah, and possesses two forts, one built on the
summit, and the other on a lower eminence of
a huge granite rock about two miles in circum-
ference, and rising to the height of about 450

feet from the ground. Bellary is the terminus
of a branch line of the Madras Ry., and car-
ries on an active trade in cotton. Pop. (1901)
57,700.

Bellay, be-la, Joachim du, distinguished
French poet, known as the French Ovid : b. about
1524; d. 1560. He joined Ronsard, Daurat, Jo-
delle, Belleau, Baif, and De Tisard in forming
the ^Pleiad,* a society, the object of which was
to bring the French language on a level with
the classical tongues. Bellay's first contribution
was *La Defense et Illustration de la Langue
Frangaise.-* His chief publications in verse are
'Recueil de Poesie^ ; a collection of love-sonnets
called ^L'Olive^ ; ^Les Antiquites de Rome,^ a
series of sonnets; <Les Regrets' ; and 'Les Jeux
Rustiques.^ In 1555 he became canon of Notre
DaniQ, and a short time before his death he was
nominated archbishop of Bordeaux. A statue of
Bellay was unveiled in Ancenis in 1894. Spencer
translated some of his Roman sonnets into Eng-
lish; and there are translations of poems by
him in Andrew Lang's ^Ballads and Lyrics of
Old France.^ See ^Life^ by Seche> (1880);
Pator, ^Studies in the History of the Rennais-
sance' (if

Belle-Alliance, bel-a-le-ans, a farm 13
miles south of Brussels, famous as the position
occupied by the centre of the French' army in the
battle of Waterloo, 18 June 1815. By the Prus-
sians the battle was called that of Belle Al-
liance.

Belle Chocolatiere, bel-sho-ko-la-tyar. La,
a noted portrait by the artist Liotard of the
Princess Dietrichstien, who, prior to her mar-
riage, was a waitress in a cafe in Vienna. The
painting is now in the Dresden Gallery.

Belle-Isle, bel-el, or Belle-Isle-en-Mer

(anciently Vindilis), an island in the Bay of
Biscay, belonging to France, in the department
of Morbihan, eight miles south of Quiberon
Point, about ii miles long, and 6 miles across
at the widest point. The soil is diverse, con-
sisting of rock, salt marsh, and fertile grounds.
Palais is the capital. The island is of much in-
terest historically. In 1747 the French fleet was
defeated by Admiral Hauke off the island, and
n was captured by the English in 1761. Pilchard
and sardine fishing is the important industry.
Pop. 10,000.

Belle-Isle, an island, 15 miles north of
Newfoundland and northeast of the Gulf of St.
Lawrence, about 21 miles in circuit. On the
northwest side it has a small harbor, called
Lark Harbor, within a little island close to the
shore. At the eastern point it has another small
harbor or cove that will only admit fishing shal-
lops. A rescue station has been established for
persons who may be shipwrecked. Its area is
about 15 square miles. At its southern end is
a lighthouse whose light is 470 feet above the
sea, and visible for 28 miles. The narrow chan-
nel between Newfoundland and the coast of Lab-
rador is called the Straits of Bell-Isle. Steam-
ers from Glasgow and Liverpool to Quebec
round the north of Ireland commonly go by this
channel in summer as being the shortest route.

Belle Isle, Va., an island in the James
River, opposite Richmond, where nearly 12,000
Federal prisoners were confined in 1863.

BELLE JARDINERE — BELLEROPHON

Belle Jardinere, bel-zhar-de-nyar, La, a
celebrated painting by Raphaeij now in the
Louvre. It represents the Madonna with the
holy child, and the infant St. John.

Belle Plaine, Iowa, town in Benton
County, on the Iowa River and on several rail-
roads ; 257 miles west of Chicago. It has flour-
ing mills, furniture factories, creameries, ma-
chine shops, broom factories and numerous ar-
tesian wells. It was founded in 1862. Pop.
(1900) 3,283.

Belle Savage, an old inn, on Ludgate
Hill, London, celebrated in coaching days, and
frequently mentioned by Dickens and other
writers dealing with that period.

Belleau, be-16, Remy, French poet: b.
Nogent-le-Rotrou, 1528; d. Paris, 16 March
1577. He made an elegant and spirited transla-
tion of ^The Odes of Anacreon* (15/6). His
^Bergerie^ (1572), a compound of prose and
verse, is of unequal merit ; but it contains some
passages, — for example, the **April,^' — which
are of great beauty.

Bellefontaine, Ohio, a city and county-
seat of Logan County ; on the Cleveland. C, C.
& St. L. R.R. ; 57 miles northeast of Dayton.
It occupies the highest elevation in the State ;
and is surrounded by an agricultural region. It
has extensive car-shops and other railroad
works ; two national banks ; daily and weekly
newspapers ; an assessed property valuation of
$2,250,000 ; a total debt of about $200,000. Pop.
(1900) 6.649.

Bellefonte, Pa., a borough and county-
seat of Centre County, 87 miles northwest of
Harrisburg. It has important lime quarries,
iron furnaces, glass works, manufactories and
machine shops, and was incorporated in 1800.
It is a summer resort much visited for its scen-
ery and noted for its spring, whose waters have
supplied the borough since 1807. Pop. (1900)
4,216.

Bellegarde, bel-gard, Henri (Count de),
French writer : b. Piri^e, 30 Aug. 1648 ; d. Paris,
1707. He was a member of the community of
priests of St. Francis de Sales, and the recog-
nized author of the 'Universal History of Voy-
ages' (1707).

Belleisle, bel-el, Charles Louis Auguste
Fouquet (Comte de), marshal of France: b.
Villefranche, 22 Sept. 1684 ; d. Versailles, 26 Jan.
1761. He distinguished himself during the fa-
mous siege of Lille, and became brigadier in
the royal forces. After the conclusion of the
war of the Spanish Succession he went with
Marshal Villars to Rastadt, where he displayed
diplomatic talents. The cession of Lorraine to
France in 1735 was principally his work. Car-
dinal Fleury reposed confidence in him ; Louis
XV. made him governor of Metz and the three
bishoprics of Lorraine, which office he held until
his death. Before the breaking out of the war
in 1741 he visited the principal courts of Ger-
many with the design of disposing them, after
the death of Charles VI., to choose the elector
of Bavaria emperor of Germany ; and he dis-
played so much address on this occasion as to
excite the admiration of Frederick II. After his
return he placed himself at the head of the
French forces sent to oppose those of Maria
Theresa. He took Prague by assault ; but, the
king of Prussia having made a separate peace,
he was compelled to a retreat which he per-

formed with admirable skill. In December 1744,
when on a diplomatic journey to Berlin, he was
arrested in Germany and sent to England, but
he was exchanged in 1746. In the following
year he forced Gen. Browne, who had entered
the south of France from Italy, to raise the siege
of Antibes and to retreat over the Var. In
1748 the king made him a duke and peer of
France, and the department of war was commit-
ted to his charge. He reformed the army by
abolishing many abuses, enlarged the military
academy, and caused an order of merit to be
established.

Bellenden, William, Scottish writer: b.
Lasswade (?) Midlothian, about 1555; d. about
1633. He was educated at Paris, where he was
professor of belles-lettres in 1602; and though
he was made master of requests by James I.
he still continued to reside in the French me-
tropolis. He was distinguished for the elegance
of his Latin style, and in 1608 he published a
work entitled 'Ciceronis Princeps,' containing a
selection from the works of Cicero, consisting of
passages relating to the duties of a prince, etc.
He afterward published 'Ciceronis Consul,'
'Senator,' etc., with two other treatises, from
one of which Conyers Middleton's 'Life of
Cicero' was largely compiled — a plagiarism de-
nounced by Dr. Parr in a Latin preface prefixed
to a re-issue of Bellenden's writings (1787).

Bellermann, Ferdinand, German painter:
b. Erfurt, 14 March 1814 ; d. Berlin, 11 Aug.
1889. He was educated at the academy at Wei-
mar, and studied later at Berlin under Karl
Blechen and Wilhelm Schirmer. He traveled in
Norway, the Netherlands, Venezuela, and Ital}-,
and in 1866 became professor of landscape paint-
ing at the Berlin Academy. He utilized the
results of his travels in the production of many
magnificent landscapes, among which may be
mentioned 'Evening in the Valley of Caracas' ;
the 'Guacharo Cave, Venezuela'*; 'Sierra Ne-
vada' ; etc.

Bellerophon, bel-le'ro-fon, son of Glaucus,
king of Ephyre, by Eurymede, at first called
Hipponous. The murder of his brother, whom
some call Alcimenus and Bellerus, procured him
the name of Bellerophon, or murderer of Bel-
lerus. After this murder Bellerophon fled to
the court of Prcetus, king of Argos, whose wife
became enamored of him ; and because he
slighted her passion she sought to destroy him.
He escaped her machinations, was introduced to
the court of Jobates, king of Lycia, and, after a
number of adventures, in one of which he con-
quered the Chim?era, he married the daughter of
Jobates and succeeded to the throne of Ljxia.
The latter days of Bellerophon were unfortunate.
Attempting to soar to heaven on the back of
Pegasus, Zeus sent a hornet which so stung his
winged steed that he cast his rider to the earth,
where lame and blind he wandered lonely in
the Aleian fields, a prey to corroding grief and
melancholy, shunning men, and hated by the
gods.

Bellerophon, a genus of gasteropodous
mollusks, typical of the family Bellerophontidci.
The species are all fossil shells foimd in the
limestones of the Silurian, Devonian, and Car-
boniferous periods. The best-known American
species are found in the coal measures of the
Mississippi valley and the southwest. The so-

BELLES-LETTRES — BELLIARD

called B. cilohahis, a fossil characteristic of the
Trenton formation, is now assigned to the genus
Protozvarthia.

Belles-letti-es, bel-letr, the French term,
for which the English equivalent is polite litera-
ture. It is impossible to give a satisfactory ex-
planation of what is or has been called belles-
lettres; in fact, the vaguest definition would be
the best, as almost every branch of knowledge
has at one time been included in, at another ex-
cluded from, this denomination. The most cor-
rect definition, therefore, would be, perhaps, such
as embraced all knowledge and every science not
merely abstract or simply useful. In the division
of the departments at the Lyceum of Arts, es-
tablished at Paris in 1792, the belles-lettres
comprehended general grammar, languages, rhe-
toric, geography, history, antiquities, and numis-
matics ; while philosophy, mathematics, etc.,
were called, in contradistinction, sciences.

Belleval, Pierre Richer de, bel-val, pe-ar
re-cha de, French botanist : b : Chalons-sur-
Marne c. 1564 ; d. 1623. He was the first person
in France who taught botany as a science distinct
from medicine. Henry IV. established a botani-
cal garden at Montpellier, and created a chair of
botany. Belleval obtained the first appointment
in 1593, and immediately began a collection of all
the plants in Languedoc, in order to the produc-
t-ion of an illustrated flora, for which about 500
quarto plates had been engraved, when he cjied.
Through the carelessness of his representatives,
almost all of these were lost.

Belleville, bel-vTl, Canada, town, port of
entry, and county-seat of Hastings County, On-
tario, on the Bay of Quinte, at the mouth of the
Moira River. It is on the Grand Trunk Railway
and 60 miles west of Kingston. It has an ex-
cellent harbor, and the Moira affords abundant
water-power for manufacturing. Belleville is in
the heart of the finest dairying region of Can-
ada; is in direct steamboat communication with
many Canadian and United States points, and
enjoys an extensive trade, especially in lumber.
It has 13 churches. It is the seat of Albert Col-
lege, which has an arts course, music, etc., and
was established in 1857. The Ontario Business
College, Belleville Business College, Saint Agnes
Ladies' School, public and high schools, deaf
and dumb institute, and public library are some
of its institutions. The chief manufactories are
lumber, pottery, cigars, sash and blinds, woolens,
shirts, mining tools, machinery, lanterns, and tin-
ware. A short distance east of Belleville are
large cement works for the utilization of a lime-
stone which exists in great abundance in the
vicinity. The city has agencies for the principal
banks of Canada, daily and weekly newspapers,
;'nd is the seat of a' United States consulate.
Pop. C1901) 9,117.

Belleville, 111., a city and county-seat of
Saint Clair County; situated on several rail
roads ; 14 miles east of Saint Louis, Mo. It is
in the midst of very productive coal mines ; has
a large trade in flour, and general produce ; and
is chiefly engaged in the manufacture of glass,
stoves, flour, nails, and machinery, and has one
of the largest rolling mills in the West. The
city has trolley lines to Saint Louis, a public
library. Saint Peter's Cathedral (Roman Catho-
lic), convent, four national banks, and an as-
sessed property valuation of over $2,250,000.
Pop. (1900) 17,484.

Bellevue, Ky., a city on the Ohio River
opposite Cincinnati, of which it is practically a
suburb. It is almost exclusively a city of resi-
dences. Pop. (1900) 6,332.

Bellevue, bel-view, Ohio, a village on
Lake S. & M. S., Wheeling & L. E., and Nickel
P. R.R.'s ; situated in Huron and Sandusky
counties ; about 16 miles south of Sandusky.
It has manufactures of agricultural implements,
and a large farming trade. Pop. (1900) 4,100.

Bellevue, bel-vii (French, *fine prospect'*),

a name given to various villas and palaces, but
particularly to a beautiful country palace in the
neighborhood of Paris, situated on a ridge of
hills stretching from St. Cloud toward Meudon.
It was built by Mme. de Pompadour, com-
menced in July 1748, and finished in November
1750. The first French artists of the time had
exerted all their talents in embellishing it; so
that at the period when it was built, it was con-
sidered the most charming in all Europe. After
the Rev'olution the Convention decreed that
Bellevue should be kept in repair at the expense
of the nation, and devoted to public amuse-
ments. Nevertheless it was publicly sold dur-
ing the highest pitch of revolutionary excite-
ment, and the purchaser had it demolished.
There is a pretty village on its site, which, dur-
ing the siege of Paris (1870-1) was an impor-
tant strategic point.

Bellevue Hospital, New York, a hos-
pital situated on the East River, between 26th
and 27th streets. It is the seat of a medical
school of high rank, and has accommodations
for about 1,300 patients.

Belley, bel-la, France (ancient Bellica), a
town in the department Ain, 39 miles southeast
of Bourg, and 38 miles southwest of Geneva ;
situated in a fertile valley watered by the Furan.
It is very ancient, having been a place of note
in the time of Julius Caesar, and is the seat of a
bishopric founded in 412. It contains a com-
munal college, has an agricultural society, and
a court of primary resort. The episcopal palace,
the belfry of the cathedral, the college, and the
rich cabinet of medals and antiquities, are worth
notice. Silk worms are reared; and lithographic
stones, reckoned the best in France, are ob-
tained from quarries in the neighborhood. Pop.
(1896) 6,070.

Belli, Giuseppe Gioachino, bel'le, joo-sep'pT
jo-ke'no, Roman humorist and satirical
poet: b. 1791 ; d. 1863. He wrote in the popular
dialect of the Trastevere.; and in early life
scourged the papacy and the clergy with sting-
ing, irreverent, and often vulgar satire. Becom-
ing afterward a zealous convert to the Roman
faith, he endeavored to call in and destroy the
indiscretions of his youth. In his last years he
published a beautiful translation of the Roman
Breviary. His published sonnets amount to
more than 2,000; his other published Italian
verses fill four considerable volumes ; while two
thirds of his vast remains have never been gath-
ered and edited. Of this last, much is clothed
in language too coarse to bear the light of mod-
ern culture.

Belliard, Augustin Daniel, bel-yar, 6-goos-
tah dan-vel (Count de), French soldier and
diplomatist : b. Fontenay-le-Comte, La Vendee,
1769; d. 27 Jan. 1832. He entered the military
service very early, and Dumouriez soon made

BELLIGERENT — BELLINI

him an officer of his staff. Under Napoleon,
serving in Egypt, Germany, Spain, and Russia,
he rose to great military distinction. After the
emperor's abdication he received the order of
Saint Louis from Louis XVIII. and was made a
peer and major-general of the French army.

Bellig'erent, a nation or a large section of
a nation engaged in carrying on war. When a
revolted party of great numerical strength are
able to lorm a regular government and rule
over the whole or part of the territory which
they claim, humanity dictates that they should
not be treated as rebels guilty of treason, but
should, if captured, be regarded as prisoners of
war. To attain this result it is needful for
those who have risen in arms against the gov-
ernment to make every effort to obtain for their
party the position of belligerents. In the con-
test between the Federals and Confederates in
the War of 1861-5, the latter section of the
American people, at the very commencement of
the struggle, claimed the privileges of belliger-
ents. Their demand was promptly acceded to
by the British government, at which the Federal
authorities took umbrage, contending that the
recognition had been premature, while the Brit-
ish maintained that it could not have been re-
fused or delayed.

Bellingham, Richard, royal governor of
Massachusetts: b. 1592; d. 7 Dec. 1672. He
emigrated to the colony in 1634 ; in 1635 was
made deputy-governor; and in 1641 was elected
governor in opposition to Winthrop by a ma-
jority of six votes. He was re-elected in 1654,
and after the death of Endicott was chosen
again in May 1665, and continued in the execu-
tive chair of the colony as long as he lived, hav-
ing been deputy-governor 13 and governor 10
years. He was chosen major-general in 1664,
in which year the king sent Nichols, Cortright,
Coon, and Moresick as commissioners to in-
quire into the state of the colony, when, accord-
ing to Hutchinson, Bellingham and others ob-
no.xious to James II. were required to go to
England to account for their conduct. The gen-
eral court, however, refused obedience and main-
tained the authority of the charter. His wife
having died, in 1641 he married a second time,
of which a contemporary speaks thus : "A young
gentleman was about to be contracted to a
friend of his, when on a sudden the governor
treated with her, and obtained her for himself.**
The banns were not properly published, and he
performed the marriage ceremony himself. He
was prosecuted for a violation of the law, but at
the trial he refused to leave the bench, sat and
tried himself, and thus escaped all punishment.
In his last will he provided that after the decease
of his wife and of his son by a former wife, and
his granddaughter, the bulk of his estate should
be spent for the yearly maintenance "of goodly
ministers and preachers** of the true Church,
which he considered to be that of the Congre-
gationalists. This will the general court set
aside on the ground that it interfered with the
rights of his family. A sister of his, Anne Hib-
bens, was executed at Salem in June 1656, dur-
ing the witchcraft persecution.

Bellingham, Wash., city, county of
Whatcom ; on the eastern shore of Bellingham
Bay, and on the Great Northern, Northern
Pacific, Canadian Pacific, and Bellingham Bay &
British Columbia R.R.'s.

History. — The first settlement was made in
October 1852 by Capt. Henry Roeder, who built
a saw-mill on what is now Whatcom Creek.
The Lummi tribe of Indians maintained their
chief camp on the beach near the mouth and
falls of Whatcom Creek, and called the camp or
rather the locality ^HVhrap-cop^^ meaning "the
noisy water** or "the place of the noisy water.**
The white men retained the Indian name for
their town, modified as indicated by the spelling
to Whatcom. This remained the name of the
town until the consolidation of Whatcom and
New Whatcom in 1891 under the name of New
Whatcom, from which the prefix "New'* was
dropped by action of the state legislature 19
Feb. 1901. Fairhaven is the English interpreta-
tion of an Indian word or phrase, '^See-see-
leechel/^ meaning "a safe harbor** or "the shel-
tered beach.** The town was platted and named
in 1883 by Daniel J. Harris, the original dona-
tion claimant. In 1890 Fairhaven and the ad-
joining town of Bellingham were incorporated
as one city under the name of Fairhaven. On
27 Oct. 1903, the electors of Fairhaven and
Whatcom voted to consolidate the two cities
under the name of Bellingham and the con-
solidation was duly consummated. The new-
name went into effect 28 Dec. 1903, and the post-
office became Bellingham i April 1904. Belling-
ham Bay was named by Vancouver in 1792, and
the consolidated city takes its name from that
bay.

Indxistries. — The city is the commercial cen-
tre of a large lumber and agricultural region ;
salmon fishing is also an industry of great im-
portance, and mining and quarrying are carried
on in the vicinity. The principal manufactur-
ing establishments include lumber and shingle
mills, salmon canneries, wood working and iron
working plants, and brick kilns. There are four
banks with a combined capital of $405,000.

Churches and Educational Institutions. —
There are (in 1904) 27 established churches in
Bellingham, representing practically all denom-
inations. There are 11 city schools, including a
high school, and two libraries, the Bellingham
Bay Library, and the Carnegie Library. The
city also contains the State Normal School, and
three business colleges.

Government and Population. — The govern-
ment is vested in a mayor, elected biennially,
and a council of seven members, elected al-
ternately every two years. Pop. (Official census
1904), 22,632. Frank C. Teck,

Bellingham Chamber of Commerce.

Bellini, Gentile, jen-te'la, the elder son
of Jacopo (q.v.) : b. 1421 ; d. 1501. He became
much more distinguished than his father, but
did not rival his younger brother, Giovanni.
His fame attracted the notice of Moham-
med II., conqueror of Constantinople, and Bel-
lini visited the grand seignor, being sent by the
Senate. He painted a number of pictures for
Mohammed, and also struck a medal for him,
with all of which he was greatly pleased, and
rewarded the painter by presenting him with a
gold chain and 3,000 ducats. A story is told
of his exhibiting to IMohammed a picture^ he
had painted of the head of John the Baptist in a
charger, and the emperor, who had certainly
great experience in decapitation, observing that
the muscles of the neck were not correctly
drawn, sent for a slave and had his head cut
off in the presence of the artist, to convince hira

BELLINI — BELLOT

of his mistake. Voltaire ridicules this tale, and
Gibbon altogether rejects it. There is a very
fine pen-and-ink drawing by Bellini in the Brit-
ish Museum, representing Mohammed and the
sultana mother, in whole-length figures in a sit-
ting position. After Gentile's return to Venice,
he continued to paint, honored by the patronage
of the state and of private individuals, until his
death.

Bellini, Giovanni, bel-le'ne, jo-va-ni, Ital-
ian painter: b. 1426; d. Venice, 29 Nov. 1516.
He was the second son of Jacopo Bellini (q.v.)
and generally regarded as the founder of the
Venetian school, though he himself was his
father's pupil. Some of his earliest works were
portraits, among them that of the doge, Leonardo
Loredano, now, with another of his masterpieces,
'Peter Martyr,^ in the London National Gallerj'.
Having attracted the notice of the government,
he was emploj^ed by the republic to decorate the
great hall of the council with a series of mag-
nificent paintings, covering the entire walls, and
designed to represent the proudest historic
glories of Venice. These were worthily accom-
plished, but were destroyed by a fire. Among
his scholars were Giorgione and Titian, and it
was from him that these masters acquired their
magnificent coloring.

Bellini, Jacopo, ya'c6-p6, Italian painter:
b. Venice about 1405 ; d. 1470. He was a pupil of
Gentile da Fabriano, and is said to have been
taught oil-painting, which was then a secret, by
Andrea dal Castagno, and in turn taught it to
his sons Gentile and Giovanni (qq.v.). The first
works by which he acquired fame were portraits
of Catharine Cornaro, the beautiful queen of
Cyprus, and one of her brothers ; a picture repre-
senting the passion of Christ, in w-hich many
figures were introduced, himself among the num-
ber ; and a historical picture representing a Vene-
tian legend of the miracle of the cross. This
cross, containing a piece of the true one on which
the Saviour died, was by some accident thrown
into the Grand Canal at Venice, and although
many persons plunged in after it, it was the
will of God that only the guardian of the broth-
erhood to whom the cross belonged, Andrea
Vindramino, could take it out again. This event
was represented in the painting. Almost all of
Jacopo's works have perished ; one supposed to
be authentic is in the Manfrini palace at Venice
and represents the portraits of Petrarch and
Laura.

Bellini, Vincenzo, vin-chen'zo, Italian
composer: b. Catania, Sicily, 1802; d. near Paris,
1835. He was educated at Naples under Zinga-
relli, commenced writing operas before he was
20, and composed for the principal musical es-
tablishments in Europe. His most celebrated
works are 'Norma,^ 'I Puritani,' and 'La Son-
nambula.' He is remarkable chiefly for sweet-
ness of melod3^ suitableness of harmony, and an
adaptation of sound to sense, and stood honor-
ably distinguished from many of his profession
by the excellence of his moral character.

Bellinzona, bel-Tn-z6'na, or Belleny, bel-
a'ne, Switzerland, the capital of the canton of
Ticino on the left bank of the Ticino, about five
miles from its embouchure in the northern end
of Lago Maggiore. It occupies a position of
great military importance.

Bellis. See Daisy.

Bellman, Karl Mickel, Swedish poet: b.
Stockholm, 1740; d. 1795. He grew up in the
quietude of domestic life, and the first proofs he
gave of his poetical talents were religious and
pious effusions. The dissipated life of young men
at Stockholm devoted to pleasure was afterward
the subject of his poems. By these his name
was spread over all Sweden. Even the atten-
tion of Gustavus III. was attracted to him, and
he received from the king an appointment which
enabled him to devote himself almost entirely
to poetical pursuits, in an easy independence, un-
til his death. His songs are truly national, and
love and liquor their most common themes.

Bello, Andres, Spanish-American diplo-
matist and author : b. Caracas, Venezuela, 30
Nov. 1780; d. Santiago, Chile, 15 Oct. 1865. He
represented Venezuela in London, 1810-28; in
1829 became a^n official of the bureau of finance;
in 1834 was minister of foreign affairs for Chile ;
in 1842, the first rector of Santiago University.
He was the author of 'Principles of Interna-
tional Law^ (1832), and after his death his en-
tire works were printed at the expense of the
state.

Belloc', Hilaire, English litterateur: b. 27 July
1870. He is the son of M. Louis Belloc, a
French barrister; was educated at Balliol College,
Oxford, after serving for a time in the French
artillery at Toul, and in 1906 was elected to Par-
liament as a Liberal. He has published 'The
Bad Child's Book of Beasts > (1896); 'More
Beasts for Worse Children* (1897) ; 'The Modern
Traveler' (1898); 'The Moral Alphabet > (1899);
'Danton,' a much-admired biography (1899);
'Lambkins Remains' (1900); 'Paris' (1900);
< Robespierre' (1901) ; 'The Path to Rome' (1902) ;
'The Old Road' (1905); etc.

Belloc. Marie Adelaide. See Lowndes, M.A.

Bellomont, Earl of. See Bellamont, Rich-
ard, Earl of.

Bel'lomont, Earl of. See Coote, Richard.

Bello'na, the goddess of war, daughter of
Phorcys and Ceto. She was called by the Greeks
Enyo, and is often confounded with Minerva. She
was anciently called Ducllona, and was the sis-
ter of Mars, or, according to some, his daughter
or his wife. She prepared his chariot when he
was going to war, and drove his steeds through
the tumult of the battle with a bloody scourge,
her hair dishevelled and a torch in her hand.
The Romans paid great adoration to her ; but
she was held in the highest veneration b)' the
Cappadocians, chiefly at Comana, where she had
above 3,000 priests. ,Her temple at Rome was
near the Porta Carmentalis. In it the senators
gave audience to foreign ambassadors and to
generals returned from Avar. At the gate w^as a
small column, called the "column of war,'*
against which they threw a spear whenever war
was declared. The priests of this goddess con-
secrated themselves by making great incisions in
their bodies, and particularly in the thigh, from
which they received the blood in their hands to
offer as a sacrifice to the goddess. In their wild
enthusiasm they often predicted bloodshed and
wars, the defeat of enemies, or the besieging of
towns.

Bellot, Joseph Rene, bel-lo, zho-sef re-na,
French naval officer : b. Paris, 1826 ; d. 1853.' At
the age of 16 he entered the naval academy at

BELLOT STRAIT — BELLOY

Brest, and two years afterward received a com-
mission as elcve de marine on board the Berceau.
He was promoted for bravery to the rank of
eleve of the first class, and also created a cheva-
lier of the Legion of Honor, though not yet 20
years old. On his return to France in 1847 he
was made a sub-lieutenant, and shortly after a
two-years' voyage to South America in the
Triomphante he volunteered his services on the
Royal Albert schooner, fitted out by Lady Frank-
lin, in June 1851, to search for her husband, Sir
John Franklin. The expedition failed in its
main object, but an interesting journal of it,
kept by Bellot, was published after his death.
In June 1853, he sailed again on board the
Phoenix, under command of Capt. Inglefield, on
a new Arctic expedition, the principal object of
which was to convey dispatches to Sir Edward
Belcher, then commanding H.M.S. Assistance in
the Polar seas. Arrived in Erebus and Terror
Bay, where lay the North Star, whose com-
mander. Capt. Pullen. was absent on a journey
of discovery, Capt. Inglefield set out in search of
him ; but in his absence it became desirable to
get the despatches conveyed to Sir Edward
Belcher — a duty which Lieut. Bellot undertook
to perform by crossing the ice. Having set out
with four sailors, a canoe, and a sledge, the
party got separated in a gale of wind on 18 Aug-
ust, and Bellot, with two others, drifted away
on a piece of ice. With the view of ascertain-
ing the direction the ice was taking, he crossed
over to the opposite side of the hummock and
was never seen more. A handsome granite
obelisk was erected to his memory in front of
Greenwich Hospital, and a provision was made
for his sisters.

Bellot Strait, the passage on the north
coast of North America which separates North
Somerset from Boothia Felix and connects
Prince Regent Inlet with Franklin Channel. Its
eastern entrance was discovered in 1852 by Lieut.
Bellot (q.v.). After four unsuccessful attempts
it was explored for the first time by McClintock
on his crowning voj'age. It is about 20 miles
long, and, at its narrowest part, about one mile
wide, running nearly on the parallel of 72°, be-
tween granite shores which, everywhere high,
rise here and there to 1.500 or 1,600 feet.
Through this funnel both the winds and the wa-
ters have full play; the latter, permanent cur-
rents and flood tides alike, coming from the
west. A point on the southern shore, 71° 55'
N., 95° W., is the most northerly point of the
North American continent.

Bellotto Bernardo, Italian painter and en-
graver: b. Venice, 1724; d. Warsaw, 1780. He
studied under his uncle, Antonio Canal, and
painted perspective and architectural views. He
passed much time in Germany and was a mem-
ber of the Academy of Dresden, where many of
his pictures are exhibited. He etched, from his
own designs, views of Vienna, Dresden, and
Warsaw. His pictures are called by the name
of Canaletto, which he assumed.

Bellows, Albert F., American painter: b.
Milford, Mass., 20 Nov. 1829; d. 24 Nov. 1883.
He was one of the first to succeed with water-
colors. He studied in Antwerp. Paris, and Eng-
land, becoming a National Academician (1861),
and an honorary member of the Royal Belgian
Water Color Society {il

Bellows, Henry Whitney, American Uni--
tarian clergyman and writer : b. Walpole, N. H.,
II June 1814; d. 30 Jan. 1882. He became pastor
of All Souls Church, New York, 1839; was chief
founder and long editor of the 'Christian In-
quirer* (1846); chief originator of the United
States Sanitary Commission, and its president
during the Civil War (1861-5). He wrote
* Public Life of Washington* (1866) ; 'Relation
of Public Amusements to Public Morality* ;
<The Old World in Its New Face* (2 vols.
1868-9), a record of travel in Europe. He was
an effective preacher and public speaker.

Bellows, a machine for blowing fire, so
formed as, by being dilated and contracted, to
inhale air by an orifice which is opened and
closed by a valve, and to propel it through a tube
upon the fire. The invention of bellows is as-
cribed to Anacharsis the Scythian, though prob-
ably it took place in different countries. The
forms of bellows at present are very various, as
many attempts have been made for the improve-
ment of this highl}^ important machine, which
becomes necessary wherever a powerful flame
is required in the arts. As mining was carried
on at an early date in Germany, and great heat
is required in smelting the ores and working
the metals, various new kinds of bellows were
invented in that country, one of which consists
of an empty box, which moves up and down in
another, partially filled with water. Between
the bottom of the empty box and the surface of
the water is a space filled with air, which is
driven out by the descent of the enclosed box.
Bellows of very great power are generally called
blowing-machines (q.v.). The com^non Qii-
nese bellows consi.st of a box of wood about
two feet long and one foot square, in which a
thick, square piece of board, which exactly fits
the internal cavity of the box, is pushed back-
ward and forward. In the bottom of the box,
at each end, there is a small conical or plug
valve to admit the air, and valves above to dis-
charge it.

Bellows Falls, Vt., a town in Windham
County, on the Connecticut River, so called
from several rapids and cataracts occurring
there. The whole descent is about 44 feet It
was formerly a famous place for spearing
salmon. A canal with locks has been cut around
the falls, through the solid rock. The scenery
is romantic, and various interesting minerals are
found in the vicinity. The town contains sev-
eral mills and manufactories, and is remarkable
for its handsome dwellings. Pop. (1900) 4.337.

Bellows-fish. See Globe-fish.

Belloy, Pierre Laurent Buirette de, bel-lwa,
pe-ar 16r-6n bwe-rct de, French dramatist: b.
St. Flour. Auvergne, 17 Nov. 1727; d. 5 March
1775- The first French dramatist who success-
fully introduced native heroes upon the French
stage. He was designed by his uncle, a dis-
tinguished advocate in the parliament of Paris,
who reared him after his father's death, for his
own profession, but while he applied himself to
the law with reluctance, he showed much genius
for the drama. His uncle opposed this taste,
and the young man secretly left his house. He
next made his appearance as an actor under the
name of "Dormdnt de Belloy.** Belloy had
hoped to reconcile his family to him by the
success of his first tragedy, 'Titus.* but this
hope was disappointed by the failure of the

BELL'S PALSY — BELMONTET

piece; and the author went to St. Petersburg.
He returned to France, where he brought out
his tragedy 'Zelmire,^ which met with complete
success. In 1765 foliowed his ^ Siege of Calais,^
a tragedy which produced a great sensation, and
is still esteemed, though it owes the applause
bestowed on it rather to its subject than to its
poetical merit. He received the medal prom-
ised by the king to those poets who should pro-
duce three successful pieces, and which was
awarded on this occasion only, the 'Siege of
Calais' being counted as two, it being, in fact,
only the second successful piece of Belloy. The
city of Calais sent him the freedom of the city
in a gold box. Belloy wrote sundry other dra-
matic pieces, of which 'Gaston and Bayard'
procured his reception into the Academy.

Bell's Palsy, named after Sir Charles Bell
(q.v.), a palsy of the muscles of the face sup-
plied by the seventh or facial nerve, and due to
some peripheral lesion, in distinction to facial
palsy of a central, or of a nuclear origin. It may
occur on both sides of the face. The causes are
many, but exposure to cold, such as sleeping in
the open with the wind blowing over the face, or
sitting by an open window in a railway train or
steamboat, is one of the most frequent causes. It
may also occur in a multiple neuritis that is
due to poisoning by alcohol, lead, arsenic, or the
poison of diphtheria, etc., and in rare instances
from fractures of the skull. It comes on sud-
denly, the patient often waking in the morning
to find one side of his face stiff, and in two
or three days the palsy has developed. There
is a sense of discomfort on the paralyzed side.
The patient cannot close one eye completely and
cannot manage his food on the affected side.
He cannot whistle, and his speech is peculiar.
The wrinkles of the paralyzed side are smoothed
out and every motion of the facial muscles
seems to be an exaggerated one, so that many
patients say their face is drawn to one side.
The reality being that it is the opposite side
that is affected and immovable. The paralysis
usually gets well in from three to five months,
especially if the treatment is begun early and
per sever ingly followed out. Some patients
never entirely recover, although much improve-
ment takes place in practically all. The treat-
ment is electrical, massage, and general tonics.
Particular attention should be paid to the care
of the paralyzed eyelid. See also Facial
Paralysis.

Consult: Starr, ^Text-book of Organic Nerve
Diseases' (1903).

Belluno, Italy, a northern city, capital of
a province of the same name, on the Piave, 48
miles north of Venice. It has a cathedral, a
handsome theatre, etc. ; and manufactures of
silk, straw-plait, leather, etc. Pop. (1897)
18,348.

Bel'mont, August, American banker: b.
Alzey, Germany, 1816; d. 24 Nov. 1890. He
was educated at Frankfort, and was apprenticed
to the Rothschild's banking house in that city
when 14 years old. In 1837 he went to Havana
to take charge of the firm's interests, and soon
afterward was sent to New York, where he
established himself in the banking business and
as the representative of the Rothschilds. He was
consul-general of Austria 1844-50; became
charge _d' affaires at The Hague in 1853; and
was minister-resident there in 1854-8. He was

a delegate to the Democratic National Conven-
tion in i860, and when a portion of the dele-
gates withdrew and organized the convention
in Baltimore he was active in that body, and
through it became chairman of the National
Democratic Committee, an office he held till
1872. He was an active worker in the party
till 1876, when he closed his political career.

Belmont, August, American banker: b.
New York, 18 Feb. 1853 ; son of the preceding.
He was graduated at Harvard University in
1875 ; at once entered his father's banking house,
and on the death of his father became head of
the firm of August Belmont & Company, also
representing the European banking firm of the
Rothschilds. In February 1900 he organized the
Rapid Transit Subway Construction Company
to back John B. McDonald, who had been
awarded the $35,000,000 contract for the con-
struction of a rapid-transit system in New York.
The house, under the management of the son,
has continued to exert the large influence in the
financial and railroad affairs of the city and
country that it gained under its founder.

Belmont, Perry, American lawyer: b. New
York, 28 Dec. 185 1 (son of August Belmont
1816-90). He was graduated at Harvard Uni-
versity in 1872, and at Columbia College Law
School in 1876; was admitted to the bar and
practised in New York till 1881, when he was
elected as a Democrat to Congress and served
till 1887, being a member of the Committee 00
Foreign Affairs, and in that capacity, in his
first term in Congress, came into notice by his
cross-examination of J. G. Blaine, then ex-
secretary of state, as to his relations with a
syndicate of American capitalists interested in
Peruvian guano. In 1885 he was appointed
chairman of the Committee on Foreign Affairs,
and in 1888 United States minister to Spain.
In 1889 he was commissioner to the Universal
Exposition in Paris, and for his services re-
ceived from the President of France, in 1890,
the decoration of commander of the Legion of
Honor. He was one of the principals in the
rapid-transit contract in New York, in which
his brother August (q.v.) was interested

Belmont, Cape Colony, a town midway be-
tween Orange River Junction and Kimberley. It
was the scene of one of the earliest engagements
in the war of 1899-1900, between the Boers and
the British under Gen. Lord Methuen. The
town was attacked by the British on 23 Nov.
1899, while on the march to the relief of Kim-
berley, and the battle resulted in a victory for
them. Two days later Lord Methuen took
Graas Pan, 10 miles north of Belmont, after
again defeating the Boers.

Belmont Park, N. Y., a racing field on
Long Island, 15 miles from New York city,
probably the most magnificent establishment
devoted to horse-racing in the world. The park
covers an area of 666 acres, laid out in groves
and gardens, among which are placed the
palatial club buildings and stables.

Belmontet, bel-mon-ta, Louis, French poet
and publicist: b. Montauban, 26 March 1799; d.
Paris. 14 Oct. 1879. He studied and practised
law in Toulouse until involved in difficulties
with the magistracy on account of some satirical
poems, when he went to Paris and there pro-
duced his principal works: 'The Sad Ones*

BELODON — BELSHAZZAR

(1824), a cycle of elegies; *^The Supper of
Augustus* (1828) ; and with Souniet, "^A Fes-
tival of Nero* (1829), a tragedy which ex-
ceeded 100 performances. In 1830 he edited the
Tribune newspaper, opposed the accession of
Louis Philippe, and predicted his downfall and
a second revolution in a bold pamphlet ad-
dressed to Chateaubriand, for which he was
arrested. In 1839 he established, together with
Messrs. Laffitte and Mauguin, a manufactory,
in which the men were to share the benefits
with the employers. In 1852 he became a mem-
ber of the legislative assemblj'. Subsequently
he became an ardent partisan of Bonapartism,
pleading its cause as a journalist and poetically
extolling the Napoleonic dynasty in many en-
thusiastic odes.

Belodon, an extinct reptile of the Triassic
Period, partly intermediate between dinosaurs
and crocodiles, but with many archaic charac-
ters. The body was protected by bony plates,
those on the back interlocking by a peg-and-
socket joint. The snout was long and narrow,
the external nares behind in contrast to their
position in modern crocodiles, where they are
at the tip of the snout. The limbs were longer
than those of modern crocodiles, but the propor-
tions were otherwise similar. Its remains have
been found in the Triassic coal-beds of North
Carolina and Pennsylvania, and the red beds
(estuarine sediments) of New Mexico, as well
as in European strata of corresponding age.

Beloe, William, English clergyman and
writer: b. 1756; d. 1817. He was educated at
Cambridge, and was presented to the rectory
of All-hallows, London Wall, and subsequently
to stalls in Lincoln Cathedral and St. Paul's.
In 1803 he became keeper of the printed books
in the British Museum. His chief publications
are, ^Anecdotes of Literature and Scarce
Books* (6 vols. 1806-12) ; a translation of
Herodotus with a commentary; and ^The Sex-
agenarian* (1817).

Beloit', Wis., a city in Rock County, on
the Rock River, and the Chicago & N. W. and
Chicago, M. & St. P. R.R.'s, 85 miles southwest
of Milwaukee and 91 miles west of Chicago.
The city derives fine power for manufacturing
from the river ; and has the second largest
wood-working machinery plant in the world,
beside manufactories of gas-engines, windmills,
iron, paper-mill machinery, plows, paper, rye
flour (the oldest mill of its kind in the country),
and bicycles. The city is widely known as the
seat of Beloit College (q.v.). It was first set-
tled in 1836. Pop. (1905) 12,855.

Beloit College, a co-educational (non-sec-
tarian) institution in Beloit, Wis.; organized in
1847 by 1-hc Congregational and Presbyterian
Churches ; reported at the end of 1905 : Pro-
fessors and instructors, 30; students, 506; vol-
umes in the library, 32,000; grounds and build-
ings valued at $335,000; productive funds,
$420,000; income, $28,000: number of graduates,
869 ; president, Edward D. Eaton, LL.D.

Beromancy, divination by arrows, prac-
tised by the ancient Scythians and other nations.
One of the numerous modes was as follows :
A number of arrows, being marked, were put
into a bag or quiver, and drawn out at random ;
and the marks or words on the arrow drawn
determined what was to happen. See Ezek.
xxi. 21-

Beloochistan. See Baluchistan.

Belot, be-lo, Adolphe, French novelist and
dramatist: b. Pointe-a-Patre, 6 Nov. 1829: d.
Paris, 17 Dec. 1890. He traveled extensively
and settled at Nancy as a lawyer. He won rep-
utation with a witty comedy, *The Testament of
Cesar Girodot* (1859, with Villetard) ; and,
being less successful with his following dra-
matic efforts, devoted himself to fiction. Of
his novels may be mentioned: *The Venus of
Gordes* (1867, with Ernest Daudet) ; ^The
Drama of the Rue de la Paix* (1868) ; < Article
47* (1870) ; all of which were dramatized.

Belper, England, a market town of Derby-
shire, on the left bank of the Derwent, over
which there is a handsome stone bridge of three
arches; seven miles north of Derby, on the Mid-
and Railway. It has three churches, besides other
places of worship, a public hall, with reading-
rooms, library, etc. There are large cotton-
mills, hosiery works, engineering works, and
foundries. It is a thriving town and has been
very much improved since about 1890. Pop.
(1901) 10,920.

Berphegor. i. An arch-demon appointed
by Pluto and his council to undertake an earthly
marriage, who fled unable to endure female com-
panionship. He has been made the subject of
one of La Fontaine's 'Contes,* and also of an
English play by Wilson, published in 1691.

2. An English play by Charles Webb^
translated and adapted from the French
'Paliasse,* in which the chief character i&
Belphegor, a mountebank.

3. (Dne of the deities of the Moabites.

Belsham, Thomas, English Unitarian
clergyman: b. 1750; d. 1829. He became the-
ological tutor of an academy at Daventry in
1781. At this time he was a Calvinist, but a
change of views unfitted him for this situation^
and he became tutor of an academy which had
been recently established at Hackney. This in-
stitution soon failed for want of funds, and
Belsham removed first to the Gravel Pit Chapel,
which had been occupied by Dr. Priestly, and
afterward to Essex Street Chapel, where he
oi^ciated for some time as the colleague of
Lindsey, and latterly as sole pastor till his
death in 1829. His works are chiefly of a
controversial nature, and probably attracted at-
tention as much from the celebrity of the works
which they attacked as from their own merits.
His first appearance in the polemical field was
as an opponent of Wilberforce, of whose
celebrated ^Practical View of the Prevailing
Religious Systems* he published a review. He
also published "^Memoirs of Mr. Lindsey,* which
was reviewed by the celebrated Robert Hall.

Belsham, William, English writer: d. 1827^
aged 75. He published in 1789 "^Historical,
Political, and Literary Essays* (2 vols. 8vo.) ;
and he subsequently wrote on the test law, the
French Revolution, parliamentary reform, and
other subjects; but his principal work is a
'History of Great Britain, from the Revolution
to the Treaty of Amiens^ (1793-1806), 12
vols. 8vo.).

Belshazz'ar, the last of the Chaldaean dy-
nasty who reigned at Babylon. He is supposed
to have been the son of the Nabonnedug of Be-
rosus. Labynetus of Herodotus, and Naboande-
lus of Josephus, and to have been adopted by

BELT — BELZONI

his father as joint king some time before the
fall of Babylon. He perished 538 b.c. during
ihe successful storming of Babylon by Cyrus.
The interesting circumstances which immedi-
ately preceded this event, and are recorded at
length in the book of Daniel, have repeatedly
furnished subjects to painters and poets.

Belt, The Great and Little, two straits of
Denmark, connecting the Bailie with the Cat-
tegat. The former runs between the islands of
Zealand and Funen, and is about 15 miles
wide, where it is crossed from Nyborg, m
Funen, to Corsoer, in Zealand. The greatest
breadth of the strait is 20 miles. The naviga-
tion is very dangerous, on account of the many
small islands and sandbanks by which the chan-
nel is impeded. The Little Belt is between the
island of Funen and the coast of Jutland, and
the narrowest part of the strait is not more
than a mile v.-ide. At this place stands the
fortress Fredericia, where tolls were formerly
paid. The fortress complete!}' commands the
entrance from the Cattegat. The Sound, be-
tween Zealand and the Swedish coast, is pre-
ferred for all large vessels entering or leaving
the Baltic.

Belt, in astronomy, a varying number of
dusky, belt-like bands or zones encircling the
planet Jupiter parallel to his equator, as if the
clouds of his atmosphere had been forced into
a series of parallels through the rapidity of his
rotation, and the dark body of the planet was
seen through the comparatively clear spaces
between.

Beltane. See Baal.

Belton, Texas, a city and county-seat of
Bell County, situated on the Leon River, north-
east of Austin City, and on the Gulf C. & S. F.,
and the Missouri, K. & T. R.R.'s. Baylor Fe-
male College is Tocated here. It is in a cotton-
growing district, near some good building-stone
quarries, and has a considerable export trade;
its chief manufactories are cotton-mills, a
cctton-seed oII-itmH, flour-mills, and foundries.
Pop. (iQoo) 3,700.

Beltraffio, bel-traf'yo, or Boltraffio, Italian
painter: b. Milan, 1467; d. 1516. He was a
pupil of Leonardo da Vinci and imitated him in
the treatment of his subject and in the use of
color. Among his works are several portraits
and a ^Madonna of the Casio Family.^

Beltrame, Giovanni, bel-tra'ma, j6-van'ne,
Italian philologist and missionary: b. 11 Nov.
1824 In 1854 he was sent in a missionary
party to Khartum up the Blue Nile to Fazogl ;
m 1858 he went with Knoblecher and other
missionaries up the White Nile to Gondokoro,
whence he made several journeys into a country
at that time wholly unknown. He returned to
Italy in 1862 and occupied himself principally
with researches in the languages of the Nile
country. Among other philological works he
published a grammar and a dictionary of the
Denka speech. He was author also of ^Di un
Viaggio sul Fiume Bianco nell' Africa Cen-
trales ; ^11 Sennaar e lo Sciangallah^ ; 'II Fiume
Bianco e i Denka, ^ and 'In Palestina.*

Beltrami, Eugenio, bel-tra'me, yoo-jan'yo,
Italian mathematician : b. 16 Nov. 1835 ; d. 18
Feb. 1900. He studied at Pavia. In 1862 he
was professor at Bologna, then professor at
Fisa, Rome, and Pavia, and in 1891 again at

Rome. He was president of the Academy oi
the Lincei. His work has been chiefly in non-
Euclidian geometry ; also in electricity, and
magnetism. His 'Mathematical Works^ (1902),
and 'Bibliography of Mathematics^ (i90i),were
published by the University of Rome after his
death.

Beltrami, Giovanni, jo-van-ne, Italian lapi-
dary: b. Cremona, 1779; d. 1854. He was self-
educated and at the time of French rule in
Italy found a patron in Eugene Beauhamais for
whom he made a chain of 16 cameos, illustrating
the story of Psyche. Among his other notable
works is a reproduction of the 'Last Supper ^ of
Leonardo da Vinci on a topaz.

Beluga, be-loo'ga, an old name, adopted as
the name of its genus, of the white whale (q.v.).

Beluga, or Bielaga, be-la'ga. See Stur-
geon.

Be'lus, the Roman name of the Assyrian
and Babylonian divinity called Bel in Isaiah
xlvi. I.

Belus, a Phoenician river at the base of
Mount Carmel. Its fine sand, according to tra-
dition, first led the Phoenicians to the invention
of glass.

Belus, Temple of, an enormous temple in
ancient Babylon, rebuilt by Nebuchadnezzar about
604 B.C. Its site is thought by some authorities
to be the modern Bers-Nimrud, and by others,
Babil, both situated near Hillah.

Belvedere, bel-ve-der', or It. bal-va-da're
(It. "/zn(? sight?^ See Bellevue). A name
given in Italy to buildings destined for the en-
joyment of prospects. The name is also given
to small cupolas on houses built for the advan-
tage of fresh air, or of the view which they af-
ford. Many of the buildings in Rome are
furnished with such cupolas ; yet the term
"belvedere^s is generally applied only to those
on the palaces of the rich. This is the name
also of a part of the Vatican where the famous
statue of Apollo is placed, which, on this ac-
count, is called Apollo Belvedere.

Belvidere, bel-vi-der'. 111., a city and
county-seat of Boone County; on the Kishwau-
kee River, and the Chicago & N. W. R.R. ; 78
miles northwest of Chicago. An important
farming and dairying trade centre, and con-
tains railroad shops, one of the largest sewing-
machine and bicycle works in the country,
manufactory of sewing-machine supplies, flour-
mills, creamery, and other industries ; and has
two national banks, several daily and weekly
periodicals, and a property valuation of about
$2,000,000. Pop. (1900) 6,937.

Belzoni, Giovanni Battista, (John Bap-
tist), bel-z6'ne, j6-van' ne ba-tes'ta, Italian trav-
eler: b. Padua, 1778; d. 3 Dec. 1823. Destined
for a monastic life he was educated at Rome,
but left the city when it was occupied by the
French, and in 1803 went to England, where he
acted in Astley's amphitheatre. Here he ac-
quired, besides an acquaintance with the English
language, much knowledge of the science of
hydraulics, the study of which had been his
chief occupation in Rome, and which afterward
carried him to Egypt. He left England after a
residence of nine years, and took his way
through Portugal, Spain, and Malta, to Eg>'pt
There he lived from 1815 to 1819, at first as a
dancer, till he won the favor of the pasha.

BELZU — BEMBO

Belzoni kept the rude inhabitants of the country
in awe by his extraordinary stature and strength.
He opened the second of the pyramids of
Ghizeh, known by the name of Cephrenes. In
the year 1816 he succeeded in transporting the
bust of Memnon from Thebes to Alexandria,
whence it was taken to the British Museum. In
1817 he entered several catacombs near Thebes,
especially one in a fine state of preservation in
the valley of Biban el Molook, which is con-
sidered to be the mausoleum of Psammetichus,
and from which he took the splendid alabaster
sarcophagus which is now in the British Mu-
seum. On I August in the same year he
opened the temple of Ipsambul, near the second
cataract of the Nile, which two Frenchmen,
Cailliaud and Drovetti, had discovered the year
before, but had not succeeded in opening. Bel-
zoni discovered a subterranean temple in its
ruins, which until that tim,e had been unknown.
He then visited the coasts of the Red Sea and
the city of Berenice, discovering the emerald
mines of Zubara and made an expedition into
the Oasis of Jupiter Ammon. Belzoni refuted
Cailliaud's assertion, that he had found the
famous Berenice, the great emporium of Europe
and India, by subsequent investigations on the
spot, and by the actual discovery of the ruins
of that great city four days' journey from the
place which Cailliaud had taken for Berenice.
Belzoni's ^Narrative of the Operations and Re-
cent Discoveries within the Pryamids, Temples,
Tombs, and Excavations in Egj^pt and Nubia;
and of a Journey to the Coast of the Red Sea
in Search of Berenice; also of another to the
Oasis of Jupiter Ammon^ (Lond. 1820) ; ac-
companied by a folio volume of 44 copper-plate
engravings, was received wath general approba-
tion. Padua, his native city, requited his pres-
ent of two Egy^ptian statues from Thebes with
a medal by Manfredini. In the year 1823 this
enterprising traveler had made preparations for
passing from Benin to Houssa and Timbuctoo,
when he died at Gato, on his way to Benin, 3
Dec. 1823. He believed the Nile and Niger to
be different streams, and that the Niger emptied
its waters into the Atlantic Ocean; opinions
which have long been proved to be correct.

Bel'zu, Manuel Isodoro, ma'noo-el e-s6-
dor'o, Bolivian revolutionist: b. LaPaz, 1808;
d. March 1866. He led the revolutions of 1847
and 1848, and was killed in a street battle there
while leading a revolt againt Melgarijo.

Bern, Jozef, a distinguished military com-
mander b. Tarnow, in Galicia, 1795; d. Aleppo,
Syria, 1850. He was educated at the University
of Cracov/, and in 1810 was admitted into the
corps of cadets founded at Warsaw by Napoleon,
afterward entered the horse artillery, and took
part as lieutenant in the expedition of the French
army to Russia. For the bravery here dis-
played by him he received the decoration of
the cross of the Legion of Honor. On hearing
of the outbreak of the Polish revolution, he at
once hurried to Warsaw, and during the whole
of the Polish struggle he displayed great gal-
lantry and military skill. On the night of 7
Sept. 1831, he held the bridge of Praga with his
artillery, but the following morning, on hearing
of the agreement concluded with the Russians,
withdrew to ModHn. After the fall of Warsaw
he went to Prussia, and in 1832 to Paris, where
he was occupied partly with political schemes,
^'ol. 2 — 33.

partly with scientific pursuits. Upon the com-
mencement of the Austrian insurrection in 1848,
Bem proceeded there, and took a prominent part
in conducting the defense of Vienna against the
imperial troops. Toward the end of the year he
received a commission from the new Hungarian
government to undertake the conquest of Tran-
sylvania, and crossed over into that territory
at the head of a large army, raised by his own
exertions in an incredibly short space of time.
His progress here was marked by great suc-
cesses, with occasional checks ; and in March
1849 he succeeded in driving the Austrians, with
their Russian auxiliaries, into Wallachia. He
subsequently made an incursion into the Banat,
which he compelled Puchner to evacuate. Re-
turning to Transylvania, he found himself op-
posed by overwhelming numbers, and, after sev-
eral reverses, returned to Hungary, where he
took part in the disastrous battle of Temesvar.
Shortly after he went to Turkey, became a con-
vert to Mohammedanism, and received an ap-
pointment in the Sultan's army under the name
of Amurath Pasha.

Bema (Gr. bema, a stem), the name applied
in the Greek Church to the sanctuary because of
its position above the rest of the church. The
iconostasis or choir screen divides it from the
main portion of the church.

Bembato'ka, Bay of, a safe and commo-
dious bay on the northwest coast of Madagas-
car, lying in lat. 16° S. and Ion. 46° E. The
river Betsiboka, with the Ikiopa, drain into the
bay; the former, about 300 miles long, is naviga-
ble for small steamers for about 90 miles.
Mojanga, on the north side of the bay. is the
second town in the island, with about 14,000
inhabitants, Bembatoka being but a village.

Bemberg, baii-bar, Henri, French com-
poser : b. Paris, 1861. Besides songs and piano-
forte numbers his principal works are 'Le
Baiser de Luzon,^ a one-act opera (1888) ; and
'Elaine,^ a four-act opera successfully produced
in London 1892, and in New York 1894.

Bembecidse, bem-bis'i-de, a family of wasp-
like hymenopterous insects with stings, mostly
natives of warm countries, and known also as
sand-wasps. The female excavates cells in the
sand, in which she deposits, together with her
eggs, various larvse or perfect insects stung into
insensibility, as support for her progeny when
hatched. The insects are very active, fond of
the nectar of flowers, and delight in sunshine.
Bembex is the tj-pical genus of the family.

Bembo, Pietro, a celebrated Italian
scholar: b. Venice, 29 Alay 1470; d. 18 Jan.
1547. At Ferrara he completed his philosophi-
cal studies, and after visiting Rome went, in
1506, to the court of Urbino, at that time one of
those Italian courts where the sciences stood
highest in esteem. In 15 12 he went to Rome,
where Pope Leo X. made him his secretary.
His many labors arising from his office, as well
as his literary pursuits, and perhaps too great
an indulgence in pleasure, having impaired his
health, he was using the baths of Padua when
he was apprised of the death of Leo X. Being
by this time possessed of several church bene-
fices, he resolved on withdrawing entirely from
business, and on passing his days at Padua oc-
cupied only with literature and science, and
enjoying the society of his friends. Bembo

BEMBRIDGE BEDS — BEN-MUICH-DHUI

collected a considerable library: had a cabinet
of medals and antiquities, which at that time
passed for one of the richest in Italy, and a
fine botanical garden. In the year 1529 the
office of historiographer of the republic of Venice
was offered to him, which he accepted, declining
the salary connected with it. At the same time
he was nominated librarian of the library of St.
Mark. Pope Paul III., having resolved upon a
new promotion of cardinals, from the most dis-
tinguished men of his time, conferred on him,
in 1539, the hat of a cardinal. From that time
Bembo renounced the beUes-lettres, and made the
Fathers and the Holy Scriptures his chief study.
Of his former labors he continued only the
'History of Venice.^ Two years later Paul III.
bestowed the bishopric of Gubbio on him, and
soon after the rich bishopric of Bergamo. A
collection of all his works appeared in 1729. at
Venice, in four folio volumes.

Bembridge Beds, in geology, a fossilif-
erous division of the upper Eocene strata, prin-
cipally developed at Bembridge, in the Isle of
Wight, consisting of marls and clays resting on
a compact, pale-yellow or cream-colored lime-
stone, called Bembridge limestone. Their most
distinctive feature is the mammalian remains of
the Palasotherium and the Anoplotherium. The
Anita group of Colorado and Wyoming, and the
gypsum deposits near Paris, are supposed to
belong to the same epoch as the Bembridge
beds.

Bementite, a mineral occurring at Frank-
lin Furnace, New Jersey, in radiated-stellate
masses. It has a grayish-yellow color and
pearly lustre, is soft and has a specific gravity
of about 3.0. It is a hydrous silicate of manga-
nese, having the approximate formula of
2MnSi03.H20. It was named in honor of C. S.
Bement, whose unrivaled private collection of
minerals is now in the American Museum of
Natural History in New York city.

Bemis, Edward Webster, American econ-
omist: b. Springfield, Mass., 7 April i860. He
graduated at Amherst College in 1880 ; was a
pioneer lecturer in the University Extension
System, 1887-8; professor of economics and his-
tor}', Vanderbilt University. 1889-92; and asso-
ciate professor of economics. University of Chi-
cago, 1892-5. In 1897 he became professor of
economical science in the Kansas State Agricul-
tural College. He published 'History of Co-
operation in the United States' (1888) ; 'Muni-
cipal Ownership of Gas' (1891) ; 'Local Gov-
ernment for the South and Southwest* (1893).

, Bemis Heights, N. Y., a village in
j Saratoga County, on the Hudson River, famous
I as the scene of the first battle of Stillwater, 19
, Sept. 1777. See also Saratoga, Battle of.

Bemmel, Peter von, German painter: b.
Nuremberg. 1685: d. 1754. He was educated
by his father, also an artist, and was employed
by the Prince Bamberg, Fran?: Konrad von
Stadion in adorning the walls of his palaces.
Many of his paintings are preserved at Bamberg
and Brunswick. Of the Bemmel family 14 were
prominent as artists.

Ben (Hebrew, son), a prepositive syllable
found in many Jewish names, as Bendavid,
Benasser, etc.. which, with the Jews in Germanv,
has been changed into the German sohn (son).

for example, Mendelssohn, Jacobssohn, etc.
In Arabic the plural form Beni occurs in the
names of many tribes, as Beni Omayyah and in
those of places, as Beni-Hassan.

Ben, Beinn, or Bhein, a Gaelic word sig-
nifying mountain, and prefixed to the names of
many mountains in Scotland north of the Firths
of Clyde and Forth, as Ben Nevis and Ben
MacDhui. Pen, which occurs in Welsh and
Cornish nomenclature is a corresponding term.

Ben Bolt, a noted poem by Thomas Dunn
English (1843) set to an old German air. It
had been partially forgotten when it was re-
vived by its effective employment in Du Mau-
rier's 'Trilbj-.'

Ben Hur: A Tale of the Christ, a popular
novel, by Lew Wallace, published 1880. The
scene of the story is laid in the East, principally
in Jerusalem, just after the Christian era. The
first part is introductory, and details the coming
of the three wise men, I\Ielchior, Kaspar, and
Balthasar, to worship the babe born in the man-
ger at Bethlehem. In the course of the narra-
tive, which involves many exciting adventures of
Ben Hur, hero, John the Baptist and Jesus of
Nazareth are introduced, and Ben Hur is con-
verted to the Christian faith through the miracles
of our Lord. The tale has been successfully
dramatized.

Ben-Lawers, a huge pyramidal mountain
of Scotland, Perthshire, on the north bank of
Loch Tay, 3.984 feet above the level of the sea,
or 4,004 with the cairn at the top. Many rare
Alpine mosses and other plants are found on it,

Ben-Ledi, a Scottish mountain, lying
northwest of Callander, Perthshire, reaching the
height of 2,875 feet above sea-level. It is some-
what difficult of ascent, but gives a splendid
view\ High up on it there is a small loch. It
is mentioned in Scott's 'Lady of the Lake.'

Ben-Lomond, a Scottish mountain at the
western extremity of Stirlingshire, on the east
shore of Loch Lomond. The ascent is divided
into three great stages, and the top has an
elevation of 3,192 feet above sea-level. On
the southeastern side it presents a sheer preci-
pice of about 2,000 feet. From the hotel at
Rowardennan, on the east shore of the loch, to
the summit, the distance is four miles. The
lower part is well wooded, and the upper affords
excellent healthy pasture. It commands a most
extensive prospect of the vale of Stirlingshire,
the Lothians, the Clyde, Ayrshire, Isle of Man,
Hills of Antrim, and all the surrounding high-
land territory. Like Ben-Lawers this is one
of the botanical gardens of the highlands.

Ben-More (the great mountain), a conical
hill between Loch Dochart and Loch Voil,
western part of Perthshire, among the Braes of
Balquhidder. It rises to an elevation of 3.843
feet above the level of the sea. Several other
hills also bear this name.

Ben-Muich-Dhui, ben-mak-doo'e, or Ben-
Mac-Dhui, the second highest mountain in
Scotland, situated in the southwest corner of
Aberdeenshire, on the borders of Banffshire.
It is a granitic mass, rising to the height of
4.296 feet, and form? one of a cluster of lofty
mountains, among which are Brae-riach, Cairn-
toul. Cairngorm, Ben-a-bourd, and Ben-A'an,
Its upper parts are bare of vegetation. The
view from the top includes the Moray Firth, the

BEN NEVIS — BENBOW

hills of Caithness and Sutherland, Ben Nevis,
Benmore, etc.

Ben Nevis, a Scottish mountain now as-
certained to be the most lofty height in Great
Britain, is situated in the southwestern extrem-
ity of Inverness-shire, immediately east of Fort
William and the opening of the Caledonian
Canal into Loch Eil. It rises from the brink of
the latter piece of water to the height of 4,406
feet. In clear weather a view can be obtained
from its summit across nearly the whole of
the north of Scotland from sea to sea. It con-
sists principally of a fine brown porphyry, and
contains red granite of a beautiful grain. It has
some very lofty precipices, and in its fissures the
snow remains unmelted, even in the warmest
weather. An observatory occupied by a resident
staff was established on the top of the mountain
by the Scottish Meteorological Society in 1883.

Ben Nut. See Ben, Oil of.

Ben, Oil of, the expressed oil of the ben-
nut, the seed of Moriiiga aptcra, the ben or
horse-radish tree of India. The oil is inodorous,
does not become rancid for many years, and is
used by perfumers and watchmakers.

Benaiah, be-na'ya, the name of 12 different
persons mentioned in the Bible, the most im-
portant being a son of Jehoida, a chief priest.
He figures as a mighty and valiant warrior who
overcame two Moabite champions, slew an
Egyptian giant with the giant's own spear, went
down into a dry cistern and slew a lion that
had fallen in while it was covered with snow,
and killed the rebels Adonijah and Joab. He
was made commander-in-chief in Joab's place
by Solomon.

Benalcazar, ba-nal-ka'thar, Sebastian de,

Spanish leader, the first conqueror of Popayan,
New Granada: b. about the end of the 15th
century, at Benalcaz, in Estremadura, Spain;
d. 1550. He set out as a common sailor in the
train of Pedrarias, the newly appointed gover-
nor of Darien, 1514. The ability and daring of
young Sebastian gained for him the confidence
of Pizarro, who sent him against the Indian
leader, Ruminahui. Sebastian was favored at
the moment of engagement by a happy accident ;
the volcano of Cochabamba suffered an eruption.
The frightened Peruvian army fled to Quito and
Sebastian then possessed himself of the smoking
ruins of this city. From here he passed north-
ward and conquered the territory possessed by
a chief named Popayan, whose name he pre-
served to designate the territory over which the
former had held sway. Inflamed by the speeches
of an Indian captive, who spake strange words
about a chief farther north, anointed with gold
powder, Benalcazar and his band determined
to visit and conquer this El Dorado, or chief
of gold. After traversing vast forests, in 1534.
he arrived at the country which afterward re-
ceived the name of New Granada. Arrived
there, he found himself forestalled by two other
Spanish adventurers, or conquistadores. He re-
turned to Popayan, and was made governor of
this province by a decree dated ici8. When La
Gasca succeeded in supplanting Diego Pizarro,
he deprived Sebastian of his governorship.

Benares, be-na'rez, a division in the north-
western provinces of India, with an area of
10.414 square miles, largely made up of rich
cultivated flats on each side of the Ganges.

The heat in summer is excessive, but in winter
fires are requisite. Garden stuffs, grain of dif-
ferent kinds, flax for oil, and sugar, are the
principal objects of cultivation. Rice, for which
many parts of the soil seem well adapted, is
seldom grown. Muslins, silks, and gauzes, salt»
indigo, and opium, are made very extensively.
The principal town is Benares. Pop. (1901)
5,368,600, and the Hindus greatly outnumbering
the Mussulmans.

Benares (in Sanskrit, Varanasi), a town in
Hindustan, northwest provinces, in the division
of the same name, on the left bank of the
Ganges, from which it rises like an amphitheatre,
presenting a splendid panorama of temples,
mosques, palaces, and other buildings, with their
domes, minarets, etc. Fine ghauts lead down
to the river. It is built of freestone, and con-
tains many handsome and highly decorated
houses, but the height of the houses and narrow-
ness of the streets give it all the usual incon-
veniences of an Asiatic town. Kasi, the Splen-
did, as the Hindus commonly call it, is one of
the most sacred places of pilgrimage in all India,
being the headquarters of the Hindu religion.
To die at Benares is the greatest happiness
for a Plindu, because he is then sure of imme-
diate admission into heaven. The number of
pious foundations and temples is exceedingly
great. There is a continual influx of wealthy
pilgrims into the city, and many of the Hindu
princes have a town residence here. The prin-
cipal temple, called Bisheswar, is dedicated to
Siva. Aurungzebe built a splendid mosque on
the highest ground in the city, and it is the
most prominent object from the river side. At
the end of the 17th century an observatory was
erected in this city by one of the rajahs, which
still exists. One of the temples has a great
number of sacred monkeys attached to it.
Altogether there are about 1,500 Hindu temples.
Among the municipal structures are the govern-
ment college, hospitals, town-hall, .asylums,
swimming baths, and waterworks. Benares car-
ries on a large trade in the produce of the dis-
trict and in English goods, and manufactures
silks, shawls, embroidered cloth, jewelry, etc.
The merchants and bankers are numerous and
wealthy. There are few English inhabitants, ex-
cept the government officers, and the members of
the various missions. Kasi was ceded to the
East India Company by the Nabob of Oude in
1775. During the mutiny of 1857 a serious out-
break occurred here. Pop. (1901) 203,100. See
Sherring, 'Sacred City of the Hindus^ (1869).

Benavente, ba-nii-ven'ta, a town of Spain,
in the province of Zamora. on the western bank
of the Esla, 34 miles north from Zamora. It
is overlooked by a huge, half-ruined castle, and
is now a dull and poverty-stricken place, built
chiefly of mud cottage.-j. It was here that
Moore's retreat commenced, 28 Dec. 1808.

Benbow, John, famous English admiral*
b. Shrewsbury, England, 1653; d. Jamaica, <»
Nov. 1702. After serving for some time in the
navy he entered the merchant service, and fought
.so desperately against a pirate from Sallee, in
one of his trips to the Mediterranean, about the
year 1686. as to beat her off, though greatly
his superior in men and metal. He re-entered
the navv after the Revolution, and was employed
in protectine: the English trade in the channel,
which he did with great effect. His valor and

BENCH — BENDALOU

activity secured him the confidence of the na-
tion, and he was soon promoted to the rank
of rear-admiral, and charged with operations
against Dunkirk and the French coasts. In 1698
he was sent to put down the pirates in the West
Indies, and not long after returning, he again
sailed to the West Indies with a small fleet,
having accepted a command previously declined
by several of his seniors, from the supposed su-
periority of the enemy's force in that quarter.
In August 1702, he fell in with the French
fleet under Du Casse, and for five days main-
tained a running fight with them, when he at
length succeeded in bringing the enemy's stern-
most ship to close quarters. In the heat of
the action a chain-shot carried away one of his
legs, and he was taken below ; but the moment
the dressing had been applied to the wound he
caused himself to be brought again on deck,
and continued the action. At this critical in-
stant, being most disgracefully abandoned by
several of the captains under his command,
who signed a paper expressing their opinion that
"nothing more was to be done,*^ the whole fleet
efi^ected its escape. Benbow, on his return to
Jamaica, brought the delinquents to a court-
martial, by which two of them were convicted
of cowardice and disobedience of orders, and
condemned to be shot ; which sentence, on their
arrival in England, was carried into execution at
Plymouth.

Bench, in law, the seat which judges or
magistrates occupy officially in a court of jus-
tice; also the judges or magistrates sitting to-
gether to try cases. The court of common
pleas in England was formerly called Bancus,
the Bench, as distinguished from Bancus Regis,
the King's Bench. It was also called Communis
Bancus, the Common Bench, and this title is
still retained by the reporters of the decisions
in the court of common pleas. Mention is
made in the Magna Charta "J^ jiisticiariis nos-
tris de Banco)^ which all men know to be the
justices of the court of common pleas, com-
monly called the Common Bench, or the Bench.
Viner, Abr. Courts (n. 2).

Bench-mark, a mark placed upon some
permanent object, as a stone or wall, for use
in tidal observations and leveling surveys. Its
position above the zero of the tide-gauge or
other datum level is made a matter of record
and any level once established may be readily
ascertained at a future period. See also Level-
ing.

Bench Warrant, a warrant issued by the
court before which an indictment has been found
to arrest the accused, that he may appear and
find bail for his appearance at the trial. Where
a bench warrant is directed to the sheriff it can-
not be executed by one having only verbal
authority from the sheriff, and such arrest does
not discharge the recognizance. A bench war-
rant is defective which does not direct that the
party shall be brought before some judge or jus-
tice.

Benchers, in England, senior members of
the Inns of Court, who have the entire manage-
ment of their respective inns, the power of
punishing barristers guilty of misconduct, and
the right to admit or reject candidates to the
bar. See alsc Inns of Coubt.

Bencoolen, ben-koo'len (Dutch, Benkoe-
Icn) , a seaport of Sumatra, on the southwest
coast ; Ion. 102° 19' E. ; lat. 3° 47' 36" S. The
English settled here in 1685, and in 1690 the
East India Company built a fort here, calling it
Fort York. In 1825 Bencoolen was yielded up
to the Dutch in exchange for the settlements on
the Mala}'- Peninsula. A convenient river on its
northwest side conveys pepper out of the in-
land country ; but there is great inconvenience
in shipping it, by reason of a dangerous bar at
the river's inouth. The place, which is almost
two miles in compass, is known at sea by a
high, slender mountain, which rises in the coun-
try 20 miles beyond it, called the Sugar Loaf.
It is inhabited by a mixed population. The me-
dium heat throughout the year is from 81° to
82°. Pepper is the chief produce of the adja-
cent country, which is mountainous and woody.
The place is unhealthy and subject to earth-
quakes; storms are frequent. Pop. 6,000.

Benczur, ben'tsoor, Gsoila (Julius), Hunga-
rian artist : b. Nyiregj-haza, 1844. He was made
professor at the Academy of Munich in 1880
and was subsequently director of the Academy
of Budapest. His paintings, which are of the
School of Piloty, are noted for their splendid
coloring. Among the most celebrated are ^Fare-
well of Ladislas Hunyady' (^1867) ; < Arrest of
Rakoczy^ (1701) ; * Louis XV. in the Boudoir
of Dubarry^ ; ^Family of Louis XVI. during the
Assault on Versailles' (1872), owned by D. O.
Mills, New York; ^Baptism of St. Stephen^
(1875); <Bacchanti> (1881) ; <The Reconquest*
of Buda by Charles of Lorraine' (1888).

Bend, in heraldry, one of the nine honor-
able ordinaries, containing a third part of the
field when charged, and a fifth when plain,
made by two lines drawn diagonally across the
shield from the dexter chief to the sinister base
point. The bend sinister differs only by cross-
ing in the opposite direction, diagonally from
the sinister chief to the dexter base. It indi-
cates illegitimacy.

Ben'da, Franz, German violinist: b. Jung-
bunzlau, Bohemia, 1709; d. Potsdam, 1786. He
exhibited, while a boy, a great desire to learn
the violin, which he could gratify in no other
way than by joining a band of strolling musi-
cians. He found means, however, to acquire an
extraordinary mastery of the instrument, and
in 1732 entered the service of Frederick the
Great, then prince-royal, with whom he re-
mained the rest of his long life. He founded
a school of violinists, whose method of playing
was entirely original and quite effective. He
also published some excellent solos for the vio-
lin.

Benda, Georg, German musician, the most
distinguished of a notable musical family : b.
Jungbunzlau, Bohemia, 1721 ; d. K5striz, 1795.
He was bandmaster to the Duke of Gotha
(1748-87), and in this period produced several
operas and cantatas, such as ^Ariadne auf
Naxos' and "^ Medea.'

Bendalou, Paul, a soldier of the American
Revolutionary army : b. Montauban, France, 15
Aug. 1755 ; d. Baltimore, Maryland, 10 Dec.
1826. In October 1776 he embarked at Bor-
deaux for the United States, as a_ volunteer in
the cause of liberty, and, on reaching the head-
quarters of Washington, received a lieutenant's
commission. Transferred to the command of

BENDEMANN — BENEDETTI

Pulaski, he was captain of the first company in
his famous legion at the siege of Savannah.
There he carried off the field the body of the
generous Pole, and preserved, also, the standard
of the legion, which had been wrought and
presented by the wives and daughters of Mary-
land. He was quartermaster-general, with the
rank of colonel, in the Maryland militia during
the War of 1812, and for many years United
States marshal for the circuit and district courts
of Maryland, his oihcial conduct, from first to
last, being marked with exactness and integrity.

Bendemann, ben'de-man, Eduard, German
painter: b. Berlin, 3 Dec. 181 1 ; d. Diisseldorf, 27
Dec. 1889. As early as 1832 his great picture of
the 'Captive Jews^ was exhibited at Berlin, and
in 1837 he gained the gold medal at Paris. In
1838 he was appointed professor of the Acad-
erny of Art at Dresden. Here he was intrusted
with the execution of the larger frescoes in
the palace, and on these his fame chiefly depends.
In 1858 he succeeded his father-in-law as di-
rector of the Diisseldorf Academy, a post which
he held until 1867. He afterward produced sev-
eral large canvases and frescoes, some of which
are among his best works. Tytler, *^Modern
Painters and their Paintings^ (1899).

Bender, Louis Prosper, Canadian-Ameri-
can physician and author : b. Quebec, 30 July
1844. He graduated at McGill University in
1865, after having interrupted his studies by a
service in the medical department of the Union
army during a portion of the American Civil
War. In 1884 he settled in Boston, Mass.,
where he established himself in homoeopathic
practice. His writings include ^Literary
Sheaves,^ or 'La Litterature au Canada-Fran-
gais^ (1881); 'Old and New Canada, 1753-
1844,^ 'Historic Scenes and Social Pictures, or
the Life of Joseph Frangois Perrault* (1882),
etc. He has frequently contributed to American
magazines.

Bender, a city of Russia, in the govern-
ment of Bessarabia. It is situated on the Dnies-
ter, and is a straggling place, chiefly consisting
of low houses and mere huts. It formerly pos-
sessed a strong fortress, but this was dismantled
in 1897. Its commerce is important. After be-
ing several times taken from the Turks by the
Russians, it has belonged to Russia since the
Peace of Bucharest, in 1812. Pop. (1897) 32,934.

Bendigo, formerly Sandhurst, Australia,
a city in Bendigo County, Victoria, on Bendigo
Creek, fully 100 miles north-northwest of Mel-
bourne, with which it has direct railway com-
munication. It is one of the chief cities in
the colony and an important railway centre.
Along one side of its main street (Pall Mall)
there are fine buildings of brick and stone, and
facing these, in Rosalind Park, are the elegant
government buildings and the law courts, which
together cost nearly i8o,ooo. Other buildings
worthy of mention are the handsome town-hall,
mechanics' institute, with library and school of
mines ; free library ; temperance, masonic, and
other halls ; hospital, benevolent asylum ; some
fine banks ; Anglican, Wesleyan, Presbyterian,
and other churches; Roman Catholic Cathedral,
in course of erection ; art gallery, jail, state and
other schools, etc. The public parks comprise,
besides the Rosalind Park, the fine Botanic
Gardens and two others largely used for sports.
The streets are lighte4 by gas and electricity,

and there is an excellent water-supply from
large reservoirs near the town. The chief indus-
try of the district is gold-mining, which gives
employment to 5,000 miners. Other important
industries are brewing, iron-founding, stone-cut-
ting, granite-polishing, tanning, and the manu-
facture of pottery, bricks, tiles, cordials, etc.
Agriculture and viti-culture are carried on in the
district, and there is a trade in wine and fruits.
Bendigo was founded at the time of the gold
discovery in 185 1. Nearly £70,000,000 worth of
gold has been obtained here, much of it from
quartz reefs. Pop. (1901) 31,020. See Mackay,
'History of Bendigo' (1901).

Bendire, ben-de're, Charles Emil, German-
American military officer and ornithologist : b.
Darmstadt, Germany, 27 April 1836; d. 1897.
He came to the United States in 1852, and
entering the army in 1854, served through the
Civil War, becoming a captain in the ist Cav-
alry. After the war he was transferred to the
West, and was retired 24 April 1886. During
his stay in the West he applied himself to the
study of ornithology, and collected a vast amount
of material in various branches of natural
history. In 1870 he began to collect the eggs
of North American birds, which finally numbered
more than 8,000 specimens, and this collection
he presented to the United States National Mu-
seum. He is the author of 'The Life Histories
of North American Birds, with Special Reference
to their Breeding Habits and Eggs.'

Bendzin, beiid'zen, the capital of a district
in Russian Poland, in the government of Piotr-
kow, situated on the Black Przemsza, on a branch
of the Warsaw & Vienna R.R. Its chief in-
dustry is the zinc works, under government
control ; there are also coal mines in the vicin-
ity. Pop. 21,200.

Bene, ben'e, the plant that furnishes oil
of sesamum.

Ben'edek, Ludwig von, Austrian military
officer: b. Odenburg. Hungary, 14 July. 1804;
d. Gratz. 27 April 1881. He fought against the
Italians in 1848, and afterward against the Hun-
garian patriots. He distinguished himself at
Solferino in the campaign of 1859; and in the
war with Prussia in 1866 commanded the Aus-
trian army till after his defeat at Sadowa, when
he was superseded.

Benedetti, ba-ne-det'te, Vincent (Count de),
French diplomatist of Italian extraction : b.
Bastia, Corsica, 29 April 1817; d. Paris, 28
March 1900. He was educated for public ser-
vice, held consulates in Cairo, Palermo, Malta,
and Tunis ; and as secretary of the Congress of
Paris in 1856, drew up the protocols of the treaty
then agreed upon. In 1861 he was appointed
ambassador to Italy, and in 1864 to Prussia. In
1870 great excitement was aroused throughout
Europe by the publication in the London Times
of the alleged draft of a secret treaty between
France and Prussia. The authenticity of the
document was not denied. The French govern-
ment declared that although Benedetti had writ-
ten the document, he had done so at the dic-
tation of Bismarck. At the same time Bene-
detti was under orders to protest against the
candidature of Prince Leopold of the house of
Hohenzollern for the crown of Spain. He be-
came so importunate in trying to carry out these
orders that he was forbidden to seek further
interviews with King William. The refusal of

BENEDETTO — BENEDICT

the king to again receive Benedetti gave great
offense in France, and was made a pretext for
declaring war within a few days. After the fall
of the empire, Benedetti withdrew from public
life. In 1871 he published a pamphlet charging
Bismarck with the whole responsibility of the
secret treaty, to which the latter made a vigorous
reply. Benedetti was author of *^Ma Mission
en Prusse^ (1871) ; and ^Studies in Diplomacy,'
an English translation of which appeared in
1895-

Benedetto, ba-na-det'to, da Majano, Ital-
ian architect and sculptor : b. Florence in 1442 ;
d. there, 1498. He began his career as a worker
in wooden mosaic, and with his brothers, Giovan-
ni and Giuliana, he executed the 'Madonna dell
Ulivo.' His own work, represented in the 'Ma-
donna,' far excels the work of his brothers.
His most celebrated work as an architect was
the Palazzo Strozzi, began in 1489. In 1490, he
carved the busts of Giotto and Squarcilupo, in
the Duomo at Florence. In 1491, the monument
lO Filippo Strozzi was erected in Santa Maria
Novella, a work which Strozzi had commissioned
Benedetto to make before his death. It is the
chcf-d'ccuvre of the sculptor, and one of the most
notable sculptures of the 15th century.

Benedicite, ben-e-dis'i-te, the song of the
'Three Children' in the fiery furnace, as given
in the Apocrypha and the Septuagint version of
Daniel, which is a part of the Roman Breviary
in the office of lauds ; it is also a part of the
Anglican morning pra3'er, to be used when the
Te Deum is not sung, usually from Septua-
gesima to Easter and during Advent.

Benedick, sometimes spelled Benedict, a
married man; from the Latin beuedictiis (a
happy man), and a skit on the order of St.
Benedict, famous for their ascetic habits, and,
of course, rigidly bound to celibacy. Shake-
speare, in 'Much Ado About Nothing,' avails
himself of this joke in making Benedick, the
young' lord of Padua, "rail against marriage,"
but afterward marry Beatrice, with whom he
falls in love.

Benedict, Saint, the founder of the first
religious order in the West : b. Norcia, Italy,
480; d. 21 March 543. In the 14th year of his
age he retired to a cavern situated in the desert
of Subiaco, 40 miles from Rome, and in 515 drew
up a rule for his monks, which was first intro-
duced into the monastery on Monte Cassino, in
the neighborhood of Naples, founded by him
(529) in a grove of Apollo after the temple had
been demolished. This gradually became the
rule of all the western monks. The abbots of
Monte Cassino afterward acquired episcopal ju-
risdiction, and a certain patriarchal authority
over the whole order. Benedict, with the inten-
tion of banishing idleness, prescribed, in addition
to the work of God (as he called prayer and
the reading of religious writings), the instruc-
tion of youth in reading, writing, and ciphering,
in the doctrines of Christianity, in manual labors
(including mechanic arts of every kind), and in
the management of the monastery. With regard
to dress and food, the rule was severe but not
extravagant. Benedict caused a library to be
founded, for which the aged and infirm brethren
{ordo scriptorius) were obliged to copy manu-
scripts. By this means he contributed to pre-
serve the literary remains of antiquity from

ruin ; for though he had in view only the copy-
ing of religious writings, yet the practice was
afterward extended to classical works of every
kind ; and the learned world is indebted for the
preservation of great literary treasures to the
order of St. Benedict.

Bibliography. — WolfBr, 'B. von Nursia und
seine MonchsregeP (1895) ; Henderson, 'His-
torical Documents of the Middle Ages,' pp. 274-
314 (1892) ; 'Die historische Voraussetzungen
der Regel des heiliges Benedict von Nursia'
(1895) ; Doyle, 'Teachings of Saint Benedict'
(1887). See Benedictines.

Benedict, the name of fourteen Popes.
Benedict I., succeeded John III. 575; d.
578, and was himself succeeded by Pelagius II.
Benedict II., succeeded Leo II. 684: d.

685, and was succeeded by John V.

Benedict III., succeeded Leo IV. 855.
During his pontificate, the Saracens were ravag-
ing Apulia and Campania. D. 858, and was suc-
ceeded by Nicholas I.

Benedict IV., succeeded John IX. about
900. He crowned Louis, son of Boson, king of
Italy. D. 903, and was succeeded by Leo. V.

Benedict V., succeeded John XII. 964,
and was appointed by the Romans in opposition
to Leo VIII. The Emperor Otho, supporter of
Leo. appeared before Rome with an army, re-
duced the city to famine, and a new assembly
of the clergy declared to be null the election of
Benedict, who was exiled. D. 965.

Benedict VI., succeeded John XIII. 972.

After the death of the Emperor Otho I., the
Romans imprisoned Benedict, who was strangled
in the castle of St. Angelo, in 974. Owing to
the mistake of later chroniclers in confusing
Dominus Papa with a supposed proper name,
Donus II. appears in many lists of the Popes
between Benedict VI. and Benedict VII. Geise-
brecht, in his 'Year-Book of the German King-
dom under Otho II.,' has clearly shown that
no such Pope as Donus II. ever existed.

Benedict VII., of the family of Conti,
elected in 975. During his pontificate, the
Emperor Otho II. came repeatedly to Rome,
where he died in 984. Benedict died about the
same time, and was succeeded by John XIV.

Benedict VIII., of the same family, suc-
ceeded Sergius IV., in 1012. In 1016, the Sara-
cens from Sardinia having landed on the coast
of Tuscany, Benedict attacked and defeated
them. He crowned the Emperor Henry II., and
his wife, in the Church of St. Peter. D. 1024,
and was succeeded by his brother, John XIX.

Benedict IX., a relative of the two preced-
ing Popes, succeeded John XIX. in 1034. He
was then very young, some say only 18 years old.
He was deposed in 1048, and died in a convent
in 1054, being succeeded by Leo IX.

Benedict X. was elected by a faction after
the death of Stephen IX., in 1058; but the
Council of Siena nominated Nicholas II. Ben-
edict did not submit till the following year, when
Nicholas came into Rome. D. 1059.

Benedict XL, a Dominican, succeeded
Boniface VIII.. in 1303. Contemporary histo-
rians speak highly of his character and virtues.
He died 1304, and was succeeded bv Clement V.

BENEDICT — BENEDICT BISCOP

Benedict XII., Jacques Fournier, a native
of France, succeeded John XXII., in 1334, the
Popes residing then at Avignon. He put a stop
to many abuses in the distribution of ecclesias-
tical patronage, enforced discipline among the
monastic orders, and insisted that temporal rulers
should observe their compacts with the Holy
See. D. 1342, and was succeeded by Clement VI.

Benedict XIII., Cardinal Orsini, succeeded

Innocent XIII., in 1724, but it was with diffi-
culty that he coud be made to accept the ponti-
ficate. Benedict lived with the greatest fru-
gality, and has been called more a monk than
a Pope. He managed, however, to transact an
extraordinary number of affairs. His great
fault was his implicit confidence in Cardinal
Coscia, who much abused it. D. February 1731.
His works were published in 1728, in three
volumes folio. He was succeeded by Clement
XII.

Benedict XIV., Prospero Lambertini: b.

Bologna, 1675; d. 3 May 1758. He applied him-
self with success to the canon and civil law, and
became advocate to the consistory at Rome.
Afterward he was appointed promotor fidei,
and wrote a valuable work on the ^Ceremonies
used in Beatifications^ (1734). He was pas-
sionately fond of learning, of historical re-
searches, and monuments of art, and also asso-
ciated with the distinguished men of his time;
among others with Father Montfaucon, who
said of him, *^Benedict has two souls; one for
science and the other for society. ^^ He also
made himself familiar with the best poetical
works, whereby his mind became elevated and
his style animated. Benedict XIII. made him,
in 1727, bishop of Ancona ; in 1728 cardinal, and
in 1732 archbishop of Bologna. In every sta-
tion he displayed great talents, and fulfilled his
duties with the most conscientious zeal. He
opposed fanaticism even at the risk of his own
safety, defended the oppressed, and expressed
himself with the greatest frankness to Clement
XII. without losing his favor. When, after the
death of Clement XII. in 1740, the election of a
new Pope in the conclave was retarded by
the intrigues of Cardinal Tencin, and the car-
dinals could not agree, Lambertini, with his
usual good nature, said to them, "If you want
a saint, take Gotti ; if a politician, Aldobrandi ;
if a good old man, myself.^' These words,
thrown out in a humorous manner, operated on
the conclave like inspiration, and Lambertini,
under the name of Benedict XIV., ascended the
papal throne. His choice of the ministers and
friends whom he assembled around him does
the greatest honor to his judgment. The condi-
tion of the Church and of the Roman court had
not escaped his penetration. Since the Reforma-
tion princes no longer trembled at the thunders
of the Vatican. '1 he power of the Popes in
temporal affairs had notably declined, and Lam-
bertini knew tb.at respect for the papal authority
could be maintained only by a wise moderation.
He constantly regulated his measures by this
principle, and thus succeeded, even in difficult
circumstances, in satisfying not only the Cath-
olic but even the Protestant princes. The sci-
ences were a special object of his care. He
established academies at Rome ; promoted the
prosperity of the academy at Bologna : caused a
degree of the meridian to be :neasured : the obe-
lisk to be erected in the Campus Martins; the

Church of St. Marccllino to be built after a plan
projected by himself; the beautiful pictures in
St. Peter's to be executed in mosaic ; the best
English and French works to be translated
into Italian ; and commanded a catalogue of
the manuscripts contained in the Vatican library
(the number of which he had enlarged to 3,300)
to be printed. His government of the papal
states did equal honor to his wisdom. He
enacted severe laws against usury, favored com-
mercial liberty, and diminished the number of
holidays. His piety was sincere, yet enlightened
and forbearing. He strove to maintain purity
of doctrine and of morals, giving in his own
character the most praiseworthy example. The
sole reproach brought against him by the
Romans was that he wrote too much and gov-
erned too little. His works compose, in the
Venice edition, 16 volumes folio. The most im-
portant of his works is that on the Synods, in
which we recognize the great canonist.

Benedict Biscop, Anglo-Saxon ecclesiastic:
b. of a noble Northumbrian family in 628 or
629; d. Wearmouth, 12 Jan. 690. He spent the
first years of his life at court, but at the age of
25 he relinquished this manner of life and accom-
panied Wilfrid on a pilgrimage to Rome in 653.
Here he lived for more than 10 years, when he
returned to England ; but not very long after
again went to Rome, on a mission intrusted to
him by Alchfrid, king of Northumbria. On his
way back he stopped at Lerins in Provence,
where, he remained for the next two years, mak-
ing himself acquainted with the rules of monas-
tic life in the monastery of Lerins, of which he
had become a member. In 668 he made a third
journey to Rome, where he arrived just at the
time when the Pope was about to appoint some
one to fill the see of Canterbury, which was
then vacant. Having fixed upon Theodore, a
Cilician monk, he requested Benedict to accom-
pany him to England to assist him in securing
the favor of the Anglo-Saxons, which as a for-
eigner he might have difficulty in doing. Berie-
dict agreed to do this, and was presented with
the abbacy of St. Peter's in Canterbury ; but
at the end of two years he resigned the abbacy
and again went to Rome. On this occasion he
returned to England with a valuable collection
of books and a large number of relics, which he
had accumulated during his previous visits to
Rome. With these he proceded first to Wessex
with the intention of remaining there, but find-
ing that the king of Wessex was dead he turned
northward to his native Northumbria. and
there he was fortunate enough to secure the
favor of King Egfrid. From him he received a
donation of land at the mouth of the Wear, on
which he founded the monastery of Wearmouth.
In 678 he made his fourth journey to Rome,
and brought back additional stores of books
for his library, as well as pictures, images, glass
for windows, etc., with which he decorated
the monastery he had founded. He was now
presented by Egfrid with a further grant of land
on the other side of the Wear, where he founded
another monastery, that of Jarrow, dependent
on the monastery at Wearmouth. During the
remainder of his life he continued to live in the
latter monastery, except on the occasion of a fifth
voyage to Rome, made in 685, and from which
he derived as before valuable additions to his
various collections. It is chiefly by these col-
lections that his services to learning are to be

BENEDICT — BENEDICTINES

estimated, and there can be no doubt that his
great pupil, the "Venerable Bede,* who was a
monk in the monastery of Jarrow, w^as im-
mensely indebted to them for the learning he
acquired.

Benedict, David, American Baptist clergy-
man and historian: b. Norwalk, Conn., lo Oct.
1779; d. 1874. He was pastor at Pawtucket,
R. I., for 25 years, and preached till over 90
years of age. Among his chief works were
'History of All Religions^ ; < Fifty Years Among
the Baptists,^ * History of the Donatists.^

Benedict, Frank Lee, American novelist : b.
Alexander, N. Y., 6 July 1S34. Among his nu-
merous novels are <^John Worthington's Name^ ;
'Miss Van Kortland* (1870) ; 'Her Friend La w-
rence> (1879); 'The Price She Paid> (1883).
A collection of his verses 'The Shadow Wor-
shipper and Other Poems^ appeared in 1857.

Benedict, Sir Julius, German-English pian-
ist and composer : b. Stuttgart, 1804 ; d. London,
1885. In 1821 he went to Dresden to study
under Weber, and two years later became con-
ductor at a Vienna theatre. His first opera,
'Giacinta ed Ernesto,^ was produced in Naples
in 1829 without success. He took up his resi-
dence in England in 1835, and was knighted
in 1871. He was for many years conductor at
the Norwich festival, and during a number of
seasons acted as operatic conductor in London,
both for English and Italian opera. His principal
works are the operas, 'The Gipsy's Warning^
(1838); 'The Bride of Venice' (1843). ^The
Crusaders^ (1846) ; 'The Lily of Killarney'
(1862), founded on Boucicault's 'Colleen Bawn,^
and 'The Bride of Song' (1864) ; the cantatas,
'Undine' (i860) and 'St. Cecilia' (1866); the
fine oratorio 'St. Peter' (1870) ; and the can-
tata 'Graziella' (1882).

Benedict-Beuern, be'ne-dikt-boi'ern, for-
merly an abbey situated in the Bavarian circle
of the Iser, about 40 miles distant from the
city of Munich, on the descent of the mountains
toward the Tyrol. The convent was founded as
early as 740, and was abolished in 1803. The
fine abbey church still remains. The Bavarian
government has here a depot for army horses,
and a veterinary establishment ; and there is also
a residence for invalids.

Benedic'tine, a liqueur originally prepared
by the Benedictine monks of the abbey of Fe-
camp, in Normandy, consisting of spirit (fine
brandy) containing an infusion of the juices
of plants, and said to possess digestive, anti-
spasmodic, and other virtues, and to have pro-
phylactic efficacy in epidemics. It somewhat
resembles chartreuse and has been made in the
same way since 15 10. See Liqueur.

Benedictines. From the 6th to the loth
century almost all the monks in the West might
be so called, because they followed the rule of
St. Benedict of Norcia. The rules which at that
time the monasteries in Spain and France re-
ceived from their bishops, as well as the rule
of the Irish St. Columba, were essentially the
same as those of St. Benedict ; and in the pro-
gress of his order the monasteries in Spain and
France, as well as those of the order of Columba,
united themselves with it. Monte Cassino, the
magnificent primitive monastery of the Benedic-
tines, became the model of all others. At that
time the monasteries, having no common supe-

riors, were under the immediate control of the
bishops in their respective dioceses, and differed
from one another in many qualifications of the
primitive rule. Not even the color of their
dress was the same. The disciples of Columba
wore white garments like the first Benedictine
nuns, who originated in France in the 6th cen-
tury. After the unions which took place at a
later period, all the members of this order wore
black, as the founder is said to have done. The
decline of monastic discipline after the 8th cen-
tury occasioned the reforms of Benedict of
Aniana in France, the renewed inculcation of the
old rule, and the adoption of new ordinances
suited to the times, by the Council of Aix-la-
Chapelle (817), as well as the particular rules
and fraternities of the celebrated monasteries
in France, Germany, and England, which in
those barbarous times became seats of civiliza-
tion and finally the institution of the Cluniacs, a
new branch of the Benedictines, which pro-
ceeded from the convent of Clugny in Burgundy,
founded in the year 910. The Benedictine mon-
asteries, in the Middle Ages, were often asylums
in which science took refuge and found protec-
tion. In place of the discordant and uncertain
rules which had hitherto existed, the Cluniacs
made fixed regulations concerning the hours of
worship, the obedience, discipline, and common
government of all the monasteries belonging
to their order, which were soon imitated in all
Europe. In the 12th century their order con-
tained 2,000 monasteries, whose luxury fre-
quently called for reforms, and finally became
the chief cause of their decline. The remains
of the Cluniacs united themselves in the 17th
century, under the patronage of Richelieu, with
the Benedictine fraternities of St. Vannes and
St. Maurus, the latter of which, founded in
1618, had in the beginning of the i8th century
180 abbeys and priories in France, and acquired
by means of its learned members, such as Ma-
billon, Montfaucon, and Martene, merited dis-
tinction. To this family belong those new orders
established on the foundation and observ-
ing the rule of St. Benedict, which have origi-
nated since the nth century, and are distin-
guished from the proper Benedictines by their
dress, names, and particular regulations ; for ex-
ample, the Camaldulians, the monks of Val-
lombrosa, the Sylvestrians, the Grandimontenses,.
the Carthusians, the Ccelestines, the Cistercians,
and Bernardines, the Trappists, and the monks
of Fontevraud. The Benedictine monasteries
never constituted one society, constitutionally
regulated and governed under an aristocratical
or monarchical form ; on the contrary, a great
many monasteries which descended from the
old Benedictines were compelled by the Council
of Trent to unite themselves gradually into par-
ticular fraternities. Among these the Benedic-
tines of Monte Cassino, of Monte Vergine, and
Monte Oliveto (who called themselves Olive-
tans) in Italy and Sicily; those of Valladolid
and Montserrat in Spain ; those of Hirschau
and Fulda in Germany, and that of Molk in
Austria, deserve particular notice on account of
the extent of their possessions, the magnificence
of their churches, and the mildness of their
rules. To the fraternity of Molk (or Melk),
which still exists, but accommodated to the
spirit of the times, the rest of the Benedictine
convents in Austria are joined. Many of the
nunneries of this order are reserved for the

BENEDICTION — BENET

nobility, because the places in them arc equal
to the most lucrative benefices. During the first
French revolution the monasteries of the Bene-
dictines along with all other monastic orders
were abolished ; but the Benedictines have since
partially re-established themselves in France. In
England the Benedictines were an important
body at the dissolution of the monasteries, hav-
ing then i86 abbeys, priories, and nunneries, be-
sides many smaller houses. At present there are
eight Benedictine abbeys in England, besides an
.extensive establishment at Fort Augustus in
'Scotland, comprising an abbey and college. In
'the United States there are 13 abbots, 545 priests,
133 clerics, and 345 lay brothers in the order.
The Benedictines have charge of 16 colleges in
the United States.

Bibliography. — Chateaubriand, * Monks of the
West> ; Taunton, < English Black Monks of
Saint Benedict' ; Digby, ^Ages of Faith.'

Benediction, the act of blessing, of wish-
ing to a person or thing the grace of God. It
has always existed as a custom among Jews
and Christians. The Jewish priests bestowed
benedictions upon the people when they remained
obedient to the law, and maledictions when they
neglected it. In the Catholic Church the term
is generally applied to the religious public
service at which the priest makes the sign of
the cross over the congregation with the osten-
sorium containing the consecrated Host. The
Anglo-Saxon term "blessing" is now commonly
used to express the benediction invoked with
prayer, sign of the cross, and holy water upon
religious articles such as prayer-books, holy pic-
tures, rosary-beads, etc. In Protestant churches
the benediction is usually given in words similar
to those prescribed by Moses to Aaron. It is
often accompanied with laying on of hands,
especially in the celebration of marriages, the
ordination of pastors, the confirmation of con-
verts, and the baptism of children.

Benedic'tus, the song of Zacharias used
in the Roman breviary at lauds and also in the
Anglican morning service.

Benedix, ba'ne-diks, Roderich, German
playwright and actor: b. Leipsic, 21 Jan. 181 1;
d. 26 Sept. 1873. In 1831, he became an actor,
and in 1838 staged his first play "^Das Bemuste
Haupt.-* He was connected with the manage-
ment of several theatres at Cologne and Frank-
fort-on-the-Main. Among his plays are ^Dr.
Wespe' ; ^Die Hochzeitreise' ; ^Die Manner-
feinde' ; ^Der Liebesbrief ; <Der Prozess' ; and
^Die Sonntagsjager.' His dramatic works were
collected and published at Leipsic in 27 vol-
umes. He has written also concerning German
folklore.

Benefice (Lat. heneficiiim) , an ecclesiastical
living, originally including every species of pre-
ferment, as well as those to which dignities
and offices were attached, namely, bishoprics,
deaconries, and prebends, as the lesser sort,
namely, rectories, vicarages, perpetual curacies,
and endowed chaplainries ; but in its popular
acceptation it includes only the latter class,
and the distinction is recognized in recent acts
of Parliament. The name is derived from the
beneiiciiim of the Romans, a grant of any kind
to a subject by the sovereign. It was afterward
the designation of a grant of land by any large
proprietor to a retainer or follower as a reward
of services, being the same that later was de-

nominated a fief or fee, the essential incident
of which was perpetuity, that is to say, it was
a permanent stipendiary estate held of a supe-
rior, and usually subject to some condition indi-
cating vassalage. The principle of the feudal
tenure was applied, in the Middle Ages, to ec-
clesiastical benefices to this extent, that they
were held of the Pope, as a superior lord, though
these benefices had not the hereditary character
of a fee, so far as respected the office or dignity
connected therewith, and the lands or emolu-
ment conferred by a grant were usually attached
to such office or dignity, and on the death of
the incumbent, reverted to the ecclesiastical supe-
rior who was entitled to appoint a successor.
This, at all events, was the claim of the Popes,
though it was the subject of contest between
them and the principal European sovereigns.

Benefit of Clergy, in English criminal
law, the privilegium clericalc, exemption of the
clergy from penalties imposed by law for certain
crimes. This privilege no longer exists, but
it was for many centuries an important element
in the administration of criminal law, and still
is a curious and instructive part of the history of
England. The origin of this privilege was a
claim made by the ecclesiastics at an early period
for the entire exemption of their order from the
jurisdiction of the common law courts. In scat-
tered instances the right was recognized in the
colonies of Carolina and Virginia. An Act of
Congress passed 30 April 1790 provided that ben-
efit of clergy shall not be allowed for any of-
fenses punishable by death. See Pollock and
Maitland, ^History of English Law' (2d ed.,
1899)-

Beneke, ba'ne-ke, Friedrich Eduard, Ger-
man philosopher: b. Berlin, 17 Feb. 1798; dis-
appeared I March 1854 ; found drowned in a
canal at Charlottenburg, 4 June 1856. After
serving as a volunteer in the campaign of 1815,
he studied theology and philosophy at Halle
and Berlin, giving special attention to the Eng-
lish philosophers. In 1820 he lectured in the
University of Berlin as a private teacher, but
the continuance of his lectures was forbidden in
1822, on account of his departure from the phil-
osophical principles of Hegel. He then taught
for a few years in Gottingen, but, returning to
Berlin in 1827, received permission to lecture
in the university, in which he was elected extra-
ordinary professor of philosophy after Hegel's
death, in 1832. The starting point of his system
is, that philosophy must be founded upon a
strict and careful examination of the phenomena
of consciousness. He thus adopts, in mental
philosophy, the method observed by Bacon in the
natural sciences, and his system is described as
an empirical psychology. He was a voluminous
writer and among his chief works 'Erfahrungs-
seelenlehre, als Grundlage alles Wissens, in ihren
Hauptziigen dargelegt' (1820) ; ^Neue Grund-
legungen zur Metaphysik' (1822) ; ^Pragma-
tische Psychologic, oder Seelenlehre in der An-
wendung auf das Leben' (1850).

Benet, Stephen Vincent, American military
officer : b. St. Augustine, Fla., 22 Jan. 1827 ; d. 22
Jan. 1895. He was graduated at the United
States Military Academy in 1849, and assigned
to the Ordnance Department ; was assistant pro-
fessor of ethics and law at the Military Acad-
emy in 1859-61 ; instructor of ordnance in
1861-4; became brigadier-general and chief of

BENEVENTO — BENGAL

ordnance in 1874; and was retired in 1891. He
was author of 'Military Law and the Practice of
Courts MartiaP (1862); < Electro-Ballistic Ma-
chines and the Schultze Chronoscope^ (1866) ;
and a translation from the French of Jomini's
<The Campaign of Waterloo.^

Beneven'to, a province of Italy, with an
area of 680 square miles, and an archiepiscopal
city. The surface of the province is hilly but
the soil fertile in corn, fruit, and pasture. Game
is very abundant, and cattle, grain, wine, oranges,
and dead game are exported. Benevento was
originally called Maleventum ; but this was
changed to Beneventum by the Romans when
they founded a colony here after the defeat of
Pyrrhus. Before it came into the hands of the
Romans it belonged to the country of the
Samnites. The Lombards in 571 made it a
dukedom, which, long after the extinction of the
Lombard kingdom, remained independent. At a
later period it fell into the hands of the Sara-
cens and Normans. The city, however, was not
conquered by the latter, because Henry HI. had
g-iven it to the Pope, Leo IX. In 1418 Benevento
became part of Naples, but was given back to
the Pope by Ferdinand I. In 17Q8 it was con-
quered by the French, and handed over to
Naples ; and then in 1806 Napoleon made a
present of it to his minister Talleyrand, who
received thence the title of Prince of Benevento.
In 1815 it was restored to the Pope, and finally
with Naples was annexed to the kingdom of
Italy. The city of Benevento is situated on a
hill between the rivers Sabato and Calore, is
surrounded with a wall, has narrow dirty streets
and some interesting buildings.. Since 969 it has
been the see of an archbishop. Few cities in
Italy deserve so much attention on account of
the antiquities which they contain as Benevento.
Almost every wall consists of fragments of
altars, sepulchres, columns, and entablatures.
Among other things the well-preserved, magnifi-
cent triumphal arch of Trajan, built in 114,
■deserves particular mention. It is now called
Porta Aurea (the golden gate), and is a gate
of the city. The cathedral is a beautiful build-
ing in the Lombard-Saracenic style. Pop.
(1901) 24,647.

Benevolence, a forced loan or contribution,
.by which the kings of England were wont,
without any sanction from Parliament, to levy
money from their subjects. Such benevolences
had been denounced by Magna Charta ; and
even Richard HI. had allowed the only Parlia-
ment of his reign to enact a statute declaring
them illegal ; but they still continued under some
shape or other till finally abolished by the Bill
of Rights in 1689.

Benezet', Anthony, American Quaker
philanthropist; b. St. Quentin, France. 31 Jan.
1713 ; d. Philadelphia, 3 May 1784. His family
came to Philadelphia from London in 1731. He
earnestly opposed the slave trade, advocated the
emancipation and education of the colored popu-
lation of the colonies, and himself opened an
•evening school for negroes. Of his numerous
tracts, distributed gratuitously, the most impor-
tant are: 'A Caution to Great Britain and Her
Colonies, in a Short Representation of the
Calamitous State of the Enslaved Negroes in the
British Dominion' (1767) ; *^Historical Account
of Guinea' (1772) ; 'A Short Account of the
Society of Friends ' (1780) ; ^Dissertation on the

Christian Religion' (1782) ; 'Observations on
the Indian Natives of this Continent' (1784).

Benfey, ben'fi, Theodor, German Oriental-
ist and comparative philologist: b. of Jewish
parents, Norlen, Hanover, 28 Jan. 1809; d. 26
June 1881. He studied in Gottingen, Munich,
Frankfort, and Heidelberg, devoting himself
especially to classical and comparative philology.
In 1862 he was appointed to the chair of Sanskrit
and comparative philology in the University of
Gottingen, which he held till his death. One
of his earliest literary efforts was a translation
of 'Terence' (Stuttgart 1837) ; after this, how-
ever, he turned his attention almost exclusively
to comparative philology, Oriental languages,
especially Sanskrit, and mythology. In his 50
years devoted, with rare enthusiasm and per-
sistency, to linguistic studies, he did more than
any other scholar to enlarge the boundaries of
Sanskrit philology. In comparative philology,
though an adherent of Bopp, he deviated from
his master in deriving all Indo-European words
from mono-syllabic primitive verbs. This con-
ception depends on his theory of the origin of
stem suffixes. These, he holds, are almost all
derived from a fundamental form, ant, which
appears in the present participle of verbs To
support this view he assumes the most violent
permutations of sounds, which set all phonetic
laws at defiance. For his theory, see his 'Lexi-
con of Greek Roots' (1839) ; 'Short Sanskrit
Grammar' (1868), and numerous essays. In
Sanskrit he laid a foundation for the true study
of the Veda by editing the 'Sama Veda' (1848),
with glossary and translation ; and this work
he continued by a scholarly translation of the
first mandala of the Rig Veda in his magazine,
'Orient und Occident' (1863-4). His Vedic
grammar, for which he had been collecting ma-
terials for many years, was left unfinished. He
also published a 'Complete Sanskrit Grammar,
Crestomathy and Glossary' (1854), and a 'San-
skrit-English Dictionary' (1866). In compara-
tive folklore his principal work is a translation
of the 'Panchatantra,' (1859). It is accompa-
nied with elaborate notes, and the first volume
consists entirely of an introduction in which
he traces the course of these Indian stories in
their wanderings and transformations both in
eastern and western literatures.

Benga, an African tribe, living on the
Spanish island, Corisco, off the western coast,
having moved from the interior within a few
generations. The American Presbyterian Board
of Missions have Christianized many of the
Bengas and translated books into their language,
which closely resembles the Kamerun and
Dualla.

Bengal (Hind. Bangala, Skt. Vangalam,
from Vanga). In the widest application the name
presidency of Bengal is extended to the whole
of British India, except what is under the gov-
ernors of Madras and Bombay ; so that it
includes the provinces of Ajmir and Meirwara,
Coorg, and Berar. which are under the direct
administration of the governor-general ; the lieu-
tenant-governorships of Bengal, the Northwest
Provinces and the Panjab ; the chief commission-
erships oif Assam, Central Provinces, and Oudh,
besides various native states, etc. But the
name is now usually restricted to that portion
which is under the lieutenant-governor of Ben-

BENGAL

gal, and which occupies the northeast of India,
comprising the following divisions:

Divisions

No. of
dists.

Area
in sq. m.

Population
in 1 89 1

5
7
4
4

7
5
5
4

13,855
12,029
17,428
15,000
12,118
23,647
20,492
9,053
26,966

16,145,310
8,003,740

Rajshahi

13,965,230

Patna

24,284,370
3,865,020
4.645,590

Chota Nagpur

Total

150,588

70,909,260

The total population in 1901 amounted to 74,713,020.

The district composed of the first five of the
-above divisions forms the province of Bengal
proper ; Patna and Bhagalpur form the province
of Bchar. Besides these the Heutenant-general-
ship includes four native states under British
protection, namely, Cooch Behar, Hill Tipperah,
Chota Nagpur (part of), and Orissa (part of),
having a total area of 37,515 square miles, and a
population in 1891 of 3,428,390.

The general physical character of Bengal is
that of a practically level country, though it is
surrounded with lofty chains of mountains ;
the northern part rests on the terraces of the
Himalaya Mountains, the east is bounded by the
Garos or Garrows chain, and the west is ribbed
with offsets of the Vindhya Mountains. It is
intersected in all directions by rivers, the princi-
pal of which are the Ganges and Brahmaputra,
whose annual inundations render the soil which
they reach extremely fertile. In those tracts
where this advantage is not enjoyed the soil is
thin, seldom exceeding a few inches in depth.
The most inhospitable part of Bengal is what is
called the Sunderbunds (from being covered
with the soondru or sunder tree), that portion
of the country through which the numerous
branches of the Ganges seek the sea, or the
space lying between the Hoogly River and Chit-
tagong, about 150 miles from east to west, and
about 160 from north to south. This district
is infested with tigers, is traversed in all direc-
tions by water-courses or nullahs, and inter-
spersed with numerous sheets of stagnant water
•called jhecls, which abound with fish and water-
fowl, and are much resorted to by crocodiles.

GcoloRy and Minerals. — In the northern part
of Bengal, at the foot of the Himalayas, is a
band of Tertiary formation ; south from which,
and along the course of the Ganges, more espe-
cially east from that river, and including the
greater part of its delta and that of the Brahma-
putra, the country is wholly composed of allu-
vium or modern detritus. Calcutta stands upon
strata of the transition series, which stretch
west into Bahar, and are flanked north and south
by tracts of crystalline formation. In the Garo
Hills coal, iron, and limestone are found; and
nitre effloresces on the surface around Calcutta
and elsewhere. Mineral springs are not numer-
ous.

Rivers. — The principal rivers, besides the
Ganges and Brahmaputra, the latter of which
enters the province at its northeast extremity,
and falls into the Bay of Bengal near the prm-
cipal embouchure of the Ganges, are the Soo-
bunreka, which falls into the Bay of Bengal, m
lat. 21" 3S' north, south-southwest _ of the
Hoogly; the Cosi or Coosee, which rises near

Khatamandoo in Nepal, and falls into the Gan-
ges near Bhagalpur, in lat. 25° 20' N. ; and the
Dumooda, which, rising in Bahar, falls into the
Hoogly about 22 miles below Calcutta. There
are numerous other streams of less note, mostly
tributaries of the Ganges and Brahmaputra, or
their larger affluents.

Climate. — There is more regularity in the
changes of the seasons in Bengal than perhaps
in any other part of India; but it is subject
to great extremes of heat, which, added to the
humidity of its surface and the heavy dews that
fall, render it generally unhealthy to Europeans.
The prevalence of hot winds, which are some-
times loaded with sandy particles, is another
source of disease. The seasons are distinguished
by the terms hot, cold, and rainy. The hot sea-
son continues from the beginning of March to
the end of May, within which period the ther-
mometer frequently rises to 100°, sometimes to
110°. The month of September is also often
intensely hot, and when so is the most unhealthy
period of the year to natives as well as Euro-
peans, owing to the profuse exhalations from
stagnant waters left by the inundations, and
from a rank decaying vegetation. The rainy
season commences in June, and lasts till Octo-
ber. During the first two months of this period
the rain is frequently so heavy that five inches
of water have fallen in one day, the annual
average being from 70 to 80 inches. It is in this
season that the inundations take place, and
that the Ganges overflows its delta, covering the
land with its waters for more than 100 miles.
The cold season, the most grateful and healthy
of any to Europeans, continues from November
to February, during which period north winds
prevail, with a clear sky.

Forests. — In Bengal, as in India generally,
.great attention has been paid of late to the
management of forests. Great destruction is
caused among forests by fires, which are some-
times the result of accident, but more frequently
made purposely by the natives in pursuance
of a system of jungle cultivation that appears
to prevail throughout India. This consists in
cutting down and burning a patch of forest, and
raising a crop in the open space, no plowing
or digging being necessary. The next year this
patch is abandoned, and another treated in the
same way. Another cause of destruction is the
wastefulness of those who use the timber. The
sunder-trees, for example, which furnish the best
wood for the boats which are built in great
numbers throughout Eastern Bengal, have Ijeen
cut down in so reckless a manner that the west-
ern parts of the Sunderbunds have already been
to a large extent exhausted. In order to limit
the destruction that goes on by such .proceedings
certain portions of the Indian forests are re-
served and placed under the entire control of the
government, and additions are made to these
reserves every year. Of the total 11,669 square
miles of forest in Bengal, in 1896 5,877 were
reserved and 3,437 protected.

Animals. — Among the wild animals are
tigers, elephants, boars, bears, wolves, foxes,
jackals, hyenas, leopards, panthers, lynxes,
hares, deer, buffaloes, antelopes, and monkeys.
The most formidable of all these animals (and
more so even than the lion) is the tiger, which
here attains its utmost size, and perhaps also its
greatest ferocity. The domestic animals include
native horses, thin, ill-shaped animals, and not

BENGAL

well adapted for any kind of labor; cattle, of a
very inferior breed, being extremely small and
miserable looking; sheep likewise of diminutive
size, with very coarse hairy wool, but when
well fed their flesh is excellent. Hogs and goats
are also plentiful, and buffaloes are domesti-
cated for the sake of their milk. Reptiles are
numerous and formidable, including gavials, a
kind of crocodile, with which the larger rivers
are infested ; and among the serpent tribe, many
of which are highly poisonous, the deadly cobra-
de-capello. Turtles, frogs, and lizards also
abound, with swarms of mosquitoes. The turtles
are chiefly procured from the island of Cheduba,
in the Bay of Bengal. Fish are so exceedingly
plentiful as to be within the reach of almost
every class of inhabitants. Game, poultry, and
water-fowl of all descriptions abound in Bengal,
particularly ducks, of which there is a great
variety, and most of them of a superior kind.
The gigantic crane, commonly called the adju-
tant, from the stately air with which he struts
about, frequents the towns in considerable num-
bers, performing the office of scavenger by clear-
ing the streets of garbage, in consideration of
which duty he enjoys an entire immunity from
all disturbance; his principal food is offal, toads,
lizards, serpents, and insects. Crows, kites, spar-
rows, and other small birds are numerous.

Agriculture. — The staple crop of Bengal is
rice, which is cultivated so as to produce three
harvests in the j^ear — spring rice, autumn rice,
and winter rice. The last of these harvests is
by far the most important. Besides sufficing for
the wants of the population the rice crop leaves
a large surplus for exportation. Oil seeds are
also .largely cultivated, chiefly mustard, sesa-
mum, and linseed. The jute plant ipdt) has long
been cultivated, and in recent times the cultiva-
tion of it has greatly extended. It will grow on
almost any description of land. Part of this
crop is cultivated by those who use or manu-
facture it. almost all the Hindu farmers weav-
ing cloth from it. It is now manufactured also
in large mills under European management, and
jute goods are now an export of some impor-
tance, though not nearly so much so as jute in
the raw state for manufacture in Europe. The
sunn plant, somewhat resembling the Spanish
broom, is now quite extensively cultivated and
exported to Great Britain, affording excellent
material for both sails and cordage, and being
made into fishing nets by the natives. Cotton
is grown over all India, but the best of the
herbaceous kind is raised in Bengal and on the
Coromandel coast ; the finest grows on light
rocky soil. The cotton of India is generally
inferior to that of the United States ; but this
is believed to be wholly owing to careless culti-
vation, and to the slovenly manner in which it is
prepared for the market. The cultivation of
the date palm and the manufacture of date
sugar are carried on to a considerable extent,
forming a profitable business for the cultivator.
This kind of sugar forms an article of export.
The sugar cane is cultivated, but not nearly to
such an extent as might be expected. There are
two kinds of sugar cane, a yellow hard cane,
about the thickness of a finger ; the other much
thicker and deeply stained with purple. The
latter is the most productive, but the most trou-
blesome to cultivate, and therefore avoided by
the more indolent farmers. Tobacco, which
requires a light soil, is grown in three different

situations, — in rich spots of land contiguous to
the farmer's house, — in high land suitable for
the growth of sugar cane, — -and on the banks of
rivers. The betel leaf, famous for its intoxica-
ting quality and largely used over all India on
that account, is cultivated in what is called a
voroj or fort, and is carefully protected from
the sun and wind. Indigo being one of the
principal articles of foreign commerce with Ben-
gal, is extensively cultivated in that province.
The opium production of Bengal was a govern-
ment monopoly under jNIohammedan rule, and
has been retained as such by the British. All
the juice of the opium poppy must be sold to
the government at a fixed price. This cultiva-
tion is carried on in the west of Bengal in the
divisions of Chota Nagpur and Patna. Orchards
of mango trees are to be found in every part
of Bengal, the fruit being in general demand
during the hot months. The cinchona tree and
the tea plant have both in recent times been
added to the agricultural products of Bengal ;
the former in the native state of Sikkim, the
latter especially in Cooch Behar (Darjiling),
Chittagong, and Chota Nagpur.

The luxuriance of vegetation in Bengal is
perhaps unequaled in any other part of the
world. The cultivation of the land requires lit-
tle effort, and large crops are obtained without
the application of any other manure than the
sediment or mud deposited by the inundations.
It is doubtful, however, how far this facility is
good, since it seems to have had the effect of
preventing all attempts at improvement either
in the science of agriculture itself or in the
implements used in its practice. The Indian
plow is of wretched construction, having neither
colter nor mold-board, and in some districts it
wants even the share, while the animals by
which it is dragged, two oxen or cows, are mis-
erable half-starved creatures. The reaping hook
(kastya) is a most inefficient implement, — the
curved or cutting part of the blade is six inches
long by one and a half broad, with teeth like a
saw —the handle is about four and a half
inches long. The dengki, by which the husks
are separated from the grain, is another wretched
implement, and so ill adapted to its purposes
that one fifth part of the whole grain is sacri-
ficed in the operation. Nearly all the other
implements in use are of an equally rude and
imperfect description. Rotation of crops and
the use of fallows are unknown to the farmers
of India ; the land is generally in an exhausted
condition, and the enclosures everywhere bad.
Grain is trodden out by oxen, and stacking corn
is unusual, the corn being often left exposed ta
the weather. Irrigation, however, is well under-
stood, — necessity giving rise to invention, — and
is accomplished by the most ingenious and effi-
cient means.

UTatiiifactures. — The principal manufacture
of Bengal is that of cotton goods, including cot-
ton piece goods of various descriptions, calicoes,
thread, and sail-cloth. Muslins of the most
beautiful and delicate texture were formerly
made at Dacca, a city in this province, but the
manufacture is almost extinct. "Some of these
fabrics,'^ says Tavernier, "were so fine that they
could hardly be felt in the hand, and the thread
when spun was scarce discernible.'^ In Ward's
* History^ of the Hindus this character in the
muslin of Dacca is confirmed ; though perhaps
in both cases it is a little exaggerated. "When

BENGAL

this muslin is laid on the grass,^' says the lat-
ter, "and the dew has fallen on it, it is no longer
discernible.*' The extraordinary fineness and
beauty of India muslins, manufactured under
the disadvantages of rude machinery and ill pre-
pared material, is attributed to the exquisitely
fine sense of touch possessed by the Hindus, and
to the hereditary continuance of a particular spe-
cies of manufacture in families through many
generations.

The modern decay of the muslin manufac-
ture of India has been owing in a great measure
to the successful competition of Great Britain,
and to the circumstance of British fabrics being
subject to no duty in Bengal, while high duties
were levied on the fabrics of Bengal in Gjeat
Britain. These duties are now abolished. Large
quantities of a coarse cloth, manufactured from
jute, are made in various districts of Bengal.
Sericulture is carried on more largely in Ben-
gal than in any other part of India, and silk-
weaving is still a leading industry in many of the
districts ; but of late years there has been a seri-
ous decline. One branch of this industry, how-
ever, seems more flourishing than some others,
namely, the cultivation of tasar or wild silk, the
worm that produces it feeding upon the leaves
of the sal and other forest trees. On the other
hand, various new manufactures, carried on by
machinery, are rising up. The most important
of these are the industries connected with jute,
cotton, and sugar. These are already affording
employment to many thousands, and the natives
are said to show great aptitude for factory
work. The jute mills alone employ nearly
40,000 hands.

Commerce. — The commerce of Bengal, both
mternal and external, is very large. Multitudes
of native boats and other craft navigate the
rivers. The imports to Calcutta from the interior
have been valued at over $13,000,000, consisting
of rice, tea, jute, indigo, linseed, mustard seed,
wheat, etc. The foreign trade is large and
increasing. Almost the whole of it passes
through Calcutta, and the value of it annually
is over $275,000,000, over $170,000,000 being
exports. The most important exports are opium,
jute, indigo, oil seeds, tea, hides and skins, and
rice; the chief import is cotton piece goods. The
foreign trade is chiefly with Great Britain,
China, the Straits Settlements, France, the
United States, and Ceylon.

Finance. — The total revenue of the lieuten-
ant-governorship of Bengal in the year ending
31 ]\Iarch 1898, was (calling the rupee 25
cents), $101,442,465, and the total expenditure
$51,620,525. The surplus goes to meet the
expenses of the general government of India.
The principal sources of revenue are land, salt,
opium, excise, stamps, and customs, assessed
taxes, etc.

Education, Social, and Domestic Conditions,
etc. — It is one of the consequences of the ex-
treme povery of the bulk of the population of
Bengal, that education should be there at a very
low ebb. The proportion of boys of school-
going age attending school is only abocit 28.6
per cent ; of girls 2 per cent. The first rudi-
ments of education are often given in small
schools called pathsalds. in which the fees are
extremely low, and in which only reading, writ-
ing, and arithmetic are taught. The greater
number of these, although private establish-
ments, receive aid from government. In the

primary schools the principle of keeping the
standard of instruction as low as possible is
adhered to; and this is intended to be done till
the whole of the poorer classes shall have been
brought under some kind of instruction. In
the meanwhile, all who have time or means for
learning more are encouraged to resort to
schools of a better class. With this view a sys-
tem of intermediate schools was established in
1875 between the primary and what are called
the middle schools, and this step has been
rewarded with a satisfactory measure of success.

In addition to the schools already mentioned
there are various educational institutions of a
higher kind connected with government. The
highest of these institutions is the Calcutta Uni-
versity, with the four faculties of arts, law,
medicine, and engineering. Affiliated to the
university are a number of general and pro-
fessional colleges, in one of which all who have
passed the university entrance examination and
wish to proceed to a degree must enroll them-
selves. The majority of educated Bengal youths,
according to official information, resort to two
professions, the public service and the law, in
consequence of which many cannot obtain em-
ploj-ment. With a view to open out other lines
of employment the government is endeavoring
to establish technical and industrial schools of
a superior kind in many places. A healthy
ambition is said to exist among the natives of
Bengal to raise themselves by education. Almost
every Bengalee youth who can afford the means
aspires to an English education as one of the
main objects of his life. One result of the
Prince of Wales' visit to Bengal at the end of
1875 was that the wealthier natives raised sub-
scriptions to commemorate the event by found-
ing educational institutions. The secondary
schools are generally divided into "English** and
vernacular. Those in which English forms part
of the regular course of study of all the schol-
ars, or at least of all in the higher classes, are
reckoned as English; if English is optional only,
they are reckoned as vernacular. In the com-
mon languages of the country there were till
lately almost no books to be had ; but the Bible,
or parts of it, has now been printed in the vari-
ous languages and widely circulated, as well as
a number of other works.

The private houses of Bengal are huts, with
pentroofs constructed of two sloping sides which
meet in a ridge. One hut of this kind serves
the poor man for himself, family, and cattle;
wealthy men increase the number of houses with-
out altering the plan, and without having any
communication between the different apart-
ments. The walls are generally made of mud,
and the floor is raised a foot or two above the
level of the plain, to prevent it being .flooded in
the rainy season, which, however, is not always
accomplished. The frames of the houses con-
sist of bamboos tied together — wooden posts
and beams being used in the construction of the
houses of the wealthy only. The huts collect-
ively sufficient for the accommodation of a fam-
ily are usually surrounded by a common fence.
Farmers have in general larger and better houses
than people living in towns. A rich farmer will
sometimes have as many as 12 or 14 huts within
his enclosure. The food of the class just above
the rank of common laborers consists chiefly
of rice, wheaten flour, fish, vegetables, and but-
ter, with various condiments and seasonings.

BENGAL — BENGALI

In the case of the laborer there is neither flour,
fish, vegetables, nor butter, the chief food of that
class being a coarse description of rice.

History. — The English first got a firm foot-
ing in Bengal about 1644, when, through the
influence of an English medical man named
Boughton, a favorite of the emperor of Delhi,
the East India Company obtained permission to
locate themselves at Hugli or Hoogly, some 28
miles above Calcutta. In 1686 the company's
factors, having had a rupture with the Moslem
commander at the place where they were located,
removed to Calcutta, then the village of Chut-
tanutty, where they continued to carry on their
trade. In 1700 the viceroy of Bengal, being in
want of money to dispute the succession to the
Mogul throne, obtained a large sum from the
company for the township on which their fac-
tory stood at Calcutta, and some adjacent lands.
Seven years afterward, namely in 1707, Calcutta
was erected into a presidency, and the founda-
tion of British power in India laid — presenting
a striking proof of the energy of the British
character, there having been settlements in
India by the Portuguese, Dutch, French, and
Danes, previous to, and contemporary with, the
location of the English in that quarter of the
world ; but the mighty achievement of obtain-
ing the supremacy in that vast empire could, it
appears, be accomplished only by the British.
For nearly half a century the company pur-
sued a peaceful and profitable commerce ; but at
the expiration of that period, 1756, Calcutta was
attacked and taken by the Soubahdar of Bengal,
who threw the Englishmen he found there, 147 in
number, into a dungeon, the well-known "black-
hole" of Calcutta, where 123 of them perished in
II hours. In the ensuing year Calcutta was re-
taken by Lord Clive — an event which was fol-
lowed by a series of victories on the part of the
British, that terminated in the entire conquest
of India. In consequence of unprecedented
drought great scarcity of food prevailed in 1873
and 1874, but the prompt measures of the gov-
ernment were sufficient to prevent any wide-
spread mortality. A bill conferring upon agri-
cultural tenants a transferable interest in their
holdings and protecting them against eviction
was passed in 1885.

Bibliography. — Barton, <^BengaP ; Hunter,
^Statistical Account of BengaP ; Rawlinson,
* England and Russia in the East^ ; and official
^Reports on the Administration of Bengal,'
appearing annually.

Bengal, Bay of, that portion of the Indian
Ocean between Hindustan and Farther India, or
Burma, Siam, and Malacca, and extending south
to Ceylon and Sumatra. It receives the Ganges,
Brahmaputra, and Irrawadi. Calcutta, Ran-
goon, and Madras are the most important towns
on or near its coasts. On the west coast there
are no good harbors, but the east coast has a
considerable number, among them being Aracan,
Cheduba, Negrais, Mataban, and Syriam. On
account of the extreme heat the rate of evapora-
tion is very high, sometimes amounting to an
inch per day. The tide sometimes rises to the
height of 70 feet. In summer the northeast
monsoon prevails, and in winter the southwest
monsoon.

Bengal, or Bengola, Light, a firework,
giving a vivid and sustained blue light. It is
used for signals at sea. It is composed of six

parts of nitre, two of sulphur, and one of anti-
mony tersulphide. These are finely pulverized
and incorporated together, and the composition
pressed into earthen bowls or similar sh?llow
vessels.

Bengali, ben-ga'le, the dealer's name, orig-
inating in a mistake as to their origin, for any
of several of the beautiful little African wax-
bills (q.v.), bred and sold as cage-birds; espe-
cially the "blue-bellied fincW^ ( Esirilda bengala),
which is ashy-brown above, with the wing quills
brown, and the sides of the head, the throat and
whole lower surface azure blue, spotted under
and near the wings. They add to this charming
dress lively manners and an agreeable song.
Their requirements in the cage are like those of
a canary.

Bengali Era, The, one of the chronologi-
cal eras of the Hindus, supposed to have been
derived from the Hegira. The Hindus, how-
ever, use the sidereal year, and the Mohamme-
dans the lunar, hence the Mohammedan epoch
is at present some nine years in advance of the
Bengali.

Bengali, or Gaura, Language, one of the

five modern languages of Hindustan, which are
derived from the ancient Sanskrit. Its name is
derived from Banga, the Sanskrit name of the
country, with the Arabic article al suflixed ; the
whole being corrupted into the present form.
Gaura is derived from Gaur, the name of the
ancient metropolis. It is spoken by 42,000,000
of British subjects, of whom about one fourth
speak also some other dialect. It extends over
the regions on the lower Ganges, from Patna
down to its delta, being purest in the province
of Bengal and in the eastern regions. This
language consists of an aboriginal basis, with
which a much greater portion of Sanskrit and
Pracrit has been admixed than with any one
of its cognates ; with a considerable addition of
Afghan, Persian, Arabic, Portuguese, Malay,
and English words. Although the Sanskrit ele-
ment predominates as regards the words, the
grammatical forms of the language differ more
from the Sanskrit than the forms of the Greek,
Latin, Gothic, and Persian ; most of the flexions
of nouns and verbs having been lost, and their
places being supplied by auxiliary words and by
circumlocution. Notwithstanding this, it admits
in the higher style, many of those forms which
are intelligible only to more cultivated persons.
There are no forms of gender, and only few
feminine words are formed by the suffixes i and
ini. There are seven cases made by suffixes —
nominative, accusative, instrumental, dative,
ablative, genitive, and vocative. The plural of
nouns is m.ade by suffixing dig to the genitive
singular. It delights in compound words,
formed especially by means of a sort of past
participle ; elegant Sanskrit compounds being
unidiomatic. There is but one conjugation,
whose radical is the imperative. Compound
tenses are made by the auxiliaries, meaning to
do, to be, to become. The singular and plural
of verbs are often confounded ; the plural with
a singular noun denoting respect, the singular
with the plural noun being used in speaking to
inferiors. There are three simple moods,
infinitive, indicative, imperative; four_ others
being periphrastic, the potential, optative, in-
choative, and frequentative. Any verb is con-
jugable negatively by the suffix na. The system

EENGAZI — BENHAM

of writing is that of the devandgat i of the San-
skrit language, but the forms of letters are more
broken and twisted. B and v, however, are
written by one character, and the characters of
the sounds, s, z, sh, are interchangeable.

No book written in Bengali appeared before
1500 A.u. After the settlement of Moslems in
Gaur, the Voisyas and Soodras (agricultural
and servile castes) began to study Persian, to
gain a livelihood, and were well rewarded by
the conquerors. Except the stories of Krishna's
study, the rules cf arithmetic in verse, and a
few other elementary books, the vernacular liter-
ature was very poor, until Rajah Krishnachan-
dra Roy Bahadoor restored Hindoo literature in
India, by bringing in pundits and endowing
schools. Owing to the abundance of Sanskrit
books, and the prejudice of most Brahmins
against the Bengali, this was neglected until
1800, when the college of Fort William was
founded, and the study of Bengali was made
imperative and collateral to the Sanskrit. Many
Bengali works have since been printed at Cal-
cutta and Serampore. The first native news-
paper was published at Serampore in 1818. Con-
siderable change has been made since in the
diction and composition of this language, which
continues to be enlarged and ennobled, by being
capable of borrowing indefinitely from the ven-
erable Sanskrit mother. Gilchrist, H. P. Fors-
ter, Carey. W. Morton, Hunter, Mohun Persaud,
Tahur, Tarachand Chukruburti, Sir G. C.
Haughton, have publishea Bengali English dic-
tionaries and vocabularies, and Ram Comul Sen
has translated Todd's edition of Johnson's Eng-
lish dictionary into Bengali.

Bibliography. — Beames, "^Comparative Gram-
mar of the Modern Aryan Languages of India' ;

* Grammar of the Bengali Language' ; Cust,
*The Modern Languages of the East Indies' ;
Dutt, "^The Literature of Bengal' ; Nicolls,

* Manual of the Bengali Language' ; Yates
Wingler, < Introduction to the Bengali Lan-
guage.'

Bengazi, ben-ga'ze, or Benghazi, a town in
North Africa, capital of the vilayet Barca, on
the east_ coast of the Gulf of Sidrah. Next to
Tripoli it is the most important seaport on this
coast. The harbor is fast silting up, and admits
only small vessels ; but there is still a consid-
erable trade, cattle, corn, etc., being exported,
especially to Malta. It is sometimes identified
as the ancient Hesperides and in the time of
Ptolemy III. Vv^as called Berenice. Pop. about
15,000.

Bengel, beng'el, Johann Albrecht, German
theologian and philologist : b. Winnenden.
Wiirteraberg, 24 June 1687; d. Alpirsbach, 2
Nov. 1752. He studied at Stuttgart and Tiibin-
gen, and became pastor and head of a school at
Denkendorf. He especially applied himself to
the critical study of the Greek Testament, of
which he published an edition in 1723. Am.ong
Iiis other works are ^Apparatus Criticus Novi
Tcstamenti,' a Avork of great value for its sug-
c^estive condensed comments, which first appeared
in 1742, and has been several times reprinted,
etc. An attempt has been made to adaot his
'Gnomen' to English readers in the ^Critical
English Testament,' by Blackley and Hawes
(1866).

Benger, beng'ger, Elizabeth Ogilvy, Eng-
lish historical writer : b. Wells, Somersetshire.

1778; d. London, 9 Jan. 1827. She early dis-
played a turn for literature, but her straitened
means preventing her from gratifying this taste
by the purchase of books, she was in the habit
of perusing the opened books in a bookseller's
window, and would return day after day to see
if the page had been turned over. In 1802 she
removed with her mother to London. Her first
literary attempts, including a poem on the aboli-
tion of the slave trade, and two novels, attracted
little attention ; but she was more successful
with her < Memoirs of Mary Queen of Scots,'
and of < Elizabeth Queen of Bohemia.' She
also wrote the Lives of Anne Boleyn, Mrs.
Elizabeth Hamilton, and John Tobin, the dra-
matist. Her chief merits are a clear style and
industry in the collection and arrangements of
facts.

Bengough, John Wilson, Canadian poet:
b. Toronto, 5 April 1851. In 1873 he established
the Grip, a humorous weekly in Toronto. His
political cartoons in this paper were highly artis-
tic. He is also widely known as a lecturer and
a poet. His publications include: 'Ontario,.
Ontario' (a famous election song) ; < Grip's Car-
toons' (1875) ; < Popular Readings, Original and
Selected' (1882); < Caricature History of
Canadian Politics' (1886); < Motley: Verses
Grave and Gay' (1895) ; ^The Up to Date
Primer: A First Book of Lessons for Little
Political Economists' (1896) ; etc.

Benguela, ben-ga'la, or Benguella, a district
belonging to the Portuguese on the western coast
of South Africa, forming one of the three prov-
inces of Angola ; bounded north by the province
of Loanda, south by that of Mossamedes, and
west by the Atlantic Ocean. The interior of the
country is mountainous, the direction of the ele-
vated lands being from northeast to southwest.
It is well watered, being intersected by numer-
ous rivers and streams. Its vegetation is luxuri-
ant, and it possesses extensive forests. Its
products are those of tropical Africa generally.
Coffee grows wild. The soil in parts is well
adapted for the production of grain ; but little
is grown. The larger animals of Africa are
numerous, such as lions, elephants, and hippo-
potami. The minerals include copper, sulphur,
lead, gold, and silver. The only town worth
mention is the seaport, Benguela, founded in
1617 as San Felipe de Benguela, which is pleas-
antly situated and fairly healthy. It exports
rubber, coffee, skins, ivory, etc. A short rail-
way starts from the town, the population of
which is about 3,000. The population of the
province may amount to several millions.

Benha'dad, the name of three kings of
Syria, all mentioned in Scripture. The most
conspicuous is the second, who was equally re-
miarkable for his arrogance in prosperity and his
craven spirit in adversity. He first sent an inso-
lent message to Ahab, claiming himself and all
his subjects as his slaves; and after Ahab
encountered and defeated him, Benhadad sent
a message abjectly begging his life. .'Xhab was
impolitic enough to grant it, and Benhadad, dis-
regarding all his promises, proved a bitter enemy
to his successor. He was murdered about 890 b.c.

Benham, Andrew EUicott Kennedy, Ameri-.
can naval otticer: b. New York, 10 April 1832;
d. at Lake Mahopac, N. Y., 11 Aug. 1905.
He entered the navy in 1847 ; served in the East
India and the Home squadrons in 1847-52;

BENHAM — BENIN

attended the United States Naval Academy,
1852-3 ; was commissioned lieutenant in 1855 ;
lieutenant-commander in 1862; commander,
1866 ; captain, 1875 ; commodore, 1885 ; and rear-
admiral in 1890, and retired in 1894. During the
Civil War he served in the South Atlantic and
West Gulf Blockading squadrons. In April
1893 he commanded one of the divisions in the
great naval display at New York ; in 1894, as
commander of a squadron at Rio de Janeiro,
Brazil, he forced the commander of the insur-
gents' squadron to raise the blockade of the
city and to discontinue firing on American mer-
chant vessels ; and in 1898 was naval prize com-
missioner in Savannah, Ga.

Benham, Henry W., American military
engineer: b. Cheshire, Conn., 1816; d. i June
1884. He was graduated at the United States
Military Academy in 1837 ; and became brevet
major-general, United States army. He com-
manded the engineer brigade and laid several
pontoon bridges under fire during the Chancel-
lorsville battles ; constructed and commanded the
defenses at City Point ; devised the picket
shovel ; and made many improvements in the
construction of pontoon bridges, in which he
was a recognized expert. After the war he was
in charge of the Boston harbor sea wall and
later of the New York harbor defenses ; retired
from active service, 1882.

Benham, William, English clergyman and
author: b. West Meon, Hampshire. 15 Jan.
1831. He was vicar of Addington, 1867-73: of
Margate, 1873-80; of Marden, 1880-2; and rec-
tor of St. Edmund's, Lombard Street, London,
from the year last named. He was appointed
canon of Canterbury in 1885. He has published
among other works: *^The Church of the Patri-
archs* (1867) ; ^Catharine and Crawfurd Tait* ;
<How to Teach the Old Testament* (1881) ;
< Annals of the Diocese of Winchester* (1884) ;
*A Short History of the Episcopal Church in
America* (1884) ; ^The Dictionary of Religion*
(1887) ; <Life of Archbishop Tait,* with David-
son (1891). He has edited the ^Ancient and
Modern Library of Theological Literature.*

Beni, ba'ne, one of the nine departments of
Bolivia, South America. It is in the northeast-
ern part, with an area of 100,580 square miles.
It is a level, fertile region, growing cocoa, cof-
fee, sugar-cane, and tobacco, and containing vast
forests of rubber-trees, and rich deposits of
gold. Pop. 26,750 ; chief town, Trinidad.

Beni, a river of South America, formed by
the junction of several streams flowing eastward
from the Andes in about 18° south. Its course
is north and northeast through Bolivia; and on
the border of Brazil it unites with the Mamore
to form the Madeira, by which its waters are
carried to the Amazon. It receives several trib-
utaries of importance, the chief being the Madre
de Dios from Peru, and it is navigable through-
cut a great part of its course. Its length is
about 850 miles.

Beni-Hassan, ba'ne-has'san, a village of
middle Egypt, on the east bank of the Nile,
remarkable for the rock-hewn tombs in the
neighborhood, supposed to have formed a
necropolis for the chief families of a city,
Hermopolis, on the opposite bank, and exhibit-
ing interesting paintings, and hieroglyphics.
The paintings portray incidents in the ancient
life of Egypt, and the inscriptions are of great

value for the light they throw upon the history
of the I2lh dynasty.

Beni-Israel, ba'ne-iz-ra-el, a race in the
v/est of India (the Konkan sea board, Bom-
bay, etc.), who keep a tradition of Jewish origin,
and whose religion is a modified Judaism. By
some persons they are supposed to be a remnant
of the 10 tribes. Their number is estimated
at 5,000, and in feature they resemble the Jews of
Arabia.

Beni Israel, a small antelope. See
Madoqua.

Beni-Khaibir. (sons of Keber), an Arabic
tribe supposed to be a remnant of the ascetic
tribe of Rechabites.

Beni-Mzab, a race or tribe of Berbers that
dwell in the Sahara, near its northern border,
and recognize the supremacy of the French.
They number some 60,000, of whom about 15,000
are in the town of Ghardaya. They are peace-
fully disposed, and numbers of them are em-
ployed in Algiers in various occupations.

Beni-Suef, ba'ne-swaf, the capital of a
province of the same name in Egypt ; is pleasantly
situated on the left bank of the Nile, 70 miles
south from Cairo, with which it is connected by
railway. It is the entrepot for the produce of
the Fayoum, and contains cotton mills, con-
trolled by the state, and alabaster quarries. Pop.
10,085.

Benicarlo, ba-ne-kar-lo', a seaport of
Spain, in Valencia, in the province of Castellon,
surrounded with walls, having an old castle, a
fine church, with an octagonal tower, and some
manufactures, etc. It is chiefly noted as being
the place of export of the red wines called by its
name which are produced in the surrounding
country. These are chiefly sent to Bordeaux to
be mixed with clarets, or to England to be man-
ufactured into port. Pop. (1897) 7,900.

Benic'ia, Cal., a city in Solano County, at
the mouth of the Sacramento and San Joaquin
rivers, and on the Southern P. R.R. ; 30 miles
northeast of San Francisco. It contains a
United States arsenal and barracks ; St. Au-
gustine College (Roman Catholic) ; St.
Catherine's Convent (Roman Catholic) ; exten-
sive shipyards, and large agricultural, tanning,
cement, and meat-packing plants. The city was
once the capital of the State. Pop. (1900) 2,751.

Benicia Boy, a popular name for a once
noted pugilist, John C. Heenan, whose home was
in California. His fight with Sayers attracted
wide-spread attention.

Benin, be-nin', Africa, a negro country or
kingdom, on the Bight of Benin, Gulf of Guinea,
extending along the coast on both sides of the
Benin River, and to some distance inland, but
the limits are not accurately known. The cap-
ital is Benin, a town which at one time had some
15,000 inhabitants, but is now said to have
greatly decreased in population. It is situated
about 50 miles from the coast, and consists of
clay-built houses neatly thatched with reeds,
straw, or leaves. The coast, which now belongs
to the British, is thickly indented with estuaries,
some of them of considerable breadth and
studded with islands. The country is flat for
some distance inland, when it begins gradually
to rise till it attains a height of over 2,000 feet-
It is very well wooded, and being likewise well
watered, it is rich in all the vegetable produc-

BENIN — BENJAMIN

tions of the tropics. Cotton is indigenous, and
is woven into cloth by the women. Sugar-cane
of good quality is grown ; and yams, plantains,
maize, rice, etc., are cultivated. The religion is
Fetishism. The climate, especially at the mouths
of the rivers, is very unhealthy. There is a con-
siderable trade ia palm oil and other products.

Benin, Bight of, Africa, a large bay on the
Avest coast, forming a portion of the Gulf of
Guinea, and extending from the Niger delta
westward to about the river Volta. *

Beniowsky, Moritz August von, ba-ne-6ff'-
ski, mo'ritz ow'goost fon, Hungarian adven-
turer: b. Verbova, Hungary, 1741 ; d. 23 May
1786. The son of an Austrian general, he
served as lieutenant in the Seven Years' war
and in the Polish war against Russia. In 1769
he fell into the hands of the Russians, who
■exiled him to Kamchatka. Availing himself of
a knowledge of navigation, he succeeded in sav-
ing from wreck the vessel which was to
<:onvey him to Siberia. This feat won for him
the sympathy of the governor of Kamchatka,
which was still more strengthened by his pro-
ficiency in chess, and he appointed him tutor of
his children. One of his pupils fell in love with
him, and with her father's consent they were
married. In 1771 he effected his escape from
Kamchatka with the assistance of his wife, who,
although she had since learned that he had
another wife in Hungary, followed him to For-
mosa and Moscow, at which latter place she
died. On his return to Paris he undertook to
found a French colony at Madagascar, where
he arrived in June 1774. founded his colony, and
in 1775 was proclaimed king by some of the
native tribes, while his wife was proclaimed
<iueen. The governor of the Isle of France
refusing to supply him with men to support his
state, Beniowsky applied directly to the French
government, but without success. Disgusted
with the French and their colonies, he now
entered the Austrian service, and was com-
mander in the battle of Habelschwerdt, in 1778,
against the Prussians. His subsequent efforts
to interest the English government for Mada-
gascar were fruitless, but with the support of a
wealthy firm of Baltimore, U. S. A., he effected
a landing in Madagascar, but was killed soon
after in a conflict with troops from the Isle of
France. He wrote his autobiography in French ;
it was translated into German by George For-
ster, into English by William Nicolson, and
into various other languages. Kotzebue drama-
tized his character and career in his play entitled
^The Conspiracy in Kamchatka.'

Benish' Days, days (Mondays, Wednes-
days, and Saturdays) on which the modern
Egj'ptians don the benish (whence the name),
or ordinary garment, relax their religious duties,
and engage in pleasures.

Benjamin, the youngest son of Jacob and
Rachel (Gen. xxxv. 16-18). Rachel died imme-
diately after he was born, and with her last
breath named him Ben-oni, "son of my sorrow'^ ;
but Jacob called him Benjamin, "son of my
right hand.'' He was a great comfort to his
father, who saw in him the image of the wife
Tie had buried, and of Joseph, whose loss he
also mourned. He could hardly be persuaded to
let him go with his brethren to Eg>'pt. The
tribe of Benjamin, small at first, was almost
exterminated in the days of the Judges, but

Vol. 2 34.

afterward it greatly increased. On the revolt
of the 10 tribes Benjamin adhered to the camp
of Judah ; and the two tribes ever afterward
closely united. King Saul and Saul of Tarsus
were both Benjamites.

Benjamin, Charles Henry, American en-
gineer : b. Patten, Me., 29 Aug. 1856. He gradu-
ated at the University of Elaine, and was pro-
fessor of mechanical engineering there, 1880-6.
Since 1889 he has been professor of the same
subject in the Case School of Applied Science,
Cleveland, Ohio. Publications: < Notes on
Heat and Steam' (1894) ; < Notes on Machine
Design' (1895) : ^Mechanical Laboratory Prac-
tice' (1898) ; 'Evolution of the Machine Tool'
(1898) ; 'Power Losses in Machine-Shops'
(1900) ; 'Development of Fly Wheels' (1900) ;
and nionographs in the 'Transactions' of the
American Society of Mechanical Engineers,
Vols. XVTII.-XXL

Benjamin, Judah Philip, American lawyer:
b. St. Croix, West Indies, 11 Aug. 181 1 ; d.
Paris, 7 May 1884 ; of English parentage and of
Jewish faith. He was educated at Yale College ;
admitted to the bar in New Orleans in 1832 ;
and elected to the United States Senate in
1852 and 1858. At the beginning of the Civil
War he resigned from the Senate and declared
his adhesion to the State of Louisiana. In 1861
he accepted the office of attorney-general in the
Cabinet of Jefferson Davis, and afterward be-
came successively Confederate secretary of war
and secretary of state. After the w-ar he went
to London, England, where he was admitted to
the bar in 1866. He gained a successful prac-
tice, and in 1872 was formally presented wnth
a silk gown. He wrote a 'Treatise on the Law
of Sale of Personal Property' (1868).

Benjamin, Marcus, American editor and
compiler: b. San Francisco, 17 Jan. 1857. He
graduated at Columbia School of Mines, 1878,
and was chemist at the United States Appraiser's
Store, New York, 1883-5. Since 1883 he
has been a reguar contributor to 'Appleton's
Annual Cyclopsedia' and the 'Cyclopaedia of
American Biography,' and edited a number of
the Appleton guides and handbooks. He was
on the editorial staff of the 'Standard Diction-
ary' ; 'Encyclopaedic Dictionary' : 'Johnson's
Universal Cyclopaedia' : and the 'International
Year Book' ; and has translated Bertholet's
'Explosive Materials' (1883). Since 1896 he
has been connected with the United States
National Museum.

Benjamin, Park, American journalist, poet,
and lecturer: b. Demerara, British Guiana, 14
Aug. 1809; d. New York, 12 Sept. 1864. He
studied law, but later took up literary' work,
helping to found 'The New World' in New
York. His poems, of a high order of merit,
have never been collected. 'The Contemplation
of Nature,' read on taking his degree at Wash-
ington College, Hartford, 1829; the satires.
'Poetry' (1843): 'Infatuation' (1849): 'The
Nautilus' ; 'To One Beloved' ; and 'The Old
Sexton' are among his works. He was asso-
ciated editorially with Epes Sargent and Rufus
W. Griswold.

Benjamin, Park, American lawyer, editor,
and miscellaneous writer, son of the preceding:
b. New York, 11 May 1849. A graduate of the
United States Naval Academy (1867), he served
on Admiral Farragut's flagship, but resigned in

BENJAMIN — BENNETT

1869. As a lawyer he has been a patent expert.
He edited the 'Scientific American' (1872-8),
and Appleton's * Cyclopaedia of Applied Mechan-
ics'. He has written * Shakings: Etchings from
the Naval Academy' (1867) ; 'The Age of Elec-
tricity' (1886) ; 'The Intellectual Rise in Elec-
tricity, a History' ; 'The United States Naval
Academy' (1900) ; etc.

Benjamin, Samuel Green Wheeler, Ameri-
can traveler, artist, and miscellaneous writer :
b. Argos. Greece, 13 Feb. 1837. He was edu-
cated at Williams College; was assistant libra-
rian in the New York State Library, 1861-4 ;
and was United States minister to Persia,
1883-5. Among his numerous works, both in
prose and verse, are: 'Art in America' ; 'Con-
temporary Art in Europe' (1877); 'Constanti-
nople* (i860).

Benjamin, William Augustus, American
journalist, poet, composer: b. 26 July 1865. His
most prominent poems are: 'From Then Till
Now' (1889); 'The Storm' (1889); 'Musings
of Shadow-Silence' (1890); 'Twilight Fancies'
and 'The Tide of Life' (1891) ; etc. Of his
musical compositions, 'The Surge of the Sea'
(1890); 'The Promise' (1894); and 'Go to
Sleep' (1895).

Benjamin of Tudela, Jewish traveler: b.
Tudela, Navarre, in the 12th century; is chiefly
known by his travels over large portions of
Europe, Palestine, Mesopotamia, the East
Indies, and Ethiopia. As the first European
traveler who penetrated far into the East, he
furnishes a great amount of interesting informa-
tion, and though not free from error or fable,
proves himself worthy of the high estimation in
which he has always been held among his Jew-
ish countrymen for soundness of judgment and
extent of learning. His 'Itinerary,' first printed
in Hebrew at Constantinople in 1543, has been
translated into many languages. The edition
of Asher (London and Berlin 1840-1) contains
an English translation.

Benjamin-Constant, Jean Joseph, bon-zha-
man-kon-ston, zhon zho-sef, French painter:
b. Paris, 10 June 1847 ; d. there, 26 May
1902. He studied under Cabanel, and exhibited
in the salon of 1869, a scene from 'Hamlet.'
His taste inclined him to Oriental subjects and
the nude, and his vivid coloring and dramatic
treatment made his work fashionable in Paris
and London. His work displays much finished
and minute detail, but he paid chief attention
to harmony of effect and decorative value.
Among his Oriental pictures are 'Mahomet
II.' ; 'Les Cherifas' ; 'Les Funerailles de
TEmir' ; 'La Justice du Cherif.'

Benkulen. See Bencoolen.

Benndorf, Otto, German archaeologist: b.
13 Sept. 1838 ;d. 2 Jan. 1907. He studied at Er-
langen and Bonn, went to Italy and Greece,
1864-8, and was professor of archaeology at
the universities of Gottingen, Zurich, Munich,
Prague, and Vienna. In 1875 he made a second
archaeological tour to Samothracc; in 1881 and
1883 he made two expeditions, at state cost, to
southwestern Asia Minor; in 1898 he was made
director of the Austrian Archnsological Institute.
He wrote 'The Ancient Sculptures in the Lat-
eran Museum' (in conjunction with Schone)
(Leipsic 1867) ; 'Ancient Historical Flelmets
and Sepulchral Masks' (1878) ; 'Travels in
Southwest Asia Minor' (1884) ; etc.

Benne Oil, a valuable oil expressed from
the seeds of Sesamum orientdle and S. iiuiicum,
much cultivated in India, Egypt, etc., and used
for purposes similar to those of olive oil. Also
called sesamum oil and gingelly oil. See Se-
same.

Bennet, Elizabeth, the heroine of Jane
Austen's novel, 'Pride and Prejudice.' See
Howells, 'Heroines of Fiction' (1901).

Bennet, Henry (E.\rl of Arlington), Eng-
lish statesman: b. Arlington, Middlesex, 1618;
d. 28 July 1685. He was devoted to the cause
of Charles I., and was appointed under-secretary
of state ; he fought in several battles, and was
wounded at Andover, but after the battle of
Worcester he retired to Spain. Upon the resto-
ration he returned to England, and was ap-
pointed keeper of the privy seal, and shortly
afterward secretary of state. In 1664 he was
created Baron Arlington ; in 1670 became noted
as one of the famous Cabal, but is not accused
of entertaining their extreme sentiments ; he was
created Earl of Arlington in 1672. He was
one of the plenipotentiaries sent to LTtrecht to
negotiate a peace between Austria and France,
but the mission not being successful, an en-
deavor was made by his colleagues to cast the
odium of the failure upon him. He defended
himself, however, before the House of Com-
mons, and was acquitted. The war with Hol-
land, which is said to have been caused by the
machinations of the Cabal, lost to Arlington the
favor of the king and people ; but in spite of
this he received the office of chamberlain. In
1679 he became a member of the new council,
and retained his office of chamberlain on the
accession of James II.

Bennett, Alfred Allen, American chemist:
b. Milford, N. PL, 30 Nov. 1850. He graduated
at the University of Michigan 1877; became
professor of chemistry and physics in Iowa
Wesleyan University; and since 1885 has been
professor of chemistry in Iowa State College.
Publications: 'Text Book of Inorganic Chem-
istry,' 2 vols., and articles in the 'American
Chemical Society Journal.'

Bennett, Charles Edwin, American edu-
cator : b. Providence, R. I., 6 April 1858. He
graduated at Brown University 1878; pursued
graduate studies at Harvard and in Germany
1881-4; was professor of Latin at the University
of Wi-sconsin 1889-91 ; of classical philolog}^ at
Brown 1891-2; and in the latter year was elected
professor of Latin at Cornell. He has been a
frequent contributor to classical journals and
editor of classical texts. Publications: 'A Latin
Grammar' (1895) ; 'The Foundations of Latin'
(1898) ; 'Critique of Some Recent Subjunctive
Theories'* (1808) ; 'The Quantitative Reading
of Latin Poetry' (1899) ; 'The Teaching of
Greek and Latin in Secondary Schools' (1900).
He has edited: 'Xenophon's Hellenica, Books
V.-VIIL' (1892) : 'Tacitus, Dialogus de Ora-
toribus' (1894) : 'Cicero, De Senectute' (1897) ;
and 'Cicero, De Amicitia' (1897).

Bennett, Charles Wesley, American ^Nleth-
odist clergvman and educator: b. East Bethany,
N._ Y., 18 July 1828; d. 17 April 1891. He was
principal of Genesee Wesleyan Seminary (1869-
71) ; professor of history and logic at Syracuse
University (1871-8=;) : professor of historical
theology, Garrett Biblical Institute, Evanston. 111.

BENNETT

(1885-91). He wrote < National Education in
Italy, France, Germany, England, and Wales*
(1878) ; and 'Christian Art and Archaeology of
the First Six Centuries' (i888j.

Bennett, Edmund Hatch, American lawyer:
b. Manchester, Vt., 6 April 1824; d. 2 Jan. 1898.
He was graduated at the University of Vermont
in 1843, and admitted to the bar in 1847. He
practised for many years in Taunton, Mass., and
was mayor of that city 1865-7, and judge of pro-
bate and insolvency of Bristol County 1858-83.
He was lecturer at Harvard Law School 1865-
71, and afterward professor and dean at the
Law School of Boston University. His works
include 30 volumes of 'English Law and
Equity Reports' ; '9-12 Cushing's (Mass.)
Reports' ; 'Massachusetts Digest' (3 vols.) ;
'Bingham on Infancy' ; 'Blackwell on Tax
Titles' ; 'Leading Criminal Cases' (2 vols.) ;
'Goddard on Easements' ; 'Benjamin on Sales' ;
'Pomeroy's Constitutional Law'; 'Indermaur's
Principles of Common Law' ; and 'Fire Insur-
ance Cases* (5 vols.). He has made contribu-
tions to professional journals, and has been co-
editor of the 'American Law Register.*

Bennett, Emerson, American novelist : b.
Monson. ^Nlass., 16 March 1822; d. Phila-
delphia, Pa., 12 ^lay 1905. He began to write at
an early age and published some 60 or more
extremelj' sensational tales which have been
popular with uncritical readers. Among them
are 'Prairie Flower'; 'The Outlaw's Daughter';
and 'The Forged Will.'

Bennett, James Gordon, American journal-
ist: b. Newmill, Keith, i Sept. 1795; d. i June
1872. Trained for the Roman Catholic priest-
hood, he emigrated to the United States in 1819,
where he became in turn teacher, proof-reader,
journalist, and lecturer. He had acted as casual
reporter and writer in connection with several
journals, and had failed in one or two journal-
istic ventures previous to the issue of the first
number of the New York Herald, which he
founded as an independent newspaper, 6 May
1835, price one cent. He spared no effort and
expense in securing news, and laid the founda-
tion of its subsequent enormous success. It was
the first newspaper to publish the stock lists and
a daily money article.

Bennett, James Gordon, American journal-
ist, (son of the preceding) : b. New York, 10
May 1841. He became managing editor of the
New York Herald in 1866. and became its pro-
prietor on the death of his father in 1872. In
1870 he sent Henry M. Stanley on the explor-
ing expedition which resulted in the finding of
Dr. Livingstone, and. in conjunction with the
London Daily Telegraph, supplied the means for
his journey across Africa by way of the Congo
in 1874-8. He organized a system of storm
prognostications of value to shipping-masters;
fitted out the Jeannette Polar exnedition ; and
in 1883 was associated with John W. Mackay in
organizing the new Commercial Cable Company.
He founded the Evening: Telef^rnm in New York,
and_ established daily editions of the Herald in
Paris and London. He early gave much atten-
tion to yachting, in 1866 taking part in an ocean
yacht race from Sandy Hook to the Needles,
Isle of Wight, which was won by his schooner
Henrietta against two competing yachts in 13
days. 21 hours. 55 minutes. In 1870 he raced in
his yacht Dauntless from Queenstown to Sandy

Hook, but was beaten by the Cambria by two
hours. He resides mainly in Paris, collecting
foreign news, and directing by telegraph the
management and policy of his newspapers. The
New York Herald was incorporated in 1899.

Bennett, John, American writer: b. Chilli-
cothe, Ohio, 17 May 18O5. He has published
'iMaster Skylark' (1892); 'The Story of Bar-
naby Lee' (1900).

Bennett, John Hughes, English physician:
b. London, 31 Aug. 1812; d. Norwich, 25 Sept.
1875. He graduated at Edinburgh in 1837, and
after four years' study in Paris and Germany
settled in Edinburgh as an extra-mural lecturer.
A work published in 1841, in which he recom-
mended cod-liver oil in all consumptive diseases,
first brought him into notice, and in 1848 he was
made professor of the institutes of medicine in
Edinburgh University — a post which he held
until 1874. His health gave way in 1871, and.
most of his last 3'ears were spent abroad.

Bennett, Joseph M., American philanthro-
pist: b. Juliustown, N. J., 16 Aug. 1816; d. 2g
Sept. 1898. He engaged in the clothing business
in Philadelphia, Pa., when 16 years old. In
1880 he gave 40 acres of ground in what is now
Fairmount Park, valued at $400,000, for a Meth-
odist Orphanage, to the support of which he
afterward largely contributed. He also estab-
lished the Hays Home, and gave valuable prop-
erties to the Deaf and Dumb Institute, the
University of Pennsylvania, and the Methodist
Deaconesses. His property was said to be worth
$3,000,000, and it is estimated that he gave
$1,000,000 to charity. Lie bequeathed $500,000 ta
the University of Pennsylvania for its proposed
college for women.

Bennett, Mary E. (Eliz.\beth Glover),
American writer : b. Connecticut, 1841 ; a writer
of New Haven, Conn., whose writings have been
publish^ over the pen name Elizabeth Glover.
They mclude 'Cyril Rivers' ; 'Six Boys' ;
'Asaph's Ten Thousand' ; 'Talks About a Fine-
Art' ; 'Family Manners'; 'The Children's
Wing' ; 'Jefferson Wildrider' ; 'The Gentle Art
of Pleasing.'

Bennett, Samuel Crocker, American law-
yer : b. Taunton, ^Lass.. 19 April 1858. He is a
son of Edmund Hatch Bennett (q.v.), and in
1898 succeeded his father as dean of the law
school of Boston University. He is one of the
editors of 'Federal Decisions' ; 'Smith's Leading
Cases' ; 'Benjamin on Sales' ; 'Cyclopedia of
Law and Procedure.'

Bennett, Sanford Fillmore, American h\'m-
nologist: b. Eden, N. Y.. 1836; d. 12 June 1898.
He settled in Elkhorn, Wis., in i860, and became
editor of the Independent. Resigning this place,
he entered the 40th Wisconsin Volunteers and
served with them throughout the Civil War. In
1867 he aided J. P. Webster, the composer, in
preparing 'The Signet Ring.' a Sunday-.school
hymn-book, to which he contributed about loa
hvmns. 'The Sweet Bye and Bye' was one of
tlie first of these. Many of Mr. Bennett's hymns
and songs have been published in sheets.

Bennett, "William Cox, English song-
writer: b. Greenwich. 14 Oct. 1820: d. Black-
heath, 4 March 1895. He suggested that the
bust of Longfellow be placed in Westminster
Abbey, and formed a committee of 500, with the
Prince of Wales at its head, to effect k. He

BENNETT — BENOIT

was the author of 'Poems^ (1850) ; 'The Trial
for Salamis' (1850) ; < Endowed Parish Schools
and High Church Vicars> (1853) ; 'Queen
Eleanor's Vengeance, and Other Poems^
(1856); <War Songs> (1857); 'Songs by a
Song- Writer' (1858) ; 'Baby May, and Other
Poems' (1859) ; 'Our Glory Roll, and Other
National Poems' (1867) ; 'Contributions to a
Ballad History of England, etc' (1869) ;
'School-Book of Poetry' (1870); 'Songs for
Sailors' (1872) ; 'Narrative Poems and Bal-
lads' (1879) ; 'Songs of a Song-Writer'
(1876); and 'Sea Songs' (1878).

Bennett, Sir William Stemdale, English
composer: b. Sheffield 13 April 1816; d. Lon-
don, I Feb. 1875. He became a pupil of the
Royal Academy of Music in 1826, studying un-
der Cipriani Potter, Crotch, and Lucas, and
afterward Moscheles. By the advice of Men-
delssohn, whose friendship he had gained, he
studied in Leipsic from 1836 to 1838, and his
performances and compositions were held in
high esteem by the younger German musicians,
and especially by Schumann. After a period
spent in teaching, conducting, and composing,
he was appointed professor of music at Cam-
bridge in 1856, and was knighted in 1871. Li
1868 he became principal of the Royal Acad-
emy of Music. He was too entirely dominated
by Mendelssohn's influence to do great original
work. He is best known by his overtures, 'Tlie
Naiads' and 'Parisina' ; his cantatas, 'The May
Queen' and 'Woman of Samaria' ; and his lit-
tle musical sketches, 'Lake,' '^^lillstream,' and
'Fountain.'

Bennigsen, Levin Augustus (Baron Von),
Russian soldier: b. Brunswick, 1745; d. 3 Oct.
1826. He entered the Russian service at an
early age, and distinguished himself by his
bravery in the war against Poland, under the
Empress Catherine H. In 1806 he was ap-
pointed to comm.and the Russian army which
went to the assistance of the Prussians. He
afterward fought the battles of Eylau and
Friedland. After the Peace of Tilsit he retired
to his estates. In 1813 he led the Army of
Poland into Saxony, took part in the battle of
Leipsic, and blockaded Hamburg. He was
commander-in-chief in southern Russia, but
finally settled in his native country, where he
died.

Bennigsen, Rudolph von, German states-
man : b. Luneberg, Hanover, 1825 ; d. Bennig-
sen, 7 Aug. 1902. After Hanover became a part
of Prussia he was elected to the North Ger-
man Diet and the Prussian Assembly, becom-
ing vice-president of both. Entering the Ger-
man Reichstag in 1871, he became prominent as
leader of the National Liberals, warmly support-
ing Bismarck for years, but later opposing his
policy toward the Socialists. After some years
spent in retirement, Bennigsen re-entered poli-
tics in 1887 and continued active until 1898,
when he resigned his position as president of
the province of Hanover.

Bennington, Vt., town and county-seat of
Bennington County, on the Bennington & R.
and the Lebanon Springs R.R.'s ; 36 miles east
of Troy, N. Y., and 55 miles southwest of Rut-
land. It contains the villages of Bennington,
North Bennington, and Bennington Centre ; and
has large woolen and knit-goods factories ; a

Soldiers' Home, a memorial battle monument,
dedicated on the centennial of the admission of
the State into the L'nion, 19 Aug. 1891 ; two
national banks, public library, numerous
churches, and graded public schools. There are
valuable deposits of brown hematite ore in the
town. The government consists of a town presi-
dent and a board of trustees elected annually at
town meetings under the charter of 1885. The
town, which was named after Governor Benning
Wentworth of New Llampshire, was settled in
1761, and for many years before Vermont be-
came a State, was claimed by both New York
and New Hampshire. Pop. (1900), 8,033.

Bennington, Battle of, one of the early
battles of the Revolution, fought at Bennington,
Vt., 16 Aug. 1777. The army of Gen. Burgoyne,
marching to the south from Canada, and caus-
ing the abandonment of Ticonderoga by Gen.
St. Clair, created the greatest commotion
throughout New England, since Boston was
supposed to be its point of destination. Gen.
Stark chanced to be at the time at Bennington,
having under his command a corps of New
Hampshire militia, and he determined to con-
front a strong detachment of the enemy sent
out under Col. Baum to procure supplies. He
hastily collected the continental forces in the.
neighborhood, and on 16 August approached
the British, whom, after a hot action of tv/o
hours, he forced to a disorderly retreat. The
engagement was hardly over when a re-
enforcement arrived, sent by Gen. Burgoyne,
and the battle was renewed, and kept up several
hours till dark, when the British forces re-
treated, leaving their baggage and ammunition.
The loss of the enemy was 207 killed, 600 taken
prisoners, and i,oco stand of arms. The Amer-
icans lost only 14 killed and 42 wounded.

Benno, Saint, bishop of Meissen (son of
the Count of Bultenburg) and Apostle of the
Slavs: b. Hildesheim, loio; d. 1106. At 20
years of age he became a monk in the Bene-
dictine convent of Saint Michael in his native
town. His extraordinary virtues and learning
caused his brethren to elect him abbot in 1042,
but the dignity and office he resigned three
months later. During the minority of Henry
IV., he was appointed to the see of ^Meissen,
and during his episcopate of 40 years he led
the life of an ascetic. In the quarrel between
Henry and the Saxon nobles he stood by th'i
latter, and in consequence was led away pris-
oner when Henry passed through Meissen in
1075 after his victory on the Unstrut. He sup-
ported Pope Gregory VII. in the long dispute
between the emperor and the Pope. He died
at the advanced age of 96 years and his tomb
in the Cathedral of Meissen was venerated as a
shrine, until the remains were transferred to
the cathedral in Munich. The Bavarians chose
him as their patron saint after he was canonized
by Hadrian VI. in 1523. See his 'Life' by
Emser in the Bollandists for June 3d, also his
'Life' by Seyffort.

Benoit, Pierre Leopold Leonard, be-nwa,
pe-ar la-6-p6ld la-o-nar, Flemish musician
and composer: b. Harelbeke, Belgium, 17 Aug.
1834. He studied under Fetis. He has held the
position of director of the Flemish School of
Music in Antwerp since 1867, and has written
a number of oratorios, cantatas, and operas. In

BENOIT — BENT

the first class of these compositions, his ^ Luci-
fer, > <The Drama of Christ, > and <The War,'
should be mentioned.

Benoit de Sainte-Maure, de sant-mor,
French trouvere and chronicler : b. Touraine ; fl.
in the 12th century. He wrote in about 42,300
octosyllabic verses a ^Chronicle of the Dukes of
Normandy^ to the year 1135. To him is usually
ascribed the ^Romance of Troy,^ founded on the
story of the siege of Troy as written by Dictys
Cretensis and Dares; it w^as translated into the
languages of western Europe. Boccaccio, Chau-
cer, and Shakespeare would seem to be indebted
to Benoit for the storj^ of the loves of Troilus
and Briseis (Cryseyde or Cressida being origi-
nally called Briseida).

Bensel, James Berry, American poet and
novelist: b. New York, 2 Aug. 1856; d. 3 Feb.
1886. He lived most of his life at Lynn, Mass.,
and was a contributor to magazines. He wrote
^King Kophetua's Wife^ (1884), a novel; *In
the King's Garden, and Other Poems^ (1886).

Benserade, Isaac de, baii-s'rad, e-sak de,
French poet : b. Lyons-la-Faret, Normandy,
1612; d. Gentilly, 1691. He wrote for the stage,
and composed a great number of ingenious
verses for the king and many distinguished per-
sons at court. In the first half of the reign of
Louis XIV. the court and its followers patron-
ized songs of gallantry, rondeaux, triolets, madri-
gals, and sonnets, containing sallies of wit, con-
ceits, and effusions of gallantry in the affected
style then prevalent. No one succeeded so well
in this art as Benserade, who was therefore, b)-
way of eminence, called Ic pocte de la cotir.
He received many pensions for his performances
and lived at great expense. Wearied at last with
the life he led he retired to his country-seat,
Gentilly.

Bensley, Thomas, English printer: d. 1833.
He is much known for an edition of ^Lavater,^
printed by him in 1789, in 5 volumes quarto, and
for an edition of the English Bible between 1800
and 1815, in 7 volumes quarto. He also printed
Shakespeare in 1803, in 7 volumes octavo, and in
1806 Hume's *^ England^ in 10 volumes folio,
which is adorned with elaborate portraits and
engravings on copper. He w^as prominent also in
the construction of the machine printing-press
invented by Koenig and applied to printing the
Times newspaper in 1814.

Benson, Arthur Christopher, English au-
thor: (son of Edward White Benson, and
brother of Edward Frederic, qq.v.) b. 24 April
1862. He was educated at Eton and Cambridge.
In 1885 he was appointed master of Eton Col-
lege. He is the author of several volumes of
poems, published in 1893, 1895, 1896, and 1900;
and also of 'Memoirs of Arthur Hamilton'
(1886); <Archbishop Laud> (1887): 'Men of
Might' (with Mr. Tatham) ; 'Fasti Etonenses'
(1899); 'Life of Archbishop Benson' (1899):
'The Schoolmaster' (1902) ; and 'Tennyson'
(in the 'Little Biographies' Series).

Benson, Carl, pseudonym of Charles Astor
Bristed (q.v.).

Benson, Edward Frederic, English author:
(son of Edward White Benson and brother of
Arthur Christopher qq.v.) b. Wellington Col-
lege, 24 July 1867. He was educated at King's
College, Cambridge : worked at Athens for the
British Aichaeological School (1892-5), and in

Egypt, for the Hellenic Society (1895). His
writings include 'Dodo' (1893), a novel of
London society; 'Six Common Things' (1893) ;
'Rubicon' (1894); 'Judgment Books' (1895);
'Limitations' (1896); 'The Babe' (1897);
'Vintage' (1898); 'The Capsina' (1899); 'An
Act in a Backwater' (1904).

Benson, Edward White, Archbishop of
Canterbury: b. near Birmingham, 1829; d. Ha-
warden, 11 Oct. 1896. He graduated at Cam-
bridge in 1852 as a first-class and senior optime,
and was for some time a master at Rugby. He
held the headmastership of Wellington College
from its opening in 1858 to 1872, when he was
made a canon and chancellor of Lincoln Cathe-
dral. In 1875 he was appointed chaplain in
ordinary to the queen, and in December 1876
was nominated to the newly erected bishopric of
Truro. Here he began the building of a cathe-
dral (1880-7), most of the first cost, £110,000,
having been gathered by his own energ\'. In
1882 he was translated to Canterbury to suc-
ceed Dr. Tait as primate of all England. A
high-churchman, Dr. Benson was frequently se-
lect preacher at both universities, and published
several volumes of sermons, a small work on
'Cathedrals,' and a valuable article on 'St.
Cyprian.' A distinguished ecclesiastical law-
yer and diplomatist, he gave the important judg-
ment in the Lincoln case on ritual.

Benson, Egbert, American jurist and poli-
tician : b. New York, 21 June 1746; d. Jamaica,
N. Y., 24 Aug. 1833. He was graduated at Co-
lumbia College 1765; was member of Congress
1784-8, 1789-93, and 1813-15; judge of the su-
preme court of New York 1 794-1 801 ; and be-
came a judge of the United States circuit court.
He wrote a 'Vindication of the Captors of
Major Andre,' and 'Memoir on Dutch Names
of Places.'

Benson, Eugene, American artist and mis-
cellaneous writer : b. Hyde Park, N. Y.. 1840.
Residing in Rome, Italy, he has contributed to
American magazines. He has written 'Gaspara
Stampa' (1881), a biography, with selections
from her sonnets; 'Art and Nature in Italy'
(1882).

Benson, Frank Weston, American painter:
b. Salem, Mass., 24 IMarch 1862. He was edu-
cated at the Museum of Fine Arts, Boston, and
in Paris ; became a member of the Society of
American Artists in 1888. He won the Hall-
garten and the Clarke prizes at the National
Academy of Design in 1889 and 1891 ; has done
nvich in figure work with outdoor effects, but
is best known for his portraits.

Bent, James Theodore, English traveler:
b. Liverpool, 30 March 1852 ; d. London, 6 May
1897. He graduated at Oxford University in
1875, and managed excavations in Greece for
the British Museums and the Hellenic Society.
His publications include: 'A Freak of Free-
dom, or the Republic of San Marino' (1879) ;
'Genoa: How the Republic Rose and Fell'
(1880) ; 'Life of Giuseppe Garibaldi' (1881) ;
'The Cyclades, or Life Among the Insular
Greeks' (1885).

Bent, Silas, American naval officer: b. St.
Louis, 10 Oct. 1820; d. 1889. He entered the
navy in 1836 ; served in the Seminole war, and
was with Commodore Glynn and Commodore
Perry on several cruises to Japan. He was
always especially active in survey work; on

BENT-GRASS — BENTHOS

Perr3''s Japan expedition he had charge of the
hydrographic survey, and his excellent work
became the basis of the surveys undertaken
later by the Japanese government. His most
important work was to delineate and describe
scientifically the Kuro Shiwo, or Black Tide, the
great northward-tlowing stream of the Pacific,
corresponding to the Atlantic Gulf Stream.

Bent-grass (Agrostis), a genus of grasses
usually regarded as weeds except in soils which
cannot produce better. Common bent-grass or
purple bent (A. vulgaris) is a fine-leaved species
with trailing stems rooting at the joints, and
small thin panicles of purplish satiny flowers.
It overruns dry, gravelly, sandy places with its
wiry stems, and becomes a troublesome weed,
only to be got rid of by pulling up early in the
season before the seed is ripe, or by frequent
harrowing. It is, however, sometimes sown in
warrens and in places where nothing better will
§row. March bent, white bent, or fiorin grass
{^A. stolonifera). has broader leaves than com-
imon bent, a much closer and larger panicle, and
green or pale flowers. It is very common in
low, damp places, which it overruns with its
compact, trailing, rooting stems, and is a useful
grass in newly reclaimed bogs or land liable to
inimdation. Brown bent-grass {A. canina) is
known in the United States as Rhode Island
bent-grass, and is highly prized as a lawn grass.
Herd-grass {A. cormicopia or dispar) has large
panicles of green flowers, which form an almost
level top.

Bentang, See Eriodendron.

Benteen, Frederick William, American
soldier: b. Petersburg, Va., 24 Aug. 1834; d. 22
June 1898. He was educated in his native state;
and at the outbreak of the Civil War went to
Missouri and organized a company of Union
volunteers. He became first lieutenant of the
loth Missouri Cavalry, i Sept. 1861 ; promoted
captain, i Oct. 1861 ; major, 18 Dec. 1862; lieu-
tenant-colonel, 27 Feb. 1864: and colonel of the
138th United States Colored Infantry, 15 July
1865 ; mustered out of volunteer service 6 Jan.
1866. On 28 July 1866 he was commissioned
captain in the 7th cavalry; promoted major of
the 9th cavalry, 17 Dec. 1882; and retired 7
July 1888. His most brilliant service after the
•war was in his campaigns against the Indians.

Benthal Fauna, the abyssal or deep-sea
fauna ; the great assemblage of animals living
at all depths below 150 fathoms in the North
Atlantic, to 500 fathoms in the tropics. See also
Deep-sea Life.

Bentham, George, English botanist;
nephew of Jeremy Bentham (q.v.) : b. near
Plymouth, 22 Sept. 1800; d. 10 Sept. 1884. He
was privately educated, early attached himself to
botany, and having resided in southern France
(where his father had an estate), 1814-26, he
published in French (1826) a work on *The
Plants of the Pyrenees and Lower Languedoc.^
Having returned to England he studied law,
and on this subject, as well as logic, he de-
veloped original views. Finally, however, he
devoted himself almost entirely to botany; was
long connected with the Horticultural Society
and the Linnsean Society ; and from 1861 on-
ward was in almost daily attendance at Kew
(except for a ffw weeks occasionally), work-
ing at descriptive botany from 10 to 4 o'clock
as a labor of love. Along with Sir J. D. Hock'"'-

he produced the great work of descriptive bot-
any, ^Genera Plantarum^ ; another great work
of his was the ^Flora Australiensis^ (in 7
volumes). His ^Handbook of the British Flora^
is well known.

Ben'tham, Jeremy, English jurist and pub-
licist : b. London, 15 Feb. 1748; d. London, 6
June 1832. After an early education at West-
minster School he went to Oxford in his 13th
year, taking his bachelor's degree at 15, and his
master's degree at 18. He studied English law,
but never appeared at the bar, being enabled by
easy circumstances to devote himself entirely to
literary compositions. He did not, however,
publish his chief works himself. They were
arranged and translated into French by his
friend, Etienne Dumont, and printed partly in
Paris and partly in London. Among them are :
'Treatises on Civil and Penal Legislation'
(Paris 1802, 3 vols.), and "^ Theory of Punish-
ments and Rewards' (London 1801, 2 vols.).
Bentham advocated a thorough correction of
civil and criminal legislation. His * Fragments
on Government,' in opposition to Blackstone,
appeared anonymously in 1776, and with his
name, London 1823. In France his literary
labors found a better reception than in England
or Germany. A small pamphlet on the liberty
of the press (London 1821) was addressed by
him to the Spanish Cortes during their discus-
sion of this subject; and in another ('Three
Tracts Relative to the Spanish and Portuguese
Affairs,' London 1821) he refuted the idea of
the necessity of a house of peers in Spain, as
well as Montesquieu's proposition that judicial
forms are the defense of innocence. One of
his latest works was the 'Art of Packing' (Lon-
don 1821), that is, of arranging juries so as to
obtain any verdict desired. His previous work,
'Essay on Parliamentary Practice.' edited from
the author's papers by Dumont (Geneva 1815),
and translated into German, contains many use-
ful observations. His 'Introduction to the Prin-
ciples of Morals and Legislation' (London
1823, 2 vols.) treats of the principal objects of
government in a profound and comprehensive
manner. Zanobelli has translated Bentham's
'Theory of Legal Evidence' into Italian
(Bergamo 1824, 2 vols.). Among the earlier
works of Bentham was his 'Defense of Usury.'
showing the Impolicy of the Present Legal Re-
straints on the Terms of Pecuniary Bargains'
(1787). At his death Mr. Bentham bequeathed
his body to be dissected for the benefit of sci-
ence. A complete edition of his works, with a
biography by Bowring, was published in London
(11 vols. 1843). He was a man of primitive
manners, unblemished character, and undoubted
earnestnees in the cause of the people at large.
He is considered the father of the Utilitarians,
or those moral political economists who view
everything as it is aiifected by the principle of
"the greatest happiness of the greatest number."

Benthos, the constantly or periodically
submerged vegetation attached to the bottoms of
seas and, to some extent, of lakes, distinguished
from the floating vegetation. (See Plank-
ton.) Commencing at the high-tide line and
progressing toward the low-tide line the vegeta-
tion gradually becomes more abundant and lux-
uriant, but reaches its maximum below the low-
tide mark in areas wholly submerged, in which
;3t medium d^ths individual development is

BENTINCK — BENTLEY

greater than at greater depths. The benthos of
the frigid zones are the most remarkable of the
world. The leading plants of such formations
are green, red, and brown algaj, eel-grass, and
rockweed.

Ben'tinck, Lord William Charles Caven-
dish, English soldier and statesman (second
son of the third Duke of Portland) : b. 14 Sept.
1774; d. Paris, 17 June 1839. He entered the
army at an early age, and served in the Duke of
York's campaign in Flanders, and also in Italy
with the Russian army under Suwaroff,
1799-1801. In 1803 he proceeded to India as
governor of Madras, returned thence in 1805,
and subsequently went to Spain, where he com-
manded a brigade under Sir John Moore at
Corunna. In 1810 he visited Sicily as British
plenipotentiary, and commander-in-chief of the
English troops. The most noticeable feature of
this expedition is his bestowment on the Sicili-
ans of a constitution, which, however, was over-
turned on the restoration of the Bourbons. He
conducted in 1813 the expedition from Sicily to
Catalonia, and in 1814 took possession of Genoa
on the revolt of the inhabitants from French
rule. The same year he returned to England,
and subsequently entered Parliament as member
for Nottingham. In 1827, under Mr. Canning's
administration, he was sent to India as governor-
general, and held that office till 1835, when he
returned to England. Among the principal
events of his administration are the abolition of
the practice of suttee, the repeal of the restric-
tions which prohibited all Europeans, except
servants of the company, from settling in India,
and the recognition of the liberty of the press.
In 1836 he again entered Parliament as mem-
ber for the city of Glasgow, but was now unable
from ill health to take any active share in politi-
cal matters.

Bentinck, Lord William George Frederick
Cavendish, generally known as Lord George
Bentinck, English statesman (son of William
Henry Cavendish, fourth Duke of Portland) ; b.
27 Feb. 1802; d. 21 Sept. 1848. He entered
the army, but quitted it early to become private
secretary to Mr. Canning, who had married his
mother's sister. In 1827 he entered Parliament
as member for King's Lynn, and continued to
represent that borough for the rest of his life.
Up to 1846 he was a warm adherent of Sir Rob-
ert Peel and his measures ; but on the latter
announcing himself in that year a convert to
free-trade principles, Lord George abandoned his
old ally and came forward as the zealous and
indefatigable leader of the Protectionists in the
House of Commons. With the assistance of
Disraeli he maintained this position for two
years, and though often illogical, and sometimes
unscrupulous in his statements, he nevertheless
commanded much attention by the vigor and
earnestness of his oratory and deportment.

Bentivoglio, Cornelio, ben-te-vol'yo. cor-
nal'yo, Italian ecclesiastic and poet : b. Ferrara,
1668: d. Rome, 1732. He early distinguished
himself by his progress in the fine arts, litera-
ture, philosophy, theology, and jurisprudence,
and was a patron of the literary institutions at
Ferrara. Pope Clement XI. made him his
domestic prelate and secretary to the apostolic
chamber, and sent him, in 1712, as nuncioto
Paris, where, during the last years of the reign
of Louis XIV., he acted an important part in

the affair of the bull Unigenitus. The Duke of
Orleans, regent after the death of Louis, was
not favorably disposed toward him ; the Pope
therefore transferred him to Ferrara, and in
1719 bestowed on him the hat of a cardinal,
and employed him at first in Rome, near his own
person, then as legate a latere in Romagna, etc.
Poetry had occupied his leisure hours. Sonnets
composed by him may be found in Gobbi's Col-
lection, Vol. III., and in other collections of his
time. Under the name of Selvaggio Porpora
he translated the *Thebais of Statius^ into
Italian.

Bentivoglio, Guy or Guido, ge'do, Italian
historian and ecclesiastic: b. Ferrara, 1579; d.
Rome, 1644. He studied at Padua with great
reputation, and afterward, fixing his residence
at Rome, acquired general esteem by his pru-
dence and integrity. He was an able politician,
and his historical memoirs are valuable, especi-
ally his ^History of the Civil Wars in Flanders,'
written in Italian, and first published at Cologne
(1630), a translation of which, by Henry, Earl
of Monmouth, appeared in 1654 (London, folio).
His own ^Memoirs' and a collection of letters are
reckoned among the best specimens of epistolary
writing in the Italian language (an edition of
which was published at Cambridge in 1727).

Bentley, Charles Eugene, American clergy-
man: b. Warner's, N. Y., 30 April 1841. He
was educated at Monroe Institute and Oneida
Seminary. In 1866 he removed to Iowa and in
1878 to Butier County, Neb., where he resided
until 1890. He was ordained a Baptist clergy-
man in 1880 and was in charge of a church at
Surprise, Neb. In 1884, he was chairman of the
Nebraska Prohibition Convention, and became
the unsuccessful candidate for congress, gover-
nor, and United States Senator during the next
eight years. When the Prohibition party divided
in 1896, he became presidential candidate of the
faction known as the Liberty Party (q.v.).

Bentley, Gideon, American soldier: b.
1751 ; d. Constantia, Oswego County, N. Y., Jan-
uary 1858. He was remarkable for his longev-
ity (107 years), and for the excellent though
humble services which he rendered as a private
soldier in the Revolutionary War,

Bentley, John Francis, distinguished Eng-
lish architect: b. Doncaster, England, 1839;
d. Clapham, London, 2 March 1902. Upon the
rebuilding of the great parish church in Don-
caster, about 1856, Bentley was placed in the
office of the clerk of the works, his architectural
education practically beginning at this time. In
1862 he began practice as an architect on his
ow-n account, and his patrons froni that date
onward were mainly Roman Catholics. Among
his lesser works are the Roman Catholic church
and convent at Bocking, Essex; and the new
Roman Catholic cathedral in Brooklyn, N. Y. ;
but the building with which his name will be in-
separably associated is the Roman Catholic cathe-
dral at Westminster, a structure of vast propor-
tions with a nave wider than that of any church
in England. Bentley left nothing in the way of
design to subordinates, but designed and directed
everything from the foundation to the minutest
decorative feature. Bentley's death took place
just as the Royal Institute of British Architects
had voted to award him the royal gold medal.

BENTLEY — BENTON

Bentley, Richard, English divine, classical
scholar, and polemicist: b. near Wakefield,
Yorkshire, 1662; d. Cambridge, 14 July 1742.
His father is said to have been a blacksmith.
To his mother, a woman of strong natural abili-
ties, he was indebted for the rudiments of his
education, and in 1776 he entered Saint John's
College, Cambridge. In 1682 he left the uniyer-
sit}^ and became usher of a school at Spalding;
a year later he took the position of tutor to the
son of Dr. Stillingfleet, dean of St. Paul's.
He accompanied his pupil to Oxford, where he
availed himself of the literary treasures of the
Bodleian Library in the prosecution of his
studies. In 1684 he took the degree of A.M. at
Cambridge, and in 1689 obtained the same honor
at the sister university. His first published
work was a Latin epistle to Dr. John Mill on
an edition of the *^ Chronicle of John Malela,^
which appeared in 1691. It displayed 'so much
profound learning and critical acumen as to ex-
cite the sanguine anticipations of classical
scholars from the future labors of the author.
Dr. Stillingfleet, having been raised to the bish-
opric of Worcester, made Bentley his chaplain,
and in 1692 collated him to a prebend in his
cathedral. He was chosen the first preacher of
the lecture instituted by the celebrated Robert
Boyle for the defense of Christianity. The dis-
courses against atheism which he delivered on
this occasion were published in 1694; they have
since been often reprinted, and translated into
several foreign languages.

In 1693 he was appointed keeper of the Royal
Library at Saint James' — a circumstance which
incidentally led to his famous controversy with
the Hon. Charles Boyle, afterward Earl of Or-
rery, relative to the genuineness of the * Greek
Epistles of Phalaris.^ In this dispute Bentley
was victorious, though opposed by the greatest
wits and critics of the age, including Pope,
Swift, Garth, Atterbury, Aldrich, Dodwell. and
Conyers Middleton, who advocated the opinion
of Boyle with an extraordinary degree of
warmth and illiberality. In 1699 Bentley, who
had three years before been created D.D., pub-
lished his 'Dissertation on the Epistles of Pha-
laris,^ in which he proved that they were not
the compositions of the tyrant of Agrigentum,
who lived more than five centuries before the
Christian era, but were written by some sophist
under the borrowed name of Phalaris, in the
declining age of Greek literature.

Soon after this publication Dr. Bentley was
presented by the Crown to the mastership of
Trinity College, Cambridge, worth nearly £1,000
a year. He now resigned the prebend of Wor-
cester, and in 1701 was collated to the arch-
deaconry of Ely. His conduct as head of the
college gave rise to accusations of various of-
fenses, including embezzlement of college
money. The contest, lasting more than 20
years, was decided against him, a sentence, de-
priving him of his mastership, being passed ; but
Bentley's superior skill and mastery of legal
forms constantly baffled all attempts to oust
him. In 171 1 he published a quarto edition of
Horace at Cambridge, which was reprinted at
Amsterdam; and in 1713 appeared his remarks
on < Collins' Discourse on Free-Thinking,^ un-
der the form of a 'Letter to F. H. (Francis
Hare), D.D., by Phileleutherus Lipsiensis.^ He
was appointed regius professor of divinity in
1716, and in the same year issued proposals for

a new edition of t'.ie Greek Testament, an under-
taking for which he was admirably qualified, but
which he was prevented from executing in conse-
quence of the animadversions of his determined
adversai-y, Middleton. In 1726 he published an
edition of Terence and Phaedrus ; and his notes on
the comedies of the former involved him in a dis-
pute with Bishop Hare on the metres of Terence.
The last work of Dr. Bentley was an edition of
Milton's 'Paradise Lost,^ with conjectural emen-
dations, which appeared in 1732, but this proved
a failure. He died at the master's lodge at Trin-
ity, and was interred in the college chapel. The
German scholar, J. A. Wolf, wrote an excellent
biography of Bentley ; and an English biography
of him was written by Monk (London, 2 vols.
1833). See also Prof. Jebb's monograph in the
'English Men of Letters Series' (1882).

Bentley, "William, American clergyman :b.
Boston, 1758; d. 29 Dec. 1819. He graduated at
Harvard College in 1777, and was ordained pastor
of a church in Salem in 1783. He was distin-
guished for his antiquarian learning, and col-
lected a valuable and curious library and cabinet,
which he bequeathed to the college at Meadville,
Pa., and to the Antiquarian Society at Worcester.
In theology he was regarded as a Unitarian, and
he left several published sermons and discourses.

Benton, Angelo Ames, American clergy-
man : b. Canea, Crete, 1837. He graduated at
Trinity College, Hartford, Conn., 1856, and at the
General Theological Seminary, New York city.
He was ordained in the Episcopal ministry in
i860. Pie was professor of Latin and Greek in
Delaware College, Newark, Del., 1883-7, and
professor of dogmatic theology in the University
of the South, 1887-94. His chief publication has
been 'The Church Cyclopsedia : A Dictionary of
Church Doctrine* (Phila. 1884).

Benton, Dwight, an American artist, writer
and botanist : b. Norwich, N. Y., 1834 ; d. Rome,
8 May 1903. After close of the Civil War, in
which he fought on the Northern side, he estab-
lished himself in Cincinnati as a landscape
painter. From there he went to Rome where he
lived 25 years almost uninterruptedly. In 1895
Hawaii, before its annexation, appointed him its
Consul-General to Italy. His most famous can-
vases are 'Tombs of Keats and Shelly,' 'Sun-
set in the Roman Campagna,' and 'A Gloomy
Day' (giornata de Tristezza), owned by the
King of Italy. His work, 'Flora of the Roman
Campagna and Palatine' is his most important
contribution to literature.

Benton, James Gilchrist, American soldier
and inventor: b. Lebanon, N. H.. 15 Sept. 1820;
d. Springfield, Mass., 23 Aug. 1881. He grad-
uated at West Point in 1842, and served in the
ordnance department throughout his life. He
was in command of the Washington Arsenal and
principal assistant to the chief of ordnance dur-
ing the Civil War, at the close of which he was
transferred to the Springfield (Mass.) Arsenal.
For signal bravery in rescuing exposed ammuni-
tion from fire, he was twice brevetted. The
various models of the Springfield rifle, known as
the models of 1866, 1868, 1873, and 1879, were
made under his direction. He devoted himself
especially to the improvement of firearms, and
acquired distinction for his valuable inventions
in this and other lines of his work. He refused
to patent any of them, as he held that since the

THOMAS HART UEXTuX.

BENTON — BENTON HARBOR

government had educated him it had every
right to benefit from his time and talents. He
published ^Course of Instruction in Ordnance
and Gunnery for the United States Military
Academy^ (1861; 4th ed. 1875).

Benton, Thomas Hart, American states-
man: b. Orange County, N. C, 14 March 1782;
d. 10 April 1858. He was the greatest of that
most valuable and scarcely appreciated class, the
Border State leaders, whose sympathies were
with the South, and who had no feeling against
slavery, yet at the cost of their influence and
much personal peril opposed the political aggres-
sions of slavery and the doctrines of disunion.
Early orphaned, the eldest of a large family,
after part of a course in the University of Penn-
sylvania he went with his mother to Tennessee
as a pioneer, settling at the present Benton-
town. A few years later he took up the study
of law, and was admitted to the bar in 181 1
under the patronage of his friend Andrew
Jackson, then a judge of the Supreme Court.
Elected to the legislature, he pushed through a
judiciary reform bill, and one to give slaves the
right of jury trial. In the War of 1812 he was
aide-de-camp to Jackson, raised a volunteer regi-
ment, was made lieutenant-colonel in the regu-
lar army, but saw no active service ; meanwhile,
4 Sept. 1813, a misunderstanding over a duel of
his brother's led to an affray in which the
brother was stabbed, Jackson shot, and Thomas
H. thrown downstairs, and the former friends
were at bitter feud for many years. In 1815 he
removed to St. Louis, practised law, and estab-
lished a newspaper, which involved him in duels
(one of which cost his opponent's life, to Ben-
ton's lasting regret); but which he used so vig-
orously to advocate Missouri's admission to the
Union as a slave State that she elected him one
of her senators on her entrance in 1820, and re-
elected him every term for 30 years. During
this time he stood as one of the foremost public
men of his generation — a speaker of great abil-
ity and mastery of facts, a hard-headed logician
and tremendous debater, of astonishing memory,
unwearying industr3^ an iron will and physique,
and a power of wit, sarcasm, and denunciation
that made most men shrink from a contest with
him. Being the spokesman of the Western
Democrats, his policy and political feelings were
coincident with Jackson's, their personal quarrel
was at last arranged, and Benton became Jack-
son's first lieutenant and admiring champion.
In every regard he supported Western interests:
he secured the passage of laws for pre-emption,
donation, and graded prices of lands, for throw-
ing open the government mineral and saline
lands to occupancy, and for repeal of the salt
tax ; advocated transcontinental exploration and
post-roads, a Pacific railroad, occupation of the
mouth of the Columbia, trade with New Mex-
ico, military stations through the Southwest,
amicable relations with Indian tribes, and every-
thing conducive to opening up the West and
making it prosperous. This made him invin-
cible there till the slavery question drove him
into opposition. He supported Jackson in his
refusal to re-charter the United States Bank;
and made a series of speeches urging the adop-
tion of a metallic currency only, \yhich were
widely circulated, gained him the nickname of
«01d Bullion,* and had much to do with the
creation of the sub-treasury scheme. When
Jackson removed the secretary of the treasury,

Duane, for refusing to check out the deposits
in the bank, the Senate adopted a resolution
censuring him for it ; Benton set about having
the resolution expunged from the records, and
after a protracted struggle succeeded, despite
the logical absurdity of his motion, in accom-
plishing his purpose by a .series of fervid pane-
gyrics on Jackson. In the Nullification contest,
Benton was Calhoun's chief opponent, not only
as Jackson's supporter, but by conviction ; and
the two men of might — the chiefs of the State-
Rights and Nationalist wings of the Democ-
racy — remained deadly foes until Calhoun's
death. In the Oregon boundary dispute Benton
opposed the "fifty- four forty or fight" war-cry;
it was dropped, but the Polk administration was
glad of an excuse to drop it in order to push
the Mexican war, and had no notion of dimin-
ishing the area of slavery to enlarge that of
freedom. He favored the vigorous prosecution
of the war, and came near being made com-
mander-in-chief, from his close acquaintance
with the territory. But from this time on, the
slavery problem swallowed up every other.
Benton fought Calhoun's State-Rights resolu-
tions in retort to the Wihnot Proviso fq.v.), and
they never came to a vote ; but Calhoun sent
them to various State legislatures to adopt and
utilize for instructing their senators, and they
were pushed through the Missouri legislature
without Benton's knowledge. He denounced
them as misrepresenting the people, canvassed
his State for re-election in a long-famous series
of powerful and caustic speeches, and carried
his party, but was defeated by a fusion of Whigs
and anti-Benton Democrats, and his senatorial
service ended with 1850. He opposed the Clay
compromise resolutions of that year, however
(see Compromise of 1850), with sarcasm still
quoted. In 1852 he canvassed Missouri for elec-
tion to the lower House, and was triumphantly
returned. He supported Pierce for election, and
in Congress till the Kansas-Nebraska bill came
up. Against that he made one of his greatest
speeches, and the administration thereupon
ousted all his Missouri supporters, and he was
defeated for re-election by the now dominant
ultra-Southern sentiment in the Democratic
party. The time of mediators and middle
courses had gone by. He now set about writing
his remarkable 'Thirty Years' View^ (1854-6),
a most valuable account of his senatorial ex-
periences and the secret political history of the
years 1820-50. In 1856 he ran for governor,
but a third ticket in the field defeated him.
In the campaign of 1856 he supported Buchanan
against his own son-in-law, Fremont, as repre-
senting the party of union ; but materially
changed his mind before his death. In these
last two years, though in extreme old age, he
carried through the immense and useful labor of
compiling an abridgment of the debates in Con-
gress, from the foundation of the government
to 1850, published later in 15 volumes. He also
published an * Examination of the Dred Scot
Case^ (1857)-

Benton Harbor, Mich., a city in Berrien
County, situated on the St. Joseph's River, one
and a half miles from Lake Michigan; on the
Cleveland, C. & C, and Pere Marquette R.R.'s.
It is also connected with the lake by a ship canal
and thus by steamboat lines with Chicago and
Milwaukee. It has a large trade in lumber,
grain, and fruits, especially the latter, and has

BENTONVILLE — BENZENE

also considerable manufacturing interests, in-
cluding manufactories of fruit packages, furni-
ture, machinery, flour, vinegar, and canned fruit.
Pop. (1900) 6,562.

Bentonville, Ark., a town and county-seat
of Benton County, situated northwest of Little
Rock; on the Arkansas & O. R.R. It is the
seat of Bentonville College, and a Baptist acad-
•emy; is the centre of a fruit-growing region,
has some trade in fruit, tobacco, and grain. It
has a large fruit-evaporating plant. Pop (1900)
1.843.

Bentonsville, N. C, a village in Johnston
County, noted as the place of a stubborn battle
during the Civil War. Here, during his march
from Savannah through the Carolinas, Sherman,
at the head of 65,000 National troops, encoun-
tered 24,000 Confederates under Johnston. A
battle took place 18 March 1865, Johnston hav-
ing come up in great haste from Smithfield, in-
tending to surprise Sherman. The latter, how-
ever, was ready for him, and Johnston was
thrown on the defensive near Mill Creek.
Johnston was partially defeated and retreated
to Smithfield.

Bentzel-Sternau, bent'zel-star'now, Count
Karl Christian Ernst von, German novelist:
b. Mentz, 9 April 1767; d. Mariahalden, Switz-
erland, 13 Aug. 1843. He is esteemed as a hu-
morist after the manner of Jean Paul ; and his
satirical romances, ^The Golden Calf^ (1802-3) ;
<The Stone Guest^ (1808); <01d Adam> (1819-
20) ; "^The Master of the Chair,' together form
a series.

Bentzon, Th., the pseudonym of Marie
Theresa Blanc (q.v.).

Benue, ben'we, or Binue, a river of west
Africa, the chief tributary of the Niger. It
rises in the Bub'n Jidda hills on the east of
Adamawa, flows for a short distance northwest
then west to Bassama, after which its course
is generally southwest to its junction with the
Niger at Lokoja. Its length is about 850 miles.
The source of the Benue was long vuiknown.
Dr. Barth, who came upon the river in 1851,
while traveling in Adamawa, near the confluence
of the Faro, which joins it on its left bank about
lat. 12° 30' E., was told that it came from the
southeast, a distance of nine days' journey. In
consequence of this discovery an expedition was
fitted out by the British government for the pur-
pose of exploring the Niger from its mouth up-
ward. The exploration was made in a small
steamer called the Pleiad, and was under the
command of Dr. William Balfour Baikie. After
reaching the point of confluence of the Benue
with the Niger, about lat. 7° 40' N., Dr. Baikie
followed the former eastward for a direct dis-
tance of about 370 miles. The point thus
reached was about lat. 9° 25' N. ; Ion. 11° 30'
E. There was sufficient depth of water, though'
the river was only rising, to allow a still fur-
ther exploration. The natives, however, had be-
gun to display their hostility in such a manner
as made it necessary to return. The result was
to show that a large, fertile, and populous tract
of a region of Africa previously in a great mea-
sure unknown was accessible by means of a nav-
igable river. A second expedition, also under
Dr. Baikie, explored the same river in 1857. In
1879 a small steamer belonging to the Church
Missionary Society went up the river 140 miles,
and its source was discovered by Flegel in 1883.

Benvolio, ben-v6'li-o, in Shakespeare's
< Romeo and Juliet,' a friend of Romeo and
nephevv of Montague.

Benwood, W. Va., a town in Marshall
County ; on the Baltimore & O. R.R. It is the
centre of a large iron-mining region and has sev
eral rolling mills and blast furnaces. Pop.
(1900) 4,511.

Benzal'dehyde, or Benzoic Al'dehyde, a

colorless, volatile oil, familiarly known as "oil
of bitter almonds.*' Benzaldehyde does not oc-
cur in the bitter almond in nature, but is formed,
when the kernels are crushed and allowed to
stand in water, by the decomposition of a glu-
coside known as "amygdalin." It has the chem-
ical formula CsHs-CO.H, boils at 354° F., and
has a specific gravity of about 1.05, and a re-
fractive index of 1.56. Benzaldehyde is pre-
pared, artificially, by boiling benzyl chlorid with
nitrate of lead, copper, or sodium, and subse-
quent treatment with sodium acid sulphite, with
which the benzaldehyde forms a crystalline com-
pound that may be easily separated from the
mother liquor by filtration or otherwise.

Ben'zene, an aromatic hydrocarbon dis-
covered by Faraday in 1825, and called, by him,
"bicarburet of hydrogen." It has the chemical
formula CeHe, and is the fundamental substance
from which the extensive series of "aromatic
compounds" is obtained. In 1849, C. B. Mans-
field proved its existence in coal tar, and that
substance now constitutes its most important
commercial source. In the manufacture of ben-
zene, coal tar is distilled at a temperature not
exceeding 300° F., and the distillate is treated
with caustic soda to remove phenols, and sub-
sequently with sulphuric acid to remove basic
substances. It is tlien re-distilled, the tempera-
ture (at least in the upper part of the still)
being kept as low as 212° F., in order to prevent
toluene from passing over. In order to effect
a still further purification, the benzene so ob-
tained may be cooled by a freezing mixture of
ice and salt. The true benzene solidifies when
thus treated, and the fluid impurities that it
contains may be expelled by pressure, or by the
aid of a centrifugal drier. Pure benzene is a
colorless liquid, strongly refractive, boiling at
about 176° F., and freezing at 43° F. It does
not mix with water, but mixes readily with al-
cohol, acetone, glacial acetic acid, chloroform,
and ether. It crystallizes in the trimetric sys-
tem when solidified by cold, and dissolves iodine,
phosphorus, sulphur, oils, resins, fats, and alko-
loids. It expands by about 0.00075 of its own
bulk, per degree increase in its temperature, on
the Fahrenheit scale. Its specific gravity is
about 0.88, and its specific heat is 0.40. For the
chemical constitution of benzene, see Aromatic
Compounds.

Benzene forms two general classes of com-
pounds, known respectively as "addition" and
"substitution" products. In forming an "addi-
tion" compound, benzene merely takes up atoms
or molecules of some other substance, without
parting with any of its own atoms ; the new sub-
stance being simply "added" to the benzene.
Benzene hexabromid, CeHeBre, is a good ex-
ample of a benzene addition compound. It is
formed by dropping bromine into boiling ben-
zene, in direct sunlight ; the hexabromid crystal-
lizing out upon cooling. The "substitution"
compounds of benzene are far more numerous

BENZIDINE

and important than the ''addition'^ compounds,
however. They are formed by replacing one or
more of the typical hydrogen atoms in the ben-
zene by an equal number of other atoms or
monad radicals. The general theory of ben-
zene substitutions is given under Aromatic
Compounds ; but a few of the more important
examples of such substitution products may be
given here. The radical GHd (which is not
capable of independent existence) is called
^phenyl,* and is often represented by the symbol
Ph. The mono-substitution compounds of ben-
zene, in which one atom of the hydrogen in the
original benzene has been replaced by a radical
(or by an atom different from hydrogen), may
then be regarded as addition compounds of the
radical phenyl. Thus "monochlorbenzene,^'
CcHs.Cl, may also be regarded as chlorid of
phenyl, and its formula may be written PhCl.
Benzene itself may even be regarded as hydrid
of phenyl, its formula being written C0H5.H, or
PhH. Carbolic acid (or "phenoP^) is hydrate
of phenyl, its formula being PhOH, the radical
OH being here substituted for one atom of the
hydrogen in the original benzene. Nitrobenzene,
PhNO;, is formed from benzene (PhH) by the
action of nitric acid, in accordance with the
equation

PhH + HNO3 = PhN02 + U,0.
It is used in the arts for the manufacture of
aniline (q.v.). Aniline itself is an amide of
phenyl, obtained by replacing an atom of H in
ammonia (NH3) by phenyl, or by replacing an
atom of hydrogen in benzene by the radical
NH2. The formula of aniline may be written
PhNHs, and aniline may be called ^'amido-
benzene,^^ or ^'phenylamine.* (See Amine and
Amide.) Methyl-benzene, C0H5.CH3, in which
one of the original hydrogen atoms of the ben-
zene is replaced by the radical CH3 (^'methyl")
is also an important benzene substitution com-
pound, and is known to chemists as toluene
(q.v.). That portion of the original benzene
which remains intact, after a substitution, is
called the ^'benzene residue.'^ In a mono-substi-
tution compound of benzene, further substitu-
tions may be made, by replacing one or more
of the hydrogen atoms in the "benzene residue*^
by monovalent radicals, and secondary, tertiary,
and higher substitution compounds may be thus
formed. The classification of the secondary sub-
stitution compounds is given under Aromatic
Compounds. For the classification of higher
compounds, special treatises on organic chem-
istry must be consulted. It may be mentioned,
however, that if A, B, C and D are monad radi-
cals, there are no less than 30 distinct sub-
stances possible, which shall all have the same
general formula CeHo.ABCD. This fact illus-
trates the exceeding complexity of the general
theory of benzene substitution compounds. The
full theory is even more complex than this ex-
ample indicates, however, for it often happens
that the hydrogen in a substituted radical can
be replaced by another radical, as well as the
hydrogen of the "benzene residue." Thus in
methylbenzene (or toluene), CflH.-^.CH3, the radi-
cal OH may be substituted for one of the hydro-
gen atoms. If the hydrogen so displaced occurs
in the "benzene residue," the resulting com-
pound will be "cresol,» C6H4(OH) .CH,, a sub-
stance which (since it is a di-substitution com-
pound) can exist in three isomeric forms. If,
on the other hand, the OH takes the place of

one of the hydrogen atoms of the "methyl" radi-
cal, the resulting compound will be "benzyl al-
cohol," C6H5.CH.(OH).

When a primary amine of the fatty series is
acted upon by nitrous acid (HNO2), the NH2
group of the amine is replaced by (DH, with the
formation of an alcohol ; but when nitrous acid
acts upon aromatic amines, the products are
quite different, and are known as "diazc-
compounds." Thus when nitrous acid acts upon
aniline nitrate, a compound having the formula
CsHo.No.NOs, and known as "diazobenzene
nitrate," is formed. This is regarded by chem-
ists as a compound of the hypothetical monov-
alent radical C0H5-N = N-. When the free af-
finity of this radical is saturated by the addition
of phenyl (CeHs), the resulting compound,
CsHs.Ns.CoHs, is known as "azobenzene," or as
"benzene-azo-benzene." Azobenzene maj-- be
prepared by heating nitrobenzene with a solution
of SnCU in aqueous caustic soda. It is de-
posited from a solution in benzene in the form
of bright red trimetric plates, and owes its im-
portance largely to the fact that aniline yellow,
CoH5.N2.CbH4(NH2), is one of its derivatives.

Benzene is an exceedingly inflammable sub-
stance, burning with a luminous flame and the
generation of a great amount of heat. It is
volatile, and its vapor forms a dangerou.'^ly ex-
plosive mixture with air, when present in any
considerable quantity. Mansfield, mentioned
above as having first demonstrated its existence
in coal tar, lost his life, on 25 Feb. 1855, while
experimenting with a considerable quantity of
benzene, through the mass accidentally taking
fire. Benzene may be formed synthetically by
heating acetylene gas (C2H2) to dull redness in
a glass tube. Polymerization occurs, and, among
numerous other substances, benzene is formed in
accordance with the equation sCi^i^^CeHn.
In works on chemistry, benzene is often called
"benzol." (Compare Benzine.)

This product is so widely employed in the
industry of the aniline dyes that chronic poison-
ing is by no means uncommon. It is usually
breathed as vapor in the vat rooms, and causes,
after some exposure, dizziness in the head, ring-
ing in the ears, nausea and vomiting, coughing,
and sleepiness, which latter may deepen to uncon-
sciousness, somewhat resembling the narcosis
caused by breathing chloroform. In some in-
stances there are blood changes, with cyanosis
and death. Treatment by fresh air, oxygen, free
diuresis, catharsis and diaphoresis, and if the
blood changes are marked, infusion of physiolog-
ical salt solution may be necessary.

Ben'zidine, an important substance be-
longing to the benzene (or aromatic) series, and
used in the arts for the manufacture of Congo
red, chrysamin, and other so-called "coal-tar
colors." The coloring matters derived from
benzidine have the unusual and valuable property
of dyeing cotton without the use of a mordant
to fix them upon the fibre. Benzidine has the
formula H2N.C0H4.C0H4.NH2, and is prepared,
commercially, by heating nitrobenzene (see
Benzene) with caustic soda and zinc dust, and
subsequent treatment with hot dilute hydro-
chloric acid. Pure benzidine crystallizes in sil-
very scales which melt at 252° F., and boil at a
temperature probably above 700° F. It is easily
soluble in alcohol and ether; it also dissolves
readily in hot water, but is almost insoluble in
cold water.

BENZINE — BENZYL

Ben'zine, the commercial name for a mix-
ture of the lighter and more volatile hydrocar-
bons that pass off in the earlier stages of the
distillation of crude petroleum. It is essentially
different from benzene (q.v.), the latter being
a definite chemical substance, belonging in the
group of Aromatic Compounds (q.v.) ; while
"benzine* is a more or less indefinite mixture of
hydrocarbons that chiefly belong to the paraffin
series. Benzine differs but little from naphtha
and gasolene, such slight differences as exist
being due to variations in the proportions in
which the constituent hydrocarbons are present.
Benzine is a colorless, mobile liquid, very vola-
tile and inflammable. It is valuable as a sol-
vent for fats, oils, and resins, and is much used
about the household as a cleansing agent. Its
vapor, when mixed with air, is highly explosive,
and serious accidents are common, as the re-
sult of using it in the vicinity of lighted lamps
or tobacco pipes, or near stoves in which fires
are burning. In printing ofifices it is used for
cleaning type, and for removing ink from press
rolls. It is also used in large quantities for en-
riching illuminating gas. Benzine is much
lighter than water, and will not mix with it.
It boils at from i6o° to 190° F.

Poisoning by benzine is rare. The vapor has
been used, combined with chloroform and ether,
for purposes of narcosis, but it is questionable
if it will ever be very popular. Instances of
sudden death following the prolonged breathing
of benzine vapor have been reported.

Benzo'ic Acid, an organic acid, belonging
in the aromatic series, and having the formula
CeHs.COOH. It occurs in benzoin gum, and
in certain other resins and balsams. It may be
obtained also from the hippuric acid that occurs
in the urine of the horse and other herbivorous
animals, by boiling that acid with concentrated
hydrochloric acid. Benzoic acid is used as a
mordant in calico printing, and in the manu-
facture of aniline blue. It is also used in medi-
cine, and as a preservative agent for anatomical
specimens. The benzoic acid that is used for
medical purposes is obtained by the direct dis-
tillation of benzoin gum over a sand bath, at a
temperature of about 340° F. When so pre-
pared, the acid has a pleasant, vanilla-like odor,
which is imparted to it by a trace of an aromatic
oil that comes over with it from the gum. For
most of the purposes for which it is used in the
arts, benzoic acid is formed by oxidizing benzyl
chlorid with dilute nitric acid.

Benzoic acid dissolves in hot water, but crys-
tallizes out,_ upon cooling, in needles or pearly
prisms. It is soluble in ether, alcohol, and ben-
zene. It melts at 250° R, boils at 480° F., and
may be sublimed at intermediate temperatures.
Its salts are called '^benzoates.''

In medicine benzoic acid and its salts, the
benzoates (sodium, ammonium, lithi-um), are
widely employed for diseases of the bladder and
of the mucous membranes of the lungs. They
are also used as intestinal germicides. Benzoic
acid has marked bactericidal properties, and may
be used for sterilizing purposes. Taken into the
intestines it prevents excessive bacterial decom-
position ;' absorbed into the blood it is partly
broken up, and in the kidneys is eliminated in
part as hippuric acid, rendering the urine acid.
It is therefore useful in alkaline fermentations
of the urine, particularly in cystitis, pyelitis, etc.
Benzoic acid is partly eliminated by the lungs,

here acting to increase the amount of mucus,
it is therefore used to loosen the mucus in
tight coughs. As a parasiticide, benzoic acid is
very valuable in scabies. Benzoates are prac-
tically useless in gout.

Benzo'ic Al'dehyde, See Benzaldehyde.

Ben'zoin, -zo-in, an aromatic compound,
soluble in hot alcohol, and crystallizing in color-
less, six-sided prisms having the formula
C0H5 . CH ( OH ) . CO . CeHs. Benzoin is best pre-
pared by acting upon pure benzaldehyde with a
hot alcoholic solution of cyanide of potassium.
Upon cooling, the benzoin separates and may be
removed by filtration. The action of the cyanide
is not known, because the chemical change in-
volved in the foregoing process of manufacture
appears to consist merely in the uniting of two
molecules of benzaldehyde to form a single
molecule of benzoin.

Ben'zoin Gum, -zo-in, or Gum Benjamin,

a reddish brown resin that exudes from the tree
Styrax benzoin, which grows in Sumatra, Java,
and other parts of the East. It is a mix-
ture of various resinous substances, together
with free benzoic acid. Cinnamic acid is
also present in the free state in many
cases, but it is absent from the Siamese
gum. Benzoin gum has a pleasant odor when
burned, and for this reason has been much used
for incense, and in making pastilles. It has
antiseptic properties, and preparations of it are
used as a dressing for wounds, and in the manu-
facture of court-plaster. Benzoin is also ad-
ministered internally, especially in asthma and
other pulmonary aft'ections, and chronic catarrh.
It is readily soluble in alcohol, and when the
tincture so formed is dropped into water, it
forms a white, milky fluid, which is used in
France as a cosmetic, under the name ^^lait vir-
ginal?^ The gum is obtained from the styrax-
tree by making incisions in the bark, through
which the resin oozes. It is allowed to harden
by exposure to the air before removal. The
best gum is obtained during the first three years
of the tree's life, though a good quality may be
had for seven or eight years subsequently. The
Siamese gum is esteemed more highly than that
from Sumatra.

Benzol. See Benzene.

Benzoni, Girolamo, ben-zo'ne, je-ro-la'm5,
Italian traveler: b. Milan, 1519; d. after 1566.
He went to Spanish-America in 1542, visited the
principal places then known, and frequently
joined the Spaniards in raids on Indian settle-
ments; and after returning to Italy (1556) pub-
lished a narrative of his adventures, * History of
the New World^ (Venice 1565).

Ben'zoyl, -zo-il, in chemistry, the monova-
lent radical C0H5.CO. Benzoyl cannot exist in
the free state, but it occurs in the combined
state in many organic substances. Benzalde-
hyde (or oil of bitter almonds), CsHs-COH,
may be regarded as its hydrid, and benzoic acid,
CeHs.COOH, as its hydrate.

Ben'zyl, the monovalent organic radical
CcHj.CHi, which does not exist in the free
state, but which has numerous important com-
pounds. Toluene (q.v.) is its hydrid. Ben-
zylamine, CeH5.CH2NH2, is derived by substi-
tuting benzyl for one of the hydrogen atoms
in ammonia, by heating benzyl chlorid with
alcoholic ammonia. Benzyl chlorid, which is

BEOTHUK — BERANGER

used as a source of ^^oil of bitter almonds^^
(**benzaldehyde'0 and of benzoic acid, has the
formula CeHo.CHsCl, and is obtained by pass-
ing chlorine into cold toluene, in direct sun-
light. Benzyl alcohol, CeHs-CH^C OH), is the
hydrate of benzyl, and is obtained by the action
of an alcoholic solution of potash upon benzal-
dehyde.

Beothuk, ba'6-thuk, a linguistic stock of
North American Indians, habitants of the region
of the Exploits River in northern Newfound-
land, and believed to have been limited to a
single tribe, the last known survivor of which
died in 1829. The Beothuks painted their bod-
ies and their property with red ochre, and from
this circumstance their stock and tribal name
was derived. They were also known as the
Goodnight Indians, from the incorrect transla-
tion of a Micmac word that sounded like Beo-
thuk. It is not known whether the Beothuks
became extinct by reason of wars and famine or
by absorption among other tribes.

Beowulf, ba'6-wulf, an Anglo-Saxon epic,
the only manuscript of which belongs to the
8th or 9th century, and is in the Cottonian
Library (British Museum). From internal
evidence it is concluded that the poem in its
essentials existed prior to the Anglo-Saxon
colonization of Britain, and that it must be
regarded either as brought to Britain by the
Teutonic invaders, or as an early Anglo-Saxon
translation of a Danish legend. From the allu-
sions in it to Christianity, however, it must have
received considerable modifications from its
original form. It recounts the adventures of
the hero Beowulf, especially his deliver}'- of
the Danish kingdom from the monster Grendel
and his equally formidable mother, and, lastly,
the slaughter by Beowulf of a fiery dragon, and
his death from wounds received in the conflict.
The character of the hero is attractive through
its noble simplicity and disregard of self. The
poem, which is the longest and most important
in Anglo-Saxon literature, is in many points
obscure, and the manuscript is somewhat imper-
fect. _

Bibliography. — Morley, ^English Writers,*
Vol. I. (1887) ; Ten Brink, < Early English Lit-
erature^ (1883) ; translation by Garnett C1885) ;
English prose translation by Tinker (1892).

Beppo, a satirical poem on Venetian life
by Byron, published in 1818, and named for the
chief figure. In Auber's opera, <Fra Diavolo,*
is a character of the same name.

Beppu, bep'poo, Japan, a bathing place and
seaport on the Island of Kyushu, famed for its
hot alkaline baths.

Beranger, Pierre Jean de, ba-raii-zha,
pe-ar zhoii de, national poet of France: b. Paris,
19 Aug. 1780; d. there, 16 July 1857. His father
was a restless and scheming man, and young
Beranger, left in a great measure to himself,
ran a great chance of .spending his life as a
gamin and vagabond in the streets of Paris. A
few days after the destruction of the bastile he
was conveyed to Peronne and placed under the
charge of an aunt who kept a tavern, and to
whom for a time he acted as waiter. At the
age of 14 he was apprenticed to M. Laisnez.
a printer in Peronne, but after remaining in
that employment for some time, was suddenly
summoned to Paris by his father, who wished

his assistance. The improvidence and prodi-
gality of his father was constantly involving
them in ditficulties, and Beranger, with as yet
no settled vocation in life, was enduring all
the hardships and privation which men of
genius in a similar position to himself have
frequently had to encounter before the recog-
nition of their talents. He had now, besides
making an unsuccessful attempt in the drama,
produced a number of poems, including his
^ Roger Bontemps,> <Le Grenier,^ 'Les Gueux,^
and <Le Vieil Habit.' Some of these were
sent by him in 1804 to Lucien Bonaparte, in
the hope thereby of obtaining some patronage
or assistance. In this, probably the only appli-
cation he ever made for aid in the course of
a long life, Beranger was not disappointed.
Lucien sent for him, encouraged him to proceed
in his poetical career, and made over to him
his own income as member of the French In-
stitute. He was afterward employed in editing
the 'Annales du Musee,' and in 1809 received an
appointment as clerk in the office of the secre-
tary to the university. Many of his songs had
now become extremely popular and in 1815
the first collection of them was published. A
second collection was published in 1821, but
Beranger had made himself extremely obnox-
ious to the Bourbon government by his satires
on the established order of things; and in addi-
tion to being dismissed from his office in the
university, he was prosecuted and sentenced
to three months' imprisonment and a fine of
500 francs. A third collection appeared in 1825,
and a fourth in 1828, which last publication sub-
jected him to a second state prosecution, an im-
prisonment of nine months, and a fine of 10,000
francs. Nothing, however, could daunt his
spirit, and in prison he still continued to busy
himself in the composition of his songs and
lyrical satires upon government. In 1833 he
published his fifth and last collection, which
contains some of the most powerful effusions
of his genius. The concluding years of his life
were spent in a dignified retirement and he
received the honor of a public funeral, at which
the most eminent men of France, both of the
world of literature and politics, attended.

The great attraction of Beranger's songs is
the unequaled grace and sprightliness which
they display, combined with great descriptive
powers, much comic humor, and occasional
bursts of indignation and invective when some
social or political grievance is denounced.
They are sometimes also, it must be admitted,
marked by a tendency to levity and looseness
of morals, but in this respect they partake emi-
nently of the French character. No one, in-
deed, was more thoroughly French than
Beranger. and the glory of his beloved patric,
as paramount to all other considerations, ap-
pears constantly as the inspiring genius of his
poetry. The intense natiomlity of his songs
constitutes one of their principal charms, and
in this respect he bears some resemblance to
Thomas Moore. He has sometimes been called
the Burns of France, but though like him essen-
tially a poet of the people, he falls far beneath
the pathos and depth of feeling displayed bv
the Ayrshire Bard in depicting the passion of
love. In private life Beranger was the most
amiable and benevolent of men, beloved by his
friends alike for his social qualities and kindli-
ness of heart, while his charities were so numer-

BERAR — BERBERA

ous and extensive as often to exceed the bounds
of prudence. See Janin, Beranger et son
temps^ (1866) ; Sainte Beuve, 'Portraits con-
temporaires* ; Nivalet, 'Souvenirs historiques
et etude analytique sur Beranger et son CEure^
(1892).

Berar, ba-rjir', or the Hyderabad Assigned
Districts, a conimissionership of India, in the
Deccan, south and west of the central provinces
and north of Hyderabad, touching Bombay ter-
ritory on the west; with an area of 17,718
square miles. It consists chiefly of a fertile
plain bordered on the north and south by low
ranges of hills. It is intersected by the Purna,
and is partly bounded north and south by the
Wardha and Penganga flowing east to the Goda-
vari. It has a fertile soil, which produces
much good cotton and millet, the best wheat
in India, as well as oil-seeds and other prod-
uce. The rainfall is regular, and this province
is in the position of being able to export food to
other parts of India. It is intersected by the
railway from Bombay to Nagpur, and ultimately
to Howrah, opposite Calcutta. After being
ruled by independent sovereigns, it was added
in the 17th century to the Mogul empire, and
latterly became part of the Nizam's dominions
(Hyderabad), to which it still in a sense be-
longs. In 1853 it was assigned or handed over
to the British authorities to provide for the
payment of the body of troops which the Nizam
had been previously bound to furnish in time
of war for the Indian government. A new
treaty was concluded in i860 by which certain
territorial alterations were brought about, and
a considerable debt due by the Nizam was can-
celed. The province has greatly prospered
under British rule. It consists of six districts :
Ellichpur, Amraoti, Akola, Buldana, Basim, and
Wun. The largest towns are Ellichpur and
Amraoti (Oomrawuttee). Berar is under the
administration of a revenue and fiscal commis-
sioner superintended by the resident at Hydera-
bad. There is also a judicial commissioner,
who superintends the working of the courts of
justice. The surplus revenue, after the ex-
penses of administration and the cost of the
Hyderabad contingent of troops are defrayed,
is handed over to the government of the
Nizam. Pop. (1501) 2,752,400.

Berard, Augusta Blanche, American edu-
cator and historical writer : b. West Point,
N. Y., 29 Oct. 1824; d. 1901. She was the
daughter of a former professor at West Point
Military Academy, and her life was spent mainly
in teaching. She was the author of school his-
tories of the United States and England ;
'Spanish Art and Literature^ ; 'Reminiscences
of West Point in the Olden Time.-*

Berard, ba-rar, Frederic, French physician:
b. Montpellier, 8 Nov. 1789; d. there, 16 April
1S28. When only 20 years of age he wrote a
thesis entitled 'Theory of Natural Medicine,
or Nature Considered as the True Physician,
and the Physician as an Imitator of Nature.^
He afterward went to Paris, where he was en-
gaged to write in the 'Dictionary of Medical
Science.^ ■ In 1816 he returned to Montpellier
as professor of therapeutics in a private course
of lectures to the medical students of the col-
lege. At this period he published a work ex-
planatory of the 'Doctrines of the Medical
School of Montpellier.' With Rouzet, he pub-

lished Dumas' work on 'Chronic Diseases,*
with instructive conmientaries. In 1823 he also
publisiied in Paris his work on 'The Relations
of the Physical and the Moral Organism, as a
Key to Metaphysics and the Physiology of
Mind.-' In this he explains his own views of
human nature and the principles of life, in oppo-
sition to the views of Cabanis. He also took
occasion to publish at the same time, a manu-
script letter of Cabanis, on 'Primary or Final
Causes,' accompanied by numerous annota-
tions.

Berat, ba-rat', a town of Albania, on the
river Beratinos, the ancient Apsus. It is the
seat of a pashalic and Greek archbishopric, and
was taken by Ali Pasha fom his rival Ibrahim.
Amurath II. captured Berat, and his troops
held it notwithstanding a desperate attem.pt by
Scanderbeg with a strong body of Italian
auxiliaries to retake it. Pop. 12,000.

Beraud, Jean, ba-ro, zhoh, French -painter
of great power : b. St. Petersburg, Russia, 1849.
After serving with distinction in the French
army during the Franco-Prussian war he
became a pupil of Bonnat. His subjects are
usually chosen from Parisian life. His latest
works have been modernized scenes from the
New Testament. 'La Madeleine' represents a
Parisian harlot at the feet of Christ in a Paris
restaurant; the scene of the 'Descent from the
Cross,' is Montmartre overlooking Paris, with
a group of working men and women.

Beraun, ba-rown', a town of Bohemia, 18
miles to the southwest of Prague, on the river
Beraun, with manufactures of cotton, sugar,
etc. Pop. (1890) 7,265.

Berbe, a west African, much-spotted genet
(Gcnnctta pardina). See Genet.

Ber'ber, a town of Nubia, on the right bank
of the Nile, below the confluence of the Atbara.
It is a station on the route from Khartum to
Cairo, and a point to which caravans go from
Suakin on the Red Sea. In the course of Gen.
Graham's operations against Osman Digna in
1885, a railway was projected from Suakin to
Berber, and the work was actually begun, but
was ultimately abandoned when military protec-
tion was taken away. Pop. (estimated)
10,000.

Ber'bera, the chief port and town of Brit-
ish Somaliland, on the African coast, of the
Gulf of Aden and south of Aden. It has c
small but well-sheltered harbor and a long pier ;
a European quarter with stone houses and ware-
houses, and a native quarter laid out with broad
streets but consisting chiefly of huts or sheds.
There is a considerable export trade in the
products of the country, such as hides and skins,
gums, ostrich feathers, ghee, sheep, goats, and
cattle; rice, millet, dates, cottons, tobacco, etc.,
being imported. The traffic is chiefly with Aden.
The population is perhaps 5,000, increased to
30,000 during the trading season. The Somauli
Coast Protectorate extends along the coast for
about 400 miles and inland for about 200, the
area being about 80,000 square miles. Besides
Berbera it contains also the ports of Zeilah and
Bulbar. It was acquired in 1884, and is admin-
istered by a political agent and a consul. A
number of Indian troops are stationed in the
territory. The trade is of some importance and
is increasing.

BERBERINE — BERCHET

Ber'berine, a poisonous alkaloid discovered
by Buchner in 1837 in the root of the common
barberry, and now known to exist in many
other plants also. It crystallizes, ordinarily, in
yellow, silky needles, having the composition
QoHi7N04+ 4^H,.0; but when thrown down
from solution in alcohol the needles are said to
be red — probably from the absence of water.
Berberine forms numerous salts, and is used
to a considerable extent in medicine, occurring
in notable quantities in preparations of hydras-
tis. The alkaloid itself is soluble in from four
to five parts of water at ordinary temperatures,
and is also moderately soluble in alcohol ; but
it is insoluble in both ether and chloroform.

Ber'beris, the generic name of the bar-
berry (q.v.j.

Berbers, the name of a people spread over
nearly the whole of northern Africa. From
their name the appellation Barbary is derived.
They are considered the most ancient inhabi-
tants of the country. Their different tribes are
scattered over the whole space intervening be-
tween the shores of the Atlantic and the confines
of Egypt; but the different branches of Atlas
are their principal abode; while to the south
they extend to the Soudan. The chief branches
into which they are divided are : the Amazirgh,
Amazigh, or Mazigh, estimated to number from
2,000,000 to 2,500,000, and who inhabit Morocco.
They are for the most part quite independent of
the Sultan of Morocco, and live partly under
chieftains and partly in small republican com-
munities. Second, the Shillooh or Shellakah,
who number about 1,450,000, and inhabit the
south of Morocco. They practise agriculture
and carry on some manufactures. They are
more highly civilized than the Amazirgh.
Third, the Kabyles in Algeria and Tunis, who
are said to number about 1,000,000; and fourth,
the Berbers of the Sahara, who inhabit the
oases, and consequently live for the most part
at wide intervals from each other. Among the
Sahara Berbers the most remarkable are the
Beni-Mezab and the Tuareg. To these we may
also add the Guanches of the Canary Islands,
now extinct, but undoubtedly of the same race.
The Berbers generally are about the middle
height ; their complexion brown, and sometimes
almost black, with brown and glossy hair. In-
dividuals of fair complexion and light hair and
even with blue eyes are said to be not uncom-
mon among them. They are generally thin,
but extremely strong and robust, and their
bodies are beautiful^ formed. The head of
the Berber is rounder than that of the Arab,
and the features shorter, but of an equally
marked character, although the fine aquiline
nose, so common among the latter, is not often
seen among the Berbers. The language of the
Berbers is said to have affinities with the Se-
mitic tongues. Such of them as mingle with the
Arabs speak or understand Arabic ; but those
who dwell in the interior of the mountains un-
derstand no other language than their own.
The Berbers often lea\-e their mountains to
plunder travelers on the plain. They generally
dwell in huts, or rude houses, the latter rec-
tangular, with two gable ends, covered with
thatch and entered by a low and narrow door.
These dwellings are often built in little groups,
scattered about in the valleys and upon the
sides of the mountains, and in some parts each

group of huts is situated in the midst of a plan-
tation, with a portion of ground laid out as a
kitchen-garden. Although the Berbers have
always lived in ignorance, and have had
but little connection with civilized nations^
they are remarkably industrious. By working
the mines in their own mountains they produce
lead, copper, and iron. With the iron they
manufacture gun-barrels, implements of hus-
bandry, and many rudely formed utensils. They
understand the manufacture of steel, from
which they make knives, swords, and other
instruments, not very elegant in form, but of
good quality. They likewise make gunpowder
for their own use, and this powder is said to-
be of very superior quality. One of their arti-
cles of commerce is a species of black soap^
which they make with olive-oil and soda ob-
tained from sea-weed. The tribes inhabiting
the borders of the plains and some of the
great valleys breed sheep and cattle in consider-
able numbers. Their sheep are small and yield'
very little wool. They have likewise numer-
ous herds of goats, which supply them with
milk, and of the flesh of which they are very-
fond. Their cows and oxen are of a small
species, but their asses and mules are much
esteemed.

Berbice, ber-bes', a district of British
Guiana, intersected by the river Berbice. It
extends from the river Abary on the west ta
Corentyn River on the east, about 150 miles
along the coast, the boundary inland not being
fixed. The chief town is New Amsterdam;
pop. about 9,000. The principal productions
are sugar, rum, cotton, coffee, cocoa, and to-
bacco. The coast is marshy and the air damp.
Berbice came finally into British possession in
:8i5, having previously belonged to the Dutch.
Till 183 1 it formed a separate colony from De-
merara and Essequibo. Pop. (1891) 51,176^
See GuiAN.x.

Berbice, a river of British Guiana; flows
generally northeast into the Atlantic. It is
navigable for small vessels for 165 miles from •
its mouth, but beyond that the rapids are nu-
merous and dangerous.

Berchem, bern'em, or Berghem, Nikolaas,
Dutch painter: b. Haarlem, 1624; d. there, 18
Feb. 1683. Having studied under his father
and Van Goyen, Weenix the elder, and other
masters, he spent several years in Italy, where
he soon acquired an extraordinary facility of
execution. His industry was naturally great,
and his innumerable landscapes now decorate
the best collections of Europe. The leading
features of Berchem's works, besides the general
happiness of the compositions, are warmth and
coloring, a skilful handling of lights, and a
mastery of perspective. His etchings are also
highly esteemed. See Buxton and Poynter,
^German, Flemish and Dutch Painting^ (1881).

Berchet, bar-sha', Giovanni, Italian poet
and prose writer: b. Milan, 23 Dec. 1783; d.
1851. He was a friend of Manzoni and Silvio
Pellico. In 1826 he became a frequent con-
tributor to a liberal journal at Milan, called the
Conciliatore. When this was suppressed and
its contributors cast into prison or exiled
by the Austrian government, Berchet settled in
Geneva. At the time of his death he was a
member of the Sardinian parliament. His writ-
ings include: ^Profugi di Praga' ; ^Romanze*;.

BERCHTA — BERENDT

(Fantasie' (1829). His collected poems ap-
peared in 1863, with biographical sketch.

Berchta, bern'ta, a female hobgoblin, in
the folk lore of southern Germany, of whom
naughty children are much afraid. Her name
is connected with the word bright, and origi-
nally she was regarded as a goddess of benign
influence.

Berchtesgaden, bern-tes-ga'den, a village
of Bavaria, situated in a most picturesque and
nmch-visited region, about 12 miles south of
Salzburg, on the Achen, or Aim, a stream which
issues from the beautiful lake called the Ko-
nigssee. It lies on a mountain slope surrounded
by meadows and trees, consists of well-built
houses, and has a fine old abbey, now a royal
residence; the abbey church, with fine Roman-
esque transepts of the 12th century ; a royal
villa, etc. Wood-carving is extensively carried
on, and there is an important salt mine. It is
the principal settlement in the district of the
same name. Pop. (1895) 2,349.

Berck, bark, France, a bathing resort on
the English Channel, an hour's ride south from
Boulogne. It is the terminus of a railway, and
has an excellent beach, a kursaal and two
hospitals for children.

Berckheyde, berk'hi-de, Gerrit, Dutch
painter: b. Haarlem, 1638; d. 1698. He was
a younger brother of Job Berckheyde and with
him was employed at the court of the Elector
Palatine. Among his most important works
are: *View of Amsterdam^; 'View of Co-
logne^ ; *View of Heidelberg Carlto.'

Berckhyde, Job, Dutch architectural and
genre painter: b. Haarlem. 1630; d. 1693. He
was a pupil of Jacob de Wet and Franz Hals
and was accepted as master in the Haarlem
Guild in 1654. Of the brothers Berckhyde Job
is the finer artist. Some of his most famous
paintings are: 'Joseph's Brethren in Egj^pt^
(1669) ; 'Interior of Old Exchange at Amster-
dam-* (1678) ; 'Courtesan's Room^ ; 'Winter
Landscape^ ; 'Interior of Haarlem CathedraP ;
'Artist's Portrait.^

Bercy, ber-se, formerly a village on the
Seine (here crossed by a suspension bridge),
but smce i860 forming part of the southeastern
quarter of Paris. The Parisian wine mer-
chants have here their stores of wine, spirits,
etc., and there are several important tanneries,
sugar-refineries, and paper-mills. A large pal-
ace, Le Grand Bercy, was built by Levau at
the close of the 17th century.

Berdiansk, ber-dyansk', a seaport of south-
ern Russia, in the government of Taurida, on
the northern shore of the Sea of Azof. It
contains many handsome houses, arranged in
spacious streets, and has a good anchorage,
sheltered on all sides except the south. It
is the chief entrepot for the surrounding gov-
ernments, and exports large quantities of grain,
oil-seeds, and wool. It has also a large inland
trade in wood, coal, fish, and salt, the last
obtained from apparently inexhaustible mines in
the vicinity. Pop. (1897) 24,247.

Berditchev, ber-de'chef, a city of European
Russia, in the government and 129 miles south-
west of Kiev. It is an ill-built place, mainly
Jewish, but contains several churches and syn-
agogues, and a large Carmelite convent, in the
church of which is an image of the Virgin

Mary, the object of pilgrimages. It carries on
a considerable trade in corn, wine, cattle, honey,
wax and leather. Pop. (1897) 53,728.

Berea, Ky., town in Madison County; on
the Louisville & N. R.R., 41 miles southeast of
Lexington. It is the centre of a large agricul-
tural section and is the seat of Berea College
(q.v.), founded in 1853. Pop. (1900) 1,000.

Bere'a, Ohio, a village in Cuyahoga
County, on several railroads; 13 miles south-
west of Cleveland, with which, and Elyria and
Oberlin, it is connected bj^ electric lines. It
was founded in 1829; is lighted by natural gas
and electricity ; has extensive quarries of sand-
stone (Berea grit) ; and is the seat of Baldwin
University, German Wallace College (both
Methodist Episcopal), and a German orphan
asylum. Pop. (1900) 2,510.

Berea College, a co-educational, non-sec-
tarian institution, in Berea, Ky. ; organized in
1855. It has 30 members in its faculty, and
some 850 students. Its building and grounds
are valued at $150,000, and its library contains
20,000 volumes. The distinguishing feature of
the college is its work in the southern moun-
tain region, where it carries on, through trav-
eling libraries, social settlements, and lectures,
a very valuable kind of university extension.

Berea Grit, a variety of sandstone, great
deposits of which are found at Berea, Ohio.
It is widely famous for its evenness of texture,
and color, and exemption from the impurities
that would deteriorate its marketable value.
See Carboniferous System.

Bere'ans, in modern Church history an
insignificant sect of dissenters from the Church
of Scotland, founded by Rev. John Barclay
(1734-98) in 1773. They take their title from,
and profess to follow the example of, the an-
cient Bereans (see Acts xvii. 10^13) in building
their system of faith and practice upon the
Scriptures alone, without regard to any human
authority whatever. They agree with the great
majority of Christians, both Protestants and
Roman Catholics, respecting the doctrine of
the Trinity, which they hold as a fundamental
article of the Christian faith ; but differ from
the majority of all sects of Christians in various
other important particulars. For instance, they
say that the majority of professed Christians
stumble at the very threshold of revelation by
admitting the doctrine of natural religion,
natural conscience, etc., not founded upon rev-
elation or derived from it by tradition. With
regard to faith in Christ, they insist, that as
faith is the gift of God alone, so the person to
whom it is given is as conscious of possessing
it as the being to whom God gives life is of
being alive, and therefore he entertains no
doubts either of his faith or his consequent
salvation through the merits of Christ, who died
and rose again for that purpose. Consistently
with the above definition of faith, they say that
the sin against the Holy Ghost is simply unbe-
lief. Their mode of practice and Church gov-
ernment differs but little from those of many
other dissenting sects.

Berendt, ba'rent, Karl Hermann, German

ethnologist: b. Dantzic, 1817; d. 1878. After
studying medicine he began to practise in Bres-
lau, where he lectured in the university. In
1851 he went to Nicaragua and thence to Vera

BERENGAR — BERENICE

Cruz, where he devoted some years to ethno-
logical study and research. He subsequently
traveled in Yucatan and Guatemala, making a
careful study of JMayan dialect. He published
* Analytical Alphabet of the Mexican and Cen-
tral American Languages^ (1869 J ; ^Los escritos
de Don Joaquin Garcia Icazbalceta' (1870) ;
*^Los trabajos linguisticos de Don Pio Perez*
(1871); *Cartilla en lengua Maya* (1871).

Berengar, ba'ren-gar, two kings of Italy
in the 9th and loth centuries. Berengar I.,
son of the Duke of Friuli by a daughter of
Louis-le-Debonnaire, during the confusion
which followed on the dissolution of the em-
pire of Charlemagne, laid claim to the crown of
Italy, and after a civil war obtained it in 888.
At a later period, having been invited by Pope
John X. to repel the Saracens who were de-
vastating the south of Italy, he was crowned
emperor of Rome. His warlike expeditions had
generally been fortunate, and his internal gov-
ernment was generally acceptable to his sub-
jects; but his nobility, jealous of his author-
ity, stirred up a new competitor for the throne
in the person of Rudolf II., who inva-
ded Italy in 921, and ultimately obliged
Berengar to take refuge in Verona, where he
was assassinated in 924. Berengar II., nephew
of the former by a daughter, was at first Mar-
quis of Ivrea, while the throne of Italy was
occupied by Hugo, count of Provence, a tyrant
who had incurred the enmity of almost all the
great feudal lords of the kingdom. Berengar,
taking advantage of this feeling, put himself
at the head of a force collected in Germany in
945, and was almost universally welcomed.
Hugo abdicated in favor of his son Lothario,
who reigned nominally for a few years, and
was succeeded in 950 by Berengar. in whom all
the powers of the government had previously
centred. A quarrel with the Emperor Otho in
the following year deprived him of his throne,
but he was permitted to resume it on agreeing
to acknowledge Otho as his liege lord. In a
second quarrel he was not allowed to escape
so easily. After losing his territories he shut
himself up in the fortress of St. Leo, and de-
fended himself bravely till famine compelled
him to submit. He was imprisoned at Bam-
berg, and died there in 966.

Berengaria, ba-ren-ga'ri-a, the queen of
Richard I. of England : d. Le Mans, about
1230. She was a daughter of Sancho VI. of
Navarre and was married to Richard at Limasol
in Cyprus, 12 May 1191. She remained at
Acre while the king was warring with the
Saracens and resided in Poiton during his im-
prisonment in Germany. She became estranged
from him soon after his release and seems
never to have joined him again. She was
buried at Espan in the Church of Pietas Dei,
which she had founded.

Berenga'rio, Jacopo, Italian anatomist: b.
Carpi, about 1470; d. Ferrara, 1530. He taught
anatomy and surgery at Pavia, and finally set-
tled at Bologna till a clamor caused by a rumor
that he had got possession of two Spaniards
affected by a loathsome disease, and was intend-
ing to dissect them alive, obliged him to retire
to Ferrara. This rumor, caused doubtless by
the fact that Berengario looked upon the dis-
section of the human body as the only means by
which the science of anatomy could be advanced.
Vol. 2—35.

points out the source of the many important
discoveries which he made, and the others for
which he paved the way, leaving them to be
followed out by Vesalius, Eustachius, and Fal-
lopius. He is justly regarded as one of the
principal founders of modern anatomy. He
was also a dexterous operator, and published a
practical work entitled, 'De Cranii Fractura.'

Berenga'rius of Tours, French theologian:
b. Tours, about 1000; d. 6 Jan. 1088. He is
renowned for his philosophical acuteness as one
of the scholastic writers. While admitting the
real presence of Christ in the Eucharist, he
questioned the doctrine of transubstantiation
and held that the substance of bread and of
wine continued to exist with the body and
blood of Christ (consubstantiation). He was
condemned by several councils and several
times recanted, but finally died fully reconciled
with the Church. He is the first in theological
history to call the doctrine of transubstantia-
tion in question. He was treated with forbear-
ance by Gregory VII., but the scholastics be-
longing to the party of Lanfranc, Archbishop
of Canterbury, were irritated against him tc
such a degree that he retired to the Isle of St.
Cosmas, in the neighborhood of Tours, in the
year 1080, where he closed his life in pious ex-
ercises. On the history of this controversy,
which has long occupied the attention of theo-
logians, new light was shed by Lessing in
his <Berengar) (1770), and also by Stiiudlin,
who likewise published the work of Beren-
garius against Lanfranc. This Berengarius
must not be confounded with Peter Berenger of
Poitiers, who wrote a defense of his instructor
Abelard.

Berenhorst, Francis Leopold von, German
military writer: b. 1733; d. 1814. He was one
of the first writers by whom the military art
has been founded on clear and certain princi-
ples. He was a natural son of Prince Leopold
of Dessau, and in 1760 became the adjutant of
Frederick II After the Seven Years' war he
lived at Dessau.

Berenice, ber-e-nl'se (a bringer of vic-
tory), (i) This was the name of the wife of
IMithridates the Great, king of Pontus. Her
husband, when vanquished by Lucullus, caused
her to be put to death (about the year 71 B.C.),
lest she should fall into the hands of his ene-
mies. (2) The wife of Herod, brother to the
great Agrippa, her father, at whose request
Herod was made king of Chalcis by the Em-
peror Claudius, but soon died. In spite of her
dissolute life, she insinuated herself into the
favor of the Emperor Vespasian and his son
Titus. The latter was at one time on (he point
of marrying her. (3) The wife of Ptolemy
Euergetes ; who loved her husband with rare
tenderness, and when he went to war in Syria
made a vow to devote her beautiful hair to the
gods if he returned safe. Upon his return
Berenice performed her vow in the temple of
Venus. Soon after the hair was missed, and the
astronomer Conon of Samos declared that the
gods had transferred it to the skies as a con-
stellation. From this circumstance the con-
stellation near the tail of the Lion is called
Coma Berenices (the hair of Berenice).

Berenice, a city of Egypt, on the Red Sea,
whence a road, 258 miles in length, extended
across the desert to Coptos, on the Nile. This

BERENSON — BEREZINA

road was constructed in the reign of the second
Ptolemy. Berenice was one of the principal
centres by which the trade of Egypt, under the
Macedonian dynasty, and that of the Romans
subsequently, were carried on with the remote
East. During the Roman period, a sum equal
to $2,000,000 is said to have been annually re-
mitted to the East by the Roman merchants as
payment for its precious products, which sold
at Rome for a hundred-fold more than their
original price. Nothing now remains of Bere-
nice but a heap of ruins, adjoining the modern
port of Habest. Berenice, or Hesperis, a city
of Cyrenaica, near which the ancients imagined
the gardens of the Hesperides to be situated.
The village, named Bengazi (q.v.), now occu-
pies a portion of its site.

Berenson, Bernhard, Russian-American
art critic: b. Wilna, Russia, 26 June 1865. He
was educated in the schools of Boston and at
Harvard University and has lived for many
years in Florence, Italy. He has contributed
much in the way of art criticism to the New
York Nation and to French and German art
reviews, and has published ^Venetian Painters
of the Renaissance-* (1894); ^Lorenzo Lotto:
An Essay in Constructive Art Criticism^
(1895) ; * Florentine Painters of the Renais-
sance^ (1896) ; 'Central Italian Painters of the
Renaissance^ (1897) ; 'The Study and Criti-
cism of Italian Art* (1901).

Beresford, ber'es-ferd. Lord Charles
William de la Peer, English naval officer: b.
Ireland, 10 Feb. 1846. He became a rear-
admiral in 1897. In 1882 he commanded the
Condor in the bombardment of Alexandria, and
was especially mentioned and honored for his
gallantry. After the bombardment he institu-
ted an efficient police system in the city. In
1884-5 he served on Lord Wolseley's staff in the
Nile Expedition ; and subsequently commanded
the naval brigade in the battles of Abu Klea,
Abu Kru, and Metemmeh. He commanded the
expedition which rescued Sir Charles Wilson's
party in "Safia,** and was commended for his
gallantry in both Houses of Parliament. He
received the thanks of the French government
for assisting the grounded Seignalay. In 1893^
he was in command of the naval reserve at
Chatham, and in December 1899 was appointed
the second in command of the British squadron
mobilized in the Mediterranean Sea. Lord
Beresford accompanied the Prince of Wales on
his visit to India in 1875-6, as naval aide-de-
camp, and held the same relation to the queen
in 1896-7. He has sat at various times in
Parliam.ent, as member for Waterford, East
Marylebone, York, and Woolwich. Besides
numerous honors for gallantry as an officer he
has received three medals for saving life at
sea under trying circumstances. In 1898 he
visited China at the request of the Associated
Chambers of Commerce of Great Britain to
make a study of the complicated commercial
conditions existing there ; and on his return,
in 1899, he passed through the United States,
and was received with distinguished honors by
official ^nd commercial bodies. He has done
much to promote the "open door** policy as a
condition of in.ternational commerce in China.
His publications include 'Life of Nelson and
His Times* ; 'The Break-Up of China* (1899),
and many essays and special articles.

Beresford, William Carr, Viscount, Eng-
lish general, was a natural son of the first
Marquis of Waterford: b. 2 Oct. 1768; d. Bedge-
bury Park, Kent, 8 Jan. 1854. He entered the
army, and served at Toulon, and in Corsica ;
in the West Indies under Abercromby ; and
in Egypt under Baird. In 1806 he was raised
to the rank of brigadier-general, and the same
year commanded the land force in the expedi-
tion to Buenos Ayres. Having been ordered to
Portugal in 1808, he was intrusted there with the
remodeling of the Portug:uese army — an office
which he accomplished with great success ; and
in acknowledgment of his services was created
a Marshal of Portugal, Duke of Elvas, and
Marquis of Santo Campo. He subsequently
took part in the siege of Badajoz, and the
battles of Salamanca, Vittoria, and Bayonne.
For his bravery at the battle of Toulouse he
was raised to the peerage, with the title of
Baron Beresford, afterward superseded by that
of Viscount Beresford, conferred on him in 1823.
In political principles he was a high Conserva-
tive ; and a thorough supporter of the Duke
of Wellington. In 1828, when the Duke became
premier, he was made master-general of the
ordnance, a post he held till 1830.

Berezin, byer-ye-zen', Ilya Nikolayevitch»
Russian Orientalist: b. 1818; d. 1896. He stud-
ied Oriental philology at the University of
Kazan, where in 1846 he was appointed profes-
sor, and in 1855 became professor of Turkish
at the University of St. Petersburg. Some
of his important works in Russian are 'Library
of Oriental Authors* (1849-51) ; 'Tour Through.
Daghestan and Trans-Caucasia* (1850) ; 'A
Grammar of the Persian Language* (1853);
'The Mongol Invasion of Russia* (1852-4) ;
'Popular Turkish Sayings* (1857). He wrote
in French 'Recherches sur les dialectes Musul-
mans* (1848-53), and edited the 'Russian En-
cyclopedic Dictionary* in 16 volumes.

Berezina, byer-ye-ze-na', a river in the
Russian province of Minsk, rendered famous by
the passage of the French army under Napoleon^
26-27 Nov. 1812. Admiral Tchitchakoff, with
the Moldavian army, forced his way from the
south to join the main army, which, after Bori-
zoff had been retaken, was to assist the army-
led by Wittgenstein from the Dwina, and in this
manner cut off Napoleon from the Vistula. Na-
poleon was therefore obliged to make the great-
est efforts to reach Minsk, or at least the
Berezina, and to pass it earlier than the Rus-
sians. After the advanced guard of the ]\Iolda-
vian army had been repelled to Borizoff by
Oudinot, and the bridge there burned by them,
early in the morning of 26 November, two bridges
were built near Sembin, about two miles above
Borizoff, an undertaking the more difficult, be-
cause both banks of the river were bordered by
extensive morasses, covered, like the river itself,
with ice not sufficiently strong to afford passage
to the army, while other passes were already
threatened by the Russians. Scarcely had a few
corps effected their passage, when the greater
part of the army, unarmed and in confusion,
rushed in crowds upon the bridges. Those wha
could not hope to escape over the bridges sought
their safety on the floating ice of the Berezina,
where most of them perished, while many others-
were crowded into the river by their comrades.
Besides the multitudes who were obliged to re-
main beyond the Berezina, the division of Par-

BEREZOV — BERGAMI

touneaux, which formed the rear-guard, was also
lost. It was intrusted with the charge of burn-
ing the bridges in its rear, but it fell into the
hands of the enemy. According to the French
bulletins only a detachment of 2,000 men, who
missed their way, was taken ; according to the
Russian accounts the whole corps, 7,500 men
and five generals. The river is a tributary of
the Dnieper and has a course of some 335 miles.
A canal s} stem connects it with the Dwina.

Berezov, byer-j'a'zof (the town of birch-
trees), a town in Siberia, in the government of,
and 400 miles north from, Tobolsk, on a height
above the left bank of the Sosva, one of the
branches of the Obi. It consists of wooden
houses carefully built of large timbers, and
generally with high steps in front, and con-
tains three churches and a chapel. Its inhabi-
tants, who are chiefly Cossacks, subsist by the
chase and by fishing ; they barter furs, skins,
fish, etc., for flour, flesh-meat, tobacco, iron-
ware, and brandy, brought by the Tobolsk
dealers, whose craft are floated down the Irtish
into the Obi. Prince Menzikofif, the favorite of
Peter the Great, died here in exile in 1731,
having been banished by his grandson Peter
II. Pop. (1897) 1,073.

Berezovsk, byer-ya-z6vsk', a village in the
Russian province of Perm, near Ekaterinburg,
which gives name to a famous gold field,
wrought since 1744. The mines are on the east-
ern slopes of the middle Ural chain, and the
field is more than five miles long. The washings
on the Berezovka River are also very pro-
ductive.

Berg, berg, Friedrich Wilhelm Rembert,
Russian general: b. 1790; d. 1874. He is chiefly
notorious for the severity with which he treated
the unfortunate population of Poland during
the insurrection of 1863, and which excited the
horror and indignation of the civilized world.

Berg, berg, Joseph Frederick, American
clergv-man : b. Antigua, W. I., 3 June 1812 ; d.
New Brunswick, N. J., 1871. He came to the
United States in 1825, entered the German
Reformed ministry, in which he served, 1835-52,
and then entered the Dutch Reformed Church
and was professor of theology in the Dutch
Reformed Theological Seminary at New Bruns-
wick from 1861 till his death. He was distin-
guished for the intensity of his opposition to the
Roman Catholic Church, on which theme he
wrote extensively, his best known work being
'Synopsis of the Moral Theology of Peter Dens,
as Prepared for Romish Seminaries and Stu-
dents of Theology^ (1842).

Berg, an ancient duchy of Germany, now
included in the governments Arnsberg, Cologne,
and Diisseldorf. It extended along the Rhine
from the Ruhr to the frontiers of Nassau, and
is everywhere hilly. It is more a manufactur-
ing than an agricultural district, and has long
been famed for its minerals, which include iron
of the finest quality, lead, copper, zinc, and
the precious metals. In addition to the employ-
ment furnished by these minerals, the inhabi-
tants, who are very industrious, have with
considerable success superadded textile manufac-
tures. It is now indeed the chief manufacturing
district in Germany, and the most densely peo-
pled. It contains the important towns of Elber-
feld and Barmen. The duchy of Berg, founded
in 1389. had been long consolidated with the

Prussian dominions when (1806) Napoleon
revived the title, and conferred it, with an
enlarged territory, on Murat. On Murat's
receiving the kingdom of Naples, Napoleon
named his nephew Louis Napoleon (brother of
the late Emperor Napoleon III.) hereditary
Grand-duke of Berg, and increased its limits
still farther. At the Congress of Vienna, in
1815, the whole was given to the king of
Prussia.

Berga, a town of Spain, in the province of
Barcelona, in a hilly district near the river
Lobregat. There is an old castle overlooking
the town, which carries on some manufactures
of cottons. Pop. (1903) 6,072.

Bergama, ber'ga-ma, a town of Asia
Minor, about 20 miles inland from the west
coast, on the Selinus, a tributary of the Caicus,
46 miles north by east of Smyrna. It occupies
the site of the ancient Pergamus (q.v.), and
contains numerous remains attesting its ancient
magnificence. In the centre are the remains of
a large Roman basilica, a Byzantine church
now converted into a mosque, and a curious
double tunnel 200 yards long through which
the river runs. To the east of the town is a
steep hill with the acropolis and the remains of
a Roman palace on the top. To the west of the
town are the ruins of the ancient amphitheatre
with arches of fine workmanship. It was built
so that the arena could be flooded with water
from a stream, thus affording an opportunity
for nautical sports. Bergama is a flourishing
town noted for its manufactures of morocco
leather. Pop. about 6,000.

Bergami, Bartolommeo. The celebrated
trial of Queen Caroline, wife of George IV.
of England, was principally founded upon a
charge of adulterous intercourse with Bergami,
who, in 1814, upon recommendation of the
Marquis Ghislieri, in whose previous employ-
ment he had been, was attached to her house-
hold. Bergami, who had fought his way up
in the Italian army from a common soldier to
the rank of quartermaster, belonged to a respec-
table family, and the Marquis Ghislieri described
him to the queen as a person of character
and attainments superior to his condition, and
bespoke for him a kind treatment. This, and
the personal advantages of Bergami, who was
singularly good-looking, combining athletic
strength and stature with almost feminine
beauty, naturally disposed the queen in his
favor. Moreover, he was full of loyalty and
devotion, and on one occasion nearly became
the victim of poison intended for her. The
queen treated his whole family, especially a
little child of his, with the greatest generosity
and kindness. All these circumstances were
used by her enemies as so many indications of
her criminality, and during the trial one of
the Italian witnesses, Teodore ]\Iajocchi, excited
special indignation by his admitting every fact
unfavorable to the queen, and by answering
every question which might tell in her favor
with Non mi ricordo. Bergami, who was at
Pesaro during the trial, exclaimed, when he was
apprised of her acquittal, but at the same time
of her death, that she had been poisoned, and
never could be convinced to the contrary, To
the last he ever spoke of the queen with the
greatest reverence and affection, and his deport-
ment before and after her death led to the

BERGAMO — BERGEN-OP-ZOOM

conclusion that he looked upon her rather as a
benefactress than as a mistress. However, where-
ever he went he became the observed of all
observers. During his occasional excursions to
Paris his apartments were crowded with visit-
ors, consisting principally of ladies, who, under
the pretext of having been friends of Queen
Caroline, gratified their curiosity and obtained
an interview with the portly courier. When at
home he lived in great splendor ; in the capitals
of Italy, Rome, Naples, Milan, he was a lion,
and the houses of **the best families" were open
to him. At the time of the trial many dififerent
statements about Bergami's character were cir-
culated in the House of Lords, but however
contradictory in many other respects, they all
agreed in this one fact, that he was as inoffen-
sive as he was good-looking a person, who
probably would never have been heard of beyond
the precincts of Italian barracks if it had not
been for his relation with Queen Caroline, and
for the peculiar construction which was put
upon it by her enemies at the trial. His name
in England was, by a curious mistake, spelled
with a P.

Bergamo, ber'ga-mo, Italy, city and capi-
tal of the province of Bergamo, situated in the
district lying between the rivers Brembo and
Serio. It consists of two distinct portions,
the Citta Alta (High Town), situated on hills,
and now attainable by a cable tramway, and the
much more extensive new quarters in the plain.
Bergamo trades largely in silk, silk goods, grain,
etc. At its fair goods to the value of a million
sterling have sometimes been sold. It has an
academy of painting and sculpture, a museum,
an athenaeum, a public library, several secondary
schools, and various manufactories, especially
of silk. There is a cathedral, but some of the
other churches are of greater interest. There is
a small Protestant congregation. The comic
characters in the Italian masked comedy are
Bergamese, or affect the dialect of the country
people in the neighborhood of this city. In
1796 Bonaparte took Bergamo, and it was sub-
sequently made the capital of the department of
the Serio, in the kingdom of Italy. Among
many distinguished men born here are Tirabos-
chi, the historian of Italian literature; the com-
poser Donizetti, and Cardinal Mai. Pop. (1901)
46,000.

Ber'gamot, a shrub or small tree of the
genus Citrus (natural order Butaccce) variously
placed as a variety of the orange (C. auran-
tium) and of the citron (C. medica). The
plant is largely cultivated in southern Europe,
especially Italy, for its green, bitter volatile oil,
known as oil or essence of bergamot which is
expressed or distilled from its highly aromatic
rind for use in perfumery. The name is also
applied, mainly in Europe, to many varieties of
pears and in both Europe and America to sev-
eral species of the natural order Labiatw; for
example, Mentha aquatica (Europe), Monarda
didyma and M. Ustulosa (America). The name
seems to be a corruption of the Turkish beg
armudi, a lord's pear. See Citrus.

Bergedorf, berg'e-dorf, a town of Ger-
many, 10 miles southeast of Hamburg, and in
the territory belonging to that city, on the
Bille, a tributary of the Elbe. It has flourishing
glass works and manufactures of enamel ware.
It was held jointly by Lubeck and Hamburg till

1867, when Lubeck assigned its rights to Ham-
burg on payment of 200,000 thalers. Pop.
(1900) 10,243.

Bergen, Joseph Young, American edu-
cator: b. Red Beach, Me., 22 Feb. 1851. He
graduated at Antioch College, Ohio, 1872, and
for a time was on the Ohio Geological Survey
and professor of natural sciences at Lombard
University, becoming later a teacher of science
in the Boston high and Latin schools. He is
joint author of 'The Development Theory: the
Study of Evolution Simplified for General Read-
ers^ (1884) ; Hall and Bergen's 'Physics^ ;
'Elements of Botany^; and 'Foundations of
Botany.^

Bergen, Norway, a seaport on the west
coast, capital of a province or diocese of the
same name, formerly the principal town of the
kingdom, but now the second. It is 186 miles
northwest of Christiania, and about 25 from the
open sea, and is situated on and about the head
of two inlets, one of which forms the harbor.
The tongue of land between the harbor and the
other inlet (Puddefjord) is an elevated ridge
crowned by an old fort, while the entrance on
the other or northeast side is commanded by the
old fortress of Bergenhus, now partly used as a
prison. Rocky hills from 800 to 2,000 feet high
encircle the town on the land side and furnish
many picturesque spots. The climate is com-
paratively mild, on account of the sheltered
situation, but is remarkable for rain, the annual
rainfall being about 73 inches. The town is
well built and clean, but the houses are mostly
of wood, and many of the streets are crooked
and uneven, on account of the irregularity of
the site. There are a number of squares or
open spaces, including the market-place. There
is a cathedral (built in 1537), and several
other churches, the oldest being St. Mary's, built
after a fire in 1249. The public institutions
include schools, a library of 60,000 volumes, a
theatre, a museum, and other useful institu-
tions. The inhabitants of the middle coast of
Norway bring timber, tar, train-oil, hides, etc.,
and particularly dried fish (stock-fish), to Ber-
gen to exchange them for grain, flour, and other
necessaries. The town carries on a large trade
in these commodities, and its exports of dried
fish, herrings, tar, etc., are especially large. A
considerable amount of ship-building is carried
on. A United States consul is resident here.
Bergen was founded by King Olaf Kyrre in
1070. The Hanseatic league established a fac-
tory here about 1340 and long monopolized the
trade. Bergen is the native place of the poet
Holberg. Pop. (1901) 72,179.

Bergen-Op-Zoom, berg'en-6p-z6m', a town
of Holland, in a marshy situation on the Scheldt,
where the Zoom enters it, 20 miles north-north-
west of Antwerp. It was formerly a strong
fortress, the morasses around it making it almost
inaccessible to an assailing force, while its
fortifications consisted of regular works, con-
structed by the celebrated Coehorn. It is well
built, but has no edifices deserving of particular
notice. It made an important figure during the
Spanish war, and successfully resisted the
attacks of the Duke of Parma in 1581 and 1588,
and of Spinola in 1622. It was taken by the
French in 1747 after a siege of nearly three
months ; and in 1795 the French under Piche-
gru again gained possession of it by capitula-

BERGENGREN — BERGK

tion. It was unsuccessfully attempted by the
British under Sir Thomas Graham, afterward
Lord Lynedoch, in 1814. Its trade has suffered
greatly from the proximity of Antwerp. Pop.
(1899) 13,668.

Berg'engren, Anna (Fakquhar), Marg.aret
Allston, American novelist : b. Brookville, Ind.,
23 Dec. 1865. She is the wife of R. Bergengren,
(q.v.), and has published *The Professor's
Daughter^ (1899) ; 'Her Boston Experiences*
(1900); <The Devil's Plough* (1901); <Her
Washington Experiences* (1901).

Bergengren, Ralph Wilhelm Alexis, Amer-
ican journalist and cartoonist: b. Gloucester,
Mass., 2 March 1871. He has published a col-
lection of verses and cartoons entitled 'In Case
of Need* (1899).

Bergerac, bar-zhrak, Cyrano de, a famous
five-act tragedy by Edmond Rostand, founded on
the life of Savinien Cyrano de Bergerac. It
was first played in Paris, 28 Dec. 1897, with
Coquelin in the title role and in New York 3
Oct. 1898 with Mansfield in the same role.
See Rostand, Edmond.

Bergerac, Savinien Cyrano de, French au-
thor : b. 1619; d. 1655. He was distinguished
for his courage in the field, and for the number
of his duels, more than a thousand, most of
them fought on account of his monstrously large
nose. His writings, which are often crude, but
full of invention, vigor, and wit, include a
tragedy, 'Agrippina,* and a comedy, 'The Pe-
dant Tricked,* from which Corneille and
Moliere have freely borrowed ideas ; and his
'Comical History of the States and Empires of
the Sun and the Moon* probably suggested
'Micromegas* to Voltaire, and 'Gulliver* to
Swift. His works have been frequently repub-
lished. He was made the hero of a drama bear-
ing his name, written by Edmond Rostand,
the French playwright, which had a phenomenal
success in the United States in 1899-1900, and
was the occasion of a suit for plagiarism. See
Rostand, Edmond.

Bergerac, a town of France, in the depart-
ment of the Dordogne, and on the river Dor-
dogne. Among its industries are paper-mills,
ironworks, distilleries, etc. The town, 48 miles
east of Bordeaux, gives the name to an agree-
able wine cultivated on the banks of the Dor-
dogne, in France sometimes called petit cham-
pagne. Pop. (1896) 15,642.

Bergerat, barzh-ra, Auguste Emile, French
journalist, playwright, and novelist : b. Paris,
29 April 1845. He is son-in-law of Theophile
Gautier, and since 1884 particularly known as
the amusing chronicler of the 'Figaro* under
the pseudonym of Caliban. His fcuillctons
for that paper were published collectively as
^Life and Adventures of Sieur Caliban* f 1886) ;
<The Book of Caliban* (1887); 'Caliban's
Laughter* (1890), etc. He also wrote two nov-
els, 'Faublas in Spite of Himself *(i884) ; 'The
Rape* (1886) ; besides two volumes to the mem-
ory of his father-in-law. 'Theophile Gautier,
Painter* (1877), and 'Th. Gautier. Conversa-
tions, Souvenirs, and Correspondence* (1879).

Bergh, berg, Henry, American philanthro-
pist and author : b. New York, 1821 ; d. there.
12 March 1888. He was educated at Columbia
College, and from 1861 to 1864 was in the diplo-
matic service, being secretary of the American

legation and United States consul at St. Peters-
burg. In 1865 he founded the American Soci-
ety for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals,
was chosen its president, and in 1866 secured
the passage of an act giving the society the
power of making arrests and carrying on prose-
cutions for violations of the statute on which
the organization was instituted. He remained
president of the society until his death, being
ever its guiding spirit, living entirely in it?
work, and serving without compensation. At
the beginning of his work no State or Terri-
tory had any statute relating to the prevention of
cruelty to animals. At the time of his death 39
States had proper laws on the subject, and in
36 of them branch societies of the organization
had been formed. He was the author of a vol-
ume of tales and sketches 'The Streets of New
York* ; a successful drama, 'Love's Alternative,*
produced in Baltimore, 1881 ; 'The Portentous
Telegram* ; 'The Ocean Paragon* ; and 'Mar-
ried Off- a Poem* (1859).

Bergh, Johann Edvard, Swedish landscape
artist: b. Stockholm, 1828; d. 1880. He was a
professor in the Stockholm Academy and is
looked upon as the founder of a new school of
landscape art in Sweden, distinguished by accu-
rate drawing, intelligent representation of na-
ture, and a very decided nationalism. Among
his most noted subjects are 'Wood Interior* ;
'View of Stockholm* ; 'View in Dalecarlia.*

Bergh, Pieter Theodoor Helvetius van den,
Dutch dramatist and poet: b. Zwolle, 1793; d.
1873. He attracted attention with his comedy
'The Nephew* (1837), considered one of the
best in modern Dutch literature, but did not
justify expectations by his subsequent dramatic
efforts. He also published 'De Nichten.* and a
collection, 'Prose and Poetry* (3d ed. 1863).

Berghaan, berg'han, a Dutch and colonial
name in South Africa for several large hill-
haunting eagles, especially the bataleur (q.v.).

Berghaus, berg'hovvs, Heinrich, German
geographer: b. Cleve, 3 Alay 1797; d. Stettin,
17 Feb. 1884. He served in 181 5 in the Ger-
man army in France, and was from 1816 to
1821 employed in trigonometrical survey of Prus-
sia under the war department. From 1824 to
1855 he was professor of applied mathematics
in the Berlin Academy of Architecture. Besides
his various maps and his great 'Physical Atlas*
(republished in a remodeled form in 1886-92),
he published 'Allgemeine Lander-und Volker-
kunde* (1837-41) ; 'Die Volker des Erdballs*
(1852) : 'Grundlinien der physikalischen Erd-
beschreibung* (1856) : 'Grundlinien der Ethno-
graphie* (1856) ; 'Deutschland seit hundert
Jahren* (1859-62) : 'Was man von der Erde
Weiss* (1856-60) ; 'Sprachschatz der Sassen, or
Low German Dictionary* (incomplete) ; etc.

Berghem, Nikolaas. See Berchem, Niko-
la as.

Bergk, Theodor, German classical philolo-
gist : b. Leipsic, 22 May 1812; d. Ragaz, Switzer-
land, 20 July 1881. He became an indisputable
authority on Hellenic poetry, producing two
works of surpassing importance in that depart-
ment of scholarship: 'Greek Lyric Poets* (4th
ed. 1878-82), and 'History of Greek Literature*
(1872) ; the latter not quite completed at his
death, but brought to perfection with the aid
of his posthumous papers. He contributed

BERGMANN — BERIBERI

much of value, likewise, to our knowledge of
special departments of classical learning.

Berg'mann, Ernst von, German surgeon:
b. Riga, i6 Dec. 1836; d. Wiesbaden, 25 March
1907. He served in the Prussian army 1866-70;
was professor of surger}'' in the Univ. of Wiirtz-
burg 1878-82; and became director of the sur-
gical clinic at the Univ. of Berlin in 1882. He
wrote <^The Putrid Poison'; *^The Embolism^of
Fatty Tissues' ; ^The Poison' ; ^Instruction
Concerning the Putrid Intoxication,' etc.

Bergmann, Julius, German philosopher: b.
Opherdike, Westphalia, 1840. He was professor
of philosophy at Marburg from 1875. Among his
more important writings are ^Grundlinien einer
Theorie des Bewusstseins' (1870) ; 'Zur Beurtei-
lung des Kriticismus' (1875) ; ^Reine Logik'
(1879); <Sein und Erkunnen' (1880); ^Der
Grundprobleme der Logik' (1882) ; 'Geschichte
der Philosophie' (1892-4) ; <Untersuchungen
iiber Hauptpunkte de Philosophic' (1900).

Bergmann, Karl, American musician: b.
Ebersbach, Saxony, 1821 ; d. New York, 10 Aug.
1876. Participation in the revolutionary out-
breaks of 1848 obliged him to go into exile and
he came to New York. He organized and con-
ducted the first great German music festival,
held in the Winter Garden Theatre (1855); in
1856 introduced German opera at Niblo's Gar-
den, and for several years prior to his death con-
ducted the concerts of the Philharmonic Society.
He composed several orchestral pieces, and
excelled as a player of the violoncello and the
piano.

Bergmann, Torbern Olof, Swedish natu-
ral philosopher and chemist: b. Katharineberg,
West Gothland, 20 March 1735; d. 1784. In
1758 he became doctor of philosophy and profes-
sor of physics at Upsal. Upon the resignation
of the celebrated Wallerius, Bergmann was a
candidate for the professorship of chemistry and
mineralogy. His competitors charged him with
ignorance of the subject, because he had never
written on it. To refute them he shut himself
up for some time in a laboratory, and prepared
a treatise on the manufacture of alum, which
is still considered as a standard work. In 1767
he became professor of chemistry, and devoted
himself with ardor to this science. He invented
the preparation of artificial mineral waters, and
discovered the sulphuretted hydrogen gas of
mineral springs. We are indebted to him for a
knowledge of the characters which distinguish
nickel from other metals. On a number of
minerals he made chemical experiments, with an
accuracy before uncommon. He published a
classification of minerals, in which the chief
divisions are based on their chemical char-
acter, and the subdivisions on their ex-
ternal form. In preparing this work he
was much aided by his former discovery
of the geometrical reations between different
crystals of the same substance, which may be
deduced from one primitive form, and are pro-
duced by the aggregation of similar particles,
according to fixed and obvious laws. His the-
ory of the chemical relations is still esteemed,
and although it has received new developments
from the further researches of Berthollet, has
not been overthrown. The order of Gustavus
Vasa was bestowed on Bergmann. Among his
•works the first place is due to <Opuscula Phys-
ica, Chemica, et Mineralia* (i779~94). of which

an English translation appeared. His famous

essay on * Elective Affinities' was translated into
English by Dr. Beddoes.

Bergmehl, berg'mal, a whitish earth, con-
sisting almost entirely of the flinty shields of
microscopic plant growths. It occurs in bog
and ancient lake deposits in many parts of
northern Europe, and, during times of great
scarcity, it has been, when mixed with flour,
eaten as food. Some writers assert that hun-
dreds of carloads are consumed every year
by the inhabitants of northern Sweden. From
analysis, it does not appear to contain any posi-
tive nutriment.

Bergsoe, berg'se, Jorgen Vilhelm, Danish
novelist, poet, and naturalist : b. Copenhagen, 8
Feb. 1835. While suffering partial blindness,
caused by excessive use of the microscope in his
memorable biological researches at Messina, he
turned to literary composition ; and soon appeared
the first of a cycle of novels, ^From the Piazza
del Popolo' (1866), which had an extraordinary
success. The following year he published his
first volume of poems, ^Now and Then.' Of his
many novels, the one which excels for fineness of
touch is, <Who was He?' All his stories are
characterized by rich imagination, fine observa-
tion, and great originality ; his poetry is inferior
in these respects to his prose.

Bergues, barg, France, a town in the de-
partment of Le Nord, in a marshy district, five
miles south of Dunkirk; population (1891),
5,380. It ranks as a fortress of the second class,
is well built of brick, and having a basin which
admits vessels of 250 tons, is the centre of a con-
siderable trade. Its principal edifices are the
townhouse. and a beautiful and richly orna-
mented belfry about 160 feet high. It owes its
origin to the castle of Berg, to which St. Win-
noc retired in 902, was first fortified by Baldwin
II., Count of Flanders, afterward adorned with
a magnificent monastery of St. Winnoc by Bald-
win IV., and in the 13th century possessed flour-
ishing manufactures. It suffered dreadfully
during the wars in the Low Countries. Pop.
(1896), 4.700.

Ber'gut, or Bearcoot, the Tartar name in
Central Asia for the golden eagle (see Eagle),
there trained by Kirghiz for use in falconry.

Berhampur, ber-ham-poor', the name of
two towns of India, (i) The capital of the
Ganjam district, Madras, 525 miles northeast of
Madras, with which it is connected by rail. A
good road leads from it to the coast town of
Gopalpur, nine miles distant. As the headquar-
ters town of the district, it contains the usual
official buildings. Silk cloth is manufactured,
and there is a considerable trade in sugar. The
climate is unhealthy. Pop. (1891), with canton-
ment, 25,653. (2) A town of the Moorsheda-
bad district, Bengal, on the left bank of the
Bhagirathi, 5 miles south of Moorshedabad.
The first open act of the Sepoy mutiny took
place here on 25 Feb. 1857. The town contains
a government college. Pop. (1891) 23,515.

Beriberi, ba-ri-ba'ri, an epidemic form of
multiple neuritis formerly very prevalent^ in
China, but now common in Japan, the Philip-
pines, and associated tropical countries. It is
said to be not infrequent among sailors in and
about the ports on the Gulf of Mexico, particu-

BERING — BERING SEA CONTROVERSY

3arly New Orleans (Bondurant). It is sup-
posed to be of bacterial origin, although an
exclusive rice diet is claimed to be at least a
predisposing cause. The disease exhibits three
main types, an acute pernicious, the atrophic
or dry, and the dropsical or wet forms. The
symptoms are those of a multiple neuritis (q.v.),
and the treatment is that for this disease.

Bering, be'ring, or Behring, Vitus, Dan-
ish navigator: b. Horsens, 1680; d. 19 Dec. 1741.
Being known as a skilful seaman, he was em-
ployed by Peter the Great in the navy established
at Cronstadt. His talents and the undaunted
courage displayed by him in the naval wars
against the Swedes, procured him the honor
of being chosen to command a voyage of dis-
covery in the sea of Kamchatka. He set out
from St. Petersburg, 5 Feb. 1725, for Siberia.
In the year 1728 he examined the northeastern
coasts of Asia, discovered the strait named after
him, and proved that Asia is not united to
America. It remained, however, to be deter-
mined whether the land opposite to Kamchatka
was in reality the coast of the American con-
tinent, or merely islands lying between Asia and
America. On 4 June 1741 he sailed, with two
ships, from Okhotsk, and touched the northwest
coast of America. Tempests and sickness pre-
vented him from pursuing his discoveries ; he
was cast on a desolate island covered with
snow and ice, where he died. See Life by Lau-
ridson (Chicago 1890).

Bering Sea, that part of the north Pacific
Ocean between the Aleutian Islands, in 55°, and
Bering Strait, in 66° N., by which latter it
communicates with the Arctic Ocean. It has on
its west side Kamchatka and the Chukchi coun-
try, with the Gulf of Anadyr, and on its east the
territory of Alaska, with Norton Sound and
Bristol Bay; contains several islands, and re-
ceives the Yukon River from North America
and the Anadyr River from Asia. Fogs are
almost perpetual in this sea. Ice is formed and
melted in the sea every year, the northern part
becoming closed to navigation about the begin-
ning of November. Pack ice gradually extends
southward to a little below the latitude of St.
Matthews Island (60^°), beyond which ice is
found in floes. The southern limit of the ice
usually extends from Bristol Bay, Alaska, to
about 35 miles south of Pribilof Island, though
in exceptionally severe winters it reaches as far
south as Unimak Pass. It usually leaves Pribi-
lof Island about i May, and vessels follow-
ing in its wake may reach Bering Strait be-
tween about 15 and 25 June. A strong and
comparatively warm current sets northward at
about two to three knots an hour, through
Bering Strait, and after following the Siberian
shore turns north toward Herald Island _ A
cold current also passes out through the strait.

Bering Sea Controversy, an international
dispute over the territorial status of that sea,
chiefly between the United States and Great
Britain, and growing out of attempts of the
former to protect its fur-sealing industries there
from the Canadian subjects of the latter. This
industry rests on three great herds in the North
Pacific, which resort regularly to certain is-
lands in the breeding season, from May or June
till the autumn storms, theq move southward
to about 35° N., and gradually work north-
ward the next spring. At the islands the elder

males remain with the young on the beach
while the females go in search of food, some-
times 200 miles. The younger males, or "bach-
elors,'* two to four years old, herd apart, and
should furnish all the commercial sealskins, the
pelts of the old males being unsalable and the
killing of females a blow at the continuance
of the species. But this selection can only be
made on shore; pelagic or ocean sealing is at
best indiscriminate if done during migrations,
and is almost exclusively of females during
the breeding season, while every mother seal
then killed means a young seal starved ashore.
The largest of these "rookeries" is on the Pribi-
loff Islands in Bering Sea, where the Russian-
American Company carried on sealing till their
cession to the United States in 1867, when it
was taking some 40,000 seals a year; the herd
being protected by restrictive regulations. In
1821 Alexander I. issued a ukase claiming
Bering Sea as Russian property, and forbidding
trespass on pain of confiscation ; but the United
States and Great Britain protested so vigorously
that the claim was dropped. After the cession,
the rivalry of competing companies would speed-
ily have made an end of the seals in the
Northern Ocean, as it long since had in the
Southern, had not the United States leased the
islands for 20 years to the Alaska Commercial
Company (which then leased the Russian seal-
islands also) for $55,000 a year and $2.62^/2 a
skin, restricting the catch to 100,000 a year.
In fact the company kept a' little under that
mark; but the contract was so profitable that
vessels were soon fitting out from British Colum-
bia, Hawaii, and Australia, which intercepted
the seals as they passed between the Aleutian
Islands northward or southward, or entered
Bering Sea and caught the females as they
ranged the seas for food. The poaching grew in
volume, and a stream of protest from the Alaska
Company flowed in year after year to the
government at Washington, which in 1881 was
goaded into officially reversing its former con-
tention, and declared Bering Sea east of the
treaty meridian of 1867 American waters ; but
took no further step till 1886, when under
President Cleveland it seized and condemned
three Canadian sealers. Great Britain protested,
and proceedings were suspended pendmg dis-
cussion ; but in 1887 five more were seized, and
the question at once became a burning one in
our diplomacy. Secretary Bayard atterr^pted to
convene delegates from Great Britain, France.
Germany, Sweden, Russia, and Japan, to meet
with our own and frame regulations to prevent
the extirpation of the northern seals: but in
June 1888 Great Britain withdrew, under pres-
sure from Canada. In 1889 several more Cana-
dian vessels were seized, and Great Britain sent
a practical menace of war if this were not
stopped. There being but three alternatives,
abandonment of the sealing interest to destruc-
tion, which the country would not endure; seiz-
ure of all poaching sealers, which rneant war;
and arbitration — the latter was decided on in
1890. The same year the Alaska Company, its
lease expired, was succeeded by the North
American Company ; the herd, estimated in
1867 at over 3,000,000 on the Pribiloff Islands,
had shrunk so enormously under the pelagic
sealing that the price had risen from $2.50 to
$30 per skin, and the new company's limit of
capture was restricted to 20,000, with a royalty

BERING STRAIT — BERINGTON

of $10 a skin. On 15 June 1891 a modus vivendi
was agreed on for joint policing of Bering Sea
by British and American vessels; and on 29 Feb.
1892 a treaty of arbitration was signed, under
which on 2^ March 1893 a tribunal met at Paris,
composed of Baron de Courcel (France), Mar-
quis Emilio Visconti-Venosti (Italy), Judge
Gregers W. W. Gram (Sweden-Norway), Lord
Hannan (England), Sir John S. D. Thompson
(Canada), Justice John M. Harlan, and Senator
John T. Morgan (United States). The United
States case was conducted by the secretary of state
(John W. Foster) ; counsel, Edward J. Phelps,
James C. Carter, Frederick R. Coudert, and
Henry Blodget. The decision on the legal points
was entirely against the United States ; Bering
Sea was held part of the high seas and no one's
preserve, and seals fercz naturce and no one's
property. But on the point of equity in our
case, that the preservation of the seals from
extinction v/as a common interest of the civi-
lized world, it agreed with us, and framed reg-
ulations binding for five years to prohibit all
pelagic sealing within 60 miles of the Pribiloffs,
or from i May to 31 July in the North Pacific
east of 180° or north of 35°, with other regula-
tions. The restrictions proved absurdly ineffec-
tive, and Great Britain would not antagonize
Canada to make them less so ; in 1894 the pelagic
catch was the enormous one of 142,000. far
beyond any former record, and for several
more seasons was very great, till the herds
showed signs of rapid exhaustion. Great Brit-
ain obstinately refused to make any change
in the regulations till the five years were up,
sent an expert to the spot who laid all the
blame on the North American Corhpany, and
refused to send a delegate to meet those of
Russia, Japan, and the United States, who
agreed to prohibit pelagic sealing to their sub-
jects if Great Britain would do so. Meantime,
to put pressure on the latter, Congress prohib-
ited the importation of all sealskins except the
North American Company's, in order to destroy
the market for Canadian-caught skins and make
their business unprofitable ; but England still
refused to agree to the provisional treaty, on the
ground that it would injure Canada, was not
necessary to protect the seals, and that the
North American Company was solely in fault.
But on 18 Nov. 1897 a joint meeting of Eng-
lish, American, and Canadian experts was held,
and imanimously supported the American con-
tention at every point ; that the herds had dimin-
ished by from 663<j to 80 per cent, and mark-
edly so even from 1896 to 1897 ; that the North
American Company was handling its business
with entire propriety; that pelagic sealing, in-
volving the killing off of the females, was the
sole cause of the reduction, which was threat-
ening the entire extinction of the fur seal.
Another year would bring about the time for
changing the Paris regulations ; and the United
States agreed to prohibit all seal killing even on
the Pribiloffs for a year, but Canada would
not consent because it would scatter the crews
of her sealing fleet. Meantime, Congress on 14
June 1898 appropriated $473,151.26 to pay for
the Canadian vessels seized years before. On
30 May 1898, a joint Canadian and American
commission was authorized ; it met at Quebec in
August, adjourned to November at Washing-
ton, continued till February 1899, adjourned to
the summer, and never reassembled. Most un-

fortunately, its scope included all the questions
at issue between the two governments : the seal-
ing problem became entangled at the outset
with impossible bargains for general commer-
cial reciprocity, then with the Alaska boundary
question (q.v.) made acute by the Klondike
gold discoveries, and at the adjournment not
a single issue before it had been decided. The
Paris regulations had expired, no new ones
had been established, and the seals were left
wholly without protection ; while even so, as
the United States forbade pelagic sealing to its
citizens while England did not, all the profit of
the perishing industry was being reaped by for-
eigners. The Canadian fleet of 1899 numbered
26 vessels, that of 1900 numbered 33, with a
catch of over 35,000 each year, considerably
more than half females. The same conditions
have prevailed since ; the North American Com-
pany has been increasing its efforts in order
to obtain its share while the seals last; and in
the Congressional session of 1901-2 it was seri-
ously proposed to kill off the entire herd at
once, and thus end the question by putting
an end to the seals. (The latest work on this
subject is the chapter in Henderson's ^American
Diplomatic Questions,^ 1901 ; earlier aspects
were discussed in Stanton's ^Bering Sea Contro-
versy^ 1892.) See U. S. — Diplomacy of the.

Bering Strait and Island. The strait is
the channel that separates Asia from America,
and connects the North Pacific with the Arctic
Ocean. Its breadth at the narrowest part, be-
tween Cape Prince of Wales on the American
coast and East Cape in Asia, is about 36 miles,
and its depth in the middle varies from 29 to
30 fathoms. On both sides are several commo-
dious bays ; but the country is barren and rocky,
with scanty vegetation. The sea here is frozen
over every winter, and foggy, hazy weather is
almost perpetual. Whales frequent the strait,
and the walrus occurs in vast numbers. The
inhabitants on either shore support themselves
chiefly by hunting and fishing; but those on the
Asiatic side are greatly superior, both physically
and intellectually, to those on the American.
The strait is called after Vitus Bering, by whom
it was first discovered. It was more fully ex-
plored by Capt. Cook in 1778. Bering Isl.^nd
is in the southwest part of the above sea, off
the east coast of Kamchatka. It is uninhabited,
and is without wood. It has, however, several
springs of excellent water. Here the navigator
Bering died in 1741.

Ber'ington, Joseph, English Roman Cath-
olic theologian: b. Shropshire, 1744; d. Berk-
shire, I Dec. 1827. His first work was ^A Letter
on Materialism, and Hartley's Theory of the
Human Mind^ (1776). About this time, the
English Roman Catholics found their position
much stronger in the arena of public opinion,
and began to think of appearing there openly.
Berington, in 1779, published a letter to For-
dyce, on his 'Sermon against Popery.' In 1780
appeared his 'State and Behavior of English
Catholics from the Reformation till 1780.' In
1786 he came forward with 'An Address to the
Protestant Dissenters,' who had lately petitioned
for a repeal of the corporation and test acts.
In 1787 appeared the 'History of Abelard and
Heloise,' with their genuine letters, and *^An
Exposition of Roman Catholic Principles, in
reference to God and the Country,' and other

BERIOT — BERKELEY

pamphlets. In 1790, Berington gave to the
world a 'History of Henry H.^ (of England),
vindicating the character of Becket from Lord
Lyttleton's attacks. In 1793 appeared his < Mem-
oirs of Gregorio Panzani,^ papal legate to
England in 1634-6, translated from fhe Italian.
But his most important work appeared in 1814,
a 'Literary History of the Middle Ages,^ giving
an account of the state of learning from "the
close of the reign of Augustus to its revival in
the 15th century.^^

Beriot, ba-re-6, Charles Auguste de, Bel-
gian violinist: b. Louvain 20 Feb. 1802; d.
there 20 April 1870. He studied with Rob-
brecht and Tiby, and, in Paris, with Baillot;
and became a professor in the Conservatory in
Brussels in 1842. In 1836 he married the cele-
brated singer, Malibran. He published a 'Vio-
lin Method^ (1858).

Berislav, ba're-slaf, or Borislav, Russia, a
fortified town on the Dnieper River. It is the
centre of trade for the district. Pop. (1903)
13,700.

Berkeley, George, English philosopher
and bishop : b. Kilcrin, Ireland, 12 March 1685 ;
d. Oxford, 14 Jan. 1753. He was educated at
Trinity College, Dublin, where he took a keen
interest in the philosophical problems then un-
der discussion. He received the degree of A.B.
with honors in 1704, being afterward success-
ively scholar and fellow. Almost immediately he
began his career of authorship. He published in
1709 his first important work, the 'New The-
ory of Vision,^ which is the logical preliminary
to his system and gives expression to certain of
its fundamental principles. A year later his
philosophy finds complete statement in the
'Treatise Concerning the Principles of Human
Knowledge.^ During the next 15 years Berke-
ley advanced to a position of prominence in
the English Church. In 171 1, shortly after his
ordination to the diaconate, he published his
'Discourse on Passive Obedience,^ a treatise
upon ethics, in which he develops a system of
theological utilitarianism. The 'Dialogues,^
published in 171 1, present his philosophy in lit-
erary form, clothing subtle argument in a garb
of rhetorical beauty. In the years immediately
fol'owing, several new works appeared, accom-
panied by increasing fame and prosperity. He
was appointed successively to the deaneries of
Dromore and of Derry, the latter of which
yielded a large income. But this he resigned
in order to devote himself to a plan for the
establishment of a college in the Bermudas,
where the Indians of America were to be en-
lightened and Christianized. For the furtherance
of such a plan he obtained a promise from the
government for a grant of £20,000. Upon the
strength of this he sailed for America in 1728,
accompanied by his wife and a few friends.
They went first to Rhode Island, where they
planned to await the expected grant. Here
Berkeley purchased a farm and waited three
years in quiet and study. Finally, upon the
failure of the government to make good its
promise, he was compelled to give up his cher-
ished plan and return to England in 1731. Soon
after his return he was made Bishop of Cloyne.
During the remaining years of his life he
published a number of works upon philosophy,
economics, and other subjects. Notable among
these were 'Alciphron, or the Minute Philoso-

pher,^ the result of his quiet studies in Rhode
Island, and 'Sirus,^ a remarkable essay in which
the author interweaves his convictions concern-
the healing properties of tar-water with the
deepest and most profound of his philosophic
reflections.

Although the representative English idealist,
Berkeley proceeds in his thought from the em-
pirical philosophy of Locke. It was Locke's
contention that in knowledge we are concerned
with our own ideas only, and that these ideas
are derived entirely from experience. He made
an important distinction among these ideas,
however, with reference to their representation
of objective or material reality. Ideas of color,
sound, taste, etc., called secondary qualities,
are subjective processes, and reveal nothing of
the nature of material reality. But ideas of ex-
tension, figure, motion, etc., called primary qual-
ities, reveal directly the nature and constitution
of that reality which exists without the mind
in the material world. Berkeley agreed with
Locke that we know only our own ideas, but he
attacked vigorously this distinction between pri-
mary and secondary qualities. He maintained
that ideas of primary qualities are wholly sub-
jective, and tell us no more of the nature of
material reality than do our ideas of secondary
qualities. He attempts a partial proof of this
in his 'New Theory of Vision,^ by showing
that distance, magnitude, and situation, are not
directly perceived by sight, but are inferred
in an indirect manner. These ideas of distance,
magnitude, and situation are results of judg-
ment based upon visual sensations. Such visual
sensations have no essential relation to the
ideas in question, however — they are simply
associated with them in experience. For ex-
ample, consider our idea of distance. We find
connected with this idea: (i) Sensation of
movement in the eye; (2) confusion in vision
due to nearness of the object; and (3) strain of
fixation. These sensations are associated by
custom with degrees of distance. Hence we
have in this idea of distance no direct revela-
tion through vision of the nature of material
reality. Rather we have the product of our
own judgment, based upon sensations which
have themselves no objective reference. So it
is with other ideas of primary qualities which
have been held to bring us into immediate con-
tact with material reality. In ideas of figure and
motion we have sensations of light, color, and
strain, and the remainder is due to associa-
tion and judgment. Thus Berkeley concludes
that we have in visual ideas not a revelation
of the nature of matter, but a universal lan-
guage of symbols whereby we interpret our sen-
sations of touch, and so regulate our actions
as to preserve and promote our lives. In his
'Treatise Concerning the Principles of Human
Knowledge,* he uses this conclusion to dis-
prove the existence of a material world apart
from, and independent of, the perceiving mind.
The very notion of matter or corporeal sub-
stance involves insoluble contradiction. By mat-
ter is meant inert, senseless substance in which
extension, figure, and motion reside. But these
so-called attributes of matter are ideas in the
mind, and are shown to be every whif as sub-
jective as ideas of colors and tastes. Now,
ideas can be similar only to ideas. Hence to
suppose that our ideas copy or represent a
material substance that is unperceiving and

BERKELEY

nnperceived, is a crass absurdity. Ideas are the
only objects of our thought. To exist as an ob-
ject is to be perceived. (Esse est per dpi.)
Although confined to our own ideas, we may ob-
serve their various characteristics and combina-
tions. Sense qualities are simple states _ of
consciousness. Sense-objects are sensation-
complexes. There is in our consciousness a
continuous succession of these perceptions, in
which we perceive perceptions newly excited,
perceptions changed, and perceptions obliterated.
For all this phenomena there must be some
cause. This cause cannot be an idea or combina-
tion of ideas ; for it is the appearance and ar-
rangement of ideas which must be explained.
This cause must be a substance, a ground of ex-
istence. Matter, or corporeal substance, is an
impossibility. We are compelled, therefore, to
find the cause of our ideas in an incorporeal,
active substance, or spirit. But we observe an
important difference in the production of our
ideas. Those ideas actually perceived by the
senses of the individual are not dependent upon
his own mind or will. Hence there must be
some other will or spirit which produces them.
This is God, the Author of Nature. The ideas
of sense are imprinted upon our minds by
the direct influence of the Divine Mind. Hence
they are strong, orderly, and coherent. Their
source guarantees their trustworthiness, and
with good reason they may be called "real
things.^^ In this way our knowledge acquires
an objective validity much more adequate than
if our ideas were aroused by the action of a
material substance upon our sense-organs. The
laws of nature, which we properly regard, rep-
resent the regular operation of the Divine Mind
upon our minds. There is consequently no dif-
ficulty in distinguishing the order of ideas which
is real and objective, from the train of sub-
jective fancies and imaginations.

The best edition of Berkeley's works is that
by Fraser (2d ed. 1902), containing a *Life.*
Consult further: Fraser's briefer <Life^ (1881;
new ed. 1901 ; in < Philosophical Classics^ ;
Frederichs, <Ueber Berkeleys Idealismus'
(1870) ; Spicker, <Kant, Hume und Berkeley*
(1875) ; lanitsch, <Kants Urtheil iiber Berke-
ley > (1879). H. W. Wright,
Cornell University.
Berkeley, George Charles Grantley Fitz-
hardinge, English writer: b. 10 Feb. 1800; d.
Poole, Dorsetshire, 23 Feb. 1881. In 1832-52
he was a member of the British Parliament, and
for a time he was in the army. His ^My Life
and Recollections^ (1864-6), an extensive work,
attracted some attention. Among his further
works are: < Berkeley Castle^ (1836); <San-
dron Hall, or the Days of Queen Anne^ (1840) ;
^The English Sportsman on the Western
Prairies^ (1861) ; ^Anecdotes of the Upper Ten
Thousand at Home and Abroad^ (18^7); antl
<Tales of Life and Death> (1870).

Berkeley, Sir George, English engineer: b.
London 26 April 1821 ; d. there 20 Dec. 1893-
In 1835 he began experimenting with methods
for operating atmospheric railways. In 1841
he associated himself with Robert Stephenson
and continued his experiments. On Stephen-
son's death he became engineer of the Great
Indian Peninsular Railway. In 1892 he was
made president of the Institute of Civil Engi-
neers. He wrote papers on atmospheric rail-

ways and on the strength of iron and steel;
and was knighted in 1893.

Berkeley, Sir John, English nobleman,
one of the proprietors of New Jersey : b. 1607 ;
d. 28 Aug. 1678. He was a prominent Royalist
•during the contest of Charles I. with Parlia-
ment. Charles II. granted him, with Sir George
Cartaret, a proprietary interest in New Jersey
and Carolina.

Berkeley, Miles Joseph, English botanist:
b. Biggin, Derbyshire, 1803 ; d. Sibbertoft, Lei-
cestershire, July 1889. Educated at Christ
Church, Oxford, he took orders, was curate at
Margate (Kent) and Market Harborough
(Leicestershire), and subsequently was made
vicar of Sibbertoft. He soon became the lead-
ing British authority on fungi and plant path-
ology, and especially well known for his achieve-
ments in mycology. About 6,000 species of
fungi are credited to him; his most important
work was the section on fungi contributed to
Hooker's ^British Flora^ (1836), and his * Out-
lines of British Fungology^ (i860), and he
assembled a fine herbarium of more than 9,000
species, now at the Kew Gardens, and regarded
as one of the most noteworthy in the world.
A bibliography may be found in the "^Catalogue
of Scientific Papers* of the Royal Society. Con-
sult, also. Vol. XLVII. (1890) of the < Proceed-
ings of the Royal Society* for a sketch by
Hooker.

Berkeley, Stanley, English artist. He has
constantly exhibited at the Royal Academy in
recent years, and is a national gold medallist and
a member of the Royal Institute of Painter
Etchers. Among his paintings are < The Vic-
tory of Candahar* ; ^For God and the King*;
'Prince Rupert at the Battle of Edgehill* ;
^Completely Routed* ; ^An Australian Bush
Fire*; 'Heroes of the Tugela* ; 'The Meet*;
'Atbara* ; 'Omdurman*; 'The Charge of Scar-
lett's Three Hundred* ; Gordons and Greys to
the Front* ; 'Full Cry* ; 'Desperate Odds* ;
'Dargai* ; 'Cornered at Last* ; 'The Death* ;
'The Charge of the French Cuirassiers at
Waterloo.* He has also done much in the way
of illustrating books and newspapers.

Berkeley, Sir William, American colonial
governor : b. near London about 1610 ; d. 13
July 1677. His father and brother were colo-
nial proprietors. Graduating from Oxford 1629,
he traveled on the Continent for a year; was
appointed a commissioner of Canada 1632, and
won a high reputation there. In 1641 he was
made governor of Virginia, and arriving in 1642,
was for a time very popular. He experimented
in the cultivation of rice, cotton, indigo, hemp,
flax, and silk, the manufacture of potash and
naval stores, and the cutting and export of
masts ; pleased the Royalist party by expell-
ing the New England Puritans in 1643. and all
parties by capturing the Indian chief Opechan-
canough in 1644, after a series of Indian mas-
sacres. Always with an eye to profit, however,
he received from the king a monopoly of the
fur trade. During the English revolution he
adhered to the royal side, and offered an asylum
in Virginia to exiled or dissatisfied Royalists ;
many hundreds availed themselves of this.
When Cromwell felt strong enough he sent a
fleet (in 1651) to bring him back for punish-

GEORGE BERKELEY,

BERKELEY — BERKHAMPSTEAD

ment ; but Berkeley succeeded in making terms
with it by mingled "bluff'' and finesse, and was
allowed to retire in safety to his plantation,
though deprived of his office. When the Resto-
ration began to seem probable, the colonists elect-
•cd Berkeley as governor to gain favor in such
event ; Berkeley accepted it provisionally, and
Charles II. on accession confirmed it. But in
this second term all Berkeley's evil side showed
itself, till it ended in the atrocities of 1676.
Besides expelling and confiscating the goods of
Puritans and Quakers, a measure popular at
the time, he frowned on the establishment of
schools, and absolutely refused to have a print-
ing-press set up, as making people too censorious
■of their superiors. He formed a council of the
wealthier planters, and having obtained during
the spasm of Restoration loyalty in 1662 an
ultra-royalist House of Burgesses, would not
issue writs for another election for 14 years,
simply adjourning annually the "Long Assem-
"bly,*' as it came to be called ; and in 1670 abol-
ished universal suffrage, substituting a property
qualification, purely as a precaution for the
future, as no elections were held for years before
and after. These, however, were only means
to the end of profiting himself and his friends,
■and the rapacious crew of civil officers sent over
by Charles to quiet their importunities. The
heavy taxes and fees imposed on the colony,
■drove them to desperation, so that as early as
1667 they were ripe for revolt. Besides Berke-
ley's share in various extortions, he had one
monopoly which led directly to the catastrophe,
that of the Indian trade, which he gained by
underhand means. The colony allowed no trade
with the Indians without license ; Berkeley there-
fore licensed a small number of men to trade
in furs with them, which secretly included liq-
uor, firearms, and other things, and exacted a
third of the profits. It was believed to be this
Lgain which led him to refuse permission to the
[colonists to protect themselves against the In-
Wians in 1675-6, while hundreds of them were
|teing massacred and tortured and scores of
plantations laid waste, and to dissolve force
lafter force assembled to protect them. How
JNathaniel Bacon chastised the Indians in spite
•of him, was proscribed for it, forced into open
iTebellion, drove Berkeley into retreat and burned
jliis capital, and died at the moment of his
jTictory, is told under 'Bacon's Rebellion.^
JBerkeiey's soul was as full of senile fury as it
["had been of senile avarice ; he slaughtered right
[and left, hanging a score of victims with such
["vindictive haste and ruffianly insult that the
lAssembl}' remonstrated, and the royal commis-
isioners, who came in January to investigate the
reondition of the colony, made a report that led
[the king to remove him, with the comment,
[*The old fool has put to death more people in
[that naked country than I for the m.urder of
[iny father." He sailed 27 April, his departure
[celebrated with bonfires and salutes of cannon ;
[and expected to justify himself to the king and
iTeturn. But Charles kept postponing an inter-
Iview, and in a few weeks Berkeley died — of
[chagrinj it was believed.

Berkeley, Gal., a town in Alameda County,
[on the Southern P. R.R. ; 8 miles northeast of
I San Francisco. It is the seat of the State Uni-
[versity of California (q.v.) ; the State Agricul-
Itural College; the State Institution for the Deaf,

Dumb, and Blind ; and six college preparatory
schools. The town is w'ell equipped with elec-
tric light and street railroads ; and has soap
works, iron foundries and machine shops,
furniture factory, and other industries. Pop.
(1900) 13,214.

Berkeley, England, a market town, 16
miles southwest of Gloucester, pleasantly situ-
ated on the right bank of the Avon, in the rich
vale of Berkeley, and celebrated for its castle,
where Edward II. was confined and barba-
rously murdered. Pop. (igoi) 6,277.

Berkeley Divinity School, an Episcopal
theological school at Middletown, Conn. It was
organized by Bishop John Williams of Con-
necticut while he was president of Trinity Col-
lege, at Hartford, and was at first intended to
be the theological department of the college.
It was later placed upon an independent basis
and removed to its present location. The value
of its buildings is about $90,000, and its endow-
ment fund is not far from $350,000.

Berkeley Sound, next to Stanley Sound
the most frequented inlet of the East Falkland
Island, near its northeast extremity. Though it
is difficult to enter, it contains some of the best
harbors in the South Atlantic.

Berkeley Springs, W. Va., a town and
county-seat of IMorgan County ; 2 miles south
of the Potomac and 'j'j miles northwest of
Washington ; on a branch of the Baltimore &
O. R.R. It is in an agricultural region, and
has been widely known and popular for more
than a century because of its mineral springs.
The site of the town was a part of the vast
estate of Lord Fairfax, and Washington owned
considerable property here. It is the oldest
pleasure resort in the South, and as far back
as the colonial days the gentry of Virginia
came here in warm weather and lived in log
huts in order to enjoy or be benefited by the
baths and swimming pools. Pop. (1900) 781.

Berk'enhout, John, Dutch-English physi-
cian and general writer: b. Leeds, about 1730;
d. 1791. Having entered the Prussian service,
he rose to the rank of captain. In 1756 he
quitted that service and entered into that of
England, where he obtained the same rank. At
the peace in 1760 he went to Edinburgh and
began the study of physic ; while there he pub-
lished his 'Clavis Anglica Linguae Botanicas,'
a book of great merit, and later his 'Pharma-
copoeia Medici,' which passed through three
editions. In 1778 he attended the British com-
missioners to America, and at Philadelphia he
was committed to prison, but he soon after-
ward was set at liberty, and returned with the
commissioners to England, where he obtained a
pension. He was an industrious writer, and his
publications possess considerable merit.

Berkhampstead, berk'ham-sted, or Berk-
hamsted, Great, a town in Hertfordshire,
England, beautifully situated in a hollow, sur-
rounded by hills, on the London & N. W. R.R.
It consists almost wholly of one main street,
and has a fine old church, restored 1871-87 ;
several chapels ; Berkhamsted School, with a
fine chapel (1895); a high school for girls;
many other schools ; etc. There are works for
wooden ware, a large chemical work, a boat-
building yard, brush, coach, and mantle fac-
tories, an iron foundry, etc. The poet Cowper

BERKHEY — BERLIN

was born here in 1731. In the small parish of
Little Berkhampstead, some miles to the north,
the famous Bishop Ken was born. Pop. (1891)
5,034-

Berkhey, berk'hl, Johannes Lefranca van,
Dutch writer of eminence : b. Leyden, 23 Jan.
1729; d. there, 13 March 1812. His work, en-
titled *Naturlyke Historie van Holland,* first
brought him into notice. He also distinguished
himself as a poet, though he often manifests a
tendency to bombast, and indulges in false
pathos. One of his best poems is entitled <Het
Verheerligkt Leyden.*

Berkley, Va., a town in Norfolk County
on the Elizabeth River opposite the city of Nor-
folk. It is on the Norfolk & W. and the Nor-
folk & S. R.R.'s. The Berkley College and
Military Institute and several private schools
are located here. Shipyards, foundries, and
knitting-mills are also among the features of
the town. Pop. (1900) 4,988.

Berkshire, a midland county of England,
with an area of 450,132 acres or 712 square
miles. Its shape is very irregular, and has
been compared to that of a shoe or slipper. A
range of chalk hills crosses the country in a
westerly direction, and forms a boundary to the
fertile vale of Whitehorse, so called from the
gigantic form of a horse which has been scooped
out on the side of a chalk hill, so as to become
conspicuous to all the country round, referred to
in Thomas Hughes' '^The Scouring of the White
Horse.* The cultivated parts of the county,
and more especially this vale, are peculiarly
fruitful in barley. They also contain much rich
pasturage and many excellent dairy farms.
Timber abounds, particularly oak and heech, in
Windsor Forest and toward the west. Tur-
nips are an important crop. There are but few
manufactures carried on in this county, the
principal being agricultural implements and
artificial manures, flour, paper, sacking and sail-
cloth, and biscuits (at Reading). Malt is made
in great quantities, and chiefly sent to London.
The principal towns of Berkshire are Reading
(the county town), Newbury. Maidenhead,
Wokingham, Wallingford, Windsor, Abingdon.
Wantage, and Farringdon. Pop. (1901) 255,000.
See Graves, *The Way About Berkshire* (1898).

Berkshires, The, or Berkshire Hills, a
range of mountains in the northwest of Massa-
chusetts ; in Berkshire County ; stretching 16
miles north and south on the east of the valley
of the Upper Hoosic River. They are a favorite
summer and autumn resort. The highest
summits are Greylock in the north, 3,535 feet,
and Mount Everett, or the Dome, in the south,
2,635 feet.

Berlad, ber-lad', Rumania, a town on the
Berlad River, and Teucuci-Baslui R.R., about
68 miles northwest of Bucharest. It is the trade
centre of a grain-raising district and has many
distilleries. It is a well built town, with good
schools and a theatre. Pop. (1903) 26,892.

Berleburg, bcr'le-boorg, or Berleburger
Bible, a translation of the Scriptures pub-
lished at Berleburg, Germany (1726-42). Its
unknown editors have given an original version
with accompanying exposition more or less
mystical in character.

Berlichingen, ber'liH-Tng-en, Gotz, or God-
frey von, German soldier of fortune: b. Jax-

thausen, Swabia 1480; d. 23 July 1562. He was
a bold, restless, warlike, and honorable knight.
He placed himself at the head of a body of the
rebellious peasants, in the war which they
waged against their oppressors, but was soon
made prisoner. Before that time he had lost
his right hand, and therefore wore one made of
iron. His biography, written by himself, was
printed at Nuremberg in 1731 and 1775, and, for
the third time, at Breslau in 1813. This book
contains an excellent picture of the social life
and customs of the time, and has furnished
Goethe with the subject of his drama, 'Goetz
von Berlichingen,* translated by Sir Walter
Scott.

Berlin, Canada, town and county-seat of
Waterloo County, Ont. ; on the Grand R. and
the Grand T. R.R. ; 62 miles west of Toronto.
It has manufactories of furniture, leather, boots
and shoes, pianos and organs, buttons, gloves,
etc. ; excellent sewerage system, waterworks,
street railway, and gas and electric light plants ;
a Roman Catholic college, 15 churches, and sev-
eral daily, weekly, and monthly periodicals.
Pop. (1 901) 9.747-

Benin. iSio account of the earliest settle-
ment of Berlin has come down to us, but it ia
supposed that the city was founded during the
decade from 1230 to 1240. Indeed, the mar-
graves John I. and Otto III. are said to have
established the city as a stronghold against the
Slavs. The name Berlin is probably of Slavic
origin, although some scholars trace the word
to ^'Barlein,'* from the fact that a bear appears
on the coat of arms of the city. The new city,
or town, was situated on the old commercial
highway which led from Leipsic to Stettin and
was known especially as a market for herring,
grain, and wood. Cologne (Colonia), the
near-by sister city on the river Spree, seems to
have been established as an independent munici-
pality simultaneously with Berlin and was united
with Berlin, temporarily, in the year 1307.
Though the margrave had his castle in the city,
the municipal government was left to the mayor
and aldermen, who enjoyed full sway.

In 1 134 the mark of Brandenburg had come
into the hands of Albrecht the Bear, of the
House of Ascan, to which family also belonged
the founders of Berlin, who ruled in common.
After the extinction of this family (1323) the
German emperor, Ludwig of Bavaria, gave
Brandenburg to his son Ludwig as a fief, who
in 1351 passed it to his brother, Ludwig the
Roman. His successor. Otto the Lazy, sold
the mark to the emperor Karl IV. (i373)-
Karl's son, the emperor Sigismund, appointed
Friedrich von Hohenzollern, burggravc of
Niirnberg, viceroy of the mark in 141 1 and made
him an elector in 1415. This increased dignity,
which indeed had already been worn by Ludwig
the Roman, gave the ruler of the mark an im-
portance that redounded to the good of the
country and of the city. The first Hohenzollern
had a difficult position to fill, in that he had to
put down a rebellious and, in part, thievish
nobility. This nobility, especially the family of
Quitzows, did great damage to the trade of
Berlin (1406-1410). Just as his father had had
to contend with the nobility, Frederick II., the
second Hohenzollern, had to fight against the
populace of Berlin-Cologne. Soon after he un-

BERLIN

dertook the government he began a strong
citadel in Cologne, on the bank of the Spree.

1 his same citadel, enlarged and extended
during the centuries, now serves the present
emperor both as a residence, and as the palace
where he receives his princely guests. With the
building of the citadel the margrave removed
to Berlin ; and the result was that Berlin and
Cologne had to surrender much of their au-
thority to him. At first the cities had become
involved in a dispute over constitutional and
administrative matters and had called in Fred-
erick II. as arbiter; but soon they were quarrel-
ling with the prince himself, and he defeated
both of them.

Since Berlin-Cologne has been the residence
of the Hohenzollerns the history of the city has
been intimately connected with that of the reign-
ing family. The rulers have always been par-
ticularly interested in building up the city. In
this respect the work of the Great Elector, Fred-
erick William (1640-88), was noteworthy. He
added two new wards to the city, Friedrichs-
werder and Dorotheenstadt, built magnificent
fortifications (though later these were re-
moved), and summoned architects and engineers
from Holland to finish the palace and lay out
public grounds, as the Lustgarten and the Lin-
den-promenade. His successor, Frederick III.,
the first king of Prussia, added to the city
Friedrichstadt and other suburbs. Supported by
artists like Schliiter and Eosander he enlarged
and beautified the palace and gave the city a
number of fine statues and public buildings, par-
ticularly the Zenghaus, which is one of Berlin's
conspicuous monuments of architecture. The
fine eouestrian statue of the Great Elector, on
the bridge near the palace, is by Schulter. Fred-
crick William I. was especially interested in
building private residences. He made presents
of building-lotj and even furnished lumber
gratis and made other concessions.

His son, Frederick the Great, turned his at-
tention to the erection of new buildings in Pots-
dam, his favorite residence. After the Seven
Years' War, in which Berlin had been burned
twice, the king began, at great personal expense,
the construction of houses for those who en-
joyed his favor. External architectural beauty
was aimed at, rather than convenience. Among
the public structures erected by Frederick the
Great may be mentioned the two domes of the
German and the French church, the King's
Colonade, and the Royal Library. In 1763 he
established the Royal Porcelain Manufactory.

The famous Brandenburg Gate, a triumphal
arch in classic style, was erected in 1793, during
the reign of Frederick William II. It was orna-
mented by the sculptor Schadow with a bronze
statue of Victory driving a four-horse chariot.
When Berlin was taken by the French in 1807
this was taken to Paris, but was recovered in
181.1 after Paris had been taken by the allies.
Under Frederick William III. the present Royal
Theatre and the Old Museum were built, and
under Frederick William IV. the statue of Fred-
erick the Great. The wonderful progress made
by Berlin during the reign of William I. gave
the city ouite a different appearance in a short
time. Buildings of a monumental character,
both public and private, sprang up everywhere.

This development continues ; and the present
emperor is doing all he can to beautify the city.

chiefly with monuments and statues. Likewise
the activity of private citizens along the same
lines is now far greater than in former cen-
turies. The great historical events which
created the German Empire and made Berlin
the capital of it found a happy echo in the
populace. The new development of the city to
the metropolis of the political life and of na-
tional and international trade has not been ex-
ternal and artificial as formerly, but has been
internal and necessary. This fact cannot be
set forth in an account of buildings and monu-
ments. It w^ould be necessary to examine the
statistics of trade and commerce, of banking, and
of the industries, etc., etc. If one studies the
statistics, then it becomes clear that those ma-
terial aspects of the city that amaze one and
compel admiration are the only manifestation
of a powerful historical development, which can-
not by any means be regarded as having reached
its zenith.

Area, Population, Suburbs, etc. — Besides
Cologne, other neighboring towns were built up
later, as Friedrichwerder (with Friedrichstadt),
and Dorotheenstadt. All four of these towns,
though lying in immediate proximity to one
another, remained completely independent of
each other till 1709, when Frederick I. fused
them into one municipal corporation. At that
time the population was about 57,000. Now,
after nearly 200 years, we find a similar situ-
ation as regards a plurality of independent
cities. Immediately adjoining Berlin there
are some 20 completely independent municipali-
ties of one kind and another. For the most part
these towns and cities have, to all appearance,
become fused with Berlin, and boundary lines
have been obliterated ; but each one has its own
independent municipal government. As yet
there is no centralized, unifying government to
bind them together. Among the larger cities
thus related to Berlin may be mentioned Char-
lottenburg, with 237,000; Rixdorf, with 153,000,
and Schoneberg, with 141,000 inhabitants. Ber-
lin proper has at present a population of 2,036,-
000; or, including the immediate suburbs, nearly
3,000,000. The area of Berlin is 6,350 hectares
(i hectare ^25^ acres), being less than that
of several other German cities, for instance,
Cologne (11,100 hectares), Frankfurt-on-Main
(8,000 hectares), Strasburg (7,800 hectares),
Munich (7,500 hectares), and Mannheim (6,600
hectares). Though, to be sure, if we include
the immediate suburbs, the area runs up to
16,500 hectares.

There has been no considerable extension of
the corporate limits of Berlin into this neigh-
boring territory since i860, though the neces-
sity for such a proceeding has been urged re-
peatedly in various quarters. To do this, and
thus effect a union of these several municipali-
ties, the consent of both the State government
and the Parliament is necessary. For a long
time the Prussian government was inclined to
carry out such a plan, but the city of Berlin
objected to assuming the burden which the poor
condition of the streets and public utilities of
the suburbs would have imposed upon her. At
present the State government encourages the
incorporation of the smaller country suburbs
into towns, and sooner or later all these ele-
ments, large and small, will be brought together
under one municipal government.

BERLIN

The present fragmentary condition of the
city entails upon Berlin many practical difficul-
ties. For instance, the city has bought in the
suburbs not less than 14,200 hectares of land
for the utilization of the sewage, and the lay-
ing of the pipes through these neighboring mu-
nicipalities often gives occasion for long and
tedious negotiations. Similar difficulties attend
the construction of street-car lines. In every
case the company in question has to secure a
concession from every suburb concerned. This
always involves long negotiations as to details.
Municipal Government. — The administration
of the city of Berlin is in the hands of a mu-
nicipal council of 34 members, including the
mayor. Half of these fill honorary positions,
half receive paj'. Among the salaried members
may be mentioned, the chief mayor (Ober-
biirgermeister), the mayor, two syndici, a min-
ister of finance, two school commissioners, and
two commissioners on buildings. The mem-
bers of the council are elected, for a limited
period, by the board of aldermen. The alder-
men themselves are elected by vote of the citi-
zens. The sessions of the council are secret;
those of the board of aldermen are usually pub-
lic. All important innovations require the con-
sent of both bodies. Besides, there are a
number of committees, composed of members of
the council and of the board of aldermen. In
certain branches of the administration the au-
thority of these committees is competent, but
in important matters transcending their special
departments their authority is conditioned by
the consent of the municipal council.

The aldermen, 144 in number, receive no
salary, their position being honorary. They are
represented by a chairman and his deputy. A
further category of honorary and unsalaried
officials is formed by the citizen-deputies, who
are elected by the board of aldermen ;
also the poor-law guardian and the mem-
bers of the poor commission. Altogether, there
are several thousand persons working for the
city without any salary. The city police force
is employed and controlled by the State, but
the city has to make appropriation for this
object.

Finances. — The administration of the city of
Berlin costs something more than $35,700,000
yearly. The city owns real estate worth
$110,000,000, and other assets to the extent of
$170,000,000. The obligations of the city run
up to about $80,000,000.

The receipts come principally from taxes.
The taxes collected for the year 1904-5
amounted to nearly $20,000,000, i.e., about $10
per head. Of this amount $7,400,000 was
from the income tax. This tax is levied on
incomes just as is the corresponding State tax,
and at present the rate is tlie same in both
cases. Further, $2,260,000 was realized from
the special tax assessed against incomes de-
rived from trade. The tax on real estate was
$6,400,000, to which must be added a sewage
tax of $1,450,000. The tax on transfers of real
estate was $1,300,000, not to mention other and
less important sources of income. It may be
added that the State taxes in Berlin, direct and
indirect, amounted to $7,740,000 and $11,900,000,
respectively, while the imperial taxes were
$13,100,000. Thus we see that in the year

1904-5 the citizen of Berlin paid, on an average^
about $25 in taxes.

Of the expenditures, schools and education
received $6,550,000. Other items were, gas
manufacture, $5,000,000; administration, $4,-
290,000 ; charity, $3,800,000 ; interest on loans,
$2,850,000; care of healthy $2,620,000, and
$1,790,000 borrowed money returned. In con-
sidering these figures it must be noted that gen-
eral indebtedness forms a separate account, the
expenditures under this head not being reck-
oned to the departments concerned ; further, that
the commercial enterprises of the city, as gas-
works, water-works, sewage, stock-yards, slaugh-
ter-houses, etc., are included in the general
budget.

Public Utilities. — As regards gas and lighting,
the city has not a monopoly. By reason of old
contracts a small part of the city is entirely
dependent for gas on an English company, and
the same company operates, but not exclusively,
in a large part of the city. The water supply
is entirely in the hands of the city. There are
several water-works, the water being obtained
in part from deep wells. Other wells are to
be bored soon. Sewage is also provided for
by the city, the waste being brought through
pressure pipes to the city's farms in the country,
w'here it is prepared for agricultural purposes.

The city has a stock-yard, which serves as
a general market for live stock, also a slaugh-
ter-house, where all slaughterings must take
place. Here the fresh meat is at once officially
inspected. All meats shipped into Berlin are
inspected, unless an official inspection has taken,
place elsewhere. There are 14 city market-
houses for the retail trade and one special
market-house for the wholesale trade.

There are five regular city hospitals and a
smaller sick-house, which are open to the pub-
lic ; also three State hospitals and nine other
public hospitals. The large Virchow city hos-
pital is in course of construction. Besides,
there are three city asylums for the insane.
The city also maintains a disinfecting establish-
ment for furnishings, flats, etc. There are
seven public bathing places for hot baths, and
16 with cold running water.

The city also runs a savings bank
("Sparkasse'*). The deposits amount to some
$75,000,000. There is also a royal pawn-office,
and a number of private benevolent institutions
which are, in part, supported by the city.

The Central Employment Office is of par-
ticular significance, and" its management is un-
usual. In many German cities such an institution
is managed directly by the city administration.
A special office is fitted up for the purpose, no-
tices of vacancies of one kind and another are
received, and those seeking employment are in-
formed of such opportunities for work. Now,
in Berlin, this general employment agency is
not directly in the hands of the city, but re-
ceives support from the city. This support on
the 'part of the city, which has been extended
to $10,000, was given after a number of high
city officials had identified themselves with the
management of the agency in question, which
was called the Central-Verein. This employ-
ment agency has a special building for its pur-
poses, containing separate offices for different
kinds of work; also youthful applicants are
separated from the mature. A number of

BERLIN

smaller employment agencies and unions of
one kind and another have joined this general
union. The condition for thus joining is that
an executive committee be formed for each
trade, consisting equally of workmen and em-
ployes, with a chairman belonging to neither
party.

Charities, etc. — The city council spends an-
nually about $80,000, aiding various private
charitable associations ; for instance, nine or-
ganizations for nursing the sick, 15 for the care
of children, five for the care of women lying-in,
and 43 other aid associations; also 22 educa-
tional institutions, besides a large number of
foundations partly under the administration,
partly under the inspection of the city.

The city has two asylums for the homeless,
one for families^ the other for such persons
as only require a shelter for the night. A simi-
lar institution, an "Asyl,** is maintained by a
private association. In fact, it is characteristic
of Berlin that public and private charity sup-
plement each other. The care of the poor, as
such, is in the hands of the city administration,
and about 4,000 persons are employed in this
work, though in honorary positions and with-
out salary. The daily expenditure on the poor
is about $13,000, the average number receiving
aid being 34,000. The number of orphans in
the care of the city is about 6,000.

In addition to these means of providing for
the poor must be mentioned the system of in-
surance for the working classes. The statute
regulating insurance against sickness was
passed in 18S3, though previous to that time
such insurance had already been made com-
pulsory. The obligation is placed upon the
employer, who pays the assessments and de-
ducts the amount from the wages of the work-
man. At present there are 129 branches of this
kind of insurance under the control of the city
council, besides a few branches that are con-
trolled by the State, and a number of private
associations. The number of workingmen and
women insured already exceeds 700,000, and in
1904 the sum of $6,430,000 was paid out in sick
insurance. According to the law, the weekly al-
lowance during sickness is paid for as long as
26 consecutive weeks, but, under special cir-
cumstances, it may be paid for as long a period
as 52 weeks. The city has built upon its own
land homes for the convalescent, which are
for the complete recovery of the sick. For the
rest the city hospitals are open to the insured,
but their expenses must be paid out of the in-
surance money.

There is in Berlin a State institution for the
care of invalid workmen. In connection with
the same there are several sanatoria which care
for those who are about to become invalids.
The sanatorium at Belitz may be mentioned. It
is fitted up in magnificent style and is probably
the best sanatorium on the continent of Europe.

Educational Institutions. — In the field of
education the Universitj' of Berlin takes the
first place. It was founded by Frederick Wil-
liam III. in 1810. During the winter term of
1904-5 there were enrolled 7,400 regular
students, besides almost as many more so-
called Zuhorer, i.e., mostly persons who have
secured permission to attend lectures, but
whose previous education is not sufficient to
enable them to take up systematic studies lead-

ing to a degree. In connection with the uni-
versity is the Seminary for Oriental Languages.

Further, of special significance is the "Tech-
nische Hochschule," which has nearly 3,000
students ; also the "Bergakademic,^* and the
Hochschulen for agriculture, for fine art. and
for music.

All these are State institutions. To them
will soon be added a Hochschule for Commerce,
which is being erected by the "Aeltesten der
Berliner Kaufmannschaft." This is a society
of merchants which was licensed by Frederick
William III. in 1820. Formerly they exercised
the functioQ of a board of trade. Since the
Chamber of Commerce was formed some years
ago they have had to give up this function and
have extended their activity into the field of
commercial education.

As to Gymnasia and Realgymnasia, Berlin
has five royal and 20 city institutions. There
are, besides, 13 city Realschulen, two royal, and
six city high schools for girls, four city finish-
ing schools, a normal school, a royal seminary
for male teachers, a similar one for female
teachers and teachers of gymnastics, a royal the-
atre-school and school for deaf-mutes, a city
school for deaf-mutes, and a city school for the
blind. Elementary instruction is represented by
273 city district schools, with 5,000 teachers,
222,000 children, and 4,800 classes. Instruction
in these schools is free. It may be added that
each of the suburbs has its own schools of va-
rious kinds.

Museums and Collections. — The more im-
portant picture galleries and collections are, the
Old and the New Museums, the National Gal-
lery, the Pergamon 2\Iuseum, and the Emperor
Frederick Museum — all maintained by the
State. Further, the Ravene Museum. Among
historical collections may be mentioned the
Royal Hohenzollern Aluseum, the Zenghaus,
the Provincial Museum — a city institution, the
Post Museum, and the royal museums for an-
thropology and German ethnology. The liberal
arts are represented by the Royal Museum for
Liberal Arts and by the exhibit of the Royal
Porcelain Manufactory. Further, there are the
royal museums for science, for agriculture, for
mining and smelting, and for pathology. The
Zoological Garden belongs to a private com-
pany, but it is in the nature of a public utility.
The Acquarium is also owned by private par-
ties, but is subventioned by the authorities.
The State maintains a botanical garden. There
is also the Hygienic Museum, the Colonial Mu-
seum, and the Institute for Hydrography, which
serve further the interests of science and the
technic of shipbuilding. A curious recent crea-
tion is a permanent exhibition of contrivances
for the betterment of the conditions of labor.
There are three astronomical observatories, a
State observatory, and two private ones. The
latter are always open to the public.

Many libraries, including the Royal Library
of about a million volumes, provide opportuni-
ties for study in every field of knowledge.

Monuments and Public Buildings. — There
are a large number of monuments on the streets
and public squares of the city. A considerable
number of them have been erected during the
reign of the present emperor, and, in fact, un-
der his immediate influence.

The number of the palaces and public build-

BERLIN

ings is likewise verj^ large, though, as com-
pared with other German cities, Berlin is poor
in specimens of old architecture.

There are numerous theatres, including the
Roj'al Play House, the Royal Opera House, the
New Royal Opera-Theatre, 13 other large the-
atres, and about a dozen smaller ones, a num-
ber of so-called "cabarets," and two permanent
circuses.

Churches. — The oldest churches in Berlin are
the Nokolai Church and Saint Mary's. Both
were built in the 13th century but have been
restored. Further, Saint Peter's may be men-
tioned. There are more than 40 evangelical
churches, the most important being : the Em-
peror William jMemorial Church, built in 1891-
1895 in beautiful Romanic style (two large
neighboring houses are in the same style of
architecture) ; the Emperor Frederick IMemorial
Church, beautifully situated in the Thiergarten ;
and the New Cathedral (dedicated in 1905),
built in Italian Renaissance style and orna-
mented witli numerous sculptures. A French
church was built in 1701-1705 ; and there are
also an English and an American church. Saint
Hedwig's Church (Catholic) dates from the
middle of the i8th century. Of the two larger
synagogues the oldest and finest dates from the
year 1866.

Monumental Buildings. — To be mentioned
here especially are : the Royal Palace, the
palaces of Emperor William I., Emperor Fred-
erick, and Prince Albrecht, and the palace at
Charlottenburg ; further numerous state build-
ings, e. g., those occupied by the Departments
of War and Education, the Foreign Office, the
Imperial Health Office, the Imperial Insurance
Office, the Patent Office, the Abgeordnetenhaus,
and the large Reichstag building, in Italian
Renaissance style ; also various railway stations
and palatial structures of the Postal Department.
Of municipal buildings the City Hall deserves
mention ; further, the city museum and numer-
ous public schools ; also the new City Hall in
Charlottenburg. The magnificent structures ot
the large banks, stores, breweries, insurance
companies, etc., add much to the beauty of the
city. The arcade between Frederick street and
Unter-den-Linden may also be mentioned*

Bridges, Statuary, Fountains. — The follow-
ing are the more notable of the monumental
bridges in Berlin : Heydtbriicke, Potsdamer-
briicke, Belle AlliancebriJcke, Kurfiirstenbriicke,
Wilhelmbriicke, Friedrichbriicke, Schlossbriicke,
Moltkebriicke, and Oberbaumbriicke. Aside from
the National IMonument, the most noteworthy
statues in the central part of the city are those
of William I., Frederick the Great, the Great
Elector, Frederick William III., Emperor Fred-
crick, Empress Augusta, the two Humboldts,
Helmholz, Luther, Schiller, Waldeck. and
Schulze-Delitzsch. In front of the Reichstag
building is an immense bronze statue of Bis-
marck. Near bv are the statues of Moltke and
Roon and the Column of Victory, which over-
looks the 32 marble groups of Brandenburgian
and Prussian statesmen and rulers in the Ave-
nue of Victory. Other notable statues in the
Thiergarten are those of Goethe, Lessing,
Richard Wagner, Frederick William III., and
Queen Louise. Some of the numerous fountains
worthy of note are : the large fountain before
the palace, which was designed by Begas and

presented by the city on the accession of the
present emperor ; the Hercules Fountain on
Liitzowplatz, which was designed by Lessing ;
further, the artificial water-fall in Victoria Park.

Transportation and Population.— The char-
acter of the population of Berlin is subjected
to a gradual change, which is caused partly by
the building up of new industries, partly by
the removal of well-to-do taxpayers to the sub-
urbs. This migration of the wealthier classes
is attended by an influx of the laboring classes,
especially in the newly-built parts of the city,
so that the laboring population is constantly in-
creasing. Again, the inner residential part of
the city is coming to be used more and more
for business purposes, so that here the popula-
tion is decreasing continuously.

The development of facilities for transpor-
tation has contributed much to these changes.
The ^'Stadtbahn," a railway which crosses the
city from east to west, then encircles it both on
the north and on the south, was and is yet the
cause of the wonderful growth of the western
suburbs. ^ligration was encouraged by the ex-
ceedingly low fare of 10 pfennigs to the fifth
station, or 20 pfennigs for the entire distance,
not to mention the great reduction allowed on
monthly tickets. This has led to the building
of new stations along the outer parts of the
"Stadtbahn" and to the institution of suburban
trains, on which one may have a monthly ticket
at a price varying with the distance.

In this connection must be mentioned also
the *Grosse Berliner Strassenbahn." This is a
private traction company which owns nearly all
the street cars in the citv. Since on most of
the lines the fare is only 10 pfennigs this com-
pany has had great influence in the development
of the suburbs. In the inner part of the city
there are many omnibuses, drawn mostly by
horses, but partly by motors. The fare is 5
and 10 pfennigs. The electric elevated and un-
derground road passes along the southern per-
iphery of the city from east to west. The prices
are higher than on the other lines. A plan is
now being agitated to supply Berlin with a num-
ber of such subways.

In the year 1904, the ^'Stadtbahn^' carried
111,000,000 persons; the street-car lines, 395.-
000,000; the omnibus lines, 94,000,000; the ele-
vated-subway line, 32,000,000.

Under the influence of improved facilities for
transportation the composition of the population
in the various parts of the greater city has be-
come quite varied. The well-to-do live in the
west and in the western suburbs, while the
working classes have settled in the east and,
the north, and partly in the southeast. The
large factories are situated in the east and in
the northwest. While in Berlin 80 persons out
of every thousand pay tax on an income of
$750 and upward, the proportion of people in
Rixdorf, a southeastern sulaurb, who have such
an income is only 27 out of a thousand. On
the other hand, in the wealthy western suburbs,
Grunewald and Wilmersdorf, the proportion
is 441 and 22S, respectively, out of every thou-
sand. Similar differences can also be noted in
the interior of the city.

The city maintains a statistical bureau that
keeps a careful record of all these conditions.
Undoubtedly, such differences in the composi-
tion of the population will be found to account

BERLIN.

1. Schlossbriicke, with Lust Garten.

2. Palace of Emperor William I.

BERLIN CATHEDRAL

for the varying rate of mortality in the different
parts of the city, as well as for the varying rate
of taxation.

Death Rate. — To be sure, the mortality in
Berlin is not only low, but is still decreasing.
In 1904 the rate was 17 out of a thousand, while
in the seventies of the past century the death
rate was almost double this. Still, the rate is
not uniform, varying from 8 in the wealthier
parts of the city to 22 per thousand in the poorer
quarters. The decrease of mortality is due to
better hygienic conditions, especially to water-
supply and sewage. Though the death rate
among children is still high the city authorities
are doing everything possible to combat the evil.
Building ordinances have been made stricter,
and the hj'gienic conditions of flat-houses have
been thereby greatly improved, especially in the
newly-built portions of the city.

Tenements. — Still the principal evil persists,
i.e., the crowded condition of apartment-houses.
On an average such a house in Berlin shelters
77 persons, and the flat of a workman, which
usually consists of only two rooms, closet, etc.,
must not only shelter the family, but provide
sleeping quarters for one or two outsiders. The
explanation of this is to be found in the rela-
tively high rents for such flats, the minimum
being $5 per month, or about one fourth of a
laborer's income. The desire to cut down the
rent by letting sleeping quarters is amply met
by the large number of workmen moving into
Berlin.

The building of model tenements for the bet-
terment of living conditions among the poor has
not taken place to any considerable extent.
Aside from a co-operative company that built
269 small homes for workingmen in the sub-
urbs, which were sold to the members of the
company, there are seven building companies of
philanthropic nature, but their houses offer ac-
commodations for less than 10,000 persons. Be-
sides, the administrations of some of the State
industries have placed homes at the disposal of
their workmen, and both the city and the State
aid such benevolent enterprises by furnishing
capital at a low rate of interest.

Aside from the evils of high rents, and, con-
sequently, overcrowded flats, the conditions are
not bad. The plumbing in the newer flat-
houses leaves nothing to be desired. In fact,
both in Berlin and the suburbs, the better class
of such houses have all modern conveniences,
and are comparatively luxurious.

Streets. — The streets of Berlin are w-ell cared
for and are in excellent condition. Already 40
per cent, of the streets are paved with wood or
asphalt, the rest being paved with stone or ce-
ment. But the work of improvement continues.
The yearly pay-roll for street cleaning amounts
to $531,000. Much more is spent now on parks
than formerly. Within the city limits there are
seven State and five city parks. For the most
part, the city is illuminated by gas, but, since
recently, in part by electricity. The city main-
tains an efficient fire department, which also
acts as a good Samaritan in all cases of dis-
tress, whether from fire or otherwise. In ac-
cordance with an ordinance of more than a hun-
dred years standiner. all buildings must be in-
sured in the city "F^euercasse." The average in-
surance valuation per house is $41,500.

Naturally, the great demand for real estate
Vol. 2 — 36.

and the more luxurious style of architecture
have increased valuations considerably. On an
average property is worth about $65 per square
metre. The total real valuation may be placed
at about $2,000,000,000.

Climate. — The mean temperature is 9° Cen-
tigrade, the thermometer varying from about
0.7^° below zero in the middle of January to
19° above zero in the middle of July. During
the months of December, January, and Febru-
ary the mean temperature varies "from 0.7° be-
low zero to 0.8° above zero. The mean tem-
perature for other months is as follows : March,
3.5°^; April, 8.5°; May, 13.3°; June, 17.4°; July,
18.9 ; August, 18.1°; September, 14.6°; Octo-
ber, 9.5°; November, 3.8°. The mean barome-
ter is 76.2, the lowest, 56.9 centimetres. West
winds prevail.

While, in general, healthful, the climate has
been found to be unfavorable to young children
in the summer. Stomach troubles are aggra-
vated by the heat, and the death rate among in-
fants is thereby considerably increased. The
city has been free of epidemics for years.

Recent Development. — Since about 1865 the
capital city of the empire has had, in many re-
spects, a brilliant development. In this short
period the population has trebled, hygienic con-
ditions have been wonderfully improved, and
the city has become one of the most beautiful,
and one of the most visited, cities in the world.
More than a million strangers register in the
hotels annually, not including the large num-
ber of visitors who find their temporary quar-
ters in those parts of the greater city which
are under separate municipal control. Indeed,
for the stranger, who cannot see the imaginary
boundary lines, it is all Berlin. Socially and
industrially it is really only one citj', and the
entire complex of separate municipal corpora-
tions might be fittingly called Greater Berlin.

Doctor E. HiRSCHBERG,

Director of Statistical Bureau of Berlin.

Berlin Cathedral. This edifice was planned
by the emperor Frederick and his empress to
be the "Westminster Abbey'^ of Germany, and
has been 14 j^ears in building. The architecture
corresponds nearl" to the Italian Renaissance,
and is the design of Prof. Raschdorff, who had
visited all the principal cathedrals in Europe
before completing it. The corner stone was laid
in 1894. The cathedral consists of four prin-
cipal parts — the church for divine worship the
church for marriages and christenings, the im-
mense crypts, and the long porch. It is con-
structed of yellow sandstone and the pillars
of the porch are of vari-colored marbles
— Brazilian anyx, black Silesian marble, and
various beautiful specimens from Sienna. The
building is 341 feet long; the cupola, with
its lantern, rises 325 feet above the pave-
ment, and the two bell towers each reach
up to a height of 211 feet. The Prussian Diet
contributed $2,500,000 toward its erection, but
this sufficed only for the actual building the
extensive decorations and mosaic work being
ha-idly yet begun, and the entire building will
probably cost more than $5,000,000. Emperor
Frederick originally intended the memorial
church in the crypt to be the resting place of the
Hohenzollerns only, and already the remains of

BERLIN CONGRESS — BERMUDA

87 have been placed there, but in future the recent years, Ranke, Mommsen, Hehiiholtz, Vir-
church will be the burial place, beside the sov- chow, and other famous scholars have upheld
ereigns, for the nation's celebrated dead. The the reputation which the university won for
organ, which is the largest in the world, except itself at the very start. There are four facul-
that at Riga, has 113 so-called voices and 7,000 ties, theology, medicine, jurisprudence, and phi-
tubes. It cost $37,500 and was the gift of losophy, with a total of 2)Tj professors and
Prince Henckel of Donnersmarck. The chancel teachers. At the satisfactory completion of the
is of marble and bronze and is the gift of Privy course, the doctor's degree is conferred.
Councilor Paetel. Kaiser Wilhelm has taken ,.,.,. ., ., .

great hiterest in the erection of the building, Berliner, Emile^ bar-le ner, a mel, Amen-

fnd by his direction an epitaph in memory of can niventor : h. Hanover Germany 20 May
Bismarck will be placed over the entrance. The 1851. After graduating at Walfenbuttel in 1865,
cathedral was dedicated 27 Feb. 1905. ^e came to America five years later, and in 1878

„ ,. ^ ii • X -D i;», was appointed chief inspector of instruments by

Berhn Congress, a gathering at Berlin, ^j^^ ^^j, Telephone Company. He invented the
Germany, where the European powers under- j^^^^ ^^^^^^^^ telephone transmitter or micro-
took the settlement of the questions growing ^^^^^^^ \^r^o^^rx by his name, and the device called
out of the Russo-Turkish war of i877-«. Ifie ^^^^ gramophone. He has devoted his energies
Congress met 13 June 1878; and completed its ^^ perfecting the telephone, and has secured
labors with the signing of a treaty on 13 July ^ ^^^^^^^ ^^^ ^j^ inventions,

following. The treaty of San Stefano (3 ' ^

March 1878) between Russia and Turkey did Berlioz, bar-le-os, Hector, French com-

not suit the other powers; and the congress, poser: b. Cote St. Andre, near Grenoble, 11
convened, at the suggestion of Germany, so Dec. 1803 ; d. Paris 9 March 1869. He forsook
modified the agreement between Russia and medicine to study music at the Paris Conserva-
Turkey that the former lost nearly all the toire, where he gained the first prize in 1830
fruits of victory. By the new arrangement with his cantata ^Sardanapalus,^ enabling him
Bulgaria was divided into two parts, Bulgaria to study at Rome. His chief literary works
proper and eastern Rumelia. Parts of Ar- (besides his < Memoirs') are the <Traite
menia were given to Russia and Persia; the d' Instrumentation' (1844); <Voyage MusicaP
independence of Rumania, Servia, and Monte- (1845); 'Les Soirees d'Orchestre' (1853): and
negro was guaranteed; Bosnia and Herzegovina <A Travers Chants' (1862). His musical works,
were transferred to Austria ; and Bessarabia which display remarkable originality, belong to
restored to Russia. Greece was also to have the Romantic school, and are especially note-
an accession of territory. By a separate ar- worthy for the resource they display in orchestral
rangement previously made between Great coloring. His more important works are "^Epi-
Britain and Turkey, the former got Cyprus to sode de la Vie d'un Artiste'; ^Symphonic Fan-
administer. Bismarck was the president of the tastique' (1829) ; ^Lelio, ou Le Retour a la
congress. The more important members were: Vie' (1832); 'Harold en Italic' (1834); 'Ro-
Prince Gortchakoff, Count Andrassy, Lord meo et Juliet' (1839); ^Damnation de Faust'
Beaconsfield, Lord Salisbury, M. Waddington, (1846), one of the best-known and most ad-
Count Corti, Karatheodori Pasha, Prince mired of his works; the operas 'BenvenutO'
Hohenlohe, and Gen. von Biilow. Cellini' (1838) ; *^ Beatrice and Benedict'

Berlin Decree, a decree issued by Napo- (1862) ; and 'Les Troyens' (1864) ; <L'Enfance
leon, 21 Nov. 1806, which declared the British du Christ' (1854), the <Te Deum,' and the
Islands in a state of blockade. It forbade com- < Requiem.' After his death appeared^ ^Me-
merce with them and trade in their merchandise, moires' (1803-65), written by himself (English
and declared all merchandise belonging to Eng- translation, 2 vols. 1884).

Hshmen or transported from England, lawful g ^,. Bgrme. In fortHtcation, zn^rrov^,

prize Its effect was to inflict great injury on j^^.^, ^^ ^,^^ ^^^^ ^^ ^,^^ exterior slope of a

the American carrying trade. parapet, to keep the crumbling materials of the

Berlin, University of, a celebrated institu- parapet from falling into the ditch,
tion of learning in Berlin, Germany. It is, with /„ engineering, a ledge or bench on the side

the exception of Bonn, the youngest of the or at the foot of a bank, parapet, or cutting, to
German universities, but is probably the most ^atch earth that may roll down the slope, or
famous of them all. It was funded in 1810, strengthen the bank,

when the Napoleonic victories had left Prussia

apparently crushed, and had even transferred Bermejo, ber-ma'ho, a South American

her great University of Halle to the newly river rising in Bolivia, and flowing across Ar-
formed kingdom of Westphalia. Wilhelm von gentina to the Paraguay River, which it enters
Humboldt was minister of education at the about 140 miles south of Ascension. It is nav-
time, and Prussia's debt to him for organizing igable for about half of its length of 1,300 miles,
her national school system, with the University

of Berlin at its head, during that period of Bermuda, ber-mii'da, or Somers Islands,.

national defeat and disaster, is certainly very a cluster of small islands in the Atlantic Ocean,
great. It should be borne in mind, too, that belonging to Great Britain, and situated 580'
Humboldt was ably seconded by Fichte and miles southeast of Cape Hatteras. They are
Schleiermacher. The first rector of the uni- in number about 400, but for the most part so-
versity was Schmalz ; the first deans of its small and so barren that they have neither in-
faculties were Schleiermacher, Biener, Hufe- habitants nor name. Thev were first discovered
land, and Fichte; and before it was 10 vears by Juan Bermudez, a Spaniard, in 1522; in
old it had for professors such men as Niebnhr. 1609 Sir George Somers, an Englishman, waff
Wolff, Bockh, Bekker, and Hegel. In more wrecked here, and after his shipwreck, formed

BERLIN.

1. Lust Garten, showing Statue of Frederick William III,

2. Brandenburg Gate.

BERMUDA GRASS — BERN

the first settlement. The most considerable of
these islands are St. George, Bermuda or Long
Island (with the chief town, Hamilton, forming
the seat of the governor), Somerset, St. David's,
and Ireland. They are chiefly used as a naval
and military station. The island of Ireland is
occupied by a government dockyard and other
naval establishments, while Boaz and Watford
islands have the military depots. The military
headquarters are at Prospect. An immense iron
floating-dock was constructed at London for
the Bermudas in 1868; it is capable of receiving
a vessel of 3,000 tons. The climate is generally
healthy and delightful, the air being mild and
moist at all seasons. It is not adapted, how-
ever, for consumptive patients. The thermom-
eter seldom falls below 40° F., and rarely rises
above 85°. These islands have therefore become
a popular holiday resort for Americans, and
plentiful hotel accommodation is supplied at St.
George's and Hamilton. The surface is rather
irregular ; the soil, though light and stony, is
in general rich and fertile. The islands form
a nearly continuous chain, and are connected
almost uninterruptedly by roads, bridges, and
causeways. The water is in general salt; there
is but little fresh except rain-water, preserved
in cisterns. The inhabitants export early pota-
toes, onions, lily bulbs, etc., nearly all of these
products being shipped to New York. The
value of the exports is from $585,000 to $635,000
annually; that of the imports is about $1,460,000
to $1,560,000. The revenue is about $166,000.
Pop. (1897) 16,098.

Bermuda Grass {Cynodon dacfylon), a grass
cultivated in the West Indies and the United
States, where it is of special value on the sandy
soils of the southern States. It is a valuable
fodder grass for warm climates. It will grow in
any soil not too damp, but in America it ma-
tures only in the extreme south.

Bermuda Hundred, Va., a peninsula
formed by the junction of the Appomattox and
James rivers, occupied by Gen. B. F. Butler,
who, in 1864, commanded the Army of the
James, numbering about 25,000 Federals, where
he might intrench himself and await Grant s
arrival. In the vicinity of this position there
was constant fighting between Butler's troops
and those of the Confederates under Gen.
Beauregard, whose forces were 20,000 strong.
The fighting continued from 16 May to 30 May.
On the i6th Heckman's brigade was destroyed
by the Confederates, who were then pushing
on to Bermuda Hundred, when Ames and
Gillmore came up and Beauregard's plans mis-
carried. On the 19th the Confederates assaulted
the Federal rifle pits under Ames and Terry,
but without success. Skirmishing continued
until the 30th, when the Confederates desisted.
Bermuda Hundred was a valuable position,
since it was very near both Richmond and
Petersburg; but Butler was charged with mili-
tary incapacity in having ^corked himself up
in a bottle.*'

Bermudez, Remigio, Morales, bar-moo'-
dath, ra-me'je-o mo-ra'lez, Peruvian states-
man : b. Tarapaca Province, 30 Sept. 1836 ; d.
Lima, 31 March 1894. He began business in the
nitrate trade in his native province. In 1854,
as a lieutenant, he joined the revolutionary
army which finally overthrew Gen. Echinique's

government. In 1864 he joined the revolution
against President Castilla. In the war with
Chile he led the force that marched to Arica.
When Caceres was elected president in 1886,
Bermudez was chosen vice-president, and was
elected president in 1890.

Bermudez, ber-mu'dath, Venezuela, a
northeastern state situated between the Orinoco
and the Caribbean Sea, formed in 1881 from
the former states and present sections of Bar-
celona, Cumana, and Maturin. Area, 32,243
square miles; Pop. about 325,000.

Bern, barn, or bern, Switzerland, the chief
canton of the confederacy, situated in the west-
ern half and surrounded by the cantons of
Neufchatel, Freiburg, Vaud, Valais, Uri, Unter-
walden. Lucerne, and Solothurn, being partly
bounded also by France and Alsace; area, 2,657
square miles. The more northern portion of the
canton has beautiful plains and valleys, and a
fertile and highly cultivated soil, producing
corn, wine, and fruits; the Emmenthal, one of
the richest and most fertile valleys in Switzer-
land, raises the finest cattle, and produces a
celebrated cheese. The southern portion of the
canton, the Bernese Oberland, begins at the foot
of the high mountain chain between this canton
and that of the Valais, and extends to its sum-
mit. The lower valleys produce good fruits,
and are fertile and agreeable : higher up are
excellent Alpine pastures ; then succeed bare
rocks, extensive glaciers (the source of mag-
nificent streams and waterfalls), and some of
the highest mountains of Switzerland, as the
Finsteraarhorn, the Schreckhorn, and Wetter-
horn, the Eiger, the Jungfrau. The chief trade
of the canton is in linen and woolen manufac-
tures, and cattle-raising. Pop. (1897) 548,061.

After belonging to the Franks and Burgun-
dians the Bernese territory became part of the
German empire. In the long wars with Aus-
tria, Milan, Burgundy, and Savoy, the Confed-
eracy came off victorious, and Bern conquered
Aargau. In 1528 the citizens of Berne em-
braced the cause of the Reformation. In the
subsequent war with the Duke of Savoy they
conquered the Pays de Vaud. From that time
till 1798 the prosperity and wealth of Bern
constantly increased, so that the canton then
contained above 5,000 square miles and about
380,000 inhabitants. On 5 March 1798, 30,000
French troops marched against Bern and con-
quered it, the result being that it now lost about
half of its possessions ; the northern part was
united with the present canton of Aargau; and
out of the southwestern (Pays de Vaud) the
present canton of Vaud was formed. By the
decrees of the Congress at Vienna, however,
the greater part of the bishopric of Basel was
joined to the canton. The present constitution
dates from 1893 and is purely democratic. The
legislative power is vested in a Great Council
elected by the people voting in 62 electoral dis-
tricts, there being one member for every 3,000
inhabitants. The executive is vested in a gov-
erning council of nine members elected by the
Great Coimcil, both being chosen for four years.
The referendum is in force, and all laws may
be submitted to popular vote before they become
valid. The ^'initiative.*' or right to propose new
measures, may be exercised by 12,000 voters
acting together, but a demand for revision of the
constitution mtist be supported by 15,000 voters.

BERN — BERNADOTTE

Bern, Switzerland, the capital of the can-
ton of the same name (see above) and of the
whole confederation; situated on an elevated
rocky peninsula, washed on three sides by the
Aar, which is crossed by several bridges, in-
cluding the handsome Nydeck Bridge, the huge
iron Kirchenfeld Bridge, and the Kornhaus
Bridge (opened in 1898), with a roadway 160
feet above the Aar, and a principal arch of 380
feet span. The streets are, for the greater part,
straight, wide, and well paved; and the houses,
partly provided with piazzas, are substantially
built of stone. The streets are purified by rills
of water and adorned with fountains. Among
the public buildings are the great Gothic cathe-
dral 1421-1573; the Church of the Holy Spirit;
the University; the hall of the Swiss Federal
Council; the art museum, containing the muni-
cipal picture-gallery ; a hospital ; the town-house,
a Gothic edifice of the 15th century, restored
1868 ; the mint, corn hall, historical and archaeo-
logical museum; the natural history museum;
observatory ; deaf-and-dumb institution ; infir-
mary ; orphan and lunatic asylums. The public
library possesses great treasures of printed
books and manuscripts. Trade and commerce
are lively ; the manufactures consist of woolens,
cottons, silks, machinery, chocolate, etc. The
city was founded in 1191, and in 1218 the Ger-
man emperor Frederick II. declared it a free
city of the empire and confirmed its privileges
by a charter, which is still preserved. In 1353
it entered into the Helvetic Confederacy. In
1405 the greater part of the city was destroyed
by fire, but it was afterward regularly rebuilt.
The bear, as the heraldic emblem of Bern,
figures frequently in a sculptured form ; and a
number of these animals in the flesh are kept at
the cost of the municipality. There is a curious
clock-tower containing mechanism by which
the striking of the hours is heralded by the
crowing of a cock and a procession of bears.
Pop. (1897) 49>030.

Bern, University of, a state educational
institution having its origin in a minor school
which in the early part of the i6th century was
much enlarged by the demand for accommoda-
tions for theological students. About 200 years
later it expanded by the institution of depart-
ments of law, science, and medicine, and about
1830 was formally reorganized as a State uni-
versity. It has a library of about 40,000 volumes
and manuscripts, and educates about 1,300
students.

Ber'nacle Goose, a large goose of north-
ern Europe and Greenland, allied to the brant,
and named Beniicla cucopsis, a name identified
with strange old fables. It differs from the
brant mainly in its white cheeks, as the lavender-
gray of the mantle. This goose is a common
winter visitor to western Europe, retiring in
summer to Arctic regions to breed, but the
region and the character of its nesting remain
undiscovered. Up to comparatively recent times
it was the belief of the European peasants that
this goose was born from the stalked barnacles
which adhere to driftwood, and sometimes to
the branches of trees that reach down into the
sea at high tide. Circumstantial accounts were
given of the birth of the young, whose tiny
wings (the waving filaments of the feeding
cirripeds) could be seen sticking out of the
shells from which they were supposed to escape.

So firmly was this fixed in the minds of the
people that it is given and illustrated with
much detail as truth in many books of the
time; and the Roman Church permitted these
geese to be eaten on holy days because they
were sea-born, and therefore "fish" ! What is
less generally known is that the cirripeds were
named after the bird, as their supposed parent;
and not the bird after the crustacean. Bernicle,
like *brant,* refers to the "burnt" black color
of the birds, as explained in the * English Dic-
tionary^ and by other authorities. The name
has been adopted as generic for a large group
of the geese usually distinguished by sports-
men as "brants" (q.v.).

Bernadotte, Jean Baptiste Jules, bar-na-
dot', zhoh bap-test zhool, king of Sweden:
b. Pau, 26 Jan. 1764; d. 8 March 1844. He was
the son of an advocate of Pau, and enlisted in
a French regiment of marines at the age of 17.
He was made a subaltern in 1790, and thereafter
his promotion was rapid. In 1794 he was ap-
pointed general of division, and distinguished
himself greatly in the campaign in Germany and
on the Rhine. After the battle of Neuwied he
was introduced for the first time to Bonaparte,
who conceived the highest opinion of his abili-
ties, though a constant suspicion of Napoleon
seems always to have been present in the mind
of Bernadotte. In 1798 he married Mademoi-
selle Clary, sister-in-law of Joseph Bonaparte.
The following year he became minister of war,
but was shortly obliged to resign. On the
establishment of the empire Bernadotte was
created Marshal of France and Prince of Ponte-
Corvo. At the head of an army of observation
stationed in the north of Germany, he fixed his
headquarters at Hamburg. At this time Gus-
tavus IV. had been driven from the throne of
Sweden. The Duke of Sudermania assumed
the crown under the name of Charles XIII. ;
and as he was far advanced in years the diet
had nominated, as his successor, the Prince of
Holstein-Augustenburg, when the latter died in
a mysterious manner. The heir-apparency to the
Swedish crown was then offered to the Prince of
Ponte-Corvo. This ofifer was accepted by Ber-
nadotte with the consent of the emperor; and
in October 1810 he arrived in Sweden, where,
having previously abjured the Roman Catholic
religion, he was proclaimed heir-apparent to the
throne under the title of Prince (Charles John.
He had not long been established in this dignity
before serious disagreements look place between
him and Bonaparte, whose blockade of the Con-
tinental ports was very detrimental to the com-
mercial interests of Sweden. The result was a
complete rupture, and the accession of Sweden
in 1812 to the coalition of sovereigns formed
against Napoleon. At the battle of Leipsic
Prince Charles John contributed eflfectually to
the victory of the allies. On the general re-
establishment of the European dynasties at the
termination of the war, strenuous but unsuccess-
ful attempts were made by the emperor of Aus-
tria and other sovereigns to restore the family
of Gustavus IV. to the crown ; and Bernadotte,
retaining his position as crown-prince, became
king of Sweden on the death of Charles XIII.
in 1818, under the title of Charles XIV. During
his reign agriculture and commerce made great
advances, and many important public works
were completed ; among others, the Gotha Canal.

BERNADOU — BERNARD

He was succeeded by his son Oscar, father of
the present sovereign, Oscar II.

Ber'nadou, John Baptiste, American naval
officer : b. Pennsylvania, 1858. Educated at the
Naval Academy in Annapolis, he entered the
navy and in the Spanish-American war com-
manded the torpedo boat Winslow and was
wounded in a naval engagement off Cardenas
in May 1898. He has written ^The Develop-
ment of the Resources of the United States for
the Production of War Material^ ; ^The De-
velopment of Smokeless Powder^ ; ^A Trip
Through Northern Korea in 1883-4.'

Bernard, ber'nard, ber-nard', or (Fr.)
bar-nar, Saint(OF Claikvaux), French ecclesias-
tic: b. Fontaine, Burgundy, 1091 ; d. 1153. In
1 1 13 he became a monk at Citeaux; in 11 15 first
abbot of Clairvaux, near Langres. An austere
manner of living, solitary studies, an inspiring
eloquence, boldness of language, and the repu-
tation of a prophet, rendered him an oracle to all
Christian Europe. He promoted the crusade
of 1 146, and quieted the fermentation caused at
that time by a party of monks against the Jews
in Germany. He declined all promotion, and in
the rank of abbot of his "beloved Jerusalem*'
(as he used to call Clairvaux) he continued with
all humility, but with great boldness, his cen-
sures of the clergy and his counsels to the
Popes. Innocent II. owed to him the posses-
sion of the right of investiture in Germany, and
Eugenius III. his education. He was, at the
same time, the umpire of princes and bishops,
and his voice in the synods was regarded as
divine. By his rigid orthodoxy and his remark-
able eloquence, which were always directed to
the promotion of practical Christianity, he did
much to confirm the power and influence of the
Church in the ISIiddle Ages. He was a strong
opponent of Abelard and Gilbert of Poree in
their philosophical teachings. He was canonized
by Alexander III. in 1174. The best edition of
his works is that of Mabillon ( Paris 1690, 2 vols. ;
reprinted, Paris 1839-40).

Bernard, Saint, of Mentone: b. Mentone,
Savoy, 923 ; d. Novara, May 1007. Very little
is known of his life except that he was at one
time archdeacon of the city of Aosta, and that
he later entered upon a monastic life and
founded the hospices on the Great and Little
Mount Saint Bernard, about 962 a.d.

Bernard, ba-nar', Charles de, properly
Bernard du Grail de la Villette, French novel-
ist : b. Besangon, 25 Feb. 1804 ; d. Neuilly, 6
March 1850. He was a disciple of Balzac,
whom he resembles in his power of realistic
description and psychological analysis ; but he
possesses a purer and more nervous style, and
above all is content with a less minute elabora-
tion of story and characters. His first piece,
^The Gerfalcon,' made a hit with its clever
description of the literary cliques. Everywhere
he evinces clear insight into the foibles of so-
ciety. Of his novels, the following may be
named as only second in rank to his master-
piece, ^The Gerfalcon' ; ^A Magistrate's Ad-
venture' ; ^The Gordian Knot' ; ^Wings of
Icarus' ; *The Lion's Skin' ; <The Country
Gentleman.'

Bernard, bar-nar, Claude, French physiol-
ogist : b. Saint -Julien. department of the Rhone,
12 July 1813 ; d. Paris, 10 Feb. 1878. Educated

at Villefranche and Lyons, he went to Paris
in order to devote himself to a literary career,
but soon turned to medicine. In 1839 he became
assistant to Magendie, who directed his atten-
tion to experimental physiology. He became
professor at the College de France in 1855, and
about the same time he was appointed to the
chair of experimental physiology at the Sor-
bonne. In 1868 he resigned the latter chair in
order to take up a similar one in the Museum
of Natural History, and in that year also he was
elected to Flourens' place in the Academy. He
was one of the foremost physiologists of his
age, and several important discoveries are asso-
ciated with his name. Among his published
works are 'Experimental Physiology Applied to
Medicine' (1854-5) ; 'Physiology and the
Pathology of the ' Nervous System' (1858);
'Physiological Properties and Pathological Al-
terations of the Liquids of the Organism'
(1859) ; 'Properties of Living Tissues' (1866) ;
'Experimental Pathology' (1871) ; 'General
Physiology' (1872) ; 'Animal Heat' (1876) ;
'Phenomena of Life Common to Animals and
Vegetables' (1878-9) ; 'Experimental Science'
(1878) ; etc. He was accorded a national
funeral.

Bernard, ber'nard, Sir Francis, English
administrator: b. Nettleham, England, 1714; d.
Aylesbury, England, 16 June 1779. He was gov-
ernor of New Jersey 1758-60, and of Massachu-
setts Bay 1760-9. He did a great deal toward
precipitating the Revolution by his aggressive
attempts to strengthen the royal authority. He
was finally recalled on account of the unpopular-
ity resultant on his bringing troops into Boston.

Bernard, Jacques, French Protestant cler-
gyman and author : b. Nions, in Dauphine, I
Sept. 1658; d. 27 April 1718. When the Edict
of Nantes was revoked, Bernard went to Hol-
land, and while there founded a school of phi-
losophy and belle-lettres at The Hague. He
became editor of the 'Bibliotheque Universelle,'
and later editor of the 'Republique des Lettres.'
He wrote and published: 'Recueil de traites de
paix, de treves, de neutralite . . . et d*
autres actes publics faits en Europe' (1700) ;
'Actes et memoires des negociations de la paix
de Ryswick' (1725) ; etc.

Bernard, Montague, English lawyer: b.
Gloucestershire, 28 Jan. 1820; d. Overross, 2
Sept. 1882. He was professor of international
law at Oxford 1859-74. In 1871 he was one of
the high commissioners who signed the Treaty
of Washington, and on his return home was
made a privy councilor. In 1872 he assisted
Sir Roundell Palmer in preparing the British
case for the Geneva Arbitration Tribunal.

Bernard, Pierre Joseph, bar-nar, pe-ar
zho-sef, or Gentil (zhon-tel) Bernard, French
poet: b. Grenoble, 1710; d. 1775. At an early
age he showed a great taste for poesy, and was
at first only an attorney's clerk, but afterward
became secretary to Marshal de Coigny, who
had command of the army of Italy. After the
marshal's death he obtained a lucrative ap-
pointment, and was then able to indulge his
poetic faculties. _ He wrote an opera, 'Castor
and Pollux,'^ which met with great success ; the
'Art of Loving,' and a number of odes, songs,
etc. His works were collected and reprinted in
1803.

BERNARD — BERNARD AKIS

Bernard, Simon, bar-nar, se-mon, French
engineer: b. Dole, 28 April 1779; d. 5 Nov. 1839.
He served as aide-de-camp to Napoleon; was
wounded at the battle of Leipsic; superintended
the defense of Torgau, and was present at
Waterloo. In 1816 he came to the United
States; was commissioned brigadier-general of
engineers; and planned an elaborate system of
seacoast defences, the most important of the
works built by him being Fortress Monroe. In
1831 he returned to France; was made aide-de-
camp to Louis Philippe, and designed the forti-
fications of Paris. In 1834 he was appointed
minister of war.

Bernard, ber-nard, William Bayle, Anglo-
American dramatist : b. Boston, Mass., 27 Nov.
1807; d. 5 Aug. 1875. His .first work was a
nautical drama called *^The Pilot. ^ This proved
successful and encouraged him to pursue a
literary career. He wrote in all 114 plays, of
which the best known are ^Rip Van Winkle^ ;
'The Man About Town^ ; * Marie Ducange-* ;
and 'The Boarding School.^

Bernard de Chartres, bar-nar de shartr
(surnamed Svlvestrisj, a writer of the 12th cen-
tury, who lias been lauded as the ablest Platonic
of his time, and wrote two works, now lost, in one
of which he endeavored to reconcile Plato and
Aristotle, and in the other maintained the doc-
trine of a Providence, and proved that all ma-
terial beings, possessing a nature subject to
change, must necessarily perish. Another work
under the name of Bernard Sylvestris still ex-
ists, and is composed of two parts, distinguished
by the names of 'IMegacosmus^ and '^^[icrocos-
mus,^ or the 'Great World-* and the 'Little
World. ^ He reduces all things to two elements
— matter and ideas. Matter is in itself devoid
of form, but susceptible of receiving it ; ideas
reside in the divine intellect, and are the models
of life, and from their union with matter all
things result. M. Cousin has published extracts
from these works.

Bernard of Cluny, Benedictine monk: b.
at Morlaix, about iioo; d. 1156. He was a
member of the Benedictine monastery at Cluny
under Peter the Venerable, and is best known
as the author of three hymns included in al-
most every English collection : "Jerusalem the
Golden»; "For Thee, O Dear, Dear Country* ;
and "The World is Very Evil.^' These are a part
of his 3,000-line poem 'De Contemptu Mundi,^
translated by J. M. Neale.

Bernard (ber'nard) of Treviso (tre-ve'zo),
Italian alchemist: b. Padua, 1406; d. 1490. His
most important work was 'Treatise on the Most
Secret Chemical Labor of the Philosophers.^

Bernard de Ventadour, bar-nar de v6n-ta-
dor, French troubadour: b. about 1125; d. Da-
\on, about 1197. Love songs 'To Eleonore,^ and
various amatory lays to courtly dames, form the
riches of his delicate verse.

Bernard, ber'nard, Great St., a celebrated
pass of the Pennine Alps, Switzerland, in the
canton Valais, on the mountain-road leading
from Martigny to Aosta in Piedmont. On the
east side of the pass is Mount Velan, and on the
west the Pointe de Dronaz : there is no moun-
tain known by the name of St. Bernard. Almost
on the very crest of the pass is the famous
Viospice, among the highest permanently inhab-
ited spots in Europe, 8,200 feet above the level

of the sea. There is a massive stone building
capable of accommodating 70 or 80 travelers
with beds, and of sheltering 300. As many as
500 or 600 have received assistance in one day.
It is situated on the highest point of the pass,
exposed to tremendous storms from the north-
east and southwest, and is tenanted by 10 or
12 brethren of the order of St. Augustine, who
have devoted themselves by vow to the aid of
travelers crossing the mountains. The climate
of this high region is necessarily rigorous.
There is a lake on the summit, at a short dis-
tance from the hospice, on which ice has fre-
quently remained throughout the whole year.
The severest cold recorded is — 29° F., but it
has often been — 18° and — 20° F. ; the greatest
summer heat recorded is 68° F. From the diffi-
culty of respiration in so elevated a locality,
and the severity of the climate, few of the monks
survive the time of their vow, 15 years from
the age of 18, when they are devoted to this
service. The dogs kept at St. Bernard to assist
the brethren in their humane labors are well
known. In the midst of tempests and snow-
storms the monks, accompanied by some of these
dogs, set out for the purpose of tracking those
who have lost their way. If they find the bodj'
of a traveler who has perished they carry it into
the vault of the dead, where it is wrapped in
linen and remains lying on a table till another
victim occupies the place. It is then set up
against the wall among the other dead bodies,
which, on account of the cold, decay so slowly
that they are often recognized by their friends
after the lapse of years. Adjoining this vault
is a kind of burying-ground, where the bones
are deposited when they accumulate too much
in the vault. It is impossible to bury them,
because there is nothing around the hospice but
naked rocks. The institution is supported partly
by its own revenues, partly by subscriptions and
donations. The pass appears to have been
known at a very early period ; and a Roman
road led down the Piedmontese side of the
mountains. The remains of a massive pavement
are still visible; and the cabinet of the hospice
contains votive tablets, bronze figures, and other
antiquities found in the vicinity. The hospice
was founded in 962 by St. Bernard of Menthon,
an Italian ecclesiastic, for the benefit of those
who performed pilgrimages to Rome. In May,
1800, Napoleon led an army of 30.000 men, with
its artillery and cavalry, into Italy by this pass.

Bernard, Little St., a mountain of Italy,
belonging to what are called the Graian Alps,
about 10 miles south of Mont Blanc. It stands
between Savoy and Piedmont, having the valley
of the Isere, in the former, on the west, and
that of the Doire, in the latter, on the east. The
pass across it is one of the easiest in the Alps,
and is supposed by many to be that which
Hannibal used. The hospice, at the summit of
the pass, has an elevation of 7,192 ^eet.

Bernardakis, Demetrios, ber-nar'da-kis. da-
ma'tre-6s, Greek poet and dramatist: b. Santa
Marina, Lesbos, 2 Dec. 1834. After a course of
study at Athens and in German universities he
was (with one considerable intermission) pro-
fessor of history and philology in the University
of Athens, 1861-82, when he went back to Les-
bos. He is author of a spirited Pindaric ode
for a jubilee occasion, of several dramas, and of
a satire, 'The Battle of Cranes and Mice' ; he

BERNARDES — BERNBURG

has also written a < Universal History^ ; a
* Church History^ ; and a spirited tractate, ^Con-
futation of a False Atticism,' directed against
the would-be Attic purists.

Bernardes, Diego, ber-nar'des, de-a'go,
Portuguese poet: b. Ponte de Lima about 1530;
d. 1605. He was called "the Sweet Singer of the
Lima," a streamlet immortalized in his verse.
He left his native valley in 1550 and attached
liimself to the master-singer, Sa de Miranda,
who lived retired on his estate, Quinta da
Tapada, a devotee of the Muses. Here Bernar-
des composed verses of all kinds — elegies, son-
nets, odes, and songs, full of tender sympathies
and perfect melody. Here he wrote ^The
Lima'; < Various Rimes — Flowers from Lima's
Banks' ; 'Various Rimes to the Good Jesu,' and
other poems.

Bernardin of Sienna, Italian ecclesiastic:
b. Massa, Italy, 8 Sept. 1380; d. Aquila, Abruzzo,
20 May 1444. He became a Franciscan friar in
a monastery near Sienna in 1404, but, desiring
to make a pilgrimage to the Holy Land, was
appointed a commissary of that country, and
was thus enabled to gratifj^ his wish. After
his return he acquired a great reputation as a
preacher, and three cities were rival suitors for
the honor of having him as bishop. Bernardin,
however, was unwilling to accept the. distinction,
and was made vicar-general of the friars of the
Observantine order in Italy. He is said to have
founded more than 300 monasteries. In 1450 he
was canonized by Pope Nicholas V. His works
appeared at Venice in 1591 in 4 volumes
quarto, and at Paris in 1636 in 2 volumes
folio. They consist of essays on religious sub-
jects, sermons, and a commentary on the book
of Revelation. A biography by J. P. Toussaint
was published (Regensburg 1873), and one by
L. Bianchi (Sienna 1888).

Bernardines, ber'nar-denz. See Cister-
cians.

Bernardo del Carpio, ber-nar'do del kar'-
pe-6, Spanish knight-errant (the fruit of a secret
marriage between Chimena, the sister of Al-
phonso the Chaste, and of Don Sancho. lord
of Saldagua) : b. in the 9th century. Alphonso,
irritated at the marriage, put out the eyes of
Don Sancho and imprisoned him in a castle, but
spared Bernardo and brought him up carefully
at his court. In course of time Don Bernardo
grew up to be a warrior, and distinguished him-
self in the Moorish wars, in the hope that the
king would be bent to pity and set his father
at liberty. Alphonso was inflexible, and Ber-
nardo withdrew to his paternal domains; and,
leaguing with other lords opposed to the court,
set him at defiance.

On the accession of Alphonso the Great,
Bernardo returned to court, and again per-
formed many exploits against the Moors, hop-
ing to be rewarded with his father's freedom.
He was once more denied the boon, and with-
drew as before, not only leaguing with his
friends, but making alliance with the Moors.
Alphonso agreed at length to give up his father
on receiving the surrender of the castle of
Carpio. Bernardo, true to his word, performed
his part of the stipulation, and then learned with
indignation that Alphonso had practised an in-
famous deception upon him, as his father had
been for some time dead. He disdained any
longer to tread the Spanish soil, and removed
to France, where he spent the remainder of his

life as a knight-errant. Many fabulous exploits
have been attributed to him, both in Spanish
romances and in more reliable histories.

Bernauer, ber-now-er, Agnes, Bavarian
lady celebrated for her beauty and her unfortu-
nate fate ; d. 2 Oct. 1435. She was the daughter
of a poor citizen, said to be a barber of Augs-
burg. Duke Albert of Bavaria, only son of the
reigning prince, met Agnes at a tournament
given in his honor by the grandees of Augs-
burg, became enamored of her, and, as he could
not prevail on her to be his mistress, secretly
married her. He conducted her to his o\yn
castle of Vohburg, and for a time succeeded in
concealing the alliance he had contracted ; but
his father wishing to marry him to Anne, daugh-
ter of the Duke of Brunswick, he was com-
pelled to acknowledge his marriage with Agnes.
His father refused to credit it, and having
caused the Duke to be denied admission to a
tournament on the plea that he was living unlaw-
fully with a woman, Albert openly proclaimed
his marriage and caused Agnes to be recog-
nized as Duchess of Bavaria, giving her for
residence the castle of Straubing on the Danube.
The Duke of Bavaria, incensed at this open
avowal of a misalliance, caused Agnes to be
seized in her castle during the absence of his
son, brought her before a tribunal specially con-
stituted, where she was accused of magic, and
being condemned, had her hands tied together
and was thrown into the river. Albert in re-
venge took arms against his father, but the
Emperor Sigismund finally reconciled them.
The Duke Ernest raised a chapel to the memory
of Agnes, and Albert married the princess of
Brunswick. Her story, though well authenti-
cated, has become legendary from the interest
attached to it, and is a favorite theme with the
Bavarian poets.

Bernay, bar-na, France, a town in the de-
partment of Eure, 25 miles west-northwest of
Evreux, on the right bank of the Charentonne.
It has two fine old churches, a communal col-
lege, a hospital, a court of first resort, a board
of manufactures, an agricultural society, and a
savings bank. It has important manufactures of
cloth and flannel, tape, linen, and cotton goods ;
and spins a good deal of cotton, thread, and
worsted. It has also bleachfields, dyeworks,
tanneries, etc. Its trade is principally in grain,
cider, cloth, iron, paper, leather, linen, horses,
and cattle. The horse-fair, held in Lent, is one
of the greatest in France, and is attended by
purchasers from all parts of the country. Pop.
(1891) S.788.

Bernburg, bern-burn, German3\ a town
in the duchy of Anhalt, capital of the former
duchy of Anhalt-Bernburg; on both sides of
the Saale, northwest from Leipsic, with which,
as well as with Berlin and Magdeburg, it is
connected by railway. It is divided into the old,
the new, and the high town ; the first two sur-
rounded by walls, and communicating by a
bridge 173 feet long. Bernburg is well built,
and contains several well-paved and well-lighted
streets. The principal building is the palace,
situated, with a garden, on the highest part of
the high town. It is very ancient, but has
received numerous modern additions, and con-
tains a picture-gallery, theatre, and church. Be-
sides an oil-mill, and several breweries and dis-
tilleries, there are manufactories of paper and

BERNE-BELLECOUR — BERNHARDl

earthenware, copper and tin wares, etc. Pop.
(1895) 32,374-

Berne-Bellecour Etienne Prosper, barn-
bel-koor, a-te-en pros-per, French painter: b.
Boulogne, 29 July 1838. After some years of
study under Barras and Picot, he made a reputa-
tion by his spirited representations of episodes
in the Franco-Prussian war of 1870. He received
a first-class medal in the Paris Salon of 1872 ;
the Legion of Honor in 1878 ; and a second-class
medal at the Paris Exposition of 1889. His
best known works are: 'Cannon Shot-*; 'In
the Trenches^ ; 'Attack on the Chateau^ ; and
'To Arms!^

Ber'ners, John Bourchier, boor'she-a,
Lord, English baron, a descendant of the Duke
of Gloucester, youngest son of Edward HI. : b.
1474; d. 1532. He was member of Parliament,
1495-1529; aided in suppressing the Cornish
insurrection, 1497 ; chancellor of the exchequer,
1515; ambassador to Spain, 1518; and for many
years governor of Calais. He translated 'Frois-
sart's Chronicles^ (1523-5) and other works,
his translation of the former being a sort of
English classic.

Ber'ners, or Barnes, Juliana, English
prioress and author: fi. 15th century. She
was the daughter of Sir James Berners, who
was beheaded in the reign of Richard II. Lit-
tle more is known than that she was prioress of
the nunnery of Sopewell, near St. z\lban's, and
has her name prefixed as writer or compiler to
one of the earliest and most curious productions
of the English press. The first edition, entitled
'The Treatyses Pertjmynge to Hawkynge,
Huntynge, and Fysshynge with an Angle^ (-of
which only three perfect copies are known),
printed in the abbey of St. Alban's in i486,
treats of hawking, hunting, and heraldry. A
second edition was printed by Wynkyn de
Worde in 1496. This work, under the title of
the 'Book of St. Alban's,^ became a popular
manual of sporting science, and was many times
reprinted in the i6th century. It has latterly
been issued in facsimile of the original print.

Bernhard, bern'hart, (Duke of Weimar),
Dutch soldier (fourth son of Duke John of Saxe-
Weimar) : b. 6 Aug. 1604; d. 8 July 1639. He
entered first the service of Holland, and after-
ward the Danish army employed in Holstein
against the troops of the emperor, and command-
ed by the margrave of Baden-Durlach, and was
present at the Conference of Lubeck, 1629, for
negotiating peace. When Gustavus Adolphus
entered Germany. Bernhard joined him, and
was present at the attack upon Wallenstein's
camp in the neighborhood of Nuremberg, 24
Aug. 16.12. In the battle of Liitzen, 6 Oct. 1632,
he commanded the left wing of the Swedish
army, avenged the death of Gustavus Adolphus,
and although himself severely wounded, put
the right wing of the imperial troops to flight.
In 16,13 he took Bamberg, Cronach, Hochstadt,
and Aichstadt; but his attempt upon Ingolstadt
miscarried. He also brought the cities of Ratis-
bon and Straubing into his power, and frus-
trated Wallenstein's intentions. The king of
Sweden made him Duke of Franconia. His
impetuosity caused the defeat at N6rdlingen(q.v.).
24 Aug. 1634. He himself narrowly escaped
being made prisoner. The prudence of Oxen-
stiern and the valor of Bernhard soon made
amends for this fault. France, now entering

into a closer alliance with Sweden, concluded a
separate treaty with Bernhard, who went to-
Paris, 16 Oct. 1634. Bernhard promised for
4,000,000 livres to raise an army of 18,000 men
on the Rhine to act against Austria. He now
carried on the war in the country adjacent to
the Rhine, took the fortress of Zabern in Alsace,
spread his army over Lorraine and Burgundy,
and vanquished the forces of the emperor in
several battles. At the commencement of the
year 1638 he laid siege to Rheinfelden, not far
from Basel. Here he was unexpectedly attacked
in his camp, 18 February, by an Austrian army.
Bernhard was obliged to retreat before superior
numbers ; but, having soon collected his forces,
he surprised the Austrians, 21 February, and
obtained a complete victory. Several Austrian
generals were made prisoners, and the fortress
of Rheinfelden was obliged to surrender, 13
May. He then undertook the siege of Breisach,
the possession of which was necessary for main-
taining himself in Alsace. An imperial army,
under General Goetze, was defeated with great
loss by Bernhard, 30 July. Bernhard captured
several places of inferior importance during
the siege of Breisach, which, however, did not
surrender until he had repeatedly defeated the
Austrians, and then upon very moderate condi-
tions, which Bernhard signed in his own name
without mentioning France. The possession of
Alsace, which he had before ceded to France
under certain conditions, was now secured ; but
he also demanded Breisach as an appurtenance
to Alsace. He garrisoned all the conquered
places with German troops, and ordered money
to be coined with the Saxon coat of arms and
that of Breisach. In vain were the efforts of
France to deprive the duke of the possession of
Breisach by proposing to place a French garri-
son in the fortress ; the Duke declined not only
this proposal, but also an invitation to Paris
and the offer of a marriage with the Duchesse
d'Aiguillon, niece of Cardinal Richelieu. In-
stead of that match he proposed one with the
princess of Rohan, to which, however, the
French court would not accede, lest the party
of the Huguenots should be strengthened. It
is probable that Richelieu had recourse to poison
in order to rid France of the Duke, who was
becoming formidable by his growing power.
Immediately after his death several French com-
missioners appeared, who enlisted his troops
into the French army ; the command of them
was committed to Marshal Guebriant. With
Bernhard fell one of the chief supports of the
Protestants. His successors, Baner and Torsten-
son, pursued his victorious course, and France
seriously exerted herself in the war which con-
tinued for the benefit of the Protestants. In
Bernhard a graceful person, intelligence, and
valor were united with a magnanimity which
could not be shaken by adverse events ; his only
fault was too great impetuosity.

Bernhardi, August Friedrich, bern-har'de,
ow'goost fre'driH, German scholar: b. Berlin,
1768: d. there, 1820. In his youth his atten-
tion was directed to universal language (that is,
to language as far as it is common to all
rational beings), to the mystery of its construc-
tion — the mathematics, as it were, of language.
Bernhardi, considering all different languages
as a whole, endeavored to discover a uni-
versal grammar common to them all. The
result of his researches appears in his works:

BERNH ARDI — BERNIER

^Abstract Grammar^ (2 vols. 1801) ; '■Grammar
in Its Application-' (1803) ; and * Elements of
the Science of Language,* in which many philo-
sophical principles of language are laid down.
Bernhardi was a man of cultivated mind and
extensive knowledge. He was also a professor
and director of a classical school in Berlin.

Bernhardi, Theodor von, ta'o-dor fon,

German historian and diplomat : b. Berlin, 6

Nov. 1802; d. Kunersdorf, Silesia, 12 Feb. 1887.

His diplomatic career was important, and

. afforded him special facilities for compiling a

1 ^History of Russia and of European Politics

> During the Years 1814-31* (1863-77); 'Fred-

' erick the Great as a Militarj' Commander'

(1881); and similar works, all of value.

Bernhardt, Rosine, barn-hart, ro-zen, bet-
ter known as Sarah, French actress : b. Paris,
22 Oct. 1844. Of Jewish descent, her father
French, her mother Dutch, her early life was
spent largely in Amsterdam. In 1858 she en-
tered the Paris Conservatoire and gained prizes
for tragedy and comedy in 1861 and 1862; but
her debut at the Theatre Frangais in 'Iphigenie'
and Scribe's 'Valerie* was not a success. After
a brief retirement she reappeared at the Gj'mnase
and the Porte Saint-Martin in burlesque, and in
1867 at the Odeon in higher drama. Her suc-
cess in Hugo's 'Ruy Bias* in 1872 led to her
being recalled to the Theatre Frangais, since
which she has abundantly proved her dramatic
genius. In 1879 she visited London, and again
m 1880, about which time she severed connec-
tion with the Comedie Frangais under heavy
penalty. In 1880, 1887. 1891, 1896, and 1900
she made successful appearances in the United
States, and between and after these dates vis-
ited Switzerland, Holland, South America, Italy,
Algeria, Australia, etc. In 1899 she appeared
in a new rendering of ^Hamlet* in Paris, and
scored a most flattering triumph. Among her
most successful impersonations are ^Theodora,*
'Fedora,* 'La Tosca,* and 'Cleopatre* in the
plays bearing those titles. In 1882 she married
M. Damala, a Greek, whom she divorced not
long afterward. She is also known as a sculp-
tor, painter, and playwright.

Bernhardy, Gottfried, bern'har-de, got'fred,
German classical philologist : b. Landsberg-on-
the-\\'arthe. 20 March 1800 ; d. Halle, 14 May
1875. He lectured very brilliantly at the lead-
ing universities, his principal works being
'Greek Syntax Scientifically Considered*
(1829), a historical study of the subject; 'Out-
lines of Roman Literature* (5th ed. 1872) ;
'Outlines of Greek Literature* (Part I. 5th ed.
1892: Part II. 2d-3d ed. 1876-80; Part III.
wanting), and a supplement to the first-named
treatise, entitled 'Paralipomena [Omission] in
[the Work on] Greek Syntax* (1854-62) ; al-
though he has written many other important
books.

Berni, Berna, or Bernia, Francesco, ber'ne,
ber'na, or ber'ne-a, fran-ches'ko, Italian
poet : b. Lamporecchio, Tuscany, toward the
close of the 15th century; d. 26 July 1536. His
family was noble, but poor, and young Berni
went to Florence, and at the age of 19 to Rome,
where he lived under the care of his relation,
Cardinal Bibiena. At length he entered the
service of Ghiberti. bishop of Verona, datary
of the papal chancery, as secretary. In the hope

of promotion he took orders ; but sought recrea-
tion in amusements which displeased the prelate.
A society had been established at Rome, consist-
ing of young ecclesiastics of a jovial temper
like Berni, and of a poetical vein, who, in order
to denote their love for wine and their careless
gaietj^, called themselves i vignajuoli (vine-
dressers). They laughed at everything, and
made sport in verse of the most serious, nay,
the most tragic matters. Berni's verses were the
most successful, and were written in so peculiar
a style that his name has been given to it
(maniera Bcrnesca or Berniesca). When Rome
was sacked by the troops of the Constable Bour-
bon, 1527, Berni lost all that he possessed. He
afterward made several journeys, with his pa-
tron Ghiberti, to Verona, Venice, and Padua.
At length, wearied with serving, and satisfied
with a canonship in the cathedral at Florence,
he retired to that place. The favor of the great,
however, which he was weak enough to court,
brought him into difficulties. He was required
to commit a crime, and his refusal cost him
his life. Alessandro de' Medici, at that time
Duke of Florence, lived in open enmity with
the young Cardinal Ippolito de' Medici. Berni
was so intimate with both that it is doubtful
which first made him the proposal to poison the
other. Certain it is that the cardinal died by
poison in 1535, and it is probable that Alessan-
dro caused Berni's death.

In the burlesque style of poetry, Berni is
still considered the best model. His satire is
often very bitter, and frequently unites the good
humor of Horace with the causticity of Juvenal.
The extreme licentiousness of his writings is
his greatest fault. Berni also wrote Latin verses
very correctly, and was well acquainted with
Greek. His ^Burlesque Verses* have great
merit; so also has his rifacimento of Bojardo's
'Orlando Innamorato.*

Bernicia, ber-nish'ya, a Latinized form of
the English word Brynelch, used to indicate the
north part of what became the kingdom of
Northumbria, the part north of the river Tees.
The Anglian kingdom of Bernicia is said to
have been founded by Ida, who made his capital
at Bamborough about 550 a.d.

Bernier, ber-nj^a, Camille, French painter:
b. 1823. He did not exhibit until 1863, but in
a few years became one of the leading landscape
artists of France, a position he has held for 40
years. His best-known works are: ^The Aban-
doned Lane* ; ^Evening* ; "^A Farm in Brit-
tany* ; and 'Landes, Near Bannalec*

Bemier, Frangois, French physician and
traveler : b. Angers, about 1625 ; d. Paris, 1688.
He set out on his travels in 1654, and after
visiting Egypt and Palestine, went into India,
where his skill in medicine brought him into
notice; and he remained for 12 years, residing
chiefl}^ at Delhi, as physician to the Great
Mogul Emperor Aurungzebe. On one occa-
sion he accompanied the prime minister on his
march, at the head of an immense army, to the
conquest of Cashmere, and in his travels, record-
ing all that he saw, has given accounts full of
interest, and recognized by subsequent travelers
as remarkable for their fidelity. After his return
to France he not only compiled his '^Travels'
and several volumes of history relating to the
empire of the Great Mogul, but turned his at-
tention to philosophical subjects, and published

BERNINA — BERNOUILLI

an abridgment of the philosophy of Gassendi.
He also wrote a treatise, entitled <Traite du
Libre et du Volontaire.^

Bernina, ber-ne'na, a mountain of the
Rhstian Alps, 13,290 feet high, in the Swiss
canton of Grisons, with remarkable and exten-
sive glaciers. Its summit was first attained in
1850. The Bernina Pass, which attains an ele-
vatian of 7,642 feet, and over which a carriage
road was completed in 1864, leads from Pontre-
sina to Poschiavo.

Bernini, Giovanni Lorenzo, ber-ne'ne, jo-
van'ne lo-ren'z6, called II Cavaliere Bernini,
Italian sculptor and architect : b. Naples, 7 Dec.
1598; d. Rome, 28 Nov. 1680. Richly endowed
by nature and favored by circumstances, he
rose superior to the rules of art, creating for
himself an easy manner, the faults of which he
knew how to disguise by its brilliancy. From
his early youth he manifested a great power
to excel in the arts of design, and one of his
first works was the marble bust of the prelate
Montajo. He was not yet 18 when he pro-
duced the "^Apollo and Daphne,^ in marble, a
masterpiece of grace and execution. Looking
at this group near the close of his life, he
declared that he had made very little progress
since the time when that was produced. With-
out forsaking sculpture, Bernini's genius em-
braced architecture, and he furnished the design
for the canopy and the pulpit of St. Peter's, as
well as for the circular place before the church.
Among his numerous works were the palace
Barberini, the belfry of St. Peter's, the model of
the monument of the Countess Matilda, and
the monument of Urban VIII., his benefac-
tor. Urban had scarcely closed his eyes, and
Innocent X. ascended the papal throne, when
the envy engendered by the merits of the artist
and the favor bestowed on him broke forth.
His enemies triumphed ; but he regained the
favor of the Pope by a model for a fountain.
About the same time he erected the palace of
Monte Citorio. Alexander VII., the successor of
Innocent X., required of him a plan for the
embellishment of the Piazza di San Pietro. The
admirable colonnade, so beautifully proportioned
to the Basilica, was built under the direction of
Bernini. We may also mention the palace
Odescalchi, the Rotunda della Riccia, and the
house for novices, belonging to the Jesuits, on
Monte Cavallo. Louis XIV. having invited him
to Paris, he set out from Rome, in 1665, accom-
panied by one of his sons and a numerous
retinue. Never did an artist travel with so great
pomp and under such flattering circumstances.
The reception which he met with in Paris was
highly honorable. He was first occupied in pre-
paring plans for the restoration of the Louvre,
which, however, were never executed. Cardinal
Ro.spigliosi having become Pope, Bernini was
admitted to an intimate intercourse with him,
and charged with several works ; among others,
with the decoration of the bridge of St. Angelo.
In his 70th year this indefatigable artist exe-
cuted one of his most beautiful works, the tomb
of Alexander VII. He was buried with great
magnificence in the church of St. Maria Mag-
giore. To his children he left a fortune amount-
ing to about 3.300,000 francs. Bernini's favorite
maxim was, Chi non csce talvolta della regola,
nnn passu mai Thus he v/as of opinion that.

in order to excel in the arts, one must rise
above all rules, and create a manner peculiar to
one's self.

Bernis, Frangois Joachim de Pierres de,

bar-nes, froh-swa jo-a-kem de pe-ar de, French
cardinal and minister of Louis XV. : b. St. Mar-
cel, de I'Ardeche, 1715; d. Rome, 2 Nov. 1794.
Madame de Pompadour presented him to Louis
XV., who, being pleased with him, assigned to
him an apartment in the Tuileries, with a pen-
sion of 1,500 livres. He went as ambassador to
Venice, and after his return enjoyed the highest
favor at court, and soon became minister of
foreign affairs. The political system of Europe
was changed at that time. France and Austria,
hitherto enemies, united in an offensive and de-
fensive alliance, which was succeeded by the
Seven Years' war, so unfortunate for France.
Bernis has been designated by several writers
as the chief author of this alliance. Duclos,
however, asserts that it was the intention of
Bernis to maintain the old system, which, since
the time of Henry IV., and especially since the
time of Richelieu, had made France the protec-
tress of the less powerful states of Germany, and
the rival of Austria. Oppressed by the misfor-
tunes of his country, which, in part at least,
were ascribed to him, Bernis surrendered his
post, and was soon after banished from court.
His disgrace lasted till the year 1764, when the
king appointed him Archbishop of Albi, and, five
years later, ambassador to Rome. Here he re-
mained till his death. In the name of his court,
and against his own opinion, he labored to ef-
fect the abolition of the order of the Jesuits.
When the aunts of Louis XVI. left France in
1791 they fled to him for refuge, and lived in
his house. The Revolution deprived him of his
fortune, and the means of indulging his generous
disposition. The easy poetry of youth had pro-
cured him a place in the French Academy, but he
himself is its severest critic. Voltaire had a
great esteem for his talents, his judgment, his
criticisms, and his character, as is evident from
their correspondence, which, in every other re-
spect, is very honorable to Bernis. A collection
of Bernis' works was published in 1797 by Didot,
and another in 1825.

Bernissar'tia, an extinct genus of primitive
crocodiles (Mesosuchia) of lower Cretaceous
(Wealden) age. It resembles the modern croco-
diles in the arrangement of the bony plates on
the back more nearly than do other contemporary
species, but was of quite small size, only three
or four feet in length. A complete skeleton was
found at Bernissart, in Belgium, and is now
mounted in the Brussels Museum.

Bernouilli, bar-noo-ye, or Bernoulli, a fam-
ily which has produced eight distinguished men,
who have all cultivated the mathematical sciences
with success. The family, emigrated from Ant-
werp on account of religious persecutions, under
the administration of the Duke of Alva, fled first
to Frankfort, and afterward removed to Bale,
where it was elevated to the highest dignities
of the republic.

Bernouilli, Daniel, Swiss philosopher: b.
Groningen, 9 Feb. 1700. He studied medicine,
in which he took the doctor's degree, and at the
age of 24 was offered the presidency of an acad-
emy about to be established at Genoa, but in the
following year accepted an invitation to St. Pe-
tersburg. Accompanied by his younger brother

BERNOUILLI — BEROE

John, he returned to Bale in 1733 ; became there
professor of anatomy and botany ; in 1750 pro-
fessor of natural philosophy ; resigned this place,
because of his advanced age, to his brother's
son, the younger Daniel Bernouilli, in 1777, and
died in 1782. He was one of the greatest nat-
ural philosophers as well as mathematicians of
his time. At 10 different times he received a
prize from the Academy of Paris. In 1734 he
shared with his father a double prize, given
by this academy for their joint essay on the
causes of the different inclinations of the plane-
tary orbits. Most of his writings are contained
in the Transactions of the St. Petersburg, Paris,
and Berlin academies, of which he was a mem-
ber.

Bernouilli, Jakob, or James, Swiss mathe-
matician : b. Bale, 1654; d. 1705. The differential
calculus discovered by Leibnitz and Newton was
applied by him to the most difficult questions
of geometry and mechanics ; he calculated the
loxodromic and catenary curve, the logarithmic
spirals, the evolutes of several curved lines, and
discovered the "numbers of Bernouilli,^^ as they
are called.

Bernouilli, Johann, Swiss mathematician:
b. Bale, 1667; d. i Jan. 1748. He was one of the
greatest mathematicians of his time, and the
worthy rival of Newton and Leibnitz. He was
destined for commerce, but his inclination led
him to the sciences, and from the year 1683
he principally devoted himself to medicine and
mathematics. To him and his brother James we
are indebted for an excellent treatise on the dif-
ferential calculus. He also developed the method
of proceeding from infinitely small numbers to
the finite, of which the former are the elements
or differences, and called this method the in-
tegral calculus. In 1690-2, he made a journey
to France, where he instructed the Marquis de
I'Hopital in mathematics. At this time he dis-
covered the exponential calculus, before Leib-
nitz had made any communications respecting
it, and made it known in 1697. In 1694 he be-
came doctor of medicine at Bale, and in 1695
went, as professor of mathematics, to Groningen,
where he discovered the mercurial phosphorus
or luminous barometer, for which he received,
from King Frederick I. of Prussia, a gold medal,
and was made a member of the academy in
Berlin, afterward of that in Paris. After the
death of his brother in 1705, he received the
professorship of mathematics at Bale, which he
held until his death.

Bernouilli, Nicolas, nephew of Johann
Bernouilli, Swiss mathematician : b. Bale, 1687 ;
d. 1759. He studied law, but more particularly
devoted himself to mathematics ; in 1705 went
to Groningen to Johann Bernouilli ; returned
however with him to Bale toward the close of
the year, and became there professor of mathe-
matics. He traveled through Switzerland,
France, Holland, and England, and in 1713 be-
came a member of the Academies of Science in
London and Berlin. On the recommendation of
Leibnitz he went as professor of mathematics to
Padua in 1716, but returned to his native city
in 1722 as professor of logic. In 1731 he be-
came professor of the Roman and feudal law
in that place.

Bernouilli, Nicolas, Swiss jurist, son of
Johann Bernouilli : b. Basel, 1695 ; d. St. Pe-

tersburg, 1726. He was professor of jurispru-
dence at Bern and subsequently professor of
mathematics at St. Petersburg.

Bernstein, bern'stin, Aaron, German pub-
licist and novelist: b. Dantzic, 1812; d. 1884. He
was in politics a Radical, and in religion a re-
former, and his life was a continued battle
against obscurantism and conservatism. Yet he
wrote some charming stories of life among the
Jews, among them ^Mendel Gibbor^ (i860). He
wrote also some notable historical sketches, as
^The People's Years^ and ^The Years of Reac-
tion.*

Bernstein, Eduard, leader of the German
social democracy : b. Berlin, 6 Jan. 1850. As a
young man he edited socialistic newspapers in
Berlin until the vehemence of his opposition to
the government of Bismarck made it desirable
for him to leave Germany. Returning in 1901,
he became editor of Vorzvarts. He contends that
every movement for the advancement of the peo-
ple should be encouraged and taken advantage
of by the common people, whom he urges to
take an active part in politics. Besides his news-
paper work, he has published several volumes
of discussions on politico-economical subjects,
such as ^Zur Geschichte und Theorie des Sozial
is mus' (1900).

BernstorfF, Andreas Peter, bern'storf, an-
dra-as pa'ter (Count), Danish statesman: b.
1735; d. 1797. He was appointed prime minister
in 1769, when he ceded to Russia the Gottorp part
of Holstein in exchange for Oldenburg and
Delmenhorst. He introduced a new system of
finance, and prepared the abolition of villanage
in Schleswig and Holstein. He was a pro-
nounced Liberal, and contended for the freedom
of the press.

Bernstorff, Johann Hartwig Ernst (Count),
Danish statesman in the service of the king of
Denmark: b. Hanover, 1712; d. 1772. He was
employed in divers embassies, and afterward
held the office of foreign minister to Frederick
V. for about 20 years, resigning in 1770. He
was called by Frederick the Great "the oracle of
Denmark."

Beroaldo, ba-rd-al'do, Filippo, Italiar
scholar: b. Bologna, 1453 ;_d. 1505. He early
gave proofs of great ai)ilities and a prodigous
memory, and after completing his education
opened a school, successively at Bologna, Parma,
and Milan, and taught with great success. He
afterward went to Paris, and gave lectures which
greatly extended his fame. His townsmen now
became desirous to possess him, and he returned
to Bologna, where he spent the remainder of
his life as professor of belles-lettres. He is now
chiefly known as the editor of some good editions
of the classics, and the author of a curious tract
entitled *Declamatio Ebriosi, Scortatoris et Alea-
toris,* in which the dnmkard, rake, and gambler,
represented as three brothers, debate which of
them, as being the most vicious, should be ex-
cluded from sharing in his father's inheritance.

Bero'e, daughter of Oceanus; also the
name of several women connected with Thrace,
Illyria, etc. ; also a genus of animals, the typical
one of the family Beroida:. The heroes are oval
or globular-ribbed animals, transparent and gela-
tinous, with cirri from pole to pole, and two long
tentacles fringed with cirri, which aid them in
breathing and in locomotion. They have a

BEROSUS — BERRY

mouth', a stomach, and an anal aperture. They
are free swimming organisms inhabiting the sea,
sometimes rotating, and at night phosphorescent.

Bero'sus, according to some a Chaldsean
by birth, and a priest of the temple at Belus at
Babylon, and according to others a contemporary
of Alexander the Great, is celebrated both as a
historian and an astronomer, though it has been
alleged that his name merely has been used for
the purpose of giving a reputation to what others
had written. His history, giving an account of
the Babylonian Chaldseans and their kings, con-
sisted of two books written in Greek, and pro-
fessed to be founded on the ancient archives of
the temple of Belus. It exists only in frag-
ments, contained in the writings of Josephus,
Eusebius, and others, and given in a collected
form by Richter (1825). According to Pliny
the astronomical observations contained in the
works of Berosus extended over a period of
480 years.

Berquin, Arnaud, ber-kati, ar-no, French
writer: b. Bordeaux, 1749; d. 1791. He first at-
tracted notice by some poems which he entitled
'Idylles,'' and by several translations from the
English under the name of * Tableaux Anglais,'
but is best known by his work entitled *Ami des
Enfans,' for which he received the prize of the
French Academy in 1789, as the most useful
work which made its appearance during that
year. It has been translated into most European
languages, and still continues a standard work
for the amusement and instruction of young peo-
ple. It cannot, however, lay claim to the merit
of originality, as both the title and much of the
substance are derived from a work in German
by Weiss, entitled ^Kinderfreund.' Berquin,
though specially devoted to the instruction of
youth, was not incapable of excelling in graver
literature, and was for some time the editor of
the Moniteur.

Berquin, ber-kan', Louis de, the first Prot-
estant martyr in France: b. 1490; d. Paris, 17
April 1529. He was a gentleman of Artois, a
friend of Badius, the savant. When, in 1523, the
police began to seize Luther's works, with a
view to suppressing Protestantism, they found
among Berquin's books some manuscripts of
his own writing that were pronounced heretical.
As he refused to retract, he was thrown into
prison. Francis I., whose counselor he was, ob-
tained for him his freedom ; and Erasmus, al-
ways his friend, tried in vain to prevent him
from exposing his life in a useless struggle. His
fixed opinions and intrepid nature, however,
having thrown him into prison three times,
caused him to be condemned to death, and he
was burned alive.

Berredo e Castro, bar-ra'do e kash'tro,
Portuguese soldier and historian : b. Serpa, about
1680; d. Lisbon, 13 March 1748. Having en-
tered the army he fought at the battle of Sara-
gossa (1710), so distinguishing himself on that
occasion that he was made governor-general of
the province of Maranhao, Brazil, and in 1718 he
became captain-general of Mazagao. The rest
of his life was spent upon his history which is
of great value as an original source of informa-
tion for the period of which it treats. It is en-
titled ^Annals Historicos, do estado do Maran-
hao' (1749).

Berret'ta. See Biretta.

Ber'rian, William, American Episcopal
clergj'man and writer: b. New York, 1787; d. 7
Nov. 1862. He was rector of Trinity Church,
New York, 1830-62. Besides various religious
works, he wrote "^Travels in France and Italy'
and a ^Historical Sketch of Trinity Church.'

Ber'rien, John Macpherson, American law-
yer and politician : b. New Jersey, 23 Aug. 1781 ;
d. Savannah, Ga., i Jan. 1856. He was the son
of an officer in the war of the American Revolu-
tion, graduated at Princeton in 1796, was ad-
mitted to the bar of Georgia at the age of 18,
and gradually rose in reputation till he was
elected, in 1809, solicitor of the eastern district
of Georgia. He became judge of the same dis-
trict the next year, retaining the latter office till
1822. when he entered the Georgia Senate, from
which he was transferred, in 1824, to the Senate
of the United States. He established in that
body a high reputation as an orator and states-
man, was appointed attorney-general of the
United States in 1829, resigned this office in
1831 when Gen. Jackson's cabinet became inhar-
monious, resumed the practice of his profession
in Savannah till 1840, when he was elected again
to the national Senate, and was re-elected in
1846.

Berro, Bernardo Prudencio, bar'ro, ber-
nar'do pru-den'ce-o, Uruguayan statesman: b.
Montevideo, about 1800; d. April 1868. In 1852
he was vice-president and president of the senate.
Under Giro he was minister of government till
the revolution of 1853 ; again president of the
Senate in 1858, and president of the republic in
1860-4. The revolution of Flores was success-
ful soon after the expiration of his term. In
1868 he stirred up a revolt against Flores, was
imprisoned, and soon afterward shot through a
window in his cell.

Berruguete, ber-roo-ga'te, Alonzo, Spanish
painter, architect, and sculptor : b. Paredez de
Nava, Spain, 1480 ; d. Toledo, 1561. He went in
early life to Italy, studied in the school of Mich-
ael Angelo, and became intimate with Andrea del
Sarto, Baccio Bandinelli, and other celebrated
artists. On his return he was appointed painter
to Charles V. His principal architectural works
are the royal palace at Granada, and the town-
house of Seville ; his skill as a sculptor is seen to
great advantage in the choir of the cathedral
of Toledo, and the tomb of the vice-chancel-
lor of Aragon at Saragossa. His best paintings
are at Valladolid, Toledo, and Salamanca.

Berry, ba-re, Carolina Ferdinanda Louisa,
Duchesse de, widow of the second son of
Charles X. of France ; daughter of Ferdinand I.
of the Two Sicilies: b. 5 Nov. 1798; d. 17 April
1870. Her futile attempt at insurrection in
1832, to place her son on the French throne,
caused her imprisonment and subsequent with-
drawal to Sicily.

Berry, Charles Ferdinand, Due de, second
son of the Count d'Artois (afterward Charles
X.) and Maria Theresa of Savoy: b. Versailles,
24 Jan. 1778 ; d. 14 Feb. 1820. He was educated
along with his elder brother, the Duke of An-
gouleme. In 1792 he fled with his father to
Turin, served imder him and Conde on the
Rhine, and early learned the art of winning the
love of the soldiers. Subsequently he lived al-
ternately in London and Scotland, continually
occupied with plans for the restoration of the

BERRY — BERSIER

Bourbons. Landing at Cherbourg, 13 April 1814,
he passed through the cities of Bayeux, Caen,
Rouen, etc., gaining over the soldiers to the cause
-of the Bourbons, distributing alms, and deliver-
ing prisoners. When Napoleon landed from
Elba, the king committed to Berry the chief
command of all the troops in and around Paris.
All his efforts to secure their fidelity proving
ineffectual, he was obliged to retreat on the night
of IQ March, with the troops of the household
to Ghent and Alost, where the king then was.
The battle of Waterloo enabled him to return
to Paris, where he arrived 8 July, and surren-
dered his command over the troops of the house-
hold into the hands of the king. At the opening
of the chambers in Paris he took the oath to
maintain the constitution, and was appointed
president of the fourth bureau ; bvit soon retired
from public life. He died of a blow inflicted
by a political fanatic named Louvel (see Lou-
\tl). The duke left a daughter, Louise Marie
Therese, afterward Duchess of Parma ; and a
posthumous son, subsequently known as Count
de Chambord.

Ber'ry, Hiram George, American soldier:
b. Rockland, Me., 27 Aug. 1824 ; d. Chancellors-
ville 2 May 1863. He entered the Union army as
colonel of the 4th Maine infantry, and was pres-
ent at the battle of Bull Run, the siege of York-
town, took a conspicuous part in the battles of
Williamsburg, Fair Oaks. Chantilly, and the
second Bull Run campaign. President Lincoln
nominated him a major-general of volunteers,
January 1863, and he succeeded Gen. Sickles in
command of the 2d division of the 3d army
Corp. At a critical point in the battle of Chan-
cellorsville, i May 1863, Hooker ordered Gen.
Berry to charge with the bayonet the advancing
enemy. He did so, and for three hours his di-
vision, almost alone withstood the enemy's as-
sault, and regained for the Federal forces a
portion of their lost ground. He was killed at
the head of a successful bayonet charge, upon
the renewal of the battle the following day.

Berry, Mary, English author: b. Kirk-
bridge, Yorkshire, 16 March 1763 ; d. Loncfon,
20 Nov. 1852. She and her sister Agnes were
intimate friends of Horace Walpole. In 1798
she edited the ^ Works of Horace Walpole.^
Her most ambitious work was her ^Social Life
in England and France^ (1844).

Ber'ry, or Berri, a former province and
■dukedom of France, of which Bourges was the
•capital. With the exception of the arrondisse-
ment St. Amand, which belonged to the Bour-
bonnais, it now forms the departments Indre
and Cher. At several periods it gave a title to
French princes, the younger son of Charles X.
bemg the last to assume it.

Berry, Canal de, one of the most impor-
"tant canals in France as regards the amount of
its traffic. It begins at Montlugon on the Cher,
the chief trading centre of the coal fields of the
Allier ; descends the Cher valley to St. Amand,
and ultimately enters the Cher itself near St.
Aignan. below which point the canalized Cher
continues the line of navigation to Tours.
Length of navigation 200 miles, of which 36 J4
miles belong to the canalized Cher. Constructed
1807-41.

Berry, a succulent fruit in which the seeds
are immersed in a pulpy mass enclosed in a thin

skin; for example, grape, gooseberry, tomato.
Popularly the term is applied to fruits not
strictly berries; for example, strawberry, rasp-
berry, etc., which bear external seeds on a pulpy
receptacle.

Berryer, bar-ya, Antoine Pierre, French
advocate and orator: b. Paris, 4 Jan. 1790; d. 29
Nov. 1868. In 1814 he proclaimed at Rennes
the deposition of Napoleon, and remained till his
death an avowed Legitimist. He assisted his
father in the defense of Ney, secured the ac-
quittal of Gen. Cambronne, and defended Lamen-
nais from a charge of atheism. His eloquence
was compared with that of Mirabeau, and after
the dethronement of Charles X. (1830) he re-
mained in the chamber as the sole Legitimist
orator. In 1840 he was one of the counsel for
the defense of Louis Napoleon after the Bou-
logne fiasco. In 1843 he did homage to the
Count de Chambord in London, adhering to him
through the revolution of 1848, and voting for
the deposition of the prince-president the morn-
ing after the coup d'etat. He gained additional
reputation in 1858 by his defense of Montalem-
bert, and was counsel for the Patterson-Bona-
partes in the suit for the recognition of the Balti-
more marriage. In 1863 he was re-elected to the
chamber with Thiers, and in 1864 received a
flattering reception in England.

Bersaglieri, ber-sa-lya're, a corps of rifle-
men or sharpshooters, introduced into the Sar-
dinian army by Gen. Delia Marmora, about 1849.
They took part in the Russian war and also
assisted at the battle of the Tchernaya, 16
Aug. 1855. They were likewise employed in the
Italian wars of 1859 and 1866. In 1901 they
comprised 12 regiments, each regiment com-
posed of three battalions of four companies each.

Ber'serker, a descendant of the eight-
handed Starkader and the beautiful Alfhilde,
and according to the Scandinavian mythology, a
famous warrior. He disdained the protection of
armor, whence he received his name, which sig-
nifies, according to Ihre, armorless. He raged
like a madman in battle. He killed King Swa-
furlam, and married his daughter, by whom he
had 12 sons as untamable as himself. They were
also called Berserker, and after their time the
name was given to wild and fierce Scandinavian
warriors.

Bersezio, ber-sets'yo, Vittorio, Italian
novelist and playwright : b. Peveragno. Pied-
mont, 1830. Both as a writer of tales and of
comedies he is conspicuous for vivid and faith-
ful delineation of Piedmontese life; especially
in his dialect comedies, among which ^The Mis-
fortunes of Monssu Travett* is considered to
be his masterpiece. He also wrote an excellent
historical work, 'The Reign of Victor Emman-
uel II.> (1878-93)-

Bersier, bar-sya, Eugene Arthur Frangois,
a French Protestant pulpit orator of note : b.
Morges. near Geneva, 1831 ; d. Paris, 19 Nov.
1889. He became in 1855 a preacher in Paris
where he was much admired and his sermons
were translated into several languages. Among
his writings are *Coligny avant les guerres de
religion' (1884) ; *Histoire d'une petite fille
heuveuse' (1890) ; in English, 'Sermon^*
(1881-1901). See Tinling, 'An Analysis of the
Published Sermons of Pastor Eugene Bersier*
(1901).

BERT — BERTHOLLET

Bert, bar, Paul, French statesman and
physiologist : b. Auxerre, 17 Oct. 1833 ; d.
Ketcho. Tonquin, 11 Nov. 1886. He studied both
law and medicine, became assistant to Claude
Bernard at the College of France, and succes-
sively occupied the chairs of physiology at Bor-
deaux and Paris. Entering political life in 1870,
on the proclamation of the republic, he was four
lime re-elected to the chamber. He brought
forward laws removing primary instruction from
the control of the religious orders, and making
it compulsory. During the premiership of Gam-
betta he held the post of minister of public in-
struction and worship. While engaged in public
life, M. Bert still pursued with ardor his scien-
tific investigations, attracting world-wide atten-
tion by his experiments in vivisection. The anti-
religious views of M. Bert excited much
controversy. He was also the author of several
works on anatomy and physiology, and of nu-
merous educational and political writings. He
rendered a service to natural science by the
clear and simple style of his text-books.

Berthelot, bar-tlo, Pierre Eugene Marcel-
lin, French chemist : b. Paris, 25 Oct. 1827 ; d.
there 18 March 1907. He early studied chem-
istry, and in 1859 was appointed professor of
organic chemistry in the Superior School of
Pharmacy. In 1865 a new chair of orgaaic
chemistry was organized for him in the Col-
lege of France. In 1870 he was elected presi-
dent of the scientific committee of defense, and
during the siege of Paris was entrusted with
the manufacture of ammunition and guns, and
especially dynamite and nitro-glycerine. In
1878 he became president of the committee on
explosives, which introduced smokeless powder.
His labors also led to the discovery of dyes ex-
tracted from coa! tar. He received the decolla-
tion of the Legion of Honor in 1861 ; was made
commander in 1879, and grand officer in 1886.
In 1889 he was elected permanent secretary of
the Academy of Sciences. He has contributed
to the knowledge of synthetical processes and to
the relations between the phenomena of heat and
of chemistry. His works include: 'Chimie or-
ganique fondee sur la synthese^ (i860) ; <Legons
sur les principes sucres^ (1862) ; Lecons sur
risomerie^ (1865); "^Traite elementire de chimie
organique^ and <Sur la force de la poudre et
das matieres explosives^ (1872 and 1889) ; 'Veri-
fications de I'areometre deBaume* (1873) ; <Les
Origines de Talchimie' (1885) ; < Collection des
anciens alchimistes grecs' (1888) ; 'Chimie des
anciens' (1889) ; 'Traite partique de calorimetrie
chimique' (1893).

Berthier, bar-tya, Louis Alexandre, mar-
shal of France, prince and duke of Neufchatel
and Valengin, prince of Wagram : b. Versailles,
20 Nov. 1753; d. Bamberg, i June 1815. In the
American war of independence he served under
Lafayette. In 1789, Louis XVI. appointed him
major-general of the national guard of Ver-
sailles, and on 5 and 6 Oct. 1790, as well as 19
Feb. 1791. he did good service to the royal fam-
ily. During the reign of terror he avoided sus-
picion by exhibiting zeal in the Vendean war.
After the 9th Thermidor, he was appointed
chief of the general stafif of Kellermann, and
by causing the French army to take up the lines
of Borghetto, contributed to arrest the advance
of the enemy. Thus his reputation as a chief
of the general staff was established before Bona-

parte singled him out for that post. In October
1797 Gen. Bonaparte sent him to Paris to de-
liver to the directory the treaty of Campo-
Formio. In 1798 he received the chief command
of the army of Italy, and in the beginning of
February made his entrance into Rome, abolished
the papal government, and established a consular
one. After the i8th Brumaire, Bonaparte ap-
pointed him minister of war. He afterward be-
came general-in-chief of the army of reserve,
accompanied Bonaparte to Italy in 1800, and con-
tributed to the passage of St. Bernard and the
victory of Marengo. He signed the armistice of
Alessandria, formed the provisional government
of Piedmont, and went on an extraordinary mis-
sion to Spain. He then received again the de-
partment of war, which, in the meantime, had
been in the hands of Carnot. He accompanied
Napoleon to ]\Iilan, June 1805, to be present at
his coronation, and in October was appointed
chief of the general staff of the grand army in
Germany. In the campaign against Austria in
1809, he distinguished himself at Wagram, and
received the title of Prince of Wagram. In 1810,
as proxy of Napoleon, he received the hand of
Maria Louisa, daughter of the Emperor Francis
I., and accompanied her to France. Somewhat
later Napoleon made him colonel-general of the
Swiss troops. In 1812 he was with the arm}- in
Russia, as chief of the general staff, which post
he also held in 1813. After Napoleon's abdica-
tion he lost his principality of Neufchatel, but re-
tained his other honors, and possessed the favor
and confidence of Louis XVIII. Subsequently
he retired to Bavaria, where, in a fit of insanity,
he committed suicide. See 'Memoires d'Alexan-
dre Berthier, Pr. de Neufchatel et de Wagram^
(1826).

Berthold, ber'tolt, Franz, pseudonym of
Adelheid Reinbold, German novelist: b. 1802;
d. 1839. She was warmly appreciated and fur-
thered by Ludwig Tieck. Her story 'Fred of
the Will-o'-the-Wisp' (1830), met with great
favor; after her death appeared 'King Sebas-
tian^ (1839), a historical romance, and 'Col-
lected Tales^ (1842).

Berthold von Regensburg, ber'tolt fon ra'-
gens-boorg, German Franciscan preacher: b.
about 1220; d. 13 Dec. 1272, and buried in the
Franciscan convent at Ratisbon, of which he was
a member. From 1250 to the close of his life,
he preached to immense congregations in Switz-
erland, Hungary, Austria, Moravia, Bohemia,
Saxony, Swabia, etc., speaking to them from
the summits of mountains or from the tops of
trees. In the Heidelberg university library some
MSS. of his sermons are preserved. The elo-
quent manner with which he exposed the iniqui-
ties of his times seems to have produced an elec-
tric effect upon his hearers. Near Glatz, in
Silesia, a tent under which he had preached
was exhibited long after his death, and revived
the feelings of affection and reverence in which
his name is held by the people. See 'Life by
UnkeP (1882).

Berthollet, bar-to-la, Claude Louis (Count),
French chemist of distinction : b. Talloire, Sa-
voy, 9 Dec. 1748; d. Paris, 7 Nov. 1822. He
studied medicine at Turin ; went to Paris, where
he became connected with Lavoisier, was ad-
mitted in 1780 a member of the Academy of
Sciences in that city; was made in 1794 profes-
sor in the normal school there, and was sent tc

BERTHOLLETIA — BERTILLON SYSTEM

Italy in 1796, in order to select the plunder that
was to be carried to Paris. He followed Bona-
parte to Egypt, and returned with him in 1799.
After the i8th Brumaire he was made a member
of the senat-conscrvatcur ; afterward count and
grand-officer of the Legion of Honor. In 1804
Napoleon appointed him senator for the district
of Montpellier. In 1813 he received the grand
cross of the Order of the Reunion. He voted,
however, for the establishment of a provisional
government and the dethronement of Napoleon.
Louis XVIII. made him a peer; but Napoleon
passed him by in 1815. After the restoration of
Louis, he took his seat again in the chamber of
peers. Among the inventions and new processes
with which the sciences and the arts were en-
riched by him, the most important are those for
the charring of vessels to preserve water in
ships, for the stiffening and glazing of linen,
for the artificial production of nitre, etc., but
principally that for the bleaching of vegetable
substances by means of chlorine, which, since
1786, has been in general use in France. Besides
different essays in the collections of the Acad-
emy and the Institute, he has written several
larger works, among which his ^Essai de Stati-
que Chimique^ (1803; translated into English,
German, and Italian) must be considered as the
most important. The complicated phenomena
of chemistry were here treated as under the
strict and simple laws of mechanics. He had
also a large share in the reformation of the
chemical nomenclature, as well as in the publica-
tion of the work that appeared on this subject
in Paris, 1787 — ^Methode de Nomenclature
Chimique.-*

BerthoUetia, ber-thol-le'shi-a, the generic
name of Brazil nut (q.v.).

Berthoud, bar-too, Ferdinand, Swiss
mechanician, celebrated for his marine chronom-
eters : b. Plancemont. Neufchatel, 19 March
1727; d. 20 June 1807. His father caused him
to be instructed in the art of watchmaking, and,
to afford him an opportunity of perfecting his
knowledge, sent him to Paris. He resided in
this city from 1745, and there made his first
marine chronometers, which have been used by
French navigators on so many occasions for ex-
tending and correcting geographical knowledge.
He left several works relating to his art. His
nephew, Louis Berthoud. his pupil and the heir
of his talents, extended his improvements still
further. His chronometers came to be very
widely used by French navigators, and were even
more convenient than those of his uncle.

Bertie, Willoughby, fourth Earl of Abing-
don, English politician: b. 16 Jan. 1740 ; d. 26
Sept. 1799. He was a vigorous opponent in the
House of Lords of the policy of England toward
the American colonies that culminated in the
Revolution ; wrote a famous and very popular
tract called ^Thoughts on Mr. Burke's _ Letter
on the Affairs of America,^ was active in pro-
moting favorable legislation for Ireland, and
sympathized with the French Revolution.

Bertier, bar-tya, Francisque Edouard,

French painter, now living in London : b. Paris,
1841. He was a pupil of Bouguereau and Cab-
and, and among his many portraits of notables
are those of De Lesseps, Grand Duchess Olga,
Countess of Warwick, Prince of Wales, and
Max O'Rell. He has several times visited the

United States in order to paint the portraits o£
prominent American society leaders.

Bertillon, bar-te-yon, Alphonse, French
anthropologist : b. Paris 1853. He is widely
noted as the founder of a system of identifica-
tion of criminals. In 1880, while chief of the
bureau of identification in the prefecture of po-
lice, he established his system of measurements
which has given results marvelous for their pre-
cision. The system has since been adopted by
the police authorities of the large cities of Eu-
rope and the United States. He was one of the
expert witnesses in handwriting in the trial of
Capt. Dreyfus in 1899, and soon after its close
was removed from his office. He is author of
numerous works bearing upon his system,
including * Identification anthropometrique*
(1893) ; 'La Comparison des ecritures et I'iden-
tification graphique^ (1897). See Bertillon
System.

Bertillon System, a plan of identifj'ing
suspected criminals, invented March 1879, and
set forth in 1885 by Dr. Alphonse Bertillon of
Paris. Properly speaking, it is not a single sys-
tem, but a combination of one invented by him-
self with two others approved by use, or as
many more as the officers choose to employ for
security. The former is that of anthropometry,
or exact measurements of certain dimensions of
the human body and its members ; the latter are
those of description — as in passports, but more
extended, more precise, and with a better ter-
minology — and photography, with still others at
will. The first-named is the heart of the sys-
tem, the feature which makes it instantly avail-
able ; its accuracy is great, but so is that of some
others ; this however is the only one which can
be indexed and referred to as readily as the titles
of books in a library catalogue. For this rea-
son it is rapidly becoming the standard in all
countries with civilized judicial systems. It rests
on three principles: (i) Easy and exact mea-
surement of the parts of the body in a living
subject; (2) extreme diversity of such dimen-
sions in different subjects, no two ever closely
approximating each other; (3) almost absolute
fixity of the skeleton after 20. The measure-
ments are taken with compasses, and include :
Height, standing and sitting, reach of out-
stretched arms ; length and width of head ;
length and width of right ear; length of
left foot, forearm, middle and little fingers.
The descriptive elements are color of eyes
(the most imnortant detail of all, as it
never changes and is impossible to disguise),
hair, beard, and complexion ; deformities and
peculiarities of shape ; marks on body, as
moles, scars, the tattooings frequent among
criminals, etc., carefully located — as ''mole six
centimetres to left of fifth vertebra,^^ or "horizon-
tal scar on back of second phalanx of right fore-
finger, three millimetres below middle.* A pho-
tograph of full face and one of profile are taken
when thought desirable, from a fixed chair and
a fixed camera. The entire process, by a rnea-
surer and a secretary who writes from dictation,
takes five to seven minutes, and the measure-
ments are correct to one thirty second of an
inch. Descriptions and photograph are put to-
gether on cards of uniform size, and in the great
Paris collection of 120,000, — the model for all
otheis, — are thus classified for reference. First,
approximately 20,000 females and lOjOOO minors

BERTIN — BERTRAND

are separated for special classification. Second,
the 90,000 remaining are divided into three equal
sections according to length of head : short
heads, of 187 millimetres and less ; medium, 187
to 194; long, 194 and above. Experience proves
that these make very closely equal numbers ; and
tlieir cards are placed in three tiers of drawers,
the short heads uppermost. Each of these is
subdivided into three of 10,000 according to
vindth of head, without further reference to
length ; each of these into three of about 3,300,
according to length of middle finger ; each of
these into three of 1,100, by length of foot; these
are subdivided successively by length of fore-
arm, full height, length of little finger, and color
of eyes. These last groups contain from 12 to
14, and are classed by length of ear. The women
and children are similarly classified. Thus any
new measurement can be compared with its dup-
licate, in this enormous mass, or the absence of
such record shown, with marvelous celerity and
almost infallible accuracy. Its index value alone
is of the first order. Under the old systems, the
.entire mass of descriptions and photographs had
to be searched and compared with any given ar-
rested person, and with the immense number ac-
cumulating in great cities it became physically
impossible to apply it with any certainty, the
senses grew so jaded and resemblances were so
many ; not only did the guilty escape, — it was
estimated that more than half the habitual crim-
inals remained undetected, — but the innocent
were often mistaken for them. International
criminals, like bank robbers and pickpockets,
traveled from one city and country to another
imder assumed names and disguises ; sometimes,
when wanted for grave crimes, they committed
trivial misdemeanors to be arrested and impris-
oned under false names. This is now rendered
futile by the combination of anthropometry with
the descriptive features ; and with regard to the
confusion of identity, the laws of probability
render it practically impossible. The system is
also of great value in distinguishing new crim-
inals from old offenders: it not merely registers
identity, but the fact of a first offense. It has
strengthened even the old descriptive system, by
giving it a more precise vocabulary and training
the officers of the law in physiognomy. It has
already done admirable work, as in the discovery
of King Humbert's murderer ; but to make it
more efficient, the local records should be gath-
ered into national and even international bu-
reaus. With a proper enforcement of habitual-
criminals' acts, a great step would be taken to-
ward suppressing the class of professional felons.
This has been mooted in our own country, where
it was introduced in 1887 by Maj. R. W. Mc-
Claughry ; that it has not been fully adopted
here is one reason for the infesting of the coun-
try by professionals driven out of Europe by the
system. Bertillon has fully described his system
in his ^Identification Anthropometrique^ (1893) ;
and Maj. McClaughry has edited <The Bertil-
lon System of Identification^ (1896).

Bertin, bar-tan, Antoine, French poet: b.
Isle of Bourbon, 1752; d. San Domingo, 1790.
He was much admired by his contemporaries,
who, somewhat extravagantly, styled him the
French Propertius. He was a friend of Parny,
and like him excelled in elegiac and epistolary
verse. His principal works are ^Voyage in Bur-
gundy^ (1777) ; and <Th*e Loves^ (1780).

Bertin, Louise Angelique, French musi-
cian and composer : b. Les Roches, near Bievres,
15 Jan. 1805 ; d. Paris, 26 April 1877. She was
a daughter of L. F. Bertin (q.v.), and composed
^Faust,^ '^Esmeralda,-' ^Guy Mannering,^ and
other operas. Her volume of verse, ^Les
Glanes^ (1842), received the prize of the Acad-
emy.

Bertin, Louis Frangois (called Bertin
l'Aine), French journalist; b. Paris, 14 Dec.
1766; d. 13 Sept. 1841. The Revolution made
him a journalist, and in 1799 he started the fa-
mous Journal des Debats. His royalist princi-
ples offered Napoleon, and cost him imprison-
ment and banishment to Elba ; thence, however,
he escaped to Rome, where he formed a friend-
ship with Chateaubriand. In 1805 he returned to
Paris, and resumed the editorship of the Debats,
but was much hampered by Napoleon. The sec-
ond restoration of the Bourbons restored once
more to Bertin the free control of his journal,
and henceforward he gave almost constant sup-
port to the ministerial party. He supported the
July monarchy, and edited the Debats till his
death.

Bertin, Nicolas, French artist: b. Paris,
1668; d. 1736. His picture, ^The Building of the
Ark,^ obtained the grand prize, in 1685, and
^Prometheus Liberated by Hercules^ brought
him, in 1705, membership in the Academy, where
he became professor in 1715. His paintings will
be found in the galleries of Dresden, Stockholm,
St. Petersburg, Antwerp, Amsterdam, Orleans,
and Toulouse.

Bertini, Giuseppe, ber-te'ne, gwe'sep, Ital-
ian painter : b. Milan, 1825 ; d. 1898. The Milan
Academy awarded him the prize for the best his-
torical picture in 1845, and his painting on glass
of *^ Dante and the Divine Comedy,^ exhibited in
London in 1853, has been greatly admired. He
became professor of painting at the Academy in
i860. Among notable pictures by him are: *The
Vision of Saint Francis of Assisi^ ; ^Death of
Saint Joseph^ ; ^Tasso Introduced to the Duke
of Ferrara.'

Bertrand, Henri Gratien, bartran, 6n-re
gra-tyan (Count), French military officer: b.
Chateauroux, 1773; d. there, 31 Jan. 1844. He dis-
tinguished himself at Austerlitz and became Na-
poleon's adjutant; and, after the battle of
Aspern, in 1809, for his share in saving the
French army by bridges, was created count and
governor of Illyria. After serving with credit in
the subsequent campaigns, he retired with the
emperor to Elba, was his confidant in carrying
out his return to France, and finally shared his
banishment to St. Helena. On Napoleon's death,
Bertrand returned to France, where, though sen-
tence of death had been pronounced upon him,
a sentence which Louis XVIII. had wisely re-
called, he was restored to all his dignities, and,
in 1830, appointed commandant of the Polytech-
nic School. In 1840, he formed part of the ex-
pedition which brought back the remains of Na-
poleon to France.

Bertrand, James, French historical painter:
b. Lyons, 1825 ; d. 1887. He studied in Rome,
and his ^ Saint Benedict Taking Communion,'
exhibited at the Salon in 1859, was highly ap-
proved. He worked in the classical style, and
his paintings are as notable for their careful
finish as for their religious tone. They have

BERTRAND — BERWICKSHIRE

been frequently engraved. Among them are
< Death of Virginia^ (1869) ; < Charlotte Corday's
Last Day> (1883); <Calvary> (1884).

Bertrand, Joseph Louis Frangois, bar-tran,
j6-sef loo-e fron-swa, French mathemati-
cian: b. Paris, 1822; d. 1900. He taught at the
Polytechnic and Normal schools, and the College
de France, and in 1884 became a member of the
French Academy. He wrote treatises on arith-
metic, algebra, calculus, thermodynamics, and
probabilities, and in 1881 was appointed com-
mander of the Legion of Honor.

BeruUe, ba-rul, Pierre de, French cardinal:
b. near Troyes, 4 Feb. 1575; d. Paris, 2 Oct.
1629. He early showed remarkable mental
acuteness and knowledge, and became distin-
guished for skill in controversy. He instituted,
and was the first superior of, the order of
Carmelites in France, and also founded the con-
gregation of the Oratory notwithstanding the op-
position of the Jesuits. He was a statesman as
well as priest, and took a leading part in poli-
tics. He was often opposed to Richelieu, whose
jealousy he excited, and who could not conceal
his satisfaction at the news of his death. He
accompanied the Princess Henrietta to England,
on her marriage with the Prince of Wales. He
shunned elevated positions, and was very un-
willingly obliged to accept the hat of a cardinal.
This elevation made no difference, however, in
his humble way of life, and did not prevent
him from sometimes taking part, as he had
always done, in the servile work of the reli-
gious community to which he belonged. He
was also a man of letters, and was the first to
appreciate and encourage the genius of Des-
cartes urging him, by his sense of obligation to
his Creator, to make known to the world his
discoveries. The most noted of his writings is
*Les Grandeurs de Jesus.*

Bervic, bar-vek, Charles Clement, French
engraver: b. Paris, 1756; d. 1822. The works of
Bervic are among the best of the French school,
but are not numerous. The most celebrated of
them is the full-length figure of Louis XVL,
after a picture of Callot. The copies are very
rare and dear, because the plate was broken to
pieces in the revolutionary tumvilts of 1793.
The exactness of his drawing, the firmness and
brilliancy of his touch, the purity and correctness
of his design, and the happiness with which he
transferred to his plate the beauties of the
original, gave a high character to hi.= produc-
tions.

Berwick, James Fitz-James (Duke of),
French marshal: b. Moulins, 1670; d. 1734. He
was the natural son of the Duke of York, after-
ward King James H., and Arabella Churchill,
sister of the Duke of Marlborough ; and first
went by the name of Fitz-James. He received
his education in France, and served his first cam-
paigns in Hungary under Charles, Duke of Lor-
raine, general of Leopold L He returned to Eng-
land at the age of 17, and received from his
father the title of Duke. On the landing of the
Prince of Orange in 1688 he went to France with
his father, whom he afterward accompanied on
the Irish expedition. He fought bravely and was
wounded at the battle of the Boyne, i July
1690. He afterward served under Luxembourg
in Flanders ; in 1702 and 1703 under the Duke
of Burgundy; then under Marshal Villeroi, and
Vol. 2—37.

was naturalized in France. In 1706 he was
made marshal of France, and sent to Spain,
where he gained the battle of Almanza, which
rendered King Philip V. again master of Va-
lencia. In 1709 he went to take the command
in Dauphine, and the measures which he took
to cover this and the neighboring provinces
against the superior forces of the Duke of
Savoy gained him a great reputation. In 1718
and 1719 he was obliged to serve against Philip
v., who from gratitude to the marshal had taken
a son of his into his service. On his entrance
into the Spanish dominions he wrote to his
son, the Duke of Liria, admonishing him to do
his duty to his sovereign. At the siege of Phil-
ipsburg, on the Rhine, his life was terminated
by a cannon-ball. His memoirs were published
originally in French, and have gone through
two or three editions in English. Consult Wil-
son, <Duke of Berwick, Marshal of France^
(1883).

Berwick-on-Tweed, England, a seaport
town, once formmg a county of itself, but new
incorporated in Northumberland, on the north
or Scottish side of the Tweed, within huH
a mile of its mouth. It is surrounded by wa)ls
which are well preserved, and along which is
an agreeable promenade. The streets are for
the most part narrow, steep, straggling, and
irregular, though some of the principal ones are
wide and open. The Tweed is crossed at the
town by an old bridge of 15 arches, 1,164 feet
long and only 17 wide, and by a magnificent
railway viaduct of stone, 667 yards long and 184
feet in extreme height, with 28 semicircular
arches. The chief industries are iron-founding,
the manufacture of engines and boilers, agricul-
tural implements, feeding-cake, manures of va-
rious kinds, ropes, twine, etc. The chief exports
are grain, artificial manures, and herrings. A
dock affording accommodation for large vessels
was opened in 1876. In the beginning of the
1 2th century, during the reign of Alexander L,
Berwick was part of his realm of Scotland, and
the capital of the district called Lothian. Soon
after this date it became populous and wealthy,
was the chief seaport of Scotland, contained a
strong castle, with churches, hospitals, and
m.onastic buildings, and was created one of the
four royal burghs of Scotland. In 1216 the town
and castle were stormed and taken by King
John. During the competition between Baliol and
Bruce for the Scottish throne the English Par-
liament sat in Berwick ; and in the hall of the
castle Edward I. pronounced judgment in favor
of Baliol. Bruce retook the town and castle in
1318; but, after undergoing various sieges and
vicissitudes, both were surrendered to Edward
IV. in 1482, and have ever since remained in
possession of England. Pop. (1901) 13,437.

Berwickshire, a maritime county of Scot-
land, nominally divided into the three districts
of Lauderdale. Lammermoor, and the Merse
or March. The principal rivers of the county
are the Tweed, the Leader, the Eye. the White-
adder, and the Blackadder; and all except the
last contain salmon, of which great quantities
are shipped from Berwick for London. Vast
quantities of agricultural produce are shipped
from the ports of Berwick and Eyemouth, and
much is also sent to Edinburgh, Dalkeith, Had-
dington, and Dunbar. Very few manufactures
are established in this county, the principal one

BERYL — BESANCON

which it supplies beyond domestic consumption
being that of paper. The North Sea fisheries
are of great importance. Berwick formerly
abounded in strong castles and fortified places,
traces of which are to be found everywhere.
The county town is Greenlaw. Other small
towns are Duns and Eyemouth. Pop. (1901)
30,816.

Ber'yl. a native silicate of aluminum and
the rare metallic element glucinum (or "beryl-
lium"), having the formula 3G10.Al203.6Si02,
and crystallizing in the hexagonal system. It
commonly has a specific gravity of 2.70, and a
hardness of from 7.5 to 8. A portion of the
glucinum is sometimes replaced by lithium, so-
dium or caesium, and chemically combined water
is also occasionally present. In the latter case
the formula of the mineral appears to be
H2GleAl4SIi2037. Beryl is usually transparent
or translucent, and in color may be green, blue,
yellow, white, or light red. A variety which is
transparent, and bright green from the presence
of oxide of chromium, is known as "emerald,'^
and is highly esteemed as a gem (see Gems) ;
the "Oriental emerald" (see Sapphire), how-
ever, is not a variety of beryl), but a green va-
riety of sapphire. A bluish-green variety of the
common beryl, known as "aquamarine,^' is also
used as a gem. Beryl occurs in all parts of
the world, being commonly associated with
granite. Its crystals are sometimes enormous
in size, and two specimens from Grafton, N. H.,
are known, which weigh 2,900 pounds and 2^/2
tons, respectively. The finest emeralds (q.v.)
are from Bogota; aquamarines (q.v.), from Si-
beria, Brazil, Maine, North Carolina and Colo-
rado ; golden beryls, from Connecticut and
North Carolina.

Beryl'lium, a rare metallic element, called
"beryllium" from the fact that it was first found
in the beryl. Its salts have a sweetish taste, and
from this circumstance the element itself has
received the name glucinum (q.v.).

Beryx, ber'iks, the designation of a genus
of deep sea fishes in tropical waters belonging
to the group Berycoidei and family Bcrycida.
B. splendens, deep red with bright streaks, is
one of the most beautiful of the Cuban fishes.

Berzelius, ber-tsa'lT-us, Jons Jakob (Baron),
Swedish chemist of distinction : b. Westerlosa,
East Gothland, Sweden, 29 Aug. 1779; d. Stock-
holm, 7 Aug. 1848. The first fruit of his studies,
and of a year's residence as assistant to a physi-
cian at the famous watering-place of Medewi,
was the *Nova Analysis Aquarum Medevien-
sium' (1800). After publishing a tract entitled
^De Electricitatis Galvanicae in Corpora Or-
ganica Effectis' (1802), and taking his doctor's
degree, he was appointed by the board of health
in 1802 adjunct of medicine and pharmacy in
Stockholm. In 1807 he became professor of
medicine and pharmacy in Stockholm. Here,
along with other medical practitioners, he insti-
tuted the Swedish Medical Society. In 1808 he
was admitted a member of the Academy of Sci-
ences at Stockholm, in 1810 one of its directors,
and in 1818 its perpetual secretary. This office
he continued to hold during the remainder of
his life. In 1818 the king, while allowing him
to retain his own name, made him a noble ; and
in 1835, on the occasion of his marriage with a
daughter of Poppius, a councilor of state, he
was named a baron. The existing state of chem-

istry is founded in a great measure on his dis-
coveries and views, though, by the rapid devel-
opment of the science, the edifice which he
erected has undergone many alterations, and
several defects have been discovered in it.
Hence his views in regard to atomic weights,
his electro-chemical theory, and his mode of
procedure in organic chemistry, have met with
many opponents. He discovered selenium and
thorium, first exhibited calcium, barium, stron-
tium, tantalum, silicium, and zirconium in the
elemental state, and investigated whole classes
of compounds, as those of fluoric acid, the
metals in the ores of platinum, tantalum, molyb-
denum, vanadium, sulphur salts, etc. He intro-
duced a new, or at least a wholly altered nomen-
clature and classification of chemical compounds.
In short, there is no branch of chemistry to
which he has not rendered essential service ; and
his labors are so numerous that, when the accu-
racy with which they have been executed is kept
in view, it becomes almost incomprehensible
how one man should have been able to perform
them. It ought to be especially mentioned that
he never rested satisfied with the bare investi-
gation of isolated facts, but always extended
his investigations over a wide field, so as to
contribute to the advancement of chemistry as
a whole. In addition to his numerous commu-
nications to the journals and periodicals of the
period, may be mentioned, among his separate
works, his *^View of the Composition of Ani-
mal Fluids,^ ^New System of Mineralogy,*
^ Essay on the Theory of Chemical Proportions,*
and above all his 'Text-book of Chemistry,*
which has been translated into most European
languages. As secretary of the Academy of
Sciences, he published an annual account of the
progress of chemistry and mineralogj^, which,
having been continued during 27 years, extends
to as many volumes. See Soderbaum, 'Berze-
lius, Werden und Wachsen' (1899).

Berzsenyi, ber'zha-nyi, Daniel, Hungarian
poet: b. Heyte, 1776; d. 1836. An authorized
version of his 'Versei' appeared in 1813 and
in 1816 was reprinted with his consent and
speedily became classic in Hungarian literature.

Bes, an Egyptian god, represented clad in a
lion's skin, with the head and skull of the ani-
mal concealing his features, and with a dwarfish
and altogether grotesque appearance. He was
supposed to preside over art, music, the dance,
and childbirth.

Besangon, be-zan-s6n, France, a fortified
town, capital of the department Doubs, 206 miles
southeast of Paris. The town is surrounded by
hills, covered with vineyards. The isthmus or
peninsula on which it is built is composed of a
mass of rocks crowned by the citadel, which
commands the country toward the north, but the
citadel itself is commanded by several eminences
in the neighborhood, on which forts have been
erected for the purpose of securing the ap-
proaches. Besangon is one of the strongest
towns in France, and also one of the best built.
The streets are spacious and well laid out, and
the squares are adorned with fountains. The
citadel is one of Vauban's finest \vorks. There
are here a theatre, a large and valuable public
library, a museum, a botanic garden, school of
artillery, lyceum, etc. The trade and manu-
factures are extensive. The latter comprise
linen, cotton, woolen, and silk goods, ironmon-

BESANT — BESSARION

gery, etc. ; but the principal industry is watch-
making. It employs about 15,000 workmen who
make as many as 400,000 watches yearly. There
are also extensive foundries, breweries, saw-
mills, and tanneries. Besangon is the ancient
Vesontio, Besoiitium, or Bisontium, which is
mentioned by Caesar, who drove the Sequani
from it in 58 B.C., as a place of great extent
and natural strength. Several of the streets and
places still bear their old Roman names, and
there are numerous Roman remains, especially
a triumphal arch of the Emperor Aurelian, an
aqueduct, an amphitheatre, and a large theatre.
Pop. (1903) about 59,000.

Besant, bes-ant, Annie, English theoso-
phist and author: b. London, i Oct. 1847. She
was married in 1867 to the Rev. Frank Besant,
brother of Sir Walter Besant, but was legally
separated from him in 1873. She manifested an
earnest interest in social and political topics,
and, in 1874, became connected with the
National Secular Society. Owing to the publi-
cation of 'Fruits of Philosophy,^ Mrs. Besant
was prosecuted, in connection with Charles
Bradlaugh (June 1877), but the prosecution
failed. Mrs. Besant has since stated her dis-
agreement with the sentiments expressed in this
book. In 1883 she announced her adhesion to
Socialism. For three years she was a member
of the school board of London. She has been
prominently connected with various socialistic
movements, and a frequent speaker at meet-
ings for workingmen, and in 1899 joined the
Theosophical Society, and has since been active
in theosophical propaganda in Great Britain and
the United States. She visited the United
States in 1891 and 1892-3 and lectured on
Madame Blavatsky and reincarnation, and on
theosophy and occultism. Among her numer-
ous publications are ^Reincarnation^; 'Seven
Principles of Man^ ; ^Autobiography^ ; 'Death
and After' ; 'Building of the Kosmos' ; 'In the
Outer Court' ; 'Karma' ; 'The Self and Its
Sheaths' ; 'Path of Discipleship' ; 'Man and
His Bodies' ; 'Four Great Religions' ; 'The
Ancient Wisdom' ; 'Three Paths to Union with
God' ; 'Evolution of Life and Form' ;
'Dharma' ; 'Avataras' ; 'Ancient Ideals in Mod-
ern Life' ; 'Esoteric Christianity' ; 'Thought-
Power' ; 'The Religious Problem in India' ;
and in connection with G. R. S. Mead, transla-
tions of tracts and reviews.

Besant, be-zant', Sir Walter, English nov-
elist: b. Portsmouth, England, 14 Aug. 1836;
d. London, 9 June 1901. He was educated in
London and at Christ's College, Cambridge,
where he graduated with mathematical honors.
He was for a time professor in the Ro)'al Col-
lege, Mauritius. His first work, 'Studies in
Early French Poetry,' appeared in 1868, and
to the field of French literature also belong
his 'French Humorists' (1873), and his ^Rabe-
lais' (1877 for the 'Foreign Classics' series).
He was for years secretary to the Palestine Ex-
ploration Fund, and published a 'History of
Jerusalem' (1871) in conjunction with Prof.
Palmer,, a life of whom he also wrote. The
'Survey of Western Palestine' was edited by
him. He is best known by his novels, a num-
ber of which were written in partnership with
the late James Rice, including 'Readv-Money
Mortiboy' (1872); 'This Son of Vulcan';

'The Case of Mr. Lucraft' ; 'The Golden But-
terfly' (1876) ; 'The Monks of Thelema' ; etc.
After Mr. Rice's death (1882) Sir Walter
wrote: 'AH Sorts and Conditions of Men'
(1882), which led to the establishment of the
People's Palace in London; 'AH in a Garden
Fair' (1883); 'Dorothy Foster' (1884); 'The
World Went Very WeH Then' (1887); 'The
Ivory Gate' (1892) ; 'The Rebel Queen'
(1893); 'Beyond the Dreams of Avarice'
(1895); 'The Orange Girl' (1899); 'The Ala-
baster Box' (1900) ; 'The Story of King Al-
fred' (1901), etc. Among his other works are
'The Eulogy of Richard Jeffries' (1888). He
labored for many years to promote the interests
of all members of the literary profession, more
especially m his capacity as editor of the
monthly paper, 'The Author.' On 24 May 1895,
he was knighted.

Be'show, the Alaskan pollack. See Pollack.

Beside the Bonnie Brier Bush, a novel
by Ian Maclaren (the Rev. Dr. John Watson),
delineating Scottish character and life among
the lowly. It consists of short sketches with
no attempt at plot, but interest attaches to the
well-drawn characters. It is one of the best
examples of what has been styled the "kail-yard*
school of fiction, whose principal exponents are
Crockett, Barrie, and Watson.

Bes'ika Bay, an inlet of the ^gean Sea on
the northwest coast of Asia Minor, opposite
Tenedos, to the south of the entrance of the
Dardanelles. The English fleet was stationed
here during crises in the Eastern question in
1853-4 and 1877-8,

Beskow, bes'kov, Bernhard, Swedish dram-
atist: b. Stockholm, 19 April 1796; d. 17 Oct.
1868. He was ennobled in 1826 and appointed
marshal of the royal household in 1833. He
officiated for some time as director of the royal
theatre, and is the author of several excellent
tragedies, which were translated into Danish and.
German by Oehlenschliiger, and of which 'Tor-
kel Knutsson' is considered the best acting
play on the Swedish stage. He wrote an opera,
'Trubaduren,' for which Oscar, the present
king of Sweden, composed the music. His lit-
erary reputation was increased by his books of
travel, by his poetical works, and by his con-
tributions to the press. The great prize of <^he
academy was awarded in 1824 to his poem
'Sveriges anor.'

Bessara'bia, a province in European Tur-
key since the Peace of Bucharest, in 1812, be-
tween Turkey and Russia. It extends in a
northwesterly direction from the Black Sea,
between the. Pruth and the Dniester; area,
17,619 square miles. A portion of it at the
southeast extremitj^ was ceded to Turkey in
1856. but was restored in 1878. Agriculture is
chiefly developed in the north, pasturage is
most largely carried on the south, in the mid-
dle portion are extensive forests. It is wa-
tered by the Dniester, the Pruth, and the Dan-
ube. The inhabitants include Russians, Poles,
Rumanians, Bulgarians, Germans. Armenians,
Jews, etc. The capital is Kishenef. The prod-
ucts are salt, wool, tallow, leather, soap, etc.
Pop. 1,782,900.

Bessa'rion, Johannes, or Basilius, Greek
monk: b. Trebizpnd. 1389: d. Ravenna, 19 Nov.
1472. He was titular patriarch of Constantino-

BESSEL — BESSEMER

pie, archbishop of Nicsea, afterward cardinal
and legate to France, in the time of Louis XI.
After having spent 21 years in a monastery of
Greece, devoted to theology and literature, he
left it to follow the Emperor John Palseologus
to Italy, with the intention of being present at
the Council of Ferrara, in the hope of uniting
the Greek and Latin churches. They were ac-
companied by many Greeks, distinguished by
their talents and dignity. Bessarion seconded
with so much zeal the projects of Palseologus
that he became odious to the Greek Church,
while Pope Eugenius IV. rewarded him for his
devotion to that of Rome, by the dignity of
cardinal-priest. He was sent to France by
Sixtus IV., to reconcile Louis XL with the Duke
of Burgundy, and obtain aid against the Turks.
He did not succeed, and it is pretended that he
received a personal insult from the king, which
humiliation some suppose to have been the
cause of his death.

Bes'sel, Friedrich Wilhelm, German as-
tronomer: b. Mmden, Prussia, 22 July 1784; d.
17 March 1846. An astronomical tract which
he had drawn up brought him into communica-
tion with Olbers, who encouraged him in his
labors, and procured for him the appointment
of inspector of astronomical instruments to the
University of Gottingen. In 1810 he removed
to Konigsberg, and in 1812-13 superintended the
construction of the observatory of this town.
From 1824 to ^1833 he completed a series of
75,011 observations on the celestial zone contained
between 15° N. and 15° S. declination. These
observations included all the stars in the zone
as far as the ninth magnitude. A dissertation
which he published in 1844 contains important
investigations on the variability of the move-
ments of the fixed stars. An important share
in the discovery of the new planet Neptune be-
longs to him, as in a paper read in 1840 he
called attention to the existence of a planetary
mass beyond Uranus, founding on considera-
tions which were afterward happily proved to be
correct. His principal works are an ^ Essay -on
the Path Traversed by the Comet of 1807^ ;
^Astronomical Observations^ during various
3'ears ; * Determination of the Length of the
Pendulum Which Beats Seconds at Berlin^ ;
'Investigations and Measurements made with a
View to Establish a Metrical Unit for Prussia' ;
* Measure of the Distance of the Sixty-first
Star of the Constellation of the Swan' ; and
'Popular Lectures on Scientific Questions.'
These last, consisting of papers which Bessel
had read before the Physico-economical Soci-
ety of Konigsberg from 1832-44, were published
in 1848.

Bes'sels, Emil, German naturalist: b.
Heidelberg, 2 June 1847 ; d. Stuttgart, 30 March
1888. He was educated in the University of
Heidelberg, and while an assistant at the Royal
Museum in Stuttgart became interested in the
subject of Arctic research. In 1869 he was a
member of Petermann's expedition that sailed
into the sea between Spitzbergen and Nova
Zembla. In 1871 he came to the United States
and was appointed both naturalist and sureeon
to the expedition under Capt. Charles F. Hall,
United States navy. Most of the scientific re-
sults of this expedition were gathered by his
personal eflforts, and oublished under the title
of 'Report on the Scientific Results of the

Polaris Expedition' (1876). In 1879 he pub-
lished a German narrative of the expedition,
illustrated with his own sketches. Later he
returned to Germany, where he devoted himself
to literary pursuits, art and geographical in-
struction.

Bes'semer, Sir Henry, English inventor of
distinction : b. Charlton, Hertfordshire, 19 Jan.
1813; d. London, 15 March, 1898. He received
mechanical training at an early age in the type-
foundry of his father, a French artist, and going
to London at 18 began his career as a modeler
and designer. His earliest invention was an
improved method of stamping deeds which the
revenue office straightway adopted without giv-
ing him any compensation therefor. Late in
life he brought the matter to the attention of
the government and was then knighted (1879)
in acknowledgment of his services in this par-
ticular. His inventive ability was next turned
to the production of a new method of making
bronze-powder or "gold" paint, as it was called,
which proved a commercial success, and subse-
quent inventions of his were machines for
making Utrecht velvet and improvements in
type-casting machinery. At the time of the
war in the Crimea he designed a projectile in-
tended to revolve in its flight, but as the cannon
of that day were not strong enough to permit of
its use, he went on experimenting in Paris under
the patronage of Louis Napoleon till he had
secured a much improved kind of cast iron.
This, however, did not fully satisfy him and he
continued at work refining the iron until steel
was produced. He took out patents for this
invention in 1855, but persevered in experiments
till at his London bronze factory steel ingots
had been manufactured which could be rolled
into rails without hammering. When this pro-
cess had become fully developed the Bessemer
Steel Works were built in Sheffield, where, be-
sides employing a large number of workmen in
steel manufacture, many others were trained for
similar work in factories all over the world.
On 13 Aug. 1856, he read before the British
Association at Cheltenham a paper dealing with
the invention which has made his name famous,
"The Manufacture of Malleable Iron and Steel
without Fuel.* This was a new and cheap
process of rapidly making steel from pig-iron
by blowing a blast of air through it when in a
state of fusion, so as to clear it of all carbon,
and then adding just the requisite quantity of
carbon to produce steel — a process which has
introduced a revolution in the steel-making trade,
cheap steel being now made in vast quantities
and used for many purposes in which its price
formerly prohibited its application. At the
Birmingham meeting in 1865 he read a second
paper "On the Manufacture of Cast Steel, Its
Progress and Emnloyment as a Substitute for
Wrought Iron." The Bessemer process has not
only stimulated the growth of the steel industry
but greatly reduced the cost of manufacture
and rendered steel available for rails and
general engineering work. Since 1858, when the
Sheffield works, the principal ones in England,
produced less than 50,000 tons the amount man-
ufactured has increased until in 1896 Great Brit-
ain produced i, 87^,842 tons of Bessemer steel
and the United States 3,019,906. In the past
50 years the Bessemer process has seen but few
improvements of any importance.

SIR HEXRY BESSEMER,

BESSEMER — BESTIARIES

Beside his great invention, that of the Bes-
fiemer process, with others previously named,
Bessemer was also the originator of a method
still in use for compressing into a solid block
the graphite employed in the manufacture of
lead pencils; of a system of rollers for em-
bossing and printing paper ; of improvements
in telephones ; and of a ship with a stationary
cabin, the latter the only failure of note in the
long series of his inventions. In 1859 he re-
ceived the Telford Medal of the Institute of
Civil Engineers; and in 1872 the Albert Medal
of the Society of Arts. He was president of
the Iron and Steel Institute of Great Britain,
1871-3, and in 1879 became a Fellow of the
Royal Society. Engineers have sometimes felt
that Bessemer did not receive from his own gov-
ernment the honors that his distinguished ser-
vices to British industrial development merited
and that he was in effect more highly esteemed
in the United States where eight localities and
one railway bear his name. Bessemer was an
honorary member of many foreign scientific and
engineering societies, among which was the
American Society of Mechanical Engineers.
Before the latter, in December 1896, he pre-
sented a paper entitled "The Origin of the Bes-
semer Process,^' printed in its ^Transactions^

(Vol. XVII. 1890). See Steel Manufacture.

Bessemer, Ala., a city in Jefferson County,
on several trunk railroads ; 12 miles southwest
of Birmingham, the county-seat. It was founded
in 1887 as a manufacturing place because of the
valuable iron and coal mines in its immediate
vicinity. It contains iron foundries, coke ovens,
a number of blast furnaces, machine shops, plan-
ing mills, iron pipe works, fire brick works, and
other works connected with the iron and steel
industry. It has four banks, several weekly
newspapers, electric lights, waterworks, and a
property valuation of $3,000,000. It is gov-
erned by a mayor elected biennially and a city
council. Pop. (1900) 6,358 within incorporated
limits.

Bessemer, Mich., city and county-seat of
Gogebic County, on the Chicago & N. W. and
several other railroads ; 40 miles east of Ash-
land, Wis. It is in an important iron mining and
lumbering region ; was founded in 1884, and has
become important by reason of its mining and
manufacturing and its trade relations with the
surrounding territory. It has a good school sys-
tem and a notably fine high school building,
city-hall, stone court-house, a national bank,
churches of all denominations, and weekly news-
papers. Pop. (1904) 3,111.

Bessemer Steel Process. See Bessemer,
Sir Henry; Steel Manufacturer.

Bessey, Charles Edv/in, American bota-
nist ; b. Wilton, Ohio, 21 May 1845. He was
professor of botany in the Iowa Agricultiiral
College in 1870-84; and has been professor of
botany in the University of Nebraska since 1884.
He was also president of the Society for the
Promotion of Agricultural Science in 1883-5 '>
president of the Nebraska Academy of Sciences
in 1891; acting chancellor of University of Ne-
braska i888-gi and 1899-1900; Fellow of the
American Association for the Advancement of
Science. His publications include: ^Reports on
Insects^ (1873-4) ; "^Geography of lowa^ (1876) ;
^The Erysiphei of North America' (1877) ;

^Botany for High Schools and Colleges^ (1880) ;
'Essentials of Botany> (1884); 'Reports of the
State Botanist of Nebraska' (1887 to 1892);
'Elementary Botany' (1904) ; 'Plant Migration
Studies' (1905). He was editor of the department
of botany of 'Johnson's Universal Cyclopa;dia.*
in 1892-5; and is one of the editors of 'Science.'

Bessieres, bes-yar, Jean Baptiste (Duke
OF Istria), French marshal: b. Preissac, 6 Aug.
1768; d. Lutzen, i May 1813. Entering the
army in 1792 as a private soldier, in less than
two years he had attained the rank of captain.
After making the Spanish campaign, he passed
into the army of Italy, and soon attracted the
notice of Napoleon, who took him to Egypt in
1798, where his conduct at St. Jean d'Acre and
Aboukir covered him with glory. At the ac-
cession of Napoleon to the throne, he became
marshal of France. He showed his usual con-
spicuous courage at Austerlitz, Jena, Eylau, and
Friedland, and, raised to the rank of Duke of
Istria, commanded in Spain in 1808-Q. In the
Russian campaign he led the cavalry of the
Guard, and did much by his sleepless courage
and presence of mind to save the wreck of the
army in the disastrous retreat from Moscow.
On the morning of the battle of Liitzen he fell
mortally wounded by a cannon ball.

Best, William Thomas, English musician:
b. Carlisle, 13 Aug. 1826; d. Liverpool, 10 May
1897. In 1848 he was appointed organist of the
Philharmonic Society in Liverpool ; in 1852 he
went to London and became organist of the
Panopticon of Science and Art, and also of the
Church of St. Martin-in-the-Fields; in 1854 was
organist of Lincoln's Inn Chapel ; in 1855 re-
turned to Liverpool, and became organist of
St. George's Hall ; in 1868 was organist of the
Liverpool Musical Society ; and in 1872 was
again engaged by the Philharmonic Society.
He was the author of 'The Modern School for
the Organ' (1853); 'The Art of Organ Play-
ing' (1870) ; 'Arrangements from the Scores
of the Great Masters' (1873) ; 'The Organ
Student' ; 'Organ Concertos' ; 'Opera and Ora-
torio Songs,' etc.

Bes'tiaries, the name given to certain ex-
tremely popular books of the Middle Ages.
In the written volumes, sometimes with copious
illustrations, were given descriptions of animals,
real and imaginary, which was which being left
to the discretion or knowledge of the readers.
They were composed in verse or prose or a
mixture of both, and were designed not only
as hand-books of zoologj'. but as teachers of
morals as well. It was the fashion to attach
spiritual meanings to the animals or their ac-
tions, until every quality of good or evil in the
soul of man had its type in the beast world.
It is to the bestiaries that we must look for
explanation of the strange, grotesque creatures
which are found sculptured on the churches and
other buildings of the Middle Ages. The old-
est Latin bestiaries had an early Greek original,
the well-known 'Physiologus,' under which
name about 50 such allegories were grouped.
The Greek text of this famous work is found
only in manuscript. There are old Syriac, Ar-
menian. Ethiopic, Arabic, Icelandic, and nu-
merous Latin versions. Editions of the Latin
have been issued — Mai, Heider, and Cahie*-.
An Old High German version was made earlier
than the nth century; in the 12th century, ver-

BESTUZHEFF — BETHANY COLLEGE

sions in French were made by Philippe de
Thaun and Gui'laume, a priest of Normandy.
The * Bestiary of Love^ of Richard de Fourni-
val was rather a parody upon the earher form
of such books. The following is a characteris-
tic extract from the * Divine Bestiary^ : ^^The
unicorn has but one horn in the middle of its
forehead. It is the only animal that ventures to
attack the elephant ; and so sharp is the nail
of its foot, that with one blow it rips up the
belly of that most terrible of all beasts. The
hunters can catch the unicorn only by placing a
young virgin in the forest which it haunts. No
sooner does this marvelous animal descry the
damsel than it runs toward her, lies down at
her feet, and so suffers itself to be taken by the
hunters. The unicorn represents our Lord
Jesus Christ, who, taking our humanity upon him
in the Virgin's womb, was betrayed by the
wicked Jews, and delivered into the hands of
Pilate. Its one horn signifies the Gospel truth,
that Christ is one with the Father,^^ etc.

BestuzhefF, be-stoo'zhef, Alexander Alex-
androvitch, Russian novelist and soldier: b.
St. Petersburg, 3 Nov. 1797; d. 19 July 1837.
Of his numerous novels, the most celebrated
are ^Ammalat-Beg' ; <The Nadeshda Frigate^ ;
*The Terrible Prophecy.-* His ^Private Cor-
respondence^ is highly prized. He was killed in
battle in the Caucasus.

Bestuzheff-Ryumin, be-stoo'zhef ryoo'men,
Count (Michel Alexei Petrovitch), Russian
statesman: b. Moscow, 1693, of a family of Eng-
lish origin, and of the second class of nobles in
Russia; d. St. Petersburg, 24 April 1766. He en-
tered the civil service under Peter the Great,
and became a diplomatist. Under the Empress
Anne he was made a member of the cabinet,
and the Empress Elizabeth, whose fullest con-
fidence he possessed, created him count, great
chancellor of the empire, and his influence in
the government was almost boundless. He was
strongly opposed to the Prussian and French
diplomatic influence, and was disliked on this
account by Peter III., nephew and presump-
tive heir of Elizabeth. He concluded several
treaties with England, Sweden, and Denmark,
favorable to English policy. By a treaty con-
cluded in 1747, he paved the way for the union
of Schleswig and Holstein with the kingdom
of Denmark. By his influence, the Russian
troops supported Austria against Frederic the
Great in the Seven Years' war. But their com-
mander, Apraxin, retired to Russia, and this
occasioned the fall of Bestuzheff. He was im-
prisoned and degraded, but Catharine II., in
1762, restored him to liberty and to his previous
social position. He is regarded as the inventor
of a chemical preparation known in medicine
under the name of tinctura tonka BestuchefH.

Be'tain, or Be'taine, an organic base, hav-
ing the chemical composition C5H11NO2, ob-
tained from the juice of the common beet, or
from beet-root molasses. It is not present in
the beet-root in nature, but is obtained from
it by the action of baryta or hydrochloric acid.
The hydrochloride is one of its most important
salts, and numerous others are also known.

Betanzos, ba-tan'thos, Juan Jose de, Span-
ish adventurer of the i6th century. He settled
at Cuzco, Peru, where he married a daughter
of the inca and at the command of Mendoza,

the viceroy, wrote an account of the conquest
of Peru by Pizarro. It remained in manuscript
till 1880, when it was published with the title,
*Suma y Narracion de los Incas.^

Be'tel, Betle, Pawn, or Pinang", popular
Oriental names for various species of Piper,
especially P. betle, and P. siriboa, climbing
shrubs cultivated in the East for their leathery
leaves which are used to a prodigious extent
with bits of areca-nut and shell lime for chew-
ing, particularly by the Malay races. The plants
are trained upon trellises, poles, etc., in shady
but hot and moist places, which in northern
India are secured by means of sheds. Euro-
peans do not take readily to the habit because
the mixture is hot, acrid, astringent, abraids the
mouth, temporarily destroys the sense of taste,
reddens the lips as if they were covered with
blood and blackens the teeth, which are sooner
or later destroyed. At 25 years of age, ha-
bitues are often toothless. Among East Indian
races the habit dates back more than 2,400 years
and at the present time is as general as was the
habit of using snuff among Europeans ; the
betel box is carried by old and young, men and
women, and presented upon all occasions.
Opinions differ as to the utility or perniciousness
of this habit, some writers claiming advantages
v/hich in the face of the above-mentioned facts
seem as far-fetched as like arguments in de-
fense of the similar use of tobacco.

Betelgeuse, bet-el-gerz', the star Alpha
Orionis, the bright, reddish star in one of the
shoulders of Orion. It varies somewhat in
brightness, but in no regular period.

Beth Peor, beth pe'or (Hebrew, house of
Peor), a city where the Israelites are said to
have received the laws of Deuteronomy, and the
supposed locality of Moses' burial. The pre-
cise locality of Beth Peor is undetermined, how-
ever, and various points have been suggested
as probable sites, but the only theory which
seems reasonably sure is that it stood some-
where among the Nebo-Visgah Mountains.

Beth'am-Edwards, Matilda, English au-
thor: b. Suffolk, 1836. She was privately edu-
cated, and has published numerous works in
poetry, fiction, and on French rural life. She
was made an officer of public instruction in
France in 1891. Among her works are ^The
White House by the Sea> ; < Kitty ^ ; <The
Dream Charlotte^ ; *^France of To-day^ ; ^A
Romance of Dijon^ ; <The Lord of the Harvest,^
a volume of poems, and an edition of Arthur
Young's ^Travels in France.*

Beth'any, a village of Palestine, at the foot
of Mount Olivet, on the eastern side, about two
miles east of Jerusalem, where Lazarus dwelt
and was raised from the dead, and where the
ascension of Christ is related to have taken
place. The house and grave of Lazarus, and
the house of Mary Magdalene, are still shown
to travelers.

Bethany College, a co-educational institu-
tion in Linsborg, Kan. ; organized in 1881 under
the auspices of the Lutheran Church ; reported
at the end of 1905 : Professors and instructors,
60 ; students, 959 ; volumes in the library, 10,000 ;
grounds and buildings valued at $120,000; in-
come, $72,700; number of graduates, 809; presi-
dent. Rev. E. F. Pihlblad, A.M.

BETHANY COLLEGE —BETHLEN-GABOR

Bethany College, a co-educational institu-
tion in Bethany, VV. Va. ; organized in 1841
under the auspices of the Church of the Disci-
ples ; reported at the end of 1905 : Professors
and instructors, 18 ; students, 265 ; volumes in
the library, 67,000 ; grounds and buildings valued
at $200,000; income, $9,000; president, T. E,
Craniblet, A.M. LL.D.

Beth'el, a town of Palestine, about 10
miles from Jerusalem, now called Beitin, or
Beitcen. The patriarch Jacob here had a vision of
angels, in commemoration of which he built an
altar. Interesting ruins abound in the vicinity.

Bethel College, an educational institution
in Russellvilie, Ky. ; organized in 1854 under
the auspices of the Baptist Church ; reported
at the end of 1905 : Professors and instructors,
8; students, 129; volumes in the library, 6,500;
grounds ami buildings valued at $62,500; pro-
ductive funds, $125,000; income, $16,500; num-
ber of graduates, 275 ; president, \Vm. H,
Harrison, i\I.A.

Bethencourt, Jean de, ba-ton-koor, zhoii. de,
king of the Canary Islands: d. 1425. He was
chamberlain to Charles VI. of France, but being
ruined in the war with England, he sought to
repair his fortunes in foreign countries, and
made a descent from Spain on the Canary Is-
lands in 1402. Not having sufficient force, how-
ever, he returned, and obtained reinforcements
from Henry III. of Castile, with which he was
successful, and was crowned king in 1404, un-
der the title of Louis. He converted the greater
portion of the Canaries to Christianity, and in
1405 received from the Pope the appointment
of bishop to the islands. The following year
he went to Normandy, where he passed the
remainder of his days.

Bethesda, be-thez'da, a pool in Jerusalem,
the name of which signifies "house of mercy.*
In the five halls or porticos near it many patients
lay waiting, according to the account of John
(ch.v.), for the moving of the waters, to bathe
in. According to the belief of the Jews, an
angel descended, at a certain time, into the
pool and troubled the water, and v/hoever first
entered the water after this agitation was cured.
In 1888 a rock-hewn basin or reservoir was dis-
covered, with five chambers adjoining, which is
supposed to be identical with the pool of Be-
thesda.

Bethlehem, beth-le-em, or -hem, Palestine;
a village five miles from Jerusalem, at the foot
of a hill covered with vines and olive-trees ; the
birthplace of Jesus Christ. An aqueduct con-
veys water from the hill to the village. Its inha-
bitants are chiefly Christians, and make rosaries,
crucifixes, etc., for pilgrims. There are three
convents here, for Roman Catholics, Greeks,
and Armenians, surrounding a stately church
said to have been erected by the Empress
Helena in 327, over the place where Christ was
born. It is built in the form of a cross, and sep-
arate portions of it are allotted to the Latins,
Greeks, and Armenians, respectively. On either
side of the nave are two rows of beautiful col-
umns, marking off two corresponding aisles.
The top commands a fine view over the sur-
rounding country. In a rich grotto, furnished
with silver, and crystal lamps, under the choir of
this church, a trough of marble is shown, and
is said to be the manger in which Jesus was

laid after his birth. Several other spots of interest
are shown here. Bethlehem is also famous as the
birthplace of King David. It was laid waste by
Hadrian in 132 and since then has never been a
place of great importance. Since the building of
the church Bethlehem has been one of the great
pilgrim shrines of Palestine. Pop. about 7,000,
chiefly Christains, the Mussulman quarters
having been destroyed in 1834.

Bethlehem, Pa., a borough in Northamp-
ton County; on the Lehigh River and canal,
and the Lehigh V., the New Jersey C, and other
R.R.'s; 57 miles north of Philadelphia. It was
founded in 1741 by Moravians under Count
Zinzendorf. and is the chief centre of that sect
in the United States. It contains a Moravian
theological seminary, a Moravian seminary for
young ladies, more than a dozen churches, and
two national banks. On the opposite side of
the river, here spanned by two bridges, is South
Bethlehem, the seat of Lehigh University (q. v.),
the main offices of the Lehigh Valley Railroad
Company, and a number of important manufac-
turing establishments, including silk mills, roll-
ing mills, foundaries and machine shops, brass
works, zinc oxid and spelter works, etc. Mo-
nocacy Creek separates Bethlehem from West
Bethlehem, formerly a separate borough but
now consolidated with Bethlehem borough.
Bethlehem is attaining a conspicuous position
in tlie musical world from the institution of
an annual festival which has developed from the
great love of the Moravians (q.v.) for music
in their religious services, and especially for
the compositions of John Sebastian Bach. The
first organized festival was held in igoi. For
musical and other ceremonies of the Moravian
cliurch see Moravian Cht-rcii. Pop. (1907)
Bethlehem, 17,000; South Bethlehem, 19,000.

Bethlehemites, an order of monks some-
what like the Dominicans, who settled in Eng-
land in 1257. They were so named because they
wore on the breast a five-pointed star in com-
memmoration of the star that appeared at the
birth of Jesus. The order was comparatively
insignificant and had only one convent in Eng-
land (at Cambridge). An order of American
Bethlehemites, sanctioned by Innocent XI. in
1687, was established in the city of Guatemala
by a Franciscan monk named Bethencourt, a
native of the island of Teneriffe, about 1655.
A female order of Bethlehemites also was
founded by Maria Anna del Galdo, who be-
longed to the Tertiaries of St. Francis. Twenty
years later the privileges of the order were en-
larged to an equality with those of the Augusti-
nians, Dominicans, and Franciscans. The fol-
lowers of Huss are sometimes called Bethle-
hemites, from the church in Prague in which
Huss preaclied.

Bethlen-Gabor, bet-lem ga'bor, or Gabriel
Bethlen, Prince of Transjdvania: b. 1580; d.
1629. He was of humble origin, but at the age
of 17 he entered the service of Gabriel Bathori,
prince of Transylvania, fought under his orders,
and then repaired to Constantinople, where his
courage gained him the esteem of the Turks.
Prompted by ambition, he became ungrateful
to his first benefactor ; and after bringing
Bathori into bad odor with both the Transyl-
vanians and the Turks, managed to make the
latter declare war, and actually headed a Turk-
ish army against him. His treachery was sue-

BETHNAL GREEN — BETROTHED

cessful and in 1613 he was proclaimed prince
of Transylvania. Shortly after, having suc-
ceeded in stirring up the Hungarians against
the Emperor Frederick II., he took several
towns, and in 1618 assumed the title of king of
Hungary. Thereafter, supported by Turks and
Tartars, he entered Austrian territory, laid
waste Moravia, hemmed in the imperial army,
and was on the eve of gaining a complete vic-
tory when the refusal of the Turks to undergo
a winter campaign defeated all his hopes. The
approach of Tilly compelled him to withdraw,
and he was glad to conclude a peace which de-
prived him of his Hungarian title, but left him
in possession of his conquests. While preparing
for a new war against the imperialists he died
of dropsy. He is said to have participated in
42 battles.

Beth'nal Green, England, an eastern subur-
ban district and parish of London, in Middlesex
County, now forming a parliamentary borough,
having two divisions with two members. In
1872 a branch of the South Kensington IMuseum
was opened in the district. Pop. (1891) 129,134.

Bethphage, beth'faj (Hebrew, house of
figs), a place of Scriptural interest, of which
no trace is left. Its name was significant of its
general location, but not of the particular site.
^*The place of figs,* it must have been situated
somewhere on the eastern slope of that range
of hills extending north and south between
Jerusalem and Bethany, at the foot of which in
the western valley flowed the Kedron. The
principal points of this range are the Mount
of Offence and the Mount of Olives. The fig-
tree still abounds both on the eastern and west-
ern slopes of the range, and even beyond Beth-
any toward Jericho. Some travelers have been
disposed to place Bethphage on the site of
the modern village of Abu Dis, lying south, and
a little to the east of Bethany. Robinson thought
this could not have been its position, and gave
little credit to the tradition of the monks of
the country, who place it between Bethany and
the summit of the Mount of Olives, since there
is no trace that a village of any description
ever existed there. Lightfoot thought it was
a district extending from the Mount of Olives
to Jerusalem, and embracing a village of the
same name.

Bethsaida, beth-sa'T-da, a village on the
west shore of the Lake of Galilee, the birthplace
of Peter and Andrew and Philip. Its site has
been identified vv'ith a heap of grass-grown ruins.
At the northeast extremity of the lake was an-
other Bethsaida, a village, near which the 5,000
were fed. Philip the Tetrarch raised it to the
dignity of a town, and renamed it Julias, in
honor of the Emperor Augustus' daughter.

Bethshemesh, beth-she'mesh (Hebrew,
house of the sun), a city of ancient Palestine,
which probably occupied the site of the modern
village, Ain Shems, about 15 miles west-south-
west of Jerusalem, where extensive ruins are still
remaining. The exploits of Samson were mainly
in the neighborhood of Bethshemesh.

Bethune, be-thoon', Charles James Stew-
art, Canadian educator: b. West Flamboro,
Ont., II Aug. 1838. He was graduated at Trin-
ity College, Toronto, in 1859; ordained deacon
in the Church of England in 1861, and priest in
1862. He became incumbent of the Credit Mis-

sion in 1866, and in 1870 was appointed to the
head mastership of Trinity College School, in
Port Hope. He is well known as a writer on
scientific subjects. He was the first editor of
*^The Canadian Entomologist,^ a monthly maga-
zine. Resigning this place, he edited for a con-
siderable time the entomological department of
the Canadian Farmer and the Weekly Globe.
In 1886 he again became editor of the *^ Canadian
Entomologist.^ In 1892 he was elected a Fellow
of the Royal Society of Canada.

Bethune, George Washington, American
Dutch Reformed clergyman and poet : b. New
York, 18 March 1805 ; d. Florence, Italy, 27
April 1862 ; was noted as an orator and a wit.
He had charges at Rhinebeck, and Utica, N. Y.,
Philadelphia, Brooklyn, and New York city. Be-
sides religious works, he wrote ^British Female
Poets, ^ ^Lays of Love and Faith^ (1847) ; sev-
eral of the hymns in which are widely used. He
also published an edition of Izaak Walton's
* Complete Angler' (1846) ; etc. See Life, by
Van Nest (1867).

Bethune, ba-tun, France, a town in the de-
partment of Pas de Calais, 19 miles north-north-
west of Arras. It stands on a rock washed by
the Brette, and is a place of considerable
strength. The appearance of the town is not
prepossessing. There is, however, one fine
square, the centre of which is occupied by an
ancient belfry of remarkable construction, while
the hotel-de-ville, among the best edifices in the
town, forms one of its sides. The chief manu-
factures are oil, soap, and cloth. There are also
distilleries, tanneries, and salt and sugar refiner-
ies. The trade is greatly favored by the canals
of Lawe and Bassee, which meet here. The
family of the lords of Bethune is very celebrated,
and a branch of it was established in Scotland
about the end of the 12th century. To this
branch the celebrated Cardinal Beaton belonged.
Pop. (1896) 11,627.

Betlis, or Bitlis, a town of Turkish Arme-
nia, about 20 miles west from Lake Van. It is
one of the most ancient cities of Kurdistan, sit-
uated in a wide ravine, traversed by a stream,
on whose steep banks the town is built. The
houses are of red stone, generally two stories in
height, with grated windows to the streets. In
the centre, on a high rock, is an ancient castle,
formerly the residence of the khans of Betlis.
The country around is fertile, well cultivated,
and produces excellent crops of grain, cotton,
hemp, rice, olives, tobacco of the best descrip-
tion, and excellent fruits and vegetables. The
principal manufactures of the town are coarse
cotton cloth and tobacco. Pop. about 30,000.

Betrothed, The. (i) A famous romance by
Alessandro Manzoni — ^I Promessi Sposi.-* It
was its author's only romance, but it sufficed to
place him at the head of the romantic school of
literature in Europe. The scene of the story
is laid within the country around Milan, and the
plot concerns only the troubled and impeded but
at last happily liberated course of true love be-
tween the humble peasant Renzo and his already
betrothed Lucia. The religious motive of the
book is sincere but not exaggerated, and never
runs to fanaticism. Its original publication was
in three volumes, and occupied two years, 1825-6,
during which time it awakened a wide interest
in European circles : and having been soon trans-
lated into all modern languages, it has become

BETROTHMENT — BETTERTON

probably the best known of all Italian romances
to foreign readers. (2) A novel by Sir Walter
Scott (1825), the scene of which is laid in the
reign of Henry II. (3) An opera by Pelrella,
first sung in 1869, at Lecco.

Betrothment, or Betrothal, a mutual prom-
ise or compact between two parties, by which
they bind themselves to marry. The word im-
ports giving one's troth, that is, true faith or
promise. Formal ceremonies of betrothment are
not the custom in the United States and Great
Britain, as on the Continent, where the betroth-
ment is either solemn (made in the face of the
church), or private (made before witnesses out
of the church). As betrothments are contracts,
they are subject to the same rules as other con-
tracts ; for instance, that they are valid only be-
tween persons whose capacity is recognized by
law; and the use of fraud, violence, or intimida-
tion vitiates the contract. The consent of both
parties, of course, is required. This may be ex-
pressed either verbally, or by writing, or by ac-
tion. In Germany, the consent of the parents is
always necessary, if the parties are under age,
not yet siti juris. But if the parents withhold
their consent unreasonably, the permission of the
judge is allowed to sanction the contract. If
the opinions of the parents are diverse, the law
gives effect to that of the father. Betrothments
contracted thus, according to law, are called
spotisalia publica; others are called sponsalia
clandcstina. The latter are, in some places, ut-
terly invalid; in others, only punishable. By
the common German law, however, they are
valid in every case in which consummation or
consecration by the priest has taken place. The
parents, in these cases, are not allowed to apply
for a dissolution of the contract, nor can they
refuse their consent, except for highly impor-
tant reasons. Public betrothment induces the ob-
ligation to marry. In case of refusal to complete
the contract by marriage, the injured party is
allowed an action at law to compel its perform-
ance ; but, since unhappy marriages are among
the greatest misfortunes, the means of compul-
sion applied by the law are never great, amount-
ing only to a small fine, or a short imprisonment.
If circumstances take place which, if happening
before the betrothment, would have necessarily
prevented it, the party affected by them is allowed
to recede from the engagement, and modern laws
allow only an action for damages. In Germany,
betrothment generally takes place in a small com-
pany of relations and friends. In Russia, it was
once binding and indissoluble, like marriage, but
is now a mere form accompanying the marriage
ceremony. The contract is called by the Jews
thenaim rischonlm. In the laws of Moses there
are certain provisions respecting the state of the
virgin who is betrothed. Selden's *Uxor He-
braica^ gives the schedule of Hebrew contracts
of betrothment. With the Jews, a young woman
is rarely allowed to enter into an engagement
without the cognizance of her relatives, who, in
fact, in most cases, arrange matters for her, and
generally avail themselves of the services of mar-
riage brokers, who receive a percentage upon the
amount of the dowrj', beside a gratuity. In the
continental cities these Jew marriage brokers
have matches always on hand, with dowries
varying from $5,000 to $200,000, and as soon as
the betrothment has taken place they look upon
the bargain as concluded; but cases frequently

occur, in which on the day of the wedding the
bridegroom breaks the match because the Aus-
trian metalliques or Spanish Ardoins, tendered
in payment for the dowry, have fallen in value,
and reduced the dowry perhaps to the extent of
20 or 25 per cent. Among the ancient Greeks,
the father made a selection for his daughter.
The young couple kissed each other for the first
time in the presence of their friends, and it was
customary for the bridegroom to bring flowers
daily, until the wedding day, to the house of his
bride. The Arab sends a relative to negotiate
about his intended bride, and the price at which
she is to be had. The bridegroom of Kam-
chatka has to serve in the house of his prospec-
tive father-in-law before an engagement is al-
lowed to take place. With the Letts and
Esthonians no engagement is considered valid
until the parent and relatives of the bride have
tasted of the brandy which the bridegroom pre-
sents. Among the Hottentots, the would-be
bridegroom is not allowed to propose without
being accompanied by his father. Father and
son walk arm in arm, with pipes in their mouths,
to the house of the bride, where the engage-
ment takes place. Among some of the indige-
nous tribes of America it was customary to keep
the betrothed lady in durance for 40 days, as the
superstition prevailed that she would exert an
occult influence upon any thing she touched or
anybody with whom she came into contact.
During these 40 days the lady was kept on star-
vation fare, so that when the day of the wedding
came she looked more like a skeleton than like a
bride. See Pollock and Alaitland, ^History of
English Law^ (2d ed. 1899).

Betsy and I Are Out, the title of a popu-
lar American poem by Will Carleton (q.v.), first
printed in the Toledo Blade in 1872.

Betteloni, bet-te-16'ne, Vittorio, Italian
poet : b. Verona, 1840. He was educated in Pisa,
and became professor of Italian literature and
history in the Female College in Verona. His
verse proves him an adherent of that Italian
classical school which dates from 1869, and in-
cludes ^In the Springtime^ (1869); 'New
Stanzas^ (1880) : and a translation of Goethe's
'Herman and Dorothea.'

Betterton, Thomas, English actor: b. Aug-
ust 1635; d. London, 28 April 1710. He was the
son of an under-cook in the .service of Charles I.,
and was apprenticed to a bookseller in London.
His master, Mr. Rhodes, obtained a license
for a company of players in 1659, and with him
Betterton commenced his career. He was en-
gaged by Davenant in 1662. His position was
soon pre-eminent, and he became an established
favorite. He seems to have had no personal
graces from nature to second his rare talents,
if the following account be true : ''Mr. Better-
ton, though a superlatively good actor, labored
under an ill figure, being clumsily made, having
a great head, a short, thick neck, stooped in the
shoulders, and had fat, short arms, which he
rarely lifted higher than his stomach. His left
hand frequently lodged in his breast between his
coat and waistcoat ; while with his right he
prepared his speech; his actions were few but
just; he had little eyes and a broad face, a little
pockfretten; a corpulent body, and thick legs,
with large feet; he was better to meet than to
follow, for his aspect was serious, venerable,
and majestic. In his latter time, a little para-

BETTINELLI — BETTY

lytic ; his voice was low and grumbling, yet he
could tune it by an artful climax which enforced
universal attention even from the fops and
orange girls. He was incapable of dancing even
in a country dance, as was Mr. Barry, but
their good qualities were more than equal to their
deficiencies.^^ Betterton had the rare faculty of
identifying himself with his part. He married
Mrs. Sanderson, an actress of almost equal
merit with himself, whose Lady Macbeth was
reckoned a perfect piece of acting. He was pru-
dent and saving, but he lost his spiall means in
a commercial speculation, and a theatre which he
afterward opened was not successful. After his
retirement from the stage, he reappeared in his
old age a few times to take a benefit, his last
appearance being 13 April 1710. He was buried
in Westminster Abbey. See Howe, "^Thomas
Betterton' (1891).

Bettinelli, bet-te-nel'le, Saverio, Italian
author: b. Mantua, 1718; d. 1808. He studied
under the Jesuits ; entered, in 1736, the novitiate
of this order, and taught from 1739 to 1744,
belles-lettres at Brescia, where he made himself
known by some poems composed for the use
of schools. In Bologna, where he studied the-
ology, he continued to cultivate his poetical tal-
ents, and wrote for the theatre of the college
his tragedy of Jonathan. In 1751 he was in-
trusted with the direction of the college of
nobles at Parma. After the suppression of the
Jesuits in 1773 he returned to his native city,
where he resumed his literary labors. His chief
work is his "^Risorgimento negli Studj, nelle Arti
e ne' Costumi dopo il Mille' (i/75)- The ^Let-
tere dieci di Virgilio agli Arcadi' attracted great'
attention, and its criticism of the older poets,
particularly Dante, involved him in many con-
tests. The best of his poems are his ^Versi
Sciolti,' which though they do not show any
great poetical power, are always elegant and
ingenious.

Betting, the staking or pledging of money
or property upon a contingency or issue. The
processes of betting may be best illustrated in
connection with horse-racing, which furnishes
the members of the betting fraternity with their
best markets. Bettors are divided into two
classes — ^the backers of horses, and the book-
makers, or professional bettors, who form the
betting ring, and make a living by betting
against horses according to a methodical plan.
By the method adopted by the professional bettor
the element of chance is as far as possible re-
moved from his transactions, so that he can
calculate, with a reasonable prospect of having
his calculations verified, on making more or less
profit as the result of a season's engagements.
Instead of backing any particular horse, the
professional bettor lays the same sum against
every horse that takes the field, or a certain
number of them, and in doing so has usually
to give odds, which are greater or less accord-
ing to the estimate formed of the chance of
success which each of the horses has on which
the odds are given. In this way, while in the
event of the race being won (as is usually the
case) by any of the horses entered in the betting-
book of a professional bettor, the latter has
always a certain fixed sum (say $1,000) to
pay, he receives from the backers of the losers
sums which vary in proportion to the odds
given. Thus, if a book-maker is making a

$1,000 book, and the odds against some horse
is four to one, he will, if that horse wins, have
to pay $1,000, while, if it loses, he will receive
$250. It usually depends upon which horse it
is that wins a race whether the book-maker
gains or loses. If the first favorite wins it is
evidently the worst thing that could happen
for the book-maker, for as he is bound to
receive the sum of the amounts to which all
the horses except one have been backed, the
largest deduction must be made from his total
receipts on account of the first favorite. Very
frequently the receipts of the book-maker are
augmented by sums paid on account of horses
which have been backed and never run at all.
Sometimes, although not often, the odds are
given upon and not against a particular horse.
Books may also be made up on the principle
of betting against any particular horse getting
a place among the first three. The odds in this
case are usually one fourth of the odds given
against the same horse winning. Another mode
of betting is that called a sweepstake, in which
a number of persons join in contributing a cer-
tain stake, after which each of those taking
part in the sweepstake has a horse assigned to
him (usually by lot), which he backs, and the
backer of the winning horse gains the whole
stakes. If there are more persons taking part in
the sweepstake than there are horses running
some of them must draw blanks, in which case
of course their stakes are at once lost.

At common law, wagers are not per se, void,
but statutes prohibiting betting have been passed
by many of the States. When one who loses
a wager gets another to pay the money for him,
an action lies for the recovery of the money.
Wagers on the event of an election laid before
the poll is open, or after it is closed, are illegal.
In horse-racing, simple bets upon a race are
unlawful both in England and the United States.
In the case even of a legal wager, the authority
of a stakeholder, like that of an arbitrator, may
be rescinded by either party before the event
happens. See Wager.

Betts, Craven Langstroth, American poet
and story writer: b. New Brunswick, 23 April
1853. Besides translating 'Songs from Beran-
ger' in the original metres, he has written 'The
Perfume Holder, a Persian Love Poem' ; with
A. W. H. Eaton, 'Tales of a Garrison Town' ;
and 'A Garland of Sonnets.'

Betts, Samuel Rossiter, American jurist:
b. Richmond, Mass., 8 June 1787 ; d. New Haven,
Conn., 2 Nov. 1868. He practised law in Sulli-
van County, N. Y. ; served in the War of
1812 and first became prominent when appointed
judge advocate. He was a member of Congress
1815-17; circuit court judge, 1823-6; and United
States district judge, 1827-67. As codifier of the
maritime laws of the United States he exercised
a clarifying influence upon such questions as
salvage, wages, charters, insurance, seamen's
wages, etc., and the formulation of the neu-
trality and patent laws. He published 'Admi-
ralty Practice' (1838).

Betty, William Henry West, English
actor, better known as the Young Roscius : b.
Shrewsbury, 1791 ; d. London, 24 Aug. 1874.
His first appearance was in Belfast, at the age
of II, when he assumed the role of Osman in
'Zara,' and achieved an immediate success. For
almost five years after this he played the most

BETULA — BEVERAGES

important parts before crowded and enthusiastic
audiences, Pitt adjourning the House of Com-
mons in 1805 on one occasion in order to permit
members to witness the boy's Hamlet. He quit-
ted the stage in 1808, but after studying for a
while at Cambridge, returned to it in 1812, but
failed to repeat his early triumphs. He retired
finally in 1824, and lived for 50 years in the
enjoyment of the fortune he had so early
amassed.

Bet'ula, the generic name of birch (q.v.).

Bet'wa, a river in Hindustan, which takes
its rise in the Vindhyan Mountains, near Bho-
pal, and flowing nearly 340 miles in a north-
easterly direction through the provinces of Mal-
wa and Allahabad, finally joins the Jumna below
Kalpee. Near Erech a slight fall occurs. The
country through which it flows is highly culti-
vated. The river at times is said to rise to a
great height and in a portion of its course
flows through beds of iron ore.

Beulah, bili'la, a region described in Ban-
yan's ^Pilgrim's Progress,^ where there is noth-
ing to annoy and all sounds are agreeable.

Beurnonville, ber-noh-vel, Marquis de
(Pierre de Ruel, pe-ar de rii-el), marshal of
France: b. Champignolle, Burgundy, 10 May
1752; d. 23 April 1821. Originally intended for
the Church, he chose the profession of arms
and served in the East until 1789, when he was
sent home by the governor of the Isle of
Bourbon, his temper being quarrelsome. Arriv-
ing in Paris at tl]e commencement of the Revo-
lution, he identified himself at once with it,
and in 1792 was appointed aide-de-camp to
Marshal Luckner, and was soon after named
general-in-chief of the army of the Moselle; in
1793 he became minister of war. Sent in 1793
to arrest Dumouriez, he was himself arrested by
Dumouriez, and confined at Ehrenbreitstein,
Eger, and Olmiitz, until 1795, when he was
exchanged, and became successively general-in-
chief of the army of the north, inspector-gen-
eral of infantry, ambassador to Berlin in 1800,
to Madrid in 1802, and count of the empire.
In 1814 he was commissioned by Napoleon to
organize means of defense upon the frontier,
and on the emperor's abdication was named
minister of state and peer of France by Louis
XVIII. On the return of Napoleon to Elba, he
was proscribed by a special decree, and retired
again, but was reinstated in all his dignities
bv Louis XVIII. after the battle of Waterloo.
He became marshal of France in 1816, and
marquis in 181 7.

Beust, Friedrich Ferdinand, boist, fre-driH
fer'de-nand (Count von), Saxon and Austrian
statesman : b. Dresden, 1809 ; d. 1886. He adopt-
ed the career of diplomacy, and as member of
embassies or ambassador for Saxony resided
at Berlin, Paris, Munich, and London. He was
successively minister of foreign affairs and of
the interior for Saxony. At the London confer-
ence regarding the Schleswig-Holstein difficulty
he represented the German Bund. He lent hjs
influence on the side of Austria against Prussia
before the war of 1866, after which, finding his
position in Saxony difficult, he entered the ser-
vice of Austria as minister of foreign afi^airs,
became president of the ministry, imperial cTian-
cellor, and in 1868 was created count. In 1871-8
he was ambassador in London, in 1878-82 in
Paris.

Beutenmiiller, boi'ten-miil-ler, William,
American entomologist : b. Hoboken, N. J., 31
March 1864. Educated in the public schools,
he became in 1889 curator of the department of
entomology in the American Museum of Natural
History. He has written a useful work on
butterflies and moths, and contributed to scien-
tific and popular magazines over 100 articles
on entomology. He has been president of the
New York Entomological Society, and is editor
of its 'Journal.^

Beuthen, boi'ten, Prussia, a town, province
of Silesia, govenmient of Oppeln, about two and
a half miles from the Polish frontier. It has
steam and electric tramways, and among build-
ings of note are the Roman Catholic Church of
St. Mary (13th century), Protestant parish
church (15th century), synagogue, royal Cath-
olic gymnasium, higher girls' school, etc. It is
an important centre of mining and metallurgy,
having iron-works, zinc-works, lead-works, coal-
mines, and various industrial establishments.
Pop. (1895) 42,343-

Bevedero, ba-va-da'ro, Argentina, a lake in
the province of Mendoza, consisting of two dis-
tinct bodies of water, called the Greater and
Lesser Bevedero, connected by a river about
eight miles long. Greater Bevedero is 40 miles
in length from north to south, and from 3 to
25 miles in width. Lesser Bevedero measures
about 22 miles by 15. The lake lies between
32° 45' and 34° 17' S. lat. and 66° and 66°
32' W. Ion.

Beveland, ba've-lant, North and South,
Netherlands, two islands in the province of
Zealand, and formed by the mouths of the
Scheldt. North Beveland lies east of the island
of Walcheren, and is separated from South
Beveland by the island of Wolfersdyke. South
Beveland, the larger and more fertile, contains
Goes, the capital, and several forts and villages.
The united area of the islands is 120 square
miles.

Beverages. Beverages are those drinks
to which mankind resorts in order that he may
relieve the pangs of thirst or supply some other
demand of the system. In the beginning man's
life was marked by its simplicity. Our first
parents were content to eat the fruits that they
found so convenient for their needs and it is
doubtful if they knew any other beverage than
the pure water coursing through the streams
that irrigated the ground. It was not until they
began to eat the flesh of beasts and searched the
soil for delicacies to gratify their newly awak-
ened appetite for a variety in foods that they
felt the craving of unnatural thirst. But the
eating of strong meats required the drinking of
stronger drinks than water and in this fact we
find the origin of the history of beverages.

It would be intensely interesting if we could
know in just what way prehistoric man first
satisfied his unnatural thirst for drink. It is,
of course, more than probable that the second
beverage discovered by man was the milk of the
animals he slaughtered to gratify his taste for
meat. From a temperate and hygienic point of
view it was not a long stride from the waters of
the brooks to the milk of cows and asses and
yet it stands out as a landmark in the develop-
ment of the demand for variety, the demand
which may be regarded as the first tendency to-
ward civilization. It is also quite probable that,

BEVERAGES

in the beginning, man drank his milk soon after
it was drawn or while it was still fresh, but
finally there came a day when some prehistoric
investigator was bold enough to take a drink of
the milk of mares that had been set aside, and
from this fermented liquid learned the sensa-
tions of intoxication, for kumyss, still the favor-
ite tipple of the Tartar, is unquestionably the
most ancient of all intoxicating beverages.

To mankind, next to water, milk is still a
favorite beverage, for it possesses the double
advantage of being both food and drink. To
the civilized taste the milk of cows is the most
desirable but more barbaric taste calls for a
stronger beverage and is best gratified by the
milk of mares, asses, camels, or even rein-
deers.

It is undoubtedly true that if we ate only
wholesome foods in such quantities only as our
system requires ; performed our work with reg-
ularity; enjoyed, at proper intervals, requisite
rest and recreation, and avoided all such dele-
terious distractions as excitement and worry,
water would be the only beverage that nature
would demand. Of course, it is unnecessary to
state that such an ideal condition could scarcely
obtain in these days of modern civilization,
and, as the result, it is just as impossible to
deny the fact that man sometimes demands a
drink that will have a tendency to stimulate or
refresh the jaded system.

While it is the primary object of all bever-
ages to relieve thirst nearly all of them also
possess other properties that exercise more or
less effect upon the body. For example, those
drinks which contain the largest quantities of
water pass most rapidly into the circulation,
increasing the volume of blood. Diluting the
food, they not only assist digestion but also
aid in eliminating waste matter from the body
through the ordinary channels. There are
beverages that soothe and beverages that irritate,
but all have their purpose. The former find
their scope of usefulness in times of fever and
cold, while the latter are stimulating irritants of
great medicinal value.

Among the most useful beverages are those
that best relieve the cravings of thirst, the sour
liquids prepared from the lemon, or other fruit
juices, which, while perhaps not acid in them-
selves, have been rendered acidulous by charges
of carbon dioxide. While the carbonated and min-
eral waters have the greatest effect in eliminat-
ing waste matter from the system they are not
so useful in this regard as the hot drinks, like
tea, coffee, or even hot water, for they not only
play their part in the elimination of waste but
also cool the body by increasing the perspira-
tion.

Particularly soothing are such mucilaginous
or gelatinous liquids as barley water, flaxseed
tea, and Irish moss. The mineral waters, malt
liquors and light wines act with a tonic effect ;
the more common beverages, like tea and coffee
and the milder alcoholic liquors are stimulating
to the nerves, while tea and coffee, if milk and
sugar are added, as well as chocolate, cocoa and
the malt liquors may be classified as the nu-
tritious drinks.

Next in popularity to milk are those unfer-
mented beverages which are made from products
of the vegetable world such as tea, coffee,
cocoa, and chocolate. Although cocoa is by far
the most ancient of these drinks, having been

in use long before the stimulating qualities of
either tea or coffee were discovered, coffee
has long been in greatest demand. In fact, it
has been estimated that about 500,000,000 people
drink coffee daily, as against the 100,000,000
who drink tea, and the 60,000,000 who partake
of chocolate and cocoa. In the United States
alone some 500,000,000 pounds of coffee are con-
sumed annually, as against 90,000,000 pounds of
tea, and some 20,000,000 pounds of the various
preparations of cocoa and chocolate.

There are several points of resemblance be-
tween all these table drinks, dissimilar as they
are in appearance and flavor. In each case they
exercise a stimulating effect, the caffeine of
coffee and theine of tea being almost identical,
while the theolronsine of chocolate and cocoa is
but a slightly different principle. Each also con-
tains the same bitter principle, tannin, and each
owes its characteristic odor and flavor to an
essential oil.

Coffee, which must be considered first, be-
cause of its great popularity, is the berry from
the several species of the genus Coffea, of which
C. arabica is the most important. First used in
Abyssinia during the 9th century, it was later
introduced into Arabia, and from there to Con-
stantinople, where it had become popularized by
the middle of the i6th century. It is supposed
that it was Leonhard Rauwolf, a German phy-
sician, who introduced coffee into Europe in
1573. A few years later Prosper Alpinus
brought some of the beans to Venice to use them
as a drug, but it was many years before it was
drank to any extent outside of Constantinople.
In 1652, however, a coffee house was opened
in London by the Greek servant of a merchant
named Edwards, whose ships sailed to the Le-
vant, and since that time the popularity of the
beverage has never waned.

In its preparation as a drink coffee should
not be boiled in Vv^ater, but, instead, should be
covered with water that has previously been
boiled. Here it should be allowed to infuse for
fully ten minutes, at a temperature little below
the boiling point. As coffee does not contain
as great a quantity of tannin as tea and does not
yield it so readily, it may infuse longer without
becoming bitter and indigestible, the effect which
tannin exerts if it is boiled or left for too long
a time over the fire.

Like many other beverages coffee exercises
both good and evil effects upon the system.
Stimulating the muscles, heart and nerves, its
tendency is to overcome the ills of fatigue,
while its strengthening effect upon the heart's
action makes it a most valuable stimulant. At
the same time its action upon the nervous system
is so marked that over-indulgence in the drink
is certain to be attended by such ill effects as
insomnia, and nervous headaches, if not palpi-
tation and general nervous disability.

Tea, which stands next to coffee as a table
beverage, is a native of China where these
shrubs of the Camellia family have been culti-
vated for more than a thousand years. It was
once a general belief that there were many kinds
of tea plants, but Robert Fortune, the botanist,
exposed the myth by his thorough investigation
of the various methods of cultivation and man-
ufacture in use in the tea districts of China and
India. It is now known, therefore, that v»'hile
there are many variations in the tea plant, the
varieties are all the same plant cultivated under

BEVERAGES

different conditions, while the two distinctive
varieties, the green and the black tea, are the
results of different methods of manufacture.
Green tea, for example, is prepared by steaming
the leaves before they have been rolled and
dried, a method of procedure which produces a
greater quantity of tannin.

As the flavor of tea as a beverage depends
as much upon the quality of the water in which
it is infused as upon the method of infusion,
care should be taken to see that the water is
neither too soft nor too hard, and that it has
been well boiled before it is poured over the tea.
The period of infusion, which is then continued
at a lower temperature, should not last more
than a few minutes, for the longer the infusion
the greater the quantity of tannin that will be
extracted.

Like coffee, tea has its good and evil effects.
If infused too long it becomes bitter, unwhole-
some and indigestible. If drank too freely it not
only induces insomnia and kindred nervous dis-
orders but irritates the stomach, producing a
serious kind of catarrh. At the same time it
is a mild stimulant which refreshes the body
and prepares the brain for intellectual energy.
It is also beneficial in aiding one to withstand
the ill effects of cold, fatigue and hunger. By
producing perspiration it cools the body when
heated, and, by means of its action upon the
heart, it warms the body when cold.

While tea has been consumed in China and
other parts of Asia since the latter part of the
6th century it was not introduced in European
countries for more than one thousand years.
Pepys mentions having tasted it for the first
time in 1660, but the novel beverage must have
met with almost instant recognition for, less than
18 years later, it was in general use in every
part of England.

As both cocoa and chocolate contain starch'
and fat in considerable quantities they are
among the most nutritious of the stimulating
table beverages. Both are obtained from a small
evergreen tree, native to tropical countries, for
while the cocoa of commerce is prepared by
grinding the seeds themselves, the commercial
chocolate cakes cOntain the better parts of the
berry, usually mixed with sugar and some dis-
tinctive flavoring. The preparation of the drink
is a simple process, the cocoa or chocolate merely
being dissolved in milk and boiling water.

Although by no means so popular as tea or
coffee the drinking of mineral waters has be-
come so general during the past century that
they must now be regarded as among the most
important temperance beverages. Early in the
i6th century an attempt was made to produce
artificial mineral waters, but it was not until the
i8th century that chemistry had made sufficient
progress to enable the experimenters to prove
the elementary compounds of the waters both
as to quality and quantity. In fact, the first
unqualified success in this line of investigation
was made by Dr. Frederick Adolphus Augustus
Struve, a Dresden druggist, who celebrated his
achievement by opening an artificial mineral
water pavilion in that city, in 1820.

The alkaline and mineral waters which are so
much in use to-day owe their distinctive char-
acteristics to the preponderance of carbonate and
bicarbonate of sodium as well as to the carbonate
of potassium, lithium, calecum and magnesium
which they contain, all of which tend to make

them useful aids to the physician in the treat-
ment of disease. The Vichy of France, for ex-
ample, or the Ems of Germany, are extensively
used in the dietetic treatments, correcting dis-
orders of the stomach and acting as alkalinizers
of the blood, bile and urine. In cases of gout,
gall stones, rheumatism, dyspepsia, constipation,
etc., they have proved of invaluable service and
have also been used successfully in the treat-
ment of obesity. In many instances their value
as medicinal agents is enhanced by the addition
of carbon dioxide, while, in other cases, they are
made more palatable and easy of digestion by
being served with milk. Among the natural
mineral waters produced in this country are
those of Saratoga, N. Y., Saint Louis, Mich., and
Waukesha, Wis., all of which are well and
favorably known to those who make use of such
beverages.

Another class of drinks, the popularity of
which is beyond question, are those beverages
which contain alcohol as an active principle :
beer, ale, wine, cider, and the many kinds of
spirituous liquors that are now manufactured in
almost every part of the world. In addition to
the alcohol these beverages also contain such
properties as tannin, sugar, carbon dioxide, or
various acidulous substances, any or all of w-hich
exert an influence over the flavor of the liquid.
As to alcohol itself it has so long been a bone
of contention that it would be folly to attempt
to review a century-long contest in a single
article. Originally used exclusively as a med-
icine, and admittedly a valuable agent in the
treatment of certain diseases it is to be doubted
if even the moderate use of such liquors as
beverages is not productive of far more evil
than good, v/hile the effect of immoderate in-
dulgence in such liquid stimulants is too well
known to require further discussion. In spite
of all the warnings of science, however, man
continues to gratify his craving for alcoholic
preparations. Even in countries where the or-
dinary beverages of commerce are unknown,
savage taste has learned to delight in the flavor
of fermented liquors, and this desire even the
most barbaric people have had ingenuity enough
to gratify.

Beer, or lager, as it is more generally known
in this country, is by no means a modern inven-
tion and no drink has continued to maintain a
more steadfast hold upon the taste of man since
the earliest days of civilization. The Egyptians
manufactured beer from barley many hundred
years before the Christian Era. Archilochus,
700 B.C., shows that the Greeks had learned the
art of brewing, while we have such eminent
authorities as Sophocles and yEschylus, Dio-
dorus and Pliny to prove that the Greeks and
Romans both made beer and loved it. Like the
Gauls, the Romans called it Cerevisia, from
Ceres, the goddess of field fruits, and there is
ample history to prove that the art of making
this beverage was known to man fully as early
as the art of making wine from the grape. Prior
to the invasion by the Romans the Britons were
drinkers of milk and water although they occa-
sionally drank mead, an intoxicating beverage
made from honey. As Tacitus tells us that beer
was the ordinary drink of the Romans, and beer
and vinegar the favorite beverage of the soldiers
of Julius Caesar, it is not difficult to imagine why,
so soon after his invasion, the Britons became a
nation of beer-drinkers. Unlike the Romans,

BEVERAGES

however, they employed wheat instead of barley
in their malting. In Germany, too, beer was in-
troduced at a very early date. Charlemagne
loved it dearly and not only compelled the best
brewers in the land to become attaches of his
court, but gave his personal attention to the
subject so conscientiously that he was able to
tell them how to improve their brew. As early
as 1482 the monasteries of that country began
to make beer and, by the i6th century, that
beverage had become one of the chief exports
of the country. In fact, the German brewer has
always been recognized as one of the best beer
makers of the world and it has only been within
the past century that the success of their Aus-
trian rivals has had a tendency to somewhat
eclipse their glory. Centuries ago beverages
known as beer were made in England by tapping
such trees as the birch, maple, spruce, and ash
for their juices, or by resorting to the properties
contained in ginger and other roots, a practice
which not only still prevails in that countrj', but
that was brought to America by the first colo-
nists, who loved these humble, harmless drinks
too well to leave their recipes in the mother-
land.

Ale and porter, the heavier malted liquors
which are so much used in England and the
United States, cannot boast such ancient lineage
as beer, but still there is reason to believe that
it was a beverage like ale on which the Anglo-
Saxons and the Danes loved to become drunken,
and, fully as early as the reign of Henry II.,
the monks of England had become famous for
their wondrous brews. In fact, it was due to
the investigations of some of these fathers of
the monasteries that the superior quality of the
waters of Burton-on-Trent for brewing purposes
was discovered, a discovery that has made the
ales and porters of England world celebrated.

Wine, whose history is as old as that of civi-
lization, is the most aristocratic of drinks. As-
cribed to the gods by the ancients — to Dionysus
by the Greeks, Bacchus by the Romans and
Osiris by the Egyptians — there can be no ques-
tion but that the use of the juice of the grape as
a beverage was one of the first discoveries of
civilized man. It is true that the very ancient
Romans did not know it at the time when even
the Israelites had learned the secret of its pro-
duction, but, later, wine-making in Rome be-
came such a general enterprise that Emperor
Domitian ordered half of the vineyards de-
stroyed that the more necessary wheat might be
raised in the place of the grape.

According to the best authorities Asia was
the country in which the vine first grew with-
out the aid of man, while Armenia and Eastern
Pontijs were the lands in which the cultivation
of the grape was first undertaken. From there
the love of wine spread rapidlj' through all the
lands of ancient civilization. Among the best
known Asiatic wines was that of Chalybon, near
Damascus, the beverages with which the tables
of the Persian kings were constantly supplied,
while the most famous Greek wines came from
such places as Chios and Lesbos.

In ancient India and in Egypt priests were
forbidden to drink, while the Jewish priests were
only forbidden on days of religious services. In
fact, the Hebrews were by no means as strict
about the use of the wine cup as were some other
nations and the fact that vine-culture was one

of their favorite occupations is proved by his-
tory, both biblical and profane. Traditions state
that it was the Phoenicians, the earliest of vine-
growers, who carried the secret of wine making
to Spain, Italy and France. They also estab-
lished large vineyards on the islands of Chios,
Mitylene and Tenedor.

As early as 550 B.C. the process of blending
selected wines was known to the Carthaginians,
while the ancient practice of adding turpentine
to the wine for the purpose of preserving it was
probably an invention of Italy. France, Spain,
and Portugal are now the chief centres of vine-
culture although the grape-growers in many
parts of the United States, and particularly in
the far Western States, have recently raised the
making of wine to the dignity of a great Ameri-
can industry. Champagne, however, one of the
most popular of wines, is a beverage of ex-
tremely modern invention when compared to
other makes. Invented by Dom Perignon of
Hautvillers about the beginning of the i8th
century its use has become more and more
general until it is now consumed by wine-lovers
in all parts of the world. If wine is the most
aristocratic, whiskey may be designated as the
most democratic of drinks. Thoroughly cos-
mopolitan in character, in various countries it is
distilled from various substances, but always,
whether it is made from barley, corn, wheat, rj-e,
or even from potatoes, it bears the same name
and usually enjoys the same proportion of pop-
ularity. The word "whiskey'^ is a name that
was bestowed upon this beverage by the Celts of
Ireland and Scotland who began to make it
about the middle of the 17th century. The
word itself is a corruption of the Gaelic ^'uisge*
(water), and closely interpreted means "strong
water.^' In the beginning this drink was used
almost exclusively as medicine but as soon as
it had become introduced as a beverage it be-
came a favorite drink throughout Great Britain,
and while the word "whiskey" once referred only
to the Scotch and Irish drinks of that name, the
rye and Bourbon whiskies of American manu-
facture are now consumed almost as generally
as those made from recipes that have been
handed down from the days of the ancient Celts.

Almost as strong as whiskey, brandy, the
"brande-vin^^ or burnt wine, is a drink which is
often used, both for medicinal purposes and as
a beverage. Its name, as is indicated, was de-
rived from the method of its manufacture, a
formula for liquor making that has been fol-
lowed for many generations and in many parts
of the world. In Morocco the Jews use the
refuse of the grape as' well as such fruits as
raisins, figs, dates and pears in its distillation,
and they have become strongly attached to their
strange drink because they believe that their
freedom from that terrible disease, elephantiasis,
always so common among the Mohammedans in
that country, is due to the fact that tliey partake
so freely of this tmique spirit. Moliere, in his
travels, discovered a tribe on the Barbarj' coast
which made excellent brandy from honey ; in
Persia it is the lees of the weaker sorts of
wines that are distilled, and almost every country
has its particular method of making this bever-
age. None of them, however, can compare in
quality to the cognac of France, that rich dis-
tillation from wines which alone properly bears
the name of "brandy.'^

Gin is another distilled liquor. It is made

BEVERIDGE

from rye, grain and malted barley, flavored with
juniper-berries and sometimes with turpentine.
It is also known as Hollands, and as Holland
gin, these names being a relic of the days when
the beverage was called Holland-Geneva, the
word "gin** being a corruption of the word
"Geneva.** Although originally made in Holland
it was soon introduced into England where it
immediately became one of the most popular of
drinks. Easily manufactured and always strong
it could be sold so cheaply that it was finally
found necessary to adopt strict legislative mea-
sures restricting its sale and consumption,
Hogarth's horrible picture, *Gin Lane,* which
was one of the influences in bringing about the
much needed reform, is said to have been but
slightly an exaggeration of the actual condi-
tions which existed in all the large English
cities during the reign of gin.

Rum, formerly spelled as the French still
spell it, "rhum,** is a spirit which is distilled
from the sugarcane juice, from the skimmings
of the juice from the boiling house, or from the
molasses mixed with the lees of former distilla-
tions. Although not so commonly used as some
of the other strong liquors rum has been known
both for its medicinal value and as a beverage
ever since its introduction from the West Indies,
more than a century ago.

The following are among the drinks which
are not so generally known but which are in
common use among the people of other coun-
tries :

Arrack, a drink manufactured widely in the
East and West Indies, is much used by the
natives. In making it it is sometimes distilled
from the fermented juice of the palm tree, and
sometimes from a combination of rice and mo-
lasses used in connection with the palm-tree
juices.

Vodka, which is the chief source of intoxica-
tion in Russia, is a liquor which may be dis-
tiUed either from rye or from potatoes.

In several parts of the world the sap of trees
is called into requisition to satisfy the thirst
for intoxicants. Pulque, for example, the bever-
age most commonly used in all Spanish-Amer-
ican countries, is made from the fermented sap
of the aloe, while a somewhat different drink,
called Tepache, is made by mixing sugar and
water with this sap of the aloe, w'hich after-
ward is allowed to ferment for a few hours only.
In Tasmania the so-called "cider-tree** furnishes
the bushmen with a means of intoxication. In
this case the sap is of such a character that it
may be drank as soon as it is drawn from the
tree, in which state it is both refreshing and
harmless, but when it is allowed to stand for
some time it becomes an intoxicant of great
potency.

The Soma of the Hindus is supposed by some
to have been the original intoxicant of the hu-
man race. The Persians, who accept this tradi-
tion, revere the beverage as Haoma, while in
India it is looked upon as the beverage of the
mighty god, ever-giving new strength and new
vigor, it is a milky fluid which is found in the
climbing bindweed, and, when properly fer-
mented, is extremely "heady.**

Sake, the commonly used distilled liquor of
Japan, is made entirely from rice, as also is Sam-
shee. a drink used by the lower classes in China.

Kvass is the name of a sour beer much fa-

vored by the Russian peasantry. It is made from
barley and rye, by a similar malting process as
that applied to the manufacture of beer.

The natives of South America have a drink
which they call Guarapo, which is made from
the fermented juice of the sugarcane.

Chi-chi is the name of a peculiar kind of
cider which is made by the natives of Patagonia.
In brewing it, in the autumn when the apples
are ripe, they dig large pits which they line and
interline most carefully with hides in order
that none of the juice may soak into the earth.
Into these hides they throw the ripe apples
which are left to decay and ferment until they
are ready for use. It is then extremely intoxi-
cating.

A drink called Kephir is drunk by the natives
of the Caucasus. It is an effervescing milk-
like liquid, the effervescence being caused by
the introduction of horny, yellowish-brown
masses called "Kephir-grains.** Kern, who
made a scientific examination of these grains,
discovered that they were made of a rod-like
bacterium and a yeast-like substance that was
entirely unknown to him. Not unlike Kumyss
in appearance and in taste, Kephir is far more
intoxicating.

Kava, or ava, is a Polynesian drink which
is made by macerating in water a portion of the
root and stem of one of the piperacese.

There are several substitutes for tea in use
in various parts of the world. In some of the
Pacific Islands there are "tea-trees,** while the
nativ'es of Tibet are very fond of their "brick
tea,** which is made from the offscourings and
dust of the leaves and stems of the tea plants.
It derives its name from the fact that the dust
is pressed into hard, solid brick-shaped lumps^
from wdiich pieces are chipped off as they are to
be used.

Miles Bradford,
Author of '■Carlotta and I?

Beveridge, Albert Jeremiah, American
lawyer: b. Highland County, Ohio, 6 Oct. 1862.
He was brought up on a farm : graduated at De
Pauw University; and engaged in law practice
in Indianapolis. He entered political life in
1883. and soon won a reputation as an effective
orator. On 17 Jan. 1899, he was elected United
States senator for Indiana, as a Republican.
Soon after his election he went to the Philip-
pine Islands ; made a thorough study of political
and material conditions there ; and, on the asseni-
bly of Congress in December following, deliv-
ered a thrilling speech in the Senate in support
of the administration's policy concerning the
new possessions in the East.

Beveridge, Kiihne (Coghlan), American
sculptor: b. Springfield, 111., 31 Oct. 1877. She
studied under Rodin in Paris and O'Donovan in
New York, and in 1893 married Charles Cogh-
lan. Her works have been exhibited in New
York, London, and Paris. She obtain, d honor-
able mention at the Paris Exposition of 1900.

Beveridge, William, English divine: b.
Barrow, Leicestershire. 1637; d. Westminster,
1708. He studied at St. John's College, Cam-
bridge, devoting his attention particularly to
Oriental literature. In 1658 he_ published a
work on Eastern tongues, especially Hebrew,
Chaldee. Syriac, Arabic, and Samaritan, accorp-

BEVERLEY — BEVIS

panied with a Syriac grammar. In 1660 he took
orders, and obtained the vicarage of Eahng
in Middlesex, where he wrote a useful ^Intro-
duction to Chronology.^ In 1672 he was
appointed to the rectory of St. Peter, Cornhill,
London, and the same year published his *Syn-
odicon^ in two folio volume:, containing the
Apostolic canons, decrees of the councils received
by the Greek Church, and the canonical epis-
tles of the early Fathers. This work called
forth an opponent, to whom Beveridge replied
in a "^Vindication.^ In 1674 he obtained a pre-
bend in St. Paul's, and in 1681 was appointed
archdeacon of Colchester. In 1684 he became
prebendary of Canterbury, and in 1688 was
appointed chaplain to William and Mary.
Shortly after, the see of Bath and Wells was
offered him ; but as it had become vacant by
the conscientious refusal of Bishop Ken to take
the new oaths, Beveridge, to his honor, de-
clined to accept it. The episcopal dignity, how-
ever, was only delayed ; in 1704 he became
bishop of St. Asaph. Among his best-known
works are ^The Church Catechism Explained^ ;
•^Private Thoughts upon a Christian Life' ; and
^The Great Necessity and Advantage of Public
Prayer and Frequent Communion.' Collective
editions of his works were published in 1824
and in 1842-6.

Beverley, Saint John of, English divine:
b. about the middle of the 7th century at Harp-
ham, Yorkshire; d. Beverley, 721. He was edu-
cated at Canterbury under Archbishop Theodore,
and became a monk under Hilda in the monas-
tery founded by her at Whitby. In 687 he was
appointed to the see of Flexham, and in 705
was transferred to York. He founded a convent
of nuns at Beverley, and built the choir of the
church there. He resigned his bishopric and
retired to Beverley in 718. Bede, who is said
to ha\'e been his pupil, speaks of him with great
veneration. He was canonized in 1037, and his
remains were placed in a costly shrine, in Bev-
erley minster. His fame was so widespread that
when William the Conqueror led his army to the
north and ravaged the country he saved the
town of Beverley out of respect to the memory of
the bishop. In 1416 Archbishop Chicheley or-
dered the anniversary of his death to be cele-
brated as one of the festivals of the Church,
and special privileges were conferred on his
church at Beverley by several English sov-
ereigns. He is said to have written an * Exposi-
tion of Luke' and "^Homilies on the Gospels.'

Beverley, Constance de, in Scott's poem
<Marmion,' a nun who for love of Marmion
follows him in the disguise of a groom, and on
being thrown over by Marmion is immured at
Holy Isle for breach of her vow of chastity.

Beverley, Robert, American historian: b.
Virginia, 1675 \ d. 1716. He was educated in
England and about 1697 became clerk of the
Council of Virginia and had charge of the
records of the colony. He was the author of a
< History of the Present State of Virginia,' pub-
lished in 1705, a most interesting account of
the details of*the daily life in colonial Virginia.
A reprint was published in Richmond in 1855.

Beverley, England, a municipal borough
and capital of the East Riding of Yorkshire, 29
miles east-southeast from York and a mile
from the river Hull. It stands on the eastern
tdge of the Wolds, and on a branch of the

Northeastern Railway, and consists of a princi-
pal street above a mile in length, and several
minor streets, all spacious and tolerably well
built. Its most remarkable edifice is the min-
ster of St. John, in the Decorated and Perpen-
dicular English styles, and one of the finest
specimens of ecclesiastical architecture in the
kingdom, its west front in the opinion of excel-
lent authorities surpassing in magnificence that
of York minster. Other churches are St. Mary's
and St. Nicholas'. Among the other chief build-
ings are the guildhall and corn exchange. The
chief manufactures are leather, iron castings,
agricultural implements, whiting, linseed oil
and cake, manures, wagons, cement, and ale. Its
environs abound with beautiful walks. It sent
two members to Parliament till disfranchised
in 1870. Pop. (1901) 13,185. See Hiatt, *Bev-
erley Minster' (1900).

Beverly, Mass., a city in Essex County,
on the Boston & M. R.R. ; two miles north of
Salem. It was founded 14 Oct. 1668; was
incorporated as a city 23 March 1894; con-
tains several villages ; and is connected by trolley
lines with Salem, Peabody, Gloucester, and Wen-
ham. It is the seat of the New England Insti-
tute for the Deaf and Dumb ; is principally en-
gaged in the manufacture of women's boots and
shoes, and leather ; has considerable shipping and
fishery interests ; contains high and graded
schools, a public library, a national bank, a
number of handsome residences belonging to
Boston business men ; and has a property valu-
ation exceeding $16,000,000. Pop. (1900) 13,884.

Beverly Farms, a name given to the east-
ern portion of the town of Beverly, Mass. It
is a favorite summer residence for wealthy
Bostonians and contains many beautiful man-
sions and park-like estates. In recent years it
has endeavored to secure incorporation as a
separate town.

Beverly's Ford, Va., scene of a sharp cav-
alry fight during the Civil War, between Buford,
Pleasanton, and Gregg, commanding 9,000 Fed-
erals, and Stuart leading 12,000 Confederates.
Hooker had sent Pleasanton to find Stuart, who
was said to be near Beverly's Ford. Pleasanton
planned to surprise the Confederates, but his
plan miscarried. Stuart was fully prepared for
him. Pleasanton was badly beaten. This action
is also known as the battle of Brandy Station.

Be'vis of Hampton, Sir, a legendary Eng-
lish knight who has been made the hero of
mediaeval romances b}^ both English and Con-
tinental writers. He was the son of Sir Guy,
Earl of Hamtoun, who was treacherously mur-
dered by Divoun, emperor of Almayne, he was
given by his false mother to some heathen
merchants to be sold for a slave among the
Paynim. By them he was carried to Ermony.
where he soon became dear to King Ermvn, and
dearer still to his only daughter, the lovely
Josian. His chief exploits were the overthrow
of Brademond of Damascus, of a monstrous
boar, of the giant Ascapard, whom he spared to
become his squire, and of a dreadful dragon near
Cologne. His famous sword '^Morglay" he won
in battle ; his horse "Arundel" was the gift of
Josian. Still more romantic episodes in his
story are his carrying his own death-warrant in
a sealed letter to the vassal Brademond ; his es-
cape from his noisome dungeon after seven
years' imprisonment ; and recovery of his wife,

BEWICK — BEZA

who had preserved his love, though nominally
the wife of King Ynor of Mombraunt. He
next returned to England to avenge his father's
death, then sailed for Ermony and defeated
Ynor in a desperate battle. His last great fight
was in the streets of London, when he slaugh-
tered 60,000 citizens and forced King Edgar
to grant him terms. Thirty-three }'ears he then
spent in love and perfect happiness at Ermony,
dying at the same moment as his wife, while
his famous steed Arundel had died just before.
The romance was edited by Dr. E. Kolbing for
the Early English Text Society in 1885.

Bewick, bu'ik, Thomas, English wood-
engraver : b. Cherryburn, Northimiberland, 12
Aug. 1753; d. Gateshead, 8 Nov. 1828. He early
showed a great talent for drawing, and was
apprenticed to an engraver in Newcastle. The
celebrated Dr. Hutton, of Woolwich, then a
schoolmaster in Newcastle, was preparing
his great work on mensuration, and having
employed Bewick's master in getting up the
woodcuts for illustrating it, the execution of
these was entrusted to the young apprentice.
Bewick performed the work so admirably that
his master advised him to turn his attention to
wood-engraving, and accordingly with this view
he proceeded to London. He returned, however,
to Newcastle after a short time, and established
himself there in partnership with his former
master. His turn of mind led him to the
study of natural objects, more especially ani-
mals; and in 1790 appeared his "^History of
Quadrupeds,' the beauty of the illustrations of
which attracted universal attention, so superior
were they to anything hitherto produced by the
art of wood-engraving. In 1797 appeared the
first, and in 1804 the second volume of his
^British Birds,^ generally regarded as the finest
of his works. Bewick has never been surpassed
in his spirited delineations of animals, and the
admirable naturalness with which the acces-
sories and backgrounds of the drawings, such
as foliage, grass, and other rural objects, are
represented. The tail-pieces to chapters through-
out his works are of the highest excellence,
and often display a rich vein of humor. His
illustrated edition of ^yEsop's Fables^ appeared
in 1818. See Clement, "^Painters, Sculptors, Ar-
chitects, and Engravers^ (Boston, 1899) ; Dob-
son, ^Thomas Bewick and His Pupils' ; Tj-tler,
^Modern Painters. ••

Bewley, Anthony, American abolitionist
b. Tennessee, 22 ^lay 1804 ; d. Fort Worth,
Texas, 13 Sept. i860. A Methodist clergyman
opposed to slavery, in 1858 he was driven from
Texas for preaching according to his convic-
tions. Against the advice of friends he returned
in i860, but remained only a few weeks, being
again obliged to flee for his life. A reward of
$1,000 was offered for his apprehension ; he was
seized in Missouri, carried to Fort Worth, and
there hung by the mob, the only reason for
whose act was that he had maintained human
slavery to be unjust.

Bey, ba, among the Turks, signifies a gov-
ernor of a town, seaport, or small district. The
Turks write the word beg (q.v.).

Beyer, bl-er, Samuel Walker, American
geologist: b. Clearfield. Pa., 15 'Slay 1865. He
graduated at Iowa State College, 1889, and at
Johns Hopkins University 1895. He is pro-
fessor of geology and mining engineering in Iowa
Vol. 2—38.

State College. As special assistant on the Iowa
Geological Survey he has prepared reports on
the geology of Boone, Marshall, Story, and
Hardin counties, and annual reports on the
mineral productions of the State. In 1897 he
was a delegate to the International Geologic Con-
gress at St. Petersburg.

Beyle, Marie-Henri, bal, ma-re-6h-re (pseu-
donym De Stendhal), French author: b. Gre-
noble, 23 Jan. 1783; d. 23 March 1842. He
held civil and military appointments under the
empire ; took part in the Russian campaign of
1812; thence until 1821 lived at Milan, chiefly
occupied with works on music and painting.
After nine years' residence at Paris he became
in 1830 consul at Trieste, and in 1833 at
Civita Vecchia. In 1841 he returned to Paris,
where he died. The distinguishing feature of
his works was the application of acutely analytic
faculties to sentiment in all its varieties, his
best books being the treatise ^On Love' (1822) ;
<The Red and the Black> (1830); < History of
Painting in Italy^ (1817) ; ^Racine and Shake-
speare* (1827) ; and *Life of Napoleon,* etc. A
collective edition of his works appeared in 18
volumes in 1855-6, and his *^Correspondance
Inedite* in two volumes in 1855.

Beyrout. See Beirut.

Beza, be'za, or de Beze, de baz, Theodore,
Calvinistic divine : b. of a noble family at \'eze-
lay, in Burgundy, 24 June 1519; d. 13 Oct. 1605.
He was educated in Orleans under Melchior
Volmar, a German philologer devoted to the
Reformation ; and, early familiar with the ancient
classical literature, he became known at the
age of 20 years as a Latin poet, by his petulant
and witty "^Juvenilia* (a collection of poems of
which he was afterward ashamed). In 1539 he
was made a licentiate of law, and went to Paris.
He received from his uncle the reversion of his
valuable abbey Froidmond, and lived on the
income of two benefices and on property which
he inherited from a brother. His habits were
dissipated, but a clandestine marriage in 1543
recalled him from his excesses, and a dangerous
illness confirming the intention which he had
formed at Orleans of devoting himself to the
service of the Reformed Church, he went to
Geneva with his wife in 1547. Soon after he
accepted a Greek professorship at Lausanne.
During his 10 years in this office he wrote a
tragi-comic drama in French, — *The Sacrifice
of Abraham,* — which was received with much
approbation ; delivered lectures (which were
numerously attended) on the Epistle to the
Romans and the Epistles of Peter (which served
as the basis of his Latin translation of the New
Testament, of which he afterw^ard published
several editions) : finished Marot's translation of
the Psalms in French verse ; and obtained to
such a degree the confidence of the Swiss Cal-
vinists that he was sent in 1558 on an embassy
to the Protestant princes of (Germany to obtain
their intercession at the French court for the
release of the Huguenots imprisoned in Paris.
In the following year he w^ent to Geneva as a
preacher, and soon after became a professor of
theology and the most active assistant of Cahin,
to whom he had already recommended hirnself
by several works, in which many of the views
of that eminent theologian were advocated with
great zeal and no small measure of ability, so
that he was generally regarded as Calvin's ablest

BEZA'S CODEX — BHADRINATH

coadjutor, and the person destined to be his
successor. His talents for negotiation were now
often put in requisition by the Calvinists. He
was sent to the court of Anthony, king of
Navarre, at Nerac, to obtain toleration for the
French Huguenots ; and at his desire he ap-
peared, 1561, at the religious conference at
Poissy, where he spoke in behalf of his party
with a boldness, presence of mind, and energy
which gained him the esteem of the French
court. He often preached in Paris before the
queen of Navarre and the Prince of Conde ;
also in the suburbs. At the conference of St.
Germain, in 1562, he spoke strongly against
the worship of images, and after the commence-
ment of the civil war accompanied the Prince
of Conde as chaplain, and on the capture of
the prince joined Admiral Coligny. After the
restoration of peace he returned to Geneva in
1563, where, besides discharging the duties of
his offices, he continued to engage in theological
controversies in support of the Calvinists ; and
after Calvin's death in 1564 became his suc-
cessor, and was considered the first theologian
of this Church. He presided in the synods of
the French Calvinists at La Rochelle (1571) and
at Nismes (1572), where he opposed Morel's
proposal for the alteration of clerical discipline;
was sent by Conde (1574) to the court of the
Elector Palatine ; and at the religious confer-
ence at Montpellier (1586) opposed the theo-
logians at Wiirtemberg, particularly James An-
dreas. At the age of 69 years he married his
second wife (1588), and still continued to
repel, with the power of truth and wit, the
attacks and calumnies which his enemies, apos-
tatized Calvinists (such as Bolsec), Lutherans,
and Jesuits, heaped upon him. They reported in
1597 that he had died, and returned before his
death to the Roman Catholic faith. Beza, now
78 years old, met his assailants in a poem full of
youthful enthusiasm, and resisted in the same
year the attempts of St. Francis de Sales to con-
vert him, and the alluring offers of the Pope. In
1600 he visited Henry IV. in the territory of
Geneva, who presented him with 500 ducats.
Among his many works, his exegetic writings,
and the able and correct ^History of Calvinism
in France from 1521 to 1563,^ which is ascribed
to him, are still much esteemed. Beza's name is
associated with the Codex which he presented
to the University of Cambridge, for an account
of which see Bible.

Beza's Codex. See Bible.

Bez'ant, a round, flat piece of pure gold,
without any impression, supposed to have been
at one time the current coin of Byzantium. Bez-
ants are frequently employed as one of the
charges in heraldry, a custom supposed to have
been introduced by the Crusaders. Its value was
about $2.

Beziers, ba-ze-a, France, a town in the
department of Herault, 38 miles southwest of
Montpellier ; situated on a height above the
Orb, and on the Canal du Midi, a few miles
from the Mediterranean, to which there runs a
tramway line. It is surrounded by old walls,
and though its streets are narrow, it is tolerably
well built. Its most conspicuous edifice is the
cathedral, a Gothic structure, crowning the
height on which the town stands, and possessing
a fine semicircular choir surrounded by columns
of red marble. The city has a communal col-

lege, a museum, a library, and a society of eco-
nomics and archjeology. Its manufactures con-
sist chiefly of woolens, silks, hosiery, chemicals,
spirits, etc. In 1209 it was the scene of a hor-
rible massacre of the Albigenses by Simon de
Montfort, in which 20,000 persons were killed.
Pop. (1896) 48,012.

Bezique, a card game which crystallized
into official form in 1887. Two packs of cards
are used, two players participate and the cards
rank, ace high, then ten, king, queen, knave, nine,
eight, and seven. All cards below that are
discarded from both packs. Eight cards are
dealt to each player. Trumps may be determined
either by turning up the first card of the stack
or by the suit of the first marriage. The
non-dealer leads for the first trick, and the
winner of each trick has the succeeding lead.
After each trick, each player draws one card
from the top of the stack, the winner of the
trick taking the top card. The playing is as
in whist, the leader taking the trick unless his
opponent plays a higher card of the same suit
or a trump. It is not necesssary to follow
suit until the stack is exhausted, when one must
do so and take each trick, if possible. Counting
is done by means of the values of the cards ;
each ace or ten-spot taken in a trick counts
10, the winner of the last trick of each hand
scores 10, and if the trump is turned, both
sevens count 10 for the turner, and if one ex-
changes from his hand a seven of trumps for
another turned trump or if one declares the
other seven of trumps 10 more is scored. The
game is won by the player who first makes
1,000 points, and if his opponent has not made
500 the game counts double. There are certain
combinations of cards other than the above,
which, when declared, count as follows : Dou-
ble bezique (both queens of spades and both
knaves of diamonds) 500; sequence of five high-
est trumps, 250; and 4 aces, 100; any 4 kings,
80; any 4 queens, 60; any 4 knaves, 40; bezique
(queen of spades and knave of diamonds), 40;
royal marriage (king and queen of trumps),
40; marriage (king and queen of same suit), 20.
A declaration is made by placing the declared
cards face up on the table where they remain
till played or the stack is exhausted, except in
the case of the seven of trumps. To score, a
declaration can only be made after winning a
trick and before drawing, and but one declara-
tion can be made at a time. After a card has
been used in one combination it may be used
to form another, excepting when used to
form an equal or inferior combination in the
same class as before. A player need not de-
clare a combination which he holds and only
before the stack has been exhausted can a
declaration be made. Consult : A. Howard
Cady's treatise, for details and rules.

Bezo'ar, concretions found in the fourth
stomach of many of the hcrbivora. notably goats,
at one time held in high repute because of fan-
cied miraculous healing properties.

Bhadrinath, bha-dri-nath', a town in north-
ern Hindustan, on the Bishengunga, celebrated
for its temple of Vishnu, with a hot mineral
spring in whose waters both sexes bathe indis-
criminately, to wash away their sins. Some
50.000 pilgrims visit the place annually. The
temple has been frequently overthrown by earth-
quakes. The principal idol is a figure of black

BHAGALPUR — BHILS

marble, clothed in gold and silver brocade while
the season of pilgrimage lasts, and then stripped
and stowed away in a vault the rest of the
year. The Hindus believe that in the neighbor-
ing mountains some holy anchorites have lived
for several thousand years. Their place of hab-
itation is a cavern perpetually choked with snow,
which forbids the approach of the curious and
the skeptical. The Bhadrinath peaks in the
neighborhood are above 22,000 feet high.

Bhagalpur, b'ha-gal-poor', a city of Hin-
dustan, m Bengal, capital of a district and divi-
sion of the same name, situated on the Ganges,
113 miles northwest of Moorshedabad. In the
town and neighborhood are some interesting Mo-
hammedan shrines ; and there are here also two
monuments, one erected (in 1780) by natives,
and the other erected by government in memory
of Augustus Cleveland, the conciliator of the
formerly turbulent and marauding hill tribes
of Sonthals. There are several indigo works
in the neighborhood. Pop. (1901) 75,275. The
division of Bhagalpur lies between that of
Rajshahi on the east and that of Patna on the
west. It has an area of 20,511 square miles.
Pop. (1901) 8,721,484. The district of Bhagal-
pur is fertile, well watered, and highly culti-
vated. It is divided into two unequal portions
by the Ganges. Area, 4,226 square miles ; pop.
(1901) 2,088,560.

Bhagavadgita, bha'ga-vad-ge'ta (Sanskrit,
the Divine Song), the title of a religious-philo-
sophical didactic poem interwoven as an episode
in the great Indian epic of the Mahabharata
(q.v.).

Bhamo, bha-mo', India, a town of Burma,
on the Upper Irrawaddy, about 40 miles from
the Chinese frontier, and 180 north-northwest of
Mandalay, with which it has railway communi-
cation. About 20 miles above Bhamo the river
suddenly narrows from 1,000 to 150 yards and
flows through a roclcj' gorge subject to eddies
and back-waters. Navigation is at that point
very difficult, and at times impossible. Bhamo
is the starting-point of caravans to Yunnan,
and will become one of the great emporiums of
the East in the event of a regular overland trade
being established between India and Western
China. Pop. (estimated) about 7,000.

Bhang, bang, an Eastern name for hemp
(Cajinabis Indica) (q.v.).

Bhartpur, bhert-poor', or Bhurtpore. (i) A

native state of India with an area of 1,961 square
miles. The surface is generally low and the
state is scantily supplied with water : soil gen-
erally light and sandy ; chief productions, corn,
cotton, sugar, and salt. It has been under Brit-
ish protection since 1826. Pop. (1901) 626,000.
(2) A town, the capital of the above state, on an
extensive and fertile plain, no miles south-
southwest of Delhi. It covers an area about
four miles in circuit, and was so strongly
fortified that in 1805 it stood a siege by Lord
Lake of 14 weeks, and cost the besiegers 3,100
men. In a second siege, in 1826. its resistance
to Lord Combermere was less successful. The
fortifications have been demolished, but the fort
still exists, and is enclosed by a wet ditch
and a wall of hewn stone, which taken together
are 60 feet high. Within the fort is the rajah's
palace, built of red and yellow freestone in the

Mogul style, and picturesquely crowning an emi-
nence surrounded by flower-gardens and foun-
tains. Pop. (1901) 43,000.

Bhartrihari, bhar-tre-ha're, Indian poet,
author of a book of apothegms. According to
the legend he was the brother of King Vikra-
maditya, who lived in the ist century B.C. The
collection of 300 apothegms (short poems) bear-
ing his name present us with graceful descrip-
tions of nature, charming pictures of love,
shrewd remarks on everyday life, and profound
thoughts on the Deity and the immortality of
the soul. Bhartrihari was the first Indian writer
who became known in Europe, 200 of the apo-
thegms having been translated by the missionary
Abraham Roger and published at Leyden (1653).
His actual personality has been much discussed
without any very satisfactory conc'usion having
been reached. The weight of opinion inclines to
belief in his existence, and that he was a poet
of a philosophical cast, possibly a grammarian
also, and very likely of roj'al descent. See Von
Bohlen, ^Bhartrihari's Sententise' (1833);
Tawney, ^Two Centuries of Bhartrihari^
(1877) ; Wortham, ^Translation of the Satakas
of Bhartrihari* (1886) ; More, ^A Century of
Indian Epigrams. Chiefly from the Sanskrit of
Bhartrihari' (1898) ; Kale and Gurjar, ^Xitisa-
taka and Vairagysataka, with Notes and an
English Translation* (1898).

Bhatti, bhat'te, Indian epic poet of the 6th
or the 7th century. His poem, named after him,
*Bhattikavyam.,^ is in 22 cantos. Its theme is
the deeds of Rama; but the author designed the
work to be also an exemplification of the rules
of grammatical and rhetorical composition. It
was published with a two-fold commentary at
Calcutta (1828).

Bhavabhuti, bha-va-bhoo'te, surnamed
SRi-K.\XTH.\, Indian dramatist, of the first half
of the 8th century. He wrote at least three plays,
the *^Mahaviracharita* (*4ife of the great
hero**), and the ^Uttararamacharita* ("later life
of Rama'*), forming together, in seven acts
each, a dramatized version of the story of the
Ramayana ; and the "^Malati-madhava.* a domes-
tic drama in ten acts, full of life and incident.
Bhavabhuti is often compared with Kalidasa,
whom he equaled in vigor and variety, but
hardly in genius. All three plays have been
translated into English. See Levi, ^Le theatre
indien* (1890).

Bhawalpur, bha-wal-poor', or Bahawalpur,
a state of the Punjab, British India, south of the
Indus and Sutlej rivers. It is chiefly a desert
of shifting sand. Only the river banks are cul-
tivable. The inhabitants are Jats, Baluchis, and
Afghans, the greater part Mohammedans. Area,
17,285 square miles. Pop. (1901) 720,000.
Bhawalpur, the capital, is on a branch of ths
Sutlej. It is enclosed by gardens and mud
walls, four miles in circumference ; noted for
the manufacture of a kind of turban and scarf
very popular among the Hindus ; also produces
considerable woolen, silk, and cotton cloth, in-
digo, alum, and saltpetre. Pop. 14,000.

Bhils, bels. or Bheels, a Dravidic race
inhabiting the Vindhya, Satpura, and Satmala
Hills, a relic of the Indian aborigines driven
from the plains by the Aryan Rajputs. They
appear to have been orderly and industrious
under the Delhi emperors ; but on the transfer

BHILSA — BIANCHINI

of the power in the i8th century from the
Moguls to the Marathas they asserted their
independence, and being treated as outlaws took
to the hills. Various attempts to subdue them
were made by the Gaekwar and by the British
in 1818 without success. A body of them was,
however, subsequently reclaimed, and a Bheel
corps formed, which stormed the retreats of
the rest of the race and reduced them to com-
parative order. The hill Bheels wear little
clothing, and live precariously on grain, wild
roots, and fruits, vermin, etc., but the lowland
Bheels are in many respects Hinduized. Their
total numbers are about 7so,ooo. See Rowney,
*Wild Tribes of India' (1882) ; Reclus, < Primi-
tive Folk' (1891).

Bhilsa> bel-sa, or Bilsa, a town of Hindu-
stan, on the Betwa, 280 miles southwest of Alla-
habad. It has a fort enclosed by a ditch and a
stone wall surmounted by square towers, and
is a place of Hindu pilgrimage. One of the
curiosities of the place is a brass gun measur-
ing ig^2 feet in length, with a bore of 10 inches ;
elegantly proportioned, highly ornamented, and
said to have been made by order of the Mogul
emperor, Jehangir. Fine tobacco is produced in
the A'icinity. In the neighborhood are some very
large and remarkable ancient Buddhist monu-
ments known as topes, one of the principal being
a dome-shaped structure 70 or 80 feet in height.
Pop. (1891) 9,700.

Bhima, be'ma, Beemah, or Bimah, (i) a

god in Hindu mythology, the son of Pritha (or
Kunti) by Vayu, the god of the wind, remarka-
ble for his great size and strength; (2) the.
name of a river of India rising in the Poona
district of Bombay and flowing southeast to the
Kistnah River, about 400 miles in length.

Bhiwana, bhe-wji'ne, a tow^n of India in
the Punjab, district of Hissar. It is the trading
centre of its district, exporting metals, sugar,
and spices. Pop. 35,000.

Bhopal, bhd-pal'. i. A native State of
central India, with an area of 6,874 square miles.
The country is full of jungles, and is traversed
by a hilly tract, forming part of the Vindhya
Mountains. The soil is fertile, yielding wheat,
maize, millet, pease, and other vegetable
productions peculiar to central India. Sugar,
tobacco, ginger, and cotton are the chief ex-
ports. The district is well watered by the Ner-
budda, Betwa, and other minor streams. The
state of Bhopal was founded by an Afghan
adventurer, named Dost Mohammed Khan, who
in 1723 succeeded in establishing himself here
by the countenance of Aurungzebe, on whose
death he assumed the title of nabob, which was
retained by his successors. Bhopal has all along
been friendly in its relations with the British.
In 1818 the state was placed under British
protection. Pop. (1901) i,i98,35;o; (2) a town,
capital of the above state, on the boundary be-
tween INIalwah and Gundwana, 108 miles east of
Oojein. It was defended successfully in 1813
against the forces of Scindia and ihe rajah of
Nagpore. It is surrounded by a wall two miles
in circuit, and contains a fort. Outside is an-
other fort on a large rock, the residence of the
ruler of Bhopal. Among other buildings of note
are two mosques, arsenal, mint, and the palace
of the Begum. Large artificial lakes supply
good water. Pop. (1891) 70,338.

Bhuj, or Bhooj, the chief town of
Cutch in India, Bombay presidency, at the base
of a fortified hill, with military cantonments,
high school and school of art, mausoleums, of
the Raos or chiefs of Cutch, pagodas, etc.,
including a temple dedicated to the cobra
di capello. Bhuj is famous for its manufactures
of gold and silver. Pop. (1891) 25,421.

Bhutan, bhoo-tan', an independent State in
the eastern Himalayas, with an area of about
16,800 square miles, lying between Tibet on the
north and Assam and the Jalpaiguri district on
the south, and consisting of rugged and lofty
mountains, abounding in sublime and picturesque
scenery. Pop. (estimated) 200,000. The Bhu-
tanese are a backward race, governed by a
Dharm Rajah, regarded as an incarnation of
Deity, and by a Deb Rajah, with a coun-
cil of eight. They are nominally Buddhists.
After various aggressive incursions and the
capture and ill treatment of Ashley Eden,
the British envoy, in 1863, they were compelled
to cede to the British coasiderable portions of
territory, in return for a yearly allowance of
£2,500.

Bia'fra, Bight of, a large bay on the west
coast of Africa, at the head of the Gulf of
Guinea, between Capes Formosa and Lopez. The
principal rivers flowing into it are the Niger,
the New and Old Calabar rivers, the Rio del
Rey, the Cameroon, and the Gaboon; its islands
are Fernando Po (Spanish), and St. Thomas'
and Prince's (Portuguese). Opposite Fernando
Po are the Cameroons.

Bialystok, byal-e-stok', or Bielostok, a
town of Russian Poland, province of Grodno, on
the Bialy, 45 miles south-southwest of Grodno,
with which and Warsaw it is connected by rail.
It is a well-built, handsome town, with a spa-
cious market, gymnasium, and several churches,
and has among its edifices a palace which be-
longed to the counts of Braniski, and was once
known as the Polish Versailles. Its manufac-
tures are woolen goods, leather, hats, soap, etc.
Pop. (1897) 63,927.

Biancavilla, byan-ka-vel'la (Italian hianca,
white, and z'illa, town), a city of Sicily situated
on the slope of Mount Etna, 20 miles northeast
of Catania, founded in 1480 as an Albanian
colony. Lava is employed for paving its streets,
and in its neighborhood are the noted grottoes
of Scila and Archi, the former basaltic, the
latter in the lava of 1607 with a tunnel half a
mile in extent. Wine and grain are produced in
the district and all the cotton in this portion of
Sicily is called Biancavilla. Pop. (1901) 13,358.

Bianchi, byan'ke, Francesco (called II
Frari), Italian painter: b. Modena, 1447; d.
1510. He was the instructor of Correggio,
according to Vidriani, and his woiks were
esteemed for graceful design and agreeable col-
oring. Among his few works extant are a
•^Madonna with Saints,' now in the Louvre. He
must not be confounded with Federigo Bianchi,
a Milanese artist, born about the end of the i6th
century. The paintings of the latter are numer-
ous in northern Italy, and are held in_ high
esteem. He wrote a volume of biographies of
painters.

Bianchini, be-an-ke'ne, Francesco, Italian
astronomer: b. Verona, 13 Dec. 1662; d. Rome,
2 March 1729. He was intended for the clerical

BIARD — BIBIRU

profession, but repaired to Rome, and applied
himself to jurisprudence, and continued the
study of experimental physics, astronomy, etc.,
as well as of Greek, Hebrew, and other lan-
guages. Pope Alexander VIII. bestowed on
Bianchini a rich benefice, with the appointment
of tutor and librarian to his nephew, the Cardi-
nal Pietro Ottoboni. Pope Clement XI. also
patronized him, and appointed him secretary to
the commission emplo3'ed in the correction of
the calendar. Being on a tour through France,
Holland, and England, he formed the idea of
drawing a meridian in Italy, from one sea to
the other, in imitation of that which Cassini
had drawn through France. He was occupied
eight years at his own expense in that work ;
but other employments withdrew his attention
from it, and it remained unfinished. He con-
cluded his career with two important works
(1727) on the planet Venus, and on the sepul-
chre of Augustus.

Biard, Auguste Frangois, byar, a-gust froii-
swa, French genre painter: b. Lyons, 27 June
1801 : d. near Fontainebleau, 8 July 1882. He
traveled extensively, vi.siting Spain, Greece,
Syria, Egypt, Mexico, Brazil, etc. Among his
best known pictures are the ^ Babes in the Wood*
(1828); the ^Beggar's Family* (1836); the
< Combat with Polar Bears* (1839) ; and ^The
Strolling Players,* now in the Luxembourg. A
strong element of caricature runs through most
of his works.

Biard, Peter, French missionary in Amer-
ica : b. Grenoble, 1565; d. 1622. He was one of
the first two missionary priests sent to New
France, and with his companion. Masse, on 10
June 161 1, he wrote the earliest letters sent by
the Jesuit order from Canada. He at once
began a stud\ of Indian languages, established
friendly relations with the Indians on the Ken-
nebec in 1612, and in 1613 founded a colony
on the island of Mount Desert. The colony was
soon destroyed by the forces of Argall, deputy
governor of Virginia, and Biard, being captured,
was sent to England. This enterprise of Argall's
marks the actual beginning of hostilities be-
tween the French and English in North Amer-
ica. Biard was liberated after a short time,
and returning to Lyons, published in 1616, ^Re-
lation de la Nouvelle France, et du Voyage des
peres Jesuites dans cette Countree.* This is the
earliest of the 40 volumes of "^Jesuit Relations*
(1632-72), which are such valuable storehouses
of material for early American history.

Biarritz, bya-rets, a fashionable watering
place of France, department of Basses-Pyrenees,
five miles south of Bayonne. It is a favorite of
bathers and other persons who come from all
parts of Europe, and especially of the Basque
mountaineers, who deem it an obligation to drink
of the mineral waters once a year, as well as to
bathe in the sea of Biarritz. In 1856, the place
acquired additional importance from being made
the summer residence of Napoleon III. and his
court. Since then its popularity both in w'inter
and summer, has steadily increased. It has no
industries and is composed almost entirely of
hotels and lodging houses. Pop. 12,000.

Biart, byar, Lucien, French novelist, poet
and writer of travels : b. Versailles, 21 June
1829. He published a number of novels, con-
taining masterly descriptions of Mexican and
South American nature and customs. Among

his works are ^The Mexican Women* (1S53),
poems; "^ Adventures of a Young Naturalist*
(1869) ; <The Clients of Dr. Bernagius* (.i873) 5
^\cross America* (1876).

Bias, be'as, one of the seven wise men of
Greece : b. Priene, one of the principal cities of
Ionia, about 570 B.C. He was a practical phi-
losopher, studied the laws of his country, and
employed his knowledge in the service of his
friends, defending them in the courts of justice,
or settling their disputes. He is said to have
died at an advanced age immediately after suc-
cessfully defending in court one of his friends.
The inhabitants of Priene having resolved to
abandon the city with their property Bias re-
plied to one of his fellow-citizens, who expressed
his astonishment that he made no preparations
for his departure — "I carry all that is mine
with me.**

Bibb, George M., American jurist: b. Vir-
ginia, 1772; d. Georgetown, D. C, 19 April
1859. He graduated at Princeton in 1772, and
took up the practice of law in Kentucky. He
was twice chief justice of the State court of
appeals, served two years in the State senate,
and was chancellor of the court of chancer}'.
He was a senator in Congress, 1814-19 and
1829-35, and secretary of the treasury under
President Tyler. During later life he practised
his profession in Washington, D. C. He com-
piled 'Reports of Cases at Common Law and in
Chancery in the Kentuckv Court of Appeals*
(1808-11).

Bibbiena, be-bya'na, Bernardo Dovizio
(styled Bibbiena), Italian poet: b. Bibbiena, 4
Aug. 1470; d. 9 Nov. 1520. For many years
secretary to Cardinal Giovanni de Medici, in
whose election as Pope Leo X. he is said to
have had a considerable share, he was appointed
treasurer, and soon after raised to the dignity
of cardinal (1513). In this dignity he becarne
an ardent promoter of art and science. His
comedy, <^Calandria,* is probably the earliest
in Italian literature.

Bibbiena, Giuseppe, Italian painter: b.
1696; d. 1757. The most distinguished of the
Bibbiena family, he was famed as architect, as
well as an artist. Not only did he design gor-
geous decorations for a court wedding at Munich
in 1722 and a dazzling court festival in Prague
in 1723, but he built the noted theatre at Bay-
reuth in 1757 and remodeled the opera house at
Dresden. The <Architettura e Prospettire* (1740)
contains several illustrations of his works.

Biberach, be'be-ran, a town of Wiirtem-
berg, on the river Riss, 22 miles south-south-
west from Ulm. It is irregularly built, and
with its old walls, still in part remaining,_ and
its old towers and gateways, has a mediaeval
aspect. Among its buildings is a fine church,
dating from iioo, and recently restored. The
town has important educational institutions, and
a richly endowed hospital. The French, under
Moreau, defeated the Austrians near Biberach
m 1796. There is a monument to_ the poet
Wieland. who was born in the vicinity, and
another to the Emperor William I. The town
it noted for its bell foundries and manufactures
of artificial flowers, leather, toys, and machin-
ery. Pop. (1900) 8,400.

Bibiru, be-be'roo, a tropical tree of the laurel
family.

BIBLE

Bible. I. The word Bible comes from a
Greek word meaning book. It has come to us
through the Latin Biblia. This is in the Greek
a neuter plural. But it came to be used as a
feminine singular, and so gives us our word
Bible. Bibliotheca, also a Greek word, meaning
library, was a designation during the Middle
Ages. Earlier Latin writers used the word "tes-
tamentum'' or *'instrumentum," both designed to
translate the Greek word for covenant. In the
New Testament the usual word to designate the
Old Testament is "Scripture" or "Scriptures."

II. Langntages. — The Old Testament was
written originally in Hebrew, with the exception
of brief portions in Aramaic, a closely kindred
dialect, namely, Jer. io:ii, Ezra 4:8-6:18,
7:12-26, Dan. 2:4-7:28. The New Testament
was written wholly in Greek.

III. Divisions. — The most striking partition
in the Bible is into two Testaments, the Old and
the New. This is due to the broad difference
between the era of Hebrew Messianic hope and
the actual appearance and work of Christ. All
preceding Christ belongs to the Old and unful-
filled. All following Christ belongs to the New
and complete. Within the Old Testament there
has been marked from the time of the prologue
to Sirach, 132 B.C., a three-fold division. These
are the Law, containing the five Mosaic books ;
the Prophets, including the so-called Former
Prophets : Joshua, Judges, I and II Samuel,
I and II Kings ; and the Later Prophets :
Isaiah, Jeremiah, Ezekiel, Hosea, Joel, Amos,
Obadiah, Jonah, Micah, Nahum, Habakkuk,
Zephaniah, Haggai, Zechariah, Malachi ; and
the Kethubira, a Hebrew word meaning "Writ-
ings" (called also Hagiographa, a Greek word
meaning "Holy Writings") : Psalms, Proverbs,
Job, Song of Songs, Ruth, Lamentations, Ec-
clesiastes, Esther, Daniel, Ezra, Nehemiah, I
and II, Chronicles. There are also smaller di-
visions made by the Hebrew Scribes, 200-400
A.D. These were called Parashas. The longest
of these number 54 in the Pentateuch, and are
designed for Sabbath reading. Corresponding
with these 54 Mosaic sections there were 54
lessons selected from the Prophets, also for
Sabbath reading, called Haphtaroth. These di-
visions varied in number in different sections
and times. The arrangement in books also
shows variation. Some schemes give 24 books,
so the Talmud ; others give 22 books. The Sep-
tuagint and Vulgate versions reckon 39 books.
This is now universal in Christian editions of
the Bible, derived through the great edition of
the Hebrew Bible by Jacob ben Hayim in 1525-6.
The Talmud refers to still smaller divisions as
Pesukim, nearly corresponding to our verses.
In the manuscripts of the New Testament di-
visions appear very early. Such are traced to
Tatian in the 2d century, to Ammonius in the
3d centurjs to Eusebius in the 4th century, to
Euthalius in the 5th century. Our present chap-
ter and verse divisions were completed by Robert
Stephens in 1551, imitating Rabbi Nathan, c.
1437. Steohens' work was adopted by the
Geneva Bible in 1560, and by the English version
of 161 1. The division into chapters originated
with Stephen Langton, who died 1228.

IV. Its Nature. — The Bible, as it stands, is in
the general judgment of Christendom a book
altogether unique. Therein Christians look to
find the very word of God. This divine message

they deem pure and full, and they gladly adoot it
as a binding rule of faith and life. A central
feature of the volume is its claim to divine
origin. Here God speaks to men. Here men
learn of God. This is the direct assertion or
the evident implication of its burden everywhere.
The covenant with Abraham was made by God.
God spoke to Moses. Hebrew history was
dominated by God. The messages of all the
prophets were obtained from God. The great
poetical works carry continually the postulate
and the evidence of open fellowship with God.
If this note seems lacking, as in Esther and
much of Ecclesiastes, this fact raises unfailingly
a question as to their being in their proper place.
In Christ, as portrayed in the Gospels, this note
finds most perfect utterance. Jesus of Nazareth
is the Incarnate Word. He hath seen and
known the Father ; and of all the Father's words
he is true and faithful Witness. And the Apos-
tles are Christ's specially prepared heralds of
this same heavenly word. They speak for Christ
and God. There is in all their ministry the
living presence of the exalted Christ. This is
"the thesis of the New Testament.® Thus
throughout, the Bible makes a claim to be the
very word of the true and living God. This is
its prime trait. This determines its nature.

Touching this quality a few things need to
be said. Only so can the Bible be defined.
First, as to the nature of the Deity thus made
known. He is a Person. He has every personal
trait. He is free and wise and kind. He is
faithful and gracious and pure. He is full of
goodness and truth. He is Spirit. He is of all
being the only life and essence and strength.
There is in him no transition or decay or change.
He is pure and very life. He is transcendent. By
him all things are made and ruled and judged.'
He is a friend. With him all persons may find
fellowship. He is holy. His very being is the
very energy of infinite and unfailing truth and
love. Such is God. His person is the central
glory of the Bible. Herein the Bible is unique.
Its deity stands in simple, infinite, spiritual
majesty unveiled in every part of the record.
This truth finds culminating utterances in
Christ's words to the woman in John 4:24:
"God is a spirit, and they that worship him
must worship him in spirit and truth.** This
fundamental verity stands clear amid all the
obscurity of Gen. chapters i.-xi., and all the be-
wildering mysteries of the closing Apocalypse.
This teaching concerning God, more than any-
thing else, gives the Bible its peerless tone and
worth. And this teaching is not abstract. It
stands in life. Most powerfully is it proclaimed
in the great Theophanies. These present at
once the glory and the power of the Biblical
claim. And these Theophanies are not incidents.
They have commanding prominence and embody
mighty meaning. They are in every case out-
standing landmarks and points of departure.
They are typical scenes. They figure in the
Biblical landscapes like beacons whose rays fall
everywhere.

But these disclosures are all gathered up in
Christ. His figure stands in the very centre
of this book. On him all symbols and expecta-
tions and prophecies converge. In him all
excellencies and dignities and graces combine.
From him all instructions and commissions, all
judgments and mercies proceed. In him the old

BIBLE

and the new are made to agree. He is the very
Lord of very life and truth and love. In his
person and word and work all the energies and
all the intimations of every Biblical scene find an
•equilibrium that is absolute. In him all Biblical
life finds at once free play and full repose. In
him the Bible lies concealed. In him the Bible
stands revealed. He is the Son and Word of
God.

It follows and stands evident that the Bible
is a book of life. It is a record of the interplaj''
of wills. It is always dealing with persons.
Its central values are moral. Its revelations look
toward reform. It is a searcher of hearts. Its
appeals are to men ; and they are potent. If
repulsed, then its rebukes throb with resistless
force. It is always scanning character, feeling
after conscience, working toward the will. It
has an unexampled amount of comment upon
righteousness and sin, merit and blame, law and
obligation, responsibility and reprisal in the
moral field. It is from cover to cover a book
of ethics, practical ethics, but an ethics that
finds all its roots and regulations in its pure
and lofty views of God. God, the pure, the
holy, the supreme, is the ethical norm. With
him man has vital fellowship — man the godlike
and finite, the perishable and immortal, the lord
and the slave, the individual and the brother.
As is instantly apparent, such being God and
such being man, their moral interrelations are
bound to be most complex. But just here again,
— and this is why these facts are named, — the
Bible is in its nature unique. Its values are
real, true to life. Its ethics are genuinely ethical,
never formal, never partial. Its views of char-
acter are balanced and vital and full. It fully
recognizes the moral value of humility and as-
piration, of truth and love, of isolation and
friendship, of physical and spiritual in man.
Here again Christ alone is norm — norm of
ethics, norm of the religious life, norm of the
earthly experience, norm of the immortal life.
This balanced completeness of life is a most
manifest and distinguishing mark of the Biblical
view. Its moral estimates are at once a full-
voiced echo and a final interpretation of the life
of the world.

These vital moral estimates, while fully uni-
fied, fall apart into two most striking subdi-
visions. This is due to human sin. Because
of this undoing two widely different notes re-
sound throughout the Sacred Word, namely,
judgment and grace. In one or other of these
two forms the Bible may be defined as the ad-
justment to sin. Universal man has gone
morally astray. Upon this perversion moral
iudgment surely impends. This doom may be
Inflicted, or delayed, or reversed. This is the
inner sum of Biblical truth. This is the Bible
within the Bible. Here lies the inner secret of
the Bible's matchless power. Under its high
beliefs concerning God and its broad and search-
ing thoughts on man, it fashions and proclaims,
as no other volume ever did, its estimates of
th_ree_ stupendous themes : the deep and dark
iniquity of sin ; the awful inevitableness of its
proper doom ; and the divine provision and
proffer of saving, sacrificial grace.

But once again, it needs to be said, the Bible
is a book of life. Its messages are all set in
the midst of events. It uncovers and traces the
flow of a stream of history. This historical
factor needs minute attention in defining the

nature of the Bible. Here is a book always
handling values of the highest, even absolute
worth. But it is always setting them forth in
simplest concrete forms. Its ideals, always phe-
nomenally lofty and pure, are unfailingly in
immediate touch with the real. Its events issue
in the alternatives of eternity; but they always
run along common historical paths. This strik-
ing feature, undeniably one secret of the Bible's
strength, is as undeniably prolific of most vexing
problems. As a storehouse of eternal principles
for the moral and religious life, the Bible rises
and stands beyond the reach of criticism, denial,
or assault. But as a series and collection of his-
torical events, it lies open on every side to every
sort of historical challenge and test. Hence
the Bible presents abidingly two widely diverse
aspects — the ethical or theological, the philo-
sophical or metaphysical, in a word the abstract;
and the historical or literary, the natural or
phenomenal, in a word the concrete. The
former always challenges character. Its vesture
and voice are imperial. It demands acceptance.
To renounce its claim is to sin wilfully. The
latter is always suggesting inquiry. It' invites
scholarly scrutiny. Multitudes of its problems
hang in continual uncertainty. Hence the va-
rious phases of modern Biblical criticism.

Such is the Bible in its nature. It voices
God's message to men. It reveals God's true
being. It concentrates in Christ. It is a book of
life, vivid, complete. Its attention is incessantly
fixed on sin. It is enshrined in history. Its
central religious and ethical teachings are funda-
mental postulates. They lie beyond the reach of
fair debate. It is so embedded in incomplete
and changing scenes as to provoke and sustain
age-long debates. Some of the chief of these
debates will be traced in succeeding sections of
this article.

V. Genesis of the Old Testament. — A few
general statements may be profitably made first.
These will clear the way for a sketch of more
special matters. The present Old Testament
canon is substantially that adopted by the Jews
of Palestine, and in vogue among them at the
time of Christ. It had practically held sway
there for at least over a century and a half.
Prophetical writings and teachings had been sa-
credly revered for over seven centuries before
Christ. Anterior to this. Mosaic laws were rec-
ognized as a religious and ethical norm. These
scriptures were held by Christ in supreme esteem.
In this view and under his interpretation they
held the sum and essence of his teaching. They
had divine value for such as sought the way of
eternal life. In them was the word of God.
This high estimate was adopted by Apostles
and Church fathers.

All these statements may confidently be
made. But they leave unanswered two important
questions, each calling for extended treatment :
when did the various constituents of the Old
Testament gain entrance there? And what
problems encumbered this process? These ques-
tions are exceedingly broad. They open up the
whole debate of modern Bible study. In hand-
ling these_ matters the methods are mainly those
of historical and literary criticism. In the
historical study factors and arguments shift
and change with the years. The method is
mainly by comparative study of archaeology,
chronologv', history, and literature. Illustrations
are the tablets of Tel-el-Amarna, the Moabite

BIBLE

stone, the creation tablets, the lists of Babylonian
and Assyrian kings, and the records of their
various campaigns. But these studies deal
mostly with the contents of the Old Testament
books, and not with the books themselves and the
main divisions of the Old Testament viewed as
literature and growing into a canonical unity.

Of the literary arguments bearing upon this
question the most telling is that of parallel ac-
counts or doublets. These repetitions show
variations. These variations suggest different
points of view, different authors, and a combin-
ing editor. A careful study of these literary
phenomena leads into a broad field of Biblical
literary criticism. The aim of this study is to
trace out the various authors and times and
histories of these different documents. At pres-
ent the tendency in this study is strongly analy-
tic. The accent in the investigations is laid
upon the differences. These differences once
well defined and fixed, the effort is to trace the
origin and date of each distinct document and
to explain when, and how, and why they were
combined into the present form. The keynote
of all this process is differences. Upon this,
main arguments rest. These arguments stand
strongest, when the differences amount to dis-
cords or contradictions. Many of these varia-
tions are openly apparent. Many others, . so
it is claimed, are glossed over by ancient edi-
torial efforts after harmony. These modula-
tions should be removed, and the original con-
trast stand clear. Hence much textual emen-
dation. It tends to sharpen contrasts. By
this process each separate document is brought
to a strict unison with itself, and a sharp dis-
sonance with its companion in the doublet!
Each fragment has a marked individuality,
stripped as much as possible of inner manifold-
ness. One document, one idea ; or if several
ideas, then as few and similar as may be. These
separate and diverse documents thus reduced
and defined are then arranged, as to origin and
editorship, in an evolutionary scheme of history.
The simple and crude are dated early. The
complex and refined are dated late. Thus the
origin and evolution of the Old Testament is
explained by the method of literary criticism at
present characteristically in vogue. Elements
aiding this process are direct historical testi-
mony to a document's existence, the argument
from silence, literary style, fixed literary forms,
ethical, and religious views. A fundamental
postulate is an evolutionary view of history. A
dominant impulse is to trace phenomena to a
natural source.

The outcome of this method is to affirm late
origins for most Hebrew literature. A sample
arrangement may be found in Driver, ^Intro-
duction to Literature of Old Testament.^ In
general, the existence of any volttme of recog-
nized sacred Mosaic law prior to 622 B.C. is
denied ; or of anything but Deuteronomy prior
to 444 B.C. ; or of any recognized prophetical
canon prior to 444 b.c. ; or of any canonical
volume including the books usually clustered
with Psalms and Proverbs, prior to 165 B.C.
In particular, the Psalms are largely denied to
David, and dated instead after the exile. Daniel
is dated at 164 B.C. Still it is largely concluded
that teachings of Moses and of Prophets, as also
certain Psalms, were held in honor earlier.

To this method and its conclusions are op-
posed considerations like the following: Its

scheme of doublets is overworked; its conjec-
tures are too numerous ; its textual emendations
too frequent and ungrounded ; its standards are
too uncertain ; its docuinents are so stripped and
reduced as to become void of life. By no such
rigid rules does man express himself. Silence
is no proof. The ancient editors are too myth-
ical and their backs too heavily loaded, and
that with most unlikely wares. Too much is
made of documents. Not enough is made of
men. History is fuller and more manifold
everywhere than this method allows. Divine
interventions, incitements, instructions, overrul-
ings, and Theophanies are treated with too
scanty respect. Evolutionary views do away
too easily with the manhood of early men.
Biblical historj^ and conditions are not so primi-
tive by long millenniums as this method seems
to presume. In particular the lofty value of the
Psalms demands more attention. By the nega-
tive critical method they stand unexplained.
Vastly more lay back of the 8th century than
this method presents. Too much is loaded upon
Ezra and in the period of the Maccabees. Far
too many direct Biblical affirmations have to be
reversed.

Thus scholars conflict touching the genesis
of the Old Testament. In this far-reaching de-
bate the followmg evidence and events are of
most importance to hold in view. The allusions
within the Old Testament to the existence of
sacred books, such as Ex. 24 14, 7 ; 34 .27 ; 40 :20 ;
Deut. 31:26; Josh. 24:26; I Sam. 10:25; Isa.
8:16; Jer. 30:1; 36:1, 28; II Kings 22:8; Dan.
9:2; Neh. 8-9; the Praise of the Famous Men
in Sirach (chapters 44-50) ; the prologue to
Siracli ; the opinions of Philo ; the estimate and
usage of the New Testament: Josephus, contra
Apion I, 8; II Esdras 14:44-46: the work of
the Council of Jamnia ; and the evidence of the
Mishna : also all light obtainable in the great
field of comparative studies, specially from
Babylonian archaeology. In broad outline, the
main problems are to find out what sacred
literature existed prior to 165 B.C.; then prior to
444 B.C. ; then prior to 623 c.c. ; then prior to
750 B.C., the period of the great written prophe-
cies ; then in the Davidic era ; then at the
time of Moses : then to find the origin of the
various fragments in the unique section Gen.
i-ii. Touching most of these problems, definite
information is at present nowhere in reach. The
precise connection of the Biblical creation and
flood accounts with Babylonian material, the
contents of the sacred books in the ]\Iosaic era,
the range of sacred literature in Isaiah's time,
the list of Davidic Psalms, the literature held
sacred in the exile, the scope of the books
handled by Ezra, the outside outline of Sirach's
sources, or of his grandson's allusions, a sharp
definition of the rise and influence of apocryphal
writings, a satisfying explanation of the varying
or the final order of Old Testament books, the
meaning of the Septuagint divergences, and the
actual evaluation of apocryphal literature by
our New Testament writers — these all are ques-
tions fairly open to debate. Knowledge is in-
complete.

VI. Canon of Old Testament. — Study of the
genesis of the Old Testament leads naturally
into an examination of its development into a
fixed and closed canon. While it seems proper
and safe to say that our present Protestant Old
Testament canon is identical with that accepted

BIBLE

by the Jews of Palestine in and before the time
of Christ, there are numerous evidences that
even among Palestinian Jews several canonical
questions were under debate for a century or
two after Christ.

To begin with the latest Jewish testimony
and work backward toward origins, first men-
tion has to be made of j full statement from
the Babylonian Talmud. This passage is traced
to Rabbi Judah the Hoty, head of the school
of Tiberias in the 2d century. He is said to have
collected the Mishna. In this statement all the
parts of the Old Testament, as we have it, are
named with a definite statement as to authors.
''Moses wrote his book and the section concern-
ing Balaam and Job. Joshua wrote his book
and those eight verses in the Law. Samuel
wrote his book and the book of Judges and
Ruth. David wrote the book of Psalms 'at the
hand of ^ 10 old men, to-wit : Melchizedek, Abra-
ham, Moses, Henian, Jeduthun, Asaph, and the
three sons of Korah. Jeremiah wrote his book
and the book of Kings and Lamentations. Heze-
kiah and his friends wrote Isaiah, Proverbs,
Song of Songs, Ecclesiastes. The men of the
great synagogue wrote Ezekiel, the Twelve,
Daniel, and the little book of Esther. Ezra
wrote his book and the genealogies which we
read in the book of Chronicles." This statement
seems, considering its probable source, to indi-
cate a fixed canon. But discussions of certain
Old Testament books occurred considerably
later. These concerned Proverbs, Song of
Songs, Ecclesiastes. Proverbs was charged with
internal contradictions. All three were deemed
uncanonical by some, because they contained
parables. Repeatedly, debates rose as to whether
Ecclesiastes and Esther were fully canonical,
that is, whether they "defiled the hands.*' The
regulations about the feast of Purim in Esther
seemed to contradict the Pentateuch. While
for Ezekiel, its strange legislation in the closing
section made real trouble. At a much later time
Jonah made occasion for special remark, because
of its neglect of Israel and attention to Gen-
tiles. For full information upon this stage of
Jewish thought, see Wildeboer, 'The Origin of
the Canon of the Old Testament,' pp. 56-75.
As to the meaning of these facts men judge
differently. Some say these books were all
held canonical; it was simply a discussion of
vexing problems which they contained. Others
say these debates imply that these books were
not as yet within the canon.

Another date and event to be marked is a
council at Jamnia, in western Palestine, about
90 A.D. Then problems were raised about cer-
tain books, in general the Kethubim, but in
particular, Ecclesiastes and Song of Songs. They
were all declared holy, that is, canonical.

About this time is to be dated II Esdras
14:44-46. Here is an apocalyptic story of Ezra's
miraculous dictation of 94 sacred books, 24 of
which were to be promulgated as the public
Jewish canon. This story must have found its
motive partly in the fact that at about 90 a.d,
the Jewish canon held 24 books.

Josephus also belongs to about this date.
He has left in contra Apioncm, i :8, a pains-
taking list and estimate of the Jewish canon
of his time. He makes the number of the
books 22. He reckons five to Moses, 13 to
the prophets, and four containing hymns to God
and maxims for human life. He does not name

the several books. It is therefore uncertain
whether his list agrees with ours. Some think
he left out Ecclesiastes and Song of Songs.
Some think he joined Lamentations to Jeremiah,
and Ruth to Judges. In any case his statement
is most notable. He boasts of their limited
number, of their antiquity and their cordial
acceptance. He closes the canon with the
period of Artaxerxes. Later books are not
deemed worthy of like faith. No one has
dared to increase or diminish their volume.
They are cordially deemed God's oracle, and
held as rules for life and death. All these
arguments are made with deliberation for pur-
poses of defense. They form a weighty evi-
dence.

Philo, who lived somewhat earlier, an Alex-
andrian Jew, seems to have held just the list
accepted by us as strictly canonical and of
authority. His reverence for the Mosaic writ-
ings is most evident. He quotes nothing from
the Apocrypha. This is noteworthy. He also
leaves wholly unmentioned 17 of our canonical
books.

In the prologue to Sirach is a reference three
times over to "the Law.* "the Prophets'' (Pro-
phecies), and the "Others" (other books, re-
maining writings) with suggestions, also re-
peated, of their unique value for culture and
wisdom, and of their fulness and significance.
This was written about 130 B.C. It seems to
betoken a complete threefold canonical collec-
tion. It occurs in a brief statement explaining
the work of his grandfather which he is about
to publish and commend to the men of his
time.

This work of Sirach, the grandfather of the
foregoing, was written about 180 E.c It is
permeated with the very substance of our Old
Testament. Its clearest light on the problem
of the Old Testament canon is in chapters 44-50.
Here he sings the praise of famous men. He
selects 24 names, besides the Judges and the
12 Minor Prophets, from Enoch to Nehemiah,
and sings their praise. To this he appends a
song to Simon of his own time. And at the
end he names himself. In these eulogies Sirach
holds scripture in high esteem. He seems to
especially honor the Law. But it becomes spe-
cially difficult to say anything about his views
of Old Testament canon. He seems to attribute
to Simon and even to himself a respect all but
equal to that accorded to the prophets. Plainly
all the law and all the prophets and all the
historical books were before him. Some of the
Hagiographa fail of mention. There was mani-
festly, at 180 B.C., an Old Testament canon of
recognized sacred standing, all but commensu-
rate with ours of to-day.

The situation in the time of Ezra is far from
clear. The passages to examine are Nehemiah
8-9; Ezra 7:6, 10, 12, 25, 9:10. From these
passages it stands apparent that Ezra was a
ready scholar in the law of God : that he had
prosecuted his study during the exile ; that some
literature held sacred by him had been long in
hand ; that much of our Mosaic law was recog-
nized as Mosaic by him and by the assembly
described in Nehemiah 8-9: that religion, moral"?
and life were constructed upon this Mosaic
foundation. But just the extent of the Mosiac
writings, just their antiquity, and just what other
literature may have supplemented them is far
from explicitly said.

BIBLE

Daniel 9:2 alludes to books that must have
been prophecies, alluding in particular to Jere-
miah. In his prayer he alludes to laws, ordi-
nances, a covenant, the deliverance from Egypt,
the warnings of the prophets, mentioning
Moses. But no canonical list can be constructed
here. .

To this may be added citations from earlier
portions of Scripture, indicating the existence of
sacred records. None of these citations are cer-
tainly definitive of canonical limits at any period
But it may not improperly be said that the
multitudinous allusions throughout Old Testa-
ment scripture to early divine revelations and
leadership all, if only taken at their face value,
go to show that records of these early events
were always at hand and held validly sacred
depositories of the Word of God. But histori-
cally, the inner content and the outside outline
of this Old Testament canon comes into sight
and shape for the first time in the words of
Sirach about 180 B.C. Then it stood practically
as it stands with us to-day. Later queryings
were limited and substantially insignificant. And
such debates as did arise were due to the ex-
treme reverence of the Jews for the Mosaic Law,
to their peculiar interpretation of that law, and
to their jealousy to have all their sacred writings
stand in fullest harmony therewith. For state-
ments of their extravagant respect for the law
see Weber, *Die Lehren des Talmuds,^ pp. 1-60,
■and Wildeboer, pp. 94 — .

From among Church fathers three witnesses
call for special mention here. Melito, Bishop of
Sardis, about 170, went into Palestine expressly
to get the Jewish view of the number and order
of the books of the Old Testament. _ His finding
is given in Eus. Hist. Eccl. iv. 26. His
order is peculiar. He omits Esther entirely.
Nehemiah and Lamentations are not named, but
probably they are included, the one with Ezra,
the other with Jeremiah. Origen's canon is also
found in Eus. Hist. Eccl. vi. 26. This
list omits the Twelve Prophets, probably
some mistake. It includes Esther. It adds the
letter of Baruch. Origen died 254 a.d. Jerome
died 420 A.D. In his preface to his translation
to Kings he gives the Hebrew canonical list, 22
books. This is a very precise and carefully de-
tailed statement. It is found in full in Wildeboer,
pp. 80-84. He gives Jewish views, names the
Apocrypha separately, and lists the canon as
we have it to-day. He speaks elsewhere of
Jewish queryings about Ecclesiastes. The Nes-
torian Christians reject Esther, Chronicles, Ezra,
and Nehemiah, but accept Sirach. But in the
main always, and from Jerome onward the
Christian Church accepted the Jewish canon as
finally fixed by them 200 a.d., and as we have it
to-day. Still, through the influence ot the
Septuagint, the Vulgate, and Augustine, the
Roman Catholic Church has retained also the
Apocrypha.

VII. Text of Old Testament. — Our earliest
information names tables of stone. Upon these
were written the commandments. Deuteronomy
was a roll, when found in the temple. Jere-
miah's writings were a roll. The script was
originally the old square characters seen on the
Moabite stone, and in the Samaritan copy of the
law. Later, no one knows when, the Aramaic
characters were used. This is the script used
to-day in all Hebrew Bibles. In the Maccabean

period, the Syrian oppressors destroyed most
oi the Jewish sacred literature. Judas Macca-
beus collected them all again. Possibly it wa^i
he who introduced the new writing. See II
Maccabees 2:14. When the Jews fixed and
adopted an official Old Testament text is un-
known. Most date the act at the beginning of
our 2d century, at the councils of Jamnia, 90
and 118 A.D. Tradition says they used three
manuscripts found at Jerusalem. These early
texts were wanting in vowels and separation of
words. The scribes, 200-500 B.C., made numerous
changes in the way of corrections, definition,
pronunciation, and other improvements, includ-
ing divisions and arrangements for liturgical
use. These scribes were followed by students
who were called Massoretes who sim.ply guarded
and perpetuated the work of the scribes. From
this has come our present, so-called Massoretic
text. These Massoretes added vowel points,
completing their work in the 7th century in
Babylon, and in the 8th century in Palestine.
This work is perpetuated in the text of Ben
Asher of the loth century. Upon this all later
western manuscripts have been based. In these
latest years some efforts have been made to re-
construct the ancient texts, notably by Baer and
Delitzsch. For samples of just what may be
done, consult Kautzsch, ^Die Heilige Schrift
des Alten Testaments,^ in the textual emenda-
tions collected in the appendix.

VIII. Manuscripts of the Old Testament. —
Jews have been extremely jealous of the purity
of their manuscripts. Rules calling for minutest
accuracy are laid down in the Talmud. See
Kenyon, ^Our Bible and the Ancient Manu-
scripts,-* p. 34. This carefulness secures truthful
copies. Hence recent manuscripts are prized
quite as highly as those most ancient. Indeed
the old manuscripts are religiously destroyed, so
that they may escape desecration. Hence we
have no Hebrew manuscripts earlier than about
the loth century, and even these are few and
incomplete.

IX. Versions of tJie Old Testament. — The
Samaritan Pentateuch, though not a version,
should be mentioned. If its original form could
be produced, it would give us a Hebrew text,
perhaps dating from the days of Neh. 13 123-30.
But we have no manuscripts older than the
loth century.

The Septuagint version was made from He-
brew into Greek, somewhere between 300 and
130 B.C. This version was extended to embrace
the Apocrypha. Other Greek translations were
made: one by Aquila about 150 a.d.; one by
Theodotian a little later; and one by Symma-
chus about 200 a.d. Origen tried to restore the
Hebrew text about 240 a.d. Only fragments of
this work survive. The same efi^ort is made
about 300 A.D. by three other men, Eusebius,
Lucian, and Hesychius. The best evidence for
restoring to us the original Septuagint is con-
tained in the three famous manuscripts : the
Sinaitic, the Alexandrian, and the Vatican, dat-
ing from the 4th and 5th centuries a.d. The
best printed edition of the Septuagint now ex-
tant is that by Swete. A much larger edition
is now in progress at Cambridge.

Other versions of the Old Testament dating
from the early centuries are the Syriac, 2d or
3d century a.d. ; the Coptic, 3d century a.d. ;
and the Latin, chief being Jerome's Vulgate.
about 400 A.D.

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X. Genesis of the New Testament. — In the
•earliest days of the New Testament Church
their sacred book of authority was the Old
Testament. The apostles of Christ were con-
tinually referring to these Hebrew writings
and expounding them. But in this process they
were also always preaching that Jesus was the
Christ. The Old Testament Messiah and the
Nazarene were one. This was their dominant
theme. As an outcome their message was full
of statements about Jesus. Indeed, this was the
centre and the sum of their preaching. Thus
their proclamation put into being a body of
teaching about the person and words and deeds
of Jesus Christ. In this Christie life the Old
Testament found its fulfillment. Hence there
came to stand alongside the Old Testament
material another body of truth, having equal
sacred value, namely, the report and record of
the life of Jesus Christ. Moreover, at the same
time, and in the same process there came into
form and shape the substance and sacred au-
thority of an Apostolic message. And so, grad-
ually, and in a vital way, as an outcome of the
growing life of the New Church, a set of
writings called Apostolic came to be acknow-
ledged as a New Testament Canon and to be
set alongside the Old Testament as having equal
authority and worth. This process took time,
and had its stages. Its separate steps we are
not able to trace. It stood complete in the
canons of the 3d Council of Carthage 379 a.d.
From that date onward the New Testament
stands in its full integrity as a canonical body of
sacred literature. So all Christendom has
agreed.

To trace this historical uprising of our New
Testament is well nigh the most urgent task of
modern Christian scholarship. Something needs
to be said about this. Christ left no writings.
This seems undoubtedly sure. It seems almost
equally sure that the first New Testament writ-
ings were the natural outgrowth of the Apos-
tolic work. In this process Paul holds the pre-
-eminent place. His writings, while mostly
horn of special needs, held an enduring value.
They engrossed his authoritative message. As
such the}^ were cherished, and formed a nucleus
of sacred New Testament literature. In some
A'ital connection with this growing life and
work under Apostolic lead, there grew up our
gospels. Just how, and just when this most
important work was done no one surely knows.
Efforts at the reconstruction of this process
are making everywhere and all the time. But
the procedure is almost entirely theoretic.

Certain facts stand clear. The gospel of
John stands in a place by itself. Its outline of
Christ's life, its choice and treatment of ma-
terial, and its central themes are all widely and
strangely unlike the main features of the other
:gospels. Luke also has a striking individuality,
containing a surprising quantity of material
found nowhere else, though for all that agree-
ing strikingly and in essential respects with
]\Iatthew and Mark. Matthew and Mark are
plainly very closely akin. They are commonly
felt to have arisen in some way expressive of
■close felowship of aim, form, sources, and time.
Touching the origin of all four explicit inner
witness is lacking. The simple fact of their
actual rise into a position of supreme authority
and respect, whatever ma\' have been the method
■or means, gives everj^ presupposition in favor

of the genuineness of all four as authorized re-
ports of Jesus' life. Thus much needs saying
by itself.

Certain traditions about their origin have
figured very influentially. Eusebius, about 300,
reports from Papias, about 140, that a *^pres-
byter* used to say that '* Peter used to give his
instructions acording to what was required,
but not as giving an orderly exposition of the
Lord's words. '^ These "Mark, having become
an interpreter of Peter, wrote down accurately,
etc." Immediately in the same context Euse-
bius quotes Papias as saying of Matthew that
*'he wrote the oracles in the Hebrew dialect, and
each one interpreted them as he was able.*' Of
Luke we can gather no helpful traditions ; we
have to gather all we know from references in
his gospel, in Acts and in Paul's writings.
While the mention of the gospel of John opens
a world of sharpest scholarly divergence and
debate.

Now to outline briefly leading theories:
The gospels are conjectured to have originated
something thus : First, in the first three gospels
there are striking signs of broad similarity ;
their general synopsis of the main outline of
Christ's public life is the same; they use many
phrases in common ; they expand and condense
at the same points ; such facts intimate that
very definite and potent influences operated in
common upon all three. This solicits explana-
tion. But they also strikingly differ ; these
differences are commanding and broad. Luke
has much unique material; ^Matthew distributes
his material into coherent masses ; Mark seems
simpler, truer, strikingly independent. These
variations also call for explanation. These re-
semblances and divergences are being traced
with minutest carefulness. The aim is to
find the facts as to their origin. Which gos-
pel was first ; which was next ; what were their
sources respectively and in common ; how are
:\Iatthew and Mark, Matthew and Luke, Mark
and Luke, related ; did any one depend on any
other, or upon the other two ; did some fourth
account, now lost, lie back of these ; what was
the Hebrew gospel, etc. ? These are the leading
questions which students are trying to answer.
A view widely held at present supposes that
Mark preserves to us a document which came
to his hand from some source unknown to
us ; that Matthew preserves to us another docu-
ment called the Logia ; that these two were
combined by Matthew in forming his gospel ;
that Luke also used the Logia. combining it
with his own new material. This is the now
widelj' known "two-document*' theory. The
main efforts here are to define the original full
pure form of each of these two documents.
Here positions vary manifoldly. Anoller view
urges vigorously that no written documents lay
behind any of our gospels. What preceded our
written gospels was an era of very careful
catechetical instruction. Out of this memorized
and crystallized material grew our gospels.
This method seems to find a measure of illustra-
tion in the oral discourses of the book of
Acts. For a historical review of this study
see Sanday, < Expositor^ 1891, ^A Survey of the
Synoptic Question.'

The study of the origin of the gospel of
John is getting to be a science by itself. It
has hardly a single thing in common with the
debate over the first three gospels. Look at

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the fourth gospel carefully. Its progress of
events, its relation to Judsea and Jerusalem, its
report of the great debates, its miracles, its dis-
courses, its style, its ideas, its very words are
all peculiarly its own. Two questions have
come to the front. Are its narratives authentic
history? Was it written by the son of Zebe-
dee? But other problems are also urgent:
When and where and how was it v/ritten ?
What is the sum and drift of its internal evi-
dence? What has been its external his-
tory? Has its order of chapters or para-
graphs been disturbed? How is it related to
the epistles of John, and to the Apocalypse?
To list and classify the views that have been
held, saying nothing of the literature, would
be impossible here. See special article on Gos-
pel of John. Suffice it to say that among
scholars, as they strive to give some rational ac-
count of these matters, there has been a strong
tendency to discount the historical value of
this gospel, and to deny its full authorship to
the apostle John. But the great heart of
Christendom has always felt that it found and
felt in the Gospel of John the very presence
of its very Lord, as discerned and described by
his most profound and intimate disciple. The
prime question has always been in plain view.
Did the only begotten Son of God become
incarnate for our salvation? This is tJie Johan-
nme question. Upon this prime problem hangs
every other. Once state in full and in brief
the entire sum and nature, the whole scope and
purport of its words, as they stand ; note its
unity, its homogeneity and its profundity ; sur-
vey the sweep of its thought ; look into its
religious purity, its ethical absoluteness, its
transparent clarity; sense its overwhelming mo-
mentum ; observe its entire fluidity, the energy
of the whole pouring full from every part;
being watchful all the while to see that these
impressive qualities, all and single, lie throb-
bing and shining in this gospel wholly and
only because of the clear and full presence of
the Christ, whom some author, with an all-
absorbing devotion, has endeavored to unveil —
and one must conclude and exclaim that here
is no human invention, no poetic embodiment
of any earth-born type of thought ; but rather
the declaration and disclosure, by an anointed
and enraptured eyewitness, of his own full and
immediate vision of the heavenly glory of
Jesus Christ, the only begotten and incarnate
Son of God. At any rate it can be boldly said
that a discussion of the origin of the Gospel of
John, to say nothing of the other three gospels,
deals with the inmost essence of the subject of
this essay.

Some special mention of the book of Acts
is also needful in any statement of the genesis
of New Testament writings. Here is an au-
thority of the first rank and importance. It is
our sole reliable record of the earlier days of
the Christian Church. It defines and presents
the actual process of the transition from the
life and time of Christ to the Apostolic Age.
Its references to geography, and archjeology and
politics and civil administration and customs,
all presented with singular minuteness, at the
same time expose it to the sharpest tests of
historical criticism and establish its singularly
full trustworthiness. Written without much
doubt by Luke, a personal friend and com-
panion of Paul, and a man of painstaking

accuracy, it offers from chapter 20:5 on, and
also in chapter 16, the testimony of an eye-
witness; from chapter 12 on, a record of first-
hand knowledge; and in its first 12 chapters a
compilation from sources which he was in a
peculiarly good position to obtain and inspect
with the aid of first rate authorities. But prob-
lems beset the book. The leading of these con-
cern the day of Pentecost ; the relation of the
speaking with tongues in Acts 2 to that in I
Corinthians 14: the relation of chapter 15
to Galatians i and 2; the sources of the
book ; the authorship ; the text ; and the
speeches. In particular, certain scholars impugn
chapters 1-7, and all records of miraculous
events. But in the main these are matters that
lie beyond the range of precise historical out-
side proof. Hence theories may continue to
abound. But sober views must contend that
here is a faithful reflection of the primitive
Christian days, from the hand of an alert and
competent historian who wrought under the
immediate influence and presence of apostolic
men, in the very midst and upon the very ground
of the scenes which he reports.

One other section demands mention in this
study of the genesis of the New Testament —
the Apocalypse. The surface aspect of this
book is bewildering. Its historical allusions are
the puzzle of the ages. Interpretations are a
crazy medley. But statements of another na-
ture may also be made. This book belongs to
a class. It is one of many. In fact it marks a
world current. Taken altogether, the outpour
of Apocalyptic literature is a phenomenon of
noteworthy persistence. It springs up re-
peatedly in Old Testament life. A striking
instance is Daniel. It wells up frequently in
the speech of Christ. Many would deny all such
ideas to him. But this is rash and violent in
the extreme. His conscious connection with
Daniel cannot be impugned. His own apoca-
lyptical utterances must be allowed. Then the
teachings and experiences of Paul cannot be
erased. Thus much touching form. But once
one penetrates beneath the form, and confronts
the inner message of every Biblical apocalypse,
— he is a rash assailant who would assume to
undo its word. This is pre-eminently true of
the Apocalypse of John. It is a book of im-
pregnable strength. Its central theme is the
world struggle between the true God and his
blasphemous counterfeit for the worshipping
allegiance of mankind. This is the one inmost
and uppermost errand and office of the book.
Specially in chapters 12-22 the evolution and
description of this conflict stand forth in stu-
pendous strength. The true God, the living
God, the creator God, the spirit God, sole Law-
giver, Judge and Saviour of angels and men,
holy, infinite and pure; the suffering and glori-
fied Christ, mighty, gracious, and true; with
their innumerable, worshipping, devoted human
and angelic hosts, on the one side — the Dragon
and Beast and pampered Queen, full of blas-
phemy, treachery, cruelty, and lust; with their
hosts of devotees to every sordid lust, on the
other side, representing all the personnel, good
and bad of a teeming universe, surge and strive
unto issues of eternal life and eternal death
amid the scenes of this mysterious book.
It is a volume of life in which the awful strug-
gles within the realms of religion and ethics
attain their ultimate culmination. It fixes for-

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ever the issue toward which all the teachings
of the Bible tend. Here, as nowhere else, the
solemn undertone of the entire volume sounds
forth in full expression. Here the full majesty
of God, the full enormity of sin, the full
anguish of guilt, the full felicity of grace stand
clear. Here the inner structure and substance
of true morals and religion are shown and seen
to be imperishable. However mysterious and
confusing the outer guise of this incomparable
book, whatever historical allusions its various
enigmas may really intend, whoever its author,
whencesoever its sources, and whatever the
motive stirring its writer's mind, its inner teach-
ing, simple and sublime, concordant, inclusive,
and pure, forms the crown and marks the con-
summation of all for which the Bible most
-distinctly stands. Its nature befits its place.
It well corresponds to the mysteries and enduring
strength that mark the openmg chapters of the
book standing at the beginning of the Biblical
list. It is a book of issues. A study of its
genesis leads back into a deep and far-seeing
study of the real inner meaning of all the
volume which it concludes. Thus much needs
saying about its inner value.

Critical study of the origin of this book has
in recent years taken a new turn. This study
deals distinctly with its apocalyptical features,
and its historical intimations. It has pursued
two marked courses, one that of literary, the
other that of historical criticism. The latter is
at present paramount, and bids fair to hold the
first place. It consists in an effort to trace,
through a study of the world's apocalyptical
literature, the actual historical genius of the
forms found in this work ascribed to John.
This work is as yet but fairly begun. Till it is
done efforts at final estimates are vain. The
nature and field and status of this study may
be seen in Bousset, *The Antichrist Legend.^

XI. Canon of the Nczv Testament. — This
study seeks to trace the actual historical ac-
ceptance of the New 7'estament writings by
the Church as a recognized body of sacred
literature, worthy to stand alongside the Old
Testament. One has to begin with 140 a.d.
Witness as to this date is very meagre and in-
definite. The datr are from the epistle of Clem-
ent to the Corinthians, the II Epistle of Igna-
tius the Epistle of Polycarp, the Didache, the
Epistle of Barnabas, the Shepherd of Hermas,
the writings of Justin Martyr. Some of these
testimonies date later than 140 a.d. by a few
years. But they stand so near that date as to
form fair testimony as to that era. The evi-
dence is mostly by way of allusions to sayings
found in our New Testament writings ; and not
in the form of direct citation or mention. But
these allusions and references are sufficiently
numerous and suggestive to support quite firmly
the supposition, which otherwise seems most
natural, that our New Testament writings were
at that date widely known and honored. In a
few cases the exact words of our gospels were
used by these early writers, as a quotation from
the Lord's Prayer, and from his words in
Gethsemane. In some cases New Testament
writings are mentioned, as Paul's epistles, I Cor-
inthians and Philippians. One writer refers
to the words of Christ in Matthew 22:14 as
Scripture. In particular the work of Papias is
important. His words shed light on the period
prior to 140 A.n. He explicitly attests <*writ-

ings'' as of Apostolic value, one from Peter
through Mark, and one from Matthew. He
also seems to have known of other writings
from the hands of Peter and John. See Eus.
'Hist. Eccl.^ iii. 39. The words of Justin
are of the greatest value, though still indeter-
minate. He alludes repeatedly to 'Memoirs of
the Apostles.^ He uses the word "Gospels.^*
He traces these writings to the "Apostles and
those who followed them." He seems certainly
to have had in hand our first three gospels.
Some important elements of his work seem
almost as surely traceable to the Gospel of John.
He alludes to Paul's epistles as standard. He
also names John's Apocalypse. Marcion also
apparently knew and used Luke, and accepted
ID epistles of Paul, namely, Galatians, I and II
Corinthians, Romans, I and II Thessalonians,
Colossians, Philemon, Philippians, Laodiceans.
Statements like the above are as definite as can
be made about our New Testament prior to 150
A.D. The fullest testimony within the Church
is from Justin Martyr. He bears witness that a
New Testament canon was in vogue in his day,
having fully equal validity with the Old Testa-
ment. How far back can this condition be sup-
posed to date ; and how many books were in-
cluded. Zahn says that our four gospels and the
13 Pauline epistles were widely circulated as
collections at the latest about 125 a.d. Harnack
declares this unsupported by historical evidence.

200 A.D. In stating in general the situation
of the New Testament canon at this date the
chief witnesses are Tatian, Irenseus, Clement of
Alexandria, Tertullian, Hippolytus, the Mura-
tori canon. These sources make many features
stand clear. Tatian prepared from our four
gospels his Diatessaron. Irenjeus attests all
our New Testament books except Philemon, II
Peter, Jude, specially emphasizing the value
of the four gospels. He calls these New Testa-
ment writings the "pillar and ground of the
faith." He combines them with the Old Testa-
ment as upborne by the same spirit. Clement
of Alexandria distinctly attests the same writ-
ings as sacred writings, including II Peter,
Jude, and Hebrews. Tertullian made abundant
use of our New Testament writings as holy
writings, excepting that he is silent about II
Peter and II and III John, and sets Hebrews,
I Peter, and Jude into a second rank. The
Muratori Fragment makes a sharp definition of
canonical books. It includes the four Gospels,
Acts, 13 epistles of Paul, I and II John, Jude ;
and omits Hebrews, I and II Peter, III John.
At this period, as in the earlier era, certain
writings, not now held canonical, notably Bar-
nabas, Shepherd of Hermas, and Apocalypse
of Peter, seem to have stood near to sacred
Scripture in Christian respect. For this era
the Syriac version yields peculiar material. It
accepts Hebrews, but omits II Peter, II and
III John, Jude, and Revelation. In brief, at
200 A.D. our four Gospels, Acts, 13 epistles of
Paul were established universally in supreme
respect as sacred Scripture with the old Testa-
ment.

200 to 323 A.n. In this era two names call
for mention. Origen, who died 254 a.d., has
left quite outspoken statements. The most val-
uable are in Eus. H. E. VI. 25. He gives the
four gospels sharp definition as imique and
canonical. He exalts the works of Paul with-
out numbering his books. He declares I Peter

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^acknowledged," and II Peter as in circula-
tion. He includes Revelation and I John, men-
tioning II and III John as not held "genuine
by all." He discusses at length on Hebrews, hon-
oring its contents, but wondering about its au-
thorship. In other passages he includes Acts
as by Luke, and credits 13 epistles to Paul, and
uses James and Jude. One striking feature is
Origen's distinctions. He speaks of some books
as "not spoken against," of others as not held
^'genuine" by all, of another as "acknowledged,"
a term which he also applies to all the "Apos-
tolic writings."

Eusebius in H. E. HI. 25 gives a classified
list, aiming to summarize the views of the whole
Christian period to his day. He gives the four
gospels. Acts, 14 epistles of Paul, I John, I
Peter, and Revelation. These he called "ac-
knowledged." He then names James, Jude, II
Peter, II and III John as "disputed." He
names next "Acts of Paul," Shepherd, Revela-
tion of Peter, Barnabas, Teachings of the Apos-
tles as "spurious." Here is notable testimony.
It is representative. It is discriminating. It
contributes toward conclusions. It shows a uni-
versal, undoubted canonical standard. It shows
cautious study and practice. It shows that pre-
cisely our present canon was held at that time,
and we cannot be sure how early or how far
his testimony reaches. And it shows that writ-
ings now finally rejected were then rejected.
This is one of the chief landmarks in the his-
tory of the Nev/ Testament canon.

323 to 397. A.D. Constantine gave standing
to the Christian Church. He revered and dis-
seminated sacred Scripture. Conflicts with
heretics made outlines precise. The canon,
accordingly, became clear and took final form.
Doubts vanish. The word "canon" comes into
vogue. The Synod of Laodicea, about 360 a.d.,
has been said to have left a list, in its 60th
canon. At any rate it belongs in this period.
It gives the present Protestant canon for Old
Testament and New Testament, only omitting
Revelation. This omission was characteristic
of the Eastern Church at this time. In the
West, Hilary and Rufinus held to this canon.
Augustine and Jerome also fixed upon our pres-
ent list, though recognizing that some books
were challenged. The formal concluding steps
were taken authoritatively for the Western
Church at the third Council of Carthage, 379 a.d.
In 495 A.D. Bishop Gelasius I. of Rome put
forth a synodical verdict as a decree adopting
the list and fi.xing the order of the New Tes-
tament canon as we have it to-day. In 691 a.d.
this was adopted for East and West by a uni-
versal council.

XII. Text of the Nczu Testament. — Up to
the time of Constantine the fortune of New
Testament Scriptures was precarious. We
know too little about it all. But Christians
were largely poor, often persecuted, sadly scat-
tered and altogether unable to solidify and
maintain in permanent form all the elements and
instruments of their life. We have no original
New Testament manuscripts. We have no
copies from the first three centuries. When
Constantine accepted Christianity, among other
things, he ordered Eusebius to prepare 50 copies
of the Scriptures for the churches of Constan-
tinople alone. From that century manuscripts
begin to appear, two being preserved to our day.
Two more date from the 5th century. From

the 6th century 27 documents have come to our
time. From the 7th century 8 small frag-
ments. These authorities and many more of
later days restore to us our New Testament
text. Aid is also rendered by versions. Chief
of these are the Syriac and the Latin. Further
aid comes from the Church fathers. The text
which lay underneath our authorized English
A-ersion was based on very inadequate know-
ledge and study of textual authorities. In later
j'ears this study has become a noble science.
In most recent years its prosecution has taken
a turn of phenomenal meaning. Scholars are
trying to group textual authorities. In this
impressive undertaking Westcott and Hort are
leaders. They seek to classify sources into
families, and so to be able to estimate manu-
script values. In this process one group is^
called "Syrian," including a great number of
authorities, but all alike being of low value.
Another group is the "Western.* Of this the
leading manuscript is D, Codex Bezge, so-
called. This group is remarkable for freedom,
specially for adding otherwise unknown mate-
rial. Another group is the "Alexandrian."
This group is of minor weight. The fourth
group is called "Neutral." This is believed to
represent most nearly the original New Testa-
ment. Its leading authority is B, the Codex
Vaticanus, so-called. This is the oldest and
weightiest manuscript we have.

This raises the whole question of the relative
worth of m.anuscripts. It may be surely ex-
pected that this problem is by no means solved.
It is little more than opened.

Independent workers are challenging the po-
sitions of Westcott and Hort. But after all is
said and done, our New Testament text is
mainly assured. "The great bulk of the words
of the New Testament stand out above all dis-
criminative processes of criticism, because they
are free from variation, and need only to be
transcribed. . . . The words in our opinion
still subject to doubt can hardly amount to
more than a thousandth part of the whole New
Testament. See Westcott and Hort, "^Principles
of Textual Criticism.^

Manuscripts of the New Testament. — Four
manuscripts deserve emphatic mention, as they
are prime sources for both Old Testament and
New Testament. Code.x Ale.xandrinus, named
A, dates probably from the 5th century. It
contained originally the whole Bible in Greek,
also the two epistles of Clement. At present
it is mutilated. Parts of Genesis, I Kings, and
Psalms, most of Matthew, parts of John and
II Corinthians are lost. It is now in the Brit-
ish Museum. It came from Constantinople to
England in 1627. As an authority it rates lower
than the two next named.

Codex Vaticanus. B. — This dates from the
4th century and contained originally the whole
Greek Bible. This is deemed by many the old-
est and most precious manuscript known. It
is in the Vatican library at Rome, since 1450
A.D. In its present state it lacks portions of
Genesis, II Kings, Psalms, Hebrews, the Cath-
olic epistles, and all of Revelation. Its text
had predominant influence with Westcott and
Hort and with the revisers of our English
Bible.

Codex Ephrjemi. C. — This dates from the
5th century. Originally it contained the whole
Greek Bible. It is now in the National Library

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in Paris. Early in the l6th century it was
brought to Italy from the East. It was taken
to Paris by Catherine de Medici. At present
it is a palimpsest and only a fragment, having
onljr a small part of the Old Testament and
barely more than half of the New Testament.
It is of great value.

Codex Sinaiticus. Aleph. — This dates from
the 4th century. It now exists in two parts :
one, of 43 leaves, in the Court Library in Leip-
sic ; the rest in the Imperial Librarj' in St.
Petersburg. It originally contained the whole
Greek Bible. But now the Old Testament is in
fragments. The New Testament is complete.
This is the manuscript that was found by Tisch-
endorf under such thrilling experiences in the
monastery of St. Catherine at Mount Sinai. It
is of priceless value as a witness to the New
Testament text.

Codex Bezse. D. — This manuscript orgini-
nated perhaps in the south of France in the 6th
century. It is now in the University Library
at Cambridge, being the direct gift of Beza in
1581. It contains the Bible in two languages,
Greek and Latin. The relation of these two
texts to each other is a very curious and un-
solved problem. As a witness it has to be used
with great caution. Its New Testament text
contains only the Gospels and Acts and a few
verses from the Catholic epistles. Its most
striking and puzzling feature is its strange
omissions, and still stranger quite extensive ad-
ditions.

The above named are the leading manu-
scripts. These are all written in large letters
called uncials. Of these there are over 100.
Many more, considerably over 2,000, are written
in smaller letters and in a more running style,
and so are called cursives. For further state-
ments consult the Variorum Bible.

XIII. Versions of the New Testament. — Of
these the Syriac would naturally date earl}^
Until toward the middle of the last century all
supposed the so-called Peshitto, or common
version, to be the one and only Syriac
translation of Scripture. In 1842 manuscripts
came to view suggesting another and perhaps
earlier version. Since that time there has been
much debate over the problem of two versions
in Syriac. Of late new light has come, and
again from Mount Sinai. Here in 1892 two
ladies found a palimpsest of a Syriac version
which may possibly be older than either. This
debate is destined to continue for some time.
Of these versions the Peshitto is the great
standard version of the Syriac Church. It has
been current and in general use from the 4th
century. We know of 177 manuscripts, gathered
from the Nitrian Desert in Egypt, and now in
the British Museum. This version does not
include II Peter, II and III John, Jude, and
Revelation. Other Syriac versions have been
made.

Egyptian Versions. — These must have be-
gun to originate by 300 a.d. At present five are
known. The ]\Iemphitic represents lower Egypt,
where the dominant dialect was at home. Here
alone are complete copies of the New Testa-
ment found. Over a hundred manuscripts have
been examined, all of late date, the oldest from
1 173. Its text is surprisingly good. The The-
baic version was current in upper Egypt. It
probably originated somewhat later than the
Memphitic. It exists onlj' in fragments, though

manjf of them are very old manuscripts, some
dating possibly into the 4th century.

Armenian Version. — This originated in the
5th century. It was made from mixed texts,
Greek and Syriac. Its earliest manuscript dates
from the 8th century.

Gothic Version. — This was made by Ulfilas
in the 4th century directly from the Greek.
Now it is in fragments.

Old Latin Version. — This was made, per-
haps, in Africa about 150 a.d. Scholars trace
rival translations and classify them as African,
European, and Italian. These were supplanted
by the Vulgate. Textual study of this early
version is of peculiar interest, disclosing, as it
does, a very free treatment as characteristic
of that time, and containing what is called the
"Western" text.

Vulgate. — This is a work undertaken by
Jerome at the order of Pope Damasus in 382.
At first he merely revised the Old Latin, work-
ing on the Gospels. Then he developed the rest
of the New Testament. His Old Testament
work was much later and more thorough-going.
Manuscripts of the Vulgate exist everywhere
in Europe. The best is the Codex Amiatinus.
The text of this version has been in very bad
condition, and it is very difficult to restore.
The work is in progress. This is the standard
Bible of Latin and Roman Catholic Christendom
everywhere.

XIV. History of the Bible as a Whole.— Je-
rome's influence through his Vulgate version
and through separation of the Apocrypha from
the canon was far-reaching. In the i6th cen-
tury the Roman Catholic and Protestant
Churches took different courses. The Roman
Catholic Church in its Council of Trent in
1545, adopted the Old Testament Apocrypha as
an integral part of the Old Testament canon.
The Lutheran party, after some indecision, set-
tled down by usage upon the pure and full Bib-
lical canon as held by us to-day, though during
the process there was free discussion of the
value of the parts that we have found under
dispute. The same holds true of the Swiss or
Reformed party. Through them, and by way of
the Westminster Confession of Faith, we have
received our present body of sacred Scripture.

Previous to this the Bible had made its way
to England. About 670 a.d. C^edmon made a
paraphrase in verse of the Bible narrative in
Anglo-Saxon. Before 800 Aldhelm had trans-
lated the Psalms into English. In 735 Bede
finished, with his life, a version of John. King
Alfred also did some work of this kind. But of
these nothing surel}^ remains. Numerous other
translations of parts of the Bible were made
later. Of some of them manuscripts remain.

Wycliffe's first translation dates from 1380-2.
This was a composite work. Soon after his
death this was revised ; and this revised Wy-
cliffite Bible became the current version. About
170 copies are known. This is the first known
complete English Bible. Though of untold
value, it was not a scholarly work, being based
upon a poor Latin translation.

In the 15th century printing appeared, No-
vember 1454. In the same century, and at about
the same time the Turks took Constantinople
and scattered scholars out of the East, with
their learning and treasures, over Europe. Out
of this revival of learning and printing came
might}^ sequels for the Bible. Translations and

BIBLE

copies now could multipl}'. In England several
versions need mention.

In 1525 Tyndale completed in Hamburg his
translation of the New Testament. Despite
strenuous efforts to destroy it, copies multiplied.
But most of them have perished. This version,
variously revised, is the influence lying most po-
tently underneath the present King James Bible,
and through it our English tongue has gained
and retained not a little of its peculiar charm.

Other translations are Coverdale's, under-
taken at the request of Cromwell, dedicated to
Henry VIII., covering the whole Bible, and
published in 1536; Matthew's, really a comple-
tion of Tyndale's, made under favor of the
king, finished in 1537; the Great Bible, a grand,
authorized edition of Matthew's, under Crom-
well's patronage, by the hand of Coverdale, pub-
lished in 1539 and set up in every church; the
Genevan Bible, prepared in Geneva by English
refugees under the influence of Calvin and Beza
and published in 1560; the Bishop's Bible, pre-
pared under the patronage of Elizabeth and the
editorship of the Archbishop of Canterbury for
the English Church, and printed in 1568; and
the Roman Catholic or Douay Bible made from
the Latin Vulgate for the Roman Catholic
Church, and published 1582 and 1609. Of these
the Genevan Bible had the widest influences ;
it was the first entire English Bible to adopt
the division of chapters into verses.

Authorized Version. — This work was pro-
duced under the patronage of King James I.
at the suggestion of the Church leaders. About
50 scholars were engaged in the work, arranged
in six groups. They used Beza's Greek Testa-
ment of 1589 for the New Testament. The
Bishop's Bible formed the English basis, though
the Genevan and Douay versions had much
influence. Through the Bishop's Bible Tyndale
still made his power felt. This version was
published in 161 1 to become the standard form
of sacred Scripture for over 200 years for the
entire English race. Its influence upon litera-
ture and life can never be told.

Revised Version. — Increase of knowledge of
Biblical lore since 161 1 made a revision impera-
tive. This work was proposed officially by the
Established Church of England in its Convo-
cation of 1870. Rules were laid down govern-
ing the translation, enjoining use of best text,
faithfulness to the original meaning, and as few
alterations as possible. Two companies were
formed, of 27 members each, selected from
various denominations. These were supple-
mented by a bod}' of American scholars, whose
results, when not adopted by the English body,
were incorporated in an appendix. The work
began in 1870. The New Testament appeared
in 1881, the Old Testament in 1884. The
changes from the version of 161 1, while very
numerous (Dr. Kenyon records that the Greek
New Testament of 1881 differs from that of
161 1 in S.788 readings, of which about one
■quarter are a notable change) are prevailingly
in matters of minor moment.

American Version. — In 1901 the surviving
members of the American committee, appointed
by the English committee in 1870, published an
edition of the English Bible in which the
opinions of the American members of the re-
vision hold first place. In this edition there
are several notable improvements in the way
of faithfulness and modernness and facility in

use. Chief among these is the new list of
marginal readings.

German Versions. — Luther's is the standard,
though many translations appeared before his.
He translated directly from the Greek and He-
brew, putting out 10 editions during his life.
In 1863 the Evangelical Church Diet set afoot
a revision of Luther's Bible. Specially to be
mentioned for scholarly value are Weizsacker's
German translation of the New Testament ; and
the translation of the Old Testament conducted
by Kautzsch and completed in 1894.

French Versions. — The chief early version is
that by Olivetan in 1535. In 1588 a rcdsion
was made at the suggestion of Calvin and under
the lead of Beza. This has been the standard
French Bible. A new translation by Segond
1874-9 is now most widely used.

The standard Dutch Bible, called the States
Bible, is a translation authorized in 1624 by the
States-General of Holland, and completed in
1637.

To-day there exist at least 108 translations
of the entire Scriptures. If partial transla-
tions are added, the total will nearl}' reach 500.
In this v/ork the past century has been a phe-
nomenal era. It has seen the Bible put into the
possession of 1,200,000,000 of people. This is
pre-eminently the work of Protestant Christian-
ity. During this past century 80 Bible Socie-
ties have come into being, with a multitude of
auxiliaries. Of these the leading one, the Brit-
ish and Foreign Bible Society, issues annually
nearly 4,000,000 copies.

XV. Iiifluciice of the Bible. — The persistence
of the Bible and its unexampled dissemination
command some remark. Its age-long and
world-wide promulgation must contribute to
extend and fortify its power. But its own
original, creative force alone can explain its
amazing diffusion and vitality. It proves itself
pre-eminently the Book of Life. The sacred
Scriptures of no other religion or faith can ever
begin to parallel it for the number and value of
its manuscripts, the number of its versions, the
number of its publishing houses, and the num-
ber of its copies actually sold. As literature it
is wholly unique. The stamp of its style has
fixed the taste of the leading nations of our
time. And its manifoldness is quite as wonder-
ful as its excellence. It embodies history and
oratory, dialogue and drama, philosophy and
poetry, giving every essential form of human
literary utterance. It has laws, tragedies, an-
nals, parables, prayers, satires. It contains the
epic, the lyric, the ode, the chorus, the oracle,
the riddle, the chant, the liturgy, the refrain, the
acrostic, the apostrophe, the proverb, the epis-
tle, the philippic.

But it is not the form, pleasing and refining
as it is, that holds the secret of the Bible's
power. It is always the message that transmits
force. The Bible figures always as the Word
of God. It engrosses and addresses character.
Its moral energies are the sources of its
strength. It reveals and declares God. It an-
nounces law. It portrays the judge. It stirs
up conscience to a final verdict upon human life.
It summons the human will. Its heroes are
prophets. Its great victors are princes in the
moral realm. Its central figure is Jesus Christ.
Its typical explorers are apostles. Its closing
book is an apocalypse. Its outlook is eternity.
These things create and sustain its matchless

BIBLE

style; and these explain and feed its undying
life. It has to do with the being and majesty
<of a holy God, and with the inmost character
and uttermost destiny of immortal man. Hence
all its excellence and strength.

Bibliography. — H. W. Hoare, ^The Evolu-
tion of the English Bible' ; J. T. Sutherland,
*The Bible' (with list of books and critical
■estimates) ; J. Robertson and others, ^Book
by Book' ; Farrar, * History of Interpreta-
tion' ; Farrar, ^The Messages of the Books' ;
Moulton, ^The Literary Study of the Bible' ;
F. G. Kenyon, *Our Bible and the Ancient
Manuscripts' ; F. G. Kenyon, ^Handbook to the
Textual Criticisms of the New Testament' ;
M. R. Vincent, *^ History of Textual Criticism' ;
E. Kautzsch, 'History of the Literature of the
Old Testament' ; S. R. Driver, 'Introduction to
the Literature of the Old Testament' ; H. S.
Nash, 'History of the Higher Criticism of the
New Testament' ; Fr. Buhl. 'Canon and Text
.of the Old Testament' ; G. Wildeboer, 'The
■Origin of the Canon of the Old Testament' ;
Westcott, 'General Survey of the History of
the Canon of the New Testament' ; J. A. Mc-
Clymont, 'The New Testament and Its Writ-
ers' ; J. Smith, 'The Integrity of Scripture' ;
Hug, 'Einleitung in die Schriften des Neuen
Testaments' (4th ed. 1847) ; Tregelles, 'An Ac-
count of the Printed Text of the Greek New
Testament' (1854) ; O'Callaghan, 'A List of
Editions of the Holy Scriptures and Parts
Thereof Printed in America previous to i860'
(1861); Ferrar, 'A Collection of Four Im-
portant Manuscripts of the Gospels' (ed. Abbott
1877) ; 'Vom Lesen der Heiligen Schrift, nach
Johann von Neercassel' (1846) ; Carpzov, 'Crit-
ica Sacra' (1728); Kortholt, 'Die Variis Sanctse
Scripturge Editionibus' (1668) ; Hagemann,
'Nachrichten von den Fiirnemsten Uebersetzun-
gen' (1750) ; Ebert, 'AUgemeines Bibliograph-
isches Lexikon' (1820-30) ; Kaulen, 'Geschichte
der Vulgata' (1869); id., 'Handbuch zur Vul-
gata' (1870); id., 'Einleitung in die Heilige
Schrift Alten und Neuen Testaments' (4th ed.
1898-9) ; Wetzer und Welte's 'Kirchenlexikon'
(1882-1903). See Bible, Harmony of, with
Scien'Ce; Bible, Polychrome; Bible Sta-
tistics; Biblical Criticism; Canon; Codex;
Codex Argenteus ; Codex Sinaiticus ; Codex
Vaticanus; Exegesis; Gospels; Higher Crit-
icism, The; New^ Testament Chronology;
New Testament Theology ; Old Testament,
The; Septuagint; also the articles on the vari-
ous books of the Bible.

C. S. Beardslee,

Professor Hartford Theological Seminary.

Bible, Harmony of the, with Science. The

history of science in its connections with
the Bible is full of these conflicts between the
scientific and theological classes. Both parties
have participated in them, as assailants and de-
fenders. Sometimes scientists, after misleading
the divine into some supposed scientific inter-
pretation of Scripture, have charged back upon
■hirn their own exploded errors, and sometimes
divines, after attacking some true theory of the
scientists as hostile to Scripture, have gladly ac-
cepted it as among their best defenses of the
faith.

Astronomy and the Bible. — The first of the
seeming conflicts was between astronomy and
■the Bible. The Psalmist David, who was not a
Vol. 2 — 39.

scientist, had poetically depicted the starry heav-
ens as a spangled canopy wondrously wrought
by the divine hand. But the astronomers in
later times devised what is known as the theory
of Ptolemy, according to which the heavens
were composed of vast crystal spheres, one
within another, having the sun, moon, and stars
attached to them as they revolved around the
earth, which was conceived of as a flat, circular
plane, immovably fixed at the centre of the
system. The divines of the day, docilely accept-
ing this crude mechanism of the scientists, pro-
ceeded to celebrate the divine power, wisdom,
and goodness which it displayed in producing
the wonderful vicissitudes of day and night and
summer and winter. Their logic was correct
enough in form, but needed to be reinforced
with better science. The better science at length
came, not indeed from a professed scientist, but
from a faithful priest of the Church, Nicholas
Copernicus, who modestly broached as a work-
ing hypothesis, what is now known as the Coper-
nican theory of the solar system. Galileo, how-
ever, who could equal Huxley in sarcasm and
invective, published in his scientific journal
called 'The Siderial Messenger,' such proofs of
the Copernican theory as provoked a bitter con-
troversy with the Church authorities and led to
his pretended recantation. It is difficult for us
now, with our advanced knowledge, to under-
stand what a radical change was coming into
men's opinions. Not only was the solid earth
sent spinning through space like a cannon ball,
but the entire orthodox conception of heaven
and hell was literally revolutionized. The In-
ferno of Dante, with its descending ranks of lost
spirits and demons, could not be contained within
such a revolving globe, and his Paradiso, with
the saints and angels worshipping the Blessed
Virgin and Holy Trinity, vanished from such
a receding firmament like sunset clouds. And
when Bruno came with his daring specula-
tions concerning other inhabited worlds our
little planet seemed too utterly insignificant
to be made the scene of a divine incarnation,
redemption, and judgment. Every essential
article of the faith appeared to be imperiled.
It is no wonder that free thinking men of
science fared badly in such a conflict with
the Roman Inquisition. Galileo was im-
prisoned as a heretic, and Bruno was burned
at the stake as an atheist and blasphemer.
But what has been the issue of the conflict?
Scarcely a trace of it remains. Gradually the
new astronomy has been accepted, not only
as true in itself, but as far more accordant
with Scripture than the old astronomy of the
Hebrew or Greek. Instead of a star span-
gled tent or an illuminated dome of glass, it
has opened an unbounded universe for the
illustration of the divine perfections and re-
vealed doctrines. Does astronomy tell us of
an immensity of space, with regions beyond
regions which we cannot even conceive?
The Bible also teaches us that Jehovah in-
habiteth eternity, and the heaven of heavens
cannot contain Him. Does astronomy tell
us of countless orbs, moving with tremendous
forces, in fixed orbits, under immutable laws?
The Bible also teaches us that He hath or-
dained the heavens and established in them
His powder and faithfulness. Does astronomy
tell us of w^onderful adaptations of planet to
sun, wnth changing zones, and climates, and

BIBLE

seasons? The Bible also teaches us that
wisdom was with Him when he prepared
the heavens, the sun and moon and stars for
signs and for seasons, and that He hath gar-
nished them by His spirit. Does astronomy hint
to us of a variety of habitable worlds, with a
corresponding variety of intelligent races? The
Bible also teaches us of the heavens as the
abode of angels and archangels and of a
heavenly Father and His house of many
mansions. Does astronomy tell us that our
earth is akin to other orbs in mechanical and
chemical constitution, and suggest that we
may be some day knit together with them
by ethereal vibrations in psychical sympathy ?
The Bible also teaches us that the angels
desire to look into the mysteries of human
redemption, that its manifold wisdom is now
made known to principalities and powers in
all heavenly places, and that there is rejoicing
among them when one sinner on earth
repenteth. Let it be observed, I am not now
saying that the Bible teaches astronomy,
but simply that its teaching is in harmony
with astronomy.

Geology and the Bible. — The next seem-
ing conflict was between geology and the
Bible. It is certain that Moses did not speak
as a man of science in his dramatic vision
of the creation, when he described the
heavens and the earth, land, sea and sky,
plants, animals and man, as produced by
divine commands in six working days, ending
in a seventh day of rest. The early geologists,
however, accepted this sublime vision as a
scientific cosmogony, and like-minded divines
followed them. magnifying such creative
miracles as the formation of the terraqueous
globe in 24 hours, the arrangement of
its seasons and climates between a single
sunrise and sunset, and the marshaling of
its vegetable and animal kingdoms by divine
fiats from Monday morning until Saturday
night in the autumn of the year 4004 B.C.
Here again the argument, absurd as it now
seems, lacked scientific content rather than
logical form. It is within living memory
what a shock ensued when that scientific
content was furnished, and it was discovered
that the earth is of indefinite antiquity, that
its continents have emerged from its oceans
through long ages of subsidence, and that
successive dynasties of plants and animals
have flourished and decayed, leaving only a
few fossil remains in its crust. The very
doctrines of the creation and the Sabbath
itself seemed directly assailed, and the defense
of them was fierce and desperate. The
geologists were not persecuted like Galileo
and Bruno; but the most extraordinary make-
shifts were devised to evade their conclusions.
It was intrepidly declared that the Almighty
created the earth in a stratified form with
all its fossils, to serve as a trial of our faith.
It was ingeniously surmised that the whole
prehistoric geology was a chapter omitted in
Genesis as not relevant to the purpose of the
narrative. It was even fancied that the six
days' works were a special miraculous crea-
tion in Eastern Asia to fit up a Paradise for
the temptation and fall of man. When at
length the vast geological periods could no
longer be denied, they were forced into cor-
respondence with the Mosaic days, con-

ceived as days of Jehovah, with whom a
thousand years are as one day; and elaborate
schemes of reconciliation were proposed by
such distinguished geologists as Hugh Miller,
Dawson, Dana, and Guyot, with which some
less distinguished geologists have since made
themselves merry. Nevertheless, we are
already emerging from these heated discus-
sions with reassured faith. As astronomy
has opened unbounded regions of space for
the illustration of the divine immensity,
omnipotence, immutability and omniscience,
so geology has recalled unlimited periods of
time for unfolding the divine power, wisdom,
and goodness with cumulative richness and
fulness. And as astronomy has shed new
light upon the revealed doctrine of the
heavens and the angels, so geology is con-
firming the revealed doctrine of an orderly
creation and a sabbatical calendar. Though
the dramatic days of Genesis be measured in
hours or in ages, though the time element be
excluded from them altogether, though they
be treated as ideal rather than actual, they
will still appear as coincident acts of crea-
tion and phases of evolution, founded perhaps
in the periodicities of nature and expressed in
the Fourth Commandment. On comparing
them we have, first, a formless waste or the
nebulous chaos; second, the earth as divided
from the firmament or the planet as parted
from the solar nebula; third, the seas and
the dry land bringing forth grass and herb,
or the terraqueous globe with its photo-
sphere and commencing verdure; fourth, the
appearing sun, moon, and stars for signs and
seasons, or the mature planet, in the solar
system, with its zones and climates; fifth,
the swarming of the great fishes and winged
fowl, or the production of sea monsters and
mammoth reptiles; sixth, the earth bringing
forth beasts each after its kind, and the
making of man in the image of God, or the
evolution of the higher animal and human
species; seventh, the divine day of rest, or
the tranquil historic period. The correspond-
ence, it \vill be seen, is at least logical, even
if not chronological. On the one hand, geol-
ogy clearljr indicates that there have been
successive periods of energetic evolution end-
ing in a period of repose and order; and on
the other hand, the Bible declares that in
six days God created the heavens and the
earth, and rested from his works on the
seventh day. Geology also tells us of a
primitive watery globe, whose glaciers and
inundations have ceased since the appearance
of man; and the Bible also, after the deluge,
speaks of a covenant between Jehovah and
the earth for man's sake, that summer and
winter, and seedtime and harvest shall not
cease. Geology still hints of interior fires
which might at any time burst forth in
general conflagration; and the Bible still
warns latter day scoffers of a day when the
earth and all the works that are therein
shall be burned up. You may saj' that this
teaching of the Bible is religious rather than
scientific; that is not the point — whatever
it be, it is in harmony Mnth geology.

Anthropology and the Bible. — We are
still in the midst of a seeming conflict be-
tween anthropology and the Bible. In the
vision of creation man appears as made in the

BIBLE

image of God, with dominion over all inferior
nature. Then follows an allegorical picture of
the first man, Adam, as formed out of the
ground, inspired with a living soul, and placed
among the beasts of the field, and the fowls of
the air, which had also been formed out of the
ground and brought to him to receive their
names. The first woman, Eve, his wife, is de-
picted as fashioned out of one of his ribs while
he was in a trance, and the pair were placed in a
garden to till it, with liberty to eat of every tree
but the tree of knowledge of good and evil. They
were tempted to disobedience by the subtlety
of Satan in the form of a serpent, and so fell
from their state of innocence, entailing the
curse of labor, sorrow^ and death upon the
whole of mankind. It would seem impossible
to find any strict anthropological science in
this instructive parable; and yet until recently
it has been so treated by both scientists and
divines, who have held that man was molded
by the divine hand as a lifeless clay image
among living plants and animals; that he
was endowed with psychical faculties and
God-like qualities in a few minutes or hours,
and that the man Adam was the sole progenitor
of all the savage and civilized races of Asia,
Europe, Africa, and America. But scientists are
now urging some very diflferent theories of hu-
man origin and development. We are told by
palaeontologists and ethnologists that man was
but the product of the whole evolution of organic
nature; that his remote ancestor was a man-
like animal or anthropoid ape; that next came
a succession of pre-Adamite races, of which
the Hottentot, the Patagonian, and the
Esquimau may be the survivors; that there
have also been co-Adamite races as indig-
enous in other continents than Asia as the
plants and animals with which thej^ are
there found associated; that all civilized races,
including the Adamite, or Caucasion, have
risen from savagery, with improving imple-
ments and arts, through long epochs of
stone, of bronze, and of iron, and have a
prospect of indefinite improvement in the
future. In spite of theological prejudice
and some instinctive repugnance, we have
begun to entertain these theories, and may
already provide, if need be, for their accept-
ance. As astronomy and geology have
afforded new illustration of the physical
attributes of Jehovah, so anthropology is un-
folding His intellectual and moral attributes,
in the structure of both body and soul,
and may in like manner be adjusted to the
revealed doctrines of human depravity and
the divine image. The essential truths in the
allegorical story of Eden will stand unim-
paired, whether we view man's sinfulness as
a primitive lapse or as a present condition;
w^hether we regard his ideal Godlikeness as
im.pressed upon '.Am thousands of years ago
or as still in process of development. If
anthropologists shall prove that primeval
man, ph3-sically considered, was evolved
from pre-Adamite and anthropoid races as a
half-animal savage in a state of nature ; that
he slowly developed psychical powers and
religious beliefs; that while many breeds of
men remain debased and deteriorated the
Caucasian breed, both Hebrew and Christian,
has been steadily advancing in knowledge,
virtue, and religion, and that the perfected

man of the future, with growing arts ana
sciences, may yet transform the globe and
even bring it into connection with other
worlds and races. If the anthropologists, I
say, shall prove all these things, the Bible
will teach, in correlation with them, that the
first man Adam was of the earth, earthy,
placed in a fruitful garden, associated with
the animals, but with dominion over them;
that God breathed into him a living soul and
made him after His own image; that as in
Adam all die, so in Christ shall all be made
alive, and as we have borne the image of the
earthly, so also shall we bear the image of
the heavenly, and that the -man of prophecj^
as renewed after the image of Christ, the
Lord from heaven, shall yet inhabit the new
heaven and the new earth, wherein dwelleth
righteousness. And still, too, will such teach-
ing of the Bible, though unscientific, be found
to be in harmony with such facts of anthro-
pology.

ArchcBology and the Bible. — And now we are
entering a seeming conflict between archae-
ology and the Bible. The historical books,
with no show of historiographic art, record
the fortunes of the peculiar people of Israel
as descended from the patriarchs, Abraham,
Isaac, and Jacob, as worshipping Jehovah in
distinction from the false gods of the
heathen around them, as returning even from
then- captivities in Egypt and Babylon with
a fresh reassertion of their own creed and
ritual, and as ever looking forward to the
Messiah, Christ, in whom their whole religion
was at length absorbed and fulfilled. Philo-
sophical historians, as well as learned com-
mentators, have hitherto accepted these sim-
ple annals as accurate and trustworthy. Of
late, however, some discredit has been cast
upon them by certain archaeologists, who
claim that the inscriptions on the tablets
unearthed at Babylon bear suspicious resem-
blances and affinities with Biblical stories of
creation and paradise. The American Pro-
fessor Hilprecht, with the true scientific
spirit, declines to make such invidious com-
parisons, and declares that the Babylonian
polytheism stands in contrast with the
Hebrew monotheism. But the German Pro-
fessor Delitsch hastily infers from them that
the Hebrew monotheism was no better than
Babylonian polytheism, and jumps across the
following centuries to the conclusion that
our Saviour himself thus depreciated the
Jewish religion. Meanwhile, the German
Emperor William, after admonishing the
learned antiquarian professor to stick to the
Bab}donian tablets, without drawing theo-
logical inferences, proceeds to give his own
somewhat conservative views of the theology
of the Old and the New Testaments. It is a
very interesting controversy. But suppose
w-e should concede, for the sake of argument,
all that the theolgical archaeologists are try-
ing to prove, — grant that the inspired vision
of creation and the divine allegory of Eden
maj^ have some crude counterparts in the
corresponding mjths and legends of Babel — ■
is it quite inconceivable that both have de-
scended, the one in a pure and the other in a
corrupted form, from the same primeval reve-
lation in the dim period before the flood?
Are not the Hebrew Scriptures one continual

BIBLE — BIBLE STATISTICS

protest against the religious errors of sur-
rounding nations, and have they not at the
same time infinitelj^ surpassed them in the
religious truths which they have unfolded?
Is it anjr more incredible that Judaism should
have been developed out of, or in spite of, pre-
ceding religions than that Christianity should
have been developed out of or in spite of Juda-
ism, both of them under that wonderful Provi-
dence which has educated the chosen races
of mankind? Moreover, it has distinctly taught
that both Judaism and Christianity, after
their isolation and pupilage, were destined
to universal prevalence; that in Abraham all
the families of the earth would be blessed,
and Christ himself be revealed as the desire
of the nations. And the Gospel, therefore,
was proclaimed among the Gentiles as well
as among the Jews. St. Paul, too, the Apos-
tle to the Gentiles, when preaching to the
Athenians, insisted upon the consensus of
Christianity with their religion in those great
theistic beliefs which were taught by their
own poets and philosophers, and which are
common to all mankind. And, as Christian-
it}', clad in civilization, is now going forth
among the religions of the world reclaiming
their truths and rejecting their errors, she
is simply fulfilling her mission as the one
absolute and universal religion — the faithful
saying, and worthy of all acceptation, that
Christ came into the world to save sinner<\.

I do not forget how much the question is
complicated by the views of a radical school
of the higher critics who maintain, on liter-
ary grounds, that the Old Testament Scrip-
tures themselves betray that mythical and
legendary origin which some archseologists
would ascribe to them. Many of the con-
clusions of this school are based upon unveri-
fied conjecture and continual asseveration.
But it may be well to accept them hypotheti-
cally, in order to state the whole problem of
opinion. Assume then, if you like, that the
books of the Pentateuch or He.xateuch were
not written by Moses, but were a sort of
mosaic of pre-existing documents written by
unknown scribes and collected by unknown
redactors or editors, as we now possess them.
Assume also that the Biblical stories of crea-
tion and paradise in their literary forin are
anthropomorphic, dramatic, allegorical, and
unhistorical. Assume still further that in
these respects they bear some external resem-
blance to the creation-myths and paradise-
legends of other Eastern peoples. Prove all
this, if possible; and yet you will not have
destroyed the incontestable fact that these
ancient writings contain an objective revela-
tion from God to man w'hich is infinitely
superior in kind and degree to any supposed
revelations in the religions of Babylon, Nine-
veh, Assyria, Egypt, Greece, and Rome; and
which even as to literary form surpasses any
other sacred books, ancient or modern. Nor
will you have lessened the evidence which
the Bible thus affords of growing harmony
with the very sciences of archseology and
philology which are now arrayed against it.

In this article I have sketched in a popular
manner those physical sciences which have
seemed to be in conflict with revealed relig-
ion, because such sciences just now are most
popular in their impression and most likely to

disturb existing faith in the inspiration and
authority of the Holy Scriptures, and be-
cause they are the most advanced sciences.
The argument might be carried up into the
higher sciences of psychology, sociology, and
the science of comparative religion, but such
sciences, as yet, are not so mature nor in so
apparent conflict with the Scriptures. It will
be seen that the argument is strongest where
science is most clear and full. It is also
cumulative, and already, I trust, warrants the
belief that when science shall have reached
the utmost goal of its development it will
still be, as it always has been, in harmony
with the Bible.

Charles Woodruff Shields,
Professor Princeton University.

Bible, The Polychrome. A new transla-
tion of the Scriptures from a revised text, bj''
eminent biblical scholars of Europe and
America; Professor Paul Haupt of Johns
Hopkins University, editor, with the assistance
in America of Dr. Horace Howard Furness.
The special scheme of this great work is its
use of color backgrounds upon which to
print the various passages by different writers
which have been made up into one work,
as Isaiah or the Psalms. It is not based on
any doubt of inspiration, but on the general
conviction of biblical scholars that only good
can come from making perfectly clear to the
public the full results of modern critical
research.

Bible Statistics, an interesting compila-
tion, said to be the fruits of three years' labor
by the indefatigable Dr. Home, and given by
him in his introduction to the study of the
Scriptures. The basis is an old English
Bible of the King James version.

Old Testament. — Number of books, 39;
chapters, 929; verses, 23,214; words, 593,493;
letters, 2,728,100.

New Testament. — Number of books, 27;
chapters, 260; verses, 7,959; words, 181,253;
letters, 838,380.

The Bible. — Total number of books, 66;
chapters, 1,189; verses, 31,173; words, 773,746;
letters, 3,566,480.

Apocryplia. — Number of books, 14; chap-
ters, 184; verses, 6,031; words, 125,185.

Old Testament. — The middle book of the
Old Testament is Proverbs. The mid"dle
chapter is Job xxix. The middle verse is 2
Chronicles xx., between verses 17 and 18
The shortest book is Obadiah. The short-
est verse is I Chron. i. 25. The word *'and'^
occurs 35,543 times. Ezra vii. 21 contains all
the letters of our alphabet. The word "Selah^'
occurs 7;^ times and only in the poetical
books. 2 Kings xix. and Isaiah xxxvii. are
alike. The Book of Esther does not contain
the words God or Lord. The last two verses
of 2 Chronicles and the opening verses of
the Book of Ezra are^ alike. Ezra ii. and Nehe-
miah vii. are alike. There are nearly 30
books mentioned, but not found in the Bible,
consisting of civil records and other ancient
writings now nearly all lost. About 26 of
these are alluded to in the Old Testament.

Neiv Testament. — The middle book is 2
Thessalonians. The middle chapter is be-
tween Romans xiii. and xiv. The middle
verse is Acts xvii. 17. The smallest book

BIBLES — BIBLIOGRAPHY

is 2 John. The smallest verse is John xi.
35. The word **and* occurs 10,684 times.
The name Jesus occurs nearly 700 times in
the Gospels and Acts, and in the Epistles less
than 70 times. The name Christ alone occurs
about 60 times in the Gospels and Acts, and
about 240 times in the Epistles and Revela-
tion. The term Jesus Christ occurs 5 times
in the Gospels.

The Bible. — The middle book is Micah. The
middle (and smallest) chapter is Psalm
cxvii. The middle verse is Psalm cxviii: 8.
The' middle line is 2 Chronicles iv. 16; the
largest book is that of the Psalms; the largest
chapter is Psalm cxix. The word Jehovah
(or Lord) occurs 6,855 times. The word
"and" occurs 46,227 times. The number of
authors of the Bible is 50. The Bible was
not until modern times divided into chapters
?nd verses. The division of chapters has
been attributed to Lanfranc, Archbishop of
Canterbury, in the reign of William L; but
the real author of this division was Cardinal
Hugo de Sancto-Caro, about 1236. The num-
ber of languages on earth is estimated at
3,000 ; the Bible or parts of it have been
rendered into only about 180, or, languages
and dialects together, 345. The first English
translation complete of the Bible was by
Wj'clif in 1380. The first American edition
was printed in Boston in 1752.

Bibles, The Seven, the seven principal
Bibles of the world are the Koran of the
MohaiTimedans, the Eddas of the Scandina-
vians, the Tripitikes of the Buddhists, the
Five Kings of the Chinese, the three Vedas
of the Hindus, the Zend Avesta, and the
Scriptures of the Christians. The Koran is,
except the Eddas, the most recent of these
seven bibles and not older than the 7th cen-
tury of our era. It is a compound of quo-
tations from the Old and New Testaments,
the Talmud and the Gospel of St. Barnabas.
The Eddas of the Scandinavians was first
published in the 14th century. The Tripi-
tikes of the Buddhists contain sublime morals
and pure aspirations, but their author lived
and died in the 6th century before Christ.

The sacred writings of the Chinese are
called the Five Kings, the term king meaning
web of cloth or the warp that keeps the
threads in their place. They contain the best
saj'ings of the best sages on the ethico-politi-
cal duties of life. These sayings cannot be
traced to a period higher than the nth cen-
tury before Christ. The three Vedas are the
most ancient books of the Hindus, and it is
the opinion of Max JMiiller, Wilson, Johnson,
and Whitney that they are not older than
II centuries before Christ. The Zend Avesta
of the Persians is the grandest of all these
sacred books next to our Bible. Zoroaster,
whose sayings it contains, was born in the
I2th century before Christ.

Biblia Pauperum (Bible of the poor), the
name for block books common in the Middle
Ages, and consisting of a number of rude
pictures of Biblical subjects with short
explanatory Latin text accompanying each
picture. A similar work, but more extended
and with rhymed text, was the ^Speculum
Humanae Salvationist or ^Mirror of Human
Salvation^ Prior to the Reformation these

two books were much used by the preaching
monks, and as such orders as the Franciscans,
Carthusians, etc., were styled ^Pauperes
Christi,^ the first named book, so popular
with them, came to be known, therefore, as
the ^Biblia Pauperum\

Biblical Criticism, the science which has
for its objects (i) to decide which books
are entitled to a place in the Scripture canon,
and (2) to bring the text of these canonical
books to the utmost possible degree of
purity. In prosecuting the first of these
aims, the Biblical critic must not be con-
founded with the Christian apologist; the
function of the former is a strictly judicial
one, while the office of the latter is that of
an advocate. One important subject of inves-
tigation is as to what Old Testament books
were recognized as divine by the ancient
Jewish Church or Synagogue; as also what
New Testament hooks were at once and uni-
versally welcomed by the early Christian
Church, and what others were for a time par-
tially rejected, though they ultimately found
acceptance everywhere. Li seeking to purify
the text, the Biblical critic must do much
toilsome work in the collation of codices or
manuscripts. He does not put the whole of
these on one level and admit whatever read-
ing has a majority of manuscripts in its favor;
but attempts to test the value of each one
apart, forming an hypothesis if he can as to
when, where, and from whom it emanated,
and from what other manuscripts it was
copied at first, or in technical language, to
what recension it belonged. See Bible.

Bibliog'raphy, a term signifying the know-
ledge of books, in reference to the subjects dis-
cussed in them, their different degrees of rarity,
curiosity, reputed and real value, the materials
of which they are composed, and the rank they
ought to hold in the classification of a library.
It is therefore divided into two branches, the
first of which has reference to the contents of
books, and may be called, for want of a bet-
ter phrase, intellectual bibliography; the sec-
ond treating of their external character, the
history of particular copies, etc., may be termed
material bibliography. The object of the first
branch is to give information regarding the
most valuable books in every department of
study by means of catalogues.

Bibliography has been, and still is. culti-
vated most successfully in France. This is
owing partly to the riches of the great and daily
increasing public libraries, liberallv thrown open
to the use of the public, partly to the large
number of fine private collections. Brunet's
well-known. 'Manuel du Libraire' was the first
important work which contained, in an alpha-
betical form, a list of the most valuable and
costly books of all literatures: Barbier's 'Dic-
tionnaire des Guvrages Anonymes,' the first
systematic and satisfactory treatise on this sub-
ject ; Renouard's *^Catalogue d'un Amateur,^ the
first, and for a long time the best guide of the
French collectors; the 'Bibliographic de la
France,^ the first work which showed how the
3'early accumulation of literary works can be
recorded in the most authentic manner. No
less valuable are the works of Peginot, Petit
Radel, Renouard on the Aldines. and various
others. Among more recent French works may

BIBLIOGRAPHY

be cited < Bibliographic de la France,^ a periodi-
cal publication commenced in Paris in 1810. H.
Bossange, *Ma Bibliotheque Frangaise' (i855)>
gives a list of standard editions of the best
French authors. I. M. Querard, ^La France
Litteraire ou Dictionnaire Bibliographique,^ an
account of the literature of the i8th and 19th
centuries (10 vols. 1827-39) ; Querard, ^La
Litterature Franqaise Contemporaine' (1827-49) ;
Brunet's ^Manuel du Libraire^ (new edition, 6
vols. 1860-5) ; E. Hatin, *^ Bibliographic de la
Presse Periodique Frangaise' (i vol. 1866) ;
Lorenz, ^Catalogue General de la Librairie Fran-
gaise depuis 1840,^ giving French publications
from 1840 to 1899.

In England, although it contains many rich
public and private collections, bibliography has
not been so successfully cultivated as in France.
The most extensive catalogues of books of which
it can boast arc those of the Bodleian Library,
the British Museum, the Advocates' Library,
Edinburgh, the Harleian Library (compiled
partly by Dr. Johnson), etc. Catalogues com-
piled on a scientific system, by which the reader
is assisted in his researches after books on a
particular subject, are not numerous in English,
but we may mention Sonnenschcin's *^The Best
Books' (1891), and "^ Guide to Contemporary
Literature' (1895), presenting classified lists of
about 100,000 works. The most splendid cata-
logue perhaps ever published is that of the Earl
of Spencer's Library, compiled by Dibdin, in
four large volumes, with numerous engravings.
Among English bibliographical works are the
^Typographical Antiquities' of Ames, Herbert,
and Dibdin; Adam Clarke's ^Bibliographical
Dictionary and Miscellany' (1803-6) ; Dibdin's
^Introduction to the Knowledge of Rare and
Valuable Editions of the Classics' (1827, 2
vols.) ; Brydges' ^Censura Literaria' (1805),
and ^British Bibliographer (1818) ; Beloc's
< Anecdotes of Literature' (1807) ; Savage's
^Librarian' (1808) ; Dibdin's ^Bibliographical
Decameron' (1817) ; and ^Tour in France arud
Germany' (1821) ; Home's "^Introduction to the
Study of Bibliography' (1814) ; Robert Watt's
^Bibliotheca Britannica' (1824, 4 vols. 4to), a
work of stupendous labor and great utility ;
Joseph W. Moss' "^Manual of Classical Bibli-
ography' (1825) ; Darling's < Cyclopaedia Biblio-
graphica' (chiefly theological literature, 1854) :
*A Bibliographical and Critical Account of the
Rarest Books in the English Language,' by J.
Payne Collier (1865) ; Lowndes' ^Bibliographer's
Manual,' edited by H. G. Bohn (1869, 6 vols.) ;
S. A. Allibone's < Critical Dictionary of English
Literature and British and American Authors'
(Philadelphia 1859-71, 3 vols., and 2 of Sup-
plement 1891); Halkett and Laing's <Diction-
ary of the Anonymous and Pseudonymous Lit-
erature of Great Britain' (1882-8, 4 vols.);
Sampson Low's < English Catalogue of Books,'
which in a series of successive volumes cata-
logues the Britrsh books published from 1835
onward to the present time.

American literature has already given rise to
quite an extensive series of bibliographical works
on both sides of the Atlantic. Among these are :
< Bibliographical Catalogue of Books, etc., in the
Indian_ Tongues of the United States' (1849);
Duyckinck, < Cyclopedia of American Literature'
(1856) ; Ternaux-Compans, < Bibliotheque

A-mericaine' (Paris 1837) ; Triibner, < Biblio-
graphical Guide to American Literature' (Lon-

don 1856) ; and "^General American Catalogue*
of Leypoldt and Jones (1880, with continua-
tions) ; ^The Publisher's Trade List Annual' ;
* Monthly Cumulative Index' ; < American Book
Prices Current.'

The learned Germans, little assisted by pub-
lic and almost entirely destitute of private col-
lections, consulting only the real wants of the
science, have actively endeavored to promote it.
Ersch is the founder of German bibliography.
He gave it a truly scientific character by his
extensive work, ^Allgemeines Repertorium der
Literatur' (^Universal Repertory of Literature'
1793-1807), and by his *^Handbuch der Deutschen
Literatur' (^Manual of German Literature').
German bibliography is particularly rich in the
literature of separate sciences ; and the bibliogra-
phy of the Greek and Latin literature, as well
as the branch which treats of ancient editions,
was founded by the Germans. The first attempt,
in Germany, to prepare a universal bibliographi-
cal work was made by Ebert. The following are
valuable German bibliographical works in par-
ticular departments of science and literature:
T. A. Nosselt, ^Anweisung zur Kenntniss der
Besten Allgemeinen Biicher in der Theologie'
(4th ed. 1800), and the continuation of it by
Simon (1813) ; C. F. Burdach, ^Literatur der
Heilwissenschaft' (1810) ; W. Gf. Ploucquet.
'Literatura Medica' (1808, 4 vols.); T. G.
Meusel, ^Bibliotheca Historica' (1782-1802) ;
his ^Literatur der Statistik' (1816) ; G. R.
Bohmer, ^Bibliotheca Scriptorum Historise Na-
turalis' (1785-99, 7 vols.) ; Alb. Haller, ^Biblio-
theca Botanica' (Zurich 1771, 2 vols.) ; ^Ana-
tomica' (Zurich 1774, 2 vols.) ; ^Chirurgica'
(Bern 1774, 2 vols.) ; and ^Medicinae Practicae'
(Bern, 1776, et seq., 4 vols.) ; R. Buckner, *^Bibli-
ographisches Handbuch der Deutschen Dra-
matischen Literatur' (Berlin 1837) ; W. Engel-
mann, *^Bibliotheca Geographica' (2 vols. 1858),
a classified catalogue of all works in geography
and travels published in Germany from the mid-
dle of the 14th century down to 1856, with
prices, index, etc.; W. Engelmann, *^Bibliotheca
Philologica' (3d ed. 1853) contains a list of
Greek and Latin grammars, from 1750 to 1852;
the same writer has published bibliographical
works on mechanical technology, medicine, econ-
omy, veterinary art. geography, zoology, palaeon-
tology, etc.; W. Heinsius, ^Allgemeines Bii-
cherlexikon,' an extensive work forming (with
its continuations) an alphabetical catalogue of
all the books published in Germany from 1700
to 1888. with sizes, prices, and publishers' names ;
and Keyser's ^Vollstandiges Biicherlexikon,'
giving books published between 1750 and 1882.

Directions for the study of bibliography are
contained in Achard's *^Cours filementaire de
Bibliographic' (1807, 3 vols.) ; Th. Hartwell
Home's "^Introduction to the Study of Bibli-
ography' (1814, 2 vols.) ; and Brunet's "^Con-
naissances Necessaires a un Bibliophile' (Paris
1878).

Material Bibliography, often called by way of
eminence bibliography, considers books in re-
gard to their exterior, their history, etc., and
has been principally cultivated in France and
England. The different branches of material
bibliography may here be mentioned : the know-
ledge of the ancient editions {incunabula, or, if
classical authors, editiones principes), some of
the best works on which are G. Wfg. Panzer's
<Annales Typographici' (1793-1803, 11 vols.),

BIBLIOMANCY — BIBLIOMANIA

coming down to 1536; the ^Annales Typo-
graphic!,^ by Maittaire (Hague 1719, et seq., 11
vols. 4to), which not only contains the titles,
but investigates the subjects of works. More
exact descriptions of particular ancient editions
are found in Serna Santander's ^Dictionn.
Bibliogr. du isienie Siecle (Brussels 1805, 3
vols.) ; Fossius' ^Catalogus Codicum,^ sec. 15,
^Impressor. Bibliothecse Magliabecchianae (Flor-
ence 1793, 3 vols, fol.) ; and others. The study
of rare books, on account of the vague princi-
ples on which it rests, is more difficult than is
generally believed, and easily degenerates into
superficial and capricious trifling. This has been
more injured than promoted by I. Vogt's *Cata-
logus Librorum Rariorum^ (i793), and J. Jac.
Bauer's *^Bibliotheca Libror. Rarior. Universalis^
(1770-gi, 12 vols.). We may also mention here
the catalogues of the books prohibited by the
Roman Catholic Church (* Indices Librorum
Prohibitorum et Expurgatorum^ ). For the dis-
covery of the authors of anonymous and
pseudonymous works, we may use Barbier's
^Dictionnaire des Ouvrages Anonymes et Pseudo-
nymes* (1806-9, 4 vols.), which is valuable for
its accuracy (but contains only French and Latin
works) ; Querard's ^Dictionnaire des Ouvrages
Polyonymes et Anonymes de la Litterature
Frangaise^ (Paris 1854-6), and his *^Supercheries
Litteraires Devoilees (5 vols. Paris 1845-56).
We need not observe what an important source
of information in the department of bibliogra-
phy are literary journals. Poole's ^ Index to
Periodical Literature' contains references to an
immense number of articles that have never been
republished in books. See Bibliomania.

Bib'liomancy, divination performed by
means of the Bible, also called sorfcs biblicce, or
sortes sanctorum. It consisted in taking passages
at hazard, and drawing indications thence con-
cerning things future. It was much used at
the consecration of bishops. It was a practice
adopted from the heathens, who drew the same
kind of prognostications from the works of
Homer and Virgil. In 465 the Council of
Vannes condemned all who practised this art to
be cast out of the communion of the Church ;
as did the councils of Agde and Auxerre. But
in the I2th century we find it employed as a
mode of detecting heretics. In the Gallican
Church it was long practised in the election of
bishops ; children being employed, on behalf of
each candidate, to draw slips of paper with
texts on them, and that which was thought most
favorable decided the choice. A similar mode
was pursued at the installation of abbots and
the reception of canons ; and this custom is said
to have continued in the cathedrals of Ypres,
St. Omer, and Boulogne, as late as the year 1744.
In the Greek Church we read of the prevalence
of this custom as early as the consecration of
Athanasius, on whose behalf the presiding prel-
ate, Caracalla, archbishop of Nicomedia. opened
the Gospels at the words, ^^For the devil and his
angels* (Matt. xxv. 41). The bishop of Nice
first saw them, and adroitly turned over the
leaf to another verse, which was instantly read
aloud : ^<The birds of the air came and lodged in
the branches thereof' (Matt. xiii. 32). But this
passage appearing irrelevant to the ceremony,
the first became gradually known, and the Church
of Constantinople was violently agitated by the
most fatal divisions during the patriarchate.

Biblioma'nia ("book-madness''), a w^ord
formed from the Greek, and signifying a passion
for possessing rare or curious books. The true
bibliomanist is determined in the purchase of
books less by the value of their contents than
by certain accidental circumstances attending
them. To be valuable in his eyes they must
bdong to particular classes, be made of singular
materials, or have something remarkable in their
history. Some books acquire the character of
belonging to particular classes from treating of a
particular subject; others from something pe-
culiar in their mechanical execution (as the
omission of the word "not" in the seventh com-
mandment, which gives the Wicked Bible its
name), or from the circumstance of having
issued from a press of uncommon eminence, or
because they once belonged to the library of an
eminent man. But there are certain fashions
in bibliomania, and books much sought at one
time may at another be comparatively neglected.
Some collections of books may possess or have
possessed much intrinsic value ; such as collec-
tions of the various early editions of the Bible ;
collections of editions of single classics (for
example, those of Horace and Cicero) ; the
editions of the Greek and Latin classics in ttsum
Delphini and cum notis variorum; the editions
of the Italian classics printed by the Academy
dell a Cnisca; works printed by the Elzevirs and
by Aldus ; the classics published by Maittaire or
Foulis ; and the celebrated Bipont editions, with
others. It perhaps was more customary in
former times than at present to make collec-
tions of books which have something remark-
able in their history (for example, books which
have become very scarce, and such as have
been prohibited), yet various scarce books are
highly prized on account of nothing but their
rarity, the original (1786) Kilmarnock edition
of Burns' Poems, for instance. First editions
may be ranked in the same class. Books dis-
tinguished for remarkable mutilations have also
been eagerly sought for. Those which appeared
in the infancy of typography called incunabula,
from the Latin cuncc, a cradle, and among them
the first editions (edifiones principcs) of the
ancient classics, are still in general request. An
enormous price is frequently given also for
splendid proof impressions of copperplate en-
gravings, and for colored impressions, for works
adorned with miniatures and illuminated initial
letters ; likewise for such as are printed upon vel-
lum. Works printed upon paper of uncommon
materials, or various substitutes for paper
(asbestos, for instance), have been much sought
after ; likewise those printed upon colored paper.
Other books in high esteem among bibliomanists
are those which are printed on large paper,
with very wide margins. In English advertise-
ments of rare books some one is often men-
tioned as particularly valuable on account of its
being ^^a tall copy." If the leaves happen to be
uncut the value of the copy is much enhanced.
Other works highly valued by bibliomanists are
those which are printed with letters of gold or
silver, or ink of singular color ; for example :
(i) ^ Fasti Napoleonei' (Paris 1804, 4to), a
copy on blue vellum paper, with golden letters ;
(2) 'Magna Charta' (London 1816, fob), three
copies upon purple-colored vellum, with golden
letters.

Bibliomania often extends to the binding. In
France the bindings of Derome, Padeloup, and

BIBRA — BICETRE

Bozerian are highly valued ; in England those of
Charles Lewis and Roger Paj'ne, among i8th
century binders ; while Hayday, Riviere, Bed-
ford, and Zaehnsdorf may be mentioned as
among the notable craftsmen of the igth. Even
the edges of books are often adorned with fine
paintings. Many devices have been adopted to
give a factitious value to bindings. Jeffery, a
London bookseller, had Fox's 'History of King
James IL^ bound in fox-skin, in allusion to the
name of the author ; and the famous English
bibliomanist, Askew, even had a book bound in
human skin. In the library of the castle of
Konigsb«rg are 20 books bound in silver (com-
monly called the silver library). These are
richly adorned with large and beautifully
engraved gold plates in the middle and on the
corners. To the exterior decoration of books
belongs the bordering of the pages with single
or double lines, drawn with the pen (exeniplaire
•/TO'/r), commonly of red color — a custom which
we find adopted in the early age of printing in
the works printed by Stephens. The custom of
coloring engravings has generally been dropped,
except in cases where the subject particularly
requires it (for instance, in works on natural
history, or the costumes of different nations),
because the colors conceal the delicacy of the
engraving.

Other means of idle competition being almost
all exhausted, a new method of gratifying the
bibliomanist taste was adopted, that of enrich-
ing works by the addition of engravings, — illus-
trative indeed of the text of the book, but not
particularly called for, — and of preparing only
single copies. Books are often mutilated in this
way to enrich some other book. Such ''granger-
ized'^ copies have long been well known.

Among recent books valued as specimens of
typography are some of those that issued from
the Kelmscott Press of the late William Morris.
Bibliomania, which flourished first in Holland
(the seat likewise of the tulipomania) toward
the end of the 17th century, has prevailed in
England to a much greater extent than in
France, Italy, or Germany. The modern biblio-
mania is very difi^erent from the spirit which
led to the purchase of books in the Middle
Ages at prices which appear to us enormous.
External decorations, it is true, were then held
in high esteem ; but the main reason of the
great sums then paid for books was their
scarcity, and the difficulty of procuring perfect
copies before the invention of the art of print-
ing. See Dibdin, 'Bibliomania' (1811) ; Fitz-
gerald, 'The Book Fancier' (1886) ; Larv, 'The
Library' (1886) ; Burton, 'The Book Hunter'
(1882) ; Field, 'The Love Affairs of a Biblio-
maniac' (1896) ; Merry weather, 'Bibliomania of
the Middle Ages' (1849, reprint, 1900).

Bibra, b?-bra, Ernst von, German scholar
and writer : b. Schwebheim, Bavaria, 9 June
1806; d. ISluremberg, 5 June 1878. Being left
an orphan with a large fortune at an early age,
he devoted himself to physical science, and pub-
lished various works that brought his name be-
fore the public. He traveled in South America,
taking home with him important natural history
and ethnological collections. Among his numer-
ous works are: 'Travels in South America';
'Memories of South .America' ; 'Sketches of
Travel and Novels' ; etc.

Bib'ulus, Lucius Calpur'nius, Roman poli-
tician ; d. near Corcyra, Greece, 48 B.C. He was-
consul with Julius (Isesar in 59 B.C., which office
he acqu:red through the influence of the aristo-
cratic party. After his opposition to Caesar's,
agrarian law had failed, he secluded himself
in his house, wdience he issued edicts against the
measures of Caesar. In 49 B.C. Pompey appointed
him commander of the fleet in the Roman Sea.
In the following year Caesar eluded him and
crossed over into Greece.

Bicanere, bik-a'ner, India, a town, capital
of a principality of the same name; 240 miles
Vv'est by south from Delhi. With its battle-
mented walls and large citadel, both flanked with
round towers, and its temples, one of which rises
to a great height, it presents a magnificent
appearance to the traveler approaching it through
the desolate tract of country in which it stands ;
but a nearer inspection dispels the illusion, and
the greater part of the houses are found to be
hovels of mud, painted red. Water is obtained
from wells. Pop. (1901) 53,071.

Bicar'bonate. See Carbon.

Bicci, Ersilio, be'che, ar-sel'yo, Italian
poet : b. 1845. He studied in Florence, and be-
came professor of Italian literature in the Licei
Dante and Toscanelli of that city. His best
composition is in the collection styled 'New
Verses.'

Bice, bice, the name of two colors used in
painting, one blue, the other green, and both
native carbonates of copper, though inferior
kinds are also prepared artificially.

Bi'ceps (biceps flexor cubiti), the principal
flexor muscle of the arm, the muscle popularly
shown as evidence of muscular development. At
its upper end it consists of two parts, one being
attached to the coracoid process of the scapula,
and the other to the margin of the glenoid fossa,
about the joint. This latter, the long head, passes
over the head of the humerus as a tendon and
unites with the short head to form the belly
of the muscle. The lower end of the biceps is
inserted for the greater part to the radius, and
a smaller tendonous expansion is inserted in the
fascia of the forearm. The action of the biceps
is to bring the forearm to the arm and to turn
the inturned hand outward.

Bicetre, be-satr, France, a village a little
to the southwest of Paris, with a famous hos-
pital for old men in indigent circumstances, and
an asylum for lunatics, together forming one
vast establishment. This establishment \ya&
originally founded by Louis iX. as a Carthusian
monastery, became later a castle, which was
demolished in 1632, after being long in a ruin-
ous state, and was restored by Louis XIII. , and
destined as a retreat for infirm officers and sol-
diers. When Louis XIV. afterward erected the
great Hotel Royal des Invalides, Bicetre be-
came a general hospital, and it continued as such
down to the Revolution, while it contained also
a house of correction for swindlers, thieves, etc.
The establishment was then entirely altered and
converted to its present use, the buildings being
partly pulled down and replaced by new ones.
The poor persons admitted must be at least 70
years of age, or incapacitated by some incurable
disease from earning a livelihood. The luna-
tics are such as belong to the department of the
Seine. They are attended to with the greatest

BICHAT — BICKERSTETH

care, and fabricate neat little articles of wood
and bone, known in France by the name of
"Bicetre work.^' The number of beds in the
institution is over 2,700.

Bichat, Marie Frangois Xavier, be-shar,
ma-re' fran-swa ksav-e-a, French physician;
b. Thoirette, department of Jura, 14 Nov. 1771 ;
d. 22 July 1802. His father, a physician, early
initiated him into the study of medicine, which
the young Bichat prosecuted at Lyons and Paris,
where he studied under the direction of Desault
fq.v.), who treated him as a son. On the latter's
death, Bichat superintended the publication of
his surgical works, and in 1791 began to lecture
upon anatomy in connection with experimental
physiology and surgery. From this period,
amidst the pressing calls of an extensive prac-
tice, he emploj'ed himself in preparing those
works which spread his reputation through
Europe and America, and which had the most
beneficial influence upon medical science gen-
erally. In 1800 appeared his 'Treatise on the
Membranes,-' which passed through numerous
editions, and immediately after publication was
translated into almost al} European languages,
and 'Researches Concerning Life and Death,'
followed, the next year, by his 'General Anat-
omy' (4 vols. 8vo) — a complete code of
anatomy, physiology, and medicine, which was
translated into English by Dr. G. Hayward, and
published in 3 vols. 8vo. In 1800 he was
appointed physician of the Hotel-Dieu, in Paris,
and with the energy characteristic of true genius
began his labors in pathological anatomy. In
a single winter he opened no less than 600 bodies.
He had likewise conceived the plan of a great
work upon pathology and therapeutics ; and
immediately upon commencing his duties as
physician to the Hotel-Dieu he began his re-
searches in therapeutics by experiments upon
the effects of simple medicines. In the midst
of his activity and usefulness he was cut off
by a malignant fever, probably the consequence
of his numerous dissections. His friend and
physician, Corvisart, wrote to Napoleon in these
words : "Bichat has just fallen upon a field of
battle which counts more than one victim ; no
one has done so much, or done it so well, in so
short a time.* He was the creator of general
anatomy, or of the doctrine of the identity of
the tissues of the different organs, which is the
fundamental principle of modern medicine.

Bichir, be-sher', one of the African mud-
fishes {Polypterus bichir), which inhabits the
upper Nile and its tributaries, and is regarded
as the best food-fish of those waters. It is only
about a foot long, and is one of the few remain-
ing species of the great extinct group Ganoidea
(q.v.). and is related to the American gar-pike.
See Mud-Fish ; Reed- Fish.

Bichlo'ride f-klo'-) of Gold, a substance
formed by the action of chlorine gas upon dry
metallic gold that has been previously thrown
down in the form of an impalpable powder, by
chemical means. Some authorities assert that
the substance so formed is a true chemical com-
pound, having the formula AuCU ; while others
maintain that it is a mere mixture of metallic
gold and the well-known trichloride, AuCls. The
so-called "bichloride of gold'' has risen into
notoriety on account of the use made of it by
the late Dr. Keeley of Dwight, 111., in the cure
of dipsomania and chronic alcoholism. Its gen-

eral characteristics, chemically and physiologi-
cally, are to a great extent similar to those of
mercury bichloride. Its employment by Dr.
Keeley produced a profound impression on the
medical world, and many partisans both for
and against its virtues exist. The success, from
a financial standpoint, of the Dwight sanitarium,
brought forth many imitators, and much harm
has been done by unskilful persons using this
dangerous and powerful medicinal agent.

Bickerstaffe, Isaac, Irish dramatic writer:
b. Ireland, about 1735; d. about 1812. He wrote
many successful pieces for the stage, some of
which such as the operas of 'Love in a Village'
and 'The Padlock,' are still represented. His
celebrated comedy of 'The Hypocrite,' adapted
from Colley Gibber's 'Nonjuror,' which was
again borrowed in its leading incidents from
Moliere, long retained its place on the stage,
with its well-known characters of Mawworm
and Dr. Cantwell. The music .of many of
Bickerstaffe's pieces was composed by Charles
Dibdin. Latterly he retired to the Continent,
and died there.

Bick'ersteth, Rev. Edward, English clergy-
man : b. Kirkby-Lonsdale, Westmoreland, 19
March 1786: d. 24 Feb. 1850. He was educated
in the grammar school of his native town, and
at the age of 14 found a place in the post-office,
London, where he remained for six years, after-
ward spending five years as an articled clerk
with a London attorney. He then commenced
business as a solicitor in Norwich, in partner-
ship with his brother-in-law, and soon was in re-
ceipt of a large and increasing income. A great
change, however, came over his mind and he
began to e.xert himself in promoting the dif-
fusion of the truths of religion among his fellow-
men. Among other works accomplished by him
was the establishment of the Norwich Church
Missionary Society. He also published in 1814
'A Help to the Study of the Scriptures,' which
met with great success. He then resolved to
abandon the legal profession for that of a minis-
ter of the Church of England. The Church
Missionarj- Society wished to send him abroad
on a special mission to Africa, and in this view
the bishop of Norwich, dispensing with the
usual course of a university education, admitted
him to deacon's orders on 10 Dec. 1815,
and a fortnight afterward he was admitted to
full orders by the bishop of Gloucester. Mr.
Bickersteth thereupon, with his wife, proceeded
to Africa, from which, after accomplishing the
objects of his mission, he returned in the fol-
lowing autumn. He now filled the office of sec-
retary to the Church Missionary Society, and
from this period to 1830, when he resigned it,
was indefatigable in the performance of its
multiform duties. In the year last mentioned
he became rector of Watton, in Hertfordshire,
and spent there the remainder of his life. He
had now become widely known as one of the
most influential and popular clergymen of the
evangelical section. Besides taking an active
share in furthering the cause of the various
religious societies, including the Evangelical
Alliance, of which he was one of the founders,
he likewise issued a series of publications v.-hich
had an immense circulation, among others: 'The
Christian Student' ; 'A Treatise on the Lord's
Supper' ; 'A Treatise on Prayer' : 'The Signs
of the Times' ; 'The Promised Glory of the

BICKMORE — BICYCLE

Church of Chiist' ; ^The Restoration of the
Jews^ ; *A Practical Guide to the Prophecies,^
besides sermons and tracts without number.

Bick'more, Albert Smith, American natu-
ralist : b. St. George, Me., i March 1839. He
graduated at Dartmouth College in i860, and
studied under Agassiz at the Lawrence Scien-
tific School of Harvard. In 1865-9 he traveled
in the Malay Archipelago and in eastern Asia;
in 1870 became professor of natural history in
Madison (now Colgate) University; and in 1885
professor in charge of the department of public
instruction at the American Museum of Natural
History, New York. His publications include :
< Travels in the East Indian Archipelago^
(1869) ; ^The Ainos or Hairy Men of Jesso^ ;
* Sketch of a Journey from Canton to Hankow.'

Bick'nell, Frank Martin, American author:
b. Melrose, Mass., 24 Jan. 1854. He graduated
at the English High School, Boston, in 1872 ;
engaged in business till 1888 ; and afterward
devoted himself to literature. He has contribu-
ted largely to *St. Nicholas^ ; ^Harper's Young
People* ; * Youth's Companion* ; ^Outing* ;
New York Evening Post; etc. He wrote 'The
City of Stories* ; 'The Apprentice Boy* ; etc.

Bicknell, Thomas William, American edu-
cator : b. Barrington, R. I., 6 Sept. 1834. He
was graduated from Brown University in i860.
During his senior year in college he was elected
to the Rhode Island legislature, and after grad-
uation was principal of schools in Rehobart,
Bristol, and Providence, R. I., and in Elgin, 111.
In 1869-75 he was commissioner of the public
schools of Illinois, and during this incumbency
he secured the establishment of the State Nor-
mal School. He founded, edited, and owned
'The Journal of Education* ; 'The Primary
Teacher' ; 'The American Teacher* ; 'Educa-
tion* ; and 'Good Times,* between 1874 and
1886. He has been president of a number of
educational institutes and Sunday-school unions.
He has written 'State Educational Reports* ;
'John Myles and Religious Toleration* ; 'Life
of W. L. Noyes* ; 'Brief History of Barring-
ton' ; 'Barrington in the Revolution* ; and 'The
Bicknells.*

Bicycle, a light steel vehicle consisting of
two wheels arranged tandem, united bj^ a frame
with the rider's seat upon it ; propelled by his
feet acting on pedals connected with one of the
axles, at present that of the rear wheel ; and
steered by a handle-bar guiding the direction of
the front wheel. As at present constructed the
wheels are of equal size ; the driving mechanism
is usually a chain with the links fitting over a
sprocket-wheel, but about one in 25 are chain-
less, mainly with a shaft and bevel driver ;
the weight is 23 to 27I/2 pounds, complete ; the
frame is of hollow cold-drawn tubing, with
brazed joints; the wheels are suspension, with
crossed tangent spokes, wooden rims, pneu-
matic tires, and ball bearings. The name dates
from about 1865, though first so spelled in a
patent of 8 April 1869, and elsewhere called
"bysicle,** "bicircle,** "bicycular velocipede,** etc. ;
but prior to 1870 the form of the machine was
usually called a velocipede, a French name
dating from 1779.

The pedomotor itself goes back perhaps to
Egyptian and probably at least to classic times,
winged figures astride of a stick connecting two
wheels being found in the frescoes at Pompeii.

In the 17th century it suddenly appears with
surprising frequency ; there is a picture of a
bicycle in a stained-glass window at Stoke Pogis,
England ; in August 1665, John Evelyn writes
in his diary of "a wheele to run races in** ; in
1690 a Frenchman named De Sivrac invented
a two-wheeled celerifcre having a horse-shaped
wooden body with a saddle, and steered by the
rider's feet ; in 1693 Ozanam described before
the Royal Society a vehicle pedaled by a foot
traveler. In 1761 the 'Universal Magazine* de-
scribes a similar one invented by an Eng-
lishman named Ovenden; in August 1769
the 'London Magazine* describes "a chaise
to go without horses.** On 27 July 1779,
Le Journal dc Paris describes a veloci-
pede invented by MM. Blanchard and
Magurier, which is merely the celerifere with an
upright bar to support the hands ; this gained
considerable vogue. From France and England
the idea spread to Germany, which added to it
the one idea needed to vivify it. In March
1784 one Ignaz Trexler, of Gratz, Austria, in-
vented a pedomotor credited with the speed of
a galloping horse — unquestionably meaning
down hill. But the direct progenitor of the
modern bicycle was one built in 1816 by Baron
Karl von Drais, Freiherr von Sauerbronn
(1784-1851), chief forester to the Grand Duke
of Baden (to whose memory in 1891 the bicy-
clers erected a monument at Carlsruhe), often
called "the father of the bicycle.** It was de-
signed to aid him in his daily journeys. The
whole was of wood ; the wheels of equal size,
connected by a perch, astride which the rider
sat in a saddle, and to the fore end of which was
swiveled a fork into which the front wheel was
axled ; the rider propelled it on level ground
or up hill by striking the ground with his feet,
and coasted down hill. But the significant
feature, the germ of the bicycle, was the pivot-
ing of the front wheel and its steering by a
handle-bar; for which there was a stuffed arm-
rest on an elevated cross-piece. Drais patented
this in Paris, 1816, and claimed that it would
go up hill as fast as a man could walk, on a
level, after a rain, at six or seven miles an hour,
or courier's pace, the same when dry at eight
or nine, and down hill at a horse's gallop. It
excited much attention and was called the
"draisme'* ; and in 1818 one Dennis Johnson
patented in England an improved form called
the "pedestrian curricle,'* with adjustable saddle
and elbow-rest. This started a fashionable
furore, and those who could not afford it
laughed at it as the "dandy-horse,** and
"hobby-horse,** while the serious-minded in-
vented a swarm of names for it, such .
as "patent accelerator,** "swift-walker** (a
literal translation of "velocipede**), "mani-
velociter,** "bivector,** etc., and finally, in 1819,
"bicipede** and "tricipede** ; but by this time the
name "velocipede** had become the recognized
current term. It had then become common
enough to be prohibited in London, and to make
dodging the machines a common exercise on the
suburban roads ; and bred complaints of leg
disease, and a consequent invention by one Birch
for using the arms instead. In 1821 Louis Gom-
pertz patented an improvement in which the
handle-bar was connected with a segment rack
gearing into a pinion on the front wheel, so
that either arms or feet could be used for pro-
pulsion ; but the craze had worn itself out, and

BICYCLE

it was nearly half a century before it revived
with a better machine. Meantime, in June 1819,
the curricle had been introduced into the United
States, and became a craze in Boston, New York,
Philadelphia, etc. ; and many riding-schools were
•opened. On 26 June 1819 William K. Clarkson
was granted a patent for an "improved veloci-
pede" ; but the excitement soon subsided here
also. The grotesque appearance of a person
leaning forward on his elbows and kicking away
at the ground beneath his clumsy vehicle proved
too much for the national sense of humor, and
riders were the objects of ridicule. A typical
"hobby-horse*^ in the early 'twenties had the fol-
lowing specifications : Wheels, wood, 32 inches ;
wheel base, 4 feet 7 inches ; backbone, wood, 5
feet 9 inches long ; saddle, hard wood, i foot 6
inches long ; handle-bar, wood, 9 inches, elevated
48 inches above ground ; finish, black paint ;
weight, 90 pounds. The arm-rest was of wood.

With the death of the draisine the idea was
not altogether forgotten ; both in England and
•on the Continent scattering pedomotors were
built every few years, and the capital improve-
ment of putting cranks on the front axle, crea-
ting the true modern bicycle, was at length de-
vised. It is asserted, though not proved, that
■one Kirkpatrick McMillan of Courthill, Scotland,
having tried in 1835 a system of cranks, side-
levers, connecting-rods, and pedals, for propel-
ling a tricycle, applied them successfully to a
wooden bicycle in 1840 ; and it is certain that in
1846 Gavin Dalzell of Lesmahagow, Scotland,
who had heard of McMillan's machine, invented
.and rode a rear-driving velocipede propelled by
pedals on hanging levers, which, by means of
connecting-rods instead of chains, rotated cranks
■on the rear axle. This machine, whose wheels
were of wood shod with iron, and its frame
somewhat dipped like the present ladies' wheel,
made 10 or 12 miles an hour; it was a rather
striking forecast of the modern "safety,'' though
not in the least a germ of anything, as its exist-
ence was not known till 1892. It had also some
important differences : the rear wheel was the
larger, as in the "Humber*' and "Star*' machines,
.and the action was to-and-fro and not rotary.
In 185s a German instrument-maker named
Philipp Maritz Fischer made and extensively
rode a velocipede. But none of these were ever
made for any persons but the owners, nor in-
cited further invention.

The real ancestor of our bicycle, the crank-
driven velocipede that led straight to better
things, arose in France : the honor of the in-
vention is hotly disputed. According to one ac-
count it belongs to Ernest Michaux, the son of
a Parisian carriage repairer (to whom a monu-
ment was erected in 1894) ; but if so, he did not
make it public and it led to nothing, and it is
generally accredited as theory, where it belongs
as practical result, to Pierre Lallement. a Pari-
sian blacksmith, said to have been in Michaux's
employ. It sprang, in fact, not from Michaux's,
if that existed, but from a multicycle invented in
1865 by one Marechal ; a five-wheeler, each
wheel having an independent axle with cranks,
loose pedals, and a separate seat ; the front was
the guide-wheel, but it could be ridden b}' one
or many. In September MM. Woirin and Le-
conde patented a tricycle, with two smaller rear
wheels on the same axle, and a large front one
-with cranks and loose pedals, the whole con-
iiected with a wooden horse-shaped body like

De Sivrac's, on whose back the rider ;at well
over the front wheel ; this was the progenitor
of the modern tricycle. Lallement, against the
judgment of his friends, who thought that keep-
ing one's balance would be impracticable on two
wheels tandem, applied the principle thus the
same year, learned the art of balancing, and ex-
hibited his machine and his skill at the Paris
Exposition of that year ; but thought too little
of it to patent it. The next year (1866) he came
to the United States to look for work, made a
velocipede and rode it about New Haven, Conn.,
and was induced by one James Carroll to patent
it with him, which was done 20 November. It
had two wooden wheels, the front one slightly
the larger, with iron tires; was a front-driver;
and the saddle was on a steel spring midway be-
tween the wheels. But it was too crude and un-
pleasurable to attract much notice. In France,
however, great improvements were shortly mad^e
on it, and in the winter of 1867 it became the
sensation of Paris ; riding schools sprang up all
about, and straps to fasten the machines were
part of the equipment of the great places of
amusement. This continued till the Franco-
German war temporarily destro3'ed the business,
which had developed a large manufacturing in-
terest. Meantime, in England, Edward Gilman
in 1866 had patented a rear-driver with a single
treadle, and the chain gear had been broached.
In 1869 the improved velocipede and the reflex
of the French enthusiasm brought it into sud-
den vogue in the United States, and American
inventiveness was turned toward perfecting it :
at the time the "boom** burst in 1870 the Patent
Office was receiving half a dozen applications
for new patents every week. Up to 1869 the
two wheels were of about the same size, 30 to
40 inches ; and the earlier machines had wooden
hubs, spokes, and rims, with steel tires. But
the wire-spoke suspension wheel, re-invented in
France in 1864, soon came in, and by 1869 all-
steel wheels with hollow tubing were built ; the
prices were from $75 to $300, and cj'cling was a
mark of some social distinction. In the West it
was the universal roading sport, the leading
manufactories being located there ; rinks were
built everywhere, and the wonderful trick-riding
possible with the heavj' wheels then made. — on
flights of stairs, by jumps, etc., which our mod-
ern light wheels would not endure, — drew large
crowds. But this weight, — 116 pounds was me-
dium, and in 1871 a 75-pound racer was much
borrowed from its lightness, — made the sport a
heavy tax even on the athletic, and insupportable
to any others ; the rigid tire made the jolting
on rough roads or paved streets a torture, so
that a current nickname for the machine was
"bone-shaker.'^ The low build covered the rider
with the dirt of roads and carriages, and to
avoid this and gain speed the front wheel was
gradually raised and the seat carried up with it,
and in 1869-70 two western builders placed
large numbers of high or "ordinary^' wheels on
the market. But the steel tire made the exertion
still more severe ; and hostile municipal legisla-
tion, controlled by the horse owners, drove the
bicyclers off every desirable riding road. The
sport (till the "safety" came in it was only such)
collapsed, with the suddenness of a financial
crash, within a single week ; thousands of ma-
chines, worth $100 to $150 one day, could not
be sold at any price the next, and were ultimately
disposed of to boys or the poorest classes at

BICYCLE

nominal prices, or allowed to become old iron ;
manufactories crowded with orders had them
countermanded in a mass ; rinks no longer drew ;
and what little was left of the sport, among
those who owned fine machines and clung to
them, was killed by the sale at nominal prices of
a stock of cheap wheels made of gas-pipe, mal-
leable fittings, and wooden Vvdieels with steel
tires, which soon fell to pieces, but destroyed all
prestige in the sport. It was nearly a decade be-
fore America took it up again in any general
way, and then with a different wheel, the bicycle
proper.

Meantime a great development had gone
on in England, where the hard, smooth
macadam roads, and beautiful by-paths for
cyclers without disturbing horses, made all
conditions more favorable. The bicycle under
that name was patented 8 April 1869; it had
steel rims and solid rubber tires, round or
half round. For speed the front wheel was
gradually enlarged and the rear reduced to
a mere steerer, till the Ordinary was attained
in 1871, with a 40- to 48-inch front wheel and
l6-inch rear; it was made feasible and popular
by the rubber tires, which reduced the friction
and jar, and consequently the needed pro-
pelling power. The front wheel was gradu-
ally raised in proportion to the rider's height
and skill, and in the early eighties attained 60
and even 64 inches. It still remains the per-
fection of grace and simplicity in bicycle con-
struction: the motive power being applied
direct, and the wheel, with cranks and pedals,
forming a solid body. It is also the most
exhilarating to ride, given strength and
skill. The greatest improvements were made
by James K. Starley, of Coventry, England,
the second "father of the bicycle"; his wheels
in 1873 had become nearly all that made the
best Ordinary, with steel frame, cross tension
spokes, and solid rubber tires. In 1874 he
patented the tangent wheel.

The Ordinary, however, could not be the
bicycle of the future. It was hard to mount,
except in favorable spots, and if the rider was
dismounted had often to be walked long dis-
tances on streets or hillsides; both from this
and the great air resistance due to the rider's
elevation, it was merely the sport of a few
athletic men, mostly young; headers were
frequent from the rider's mass centre being
directly over that of the large wheel, and
liable to be serious from his high seat, though
the danger was exaggerated. A safer build
was therefore mooted. The first idea was to
bring the rider's centre belo-jv that of the
driving wheel; this could only be accom-
plished by operating the pedal with some kind
of leverage, and a rear-driving safety with
lowered front wheel was patented in 1879
by H. T. Lawson of England. A similar type,
called the «Bicyclette,» followed in 1880. In
the same year the "Star," a reversed Ordinary
with the small wheel in front, was introduced
and had something of a run; the "Humber
Safety" in 1885 copied the type with more
extreme difference in wheels, and the current
joke upon it was an imaginary Irish descrip-
tion that "the big wheel is the smallest and
the hind wheel is in front." But with the
high wheel there is always liability to a
tumble, and a "backfall" is worse than a
^header"; and the "Dwarf Bicycle," as the

safeties were called, grew in favor. The
"Xtraordinary" and the "Facile" about 1882:
had soine trial; but a more popular form^
which had high racing speed and made new
records, was Starley's "Kangaroo" (1883),
with diamond frame, independent crank-
shafts, and two chains gearing them to the
front wheel. The gain of the geared wheel
over the Ordinary is not only in lessened air
resistance from the lower seat, but because
length of crank and pedal speed can be gauged
to the most favorable speed for the rider,
while in the Ordinary the crank is too short
and the pedal speed too rapid for the best
results. But the alternate tightening and
loosening of the chain twice in every revolu-
tion, and other defects, caused its early dis-
placement by Starley's famous and still
speedier "Rover" (1884), for a long time the
popular term for "safeties" of any pattern.
Here the cranks and pedals were on a sepa-
rate axle, connected with the driving-wheel
by a single chain which was therefore per-
manently tight; the seat was far back over
the rear wheel, so that headers over the
handle-bar were absolutely impossible. The
front wheel was about one fourth larger than
the rear; later they were made of practically
the same size as now, completing the evolu-
tion back to the velocipede, and making its
general utility possible. With the low seat
any one can mount, and the exercise is not
too severe; and it makes possible the drop-
frame for ladies. The Ordinary, as its name
implies, maintained the field for a while; the
sporting idea was still in the ascendant, the
"safety" was sneered at as the effeminate and
rather cowardly refuge of weaklings and
old men, and it was not believed that it
could compete in racing speed. But about
1886 the public began to realize its immense
business and social advantages, and with
numbers the fear of ridicule vanished; by
1888 five sixths of the sales were of "safeties,*
and by 1890 the Ordinary had become a curio
or the equipment of trick riders. For many
years nowr both names have gone out of use,
all being "safeties," and the compendious
"bicycle" or simply "wheel" (a reminiscence
of the Ordinary, where the driving-wheel
was everything) covers all. This advent of
the "safety" has carried the bicycle into everj'-
day business and the life of every household;
carriers, policemen, messengers, etc., find it
of great service; competition has lowered
prices to the level of the very servant-girls-
and street boys; and there is hardly a spot in
the modern world into which it has not pene-
trated. There are great manufactories engaged
in bicycle manufacture, and also in making the
machines used in their construction. In the
United States alone, in 1900, nearly 20,000
people were earning their living by their
direct manufacture, besides more than 6,000
establishments and nearly 10,000 persons
employed in repairing and many more in
selling them. Even in war they have shown
their utility. They have been adopted for
military purposes by many of the nations of
the world :bv Austria-Hungary in 1884; by Eng-
land and Switzerland in 1887: by Belgium in
1889. The French army is said to be equipped
with several thousand bicycles, and a per-
fected system of drill and tactics for advance-

BICYCLE

guard duty, skirmishing, and rapid movements
has been introduced into the various armies.
A detachment of bicycle-mounted soldiers
has been found useful in accompanying the
motor Maxim gun, first tried in 1899. The
military bicycle is especially constructed for
hard work and rough usage. Some of the
French machines are made to fold, so that
when the riders come to impassable ground
they can double them up and carry them on
their backs.

Partly effect but mainly cause of this gen-
eral use has been the direction of inventive
genius to the advancement of speed or com-
fort, often both at once. Every feature, — ma-
terial, frame, spokes, gearing, tire, bearings,
rim, handle-bar, brake, and others, — has been
vigilantly and tirelessly studied to win public
favor, and there is hardly a more wonderful
machine existent. The enormous brain-power
devoted to its perfection is shown by the fact
that in the United States alone 7,573 patents
had been granted up to 1900 for cycles and
their parts, and probably double that in the
world altogether. Of these, in our own coun-
try only 16 had been issued before 1865, and
the great majority were granted after 1890.
In 1892 the applications had grown so
numerous that a special department of the
Patent Office was created for them.

The greatest of all single ones, and the
one which has revolutionized the business
and made cycling a luxury rather than an
exertion, is the pneumatic tire, which not only
saves jolts by rolling into instead of on and
oft' the minute obstructions of the roadway,
but for the same reason increases speed, each
rise of the wheel taking so much more mus-
cular exertion. It must be confessed, how-
ever, that a heavy price is paid in the endless
nuisance of punctures, ending many rides
abruptly, and involving a walk for miles —
something unknown with the solid tire. It
was originally invented, not for bicycles, but
road wagons, by an English civil engineer
named R. W. Thompsoir, in 1843, and
patented in the United States in 1847; but
fell flat and was allowed to lapse. The first
bicycle tires were iron or steel; then a strip
of rubber was fastened over the tire; later, a
round or half-round piece of solid rubber
was cemented or fastened into the hollow of
the rim. But in 1889 an Irish veterinary sur-
geon, Dr. John B. Dunlop, fitted a piece of
rubber hose to his son's bicycle; it worked
so well that he patented it, not broadly, but
for specific details now disused. Shortly
after, I. W. Boothroyd of London described,
but did not patent, a tire of this sort; and
about the same time P. W. Tillinghast, of
Providence, R. I., patented one in this coun-
try. Received with utter incredulity at first,
and a not unjustifiable dread of punctures,
in two years 40 per cent of all bicycles were
fitted with it, and in two more no other was
on the market. (The cushion tire, a large tire,
solid except for a small air space running
through it, was tried for a time in i8gi and after
but was not a success). But even this would
have been inefifectual save for the enormous re-
duction in weight by the use of steel weldless
tubing and wire, so that a machine of the in-
credibly small weight of nine pounds has been
used for racing, with a wheel on whose spokes

four men can stand without injuring them: these
machines are too frail for road use, but even the
average roadster does not reach 28 pounds, while
in 1873 65 pounds, and even in 1885, 48 was
thought fair, and 27 a racing wonder.

The ball-bearing, invented by an Englishman
named Bonn, is another epoch-making invention,
which revolutionized all previous theories. The
earliest bicycle bearing was a plain one with a
sleeve, known as the parallel bearing. The fric-
tion was so heavy that the roller bearing was
substituted, but did not work well ; the next was
the adjustable cone, which for a time was the
universal one. But in all solid-surface bearings
the grinding of the sand which worked in made
them irregular and rattling after a while, and
the layers of gudgeon grease required a steady
tax on time for cleaning. In the ball-bearing,
the conical axle bears against a row of steel
balls in a circle, tangent to the bearing surface
and to two other surfaces at right angles, so
that the friction is only against three points, and
the bearing parts roll over instead of sliding
upon each other. The wear of the balls is as-
tonishingly slight, and from the constant change
of surface there is little irregularity, and from
the small contact points scarcely any making of
axle grease.

A fundamental invention is the suspension
wheel, by which, in the words of an English
patentee of 1826, "the weight they have to carry
is suspended from that part of the wheel which
happens to be uppermost, instead of being sup-
ported, as is usual, by the spokes that happen
to be under the axle-tree'^ — a principle in-
vented by Leonardo da Vinci before 1490, re-
invented as above stated, and in France in 1864.
Spring seats have abolished the saddle-galling
which was one of the worst tortures of the
**bone-shaker," and even of the earlier bicycles.
The wooden rim takes two and a half pounds ofif
the weight of a machine, but is not used in Eng-
land, the roads being too wet. The drop-frame
for ladies' use is perhaps the most important
single advance made on the velocipede, so far
as the increase of social pleasure is concerned :
in the same line are the construction of coupled
machines for two, taking away the reproach often
made that bicycling is *an essentially selfish
pleasure.* The coaster-brake is another im-
portant advance. The chain gearing which made
the "safety'^ possible has been noted ; later, much
ingenuity has been employed to get rid of it, but
not with perfect satisfaction, the cost being pro-
hibitive to the mass, and the complaint of extra
exertion being heard. The two chief devices for
chainless machines are the pin-wheel gearing,
which works smoothly but lacks durability ; and
the bevel gear, which is very difficuU to cut so
that the teeth shall fit exactly, but is said to in-
crease in both accuracy and ease of driving with
use, as the surfaces of the teeth grow to fit each
other. In the chain gear the case is the reverse,
as the links and rivets wear and dust grinds
them ofif.

In the LTnited States the bicycle did not ap-
pear after the collapse of 1870 till the Centennial
Exposition of 1876, when some English machines
were imported and exhibited. Col. Albert A.
Pope of Boston saw them and thought of reviv-
ing the business here ; went to England to study
the industry, brought back some English wheels,
and had W. S. Atwell of Boston build him one.
weighing 70 pounds, and costing $313. Again

BIDA — BIDDLE

visiting England, he decided that conditions here
warranted their manufacture for the market, and
in 1878 had the Weed Sewing Machine Company,
of Hartford, Conn., make some "Columbias^^
for him in a corner of their shop, the first bicy-
cles made in America. From the first, these
have been the American model of durability and
excellence of make, as well as of advanced in-
vention in construction and fittings, and unsur-
passed in the world ; and they still maintain that
position. The business has grown into one of
the great manufactories of the country, and was
the chief of the companies merged in the Amer-
ican Bicycle Company a few years ago. The
*^safety'* brought the same expansion here as
elsewhere ; but its very commonness and cheap-
ness, with other causes, has, since about 1895,
produced a severe decline. The chief falling
off is in women's use : they have tired of it, as
they do of every muscular sport except when
novelty gives a brief stimulus or social oppor-
tunity ; and the lamp laws in many localities
nearly killed evening parties, the chief use they
could make of it. The slackening of this de-
mand produced a severe crisis in the business.
Also, inventions have nearly reached their limit,
to tempt youth with money to buy the latest new
pattern ; and the business has settled upon a firm
though more limited basis of practical service
and every-day pleasure. The statistics of the in-
dustry in this country, as returned by the census
of 1900, were as follows, showing its almost in-
credible development ; but in fact it was far
greater and quicker, as the volume was much
greater about the middle than at the end of the
decade.

1890 1900

Number of establishments 27 312

Capital $2,058,072 $29,783,659

Number of employees i,797 17,525

Wages paid $982,014 $8,189,817

Cost of materials 718,848 16,792,051

Value of products 2,568,326 31,915,908

Of the 312 establishments, however, 35 were
in the American bicycle trust. Of these total
values, $23,689,437 was for bicycles; 1,136,122
being chain, 42,929 chainless, 3,640 tandem, and
159 motor. The difference between the produc-
tion of chain and chainless is sufficiently ac-
counted for by the immense difference in price-
average at the factories, $18.91 for the former,
against $45.59 for the latter.

See H. A. Garratt, <The Modern Safety Bicy-
cle^ (New York 1899) ; Andrew Sharp, "^Bicycles
and Tricycles' (London 1896) ; and the valuable
historical summary in the United States census
reports of 1900, ^Manufactures' (Part IV., p.
329).

Bida, Alexandre, be'da, al-ek-s6hdr, French
painter : b. 1813 ; d. 2 Jan. 1895. He traveled
in the East for two years, and most of his
paintings have Oriental or Scriptural subjects.
His best-known work is his illustrations for the
*Four Evangelists' (1876), and the ^Book of
Ruth' ; among his paintings are ^The Slave
Market,' 'The Massacre of the Mamelukes,'
*Jews Praying at the Well of Solomon,' and
'The Field of Boaz.>

Bidar, be'dar, India, an ancient town in the
Nizarn's dominions, 75 miles northwest of Hai-
darabad; noted for the metal ware to which it
has given the name of Bidri or Bidery. It oc-
cupies a commanding site above the surround-
ing country, and its mosque and madrissa or

college testify to its former spJendor and im-
portance. Pop. 14,000.

Bidassoa, be-dasso'a (Basque, *way to
the west," or "two streams"), a river in Spain,
about 45 miles long, the last 12 of which form
the boundary between France and Spain. It
rises in the mountains of Spanish Navarre, and,
after various changes of direction, falls into the
Bay of Biscay near Fontarabia. In former times
Spain claimed not only the entire river, but so
much of its banks, on the French side, as its
waters covered at full tide. This difference was
finally settled by each country contenting itself
with its own shore. Near Irun there is a small
island in the middle of the stream, called the
Island of Pheasants, on which, being neutral
ground, Louis XI. and Henry IV. met in 1463.
Here also a peace was concluded between France
and Spain in 1654.

Biddeford, Maine, city in York County,
on the right bank of the Saco River, 6 miles
from the sea, and on the Boston & Maine R.R.,
15 miles southwest of Portland. The river
separates it from Saco (q.v.), and, like that city
Biddeford grew up as a manufacturing centre,
its development being favored by the abundant
water-power furnished by the falls, the stream
descending here about 40 feet. The city also has
a large local trade.

Industries. — The leading industries include
the extensive manufacture of cotton goods, lum-
ber, boots and shoes, machinery, etc. Here are
some of the most important cotton mills in New
England, the products of which are found in
the markets of many states. Near the city are
granite quarries which annually produce large
quantities of superior stone, used in many parts
of the world. Several thousand people are em-
ployed in the city's industries, and the flourish-
ing of these has led to its gradual growth. It
has two national banks.

Schools and Churches. — The public school
system is well organized and conducted, and the
various religious denominations are represented
by 14 churches. The intellectual life of the peo-
ple is also stimulated through useful local pub-
lications and an excellent public library.

History and Government. — The city was
named from Biddeford, England, the home of
some of its early settlers. In 1616 a small set-
tlement was made at Biddeford Pool, near the
mouth of the Saco, and Biddeford was settled
under a patent in 1630, embraced Saco until
1718, and was then incorporated under its pres-
ent name. This was long the chief settlement of
the Maine province. In 1855 Biddeford re-
ceived a city charter. The present government
includes a mayor and a city council, elected an-
nually. The population in 1900 was 16,145. In
1903 it was estimated at 16,655. Consult: Fol-
som. 'History of Saco and Biddeford' (1830) ;
Clayton, 'History of York County' (1880);
Ridlon, <Saco Valley Settlements and Families'
(1895).

Biddle, Anthony Joseph Drexel, American

publisher, journalist, and miscellaneous writer:
b. Philadelphia, i Oct. 1874. He has written <A
Dual Role, and Other Stories,' 'An Allegory
and Three Essays,' 'The Madeira Islands,'
'The Froggy Fairy Book,' 'All Around Ath-
letics' (1894): 'The Flowers of Life' (1898);
'Shantytown Sketches' (i^

BIDDLE

Biddle, Arthur, American lawyer: b. in
Philadelphia, Pa., 23 Sept. 1852 ; d. 8 March 1897.
He studied law and was admitted to the bar in
1878. Later he became a member of his father's
firm and devoted much time to the study of cer-
tain branches, the results of which were pub-
lished in his works, "^Treatise on the Law of
Stock Brokers^ (1881) ; *^ Treatise on the Law of
Warranties in the Sale of Chattels' (1884) ; and
*The Law of Insurance' (1893).

Biddle, Clement, American Revolutionary
soldier: b. Philadelphia, 10 ^lay 1740; d. there,
14 July 1814. He was educated in the tenets of
the Society of Friends (Quakers), and in early
life engaged in commercial pursuits in his native
city ; but notwithstanding his Quaker training,
he joined a number of Quaker friends, in 1764,
in forming a military corps for the protection of
a party of friendh^ Indians who had sought
refuge in Philadelphia from the fury of a band
of lawless zealots known as the "Paxton Boys,''
who had recently massacred some unoffending
Conestoga Indians at the interior town of Lan-
caster. These banditti, powerful in numbers,
had advanced within five or six miles of the city,
threatening destruction to all who should oppose
them, when the vigor of the militarj' preparations
checked their further progress. Scarcely had
this local disturbance been quieted when news
was received of the resolution of the British
House of Commons to charge certain stamp
duties in the colonies. The feeling engendered
throughout the whole country by this step and
by the subsequent passage of the Stamp Act, in-
duced, in Philadelphia, the celebrated "non-
importation resolutions" of 25 Oct. 1765, signed
by the principal merchants of the city, including
Col. Biddle and his brother Owen. When all
hope of a reasonable adjustment of the differ-
ences was lost. Col. Biddle was greatly instru-
mental in forming the "Quaker" company of
volunteers raised in Philadelphia in 1775, of
which he was elected an officer before the corps
joined the army. Congress, on 8 July following,
elected Col. Biddle deputy quartermaster-general
of the militia of Pennsylvania, New Jersey,
Maryland, and Delaware, ordered to rendezvous
at Trenton. Col. Biddle took part in the battle
of Trenton at the close of the same year, and,
with another officer, was ordered by Washington
to receive the swords of the Hessian officers.
He was also engaged in the victory of Princeton,
the surprise and retreat at Brandywine, and
the unsuccessful enterprise of Germantown, and
during the winter of I777~8, shared the suf-
ferings of the American army at Valley Forge.
As commissary-general of forage under Gen.
Greene he rendered important service to the
army in several critical junctures, especially dur-
ing the famine at Valley Forge. At Monmouth
he shared the success of his countrymen. In
September 1780. owing to the pressure of his
private affairs, he was compelled to return to
private life. His military career, however, was
lariefly renewed in the capacity of quartermaster-
general of Pennsylvania in the expedition under
Washington, in 1794, against the whiskey insur-
gents of that State. Col. Biddle labored ear-
nestly also in the early political movements of
the patriot party of his State, advocating effec-
tively the revolutionary State constitution of
1776 (which his brother Owen had had, as a
member of the convention, a share in framing).

He was also active in support of a declaration
or bill of rights as a constituent part of the
Federal Constitution to prevent abuse or mis-
construction of its powers. After the organiza-
tion of the Federal government under the Con-
stitution of 1787, Col. Biddle was appointed
marshal of Pennsylvania, as an evidence of the
regard in which he was held by Washington.

Biddle, James, American naval officer: b.
28 Feb. 1783 ; d. i Oct. 1848. He was educated
at the University of Pennsylvania, and entered
the navy in 1800. In the. war against Tripoli
he served as a midshipman, was taken prisoner
and kept in confinement for 19 months. In the
War of 1812, he was a lieutenant on the Wa.sp
when she captured the Frolic and was later cap-
tured by the Poictiers. Though a prisoner for a
short time, Biddle was exchanged, and in 1813
took command of the Hornet and captured the
British brig Penguin on 23 March 1815, being
wounded in action. He was made captain in
1815, and received a gold medal from (Congress
in reward for his services. He was afterward
commissioner to Turkey and China, and in 1845
negotiated the first treaty between the United
States and China. He also served in the Mexi-
can war.

Biddle, John, English Socinian writer: b.
Wotton-under-Edge, Gloucestershire, 14 Jan.
1615 ; d. London, 22 Sept. 1662. He entered
Magdalen College, Oxford, in his 19th year, and
graduated A.M. in 1641. Being led to doubt the
doctrine of the Trinity, he drew up ^Twelve Ar-
guments' on the subject, for which he was
committed to jail, but was released on bail.
About six months afterward, on examination
before a committee of Parliament, he acknow-
ledged his opinion against the divinity of the
Holy Ghost, and his 'Twelve Arguments' were
ordered to be burned. He persisted in his opin-
ion, and in 1648 published two tracts, containing
his 'Confession of Faith Concerning the Holy
Trinity,' and 'Testimonies' of Irenseus, Justin
Martyr, and several other early writers on the
same subject. On this the Assembly of Divines
asked Parliament to decree the punishment of
death against those who should impugn the es-
tablished opinions respecting the Trinity, and
to enact severe penalties for minor deviations.
Such a decree was passed, but differences of
opinion in the Parliament itself, and the penal-
ties to which this sweeping measure rendered
many in the army liable, prevented its execution.
Biddle was again remanded to prison, however,
and remained for some years in rigorous confine-
ment. A general act of oblivion in 1651 restored
him to liberty, when he immediately dissemi-
nated his opinions both by preaching and by the
publication of his 'Twofold Scripture Cate-
chism.' For this he was confined in the Gate
House for six months. Cromwell banished him
to St. Mary's Castle, Scilly Is., assigning him an
annual subsistence of 100 crowns. Here he re-
mained three years, until liberated in 1658. Pie
then became pastor of an Independent congrega-
tion, and continued to support his opinions until
fear of the Presbyterian Parliament of Richard
Cromwell induced him to retire into the coun-
try. On the dissolution of that parliament he
preached as before until the Restoration, after
which he was obliged to confine himself to pri-
vate preaching. In June 1662 he was appre-
hended at one of the private assemblies, and

BIDDLE — BIDPAI

upon process of law fined £ioo, and ordered to
lie in prison until it was paid. He fell a victim
to jail fever and died in the 47th year of his
age, a martyr to religious intolerance. His pri-
vate character was moral, benevolent, and exem-
plary, and Toulmin styles him the "father of the
modern Unitarians."

Biddle, Nicholas, American naval officer:
b. Philadelphia, 10 Sept. 1750; d. 7 March 1778.
In 1765, while on a voyage to the West Indies,
he, with two others, chosen by lot, were left
for two months on an uninhabited island. In
1770 he entered the British navy. When Phipps,
afterward Lord Mulgrave, was about to start
on his exploring expedition, young Biddle,
though a midshipman, deserted his own vessel
and shipped as a seaman on the Carcass, serving
through the cruise with Lord Nelson, who was
a mate of Phipp's vessel. On the commence-
ment of the American Revolution he came to
America and was made captain of the Andrew
Doria, a brig of 14 guns and 130 men, taking
part in Commodore Hopkins' attack on New
Providence. After refitting in New London he
was ordered on a cruise to the banks of New-
foundland, and in 1776 took, among other prizes,
two transport ships with valuable cargoes and
a battalion of Highland troops. Pie was ap-
pointed to the command of the Randolph, a 32-
gun frigate, in February 1777. In March 1778
he was wounded in an action with the Yarmouth,
an English 64-gun ship. While under the hands
of a surgeon the magazine blew up, and the
whole crew of the Randolph were lost, except
four men, who were tossed about on a piece of
wreck for four days before being rescued. The
other vessels of the squadron escaped in conse-
quence of the disabled state of the Yarmouth.

Biddle, Nicholas, American financier: b.
Philadelphia, Pa., 8 Jan. 1786; d. same city, 27
Feb. 1844. He became secretary to John Arm-
strong, United States minister to France, in
1804, and subsequently went as secretary to
James Monroe, then United States minister to
England. He returned home in 1807, was elected
to the Pennsylvania legislature in 1810, and
was appointed a director of the United States
Bank in 1819. He became president of the bank
in 1823 and managed it ably down to the ex-
piration of its charter. The financial trouble
precipitated upon the country by Jackson's with-
drawal of the government deposits in 1833 gave
an unfortunate ending to Biddle's career as a
banker, but while both his ability and his in-
tegrity were questioned at the time, he has been
amply vindicated since. Besides miscellaneous
writings, he published a ^Commercial Digest,-*
and * History of the Expedition Under Lewis
and Clarke to the Pacific Ocean. ^ He was presi-
dent of the board of trustees for the funds of
Girard College, and was instrumental in estab-
lishing that institution.

Biddle, Richard, American lawyer: b.
Philadelphia, Pa., 25 March 1796; d. Pittsburg,
7 July 1847. He studied law and was admitted
to the bar in Pittsburg. He was a member of
Congress (1837-41), and was author of a
* Memoir of Sebastian Cabot, with a Review of
the History of Maritime Discovery' (1831).

Bid'dulph, Sir Michael Anthony Shrapnel,

English military officer : b. Cleeve Court, Somer-
setshire, 1823. He entered the Royal artillerj'

in 1844; became captain in 1850; major, 1854;
colonel, 1874; major-general, 1877; lieutenant-
general, 1881 ; and general in 1886. He served
in the Crimean war at Alma, Inkerman, Balak-
lava, and the siege of Sebastopol. In India he
commanded the field force and marched to Kan-
dahar and the Helmund, and returned by the Tal
Chotiali and Boree to the Indus, in 1878-9. He
was retired in 1890, and in 1896 became gentle-
man usher of the Black Rod. He published
•^Illustrated Forrester's Norway* (1849).

Bid'eford, England, a market town and
municipal borough of Devonshire ; 44 miles
north of Plymouth ; situated on both sides of
the Torridge, four miles from the sea, the prin-
cipal portion being on the west side, on a bold
acclivity. A handsome stone bridge of 24 arches,
and 677 feet in length, connects the two divisions
of the town. It has a spacious marketplace ;
an Elizabethan town-hall, public assembly rooms,
and music hall. The Bridge Hall in French Re-
naissance style, contains a free library, a reading-
room, and a science and art school. The most
important church is that of St. Mary, in Perpen-
dicular style, rebuilt, except the tower, in 1865.
The chief industries comprise the manufacture
of coarse earthenware, and collars and cuffs,
tanning, malting, iron-founding, etc. In former
times Bideford had an extensive shipping trade,
and is said to have imported more tobacco in
some years than the metropolis. Pop. (1901)
8,754.

Bidie, George, English medical officer: b.
Blackies, Banffshire, 3 April 1830. He was edu-
cated at the University of Aberdeen, and ap-
pointed deputy surgeon-general, in charge of the
British Burma division in 1884 ; sanitary com-
missioner of the Madras presidency in 1885-6.
He discovered, in 1867, a preventive for an insect
pest which threatened to destroy the coffee
growth in southern India. In 1898 he became
honorary surgeon to the queen. His publica-
tions include *^ Reports on the Ravages of the
Borer Insect on Coffee Estates' (1869) ; ^Hand-
book of Practical Pharmacy' (1883) ; ^Cata-
logue of Gold Coins in the Government Central
Museum, Madras' (1874) ; ^Neilgherry Para-
sitical Plants Destructive to Forest-trees'
(1874) ; *^ Catalogue of Raw Products of South
India sent to Paris Exhibition' (1878) ; ^Na-
tive Dyes of Madras' (1879) ; '^Pagoda or Var-
aha Coins of South India' (1883) ; ^Sand-
binding Plants of South India' (1883) ; etc.

Bidpai, bid'pi, or Pilpai. When we con-
sider the wonderful history of ^Bidpai's Fables,'
their fame, and their charm, we naturally invest
their suppositious author with a personality and
a name, in fact, however, ^^Bidpai" is probably
a changed form of an Indian word for "court-
scholar," misunderstood as a proper name, and
implying therefore neither personality nor spe-
cific date. In India, from early times the parable
or "example" has been the recognized method
of conveying moral instruction. In the didactic
literature, some general truth or some rule of
life is stated in the form of a maxim, and a
beast fable or other story then added as a con-
crete instance or "example." The folk-lore of
which these tales are a reflex is not the exclu-
sive property of any of the great religions of
ancient India, but is common to Buddhism, Jain-
ism, and Brahmanism alike. The sculptured
representations of the stories upon the great

BIDWELL

Buddhist monuments of 250 B.C. make it certain
that the stories themselves were familiar to the
common people at that early date ; and it is
hardly less certain that they were so known long
before that time. The oldest and most impor-
tant collection of Indian folk-lore i» the Budd-
hist one called ^Jataka' — that is, ^Birth-
stories,* or stories of Gotama Buddha in his
previous births : it consists of 550 tales, each
containing a moral ; each is placed in the mouth
of the Buddha, and in each the Buddha plays
the best and most important part. It is this
device of a framework or setting for the folk-
tales that constitutes the principal essentially lit-
erary element of the collection. Next in im-
portance to the Buddhist *Jataka' stands the
Brahmanical ^Panchatantra.-* Here the material
is not essentially different in kind from that of
the ^Jataka' ; but again it is the setting of the
material which gives the work its distinctive
literary character. It is a kind of 'Mirror for
Alagistrates.* Both the "^Jataka,* written in
Pali, and the 'Panchatantra,* in Sanskrit, are
still extant, and contain many of the stories
which in translations of translations attained
great currency and celebrity in mediaeval litera-
ture.

The precise Indian original of these transla-
tions is lost ; but we know that it was translated
into the literary langttage of Persia (the Pehlevi,
or Pahleir), by command of the Sassanian king,
Khosru the Just, about 550 a.d. From the Peh-
levi came two notable versions : one the Old
Syriac, called 'Kalilag and Damnag,' after the
two jackals, Karataka and Damanaka, who fig-
ured prominently in the framework of the San-
skrit original ; and the other is the Arabic
version, called 'Kalilah and Dimnah,* or 'Fables
of Bidpai,* made about 750 a.d. by Abd-allah ibn
al-Moqaffa, a Persian convert to Islam under
the Caliph al-Mansor. According to the Arabic
introduction, Dabshelim was the first king of the
Indian Restoration, after the fall of the governor
appointed by Alexander at the close of his cam-
paign in the Pan jab, 326 B.C. When firmly es-
tablished, Dabshelim gave himself over to every
wickedness. To reclaim the king, a Brahman
philosopher takes up his parable, as did Nathan
before David, and at last wins him back to vir-
tue. The wise man is called in Arabic bid-bah,
and in Syriac bid-vag. These words are traced
through the Pehlevi to the Sanskrit vidya-pati,
"master of sciences.'* Accordingly bidbah, which
has become Bidpai or Pilpai in our modern
books, is not really a proper name, but an ap-
pellative, applied to a ''chief pandit** or "court-
scholar'* of an Indian prince.

From the Arabic are descended, in the fourth
generation from the original, a dozen or more
versions, of which three may be mentioned as
noteworthy links in the chain of tradition : the
Greek one, made about 1080 by Symeon Seth, a
Jewish physician ; the Persian, made some 50
years later, by Nasr Allah of Ghazni ; and the
Hebrew, ascribed to Rabbi Joel, and probably
made before 1250. Of the descendants in the
fifth degree from the original, the 'Directorium
Humanse Vitse,* made about 1270 by John of
Capua from the Hebrew, is distinctly the most
celebrated, because it gave rise in turn to Danish.
Dutch. Spanish, Italian, and French, and above
all to the famous German and English versions
mentioned below. But besides the 'Directo-
rium,* we must notice the ' Specimen of the Wis-
Vol. 2 — 40.

dom of the Ancient Hindus,* a version into Latin
from the Greek of Symeon, made by the Jesuit
father, Petrus Possinus (1666); and the
'Anvar-i Suhaili* or 'Lights of Canopus,* a
simplified recast of Nasr Allah's. In the second
edition of his fables, La Fontaine tells us that
he owes the largest part of his new material to
"Pilpay, the Indian sage.'* Pierre Poussin's
'Specimen* was the one embodiment of his
shadowy Oriental fabulist, and a French version
of the 'Lights *was the other. Two offshoots of
the 'Directorium' are of unrivaled interest to the
student of the beast fable. The one is the
'Book of Examples of the Ancient Sages* ; and
the other is Doni's 'La Moral Filosophia*
(1552). The 'Book of Examples* was made at
the instance of Duke Eberhard in Bart, whose
name and motto, ^^Eberliart Graf z{ii) Wirtcn-
bcrg Attcmpto,^^ appear as an acrostic in the
initials of the first sections. It was first printed
about 1481, and has since been admirably edited
by W. L. Holland (Stuttgart i860). Holland
tised, besides three manuscripts, two printed edi-
tions without place and year, and enumerates
17 dated editions that appeared between 1483 and
1592. Four dated editions appeared at Ulm be-
tween 1483 and 1485. The great number of edi-
tions of the work, and their rapid succession, are
the best proof of its importance as a means of
instruction and amusement at the beginning of
the age of printing. The examples themselves
had doubtless pointed the moral of many an an-
cient homily long before the days of Gutenberg:
but the language of the old German version of
them is so remarkable for its simplicity, dig-
nity, strength, and beauty, that we cannot wonder
at its immense popularity ; and to this version,
more than to any other, is Europe indebted for
the wide-spread knowledge of this cycle of lit-
erature from the last part of the 15th to the
middle of the 17th century. The other offshoot
of the 'Directorium* — namely, 'The morall phi-
losophic of Doni : drawne out of the auncient
writers. A worke first compiled in the Indian
tongue, and afterwardes reduced into divers
other languages : and now lastly Englished out
of Italian by Thomas North' (London 1570) —
is most interesting to us as English-speaking peo-
ple because it is "the first literary link between
India and England, written in racy Elizabethan,"
a piece of "Tudor prose at its best," a veritable
English classic. Consult Keith-Falconer, 'Ka-
lilah and Dimnah* (1885); Lanman, 'Sanskrit
Reader* (1888); Rhys Davids, 'Buddhist Birth
Stories* (1880); North, 'Morall Philosophic of
Doni* (ed. Jacob 1888).

Charles Rockwell Lanman,
Professor, of Sanskrit, Harvard University.

Bidwell, John, American politician: b.
Chautauqua County, N. Y., 5 Aug. 1819; d. 5
April 1900. He went to California in 1841 ;
served in the Mexican war, reaching the rank
of major; was a member of the Constitutional
Convention of 1849; and of the National Demo-
cratic Convention in Charleston, in i860. In the
Civil War he was brigadier-general of California
militia. In 1864 he was elected to Congress as
a Republican ; in 1866 was a member of the Phil-
adelphia Convention ; in 1890 was the unsuccess-
ful Prohibition candidate for governor of Cali-
fornia ; and, in 1892, unsuccessful candidate of
his party for the Presidency.

BIEDA — BIELGOROD

Bieda, be'da, the modem name of the an-
cient Blera, a town in Italy. It is noted for its
extensive Etruscan necropolis of rock-hewn
tombs, built in several terraces. These tombs
are interesting from their imitation of dwellings.
They have molded doorways, and within the
ridge beams and rafters of the roof are cut in
relief. There are rock benches on three sides,
made to receive the dead, and besides the doors,
numerous windows.

Biedermann, Friedrich Karl, German au-
thor: b. Leipsic, 25 Sept. 1812; d. 1901. He be-
came professor of philosophy in Leipsic Univer-
sity in 1838 and held this chair till 1845, when
he was deposed on account of his political opin-
ions. In 1849 he played an important role in
the parliament of Frankfort, and was rein-
stated as professor at Leipsic, but was again
removed in 1853 for political reasons. He was
editor of the Deutsche Allegemeine Zeitung
(1863-6) ; and founded and edited a number of
other liberal papers. His works include ^Wis-
senschaft und Universitat^ (1838) ; *^Die Deut-
sche Philosophic von Kant bis auf unsere
Tage' (1842-3) ; ^Vorlesungen uber Socialismus
und sociale Fragen' (1847) ; 'Erinnerungen aus
der Paul's Kirche' (1849) ; 'Fiinfzig Jahre in
Dienste des nationalen Gedankens* (1892).

Biefve, Eduard de, byef a-doo-ar de, Bel-
gian painter: b. Brussels, 4 Dec. 1809; d. there,
7 Feb. 1882. He painted many portraits, and
was also noted for his scenes from history. His
best known work probably is his * Compromise
of the Netherland Nobles at Brussels, 1566.-*
Among others are 'Last Moments of Anne
Boleyn.^ 'The Introduction of Rubens to Charles
I. of England,' 'Masaniello,' 'Raphael and La
Fornarina.'

Biel, bel, Gabriel, German philosopher: b.
Spire, about 1442; d. Tiibingen, 1495. He was
educated at Heidelberg and Erfurt ; and became
a cathedral preacher in Mainz. In 1477 he was
made provost of Urach, and an adviser in the
founding of the University of Tiibingen. where
he became professor of theology, in 1484. He
has been erroneously called "the last of the
Schoolmen." His principal work was ' Collec-
tor ium ex Occamo.'

Biela, be'la, Wilhelm von, Austrian officer
and astronomer: b. Rossla, 19 March 1782; d.
Venice, 18 Feb. 1856. On 27 Feb. 1826, he dis-
covered at Josephstadt, Bohemia, a new comet
which, a few days later, was sighted by Gambart
from Marseilles. Both noticed its similarity to
comets appearing in 1772 and 1805, and fixed its
period at between six and seven years ; but it
was named after Biela, who had first discovered
it. Shortly after its reappearance at the end of
1845 it was seen to divide into two portions, each
of which afterward developed a tail and a bril-
liant nucleus, features wanting in the original
body. In August 1852 the double comet reap-
peared, but this time the two portions were
much farther apart ; and not long after the comet
vanished, and has never been sighted since.

Biela's Comet, a comet of short period,
named after its discoverer, Wilhelm von Biela
(q.v.), who discovered it in 1826 and furnished
such data regarding its movements as to con-
vince the other astronomers of his day that he
had a proprietary right to it. The same comet
had been noticed 8 March 1772, and again in

1805. It was reckoned that the comet had passed
its perihelion six times between the two periods
without being detected by the astronomers. On
another visit it passed out of sight on 3 Jan.
1833. Its next appearance was in July 1839. It
was found again late in November 1845, and in
the following month an observation was made
of one of the most remarkable phenomena in
astronomical records, the division of the comet.
It put forth no tail while this alteration was
going on. Prof. Challis, using the Northumber-
land telescope at Cambridge, on 15 Jan. 1846,
was inclined to distrust his eyes or his glass
when he beheld two comets where but one had
been before. He would call it, he said, a binary
comet if such a thing had ever been heard of
before. His observations were soon verified,
however. Late in August 1852, the larger came
into view and three weeks later the smaller one,
now much fainter than its former companion,
was seen about 1,500,000 miles in the lead.
Schiaparelli's investigations showed it to be
probable that the comet is the illuminated central
mass of a stream of meteorites. The Leonid
stream of meteors revolves around the sun in
a period of 33^4 years, and the earth passes their
orbit every year, but meets the main swarm only
when passing the point of intersection of the two
paths. On 12 Nov. 1799, 13 Nov. 1833, and 14
Nov. 1866, the earth is known to have en-
countered a dense portion of the stream. As-
tronomers looked for the reappearance of this
stream of meteors 13-14 Nov. 1899, but were dis-
appointed, only a few stray meteors putting in
an appearance.

Bielaga, a Russian name for the great
European sturgeon {Accipenser huso), also
called "hausen* and "huso.'' See Sturgeon.

Bielaya, byel-a-ya, the name of 10 Rus-
sian rivers, the most important of which is about
500 miles in length, rises in the Ural ridge and
flows northwest to the Kama River. From April
to November it is navigable from its mouth to
the city of Ula, about 200 miles, regular trade
in minerals, lumber, and salt being carried on.
Of the other rivers of this name, may be men-
tioned the one in the government of Irkutsk, Si-
beria, which is a branch of the Angara ; and
another in the government of Yekaterinoslav
which flows through a coal region.

Bielefeld, be'le-felt, a town of Prussia, in
the province of Westphalia, at the northern foot
of the Teutoburger-Wald, 38 miles east from
Miinster. The river Lutter divides it into an
old and a new town. The best German linens
are manufactured here, flax-spinning and bleach-
ing are largely carried on, and there are various
other industries, among which some of the chief
are shirt-making, silk-weaving, the manufacture
of cycles and sewing-machines, and of cigars,
glass, cement, leather, etc. It contains a gymna-
sium, two hospitals, and other public buildingjs.
The castle of Sparenburg. built in 1017, is in
the immediate vicinity, and since its recent res-
toration has been occupied as a museum. Pop.
(1900) 63,044.

Bielefeld, a small town in Westphalia,
Germany, with 50,000 inhabitants. Particularly
noted as containing the Bethel colony for epilep-
tics.

Bielgorod, byel'go-rot. See Belgorod.

BIELO-OZERO — BIERNATZKI

Bielo-ozero, byel-6-o'za-ro (Svhite lake*),
a lake of European Russia, in the government
of Novgorod, whose outflow is carried by the
Cheksna River to the Volga. It is of a some-
what circular form, and has an area of about
430 square miles. A system of canals connects
it with Lake Onega, the Dwina, and other rivers,
and fishing is carried on in it.

Bielowski, bye-lov'ske, Augustus, Polish
poet : b. Krechowice, Galicia, 1806 ; d. 1876.
Among his poetical compositions is to be men-
tioned the historical rhapsody, 'Lay of Henry
the Pious. ^ He wrote a 'Critical Introduction
to the History of Poland' (1850), but his prin-
cipal work was the publication of 'Monumenta
Polonise Vetustissima' (1864-72) ; a collection
of Polish chronicles up to the time of Duigoz,
since his death continued by the Cracow Acad-
emy of Sciences.

Bielshohle, belz'hel-e, a stalactite cavern
in the Bielstien IMountain Harz, on the right
bank of the Bode. It was discovered about 1672,
but first made accessible in 1788. Its entrance is
108 feet above the bed of the stream ; and its
total length is 230 yards.

Bielski, byel'ske, Marcin, Polish historian:
b. Biala, near Sieradz, 1495 ; d. there, 1575. His
*Kronika swiata' and 'Kronika Polska* (i550
and 1564), contain the first comprehensive at-
tempt at a history of Poland. He wrote two
satirical poems, 'Sen majowy' (1590), and
*Seym niewiesci' (i595), picturing, in the one,
the degradation of Hungary, and calling upon
his countrymen to exhibit a nobler spirit than
the Hungarians, while the other gives a keen
analysis of the condition of Poland in his days.
A strategetical work of his, 'Sprawa rycerska*
(1569), gives valuable information upon the
condition of the -Polish army, and the character
of Polish tactics. After serving in the army,
and taking part, in 1531, in the battle of Obertyn,
he devoted himself for the rest of his days to
literary pursuits. In 1617 the bishop of Cracow
interdicted his 'Chronicles,^ as they were sus-
pected to contain heterodox sentiments.

Bienne, byen, Lake of, called in German,
Bielersee, a Swiss lake about 10 miles long by
3 broad, with a depth of 30 fathoms. Its scenery
is more beautiful than bold. Being eight feet
below the level of Lake Neufchatel, it receives
its waters by the Thiel and discharges itself
into the Aar. On the islet of St. Pierre, in this
lake, J. J. Rousseau resided for two months in
1765. That the lake was a centre of population
from remote times, the remains of numerous
pile-dwellings prove. At the northern extremity
of the lake is the town of Bienne, superbly seated
at the foot of the Jura, surrounded by ancient
walls with watch towers at intervals. It is a
busy manufacturing place, its industries includ-
ing watch-making, cotton-spinning, tanning, dye-
ing, book-binding, etc. A railroad connects it
with Nidau and Boujean and cable roads as-
cend the mountains near by. The town contains
among other institutions, the Wert Swiss Tech-
nical Institute, with its school for railroad em-
ployees, and a watchmakers' school. Pop.
(1900) 22,100.

Biennials, in botany, plants v^hich do not
produce flowers and fruit during the first year of
growth, but store up a stock of nourishment in
a thickened stem or root, whence they draw the
material for the growth of the second year, dur-

ing which flowers and fruits are developed and
the plant dies. Several of our commonest food-
plants, such as turnip, cabbage, and carrot, are
biennials. Under special circumstances, favor-
able to rapid growth, a plant, ordinarily biennial,
may become an annual.

Bienteveo, byan-ta-va'o, a flycatcher of
southern South America, related to our kingbird
and familiar about the villages and gardens of
the Argentine Republic. Its name comes from its
loud and cheerful cry, which resembles the
Spanish phrase Bien te Veo, "I see you well.'*
Unlike its rela^^^ives elsewhere, it erects a domed
nest of so elaborate a construction that it some-
times takes weeks of work to build it.

Bienville, Jean Baptiste le Moyne, byan-
vel, zhon baptest le mwan (Sieur de),
French colonist: b. Montreal, 23 Feb. 1680; d.
1765. In 1698, with his brother, Iberville, he
left France to found a colony at the mouth of
the Mississippi. In 1700 he constructed a fort
54 miles above the mouth of the river, and in
1701, at the death of Sauvolle, a second brother,
he succeeded to the direction of the colony, the
seat of which became Mobile. In 1718 he_ re-
ceived a commission as governor of Mississippi,
and about this time founded the city of New
Orleans. In 1724 he was summoned to France,
and, on 9 Aug. 1726, was removed from office.
In 1733 he was sent back to the colony as gov-
ernor, with the rank of lieutenant-general. In
1743 he was again removed and returned to
France, where he died.

Bierbaum, ber'bowm. Otto Julius, German
poet : b. Griineberg, Silesia, 28 June 1865. He is
a rising man of letters; his 'Songs of Experi-
ence' (or 'Poems That Were Lived') (1892), is
as yet his most noteworthy volume. Other works
of his are 'Studentenbeichten' (1897) ; 'Der
sunte Vogel von 1897 und 1899' 5 ^Ein Kalender-
buch' (1896 and 1898).

Bierce, Ambrose, American author and
journalist: b. Meigs County, Ohio, 24 June 1842.
He served in the Civil War as a lieutenant of
volunteers, and was brevetted major for gal-
lantry. In 1866 he went to California and for
30 years was closely identified with Californian
journalism. He edited the 'Argonaut,' and the
'Wasp,' and was a constant contributor to the
'Overland Monthly,' and San Francisco Exam-
iner. His publications are 'Cobwebs From an
Empty Skull' (1874) ; 'Black Beetles in Am-
ber' (1892); 'Can Such Things Be?' (1893);
'In the Midst of Life' (1898). His most popu-
lar work was originally published at San Fran-
cisco (1891), under the title of 'Tales of Sol-
diers and Civilians'; 'Fantastic Fables' (1899);
in collaboration with G. A. Danziger, 'The
Monk and the Hangman's Daughter' (1892).

Bierman, Karl Eduard, ber'man, kiirl ed'-
oo-ard, German naintcr; b. Berlin, 26 Julyj
1803; d. 16 June 1892. He first took up paint-
ing on china and decorative painting, then turned
his attention to landscape painting, studying in
Switzerland and Italy. He is one of the found-
ers of the Berlin School of Landscape Painting.
Perhaps his best-known work is 'Evening in the
High Alps' ; others are 'View of Florence,*
'Isle of Philse,' and the 'Temple of Edfu.'

Biernatzki, Johann Christoph, be-er-nats'-
ke, yo'hiin kris'tof, German pietist, poet, and
story writer : b. Elmshorn, Holstein, 17 Oct.

BIERSTADT — BIG-HORN

1795; d. Friedrichstadt, 11 May 1840. A coun-
try pastor, he devoted himself to the versifica-
tion of his own precepts and beliefs, the volume
*Faith^ being the result. In *The Brown Boy,^
and ^Hallig, or the Adventures of Castaways on
an Island in the North Sea,^ he displays a not
vnpleasing capacity for prose narrative.

Bierstadt, ber'stat, Albert, American paint-
er : b. near Diisseldorf, Germany, 7 Jan. 1830 ; d.
New York, 18 Feb. 1902. He removed with his
parents to New Bedford, Mass., in 183 1 ; began
to paint in oils in 1851 ; and in 1853 returned to
Diisseldorf to study his art, spending a winter
in Rome, traveling in Italy and Switzerland, and
returning to the United States in 1857. In 1859
he accompanied Gen. Lander's expedition to the
Rocky Mountains, and spent several months in
studies of mountain scenery. He was elected a
member of the National Academy in i860. In
1861 he finished his painting, "^Laramie Feak,^
and in 1863 ^View of the Rocky Mountains —
Lander's Peak.' These at once gave him a na-
tional reputation. Among his many other paint-
ings of American subjects are < Valley of the
Yosemite' (1866) ; <E1 Capitan' ; ^Looking
Down the Yosemite' (1865) ; * Great Trees of
California' (1874) ; 'Geysers' (1883) ; ^On the
Saco, New Hampshire' (1886) ; 'California
Oaks' (1886). <A Storm on the Matterhorn'
is the best known of his Alpine subjects. Bier-
stadt received many foreign medals and deco-
rations, and was a member of the National
Academy of Design from i860.

Biesbosch, bes'bos, a marshy sheet of
water interspersed with islands, between the
Dutch provinces of North Brabant and South
Holland, formed in November 1421, by an inun-
dation which destroyed 72 villages and 100,000
people, and spread over an area of 80 square
miles.

Blester, Joao Ernesto, be'ster, zho'own'
er-nes't5, Portuguese dramatist: b. Lisbon,
1829 ; d. 1880. He wrote some 90 plays, the most
noteworthy among them being 'The Nineteenth
Century Gentleman,' 'Luck and Labor,' and
*The Scandal Mongers.' He founded the jour-
nal 'Revista Contemporanea de Portugal e
Brazil' in 1859, and was its first editor. He was
for many years the most popular dramatist in
Portugal.

Biet, Antoine, bya, an-twan, French mis-
sionary, who in 1652 accompanied 600 colonists
to Cayenne, where he remained 18 months. He
was the author of 'Voyage de la France
Equinoxiale' (1664), with a Galibi dictionary at
the end.

Bievre, Marechal, be-avr, ma-ra-chal (Mar-
quis de), French writer: b. 1747; d. Spa, Ger-
many, 1789. He served in the corps of the
French musketeers, was a life-guard of the king
of France, and acquired much reputation by his
puns and repartees. After publishing several en-
tertaining works, he composed (1783) 'Le Se-
ducteur,' a comedy in verse, for the theatre,
which has maintained its place on the stage, al-
though it is bad both in plan and execution.
Mes amis, he said, dying, je m'en vais de ce pas
{de Spa).

Bifrost, be'frest ("the trembling way"), in
northern mythology the name of the bridge rep-
resented as stretching between Heaven and Earth
(Asgard and Midgard) ; really the rainbow. It

was used only by the gods and was guarded by
Heimdal.

Big Bend Country, a volcanic plain near
the centre of the State of Washington. It covers
4,800 square miles, a third of it being gently
lolling, brown loam prairie, suitable for farm-
ing, and the rest low hills and plateaus of bunch
grass and sage brush, where live stock is ranged.
The Columbia River curves round this region,
bounding it on the north and west and partly on
the southwest for 20 miles, and flowing in a
ravine 1,500 feet below the general level. It is
traversed by several remarkable chasms, many
miles long, and from a furlong to half a league
wide, with sheer walls of black basalt 500 feet
high. There are a number of wheat farms in
the region.

Big Bethel, Va., a village on the penin-
sula between the York and James rivers ; where
an unsuccessful attempt, directed by Gen. But-
ler, was made by Gen. Pierce, with four regi-
ments, to dislodge outposts of Magruder's Con-
federate encampment at Yorktown, 10 June
1861. The Federal regiments, under Townsend
and Bendix, en route for the Big Bethel camp,
mistook each other for the enemy, and fired.
This created great confusion. Pierce arrived
and pushed on to the Confederate earthwork
on Back River, destroying the camp at Little
Bethel. The Federal troops crossed Back River
and charged the earthwork, but were repulsed
with considerable loss, Maj. Theodore Win-
throp, the well-known novelist, losing his life
on this occasion.

Big Black River, an affluent of the Missis-
sippi, which it enters at Grand Gulf, Miss., after
flowing about 200 miles, 50 of which are naviga-
ble. On 16 May 1863 a battle took place on
this stream during Grant's pursuit of Pember-
ton toward Vicksburg. The Confederates were
defeated, and lost heavily both in killed and cap-
tured. McClernand, swiftly following the re-
treating Confederates, came upon them drawn
up on both sides of the Big Black River. Mc-
Clernand led 10,000 Federals, Pemberton, 8,000
Confederates, his main command having gone
on toward Vicksburg. McClernand began the
fight. He was for a time unsuccessful, but Law-
ler, discovering a weak spot in the Confederate
line, immediately took advantage of it and
charged impetuously.

Big Bone Lick, a salt spring, in Boone
County, Ky., 11 miles south of Burlington,
where fossil remains of mastodons and other
extinct fauna have been found. These animals
are supposed to have resorted here to lick the
salty earth in the vicinity of the spring.

Big-horn, the wild sheep of the mountains
of western North America, so called on account
of the massive, spiral horns of the ram, which
resemble those of the Asiatic argali. They
originally ranged throughout the whole moun-
tain system from New Mexico to northern
Alaska, and as far down the valley of the Mis-
souri River as the rough country extended.
They are still to be found in the loftier and
wilder parts of this territory, but remain nu-
merous only about the head-waters of the Yel-
lowstone, and thence northward. Their home
is upon the loftiest parts of the ranges, where
they find plentiful pasturage between the high-
est growth of timber, and the snow or ice of

BIG-HORN MOUNTAINS — BIGAMY

the summits ; and upon the elevated and rocky
plateaus of the Bad Lands of Dakota. In sum-
mer they wander about a good deal in small
flocks, climbing to the highest points, where a
wide out-look enables them to see quickly the
approach of an enemy, and where they are least
troubled by flies. In winter they are forced
to descend somewhat, but rarely enter the for-
est, finding shelter against the storm in the
mountain gorges, and sufficient dried grass upon
the wind-swept ridges. Its principal enemy,
in the old days, were the pumas and Indian
hunters, whose constant pursuit taught it an
alertness and wariness which now makes it one
of the most difficult animals for the sportsman
to approach. The speed, agility, and endur-
ance of this mountaineer, are equal to that
shown by any wild sheep or goat of the Alps or
the Himalayas, and equally tax the skill and
patience of the hunter. Its horns therefore
are highly valued as trophies, and its flesh is
universally regarded as the best of all western
game.

The common Rocky Mountain big-horn
(Ovis cerviiia) is a strongly built sheep, stand-
ing about 40 inches high. In color, in its sum-
mer coat, it is tawny yellow, and in winter, gray-
ish brown, with the face ashy, and a dark line
along the spine. The under parts, and a con-
spicuous roundish patch on the buttocks, are
whitish. The horns of the ram are of large
circumference at the base, and thick and rugged,
with a distinct keel at the outer edge; and sweep
around backward into a spiral, which is com-
plete in the largest specimens, and will measure
40 to 42 inches along the outer curve. A
smaller and paler variety of Utah and Idaho, is
called Nelson's big-horn. In the mountains of
British Columbia is found Stone's big-horn,
which is larger in size, and much darker in
color (almost black, indeed), with compara-
tively slender horns. A third species. Ball's
sheep, belonging to the mountains of central
Alaska, is perfectly white, with horns of mod-
erate size, and of a clear amber color. A fourth
species, also Alaskan, maj^ prove to be a variety
of Ball's, which it resembles, except that a man-
tle of brownish-gray covers the body, as if a
blanket were laid across its back. This last
species has been named Fannin's sheep. All
these sheep breed once a year, at the beginning
of warm weather, usually producing two kids at
a birth. They are hardly separable from the
argalis of northeastern Asia, and doubtless all
are descendants from the same primitive stock.
See Mayer, 'Sport with Rod and Gun' (1892) ;
Roosevelt. 'Hunting Trips of a Ranchman'
(1883) ; Baillie-Grohman, 'Fifteen Years' Sport
and Life in the Hunting Grounds of Western
America' (1900). See also Sheep.

Big-Horn Mountains, a range of moun-
tains beginning near the centre of Wyoming
and running north into Montana, containing
heights of from 8,000 to 12,000 feet, and cover-
ing 7,500 square miles.

Big Horn River, a river of Montana and
Wyoming. It rises in the Rocky Mountains
near Fremont's Peak, and flows northeast into
the Yellowstone. Along its course is some of
the grandest mountain scenery in the world. It
is navigable in its lower course, and has a total
length of 400 miles. At its junction with the
Little Big Horn is Fort Custer.

Big Jaw, or Lumpy Jaw. See Actinomy-
cosis.

Big Rapids, Mich., a city and county-seat
of Mecosta County, on the Muskegon River,
and several important railroads ; 56 miles north
of Grand Rapids. The river is here dammed in
two places, providing a very valuable water-
power. The city has the Holly system of
waterworks, and an extensive trade in lumber
and manufactures of furniture, sash, doors, and
blinds, coiled elm hoops, shingles, etc. Among
the noteworthy institutions is the Ferris Indus-
trial School. There are daily and weekly news-
papers, a private bank, several hotels, and a
public library. Pop. (1900) 4,686.

Big Sandy River, a stream forming the
boundary between ^\'est Virginia and Kentucky,
and flowing into ihe Ohio ; having two con-
fluent forks, Tug Fork, that rises in West Vir-
ginia, and West Fork, that rises in Kentucky.
It is navigable for 100 miles of its lower course
and flows through a timber and coal region.

Big Sioux, SCO, a stream of South Dakota,
uniting with the Missouri near Sioux City,
after a course of 285 miles.

Big Spring, Texas, town and county-seat
of Howard County, 270 miles west of Fort
Worth, on the Texas & P. R.R. It is of im-
portance as a railroad town, the division shops
and offices of the Texas & Pacific railroad
being situated here. It carries on an active
trade in live stock, hides, fruit, and agricultural
products. Extensive deposits of salt are found
underlying the region, and in the neighborhood
is the great spring for which the town is named.
Pop. (1900) 2,000.

Big Stone Lake, a body of water in Big
Stone County, Minn., drained by the Minne-
sota River. It is about 25 miles long.

Big Trees. See Sequoia.

Big Woods, a wooded tract in the south-
east part of Minnesota, extending south from
St. Cloud to Le Sueur, where it crosses the
Minnesota, and sends branches toward Fari-
bault and ]\Iankato. It is lOO miles long
and from 10 to 40 miles wide, covering 5,000
square miles, four fifths of which lie north
of the Minnesota. This great belt of hard-
wood timber is one of the most valuable
forests in the W^est.

Bigamy, in the canon law, means being
twice married ; in the common acceptation of
the word, as a term of ordinary law, it means
the being married to two wives or husbands
at the same time. The laws relating to
plurality of wives or husbands might be sup-
posed to come strictly under the head of
polygamy ; but, as it constitutes an offense
against these laws to have more than one
husband or wife, they are usually brought
under that of bigamy. The laws of every
civilized society make some provision re-
specting this subject. By the statute of 4
Edward I. stat. 3, cap. 5, the marrying of
a second husband or wife, the first being
alive, was made felony; and by that of 2
James I. cap. 11. this crime was made punish-
able by death. But the same statute provided
that, where either party was absent beyond
seas for seven years, whether known or not
known to the other party to be alive, or was
absent, though not beyond seas, for the same

BIGELOW

period, and not known by the other party
to be alive, the other party was at hberty to
marry again. Now, however, one of the
parties is not held guiltless unless the other
was absent continuously for seven years,
and was not known to be alive. The penalty
has been lessened by subsequent enactments,
and the guilty party is now liable to penal
servitude for seven years, or not less than
five; or to be imprisoned with or without
hard labor for not more than two. Every
person aiding or abetting the bigamist is
held to be equally guilt}', and may receive the
same punishment. By a Scottish statute of
1551 bigamy was made punishable as perjury
— that is, with confiscation of goods, imprison-
ment and infamy; now, imprisonment is the
usual sentence, but in some cases penal
servitude is inflicted. If the accused had
reasonable ground for believing the first
spouse dead, he is not guilty of the crime;
and if the first marriage was void for any
reason, or dissolved by divorce, the second
is not bigamous. In Scotch law, too, it is not
necessary that either marriage should be
regular for bigamy to be committed. The
statute of James I. has been adopted in most
of the United States as to the description
of the crime; but the State laws generally
diflfer from it as to the penalty, having as-
signed, heretofore, instead of death, as pro-
vided by the English statute, the punishment
of imprisonment and hard labor for a number
of years, according to the discretion of the
court; others leaving it to the verdict of the
jury to fix the period of imprisonment.

The New York statutes against bigamy are
substantially similar to those in nearly all the
States of the Union. These statutes provide
that any person who having a husband or wife
living, marries another person, is guilty of
bigamy, and is punishable in State's prison or
a penitentiary for not more than five years. The
statute does not extend to a person whose
former husband and wife has been absent for
five years successively, without being known
to him or her within that time to be living, and
believed by him or her to be dead ; or to a
person whose former marriage has been pro-
uounced void, or annulled or dissolved, by the
judgment of a court of competent jurisdiction,
for a cause other than his or her adultery or to
a person who being divorced for his or her
adultery, has received from the court which
pronounced the divorce, permission to marry
again ; or to a person whose former husband or
wife has been sentenced to imprisonment for
life. A person who knowingly enters into a
marriage with another which is prohibited to
the latter by the statute is punishable by im-
prisonment for not more than five years, or by
a fine of not more than $1,000, or both.

Big'elow, Edith Evelyn (Jaffray), Ameri-
can novelist: b. New York, 23 Dec. 1861 ; mar-
ried _ Poultney Bigelow (q.v.) 1884. She has
published ^Diplomatic Enchantments^ and sev-
eral novelettes.

Big'elow, Edward Fuller, American scien-
tist : b. Colchester, Conn., 14 Jan. i860. He was
editor of * Popular Science' for three years, and
of ^The Observer,' a nature magazine, for eight
years, and has lectured much on nature themes
for the New York Board of Education and in

private and other schools. He has published
•■Bigelow's Plant Analysis.'

Big'elow, Erastus Brigham, American in-
ventor : b. Boylston, Mass., 2 April 1S14; d.
Boston, 6 Dec. 1879. He became a leading man-
ufacturer in Clinton, Mass. ; invented looms for
suspender-weaving, for counterpanes, for coach
lace, and for carpets ; and published a text-
book on shorthand writing; ^The Tariff Ques-
tion' (1862), and other works.

Bigelow, Frank Hagar, American clergy-
man and meteorologist : b. Concord, Mass., 28
Aug. 1851. He graduated at Harvard in 1873,
and at the Episcopal Theological School at
Cambridge, Mass. ; was ordained in 1880, and
became assistant rector at St. John's Church,
Washington, D. C. In 1873-6 and 1881-3 he
was astronomer at the Cordova Observatory,
Argentine Republic ; in 1884-9, professor of
mathematics at Racine College, Wisconsin; in
1893 became professor of meteorology in the
United States Weather Bureau, and in 1894,
professor of solar physics at Columbian Uni-
versity, Washington, D. C. He has written
many articles on solar and terrestrial magnet-
ism, astronomy, and meteorology. His most
important contribution to astronomy is a mono-
graph on the solar corona, published by the
Smithsonian Institution in 1889.

Bigelow, Jacob, American physician: b.
Sudbury, Mass., 27 Feb. 1787; d. Boston, 10
Jan. 1879. He graduated at Harvard College
in 1806, and began medical practice in Boston
in 1810. He early became known as a botanist,
and a number of plants were named for him
by Sir J. E. Smith, in the supplement to *Rees'
Cyclopjedia,' by Schrader, in Germany, and De
Candolle in France. He founded Mount Au-
burn Cemetery, in Cambridge, the first garden
cemetery established in the United States. He
was professor of materia medica in Harvard
College in 1815-55, and Rumford professor there
in 1816-27. His works include < Useful Arts
Considered in Connection with the Applications
of Science' (1840) ; ^Florula Bostoniensis'
(1824) ; < American Medical Botany' (1817-20) ;
•^Nature in Disease' (1854) ! ^A Brief Exposi-
tion of Rational Medicine,' "^The Paradise of
Doctors, a Fable' (;i858) ; ^History of Mount
Auburn' (i860) ; ^Modern Inquiries,' and ^Re-
marks on Classical Studies' (1867).

Bigelow, John, American author: b. Mai-
den, N. Y., 25 Nov. 1817. He graduated at
Union College in 1835, and became first a law-
yer and afterward a journalist. In 1845-6 he
was inspector of Sing Sing prison ; in 1849-^1
one of the editors of the New York Evening
Post; in 1861-4, United States consul-general
at Paris ; and in 1864-7, minister to France. He
was secretary of state of New York 1875^7. In
his will Samuel J. Tilden appointed him his
biographer and one of the three trustees of
the bulk of his estate set apart for the estab-
lishment of a public library in New York.
On 22 Feb. 1895 a joint committee, representing
the Tilden Trust Fund and the Astor and Lenox
libraries, agreed on a plan for the consolidation
of those interests and the establishment of a
great public library to be known as the New
York Public Library, Astor, Lenox, and Tilden
Foundations. The agreement was ratified by
the several interests, an act of incorporation
was obtained from the legislature, and on 27

BIGELOW — BIGGE

May Mr. Bigelow was elected president of the
consolidated board of trustees, and appointed
chairman of the executive committee. His works
include ^Molinos the Quietist* ; ^France and
the Confederate Navy* ; ^Life of William CuUen
Bryant* ; 'Life of Samuel J. Tilden* ; "^Some
Recollections of fidouard Laboulaye* ; "^The
Mystery of Sleep* ; 'A Life of Franklin.* In
1885 he published *^The Writings and Speeches
of Samuel J. Tilden,* and in 1888, 'The Com-
plete Works of Benjamin Franklin.*

Bigelow, John, Jr., American military offi-
cer, son of the preceding: b. New York, 12 May
1854. He was educated in Paris, Bonn, Berlin,
Freiburg, and Providence, R. L ; graduated at
the United States Military Academy in 1877;
and was assigned to the loth United States
Cavalry. In 1887-9 ^vas adjutant-general of
militia in the District of Columbia ; and in
1894-8, professor of military science at the
Massachusetts Institute of Technology. During
the war with Spain he was wounded in the
attack on San Juan, Cuba, i July 1898. He
published ^Principles of Strategy, Illustrated
Mainly from American Campaigns* (rev. ed.,
1894).

Bigelow, Marshall Train, American printer
and proof-reader : b. South Natick, Mass., 5 Oct.
1822 ; d. Cambridge, Mass., 28 Dec. 1902. In
1843 he became associated with the University
Press in Cambridge, the firm name of which
from 1859 to 1879, was Welch, Bigelow & Com-
pany. He was long classed as one of the most
competent of American proof-readers. He pub-
lished 'Punctuation and Other Typographic
Matters* (1881) ; 'Mistakes in Writing English
and How to Avoid Them* (iT

Bigelow, Melville Madison, American law-
yer: b. Eaton Rapids, Mich., 2 Aug. 1846. He
graduated at the University of Michigan in 1866,
and engaged in practice in Boston. His works
include 'The Laws of Bills, Notes, and Checks* ;
^English Procedure in the Norman Period* ;
*The Law of Fraud on Its Civil Side* ; 'Ele-
ments of Equity* ; 'Elements of the Law of
Torts* ; 'Placita Anglo-Normannia* ; 'The Law
of Wills* ; 'The Law of Estoppel* ; 'Leading
Cases in the Law of Torts,* etc.

Bigelow, Poultney, American author: b.
New York (son of John Bigelow), 10 Sept.
1855. He graduated at Yale University, and at
the Columbia Law School in 1882, and was ad-
mitted to the bar. In 1875-6 he took a voyage
around the world in a sailing-ship which was
wrecked on the coast of Japan. He traveled in
China, Africa, the West Indies, and Demerara.
He has made canoe voyages on the principal
waters of Europe, and was the first person to
take a canoe through the Iron Gates of the
Danube. Emperor William II. has been his
personal friend since they were students together
in Germany. He wrote 'The German Emperor
and His Neighbors* ; ^Paddles and Politics
Down the Danube* ; 'The Borderland of
Czar and Kaiser* ; 'History of the German
Struggle for Liberty* ; 'White Man's Africa,*
etc. He edited the 'Outing* magazine. 1885-7,
and has also been correspondent of 'Harper's
"Weekly* and the London Times.

Bigelow, Robert Payne, American biolo-
gist: b. Baldwinsville, N. Y., 10 July 1863. He
graduated at Harvard in 1887, and studied at

Johns Hopkins 1891-3. In 1893 he became in-
structor in biology, and in 1895 librarian in
the Massachusetts Institute of Technology. He
has written a number of papers on zoological
subjects.

Bigelow, Timothy, American military offi-
cer : b. Worcester, Mass., 12 Aug. 1739; d. there.
31 March 1790. On 23 May 1775 he led a com-
pany of minute-men to Cambridge, and became
major in Ward's regiment. He was under Ar-
nold in the expedition to Quebec in 1775, and
was there captured, remaining a prisoner till
1776. He became colonel in 1777, and assisted
in the capture of Burgoyne. He also saw ser-
vice at Valley Forge, Monmouth, West Point,
and Yorktown.

Bigelow, Timothy, American lawyer (son
of the preceding) : b. Worcester, Mass., 30
April 1767; d. 18 May 1821. He graduated at
Harvard College in 1786. was admitted to the
bar, and settled in practice at Groton, Mass.,
in 1789. He took an active part in politics
as a Federalist, was for 20 years a member of
the State legislature, and 11 years speaker
of the House of Representatives, and a member
of the Hartford Convention. In 1807 he re-
moved to Medford, and kept an office in Boston.
His legal standing and practice were at the
head of his profession in his time ; and in the
course of 32 years, he was supposed to have
argued 10,000 causes.

Biggar, Hamilton Fisk, Canadian physi-
cian: b. Oakville, Ont., 15 March 1839. He
was educated at Victoria University, and pur-
sued his medical studies at the University of
Medicine and Surgery, Cleveland, Ohio. In 1866
he began practice in Cleveland, and in 1867
was made professor of anatomy and clinical
surgery in the Homoeopathic Hospital College
there. Later he was for 10 years professor
of clinical surgery, with operations in the same
college. In 1900 he held the chair of surgical
diseases of women and clinical surgery. Dr.
Biggar founded the Cleveland Training School
for Nurses, where he was dean for 10 years.
He wrote 'Twelve Months of Surgery* ; 'Loiter-
ings in Europe,* etc.

Biggar, Joseph Gillis, Irish politician: b.
Belfast. 1828; d. London, 19 Feb. 1890. He
succeeded his father in mercantile business in
1861 ; entered politics in 1869; and was elected
to Parliament for county Cavan in 1874. He
was a member of the Supreme Council of the
Irish Republican Brotherhood. When Charles
Stewart Parnell entered Parliament in 1875
Biggar ranged himself on the side of that leader.
He took an active part in the Land League move-
ment. In 1877 he was expelled from the Fenian
organization, and in 1880 delivered aggressive
speeches in Ireland. He was one of the few
prominent Irish members who were never in
prison.

Bigge, big. Sir Arthur John, English sol-
dier: b. Stamfordham. 18 June 1849. He en-
tered the Royal Artillery in 1869; served in
the Zulu war. 1878-9, with distinction, and in
1879 was appointed aide-de-camp to Maj.-Gen.
Sir Evelyn Wood. In 1880 he became groom-in-
waiting to the queen and assistant private secre-
tary : in 1881 equerry in ordinary, and in 1895,
private secretary and equerry to the queen.

BIGGS — BIJAPUR

Biggs, Asa, American jurist : b. Williams-
ton. N. C, 4 Feb. 1811 ; d. Norfolk, Va.,6 March
1878. He received an academical education, and
was admitted to the bar in 1831. He was a
member of the North Carolina Constitutional
Convention in 1835 ; was elected to the State
legislature in 1840, 1842, and 1844; was_ a
member of the commission appointed to revise
the State statutes in 1850, and was again sent
to the legislature in 1854. In 1854 he was
elected United States senator; resigned in 1858,
and was appointed judge of the United States
District Court of North Carolma.

Big'low, William, American educator and
poet : b. Natick, Mass., 22 Sept. 1773 ; d. Boston,
12 Jan. 1844. He was first established as a
teacher in Salem, and in 1799 delivered a poem
on education before the Phi Beta Kappa Society
at Cambridge. He then took charge of the
Latin School, Boston, preaching occasionally,
writing for different periodicals, and publishing
educational text-books. Here he fell a victim
to intemperate habits and was compelled to
retire to his home in Natick. In this state of
his fortunes it was his habit to lounge about
the newspaper offices at Boston, write poetry
for his friends, the editors, while the humor
lasted, and then return to his rural retreat. He
taught, also, a village school in Maine, and in
the latter part of his life was employed as a
proof-reader in the university printing office at
Cambridge. He had a genial and pleasant hu-
mor, and was a ready versifier, as well as an
agreeable prose-writer. His ^Cheerful Parson^
and others of his songs, were much admired by
his contemporaries and are well worthy of re-
membrance. He also published, in 1830, a ^His-
tory of the Town of Natick,^ and one of Sher-
burne, Mass. But his best and most numerous
writings were in periodicals, the * Village Mes-
senger,^ of Amherst, N. H., which he edited in
1796, the *^ Federal Orrery,' and ^Massachusetts
Magazine.'

Biglow Papers, two series of satirical
poems written by James Russell Lowell, the first
appearing in 1848 ; the second in 1866. They
were written in * Yankee*' (New England) dia-
lect, and attracted much attention by their hu-
mor. The first series was directed against the
Mexican war and slavery ; the second dealt with
the Civil War.

Bignon, Louis Pierre Edouard, ben-yon,
loo-e pe-ar a-doo-ar, French historian and
statesman: b. La Meilleraye, 3 Jan. 1771 ; d.
Paris, 5 Jan. 1841. He entered the National
Assembly in 1817; became a peer of France in
1837, and wrote a ^History of France' (7 vols.,
1827-38). He received from Napoleon L a be-
quest of $20,000.

Bigno'nia, the type-genus of the natural
order Bi^noniacecc, consisting of more than 100
species of mostly South American tropical climb-
ing shrubs, many of which are raised in green-
houses for their ornamental foliage and hand-
some tubular flowers of various colors. Some
species are used as cordage in South America
and are said to be employed in making mats,
baskets, etc. The cultivated species are gener-
ally of easy management if given good soil,
plenty of light, and space for both roots and
tops. B. capreolata, v/hkh has numerous orange-
red flowers, i& a c^'.^imon climber through-

out the South and as far north as Maryland.
In favorable soils and situations it often attains
heights exceeding 50 feet. It is known as
^'trumpet-flower" from the shape of its blos-
soms, and "cross -vnie'* and "quarter-vine'* from
the appearance of the cross-section of its stem.
It is sometimes confounded with its near rela-
tive, Teconia radicans, trumpet-vine (q.v.).

Bigordi, Domenico, be-gor-de, do-men-e-ko,
Italian painter: b. Florence, 1449; d. Florence,
II Jan. 1494. He was nicknamed Ghirlandajo;
teacher for a time of Michael Angelo and Gran-
acci ; founder of a new school of painting ;
painted chiefly sacred subjects; and executed
notable frescoes in Rome, Florence, and other
cities. His ^-Adoration of the Magi,' a panel
in the Church of the Innocents, and the "^Annun-
ciation,' on a cathedral entrance in Florence, are
among his best works.

Bihacs, or Bihatch, be-hatch', a fortress of
Bosnia, on an island of the Unna, about 50 miles
east of the Adriatic. It has a low and unhealthy
site, but is rentJirkable for its strength. The pos-
session of it has often been keenly contested
during the Turkish wars.

Bihe, be-ha', South Africa, a fruitful dis-
trict lying east of Benguela, and under Portu-
guese influence. It is an important caravan cen-
tre, as the only route across the Continent passes
through it. Area, 3,900 square miles. Pop.
95,000.

Bijanagur, be-ja-na-goor', or Vijayanaga-

ra, otherwise Hampi, India, an ancient city, now
in ruins, in Bellary district, Madras, 30 miles
northwest of Bellary. It stands in a plain, sur-
rounded by enormous masses of granite, and
covers an area nearly eight miles in circuit. On
the north and west it is washed by the Tungab-
hadra, and in other directions is enclosed partly
by natural precipices and partly by strong stone
walls. Among its edifices are a magnificent tem-
ple of Vishnu, with a pyramidal portico about
160 feet high, divided into 10 stories; another
temple, also entered through a painted pyramidal
portico ; and one of Rama, with pillars of black
hornblende covered over with elaborate mytho-
logical sculptures. These buildings, and many
others besides, are in the purest style of Hindu
architecture. Its ruin was eft'ected by a confed-
eration of Mohammedan rajahs, who took and
sacked it in 1564.

Bijapur, be-je-por', India, a decayed city
in the Bombay presidency, 160 miles southeast of
Poona. It was for centuries the flourishing
capital of a powerful kingdom, but fell therewith
under various dynasties in succession, Hindu
and Mussulman, till in 1686 it was captured
by Aurungzebe. It passed, during the early part
of the i8th century, into the hands of the Mah-
rattas, and became British in 1848. Now that a
gradual decay has done its worst, Bijapur pre-
sents a contrast perhaps unequaled in the world.
Lofty walls of hewn stone, still entire, enclose
the silent and desolate fragments of a once vast
and populous city. With the exception of an
ancient temple, the sole relic of aboriginal domi-
nation, the ruins are Mohammedan, and con-
sist of beautiful mosques, colossal tombs, a fort,
with an inner citadel, a mile in circuit. The
British government has done everything to pre-
vent further decay.

BIJNS — BILE

Bijns, binz, Anna, Flemish poet: b. Ant-
werp, 1494; d. there, 10 April 1575. Much ad-
mired for her melodious verses, full of meta-
phors and showing great technical skill, she was
styled the "Brabantine Sappho" by her contem-
poraries. The first of her volumes of collected
verse bore the title 'This Is a Beautiful and
Truthful (or Sincere) Little Book,' while a
second is known as 'Spiritual Refrains.'

Bikanir, be-ka-ner', India, a native state
of Rajputana, under the superintendence of a
political agent and the governor-general's agent
for Rajputana, lying between lat. 2"]° 12' and
30° 12' N. and Ion. 72° 15' and ']'i° 50' E. ; area,
23,173 square miles; pop. 831,955. In the whole
country there is not a constant stream, the
main dependence of the people being on wells of
poor brackish water which is drawn from
depths of 250 feet and upward, yet large flocks
of sheep are kept. The country is subject to
extremes of temperature in each 24 hours.

Bikanir, India, capital of the above state,
an irregularly built city surrounded by a fine
wall three and a half miles in circuit. It has a
fort, containing the rajah's palace, and manufac-
tures blankets, sugar candy, pottery, etc. Pop.,
including suburbs, 56,252.

Bikelas, Dimitrios, be-ka'las, de-me'tre-6s,
Greek poet and essayist : b. Hemopolis, island of
Syra, 1835. After completing his studies he
went to London, where his parents had settled,
and since 1874 he has lived in Paris. After
having published a collection of his poems in
London in 1862, he devoted himself to the task
of making Shakespeare's dramas known in
Greece through excellent metrical translations.
As a prose-writer he has won wide reputation
with his tale, 'Lukis Laras^ (1879), which was
translated into 13 languages.

Bilbao, bel-ba'o, Spain, capital of the
province of Biscay (q.v.) or Bilbao, situated on
the navigable Nervion, in a plain surrounded
with high mountains, a few miles from the sea.
The river is crossed by four bridges. The town
is picturesque, and well built, and contains sev-
eral good churches, two fine promenades, a
theatre, a marine school, etc. Bilbao carries on
an important trade and manufactures (the latter
consisting chiefly of sailcloth, ropes, and
leather), and possesses large shipyards and iron-
foundries, iron and steel works, etc. It is one
of the most flourishing seaports of Spain, though
its accommodation for shipping is defective, and
it is the seat of a United States consul. Various
harbor improvements, however, have recently
been carried out, including a breakwater and
mole. Bilbao exports much iron ore (especially
to the United Kingdom), also pig-iron, wool,
wine, etc. ; the imports are manufactured goods,
dried fish, timber, coal, etc. Its supply of water
and sanitary arrangements are not good. Pop.
(1896) 66,205.

Bil'berry. See Huckleberry.

Bil'bilis, Spain, an old Iberian city, two
miles east of the modern town of Calatayud, in
the province of Saragossa, chiefly celebrated as
the birthplace of the poet Martial, but also
famed for its highly tempered steel blades.

Bilderdyk, bil'der-dik, 'William, Dutch
poet: b. Amsterdam, 7 Sept. 1756: d. Haarlem,
18 Dec. 1831. He studied at Leyden, and in
1776 obtained from the learned society of Leyden

the first prize for a poem on the influence of
poetry upon governments. In 1780 he obtained
another prize for a poem on the connection of
poetry and eloquence with philosophy. Bilder-
dyk, besides, devoted himself to law, at The
Hague, with great success. On the invasion of
the Netherlands by the French he left his
country and removed to Brunswick, where he
studied the German language and poetry, and
afterward to London, where he delivered, in
French, lectures on literature and poetry. In
1799, after the new order of things was firmly
established in Holland he returned, and soon
afterward published some of his principal works.
Among these are a didactic poem on astronomy,
and masterly imitations of Delille's 'L'Homme
des Champs,^ and Pope's 'Essay on Man.'
Louis Bonaparte, on his accession to the throne,
appointed him his teacher of Dutch, and one of
the first members of the national institute found-
ed by him. Bilderdyk produced a number of
war-songs, which are considered to be among
the best in Dutch poetry.

Bile, the most important secretion of the
liver. It is formed directly by the liver cells,
largely from the blood, is collected by the bile
ducts, and discharged through the hepatic ducts.
Most of the bile is stored in the gall-bladder,
from which it is discharged in man by the
cystic duct and the common duct into the upper
portion of the duodenum, four inches below
the lower end of the stomach. As first secreted
in man it is a clear limpid fluid, but in the gall-
bladder it is mixed with mucin and becomes
darker, varying from dark brown to greenish,
according to the amount of oxidation of the bile
pigments. The bile of the carnivora is usually
yellowish in tint, that of the grass-eaters green-
ish, but the colors vary widely, dependent on
the oxidation. Bile is an alkaline fluid with a
bitter taste, and contains water, alkaline salts
of bile acids, bile pigments, traces of lecithin,
cholesterin, soaps and fats, and mineral salts.
The proportions of these are very variable. The
acids are known as glycocholic acid, yielding
glycocoll and cholalic acid, and taurocholic acid,
yielding taurine and cholalic acid. The pig-
ments are two, bilirubin and biliverdin, and the
color is a compound of the colors of these two
and varies with the proportion of each from
reddish-brown to grass-green. They are thought
to be derived from the hemoglobin of the blood.
The functions of bile are not clearly understood,
but it seems to aid in the digestion of fats ;
it is an important organ of excretion, getting rid
of many broken down products of metabolism,
notably the cholestrin and lecithin. It is an effi-
cient antiseptic, reducing the amount of exces-
sive fermentation in the intestines, it aids in per-
istalsis and thus overcomes constipation, and
perhaps has other functions connected with pro-
teid digestion. The amount of bile secreted daily
varies from 25 to 50 ounces, its secretion is
more or less uniform, but at the digestive
periods the stored bile of the gall-bladder is
added to the intestinal contents. Gall-stones re-
sult from concentration of the bile in the gall-
bladder. They are also formed as a process of
infection of the gall-bladder that creeps up
from the duodenum. Gall-stones following ty-
phoid fever are very common, and are probably
formed in this manner. As a result of inflam-
mation of the stomach and duodenum the com-
mon duct sometimes is inflamed and its walls

BILFINGER — BILL

swollen. This prevents the escape of bile into
the intestines and the bile pigments are taken
up by the blood and cause the familiar symptom
of jaundice (q.v.)- Biliousness, so called, is
rarely an affection of the liver, but much more
often a mild inflammation of the stomach and
intestines with catarrhal obstruction of the com-
mon duct that is not severe enough to dam back
the bile entirely. Clayey stools are usually
indicative of deficient bile-elimination. The best-
known stimulants of bile-formation and bile-
elimination are heat and the biliary acids them-
selves. The vast majority of the numberless
patent liver-pills on the market have no influ-
ence on the liver whatever ; they are simply
cathartics and empty the bowels. Consult
Schaefer, < Physiology^ (1898). See Digestion ;
Glycogex ; Jaundice ; Liver.

Bilfinger, Georg (ga-orn') Bernhard, Ger-
man philosopher and mathematician : b. Can-
stadt, Wurtemberg, 23 Jan. 1693 ; d. Stuttgart,
18 Feb. 1750. He was born with 12 fingers and
12 toes, and submitted to an operation which
removed the deformity. He studied with Wolf
at Halle and became a disciple of the school of
Wolf and Leibnitz. In 1725 he received an invi-
tation frown Peter the Great to the chair of logic
and metaphysics in the new college at St. Peters-
burg. He now solved the problem of the cause
of gravity proposed by the Academy of Sciences
at Paris, and gained the prize. Being recalled by
Duke Charles Edward of Wiirtemberg he re-
turned to Tiibingen and proceeded to lecture on
theology ; here his originality in style and ideas
soon made him popular, and in 1735 he was ap-
pointed a privy councilor. Here he displayed
great administrative ability, and by severe study
soon became as celebrated for his political and
statistical knowledge as for his scientific attain-
ments. He afterward paid particular attention
to agriculture and promoted the culture of the
vine. He was the author of numerous theologi-
cal and philosophical works.

Bilguer, Paul Rudolf von, bil'gvirer, powl
roo-dolf fon, German chess-player: b. Schwe-
rin, 1808; d. Berlin, 6 Oct. 1840. He entered
the Prussian army in 1833, and shortly after-
ward was promoted lieutenant. On 18 March
1840 he performed at Berlin the curious feat
of playing three games at once with as many
different opponents, conducting two of the con-
tests without seeing the boards and men. This
intense mental effort is supposed to have been
the primary cause of the illness which resulted
in his death. His < Chess Handbook^ (Berlin,
1843 and 1852), completed after his death by his
friend T. Heydebrandt von der Lasa, made an
epoch in the history of chess, and is still the
best practical work on that game.

Bilharzia, a parasitic worm, Bilharzia Jiema-
tobiuni, very common in Egypt and South Af-
rica, but rare in the United States. The
symptoms are usually those of cystitis, or in-
flammation of the bladder, with bloody urine.
The diagnosis is usually made by finding the
ova of the worm in the blood, by the micro-
scope. See Parasites.

Bilim'bi. See Blimbing.

Bilin, be-len', Bohemia, a town and health
resort seven miles south-southwest of Teplitz.
It contains a fine old castle built in 1680. and
one of more modern date ; several churches,

chapels, mills, etc. Within one mile of the town
are much-frequented mineral springs, from which
much water is exported. The salts and mag-
nesia obtained from the water form important
articles of commerce. It is an alkaline water,
and is used with advantage in certain concre-
tionary disorders. Here is also the singular
basaltic rock called Biliner Stein. Pop. (1900)
7,808.

Bilious Fever, an old name given to a
variety of conditions, but in all of which there
was characteristic low-grade fever associated
with a certain amount of jaundice, clayey stools,
headache, foul tongue, etc. It probably repre-
sents no one disease, but a complication of many
diseases. See Biliousness; Gastritis; Influ-
enza ; Malaria .

Bill, or Beak. See Beak.

Biliousness, a popular term to express
some affection of the liver, but in all prob-
ability a condition of disturbed gastric and duo-
denal digestion, and having nothing whatever to
do with the liver. In the article on bile (q.v.)
the passage of this liver secretion into the hepa-
tic duct and storage in the gall-bladder and sub-
sequent emptying into the duodenum, is de-
scribed. When the stomach is inflamed, this
usually extends a certain distance into the
intestines and as a consequence the mucous mem-
brane of the common ducts also becomes in-
flamed and swollen. This prevents the free
passage of bile into the intestines and therefore
its important function in digestion is stopped or
diminished. This results in further indigestion,
and causes constipation, and increased putrefac-
tion of the intestinal contents results. Thus
there is a chain of many links formed that
results in headache, heaviness, bloating, con-
stipation, foul tongue, foul breath, dark urine,
and in severe cases mild jaundice. The entire
series may have been set in motion by over-
eating, or drinking alcoholic liquors, or deficient
exercise, eating excessively of fatty (so-called
rich) food, or other hygienic misbehavior. Any
or all have started the mild inflammation of the
stomach or intestines, and the biliary flow has
been diminished. The trouble thus has nothing
to do with the liver. The treatment should take
into consideration the cause. Rest, careful diet-
ing, plenty of water, some mild laxatives, heat
over the pit of the stomach, and hot water
enemas, will usually right the condition. The
free washing of the bowels and the laxative
will usually cure the symptoms of poisoning,
headache, and heaviness. Dosing with patent
pills and teas are to be condemned. They
usually contain violent cathartics that irritate
the stomach and intestines. While they empty
the bowels and thus get rid of the poisoning
symptoms, they leave behind or increase the
conditions which permit of further trouble. See
Auto-intoxication ; Bile ; Constipation ; Di-
gestion ; Liver.

Bill, Brownbill, Glaive, Voulge, or Gisar-
me, all names for nearly the same instrument,
which, with some slight modification, was the
standing weapon of the English infantry at close
quarters, as was the long-bow their weapon
at distant range, from the days of the battle of
Hastings, at which the Saxons used the bill
and the Normans the bow, until those of Queen
Elizabeth. The original brownbill was a pon-
derous cutting weapon with two edges, that

BILL

forward of the shaft having a concave or sickle
blade, that to the back, a sort of angular cut-
ting face, the upper part projecting before the
base, so as to give a drawing blow. This ter-
rible instrument was nearly three feet long,
and 10 or 12 pounds in weight, set erect on a
shaft of three or four feet. It was wielded
with both hands, and could sever a horse's head
or a man's thigh or shoulder, through the
strongest mail or plate armor, as a modern
woodman's bill-hook slices off a hazel sapling.
The weapon was afterward lengthened and light-
ened, and provided with a spear head, so that the
holder could charge it like a lance, and some-
times with a cutting hook, for severing bridles
or pulling men out of their saddles.

Also a cutting instrument, hook-shaped to-
ward the point, or with a concave cutting edge ;
used by plumbers, basket-makers, gardeners,
«tc. ; made in various forms and fitted with a
handle. Such instruments, when used by gar-
deners for pruning hedges, trees, etc., are called
hedge-bills or bill-hooks.

Bill, a paper, w-ritten or printed, giving a
statement of the particulars of an account or
•action. A printed proclamation, an advertise-
ment, an act of Congress or parliament, or a
tradesman's account is a bill.

In Legislation. — A term used to signify a
special act passed by the legislature in the
■e.xercise of a quasi judicial power. Thus, bills
■of attainder, bills of pains and penalties are
spoken of. The draft of a law submitted to the
consideration of a legislative body for its adop-
tion or rejection. The Constitution of the United
States provides that all bills for raising reve-
nue must originate in the House of Represent-
atives, but the Senate may propose or concur
with amendments as on other bills. Every bill
before it becomes a law must be approved by
the President of the United States, or within
10 days returned, with his objections, to the
House in which it originated. Two thirds of
•each House may then enact it into a law. These
provisions are copied in the constitutions of a
majority of the States.

Bill of Adventure. — A writing signed by a
merchant, in which he states that certain goods
shipped in his name really belong to another
person, at whose risk the adventure is made.

Bill of Attainder. — A bill declaring that the
person named in it is attainted and his property
confiscated. The Constitution of the United
States declares that no State shall pass any
bill of attainder. During the Revolutionary
War, bills of attainder and expost facto acts of
confiscation were passed to a wide extent. The
evils resulting from them, in times of cooler
reflection, were discovered to have far out-
weighed any imaginary good.

Bill of Costs. — A statement of the items
which form the total amount of the costs of a
suit or action. This is demandable as a matter
of right before the pa^^ment of the costs.

Bill of Credit. — A letter sent by an agent
or other person to a merchant, desiring him
to give the bearer credit for goods or money.
It is frequenth' given to one about to travel
and empowers him to take up money from the
foreign correspondents of the person from whom
the bill or letter of credit was received.

Bill of Entry. — A written account of goods
entered at the custom-house, whether imported
or designed for exportation.

Bill of Exceptions. — A bill of the nature of
an appeal from a judge who is held to have
misstated the law, whether by ignorance, by
inadvertence, or by design. This the judge is
bound to seal if he be requested by the counsel
on either side so to do. The exceptions noted
are reviewed by the court to which appeal is
taken, and if the objections made to the rulings
of the trial judge are well founded, the finding
in the case is reversed, and usually the cause is
remanded for a new trial.

Bill of Exchange. — A bill or security origi-
nally introduced for enabling a merchant in one
country to remit money to a correspondent in
the other. It is an open letter of request from
one man to another, desiring him to pay to a
third party a specified sum and put it to the
account of the first.

Bill of Health. — A certificate given to the
master of a ship clearing out of a port in
which contagious disease is epidemic, or is sus-
pected to be so, certifying to the state of health
of the crew and passengers on board.

Bill of Indictment. — A written accusation
made against one or more persons having com-
mitted a specified crime or misdemeanor. It is
preferred to and presented on oath by a grand
jury. If the grand jury find the allegations
unproved, they ignore the bill, giving as their
verdict, ^*Not a true bill'* ; if, on the contrary,
they consider the indictment proved, their ver-
dict is a "True bill.**

Bill of Lading. — A document by which the
master of a ship acknowledges to have received
on board his vessel, in good order and condition
(or the reverse), certain specified goods con-
signed to him by some particular shipper, and
binds himself to deliver them in similar condi-
tion, — unless the dangers of the sea, fire, or
enemies prevent him, — to the assignees of the
shipper at the point of destination, on their
paying him the stipulated freight.

The bill of lading should contain the name
of the shipper or consignor ; the name of the
consignee ; the name of the vessel and her
master ; the places of shipment and destination ;
the price of the freight, and in the margin,
the marks and numbers of the things shipped. It
is usually made in three or more original parts,
one of which is sent to the consignee with the
goods, one or more others are sent to him
by different conveyances, one is retained by
the merchant or shipper, and one should be
retained by the master. It is assignable by in-
dorsement, and the assignee is entitled to the
goods, subject to the shipper's right of stop-
page in transitu in some cases, and to various
liens. It is considered to partake of the cha-
racter of a written contract, and also that of a
receipt. In so far as it admits the character,
qualit3% or condition of the goods at the time
they were received by the carrier, it is a mere
receipt, and the carrier may explain or contra-
dict it by parol ; but as respects the contract to
carry and deliver, it is a contract, and must be
construed according to its terrns. 3 N. Y. 322 ;
6 Mass. 422. Under the admiralty law of the
United States, contracts of affreightment entered
into with the master in good faith and within
the apparent scope of his authority as master,
bind the vessel to the merchandise for the per-
formance of such contracts in respect to the
property shipped on board, irrespective of the
ownership of the vessel, and whether the master

BILLAUD-VARENNE — BILLFISH

be the agent of the general or special owner,
but bills of lading for property not shipped, and
designed to be instruments of fraud, create no
lien on the interest of the general owner, al-
though the special owner was the perpetrator
of the fraud. Under a bill of lading in the
ordinary form, having no stipulation that the
goods shipped are to be carried on deck, there
is a contract implied that the goods shall be
carried under the deck, and parol evidence to the
contrary will not be received. 14 Wend. 26.
But evidence of a well-known and long-estab-
lished usage is admissible, and will justify the
carriage of goods in that manner.

Bill of Rights. — A bill which gave legal
validity to the claim of rights, that is, the
declaration presented by the Lords and Com-
mons to the Prince and Princess of Orange on
13 Feb. 1688, and afterward enacted in Parlia-
ment when they became king and queen. It de-
clared it illegal, without the sanction of Parlia-
ment, to suspend or dispense with laws, to erect
commission courts, to levy money for the use
of the Crown on pretense of prerogative, and
to raise and maintain a standing army in the
time of peace. It also declared that subjects
have a right to petition the king, and, if Prot-
estants, to carry arms for defense ; also that
members of Parliament ought to be freely
elected and that their proceedings ought not to
be impeached or questioned in any place out of
Parliament. It further enacted that excessive
bail ought not to be required, or excessive fines
imposed, or unusual punishment inflicted ; that
juries should be chosen without partiality; that
all grants and promises of fines or forfeitures
before conviction are illegal ; and, that, for
redress of grievances and preserving of the laws.
Parliament ought to be held frequently. Finally
it provided for the settlement of the Crown.
In the United States, a bill of rights, or, as it
is more commonly termed in this country, a
declaration of rights, is prefixed to the consti-
tutions of most of the States. See United
States — State Constitutions of the.

Bill of Sale. — A deed of writing, under seal,
designed to furnish evidence of the sale of per-
sonal property. It is necessary to have such an
instrument when the sale of property is not to be
immediately followed by its transference to the
purchaser. It is used in the transfer of property
in ships, in that of stock in trade, or the good-
will of a business. It is employed also in the
sale of furniture, the removal of which from
the house would call attention to the embar-
rassed circumstances of its owner ; hence the
statistics of the bills of sale act as an index
to measure the amount of secret distress exist-
ing in times of commercial depression. In not
a few cases bills of sale are used to defeat just
claims against the nominal or real vendor of the
goods transferred.

Bill of Sight. — A form of entry at the cus-
tom-house by which one can land for inspection,
in presence of the officers, such goods as he has
not had the opportunity of previously examin-
ing, and which, consequently, he cannot accu-
rately describe.

Billaud-Varenne, Jacques-Nicolas, be-yo-
va-ren, zhak-ne-k5-lar, French revolutionist :
b. Rochelle, 23 April 1756; d. 3 June 1819. He
was bred to the legal profession, and having
come in 1785 to Paris, political events soon

began to occupy his attention, and in 1789 three
treatises appeared from his pen, entitled re-
spectively "^Despotisme des Ministres de France* ;
* Dernier Coup Porte aux Prejuges et a la
Superstition* ; and ^Le Peintre Politique.'
Another publication, ^Acephalocratie,' which
appeared in 1791, subjected him to a judicial
prosecution, and he was obliged to conceal him-
self for a time. He emerged from his retreat
on the triumph of his party in September 1791,
and in 1792 was elected a member of the Na-
tional Convention. On the trial of the king he
voted for execution within 24 hours. He con-
tributed to the overthrow of the Girondists, and
was subsequently chosen president of the con-
vention, and member of the Committee of Public
Safety, and in that capacity framed the Bulletin
des Lois and assisted in organizing the revolu-
tionary government. In 1795, on a reaction hav-
ing taken place against the ultra party, he was
arrested, and along with Collot d'Herbois, ban-
ished to Cayenne. On the overthrow of the
directorate he refused the amnesty offered by
Bonaparte. In 1816, on the restoration of
Cayenne to France, he was obliged to take refuge
at Port-au-Prince, in the island of St. Domingo.
Here he died in poverty.

Billaut, Adam, be-yo, a-dafi, or Maitre
Adam, French poet: b. early part of the 17th
century; d. 1662. A carpenter by trade, he
wrote rude but original poems, the gaiety of
which, together with the contrast they afforded
with his occupation, made them very popular
at the time. Voltaire called him "Vergil with
the Plane." The three collections of his poems
were entitled *The Pegs* ; ^The Centre-Bit* ;
and ^The Plane.*

Billbergia, a genus of about 40 species
of evergreen epiphytes of the natural order
Broineliacece, natives of South America and
often cultivated in greenhouses for their showy
flowers.

Bille, be'le, Steen Andersen, Danish naval
officer: b. Copenhagen, 5 Dec. 1797; d. Copen-
hagen, 7 May 1883. He was a member of the
expedition that went to South America in 1840,
and had command of a scientific expedition
round the world in the corvette Galatea, 1845-7.
In his ^Beretning om Corvetten Galatheas Reise
Omkrung Jorden, 1845-6 og 47* (1849-51) he
has given an account of this expedition.

Billet, the term given to a molding fre-
quently introduced in mediaeval architecture,
consisting of a torus ornamented by alternate
checkers, like a staff cut into short lengths and
disposed horizontally or around a molding, and
of another molding, composed of a series of
small projections, arranged around a curve in
alternate directions, but in a consecutive manner.

Billeting of Soldiers, the compulsory lodg-
ing of soldiers with the inhabitants of a town,
formerly a frequent practice whenever there
was a deficiency of accommodation in barracks
or regular quarters. The billeting of soldiers on
private householders is now abandoned gen-
erally, and billeting is reduced as much as pos-
sible by camping out and other arrangements.
In the United States the practice is regulated by
the third constitutional amendment.

Billfish, any of several fishes having nota-
bly long, beak-like snouts, as a gar, needle-fish,
or spearfish (qq.v.).

BILLIARDS

Billiards, the generic name of a group of
games ; is played in the United States usually
on a 5x10 table, fitted on each side and at
the ends with rubber acting as cushions. Ivory
balls driven by a wooden cue and varying in
size from 2 5-16 inches to 2 7-16 inches are
generally used. The bed of the table is slate,
from il^i to i^ of an inch in thickness, and
covered, as is also the rubber, with green cloth.
The body of the table and legs, and the rails,
are made from various designs of wood.

The origin of the game of billiards is shrouded
in mystery, but is known to have been played
in a crude way since before the birth of Christ.
It is mentioned m Shakespeare's 'Anthony and
Cleopatra* (1607), and it is now generally agreed
that the immortal bard, in his researches for
facts, had read of billiards before the birth of
our Saviour. Cathire More, a sub-king of Ire-
land, as early as 148 a.d., speaks of billiards
and billiard balls of brass. In the Confessions
of St. Augustine, born 430 a.d., mention is made
of the game of billiards. From this time until
the end of the 14th century very little is known
of the game. It is mentioned in Spencer's
< Mother Hubbard Tales* (1591). About this
time the French made it an indoor table game
by playing it on a square table with pockets
at each corner, and one in the center of each
side, a little cone in the centre of the table
called the "king.** and an arch of ivory, known
as the "port." Certain scores depended on pass-
ing the "port** and touching the "king.** As
early as 1734, as stated in Seymour's 'Court
Gamester^ these features of the game had dis-
appeared, and cues had begun to replace the
*'mast'* or "mace** first used. Billiards came
into fashion in the time of Louis XIV., whose
physicians recommended him this kind of exer-
cise after eating. Some profess to believe the
game of English origin, as the earliest and full-
est description of billiards is found in Cotton's
'Complete Gamester* (1674). The bed of the
table was then made of oak, sometimes marble.
Slate beds were first used about 1827. The
pockets of the tables at that time, called "haz-
ards,** were at first made of wooden boxes, nets
being employed soon afterward.

The billiard table is said to have found its
way into America through the Spaniards about
1570. At this time it was played in England,
France, Germany, and other countries, but the
size of the table and style of the game differed.
The English style of table and game was first
adopted by the Americans. Six by twelve, six-
pocket tables and four balls (two reds and two
whites) were used. Soon the tables were re-
duced in size from 6x12 to 5V2XII, then to about
5 feet wide by 10 feet long. Tables vary in
measurements. All match and tournament games
are now played on 5x10 tables, and are very
popular in all leading public rooms and clubs
throughout the United States, while the so-
called 4^x9 tables are almost exclusively used in
private residences and in small cities and towns.

It is only in the last 50 years that billiard
tables and their paraphernalia, and billiard play-
ing itself, have made giant strides. Until the
year 1855, when Michael Phelan, the father of
billiards, first introduced the celebrated com-
bination cushions, made of rubber chiefly, the
tools were necessarily crude and imperfect, and
greatly retarded the progress of the players up
to that period. Then was played the four-ball

game on a 6x12, six-pocket table. Two red balls
and two white balls were used. In the 'sixties
the tables were reduced in size to 55^x11, but
so fast did the professionals and amateurs im-
prove their games under the improved condition
of the table and tools, and in order to avoid
the seeming monotony of long runs, it was found
necessary to again reduce the size of the table,
from pockets to carrom, to about 5 feet wide and
10 feet long, and change the style of game from
four-ball to three-ball game. This was done
early in the 'seventies. Experts soon became so
proficient at this style of game as to render it
necessary to place restrictions on the bed of
the table by drawing lines first 8 inches, then
10, 12, 14, and finally 18 inches from the edge
of the cushions the entire length and width
of the table — called balk-line game. This
method of restricting the professionals and lead-
ing amateurs in no wise does away with the
beauties of the game, as the Masse, draw, follow,
and combination cushion shots are left intact.
The superb play of the professionals in this
country and in France, where the same style
of game is played, is due in a great measure to
the improved construction of the beveled table,
slabs, match rubber cushions, and to the ivory
balls, cue, cue tips, and chalk.

Various are the styles of billiards played
now, such as "three-cushion carroms," "cushion
carroms,** "champions' game,** "balk-line game,**
and the regular three-ball game.

Pool may be said to be, broadly speaking,
a branch of billiards, and is very popular with
the masses. It lacks the skill and variety of
billiards. Pool is played on a 5x10 or 4J^xg,
six-pocket table, and generally with gully attach-
ments—a new device that rather adds to the
popularity of the game. This gully is so placed
under the table that all balls, when pocketed
will drop into a basket at the foot of the table.
The most popular of the various pool games is
"continuous pool.** played with 15 numbered balls
and one plain white one — the cue ball. These
15 balls are arranged in a triangle form at the
foot of the table. The player's object is to drive
as many of the numbered balls successively into
one or other of the pockets as he can, subject
to certain rules and regulations. There are va-
rious other kinds of pool games — "Americai,,**
"pyramid.** "Chicago,** "forty-one,** and otheis.
For a complete list of these various styles of
games, also all styles of billiards, with the rules
goveriiing them, the reader is referred to the
'Handbook of Standard Rules of Billiards and
Pool.* This handbook also gives valuable hints
on the care of tables, balls, cues, etc.

One of the most important parts that go to
make billiard playing complete is the cue and
cue-tip. The size and weight of the cue is a
matter of individual judgment, but nearly all
professionals and the best amateurs prefer one
that weighs from 19 to 22 ounces, with the
tip of the cue about a half inch full in diameter.
The cue-tip is one of the leading, if not the
leading, factor in billiard playing. Many public
and private games are lost because of the imper-
fect quality of the cue-tip, and many players
are wont to ascribe their defeat or bad play
to the tip itself. Much depends on the manner
of tipping the cue. Cue-tips are made in France
and are of comparatively recent origin. They
consist of two qualities of leather united, the
under leather being very hard and flat, while

BILLINGS — BILLINGTON

the upper or top leather is somewhat porous,
spongy, and springy. Selecting a good leather
and the tipping of billiard cues is an art in
itself, and has become so important an adjunct
to the success of the business that the leading
billiard halls in this country find it necessary
to employ a man to exclusively attend to that
branch of the trade. It is an art, for instance,
to hammer a tip down to the requisite firmness
before it is ready to be glued to the top of the
cue, over which the tip generally projects (if a
new one), on all sides. Inside of an hour's
time in dry weather, if the quality of the glue
is good, the tip may be finished off ready for
use. Turn the cue bottom side up, firmly press
the leather onto a table, then using a sharp
knife, cut the leather even with the top of the
cue itself, and pare the upper leather as one
would an apple, finish with sandpaper, size about
114, and smooth off with single O sandpaper.
A cue-tip, when ready for playing, should be
about half-moon shape, but many and various
are the shapes of tips. Never use sandpaper on
a cue-tip after it has been played with for a
while. If the tip becomes hard or greasy from
frequent use of chalk, roll it lightly with a
French file.

Billiards is without doubt far superior in
point of skill and science to any game played,
either in-doors or out-doors. Chess and check-
ers are purely mental and yield no exercise to
the body. Golf and other out-of-door games
are dependent chiefly on execution, whereas bil-
liard playing requires and combines both know-
ledge and execution. As a health-giving exercise
and recreation, restful to the mind, physicians
are now agreed that billiards leads all other
games, while divines, politicians, artists, men
of letters, and women, recommend it and play it
at home, in the clubs and public rooms. It is
steadily gaining in popularity among merchants,
bankers, and brokers, as a relief to the turmoil
of a busy life. No residence is thought com-
plete without its billiard table, and the ques-
tion is often asked "Which shall we have first,
the piano or the billiard table?'' and the answer
is — «the billiard table first.» Geo. F. Slosson,
American Billiard Expert.

Billings, Frank, American physician. He
graduated M.D. at Chicago Medical College,
1881 ; was interne at Cook County Hospital,
1881-2; studied in Vienna, 1885-6; professor of
medicine at Northwestern University Medical
School, 1891-8; professor of medicine and dean
of Rush Medical College, 1898.

Billings, John Shaw, American surgeon
and librarian: b. Switzerland County, Ind., 12
April 1839. He was graduated at Miami Uni-
versity in 1857, and at the Ohio Medical Col-
lege. i860; was demonstrator of anatomy in the
last institution, 1860-1 ; entered the Union army
as an assistant surgeon, 1861 ; was promoted to
lieutenant-colonel and deputy surgeon-general,
6 June 1894 ; and was retired, i Oct. 1895. He
was professor of hygiene in the University of
Pennsylvania, 1893-6; and in the last year was
appointed director of the New York Public
Library (Astor, Lenox, and Tilden Founda-
tions). After the close of the war Dr. Billings
took charge of the library in the surgeon-gen-
eral's office ; reorganized the United States
Marine Hospital Service ; was vice-president of
the National Board of Health, 1879-82; and had

charge of the compilation of vital and social
statistics in the Eleventh Census. He is a mem-
ber of a large number of American and foreign
scientific societies, and his numerous publica-
tions include: 'Principles of Ventilation and
Heating' ; "^ Index Catalogue of the Library of
the Surgeon-General's Office, United States
Army' ; ^National Medical Dictionary.'

Billings, Josh. See Shaw, Henry W.

Billings, William, American composer: b.
Boston, 7 Oct. 1746; d. there, 26 Sept. 1800. He
was by trade a tanner, and his opportunities of
instruction in any branch of knowledge, and
particularly in the theory and practice of music,
were few. A love of music and considerable
vocal skill, however, led him, while still young,
to become a teacher of singing and a composer
of psalm-tunes, which eventually found their
way into every church choir of New England
and became great favorites with the people. He
published no less than six collections of tunes,
which, with a few exceptions, were of his own
composition. They were founded upon the new
style of church music, then first introduced by
Tansur, A. Williams, J. Arnold, and other Eng-
lish composers, and their contrast to the dis-
mal old tunes previously in use naturally gave
them immense popularity, and in fact caused a
revolution in musical taste in New England.
They were far from being perfect in the requi-
sites of good melody and harmony, and their
author, in a quaintly worded preface to his sec-
ond work, entitled * The Singing Master's Assist-
ant' and commonly known as 'Billing's Best,'
apologizes for the errors which his first collec-
tion contains ; but the melodies were generally
good, and, had the composer enjoyed the advan-
tages for musical instruction which the present
age affords, his compositions would doubtless
have possessed a permanent value. Billings was
a firm patriot, and an intimate friend of Samuel
Adams, who frequently sat with him at church
in the singing-choir. Many of his tunes, com-
posed during the war of independence, breathe
the true spirit of patriotism, and were sung
and played wherever New England troops were
stationed. Billings may fairly claim the title
of the first American composer, for before his
time there is no record of any musical composi-
tion by a native of this country. He is also
known as ''the father of New England psalmody.'*

Billingsgate, a word said to have been de-
rived from Belinus Magnus, a somewhat mythic
British prince, father of King Lud, about 400
B.C. More probably it came from some unknown
person called Billing. It is applied to the cele-
brated London fish market existent at least as
early as 979 a.d., made a free market in 1699,
extended in 1849, rebuilt in 1852, and finally ex-
posed to the rivalry of another market built
1874-6. The word is also used to indicate foul,
abusive language, such as is popularly supposed
to be employed by fish-wives who are unable to
come to an amicable understanding as to the
proper price of the fish about which they are
negotiating. Billingsgate is used as a syno-
nym of coarse, vulgar abuse.

Billington, Elizabeth, English singer: b.
London, 1768; d. Venice. 1818. Her father \vas
a German oboe-player, her mother an English
singer. She made her appearance as a singer at
the age of 14, and at 16 married Mr. Billington,
a double-bass player. She made her debut as

BILLION — BIMETALLISM

an operatic singer in Dublin, and afterward
appeared at Covent Garden, where she secured
an engagement for the remainder of the season
of 1786 for $5,000, the manager giving her two
benefits. She visited France and Italy, and
Bianchi composed the opera of <Inez de Castro^
expressly for her performance at Naples.

Billion, in Great Britain and Germany, the
term used to denote a million millions. In
France, America, and elsewhere it denotes a
thousand millions. A similar difiference is
found in the use of the terms trillion, quad-
rillion, etc.

Billiton, East Indies, an island belonging
to Holland, lying between Banca and the south-
west of Borneo, of an irregular sub-quadrangu-
lar form, about 40 miles across; area, 1,863
square miles. Pop. (1897) 41,558.

Billon, an alloy of copper and silver, in
which the former predominates, formerly used
in Austria and Germany for coins of low value,
the object being to avoid the bulkiness of pure
copper coin.

Billroth, Theodor, German surgeon: b.
Bergen, on the island of Riigen, 26 April 1829;
d. 6 Feb. 1894. He was educated at Griefswald,
Gottingen, and Berlin ; was professor of surgery
at the University of Zurich in i860, and at
Vienna in 1867; in the war of 1870-1, he worked
in German hospitals on the Rhine. He was one
of the foremost surgeons of the day, not only
as an operator, but as an authority on micro-
scopic work, pathology, and military surgery.

Billy-boy, a flat-bottomed, bluff-bowed
vessel rigged as a sloop, with a mast that can be
lowered so as to admit of passing under bridges.
They generally belong to the Humber ports.

Bilney, Thomas, "Little Bilney'^ : b. prob-
ably at Norwich, about 1495 ; d. Norwich, 19
Aug. 1531. He studied at Trinity Hall, Cam-
bridge, and was ordained in 1519. He was op-
posed to the formal *'good works'* of the School-
men, and denounced saint- and relic-worship ;
and to these plain Protestant views he converted
Hugh Latimer and other young Cambridge men.
In 1527 he was arraigned before Wolsey, and on
recanting absolved, but was confined in the
Tower for over a year. Stung by remorse, after
two years of suffering, he began to preach in the
fields of Norfolk, but was soon apprehended and
condemned ; and although reconciled once more
to the Church, he had to suffer the penalty of
heresy, and was burned to death.

Biloxi, bil-oks'i. Miss., a city in Harrison
County, on Biloxi Bay, opening into the Gulf
of Mexico, and the Louisville & N. R. R. ; 80
miles northeast of New Orleans. It is princi-
pally engaged in the canning of oysters, fish,
fruit, and vegetables, and has also considerable
manufacturing and shipping interests, Biloxi
is the site of the first settlement made upon the
Mississippi by white men, under the direction of
Pierre Le Moyne d'Iberville, in 1699. Pop.
(1900) 5,467.

Biloxi Indians, one of the 10 groups of
tribes into which the Siouan stock of North
American Indians is divided. In 1669 they had
one village on Biloxi Bay near the Gulf of Mex-
ico. Thirty years later there were three villages,
Biloxi, Paskagula, and Moctobi. A few survi-

vors of the tribe are still to be found near
Lecompte, Rapides Parish, La.

Bilson, Thomas, English divine: b. Win-
chester, 1547; d. 1616. He was educated at Win-
chester School, and after completing his studies
at New College, Oxford, became successively
head master of the school and canon of the
cathedral of Winchester. In 1585 he published
a work, entitled *The True Difference Between
Christian Submission and Anti-Christian Re-
bellion,* intended mainly to defend the govern-
ment and policy of Elizabeth; and in 1593
another work, entitled *The Perpetual Govern-
ment of Christ's Church,* still considered one of
the ablest defenses of episcopacy. In 1596 he
was made bishop of Worcester, and was trans-
ferred in the following year to Winchester. In
1603 Bilson preached the coronation sermon
before James I., and in 1604 he took a promi-
nent part in the celebrated conference at Hamp-
ton Court. The translation of the Bible, exe-
cuted during the reign of James, was partly
submitted to his revision. He was buried in the
south side of Westminster Abbey.

Bilsted. See Liquidambar.

Bilston, England, a town in Staffordshire,
three miles southeast from Wolverhampton.
Pop. (1901) 24,034.

Bimetallism. Gold and silyer have been
used as money for thousands of years, both
the Old Testament and profane history mak-
ing frequent reference to such use of the pre-
cious metals. See Numismatics.

As time went on the metals were coined into
convenient pieces, and the weight and fineness
of the coins guaranteed by the government.
Finally, a legal ratio between the metals was
fixed and the coins made a tender in payment
of debts.

The term bimetallism is employed to describe
a financial system wherein gold and silver are
used as standard money and coined without
limit at a fixed ratio. Bimetallism proper im-
plies, first, that the money unit shall rest upon
two metals; second, that these metals shall
enjoy equal and unlimited coinage privileges:
third, that they shall be connected by a fixed
and definite legal ratio; and fourth, that the
coins made from them shall be a full legal ten-
der.

The term "limping bimetallism** has been
applied to systems wherein gold and silver were
used as standard money, but in which one of
the metals was not coined at all, or not coined
on equal terms with the other. The term, free
coinage, has sometimes been used to mean un-
limited coinage and sometimes to mean gratu-
itous coinage. Unlimited coinage is necessary
to a complete bimetallic system. When coinage
is limited the volume of standard money is regu-
lated by law ; when coinage is unlimited the vol-
ume depends, first, upon the total accumulation
of coin, and, second, upon the annual produc-
tion of the money metals. This sum is further
augmented by the coinage of gold and silver
plate when money becomes scarce, or lessened
by an increased demand for gold and silver in
the arts when money becomes plentiful.

Gratuitous coinage is not necessary to bi-
metallism, although it usually accompanies it.
A charge can be made for mintage without de-
stroying the bimetallic character of the system,
but such a charge necessarily creates a differ-

BIMETALLISM

ence between the coinage and the bullion value of
the metal. When coinage is gratuitous melted
coin can be recoined without loss ; when there is
a mint charge melted coin loses an amount equal
to the cost of coinage. The <*melting pot test'^
is, therefore, not a test of honest money.

Bimetallism does not rest upon any particu-
lar ratio ; the coinage ratio is fixed by law, and
can be changed by law. The ratio simply states
the proportion existing between the silver dollar
and the gold dollar when measured by weight —
that is, at the ratio of i6 to i, the silver dollar
weighs i6 times as much as the gold dollar.
While the legal and commercial ratios between
the metals have fluctuated from time to time
the legal ratio has, as a rule, caused the change
in the commercial ratio, and from the begin-
ning of history down to 1873 the fluctuations in
the commercial ratio were never as sudden or as
great as they have been since 1873. During the
400 years which elapsed between 1473 and 1873
the extreme variation in the commercial ratio
was from 14 to i to 16 to i, although during
that period there were greater changes in the
relative production of the metals than have
occurred since. For instance, between 1800 and
1840 the world's production of silver was about
4 to I in value, compared with the production
of gold ; after the new discoveries of gold in
1849 the production of that metal so increased
that the annual output of gold was soon
more than 3 to i in value, compared with the
output of silver, and yet during this tremen-
dous change in relative production the commer-
cial ratio was comparatively stable, owing to the
fact that all the gold and all the silver could go
through the mints into the world's currency.
Hostile legislation has driven the metals widely
apart since 1873 and it is the contention of bi-
metallists that friendly legislation will bring
the metals together.

The ratio of 16 to i is the one advocated by
American bimetallists, first, because it was the
ratio existing when the crusade against silver be-
gan ; second, because it is the ratio now existing
between the silver and gold coins in circulation
in the United States ; and, third, because an in-
crease in the ratio, made by increasing the size
of the silver dollar, would to the extent that it
vi^as joined in by other nations require the re-
coinage of silver coins into larger coins, and
thus reduce the world's volume of standard
money. If, for instance, the ratio were changed
to 32 to I by international agreement,
and the silver money of the world, ap-
proximating $4,000,000,000,000, were recoined
into $2,000,000,000, it would cause a shrinkage
of about 25 per cent in the total volume of
metallic money and, as contracts would still call
for the same number of dollars, such a change
in the ratio would transfer billions of dollars
in value from the wealth producers to the hold-
ers of fixed investments.

It will be noticed that bimetallism relates to
the legal status of the metals rather than to
their commercial value, and does not neces-
sarily imply the simultaneous or concurrent cir-
culation of both metals, although American bi-
metallists contend that the restoration of free
coinage at the ratio of 16 to i would result in
the concurrent circulation of both metals in this
country. When the ratio was 15 to i in this
country gold went to a premium of about 3 per
cent because the French ratio was 151^ to i ;

when our ratio was changed to 16 to i, silver,
being undervalued at our mint as compared with
its value at the French mint, rose to a premium
of about 3 per cent.

The Gresham law has often been quoted
against bimetallism. That law is merely a
statement, made by a master of the English mint
of that name, who announced as his observa-
tion that the bad coins ran the good coins out
of the country — the explanation being that
while, to a majority of the people, one coin was
as good as another so long as it would pass
current, the jewelers would melt and the deal-
ers in money would collect and export the
heaviest coins (coins passing by weight rather
than by legal tender outside of their own coun-
try). It can readily be seen that the Gresham
law was not intended to apply to the use of two
metals, and that it can apply to the use of twc
metals only when there is dii^erence between
government ratios. When, for instance, we had
a ratio of 15 to I in this country, and the
French ratio was 155^ to i, there was a tendency
to send American gold to France and bring
French silver to the United States, and yet
this tendency did not cause the exportation of all
American gold to France or of all French silver
to the United States. France, being at that
time the stronger nation commercially, fixed the
ratio and our gold rose to a premium. In the
payment of debts silver was the money em-
ployed, and gold, when it was used, was used at
its commodity price. After 1834 the situation
was reversed and silver went to a premium.
Gold was then, used for the payment of debts
and for general transactions, and silver, when it
was used, brought a premium. It is not fair to
say, however, that gold went out of circulation
entirely during the former period or that silver
went out of circulation entirely during the latter
period, for a great deal of the undervalued
coin remained here and served the purpose of
money, and to that extent relieved the pressure
upon other kinds of money. That which left
our country in exchange for another kind of
metal did not reduce our circulation, and the
exported coin still remained a part of the cir-
culation of the world and helped to fix interna-
tional prices.

In bimetallism the debtor always has the
option. This is true, not because of a desire on
the part of the government to favor the debtor,
but because the parity can be maintained in no
other way. If the debtor has the option the de-
sire of all debtors to secure that metal which is
the cheaper, will in itself, by increasing the de-
mand for the cheaper metal and decreasing the
demand for the dearer metal, tend to make the
commercial value of the metals identical with
the legal value, whereas, through the operation
of the same selfishness, the metals would be
driven apart if the creditor had the option, be-
cause the demand of the creditors for the dearer
metal would still further increase its price, while
the lessened demand for the cheaper metal would
still further decrease its price.

The arguments in defense of the bimetallic
system begin with the self-evident truth that
stability in purchasing power is the test of vir-
tue or honesty in money — that dollar being the
best dollar which changes least from year to
year in its command over all articles of mer-
chandise. Stability would not be so important
if all transactions were on a cash basis, but with

BIMETALLISM

fthe increase in credits, especially long time cred-
its, it is a matter of vital importance to have
the purchasing power of the dollar fluctuate as
Jittle as possible. Jacobs, in his work on the
precious metals, shows that an increase of 2
per cent a year in the purchasing power of the
dollar would amount to an increase of 500 per
cent in 100 years. It will be seen, therefore,
that the burden of national debts and other long-
time securities may be materially increased or
decreased by a change in the purchasing power
■of the dollar.

That the value or purchasing power of the
dollar depends upon the number of dollars has
been declared to be, and correctly so, the most
fundamental principal in the science of money.
To illustrate : if the business of the world is
adjusted to a certain volume of money, and that
volume of money is afterward suddenly doubled,
prices will necessarily rise, because there will be
more money with which to purchase other
things. If, on the other hand, the volume of
money is suddenly reduced one half prices will
fall because of the scarcity of money. Next to
absolute stability in the purchasing power of
the dollar or unit, the most desirable thing is
that any necessary change in the purchasing
power of the dollar shall be gradual rather than
sudden, and a sudden change in the value of the
•dollar can only be prevented by the prevention
■of a sudden change in the volume of money.
When it is remembered that the money changer
and the owner of fixed investments profit by a
rising dollar it is easy to understand why they
have always led the movements in favor of
scarce money.

Dr. Sturtevant in his book, entitled *^ Eco-
nomics, or the Science of Wealth,^ illustrates
the gradual change in the volume of metallic
money as follows :

^*Go]d and silver, considered as a standard
value, are an ocean flowing around the whole
■economic world, and very large additions at two
or three points are immediately distributed to
every part.'*

The quantity of metallic money is so great
that the annual addition to it is small in com-
parison.

Bimetallism is theoretically better than mono-
metallism (either of gold or silver), because
imder the double or bimetallic standard the vol-
ume of money changes less rapidly and less
suddenly than under the single standard. Thus
far history has shown no instance of a large
simultaneous increase in the production of both
gold and silver. There was an enormous in-
crease in the production of silver during the
i6th century ; then there was a great increase
in the production of gold during the year 1849
and the years immediately following. Early in
the 'seventies there was another increase in the
production of silver and we are just now enjoy-
ing a considerable increase in the production of
gold. In each instance the increase in the pro-
duction of one metal has spread itself over the
entire volume of money and has, therefore,
caused a less proportionate increase than it would
have caused had the world been using but one
me'V'jl, either gold or silver, as standard money.

The superior stability of the bimetallic sys-
tem over the monometallic system has been
shown by many illustrations, the most familiar
being that which likens the volume of money to

\'ol. 2—41.

a body ot water receiving the inflow from two
rivers instead of one.

The practical argument in favor of bi>
metallism is that neither metal alone furnishes a
sufficient quantity of money to support the
world's commerce. Bimetallism is, therefore,
actually necessary as well as theoretically ad-
vantageous. This phase of the question was not
much considered until after 1873 because, prior
to that date, there were sufficient mints open to
the coinage of both metals to furnish a mone-
tary use for every ounce produced. When all of
the gold and silver available for coinage could
go through the mints into the currency, each
nation could consider the question from a' purely
theoretical standpoint, because so long as the
commercial world had the benefit of the entire
volume of gold and silver, it did not make so
much difference how many nations used one
metal, or the other, or both. When, however,
the_ crusade against silver began and enough
nations joined in it to reduce the demand for
silver below the supply available for coinage,
then each nation was compelled to consider not
only its preference as to a standard, but whether
— and it was a vital question — it was always
sure of having a sufficient quantity of the chosen
metal.

The advocates of bimetallism not only con-
tend that the law of supply and demand regu-
lates the value of the dollar — an increase in the
demand, the supply remaining the same, raising
the purchasing power of the dollar, and an in-
crease in the supply, the demand remaining the
same, decreasing the purchasing power of the
dollar, but they also believe that supply and de-
mand regulate the market price of the metals.

The contention of monometallists that it is
impossible to fix a relation between two metals is
met with the reply that the relation between two
things of limited production, such as gold and
silver, can be fixed by any nation or group of
nations which can furnish a use for so much of
both metals as is available for coinage. Gold
and silver differ from agricultural products in
that they must be found before they can be pro-
duced. If gold and silver could be raised from
seed and cultivated practically without limit, as,
for instance, corn and wheat can be, it would be
very difficult if not impossible to fix a relation
between them, but they are called precious
metals because they are scarce.

The demand created by the government must
be considered as added to the demand created
by the arts. If the demand created by the gov-
ernment is sufficient to utilize the surplus over
and above what the arts require, the commer-
cial value can be kept up to the coinage value
for the reason that each owner will seek the
highest possible price, and so long as the gov-
ernment stands ready to convert a given amount
of metal into a given amount of money, he will
not have to dispose of the metal to any one else
for less than the government price. If the gov-
ernment, instead of standing ready to convert
one metal into money, stands ready to convert
two metals into money, it can make the com-
mercial ratio and the coinage ratio identical, if
there is a use for the money. The changes in
relative production would not affect this con-
dition so long as the government was able to
utili;'e all of the surplus of both metals.

The influence exerted by the legal ratio oa
the commercial ratio is well described by the

BIMETALLISM

Royal Commission of England, which in its
report of 1888 said : «Nor does it appear to us
a priori unreasonable to suppose that the exist-
ence in the Latin Union of a bimetallic sys-
tem with a ratio of 15^ to i fixed between the
two metals, should have been capable of keep-
ing the market price of silver steady at approxi-
mately that rate. The view that it could only
affect the market price to the extent to which
there was a demand for it for currency pur-
poses in the Latin Union, or to which it was
actually taken to the mints of those countries is,
we think, fallacious. The fact that the owner of
silver could, in the last resort, take it to those
mints and have it converted into coin which
would purchase commodities, at the ratio of
15^/2 of silver to i of gold, would, in our opin-
ion, be likely to affect the price of silver in the
market generally, whoever the purchaser and
for whatever country it was destined. It would
enable the holder of the silver to stand out for a
price approximating to the legal ratio and would
tend to keep the market steady at about that
point.^'

Independent bimetallists and international bi-
metallists agree as to the theoretical and prac-
tical benefits of the double standard, but differ
as to the ability of the United States to main-
tain the parity alone, the former believing, and
the latter denying, that under conditions as they
now exist our nation is able to utilize all the
silver that could come to our mint.

If our government offered to coin into mone}^
at a fixed ratio every ounce of gold and silver
presented at the mint, the supply brought to
the mint would necessarily come from one of
three sources — that is, from silver bullion al-
ready in existence, from silver coin of other
countries, or from the annual product of the
mines.

As there is no considerable quantity of silver
held in the form of bullion, there could be no
material increase in our coinage from that
source.

Whether silver coin would come to our mint
from other countries would depend entirely upon
the ratio. The fear that, under bimetallism, our
country would be flooded with the coined sil-
ver of the world, is entirely without founda-
tion, for the reason that our ratio, 16 to i, is
more favorable to gold than the ratio existing
between gold and silver in the nations that have
a large quantity of silver coin. France, for
instance, is the largest European holder of sil-
ver, but as her silver now circulates on a parity
with gold at a ratio of 15^ to i, it could only
come here at a loss equivalent to about three
cents on the dollar.

Whether the mines would furnish an exces-
sive amount of silver is a question about which
no one could speak positively, because no one
can foresee new discoveries or estimate the
possible exhaustion of mines now being worked.
There is, however, nothing in the past to jus-
tify a fear of over-production.

Raising the government price of a precious
metal does not necessarily increase the pro-
duction of it, neither does the lowering of the
price necessarily reduce the production. For
instance, the law of 1834 reduced the govern-
ment price of gold, and yet soon afterward
there was a wonderful increase in the produc-
tion of gold. The discoveries of silver follow-
ing 1870 were not brought about by an in-

crease in the price of silver, and for several:
years the production of silver increased, even,
with a falling market. The monetary use of gold>
and silver is the controlling use. If, by agree-
ment among all the nations, the legal tender
function was withdrawn from both gold and
silver, and other money substituted for them,
both would fall in value, just how much no-
one knows, because a fall in the price of either
of the metals would develop new uses and thus
increase the demand, which, in its turn, would
act with the supply in determining the ulti-
mate price. While it is probable that a higher
price for silver bullion would cause the re-open-
ing of some mines which have been abandoned
because of the low price of silver, the production
of silver would not be likely to be increased to
any such extent as has been imagined.

It is not out of place to refer, in this con-
nection, to another matter which has been the
subject of much speculation, namely, the cost
of producing gold and silver. The labor cost
has less influence on the price of gold and silver
than upon products of the soil. In the case-
of agricultural products, an attempt to raise the
price of anj' kind of crop much above the
cost of production would immediately be fol-
lowed by such an increase in the crop as to
at once cause a supply that would reduce the
price. If, on the other hand, the cost of pro-
ducing a particular kind of crop is increased
out of proportion to the price, the production
will fall off until the scarcity of the article
raises the price. In the case of the precious
metals, however, the supply cannot be in-
creased at will, and therefore the price does
not necessarily vary with the cost of production.
If, for illustration, all the gold mines were to
be exhausted excepting one, and this one mine
began producing just the amount that all the
mines now produce, but no more, the price of
gold would remain the same whether it was
produced at $1.00 an ounce or at i cent an
omice.

We have no means of ascertaining the labor
cost of either gold or silver. About 10 years ago
the director of the mint was asked for statistics
in regard to the labor cost of producing gold
and silver, and his reply was that there were
no statistics in regard to gold and none of any
value in regard to silver, because the statistics
were gathered from the mines in operation and
did not include the money expended in prospect-
ing and in mines that had ceased to produce.
No two mines in the world have produced
either gold or silver at the same cost for any
considerable period. If we take into account
the money spent in prospecting and the money
spent in the purchase of claims that have proven
worthless, as well as the money invested in
machinery and other appliances, it is probable
that more than $1.00 has been- expended for
every dollar of either gold or silver taken out
of the earth, and it is also probable that, dol-
lar for dollar, it has cost less to produce gold
than silver; first, because gold is often found in
nuggets, while silver is found in veins, and
second, because gold is often found on the sur-
face, while silver is, as a rule, a deep-mine
product.

Space does not permit a history- of the con-
flict between the standards in Europe. England.
has maintained the gold standard for about a
century and has exerted a controlling influence-

BIMETALLISM

on several other European nations. During
this period France, although free coinage is now
suspended, has been the most loyal supporter
of bimetallism and as late as 1897 offered to
join the United States in the restoration of
coinage, provided England and Germany would
do likewise.

After the gold discoveries of 1849, the Euro-
pean financiers became alarmed lest the in-
creased production of the yellow metal would
largely aid debtors, and there was quite a senti-
ment in favor of the demonitization of gold.
Writers like Chevalier were complaining that
holders of fixed investments were in danger
of suffering from a cheap gold dollar. It was
exactly the same argument that was made against
the white metal a little later when the Comstock
lode and other rich deposits of silver were dis-
covered.

Bimetallism in the United States. — The bi-
metallic standard was recommended by Jeffer-
son and Hamilton, and adopted by our govern-
ment by a statute approved by George Wash-
ington 2 April 1792. This law provided for the
free and unlimited coinage of silver and gold at
the ratio of 15 to i, the coins being equally
a legal tender for all debts public and private.
The Spanish milled dollar then in use in this
country contained the same amount of pure sil-
ver as our present silver dollar and, the ratio
of 15 to I having been adopted, the gold dollar
was made to weigh one fifteenth as much. The
silver dollars then coined (many of which are
now in existence), are sometimes called the
**unit dollars,^' because they have on the edge
the following inscription : ^'Hundred Cents, One
Dollar, or Unit."

In 1834 (28 June) the ratio was changed
from 15 to I to 15.988+ to i, which for con-
venience has been called 16 to i. The change
was made for the purpose of checking the
exportation of gold, but as the new ratio under-
valued silver it made gold the money in general
use. This law, supported by Thomas H. Ben-
ton, and approved by Andrew Jackson, provided
for the free and unlimited coinage of gold and
silver into full legal tender money at the new
ratio. In 1837 (28 January) the alloy in the
dollar, both gold and silver, was changed from
one twelfth to one tenth, making the weight of
the standard silver dollar 41214 grains, nine
tenths fine, and the weight of the standard gold
dollar 258-10 grains, nine tenths fine.

As the law of 1834 undervalued silver and
led to the exportation of considerable quantities
of it, it became difficult to keep fractional cur-
rency in circulation, and to remed}'- this the
law of 1853 was enacted. By the terms of this
law subsidiary silver (that is, coins of less de-
nomination than $1.00), were reduced from full
weight to light weight and made token money,
with limited legal tender, instead of standard
money. This law, however, did not change the
provision in regard to the standard silver dol-
lar, the free and unlimited coinage of that
dollar still continuing. The subsidiary silver
coins were redeemable in the standard mone\%
either gold or silver. Sometimes the Act of
1834 has been referred to as establishing the
gold standard, but this is erroneous. It merely
changed the ratio and that, too, by reducing the
weight of the dearer dollar, not by increasing
the cheaper dollar. Equally erroneous is the
assertion that the Act of 1853 established the

gold standard. That did not in the least
change the law relating to the standard money,
either gold or silver.

On 12 July 1873 the demonetization of silver
was eft'ected by an act entitled "An Act Re-
vising and Amending the Laws Relative to the
Mints, Assay Offices, and Coinage of the United
States. ^^ (A similar law having the same pur-
pose had just before been enacted in England,
and a copy of it delivered to the director of our
mint.)

When this law was passed the business of
the country was being transacted with paper
money, both gold and silver being at a pre-
mium — silver at a greater premium than gold.
No attention was being paid to the subject of
metallic money and the purpose of the law of
1873 was not generally understood. In making
provision for silver coinage it omitted the coin-
age of the standard silver dollar, and substituted
for it a trade dollar of 420 grains which was
intended for use in the Orient, it being thought
that the trade dollar would compete with the
Mexican dollar in China and other Eastern
countries. In 1874 (20 January) the Federal stat-
utes were revised, and in this revision a clause
was inserted limiting the legal tender of silver
coins to $5.00. Neither the Act of 1873 "or the
Act of 1874 was generally discussed, and it is
only the recognition of a well-settled fact of
history to say that this discrimination against
silver and in favor of gold was not known
among the people and not thoroughly discussed
even in Congress. When the matter became
known an active agitation for the restoration of
silver at once began, and nearly all of those
who voted for the measure denied that they
knew that the Act of 1873 was intended to
demonetize silver.

The suspension of silver coinage by the
United States alone would not have caused a
fall in the price of silver as measured with gold,
but other nations joining in the demonetization
of silver it soon became apparent that the mints
still open could not utilize all the silver avail-
able for coinage, and the gold price of silver
began to decline. The effort to reopen the mints
to silver resulted in the passage of what was
known as the Bland-Allison Act. The bill, as it
passed the House, under the _ leadership of
Richard P. Bland, of Missouri, restored the
free and unlimited coinage of gold and silver
at the ratio of 16 to i. The opposition in the
Senate was sufficient, however, to defeat the
bill in its original form, and to compel the ac-
ceptance of a substitute framed by Senator Alli-
son, whose name was thus connected with the
law. This compromise measure provided that
there should be ^'coined at the several mints of
the United States silver dollars of the weight of
412^ grains troy of standard silver as provided
by the Act of January 1837.'* and also provided
that such silver dollars "together with all silver
dollars heretofore coined by the United States
of like weight and fineness'' should be "a legal
tender at their nominal value for all debts and
dues public and private, except where otherwise
expressly stipulated in the contract. ''

It will be seen that this law restored the
coinage of silver dollars under the law of 1837,
but did not contain the former provision in re-
gard to the unlimited coinage of silver on
private account as gold was then and is now
coined. In order to secure the bullion out of

BIMETALLISM

which to coin the dollars mentioned in the Act
of 1878, the law provided ^<that the secretary of
the treasury is authorized and directed to pur-
chase, from time to time, silver bullion, at the
market price thereof, not less than $2,000,000
worth per month, nor more than $4,000,000
worth, and cause the same to be coined monthlj^,
as fast as so purchased, into such dollars.'^

In carrying out the provisions of the law, the
Treasury Department purchased the minimum
required rather than the maximum permitted.

It will be seen, also, that while the silver
dollar was restored to general legal tender, a
provision was inserted that permitted the exclu-
sion of the dollar by private contract — that is,
private individuals were permitted to discrimi-
nate against silver, although they were not
permitted to discriminate against gold. The
purchase of silver for coinage under this act
retarded the fall in the price of silver, but as it
did not consume the entire surplus it was not
sufficient to restore the price of bullion to the
coinage price of $1.29 an ounce.

The Bland-Allison Act remained on the
statute books until 1890, when it was repealed
by what was known as the Sherman Purchase
Act, which provided for the purchase of
4,500,000 ounces of silver per month, or so
much thereof as might be offered at a price not
exceeding the coinage value, the bullion to be
paid for by the issue of treasury notes, redeem-
able in coin, and after the first of July 1891 only
so much of the silver was to be coined as was
necessary to redeem the treasury notes pre-
sented.

This act immediately increased the demand
for silver and raised the price of silver bullion,
not only in the United States, but all over the
world, to about $1.21 an ounce. But when it
was found that even this demand was not suffi-
cient to utilize all the surplus silver, the price
again began to fall.

Secretary Rusk, in the Agricultural Report
of 1890, called attention to the fact that the
Sherman Purchase Law raised the price of sil-
ver and declared that that rise in price ^'unques-
tionably had much to do with the recent ad-
vance in the price of cereals," and added, '*the
same cause has advanced the price of wheat in
Russia and India, and in the same degree re-
duced their power of competition. English
gold was formerly exchanged for cheap silver,
and wheat purchased with the cheap silver metal
was sold in Great Britain for gold. Much of
this advantage is lost by the appreciation of
silver in those countries."

The Sherman Act w-as also a compromise,
urged by the opponents of silver to prevent the
passage of a free coinage law. Mr. Sherman,
in his ^Recollections,^ published in 1895, thus
speaks of the strength of the free silver move-
ment, and of the purpose of the compromise :

"A large majority of the Senate favored
free silver, and it was feared that the small
majority against it in the other House might
yield and agree to it. The silence of the Presi-
dent on the matter gave rise to an apprehension
that if a free coinage bill should pass both
Houses he would not feel at liberty to veto it.
Some action had to be taken to prevent a re-
turn to free silver coinage, and the measure
evolved was the best obtainable. I voted for it.
but the day it became a law I was ready to

repeal it, if repeal could be had without sub-
stituting in its place absolute free coinage."

The treasury notes issued in the purchase of
silver were made a legal tender for the payment
of all debts public and private, except where
excluded by contract, and were redeemable by
the secretary of the treasury "in gold or silver
coin at his discretion." It will be seen that the
option as to the coin of payment was reserved
to the government, but another clause in the
measure which declared it to be ''the estab-
lished policy of the United States to maintain
the two metals on a parity with each other
upon the present legal ratio or such ratio as may
be provided by the law," was afterward con-
strued by the Treasury Department to deprive
the secretary of the option. At any rate the
department adopted the policy of paying in gold
when .gold was demanded, and although Secre-
tary Carlisle afterward declared before one of
the House committees that it would have been
better for the government to have reserved the
option, he, when he came into office, followed
the precedent set by his predecessor.

This ruling of the Treasury Department was
followed by the presentation of treasury notes
and a demand for gold, and the drain upon
gold which followed was used as an argument in
favor of the repeal of the purchase clause of
the law. The treasury note was declared to be
an endless chain, although it only became
an endless chain when the department surren-
dered the option which the law expressly con-
ferred upon it. It may be added that the same
endless chain argument has been made against
the greenback, and can be made against the sil-
ver dollar if it is ever made specifically redeem-
able in gold.

What has sometimes been called "the silver
movement" began with the discovery of the ef-
fect of the law of 1873, and has continued with
varying force ever since. It was called the sil-
ver movement, not because of partiality to
silver, but because silver was the metal dis-
criminated against. It might better be desig-
nated as the bimetallic movement, because it
was an effort to restore bimetallism, and the
supporters of the movement asked for silver
nothing more than was already granted to gold.
The movement did not originate in the mining
States, but extended over the entire country
and throughout other countries, the interest
being centred in silver as a money rather than in
silver as a metal.

During the period that has elapsed since 1873
three international conferences have been held
with a view to the restoration of silver (at Paris
in 1878 and in 1881, and at Brussels in 1892),
but they have been unsuccessful, largely because
other European countries have hesitated to act
without England, and England, being largely a
creditor nation, has been unwilling to surrender
the advantage which a rising dollar has given
her in the increased purchasing power of her
credits.

In the summer of 1893, the President, giv-
ing as his reason the suspension of the coinage
of silver in India, called Congress together in
extraordinary session and recommended the un-
conditional repeal of the purchase clause of the
Sherman Law. Congressman Wilson, chairman
of the Committee of Ways and _ Means, and
leader of the administration forces in the House,
introduced a bill identical in purpose and almost

BIMETALLISM

identical in language with one introduced by
Senator Sherman a j-ear before. The object of
this bill was to repeal the purchase clause of the
Sherman Law without substituting any provi-
sion for the further coinage of silver. It was
supported by all who were opposed to bimetal-
lism, and by some who declared themselves in
favor of bimetallism but criticised the purchase
of silver on the ground that it was contrary to
the theory of bimetallism. These insisted that as
soon as the Sherman Law was repealed the re-
mainder of the Democratic platform would be
carried out and bimetallic coinage re-established.
- A few were induced to support the measure
under the belief that the suspension of silver
coinage here would force European nations to an
agreement for the restoration of bimetallism
throughout the world. After a prolonged con-
test this bill became a law i Nov. 1893. Fol-
lowing this an attempt was made to secure the
coinage of the seigniorage which had accumu-
lated in the treasury'. This bill passed both
Houses, receiving the support of many who voted
for the repeal of the purchase clause of the Sher-
man Law, but the measure was vetoed by the
President. The administration then attempted to
secure the passage of a law avithorizing the issue
of gold bonds, but this was defeated in the
House of Representatives.

As the Act of 1893 virtually opened the cam-
paign of 1896, in which the silver question
figured so prominently, it may be well to con-
sider the platforms adopted just before and just
after that date.

During the period extending from 1873 to
1896 the platforms of the two leading parties,
while more or less ambiguous on the money
question, recognized the advantages of the
double standard. In 1884 the Republican plat-
form declared in favor of an international con-
ference to fix the relative value of gold and
silver coin, while the Democratic platform de-
clared in favor of "honest money, the gold and
silver coinage of the Constitution, and a circula-
tion medium convertible into such money with-
out loss.* In 1888 the Democratic party reaf-
firmed the platform of 1884, while the Republican
party inserted the following plank in its plat-
form: "The Republican party is in favor of the
use of both gold and silver as money, and con-
demns the policy of the Democratic administra-
tion in its efforts to demonetize silver."

In 1892 the Republican platform said : "The
American people from tradition and interest
favor bimetallism, and the Republican party
demands the use of both gold and silver as
standard money,'* and then followed a clause de-
manding "that the purchasing and debt-paying
power of the dollar, whether of silver, gold, or
paper, shall be equal at all times.*

The Democratic party that year denounced
the Sherman Law (the Act of 1890) as a cow-
ardly makeshift, and demanded its speedy repeal,
and then declared the party's position as fol-
lows:

"We hold to the use of both gold and silver
as the standard money of the country, and to
the coinage of both gold and silver without dis-
crimination against either metal or charge for
mintage, but the dollar unit of coinage of both
metals must be of equal intrinsic and exchange-

able value or be adjusted through international
agreement, or by such safeguards of legislation
as shall insure the maintenance of the parity of
the two metals, and the equal power of every
dollar at all times in the markets, and in the
payments of debts; and we demand that all
paper currency shall be kept at par with, and re-
deemable in, such coin. We insist upon this
policy as especially necessary for the protection
of the farmers and laboring classes, the first
and most defenseless victims of unstable money
and a fluctuating currency.''

The Populist party, which polled about
1,000,000 votes that year, demanded "the free
and unlimited coinage of silver and gold at the
present legal ratio of 16 to i.*' This was the
first national platform which specifically named
the ratio, but a majority of the Democrats in
Congress and many Republicans had for years
been voting for bills providing for free and un-
limited coinage at this ratio.

In the campaign of 1896, the money question
was the paramount issue. The Democratic plat-
form, adopted at Chicago, demanded "the free
and unlimited coinage of TDOth silver and gold at
the legal ratio of 16 to i, without waiting for the
aidor consent of any other nation." The People's
part}^ which met two weeks later, adopted a
plank substantially like it, as did also the Silver
Republican partj'.

The Gold Democrats, who withdrew from the
Chicago convention, met at Indianapolis and de-
clared in favor of the gold standard.

The Republican party said : "We are unal-
terably opposed to every measure calculated to
debase our currency or impair the credit of our
country. We are therefore opposed to the free
coinage of silver except by international agree-
ment with the leading commercial nations of the
world, which we pledge ourselves to promote,
and until such agreement can be obtained, the
existing gold standard must be preserved."

In Alarch 1896 a resolution was adopted in
the English Parliament pledging the government
to assist in restoring the par of exchange be-
tween gold and silver, and this pledge encour-
aged many in this country to hope for an inter-
national agreement.

The campaign of 1896 resulted in the election
of the Republican ticket by a large majority,
but as that party had committed itself to inter-
national bimetallism, the verdict at the polls was
a victory for the double standard rather than
for the single gold standard.

In pursuance of the promise contained in the
Republican platform, President McKinley, imme-
diately upon taking his seat, sent a commission
to Europe to solicit co-operation in the restora-
tion of silver to its former place by the side of
gold, but this commission failed to secure any
concessions from England and no formal con-
ference was arranged.

In 1900, the Democratic part\% the People's
party, and the Silver Republican party adhered
to the positions taken on the money question in
1896, while the Republican platform' said : "We
renew our allegiance to the principle of the gold
standard and declare our confidence in the wis-
dom of the legislation of the 56th Congress,
by which the parity of our money and the stan-
dard of our currency on the gold basis has
been secured.'*

BIN — BINARY THEORY

The election in looo resulted in an increased
electoral and popular majority for the Republi-
can ticket, but other questions over-shadowed
the money question in this campaign, and the
result was again undecisive as to the standards.

The large and unexpected increase in the
output of gold in Alaska, the United States,
South Africa, and x^ustralia has very consider-
ably increased the supply of money, and to some
extent relieved the strain which began with the
demonetization of silver in 1873, but with the
white metal still furnishing nearly one half of
the world's basic money there is no reason to
believe from past or present indications that sil-
ver can be dispensed with as a standard money.
The gold standard cannot be accepted as a
finality in any country until it is accepted as a
finality throughout the world, for each nation's
supply of metallic money is influenced by the
demand created by each other nation. It is
probable, therefore, that what is called the
money question, will, in so far as it relates to
metallic money, increase or decrease in impor-
tance in inverse ratio to the supply of money,
occupying more attention when a decrease in
the volume of money reduces prices and being
less considered whenever an increase in the
volume of money increases prices. See Dem-
0CR.\Tic Party ; People's Party ; Republican
Party ; Silver Republican Party.

William McKinley and G. A. Hobart were the Re-
publican candidates for President and Vice-President
in 1896 and William Jennings Bryan and Arthur Se-
wall the Democratic candidates. The People's party
nominated Mr. Bryan, but substituted Thomas A.
Watson for Mr. Sewall for Vice-President. The Silver
Republicans endorsed both Bryan and Sewall. ^ The
Gold Democrats nominated John M. Palmer and Simon
B. Buckner. In 1900 William McKinley and Theo-
dore Roosevelt represented the Republicans; and Wil-
liam Jennings Bryan and Adlai E. Stevenson repre-
sented" the Democrats, Populists, and Silver Republicans.

Bibliography. — ^Coinage Laws of the United
States* ; English Gold and Silver Commission,
Report for 1888 ; International Conferences of
1878, 1881, and 1892 (Reports) ; Altgeld (J. P.),
*Live Questions* ; Barker (Wharton), 'Bi-
metallism* ; Byars, 'The American Commoner^
(a biographical work containing Speeches of
Richard P. Bland* ; Cernuschi (Henry), 'No-
nisma or Legal Tender* ; Chevalier, 'Gold^ ;
Copperthwaite (J. Howard), 'Money, Silver,
and Finance'; Del Mar (A.), 'Barbara Vil-
liers, or a History of Monetary Crimes* ; 'His-
tory of ^loney,' 'History of Money in Amer-
ica,' 'History of Monetary Systems,' 'History
of Precious Aletals* ; George (Lyman R), 'Fall-
ing Prices* ; Gififen (Robt.), 'The Case against
Bimetallism* ; Grimaudet (Frangois), 'Law of
Payment*; Harvey (W. H.), 'Coin's Financial
School* ; Horton (Dana S.), 'Silver in Europe* ;
Humboldt (A. von), 'Fluctuations of Gold*;
Jacobs, 'The Precious Metals' ; Jevons (W. S.),
*Money the Mechanism of Exchange* ; Keeler
(B. C), 'How 'Silver was Secretly Demone-
tized* ; Laughlin (J. L.), 'History of Bimetal-
lism in the United States* ; Laveleye (Emil
D.), 'Elements of Political Economy' ; Leavitt
(Samuel), 'Our Monetary Wars' ; Littleton
(C. H. S.), 'Money and Prosperity'; Mill
(J. S.), 'Principles of Political Economy';
Muhlman, 'Monetary Systems of the World' ;
Price (Bonamy), 'Currency and Banking' ;
Price (L. L.), 'Money and Its Relation to
Prices': Read (George), 'Valics, or the Sci-

ence of Value' ; Seyd (Ernest), 'Bullion and
Foreign Exchanges' ; Smith (Adam), 'Wealth
of Nations* ; Stokes (Anson Phelps), 'Joint
:Metallism* ; Teller (James H.), 'Battle of the
Standards' ; Walker (Francis A.), 'Interna-
tional Bimetallism' ; Walsh (Archbishop), 'Bi-
metallism* ; Watson (David K.), 'History of
American Coinage.' 'The First Battle' was is-
sued by Mr. Bryan in 1897. It contained a
brief history of the silver movement, an account
of the campaign of 1896 and reproduces his
principal speeches on biinetallism.

William Jennings Bryan,
Editor '■The Commoner.'*

Bin, Jean Baptiste Philippe Emile, zhofi
bap-test fe-lep a-mel. French painter: b. Paris
10 Feb. 1825. He is a pupil of Gosse and
Cogniet. In 1878 he was made a member of
the Legion of Honor, and in 1881 was conspicu-
ous as one of the founders of the Society of
French Artists. Since that time he has taken
an active part in politics and has been elected
mayor of the i8th arrondissemenf. His 'Pro-
metheus Chained' is in the Museum at Mar-
seilles. Among his historic portraits, are those
of MM. Clemenceau, Rousseau, Deschamps, etc.
He works principally in portraiture and decora-
tive painting, in both of which lines he has been
eminently successful.

Binalonan, Philippines, a town of the
province of Pangasinan, Luzon, situated in the
western part of the island of Luzon, about 20
miles from the coast, at the junction of several
highroads. Pop. 10,295.

Binan, Philippines, a town of the province
of Laguna, Luzon, situated on the Bay Luzon,
about 15 miles south of Manila, on highroads
connecting it with Cavite, ^Manila, and other
important towns. Pop. 19,786.

Binary Arithmetic, a method of notation
invented by Leibnitz, but which appears to have
been in use in China about 4.000 years ago.
As the term binary implies, there are only two
characters in this notation; these are I and o.
By it, our i is noted by i, our 2 by 10, 3 by 11,
4 by 100, 5 by loi, 6 by no, 7 by in, 8 by 1000, 9
by looi, 10 by loio, etc. The principle is that
o multiplies by 2 in place of by 10, as on the
common system. Some properties of numbers
may be more simply presented on this plan than
on the common one ; but the number of places
of figures required to express a sum of any mag-
nitude is a fatal objection to its use. Indeed,
Leibnitz himself did not recommend it for
practical adoption.

Binary Logarithms, a system of loga-
rithms devised by Euler for facilitating musical
calculations. Instead of having, like the com-
mon system of logarithms, i as the logarithm of
10, and 43.429,448 as the modulus, it had i as the
logarithm of 2, and the modulus 1,442,695.

Bi'nary Star. See Double Stars.

Binary Theory, in chemistry, a hypothesis
proposed by Davy to reduce the haloid salts (as
NaCl) and the oxygen salts (as NaNOs) to
the same type, the monad CI' being replaced by
the monad radical containing oxygen (NOs)'-
Acids are hydrogen salts, as HCl, or H(N03)'.
A radical is only part of a molecule, which can
unite with or replace an element or another
radical, atomicity for atomicity. Thus the dyad
radical (SO4)" can replace two monad radicals.

BINBIR-KILISSEH — BINGHAMTON

<N03)'2, as in the equation Pb"(N03)2+
Mg"(SO4)"=Pb"(SO0"+Mg"(NO3)'2. A rad-
ical cannot exist in a separate state.

Binbir-kilisseh, ben'ber-ke-le-sa', some
ruins of ancient tombs in the pashaHc of Kara-
mania, Asia Minor, 20 miles north-northwest
of Karaman, supposed to occupy the site of
Lystra, where the cripple was healed by Paul.

Bindraban, bin-dra-bun', or Brindaban,

India, a town in the Northwestern Provinces, in
the district of ^lattra, and 33 miles north-north-
west of Agra, on the right bank of the Jumna.
It is famous as the scene of the youthful sports
•of Krishna, who has still many temples here.
Among these is a cruciform pagoda, which is
-one of the most massy and elaborate of Brah-
manical buildings. Pop. 31,611.

Bindweed. See Convoloulus.

Binet, be-na, Alfred, French psychologist:
b. Nice, 8 July 1857. At first he studied law
and medicine at Paris, but in 1S80 took up
the study of psychology, both experimental
and pathological, and was later appointed di-
rector of the laboratory of physiological
psychology at the Sorbonne, Paris. He has
been one of the editors of 'L'Annee psycho-
logique'; has contributed numerous articles
to scientific and philosophical periodicals, in-
cluding ^^Jind' ; and has written "^Animal
Magnetism^ (translated into English) ; ^Studies
in Experimental Psychology' (one part of
which, on micro-organisms, was translated sep-
arately) ; and ^Introduction to Experimental
Psychology' (with Philippe and others).

Binet, Victor Jean Baptiste Barthelemy,

zhon bap-test bjir-tal-me, French landscape
painter: b. Rouen, 17 March 1849. He be-
longs to the realistic school, and made his
■debut in the Salon of 1878, showing <The
Warren.' One of the most famous of his
pictures is ^The Plain at St. Aubin-sur-
Quillebceuf,' in the Museum at Amiens. In
1889 he was awarded a first-class medal at
the Paris Exposition.

Bingen, Germany, a town of the grand-
duchy of Hesse-Darmstadt, on the left bank
of the Rhine and the right of the Nahe.
Bingen existed in the time of the Rornans,
hy whom it was called Vincum or Bingium.
The bridge over the Nahe is said to have
been built by Drusus, and bears his name.
In the neighborhood are the remains of a
castle, where the Emperor Henrj^ IV. was
detained a prisoner in 1105, and the Mause-
thurm or JNIouse-tower, in the middle of the
river, the scene of the ancient legend of Arch-
bishop Hatto, who was devoured by rats. A
dangerous passage on the Rhine, called the
Bingerloch, has been opened up b}"- the blast-
ing of sunken rocks, leaving a channel of
210 feet wide. Bingen is the market for the
sale of wines produced in the neighborhood.
Pop. (1895) 8,187.

Binger, Louis Gustave, ban-zha, loo-e,
goos-tav, French soldier and African ex-
plorer: b. 14 Oct. 1856. He made his way
from the Upper Niger to Grand Bassani m
1887-9, thus connecting the French posses-
sions with the Ivory Coast. In 1892 he was
commissioner of the French government to
settle the Ashanti boundaries with England.

Bingham, Hiram, American Congrega-
tional clergyman: b. Bennington, Vt., 3a
Oct. 1789; d. II Nov. 1869. He graduated
from Andover Theological Seminary in 1819;
and was one of the first missionaries of the
Congregational Church to be sent to the
Sandwich Islands, where he acquired much
influence with the natives.

Bingham, Joel Foote, American clergy-
man: b. Conn. 1827. He entered the Con-
gregational ministry, but in 1871 exchanged
it for that of the Episcopal Church. He has
written *The Christian Marriage Ceremony' ;
•^The Twin Sisters of Martigny,' an Italian
story; ^Francesca da Rimini,' from the Italian
of Silvio Pellico.

Bingham, John A., American politician: b.
]Mercer, Pa., 1815; d. Cadiz, Ohio, 20 March
1900. He studied at Franklin College, Ohio,
and became a lawyer in 1840. He was
elected to Congress as a Republican in 1854,
and retained his seat 1855-63. He was
chairman of the managers of the House in
the impeachment of Judge Humphreys, for
high treason, in 1862. President Lincoln ap-
pointed him military judge-advocate in 1864,
and later in the same 3'ear solicitor of the
United States Court of Claims. He was special
judge-advocate in the trial of the assassins of
President Lincoln. He sat in Congress again
1866-73. He was one of the managers of the
impeachment trial of President Johnson.
From 1873 to 1885 he was United States minister
to Japan.

Bingham, Joseph, English clergyman and
antiquarian: b. Wakefield, Yorkshire, 1668;
d. 17 Aug. 1723. He distinguished himself as
a student at University College, Oxford, and
devoted his attention particularly to ecclesi-
astical antiquities. He graduated in 1688,
and became a Fellow the following year ; but
had to withdraw from the university on the
charge of preaching unsound doctrines. He
now became curate of Headbourn-Worthy,
near Winchester, and there, while possessed
of a scanty living on which his numerous
family could barely subsist, had the merit of
composing one of the most learned works of
which his church can boast. This work,
^Origines Ecclesiastics, or The .\ntiouities
of the Christian Church,' was published in 10
volumes octavo (1708-22), and is still a stand-
ard on the subjects of which it treats. The
best modern edition is that published at the
Clarendon Press (1855, 10 vols.). It was soon
translated into Latin and published in Ger-
many. In 1712 he was collated to the living
of Havant, near Portsmouth, where he died.

Bingham, Kinsley S., American legislator:
b. Camillus, N. Y., 16 Dec. 1801; d. Green
Oak, Mich., 5 Oct. 1861. He studied law and
went to Michigan in 1833. He was a judge
of probate, speaker of the State House of
Representatives; member of Congress
18-19-51; governor of Michigan 1855-9, and
U. S. senator 1859-61.

Binghamton, N. Y., a city and county-seat
of Broome Count}% at the junction of the
Chenango and Susquehanna rivers, and on
several railroads; 50 miles east of Elmira. It
stands more than 850 feet above tidewater,
and both rivers are here spanned by several

BINGLEY — BINNEY

bridges. The city is supplied with water by
the Holly system, which cost over $1,500,000;
has nearly 100 miles of streets lighted by
electricity, and contains over 30 churches,
and chapels, public school property valued at
over $425,000, a public library, two national
banks, and an assessed property valuation
exceeding $20,000,000. Among the attrac-
tions of Binghamton, which has been named
the "Parlor City," are Ross Park, Bennett
Grove, and the driving parks and fair
grounds. The noteworthy buildings include
the State asylum for the insane, U. S. gov-
ernment building, State armory, new court-
house, city hall, two orphan asylums, the
Commercial Travelers' Home, an opera house,
and the Casino. Binghamton ranks as the
third cigar-manufacturing city in the United
States, and according to the census of 1890
it then had 704 manufacturing establishments,
employing $9,058,651 capital and 10,191 per-
sons; paying $4,349,162 for wages, and
$7,659,207 for material, and having a com-
bined output valued at $15,040,152. Other
important manufactures are scales, chemicals,
furniture, sheet-metal work, glass, gloves,
and refined oils. An interesting feature of
the city is the large number of cottages owned
by the working people. Binghamton re-
ceived a city charter in 1867. Pop. (1900)
.39,647-

Bingley, Ward, Dutch actor: b. Rotter-
dam, of English parents, 1755; d. The Hague,
1818. In 1799 he made his debut on the
stage of Amsterdam, and almost from the
first took his place at the head of his pro-
fession, not only in the Dutch theaters, but
also in those which performed French plays
in Amsterdam and The Hague.

Bingley, England, a parish of the west
riding of Yorkshire, containing a town of
the same name, on the Aire, 55/2 miles north-
west of Bradford. The town contains the
interesting church of All Saints (restored
1871) in the Perpendicular style, several other
places of worship, an endowed grammar-
school, and a mechanics' institute. The chief
industry is worsted-spinning. Pop. (1901)
18,448.

Bingtang, bing-tang', an island of the
Rhio-Linga group, in the Malay archipelago.
Mount Bingtang, its highest peak, 1,368 feet
high, is in lat. 1° 4' N., Ion. 104° 28' E. ;
Rhio, the Dutch free port, is in lat. 54' 40"
N., Ion. 124° 26' 30" E. Area of the
island, 403 square miles; pop. with Rhio, situ-
ated on Tanjong Pinang, an adjoining islet,
about 20,000. The geological formation is
granite, overlaid with cellular clay ironstone.
Iron and tin are found, but not as yet exten-
sively mined. The gambier plant (uncaria
gambler), which produces terra japonica, is
the chief product of the island. A large
number of gambier plantations are cultivated
by Chinese colonists, who cultivate black
pepper at the same time; the refuse leaves
of the gambier, after obtaining the coagu-
lated decoction of commerce, being excellent
manure for the latter plant. Other produc-
tions are cocoa-palm, durian-fruit, much
prized by the natives, caoutchouc, gutta-
percha, and damar. Many valuable timber
trees are found on the island. The native

Malays, who are rude hunters and fishermen,
like the Orang Benua of the Malay penin-
sula, are now outnumbered by the enterpris-
ing Chinese.

Binion, Samuel A., American scholar and
author: b. Balvirziski, province of Suwalki, Po-
land, I May 1842. He was educated at the uni-
versities of Breslau and Padua and in King's
College, London; was a reader in the British
Museum and a superintendent of schools in
Seville and the Balearic Islands ; and was for
several years connected as a post-graduate with
the Johns Hopkins University in Baltimore^
where he also catalogued the works on Oriental
languages in the Peabody Museum. He has
contributed to current encyclopedias, translated
from the Polish Sienkiwicz' "-Quo Vadis,' ^With
Fire and Sword,' and *^Pan Michael,' and pub-
lished < Ancient Egypt, or Mizraim.'

Binmaley, bm-ma-la'e, Philippines, a town
of the province of Pangasinen, Luzon, situ-
ated on the Gulf of Lingayen, in the western
part of the Island of Luzon, only a few miles
east of the town of Lingayen. Pop. 13,787.

Binney, Amos, American merchant and
naturalist: b. Boston, Ivlass., 18 Oct. 1803;
d. Rome, Italy, 18 Feb. 1847. He graduated
at Brown University in 1821, engaged in busi-
ness with success, and devoted his leisure to
natural science. He was one of the founders,
and at the time of his death, president, of the
Boston Society of Natural History. His
writings on the land shells of America are in
the < Journal' and ^Proceedings' of that so-
ciety. His chief work, ^Terrestrial and Air-
Breathing Mollusks of the United States and
Adjacent Territories of North America' (3
vols. 1847-51) was issued under the direction
of Dr. A. A. Gould.

Binney, Hibbert, Canadian clergyman: b.
Nova Scotia, 12 Aug. 1819; d._ 1887. He
graduated at Oxford University in 1842. He
became bishop (Anglican) of Nova Scotia
and Prince Edward Island in 1851, this being
the first instance of England founding a
bishopric in her colonies. He attended the
General Convention of the Protestant Epis-
copal Church held in Chicago in 1886.

Binney, Horace, American lawyer: b.
Philadelphia, 4 Jan. 1780; d. 12 Aug. 1875. He
graduated at Harvard in 1797; and for many
years was at the head of the Pennsylvania
bar. He had a number of distinguished cases
in his career; the most noted one being the
defense of the city of Philadelphia against
the executors of Stephen Girard. He was a
member of the 23d Congress ; and a director
in the United States Bank. He wrote many
valuable papers, and was the author of *The
Leaders of the Old Bar of Philadelphia,'
<The Privilege of the Writ of Habeas Corpus
Under the Constitution,' and ^Reports of
Cases in the Supreme Court of Pennsylva-
nia' (6 vols.).

Binney, Thomas, English theologian: b.
Newcastle-on-Tyne, 1798; d. 1874. He was
pastor of Weigh House Chapel, London, for 40
years, and was a voluminous writer on polemical
subjects, his most successful ventures as an au-
thor being the hymn < Eternal Light! Eternal
Light,' and <Is it Possible to Make the Best of
Both Worlds?' a work for young men.

BINNIE — BIOGRAPH

Binnie, Sir Alexander R., English civil
engineer: b. London, 26 March, 1839. He
was educated at private schools. He worked
on Welsh railways 1862-6, and for the Indian
Public Works Department 1868-74; was en-
gineer of the city of Bradford 1875-90; con-
structed the Nagpore waterworks, the Black-
wall tunnel, the Bradford waterworks, the
Barking Road Bridge, etc. In 1897 he was
made chief engineer of the London County
Council. His publications include articles and
reports on professional subjects, lectures on
waterworks, papers on rainfall, etc.

Binns, Charles Fergus, Anglo-American
ceramic expert: b. Worcester, England, 4
Oct. 1857. A son of the director of the
Royal Porcelain Works in his native city,
he was superintendent of various depart-
ments there, 1872-97. Leaving England in
the last named year he was principal of the
Technical School of Science and Art, Tren-
ton, N. J., 1897-1900, and since June, 1900,
has been director of the New York State
School of Clay Working and Ceramics. He
has written 'Ceramic Technology^ (1896);
<The Story of the Potter' (1897).

Binoc'ular Mi'croscope, etc. See ]\Iicro-
scoPE ; Opera Gi..\ss; Telescope; etc.

Binomial, in algebra, a quantity consist-
ing of two terms or members, connected by
the sign + or — . The binomial theorem is
the celebrated formula which shows how to
obtain any power of a given binomial, as
a -\- b, from the two terms, a and b, and the
exponent of the power. This theorem, fre-
quently called the Newtonian theorem, on
which the system of analysis is principally
founded, was known, as far as relates to in-
tegral positive exponents, to several mathe-
maticians before Newton. But Newton was
the first who taught its application to frac-
tional and negative exponents; and this dis-
covery, one of the most important of those
made by that great man, is engraved upon
his tombstone.

Binon'do, Philippines, a native town near
Manila, on the right bank of the Pasig; now
a suburb of the walled European city, hav-
ing been annexed to it by a magnificent stone
bridge 411 feet in length. The bridge of
Binondo is regarded as the most remarkable
structure ever erected by Europeans in the
Indian archipelago.

Binturong, a large civet of the Malay
Peninsula and Islands, which spends its life
in the trees, where it is assisted in climbing
about by its long, bushy, prehensile tail. It
passes the day asleep in the top of a tree,
and travels about at night in search of small
mammals, birds, etc., but also eats leaves
and fruit. It is gray when young, but black
when fully grown, and reaches a length of
two and a half feet, exclusive of its long
tail.

Binue, bin'we, or Benue, Africa, the larg-
est and most important tributary of the river
Niger. See Benue.

Binyon, Laurence, English poet: b. Lan-
caster, 10 Aug. 1869. He has been an assist-
ant in the British Museum from 1893. Be-
sides editing the < Shilling Garland' (1895-8)

he has published '^ Lyric Poems' (1894");
^Poems' (1895); <London Visions' (1895-8):
'The Praise of Life' (1896); 'Porphyrion and
Other Poems' (1898); 'Western Flanders'
(1898); 'Odes' (1900); 'Catalogue of English
Drawings in the British ]\Iuseum' (1898-
1902) ; 'Dutch Etchers of the 17th Century' ;
'Lives of John Crome and John Sell Cot-
man.'

Biobio, be'o-be'o, Chile, an eastern prov-
ince with the Argentine Republic on the east,
and the province of Concepcion on the west
and north. It is well-wooded, and there is a
good trade in timber; the river Biobio (q.v.)
flows through it, and the railroad from Con-
cepcion to Angol crosses the western part.
Capital, Los Angeles; area, 4,158 square
miles; pop. 122,729.

Biobio, the largest river of Chile. It has
a west-northwesterly course of about 200
miles, from near the volcano of Antuco in
the Andes to Concepcion on the Pacific
Ocean. It is two miles wide at its mouth,
and is navigable for 100 miles.

Biogenesis, the genesis or origin of all
living beings from living beings. It is
opposed to abiogenesis, which implies that
at the present time the simplest, lowest
forms of life may arise by spontaneous genera-
tion (q.v.). Biogenesis, or biogeny, is divided
into ontogeny, or the development of any
individual organism, and pJiylogeny, or the
development of the class or other group of
organisms, to which the individual belongs. Bi-
ogenesis also may be extended to comprise the
different modes of reproduction (q.v.) whether
sexual, or asexual, or by fission or budding.
The principle of biogenesis was first placed on
a scientific basis by Harvey, who demonstrated
that living beings arise from eggs, as stated
in his famous aphorism, omne viviim ex ovo.
As now modified all organisms are known to
arise from living matter, that is, either from
germs, spores, seeds, or eggs. See Embrvologv.

Biogenetic Law. See Recapitulation The-
ory.

Biograph, an apparatus that displays in
rapid sequence a long series of photographs.
It belongs to a class of apparatus which fol-
lowed the invention of the kinetoscope, and
includes the vitascope, cinematograph, phan-
toscope, etc. It differs from the kinetoscope
in that instead of showing small pictures
through an enlarging lens by reflectea light,
it projects them on a screen.

The biograph may be described as a
stereopticon combined with such mechanism
as is requisite for the precise manipulation
of the celluloid picture film. When the ap-
paratus is set in motion the long band of
celluloid passes quickly, though not continu-
ously, behind the projecting lens, between
spools or bobbins which revolve at a uniform
rate. While thus passing from its original
spool to the winding reel the film encounters
certain pulleys and toothed rollers that serve
to direct its movements accurately. Along
its edges are numerous small perforations
into which the teeth of the rollers fit with
precision, and by this means the small trans-
parencies are made to occupv exactly similar
positions when their images are projected

BIOGRAPHY

■upon the canvas. As each picture in its
turn attains this critical position it is niomen-
taril}' brought to a standstill. At the same
time a shutter is opened and an image of the
picture flashes for an instant upon the screen.
The shutter is then quickly closed, the pic-
ture resuming its motion, while its successor
in the series is brought into a similar fixed
situation. This temporary stoppage of the
film (or rather of a portion thereof), as each
picture attains its proper place behind the
projecting lens, is a very essential feature of
the process.

At the instant of its arrival a portion of
the film on the preceding side of the picture
will be in an unstrained or slacli condition. The
**slack" is then taken up by a continuously
moving sprocket pulley, whereupon a rod
or roller is quickly brought to bear against
the now tightened film, pressing it to one side
and as quickly releasing it. By this move-
ment the next picture is pulled into its fixed
position, while the film is made taut (or
nearly so) on the following side of this pic-
ture. These operations are repeated contin-
uously until the entire film has passed
through the holding device in rear of the
lens.

The camera used in taking the negative
from which motion pictures are made is pro-
vided with a similar mechanism to that em-
ployed in showing the finished photographs.
The picture roll is replaced by a roll of sen-
sitized film, upon which the exposures are
made at the rate of from 25 to 50 per second.
The films range in length from 50 to 200 feet,
and contain, when finished, from 800 to
,3,000 negatives. After the film has been sub-
jected to the usual photographic operations
it is made to pass, in contact with a second
sensitized film, beneath an incandescent lamp,
and by this means the photographs are
printed upon the sensitized surface. This
second film is then in turn passed through
the various photographic processes, and when
complete it is wound on a spool which may
then be placed in the machine used for exhib-
iting the pictures.

Biog'raphy, in its general sense, literature
treating of the lives of individuals; in its re-
stricted meaning the history of a person's life.
When composed by the subject of the narrative
it is called an autobiography. Biography has
■existed in one form or another from the most
ancient times. In the book of Genesis there are
biographies, or at least memoirs of Adam, Noah,
Abraham, Isaac, Jacob, Joseph, and others.
Homer's 'Odyssey' may be considered as an
extended biography of Ulysses, limited, however,
to the most interesting period of his life, that of
his wanderings. Though the "^ Iliad' may be
loosely called a history of the Trojan war, yet,
accurately, it is a chapter from the biography of
Achilles, describing calamities he brought upon
the Greeks by the revenge which he took on
Agamemnon for carrying off his female captive
Briseis. Tlie most elaborate Grc^k biography
was Plutarch's 'Parallel Lives' ('Bioi Paral-
leloi'), consisting of 46 memoirs of Greek, Ro-
man, and other celebrities : it was published
about 80 .^.D. In 44 b.c. Cornelius Nepos had
sent forth a biographical work, his 'Vit^e Im-
peratorum' ('Lives of Commanders'). Under

the Greek and Roman civilization, howeve;, the
individual was absorbed in the state. When
Cmcinnatus or Coriolanus is mentioned, we re-
call rather an act than a person. The elder
Cato wrote a history of the Roman republic,
in which there was not found a single proper
name. He said simply : "The consul proposed
such a law, the general gained such a battle."

Biography differs from history, properly so
called, in considering public and national events,
if at all, only in their relations to a single per-
sonage. It assumes various forms, being some-
times most interested in the circumstances and
external career, the curricnhim vita, of its sub-
ject; sometimes regarding chiefly intellectual
and moral qualities and development ; sometimes
being hardly more than a catalogue of a man's
positions and changes of position ; and some-
times, like the autobiography of Goethe, fit to
be entitled truth and poetry ; sometimes being
formally narrative throughout, but often present-
ing the hero also by his letters and notes of his
conversation. A biography may be a panegyric
or a diatribe, or the life of a man may be used
as only a frame on which to attach moral re-
flections. Its true aim, however, is to reveal
the personal significance of those men who have
played a distinguished part in the world, either
by action or by thought. History has reference
to the development of principles, biography to
that of character. To observe the growth of a
nation, or of any institution from the idea on
which it was grounded, through its vicissitudes
and conflicts, is the part of history. To trace
a human life, to remark the manifold efforts,
defeats, triumphs, perplexities, attainments, sor-
rows, and joys which fill the space between the
cradle and the grave, is the province of biog-
raphy. In history, Scipio at the head of the
Roman legions subdued Africa, and Agesilaus
struggled against the misfortunes of his coun-
try ; in biography, the former is seen not only
gaining victories, but also gathering cockle-
shells on the shore, and the latter not only
fighting after defeat, but also riding on a hobby-
horse among his children. Plutarch says it does
not follow because an action is grejit, that it
therefore manifests the greatness and virtue of
him who did it ; but on the contrary, sometimes
a word or a casual jest betrays a man more to
our knowledge of him than a battle fought
wherein 10,000 men were slain, or sacking of
cities, or a course of victories. Xenophon re-
marks that the sayings of great men in their
familiar discourses, and amid their wine, have
somewhat in them which is worthy to be trans-
mitted to posterity.

I^Todern biographical literature may be con-
sidered to date from the i/tli century since
which time individual biographies have multi-
plied enormously. Dictionaries of biography
have proved extremely useful. Moreri's 'His-
torical and Critical Dictionary' (1671), being,
perhaps, the first of this class. During the 19th
century there .were published the 'Universal
Biography' (85 vols. 181 1-62) ; 'New General
Biography' (46 vols. 1852-66) ; Chalmer's 'Gen-
eral Biographical Dictionary' {2,2 vols. 1812-17) ;
Rose's 'Biographical Dictionary' (12 vols.
1848-50) ; Leslie Stephen's 'Dictionary of Na-
tional Biography' (completed in 63 volumes,
the first of which appeared in January 1885, and
the last in September 1901) ; Appleton's
'Cyclopaedia of American Biography' (7 vols.

BIOLOGY

£887-1900) ; While's ^National Cyclopaedia of
American Biography^ (New York) ; <Men and
Women of the Time' (London) ; ^ Who's Who'
(London) ; "^ Who's Who in America' (Chi-
•cago) ; Adams' < Dictionary of American
Authors' (1901) ; Vapereau's ^Universal Dic-
tionarj' of Contemporaries' (Paris) ; < Lamb's
Biographical Dictionary of the United States' (8
vols. 1897, ct seq.) ; and "^Canadian Men and
Women of the Time.' Among works of more
limited aim may be noted various ^ Lives of the
Saints' ; Fox's <Book of Martyrs' ; various
* Lives of the Poets' ; Boswell's ^Life of John-
son' (1791) : the most noted of all English
biographies, Lockhart's *^ Scott' (1836-8) ; For-
ster's ^Dickens' (1872-4) ; Gaskell's '^Charlotte
Bronte'; Cross' ^George Eliot' (1884); Lons-
dale's < Sister Dorothea' (1878); ^Life of
Tennyson,' by his son (1897) ; <Life of Hux-
ley,' by his son (1901). Among notable au-
tobiographies are the first Lord Herbert of
Cherbury's ^Autobiography' ; Benvenuto Celli-
ni's 'Vita da lui Medesimo Scritta' ; Rousseau's
< Confessions' ; Gibbon's 'Memoirs'; Franklin's
^Autobiography' ; Newman's 'Apologia Pro
Vita Sua' ; Besant's 'Autobiography' (1902) ;
Trowbridge's 'The Story of My Life^ (1903) ;
Mrs. Oliphant's Autobiography' (1899).

Biology. The study or science of living
•organisms, and the phenomena of life. Its field
is the whole breadth of the organic world, and
it seeks to mark the boundaries which separate
living from inorganic nature, — to discover the
principles that unify it, the processes by which
living things have developed, the nature of life
itself and the future in store for it. Biology,
then, is the sum of all the special departments
■of study which deal with plants, animals, and
man in his animal relations, such as botany,
zoology, anthropology, and their subordinate or
associated sciences ; that is, bacteriology, micro-
scopy, physiology, and many more. In his out-
reaching toward the causes and principles under-
lying its phenomena, the philosophical biologist
must therefore understand organic chemistry,
and the laws of electricity, light, heat, and
mechanics, as they relate to animal needs ; and
at the other extreme he must consider psychology
as an integral part of his domain.

This array of responsibilities and of objects
for investigation seems too formidable for any
one mind to imdertake or a lifetime to encom-
pass, and it would be were not the realm of
living nature capable of resolution into simple
elements; unified in its fundamental structure;
and controlled in its developmental growth by
definite "laws of being," which have come more
and more clearly into view as knowledge of
details has increased. The classification and
co-ordination of the enormous mass of facts in-
cessantly poured into his laboratory and library
by experimenters and observers, to illuminate
the truth by some generalization, or to exhibit
a plan, law, type of structure, or growth, is the
high purpose of the thoughtful biologist ; and
the greatest names in the science, — Aristotle,
Leibnitz, Harvey, Malpighi, Linne, Buffon,
Lamarck. Treviranus (who in 1802 first used
the term biology), Cuvier, Galvani, Goethe,
Lyell. Von Baer, Owen, De Blainville. Leuckart,
Agassiz, Darwin, Wallace. Kowalewsky, IMiiller,
Haeckel. Marsh, Cope, Hyatt, Weismann, and
many others, — have been those of men who had

these large aims in view, and have contributed
toward a solution of the great problem of life.
The living world may be pictured as an enor-
mous bundle of tangled and interlaced cords of
phenomena, which, moreover, are never quite
stationary and fixed, but are always slowly, in-
visibly, altering and forming new entanglements.
Every naturalist is at work upon some part of
this bundle, endeavoring to extricate his particu-
lar part. In mose cases he pays so little atten-
tion to anything else, and is so fascinated with
the beauty of his single strand, that he draws
but little out. In other cases men of larger
view or more serious purpose, or societies of
them co-operating, disentangle more. The great
biologist is he who can perceive those who have
found a clue, and is able to teach them and the
others how still more surely to unravel the intri-
cate threads of phenomena that entwine and con-
ceal the great fact of life at the centre of the
puzzle.

To drop the figure, the science of biology in
its more restricted and ordinary meaning, is the
co-ordination of the observed facts and mani-
festations of the organic world into laws, and
the discovery of the principle from whicH all
proceed; that is, its object is to find an answer
to the ever-present question of existence —
What is Life? To this end goes on the inces-
sant collection of facts in natural history, and
it goes on joyously because any moment the
biologist may come upon some fact or sugges-
tion which shall contribute to the grand result.

Progress has been made. The study at first
was nothing but a miscellaneous gathering of
specimens and records of observations. Then a
crude sorting out began. Men at first failed to
distinguish between what was animate and what
was inert. The winds, the lightning, volcanoes,
springs were things of life. Later the broad
distinction of organic from inorganic was per-
ceived, but even now it is not known whether
some of the manifestations of movement and
response in certain "slimes" are purely chemical,
or due to the presence of actual life.

The next step was the separation of the two
great branches of the organic world — plants
and animals. The broad features of these
groups must have been apparent to primitive
man, but it is only within comparatively recent
years that such groups as the sponges, the
branching forms of the corals, the spreading
growths of the polyzoans, have been definitely
placed among the animals. The names, "sea-
anemone," "moss-animal," "zoophyte," and the
like, show the popular error or doubt as to these
forms. The relationship of the minute or even
miscroscopic hydroids and protozoans were still
longer in doubt ; and to this day there is a bor-
derland in this great group (the Protozoa) of
minute, unicellular objects where no one is able
to draw a certain line between what should be
called a plant and what an animal, or even
whether some of the obj(;cts are organic at all.

As men perceived certain likenesses and
unlikenesses the sorting of plants and animals
went on crudely at first, on purely superficial
or even fanciful grounds. This sufficed fairly
well for some large and well-marked groups,
as beasts, birds, fishes, insects, hardwood trees,
and the like, yet led to many mistakes, such as
placing whales with the fish, and the bats witK
birds. IMeanwhile students here and there had

BIOLOGY

become interested in special groups, and each
called his pursuit a science. Thus arose Orni-
thology — the study of birds: Conchology, the
study of shells (in which for a long time little
attention was paid to the animal that made
them!) ; Anatomy and Physiology, the study of
structure, at first confined wholly to the human
form, and only lately to animals in general,
when it was distinguished as Comparative
Anatomy ; Botany, the study of plants ; and so
on. In each men gathered and recorded speci-
mens and facts, as a rule from a single neigh-
borhood. Nevertheless, curiosity began to in-
quire beneath the surface. Plants were pulled
apart, animals dissected, and resemblances and
contrasts of structure were noted. Naturalists
traveled, and found that the creatures of the
world were more numerous than had been sus-
pected, and varied with climate, soil, height
above the sea, and diverse conditions, and when
records and specimens from many localities were
gradually accumulated in great museums, like-
nesses and contrasts appeared that had not been
visible in the small local cabinet. Materials
were thus obtained for more intelligent arrange-
ment, and classification became one of the most
important sciences in the scope of biology. The
great service an accurate arrangement of living
things would render to an inquirer as to their
nature, was perceived, and scientific men every-
where searched for facts which should fill the
gaps in their knowledge. The criteria were
made more and more exact, and as classification
was perfected it became increasingly evident that
the criteria for all branches were substantially
similar, and there came to be perceived certain
plans of structure. One of the latest and most
powerful aids to investigation, the result of the
perfecting of the miscroscope, was the science of
Embryology, or the study of the development of
a plant from the seed or of an animal from the
egg. It went hand in hand with Histology, the
study of tissues, and both disclosed the new
truth that the structure of both animals and
plants was at its basis the same — a cell filled
with **life substance" (protoplasm) ; and that
the multiplication of these cells constituted the
growth, and their arrangement and limit the
form and bulk, of every animal and plant. It
was furthermore ascertained that an egg or a
seed (in which it is believed that every animal
plant begins, in spite of some apparent excep-
tions) was simply a cell differing, so far as we
can yet see, from other cells in the body only
by its possession of the potentiality of independ-
ent life under the fostering of suitable condi-
tions. Classification had already shown that its
groups might be arranged in something like a
series from those very simply organized (the
one-celled protozoa at the foot of the list) up to
the highly complex. Now embryology showed
that the changes each individual passed through
from egg to birth were a series of changes from
simplicity to complexity and furthermore that
they suggested a parallel to the features of the
successive groups in classification, especially to
those of the subordinate ranks of the subject's
own class. Palaeontology enforced this by a
similar parallel, finding that the most ancient ani-
mals fossil in the rocks were of simple and gen-
eralized structure as compared with those of
more modern geological formations: in other

words, that structural development has also been
historic development.

All these facts changed the point of view of
the biologist. Instead of looking at separate
animals and seeking to find differences upon
which to make new species and subdivide groups,
he is now seeking for likenesses — points of
unity. It was long ago suggested to thoughtful
minds that the world was not always as we
found it, but that for a vast period there had
been a slow, persistent growth and unfolding.
The phenomena of the inorganic world pointed
the same way, and hence arose the "nebular
hypothesis'' — the explanatory theory that the
universe developed from a gaseous state, and
the earth, as one of its parts, was slowly per-
fected in pursuance of the forces inherent in its
origin. Biologists are only carrying this theory
out in a detail when they argue that the facts
in their hands can be accounted for only by the
supposition that the living beings on the earth
have been slowly developed from a primitive
source, comparable to the germ-cell, along un-
equal and ramifying lines of progress under the
influences of their changeable environment.
This is only a detail, — a flower, — of the general
unfolding of the universe which is well called its
evolution; it is an organic evolution.

In the light of this grand generalization
biology is now progressing with an organized
force for investigation of the great question as
to the origin and nature of life. This has not
been answered by any of the fruitful hypotheses,
like those of Darwin or Lamarck, which have
placed so effective tools in the biologist's hands.
Toward the solution of this problem all scien-
tific men are working, consciously or uncon-
sciously. In aid of this purpose are pushed
forward the incessant and world-wide col-
lection and preservation of preserved ani-
mals and plants — museum specimens ; and
the systematic and accurate observation and rec-
ord of local species and their habits and in-
stincts. Much of this seems trivial and dry as
dust in the eyes of the ignorant or of those
whose minds, being occupied with other
thoughts, forget the reason and tendency for
these ever-multiplied details of natural history.
Patient students toil to the same end in labora-
tories of anatomy and miscroscopy, laboriously
gather statistics of variation, compile lists of
geographical distribution, chisel out of the rocks
remains of extinct races, and sort and re-sort
in experimental classifications — all this in order
to provide the generalizers of the science with
more and better factors for the solution of the
great focal problem. What is Life, and how
came it to be? What has been the net result so
far? In one direction the conviction of the uni-
versal eminence and force of the principle of
evolution ; in another the realization of the inde-
pendent life and action of each separate cell. To
the study of the constitution, qualities and be-
havior of the cell, whether standing alone in the
unfertilized egg, or as a naked monad, or one in
an interdependent association of millions build-
ing up a complex organism, has biology come at
last ; and not until it has vanquished the difficul-
ties presented by this atom of living and poten-
tial protoplasm, the cell, will it accomplish its
full purpose. Ernest Ingersoll.

Editorial Staff '•Encyclopedia Americana.''

BION OF ABDERA — BIOT

Bi'on of Abdera, Greek mathematician:
lived about 400 b.c. He belonged to the family
■of Democritus, and is said by Diogenes Laertius
to have been the first who taught that there
were countries in the world where the year
consists only of a single day and a single night,
■each lasting for six months. He must there-
fore have been acquainted both with the spher-
ical form of the globe and the obliquity of the
ecliptic. Unfortunately nothing more is known
-of his history.

Bion of Borysthenes, Greek philosopher
contemporary with Erastosthenes (born 275
B.C.). and with Zeno the Stoic. He studied
philosophy at Athens, first under Crates of the
Cynic school, then took lessons of Theodorus,
surnamed the Atheist ; and at last, considering
his studies completed, set up for himself. It
is not easy to ascertain what his opinions were,
as onlj' a few fragments of his numerous writ-
ings have been preserved ; but he was accused
of Atheism, and apparently on good grounds, as
he is said to have regarded all questions relative
to the nature of the gods and divine providence
as indifferent. He died at Chalcis in Eubcjea
about 241 B.C.

Bion of Smyrna, Greek pastoral poet,
who flourished in the latter part of the 3d
century B.C. He was a contemporary of Theocri-
tus whose manner he imitated. On attaining
manhood, Bion emigrated to Sicily, where a con-
spiracy was formed against him, and he was
basely poisoned. The poems of Bion were
■chiefly pastoral, occasionally erotic. The frag-
ments of them that are extant fully justify the
■eulogies of his admirer, Moschus. Their senti-
ments are tender and delicate ; their style is
copious, graceful, and polished. Seventeen short
poems and the famous 'Lament for Adonis^
are preserved to us, the last-named furnishing
the model for Shelley's 'Adonais.^ See Smyth,
< Greek Alelic Poets' (igoo).

Biondo, Flavio, byon'do, fla'vyo, Italian
archaeologist: b. 1388; d. 1463. His encyclo-
paedias have served as the foundation for all
subsequent collections of archaeological know-
ledge. They were called 'Roma instaurata,^
^Roma triumphans,' and 'Italia illustrata.'

Bionomics, in biology, the study of the
habits and modes of life, and their relations to
each other, to all living beings, and to the world
■around them. It corresponds to "ecology" and
to "biology," as used by German naturalists.
Wasmann defines biology in the restricted sense
of bionomics as —

" The science of the external conditions of existence,
wliich pertain to organisms as individuals and at the
same time regulate their relations to other organisms
and to the inorganic environment."

It therefore, be says, embraces in its restricted

sense —

" First, a knowledge of the mode of life of animals
and jilants, their nourishment, dwelling, mode of propa-
gation, the care of offspring and their development, in
so far as these present external manifestations; hence
also, second, a knowledge of the life-relations that ob-
tain between individuals of the same and different
species (including all the phenomena of parasitism,
symbiosis, etc.), and hence also, third, a knowledge of
the conditions of existence which are essential to
the life and maintenance of animals and plants."

By conditions of existence are meant the action
en plants and animals of climate, soil, light,
gravity, heat, the dryness or moisture in the air
and soil : the nature of the water, whether salt.

fresh, or brackish; currents of air, and of wa-
ter ; elevation above the sea, also any other
physical and biological agents in causing varia-
tion in or the modification of organisms. As
Wheeler states :

" Whenever we undertake the detailed or exhaustive
study of an ethological problem, we are led imper-
ceptibly into the details of physiology, morphology, em-
bryology, taxonomy, or chorology, according to the par-
ticular aspect of the subject under consideration."

Many of these subjects, falling under the
head of bionomics, are treated under the head
of evolution (q.v.), as the struggle for exist-
ence, mimicry, etc. Another department of bio-
nomics is geographical distribution, and distri-
bution in time, together with migration, heredity,
hibernation, and seasonal dimorphism. The
word "bionomics" seems preferable to "etholo-
gy," which has been used as the name of the
science of ethics ; it is also the more compre-
hensive term.

Consult papers by Bessey ('Science,* XV. p.
593) ; Bather ('Science* XV. p. 748) ; Wheeler
('Science,' XV. 20 June 1902). The writings
of Reaumur, Audubon, Huber, Lubbock, Pla-
teau, Fabre, Ford, Wasmann, Riley, Wheeler and
others deal especially with the habits and econ-
omy, or bionomics of insects (bees and ants)
and birds.

Bi'oplasm, that portion of the protoplasm
in living bodies that possesses the physiological
qualities of life. This term was first used by
Prof. L. S. Beale, an English scientist ; the word
protoplasm had formerly been used in an anal-
ogous sense, but Prof. Beale considered that a
much wider meaning had been given to this lat-
ter term by Huxley and others and therefore in-
troduced the use of the word bioplasm with its
narrower signification.

Biot, Edouard Constant, be-6, a-doo-ar
koii-stah, French Chinese scholar of erni-
nence: (son of Jean Baptiste Biot) b. Paris,

2 July 1803; d. 12 March 1850. After accom-
panying his father on a scientific tour to Italy
in 1825-6, he undertook the constrtiction of a
railway from Lyons to St fitienne, the first in
France. In 1833 he retired from active life,
and devoted his leisure to the study of the
Chinese. He was the author of 'Causes de
I'Abolition de I'Esclavage Ancienne en Occi-
dent' (1840). As the result of his studies on
China he published numerous articles in the
'Journal des Savants' and 'Journal Asiatique,'
as well as several larger works, more especially
'Dictionnaire des Noms, Anciens et Modernes,
des Villes et Arrondissements compris dans
TEmpire Chinois' (1842): and 'Essai sur
THistoire de ITnstruction Publique en Chine'
(1847). Besides translations of Chinese works,
— for example. the historico-chronological
'Tcheou-chou-ni-kien (Paris 1842), and the
'Astronomical Tchcou-pei,' — he wrote a 'Notice
sur quelques Procedes Industriels connus eii
Chine, au I7me Siecle' ; an 'Examen de di-
verses Series de Faits relatifs au Climat de la
Chine' ; and 'Chine et Indo-Chine.' The print-
ing of his translation of the Chinese Imperial
Geography, 'Tchcou-1i,' was interrupted for
some time by his death.

Biot, Jean Baptiste, be-5, zhon bap-test,
French mathematician and physicist of dis-
tinction: b. Paris. 21 April 1/74: J^ there,

3 Feb. 1862. He was educated at the College

BIOTITE — BIRCH

Louis-le-Grand, and in 1793 entered the artillery
service. Shortly afterward he entered the Ecole
Polytechnique, and thenceforth devoted himself
to the study of mathematics and the natural
sciences. After teaching physics lor some years
at Beauvais, he became professor of the same
subject in the College de France in 1800, and
in 1803 was elected a member of the Institute.
In 1804 he made a balloon ascent with Gay-
Lussac, and in 1806 was made a member of the
Bureau des Longitudes. In 1809 he became
also professor of physical astronomy in the
University of Paris. With the exception of
three journeys, undertaken in connection with
the measurement of a degree of the meridian,
— Hamely, to Spain in 1806-8, to Scotland,
Orkneys, and Shetland in 1817, and to Spain and
Italy in 1824-5, — his whole life was quietly
passed in study and teaching. He published
some excellent text-books, which became widely
known beyond France, such as the * Essai de
Geometric Analytique^ ; 'Traite de Physique
Experimentale et Mathematique^ ; and 'Traite
Elementaire de Physique Experimentale,^ as
well as works on the astronomy of the ancient
Egyptians, Indians, and Chinese. His most
valuable contributions to science, however, are
chiefly contained in communications to learned
societies and periodicals. There are few
branches of physics which were not advanced
by his labors; and in optics especially he made
some valuable investigations, particularly in con-
nection with refraction and polarization. See
Curves.

Bi'otite, a mineral of the mica group,
having its characteristic monoclinic crystalliza-
tion and very perfect cleavage. Its chemical
composition varies widely, but in general it
may be said to be a silicate of aluminum, mag-
nesium, iron, potassium ; with hydrogen. On ac-
count of the presence of magnesium, it is some-
times called "magnesia mica." In color, biotite
varies from green to black. It has a hardness
of from 2.5 to 3, and a specific gravity of about
2.9. It is a common constituent of granite
and gneiss, and of manj-^ eruptive rocks, such as
andesite and trachyte. Biotite was named for
the French physicist, J. B. Biot (q.v.).

Bipen'nis, a double-headed battle-axe, men-
tioned in Homer. The Greek literature attrib-
utes its use to the barbarians, most especially
to the Amazons. Such axes have been found in
stone.

Bipelta'ta, a name given by Cuvier to a
family of Crustacea, so called because the car-
apace is divided into two parts or shields ; the
anterior shield is large, oval in shape, and cor-
responds to the head ; the posterior is angulated
in outline, corresponds to the thorax, and bears
the foot- jaws and ordinary feet. This family
is one of those making up the order of Stovio-
poda, and is now very generally known under
the name of Phyllosomidje.

Bipes, bl'pez, (i) a genus of reptiles
belonging to the order Suaria, in which the pos-
terior feet only are visible, though the rudi-
ments of the anterior extremities appear under
the skin. This genus is the connecting link
between the lizards and the snakes. (2) The
name given to a lizard from the Cape of Good
Hope, which is called Anguis bipes Ijy Linnjeus
and Scelotes bipes by Gray.

Bipont Editions, famous editions of the

Latm classics, published in Bavaria in the city
of Deux Ponts, whose name in German is
Zwei-briicken, and in Latin Bipontium. Tlie
publication was begun in 1779, but after the
French conquest was finished in Strasburg. The
collection forms 50 volumes octavo.

Birago, be-ra'go, Karl, Baron von, Aus-
trian military engineer : b. Cascino, d'Olmo,
24 April 1792; d. Vienna, 29 Dec. 1845. He
studied mathematics at Pavia ; was a teacher in
a military school in Mailand, and in 1825.
invented the military bridge which is named for
him. He assisted at the building of the fortifi-
cations of Linz, the fortifications of the Po near
Brescello, and in 1839 built a military bridge
across the Po which was especially successful.
Nearly all the Continental armies have since
adopted his system of bridge construction. In
1844 he was in command of the newly organ-
ized Pioneer and Pontonier Corps and became
commander of a brigade. He wrote * Researches-
in European Bridge Construction.^

Birbhum, ber'boom, a district of the Divi-
sion Bardwan in Bengal. It is crossed by a
few unimportant rivers ; has hot springs, iron
mines and limestqne deposits. The chief agri-
cultural product is rice ; there is also a large
silk-worm industry. For over 2,000 years Birb-
hum was the scene of the conflicts of the Ary-
ans advancing into Bengal from Hindustan.

Biquadrat'ic Equations, in algebra, equations
containing but one unknown quantity, of which,,
in the equation, the highest power is the fourth.
An equation of this kind, when complete, is of
the form Xi + Ax-, + Bxn + Cx + D = o, where
A, B, C, and D denote any known quantities
whatever. See Equation.

Bir, ber, or Birejik, a town in Asiatic
Turkey, 80 miles northeast of Aleppo, on the
side of a steep hill on the left bank of the
Euphrates, which is here about 600 yards wide,,
and 10 to 12 feet deep. The town is surrounded
on the land side by a wall, with towers at the
angles, and pierced with loopholes. The streets
are narrow but clean. In the centre, on a steep
rock, is an old ruined fortification. Bir has
long been the point where caravans and travelers,
from Aleppo to Orfah, Diarbekir, Bagdad, and
Persia, cross the Euphrates. Pop. 8,000.

Birague, Rene de, be-rjig, re-na de, Italian
politician: b. Milan, 1567 (or 1506): d. 1588.
He incurred the hostility of Louis Sforza the
duke, but in France, Francis I. received him
favorably, made him councilor of the Parliament
of Paris, and governor of Lyonnais, and sent
him to the Council of Trent. Under Charles.
IX. his advancement was still more rapid, and
in 1570 he was made keeper of the seals. In
this capacity he was a party in the secret coun-
cil at which the massacre of St. Bartholomew
was organized. He zealously defended the
Catholic cause against the inroads of French
Calvinism, both in its religious and its political
aspects. He was bitterly hated by the Hugue-
nots, who in consequence made many derogatory
accusation against him. He was made a cardinal
in 1578, and held the bishopric of Lavaur and sev-
eral rich abbeys. He died chancellor of France.
Birch, Harvey, the principal figure in
Cooper's novel, <The Spy,^ a romance of the
American Revolution.

BIRCH

Birch, John, English soldier: b. 7 April
1616; d. 10 May 1691. A Presbyterian in re-
ligion, he took the side of the Parliament, acting
as a captain of volunteers at the siege of Bristol
by the Royalists. On the institution of the
"new model" he was ordered to join the army
of Fairfax and Cromwell in the west of Eng-
land, and had Bath entrusted to his care. He
commanded a body of horse and foot at the
storming of Bristol, an affair in which he so
highly distinguished himself as to receive special
commendation from Cromwell in his report to
the Parliament. In 1645 he was sent against
Hereford, and by a stratagem succeeded in gain-
ing possession of the city, and with this the
special thanks of Parliament. He objected to
many of the proceedings of the party of Crom-
well, and was repeatedly thrown into prison.
He took an active part in bringing about the
restoration of Charles H., and in the latter part
of his life was a prominent member of Parlia-
ment. He was a man of great personal strength
and stature, a rough but most effective public
speaker, and had remarkable talents for business
and practical affairs.

Birch, Samuel, distinguished English
Egyptologist : b. London, 3 Nov. 1813 ; d. there,
27 Dec. 1885. At the age of 23 he was appointed
an assistant in the department of antiquities in
the British Museum. He gradually rose to
higher positions in the museum, and latterly
became keeper of the department devoted to
Egyptian and Oriental antiquities, a post which
he retained till his death. His whole life was
devoted to studies and work connected with his
official duties, and was naturally uneventful.
His labors did much to advance the study of
Oriental archaeology, and his eminence in his
own province was duly recognized by learned
bodies and institutions. In 1870 he assisted in
founding the Society of Biblical Archaeology,
and became its first president, frequently con-
tributing to its "^ Proceedings^ and "^ Transac-
tions.^ In 1874 he successfully presided over
the International Congress of Orientalists that
met in London in that year. His studies ranged
over a wide field, but it is on his eminence as
an Egyptologist that his reputation chiefly rests.
It has been said that "he found the language of
Egypt a puzzle, and left it at his death in the
position of one of the most important philologies
of the world.** Among his works, exclusive of
contributions to learned societies, encyclopaedias,
etc., are: "^Introduction to the Study of the
Egyptian Hieroglyphs^ (to accompany Gardi-
ner Wilkinson's work on Egypt; 1857); ^His-
tory of Ancient Pottery, Egyptian, Assyrian,
Greek, Etruscan, and Roman' (1857; 'Himya-
ritic Inscriptions of Southern Arabia* (1863) ;
^Dictionary of Hieroglyphics and Grammar of
the same in the fifth volume of the English edi-
tion of Bunsen's * Egypt's Place in the Universal
History^ (1867) : 'Guide to the Egyptian Gal-
leries of the British Museum* (1874); <New
Edition of Wilkinson's Manners and Customs
of the Ancient Egyptians* (1878). For full ac-
count of his life and work, see 'Transactions of
the Society of Biblical Archaeology* Vol. IX.
(1893).

Birch, Thomas, English historian: b. Lon-
don, 23 Nov. 1705; d. there, 9 Jan. 1766. His
early taste for reading induced him to prefer a
literary life, which he was permitted to choose

on condition of supporting himself by his own'
exertions. He took orders in the Church in
1730, and obtained in 1732 a living in Essex. In
1734 he engaged with some coadjutors in writ-
ing the '•General Historical and Critical
Dictionary,* founded on that of Bayle, and com-
pleted, in 10 volumes folio, in 1741. He subse-
quently obtained various preferments in the
Church, and for about 20 years before his death'
held the rectories of St. Margaret Pattens, Lon-
don, and Depden, in Suffolk. Birch had formed
very extensive manuscript collections, which,
together with his library of printed books, he
bequeathed to the British Museum. He produced
a large number of historical and biographical
works in the course of his laborious life,
and served as one of the pioneers of literature.
He collected fully and faithfully, but without
much discrimination, materials relating to the
various subjects of his research, which are calcu-
lated to afford important assistance to writers
possessed of more taste and judgment. Among-
his works are: 'Life of the Right Honorable
Robert Boyle* ; 'Historical View of the Nego-
tiations Between the Courts of England, France,,
and Brussels,* 1592-1617: 'Life of Archbishop-
Tillotson* ; 'Memoirs of the Reign of Queen
Elizabeth, from 1581 till Her Death* ; 'Histor>^
of the Royal Society of London* ; 'Life of
Henry, Prince of Wales.*

Birch, Thomas, American painter: b. Lon-
don, England, 1779; d. Philadelphia, Pa., 3 Jan.
1851. Coming to the United States in 1793, he
settled in Philadelphia, and painted chiefly
portraits until 1807, when he took up marine
painting, in which he achieved a high reputa-
tion. A number of his works represent naval
battles of the War of 1812, and of these the
paintings representing the engagements between
the United States and the Macedonian, and be-
tween the Constitution and the Guerriere. are
the best known. Both are in the Harrison col-
lection at Philadelphia.

Birch-Pfeiffer, Charlotte, berH'pflf-er,.
shar-lot'ta, German actress and dramatic writer :
b. Stuttgart, 23 June 1800; d. 24 Aug. i858, her
maiden name being Pfeiffer. She first appeared
on the stage in her 13th year at Munich, and
soon acquired a great reputation, her special role-
being that of the heroines of tragedy. In 1825
she married Christian Birch, a writer of some
note. After playing with success at places as far
apart as St. Petersburg, Amsterdam, and Buda-
pest, in 1837 she took the management of the
theatre at Ziirich, and remained in this capacity
till 1843. Next year she was engaged for the
Theatre Royal, Berlin, and here she remained
till her death. Her plays, mostly founded on
novels, became well known on almost every
stage in Germany, and give evidence of real
dramatic talent, as well as of a knowledge of
stage effects and what would suit the taste of
the theatre-going public. Victor Hugo's ^ Notre
Dame* and Charlotte Bronte's 'Jane Eyre* fur-
nished her with materials for two of her dramas.
She also wrote novels and tales. Her collected
dramatic works appeared at Leipsic in 23 vol-
umes (1863-80) ; her narrative writings in three
(1863-5). Her daughter has become well known
as a novelist under the name Wilhelmine von
Hillern.

Birch (Bcftila). a genus of trees belonging
to the natural order (or sub-order) Betulacea,

BIRCH

which comprises only the birches and alders.
The principal habitats of the trees of this order
are North America, Europe, northern Asia, and
the Himalayas. The common birch is hidige-
nous throughout the north, and on high situ-
ations in the south of Europe. It is extremely
hardy, and only one or two other species of trees
approach so near to the North Pole. There are
two varieties natives of Great Britain, Bctula alba,
and B. alba pcndula, or weeping-birch ; the latter
by far the more valuable and ornamental. When
young it may readily be distinguished by the
touch, its bark being covered over with rough
exudations, while that of the common tree is
soft and velvety. Each variety is found exclu-
sively in some districts, but frequently they are
interspersed. Throughout the most remote parts
of the Highlands of Scotland the birch is often
found covering extensive tracts or rocky eleva-
tions, where no other ligneous plant is to be met
with. It also grows in glens and ravines, adorn-
ing the margins of lakes and rivers, w'here the
silvery whiteness of its trunk and the light and
airy habit of its spray form beautiful and inter-
esting pictures, even in the absence of every
other tree. Though often found associated with
the alder on swampy ground, yet few trees more
successfully resist drought. Adapting itself to
various soils and situations, it possesses a wider
range than any other tree. It is well suited to
form a cover on ground from which Scotch pine
timber has been recently removed ; the exuvi?e,
which always overspreads such places, though
hostile to plants in general, are favorable to the
birch, which commonly springs up and becomes
the successor of the pine. The common tree,
where it grows wild, attains a height of about
30 feet, and the weeping variety about 40 feet ;
b)ut both sorts rise to a much greater height
when formed into plantations, particularly when
interspersed with other trees. Although the
"birch is considered by no means a valuable tree,
yet its wood, which is light in color, and firm
and tough in texture, is used for a variety of
purposes. Not long ago, in many parts of the
Highlands, the birch may be said to have been
the universal wood, and was used by the High-
landers for every purpose. They made their
beds, chairs, tables, dishes, and spoons of it, and
«ven manufactured ropes and horse-harness by
lieating and twisting its spray. The brushwood
is used in forming wicker fences to prevent the
inroads of cattle and sheep, in thatching cot-
tages, and in forming brooms or besoms. The
wood is largely used for fish-casks and hoops,
and for smoking hams and herrings. Turners
use it for trenchers, bowls, ladles, and other
wooden ware. Ox-yokes, small screws, women's
shoe-heels, pattens, and in France wooden shoes
are made of it. Birch-trees are not unfrequently
planted along with hazels, for the purpose of
procuring wood to be converted into charcoal
for forges. This charcoal is much esteemed,
and the soot which is formed on burning the
wood constitutes a good black substance for
printers' ink. Nearly all the other parts are
applicable to useful purposes. The bark is em-
ployed in the tanning of leather ; and by fisher-
men for preserving their nets and cordage, In
America, northern Europe, and Asia it is util-
ized for a great variety of purposes. The North
American Indians use it for canoes, boxes, buck-
■ets, baskets, kettles, and dishes, curiously join-
ing it together with threads made of roots of

the cedar-tree. It is serviceable in dj^eing a yel-
low color. In Norway it is dried, ground, mixed
with meal, and boiled with other food for swine.
The houses or huts in many parts of the north
of Europe are covered with the outward and
thicker part of the bark, instead of slates or
tiles. It is spun into a coarse kind of cordage,
woven into shoes and hats, and in some places
even made into drinking cups. The Laplanders
fasten together large pieces of it to keep off the
rain. Abounding in resinous matter, slices of
the bark are sometimes tied together to make
torches. During a scarcity of corn it has, in
several instances, been ground with bread corn,
and successfully used as food for men. The
leaves afford a yellow .dye. The sap, from the
amoimt of sugar it contains, affords a kind of
agreeable wine. Birch-wine is produced by the
tree being tapped by boring a hole in the trunk,
during warm weather, in the end of spring, or
beginning of summer, when the sap runs most
copiously. It is recorded that during the siege
of Hamburg, in 1814, many birch-trees in that
vicinity were destroyed in this manner by the
Russian soldiers. The dwarf birch, Betula nana,
is a low shrub, a native of parts of the High-
lands of Scotland and of Arctic regions gen-
erally. It is never more than two or three feet
high, and is generally much less ; a full-
grown plant being thus a very tiny example of
a tree. It is used as fuel, and as stuffing for
beds, and its seeds furnish food for ptarmigan
and other birds. A similar species is a native
of the Antarctic regions. Among others the
black or river birch of North America {B.
nigra'), grows to the height of 70 feet, and pro-
duces hard and valuable timber. It is also
known as the red birch, from the redness of the
bark in the young trees. Another American
species, the cherry birch or sweet birch (B.
lenta), is also called the black birch. It grows
to a similar height with the preceding, and
yields even more valuable timber, used in mak-
ing furniture, etc., being tough, fine-grained, and
taking on a good polish. It has been intro-
duced into Great Britain though not much
known there. The paper birch (B. papyracca)
is another American species which also attains
a large size, and by some is regarded as a mere
variety of the white or common birch. Its
habitat extends within the Arctic Circle, but it
becomes rare and stunted in the extreme north.
It receives its name from the fact that thin
strips of the brilliant white bark are sometimes
used as a substitute for paper. The bark of this
species is put to perhaps a greater variety of
uses than that of any other, its wood and sap
being also utilized. Another American birch is
the yellow birch {B. cxcclsa), so named from
the golden color of the outer bark. It is a large-
leaved species, yielding timber used for ship-
building, etc., and is a native of the eastern
parts of Canada and the northeast of the United
States. Of Himalayan species may be men-
tioned B. blwjputfra, the Indian paper birch.
Its thin papery bark has been used as paper
from a remote period, and is still commonly
used for packing purposes, for lining the flexible
tubes of hookahs, and in other ways, while the
wood is tough, and is emploj^ed in making arti-
cles of various kinds. In its native mountains
it may be found at an altitude of 10,000 to
13,000 feet. Several of the pigmy species de-
serve mention. B. pumila, which is generally

BIRCH.

1. Spray witn <i, male and t, female flowers.

2. Twig with c, fruit.

3-6. Various views of a single male flower.
7. Female catkin.
8-10. Various views of a single female flower.

-12. Details of fruit case.

13. The fruit.

14. Twig with leaf and male flower buds.

15. Section through a branch, three years old.

16. Dwarf Birch (Betula Nana).

BIRCHARD — BIRD

less than 8 feet tall, but sometimes reaches a
height of 15 feet, is found from Newfoundland
to Minnesota, and south to Ohio. B. glandii-
Josa, which extends from Labrador to Alaska
and south to Michigan and in the mountains to
Colorado, seldom exceeds 4 feet. B. nana, an
Arctic species, common to all three continents,
rarely reaches a height of four feet. Through-
out its range it is an important fuel and its
seeds form one of the principal foods of ptarmi-
gan upon which the natives depend to a large
extent for flesh food. Like the two other
dwarf species mentioned, it is a favorite shrub
for planting among rocks. Other species, natives
of Europe and Asia, resemble the preceding
more or less in appearance and uses. See
Bailey and ^Miller, ' Cj'clopsdia of American
Horticulture^ (1900-2) ; Kegel, ^Monographische
Bearbeitung der Betulacese* (1861) ; DeCan-
dolle. 'Prodromus 16* (1869).

Birchard, Isaac James, Canadian educator:
b. Uxbridge, Ont., 11 Oct. 1850. He was princi-
pal of a public school in Toronto, 1874-80;
master of mathematics at Brantford College
Institute in 1882-93 ; 'ind in 1900 was master of
mathematics in the Toronto College Institute.
He is best known as the author of the text-
took, * Plane Trigonometry for Schools and
Colleges.^ and as the joint author of ^High
School Algebra.^

Birchenough, berch'e-no, Mabel (Bradley),
English novelist, third daughter of the late H.
G. Bradley, dean of Westminster, and wife of
Henry Birchenough, a writer on statistics. She
lias written: * Disturbing Elements'; ^Pots-
Tierds' ; ^Private Bobs.'

Bird, Arthur, American musician: b. Cam-
bridge, Mass., 23 July 1856. He conducted the
Milwaukee Musical Festival in 1886 and since
that date has lived in Berlin. In addition to
a symphony and various pianoforte numbers he
lias composed a comic opera, ^Daphne' (1897)
and a ballet, *Rubezahl.'

Bird, Charles, American military officer:
"b. Delaw'are, 17 June 1838. He entered the
volunteer service in 1861, as first lieutenant, ist
Delaware Infantry ; was promoted lieutenant-
colonel, 9th Delaware Infantry, in 1864 ; and
was commissioned colonel of the ist United
States Veteran Infantry, 24 Dec. 1865. On
2 March 1867 he w^as brevetted first lieutenant
and captain in the L^nited States army for gal-
lantry in the battle of Fredericksburg, major for
Spottsylvania, and lieutenant-colonel for Peters-
burg, Va. He was appointed a second lieuten-
ant. 14th L'nited States Infantry, in 1886; pro-
moted to major and quartermaster in 1895; ^nd
commissioned a colonel and quartermaster of
United States Volunteers for the war with Spain
in 1898. He became brigadier-general in the
regular army 16 April 1902 and was retired 17
June 1902.

Bird, Edward, English painter of note : b.
Wolverhampton, 12 April 1772; d. Bristol 1819.
He took up art as a profession, without any
Tegular training, and carried on a school of
drawing at Bristol. In 1807 he exhibited some
pictures at Bath, and had the good fortune to
find purchasers for them. In 1809 he had a
picture, 'Good News,' in the exhibition of the
Royal Academj', and so successful was this
work that his name at onee became known. He
Vol. 2 — 42.

was elected an associate of the Academy in
1812, and his reputation was increased by such
paintings as the 'Surrender of Calais,' the
"Death of Eli,' and the 'Field of Chevy Chase'
— the last considered his greatest work. The
'Death of Eli' was sold for 500 guineas, and
was awarded a premiinn of 300 by the British
Institution. In 1815 he became a full member
of the Royal Academy, and he was also
appointed court painter to Queen Charlotte.
Among his last pictures were the 'Crucifixion' ;
'Christ led to be Crucified' ; the 'Death of
Ananias and Sapphira' ; and the 'Burning of
Ridley and Latimer.' His talents, however, were
considered to be rather for genre than for his-
toric or sacred subjects.

Bird, Frederic Mayer, American Episco-
pal clergyman, son of R. M. Bird (q.v.) : b.
Philadelphia, 28 June 1838. He was rector at
Spotswood, N. J., 1870-4 ; chaplain and pro-
fessor of psychology. Christian evidences, and
rhetoric, at Lehigh University. 1881-6 ; and act-
ing chaplain there, 1893-8. He is noted as a
hymnologist, and as the collector of one of the
most complete and valuable musical libraries in
the United States. He edited several collec-
tions of hymns; was associate editor of 'Chand-
ler's Encyclopaedia' ; editor of 'Lippincott's
Magazine' (1893-8); and published 'The Story
of Our Christianity' (1893).

Bird, Gelding, English medical and scien-
tific writer: b. Downham, Norfolk, 1814; d. 27
Oct. 1854. In 1838 he took the degree of M.D.
at St. Andrew's, and in 1840 that of M.A. In
the latter j-ear he became a licentiate of the
Royal College of Physicians, London, and in
1845 was elected a Fellow. In 1843 he was
appointed assistant physician at Guy's Hospital,
where he also lectured on materia medica ; and
in 1847 he entered on a three years' course of
lectures on the same subject at the College of
Physicians. He took an active interest in natural
history, chemistry, and other subjects more or
less connected with medicine; and his multi-
farious occupations overtaxed his strength and
undermined his health, so that he died at a com-
parative early age. He had by this time acquired
a very large practice, and had made his name
well known in his profession, more especially
by his researches in scientific medicine. A work
by which he was more generally known was
his 'Elements of Natural Philosophy,' for many
years a text-book. A well-known work on
'Urinary Deposits' was also published by him,
as also 'Lectures on Electricity and Galvanism
in their Physiological and Therapeutical Rela-
tions' ; 'Lectures on Oxaluria' ; etc.

Bird, Isabella. See Bishop, Isabella Bird.

Bird, John, English mathematical instru-
ment maker: b. in the county of Durham. 1709^
d. 31 March 1776. He set up in London about
1745 as a maker of scientific instruments, hav-
ing previously received instructions from Gra-
ham, the greatest mechanician of the time. In
1749 he received an order to construct a new
brass mural quadrant of eight feet radius for the
Royal Observatory. This was used by Bradley
and by Maskelyne. and continued serviceable for
62 years. Duplicates of it were soon ordered
for St. Petersburg, Cadiz, and the ficole Mili-
taire. Paris — the last employed by D'Agelet
and Lalande in determining the declinations of
50,000 stars. He also furnished Bradley with a

BIRD — BIRD-LIME

new transit instrument and a 40-inch movable
quadrant. Bird's marked superiority to all
other makers of the day is strikingly exemplified
by the fact that in 1767 the Board of Longitude
paid him £500 on his agreeing to take an appren-
tice for seven years, instruct other persons as
desired, and furnish upon oath descriptions and
plates of his methods. A result of this arrange-
ment was the publication of two treatises, named
respectively ^The Method of Dividing Astro-
nomical Instruments^ (1767), and *The Method
of Constructing Mural Quadrants' (1768), each
with a preface by Maskelyne, the astronomer-
royal.

Bird, Robert Montgomery, American nov-
elist : b. Newcastle, Del., 1803; d. Philadelphia,
22 Jan. 1854. He qualified as a physician,
but soon gave up the practice of medicine for
literature. He first became known as a dram-
atist, having w^ritten three tragedies, — *The
Gladiator* ; ^Oraloosa' ; and <The Broker of
Bogota \ — the first of these often acted by Edwin
Forrest. His first novel was 'Calavar' (1834),
his second *The Infidel' (1835) — both of them
having their scene in Mexico, at the time of the
Spanish conquest. Then followed the ^ Hawks
of Hawk Hollow' ; ^Sheppard Lee' ; and *Nick
of the Woods, or the Jibbenainosay' (1837) ;
the last probably the most popular of all his fic-
tions. Its scene is laid in Kentucky soon after
the close of the Revolutionary War, and in it
we have a lively picture of pioneer life at this
date, and the relentless hostilities between the
Indians and the early settlers. He also wrote :
* Peter Pilgrim,' a collection of tales and
sketches ; and *^ Adventures of Robin Day,' a
novel.

Bird, Birde, or Byrd, William, English
composer: b. 1538; d. London, 4 July 1623. He
was trained in music under Thomas Tallis, and
was appointed organist of Lincoln about 1563.
In 1575 tne two composers obtained the mo-
nopoly for 21 years of printing and selling music
and music paper ; and on the death of Tallis in
1585 Bird became sole patentee. His first work
of importance was * Psalms, Sonnets, and Songs
of Sadness and Piety, Made into Music of Five
Parts' (1588). In 1589 he published a collec-
tion of songs, and also a collection of sacred
pieces for five voices ; a second collection of
similar pieces appeared also in 1591. In 1607 he
published two books of ^Gradualia,' being a
collection of motets for the ecclesiastical year
of the Roman Catholic Church; and in 161 1
< Psalms, Songs, and Sonnets.' He continued
all his life a Roman Catholic, but notwithstand-
ing this held a lease from the Crown of lands
confiscated from a Roman Catholic recusant,
and never lost the appointment which he held
in the Protestant Chapel Royal. Bird was the
composer of the first English madrigal. He
wrote a large number of pieces for the virginals,
and also three masses. He was the author of
a celebrated canon, 'Non nobis, Domine,'
often sung in England by way of grace after
meat at public banquets, and which has never
ceased to be popular.

Bird-catching. See Trapping.

Bird-catching Spider, a name applied to
gigantic spiders of the genera Mygalc and
Epeira, which catch birds and suck their blood.
The species to which the name was originally
given was Mygale avicularia, a native of Suri-

nam and other parts of tropical South America.
The body of this insect is about two inches long,
very hairy, and almost black; when the legs are
stretched out it measures about a foot across.
It lives in holes or crevices and does not spin a
net proper, but makes a tubular nest for itself
in which it lurks during the day, seeking its
prey by night. Other species of Alygale belong
to the Malay Archipelago, as M. javanica and
M. siunatrensis. In experiments made with
these spiders small birds have been known to
dies in a few seconds after being bitten. Some
of the web-spinning spiders make webs strong
enough to entangle small birds, which thus be-
come their prey.

Bird-cherry, in America, the wdld, red, pin,
or pigeon cherry (Prunus pensyhania) of the
natural order Rosacece, a tree 20 to 40 feet
high of little use except occasionally for orna-
mental purposes, as fuel and as a stock for
grafting garden cherries upon. Its red, thin-
fleshed fruit is sour and somewhat astringent.
The name is also given to European, the hag-
berry of Scotland (Prunus pad us), whose many
varieties are often cultivated for ornament. It
sometimes attains a height of 20 feet, bears
racemes of flowers larger and a week
earlier than the choke-cherry (Prunus vir-
giniana) , which it somewhat resembles. The
fruit, which is black, is smaller than the com-
mon cherry and has a disagreeable taste, but
is greedily eaten by birds. The wood, which re-
sembles mahogany, and takes a good polish, is
used in cabinet-making.

Bird-Uce, minute wingless insects para-
sitic under the feathers of birds and hair of
certain mammals, to which they are very annoy-
ing. They belong to the sub-order MallopJiaga,
a group of wingless degraded insects allied to
the death-tick (Psocidce), stone-flies (Pcrlida:),
and the white ants, altogether constituting the
order Platyptcra. They differ from true lice in
having free jaws adapted for biting, and not a
sucking beak. The flattened body is corneous,
hard above, and the head is horizontal, with
three- to five-jointed antennae; the eyes are
small and simple ; the mandibles are small, like a
hook, and the maxillary palpi, when present, for
they are sometimes wanting, are four-jointed,
while the labial palpi are two-jointed. The
thorax is small and but two-jointed apparently,
as the meso- and meta-thorax are united. The
abdomen is from nine- to ten-jointed, while the
short, thick limbs have two-jointed tarsi and
one or two claws.

Bird-Ume, a viscous substance used for en-
tangling small birds so as to make them easily
caught, twigs being for this purpose smeared
with it at places where the birds resort or to
which they are attracted by a call-bird. It is
often prepared from the middle bark of the
holly, which is stripped ofif in June or July,
boiled in water for six or eight hours, and the
water being strained of¥, is then left to ferment.
This process may take two or three weeks, dur-
ing which it is watered if necessary. At the end
of this time it assumes a mucilaginous form,
and after being pounded in a mortar and worked
with the hands in water, is fit for use. This
substance, when prepared, is of a greenish color
and very tenacious, ^lice are sometimes caught
with it as well as birds.

BIRD-TICK — BIRDS

Bird-tick, one of the horse-tick or forest-
fly family {Hippoboscidcc) of the order Dip-
tcra. Like the horse-tick the body is much
flattened ; unHke the Hippobosca, or horse-tick,
it has ocelli, but in the short proboscis it resem-
bles the latter fly. In the wings there are six
costal veins. There are numerous species, all of
which are bird-parasites. Olfcrsia americana
lives on the owl and other birds. Certain spe-
cies of Lipoptcra live on birds, but afterward
migrate to mammals, finally losing their wings
through disuse.

Bird of Paradise Flower. See Strelitzia.

Birds. The birds form that class (Aves)
of warm-blooded vertebrate animals most dis-
tinctive, most easily defined, and most popu-
larly known and interesting. They are at once
distinguished by their covering of feathers,
which is possessed by no other sort of animal ;
and by the modification of their fore-limbs into
instruments for flight (wings). Their aerial
existence, from which few have wholly de-
parted, requiring great activity and exertion,
has called forth a high perfection of organiza-
tion, especially in the respiratory and circulatory
systems of the body, and has led to the charac-
teristic spindle-shaped form, narrowing from
the full chest and shoulders toward a pointed
head, which will cleave the air easil}', and dimin-
ishing toward the rudder-like tail. The graceful
form, to which the beauty of birds is largely
due, has been brought about by the enlarge-
ment of the shoulder-girdle, and its great pec-
toral muscles, and by the necessity of an
increased capacity of chest to contain the com-
paratively great heart and lungs. In birds
such as ostriches, cassowaries, moas, and the
like, which have ceased to fly, and have de-
veloped very strong legs ; or in those like the
penguins, which have become swimmers and
divers, the changes of structure are degenera-
tions from the type, which is a bird with powers
of flight.

FHght. as well as clothing, is due to the pres-
ence of the complicated horny appendages grow-
ing from the skin, called feathers, which are
peculiar to the class. Their structure is de-
scribed under Fe.\thers. Those of the body are
usuallv small, grow in certain definite tracts
Csee Ptervlography), varying in the different
groups, and form a close jacket, not easily pervi-
ous to moisture and a poor conductor of heat,
'hus conserving the vital warmth and protect-
ing the body against sudden changes of
temperature. It is shed (molted) and renewed
semi-annually. This body-coat is ordinarily
nearly uniform in length and character, but
often is varied by ornamental plumes, erectile
crests, ruffs, and other modifications, such as
are seen in birds of paradise, herons, and many
others. The feathers are also variously colored
in patterns varying with the groups and more
minutely with the species, whereby they may
recognize each other and be distinguished
by us. These colors are usually those of pig-
ments incorporated in the web of the feather
itself, but may be due to minute scales on the
surface, which break up the light, giving it an
iridescent or metallic sheen, conspicuous in
humming birds and certain pheasants. The
plumage often varies, according to age, sex, sea-
son, or all three conditions ; and these colors
play an important part in bird-life (see Colora-

tion Protective; Natural Selectiox). Tlie
bones of the wing and tail support very large,
strong "quilP* feathers, which, when outspread,
support the bird in the air, and when moved in
the proper manner carry it forward — enable it
to fly, the mechanism and phenomena of which
method of locomotion are explained under
Flight. The wing power of most birds is very
great, but the speed of their flight is often ex-
aggerated. Few exact facts are at hand, but it
is apparent that the highest speed is nearer 50
than 100 miles an hour, although the latter
figure is often stated. Endurance on the wing
is more remarkable. Many sea-birds seem tire-
less, and swallows, among land birds, are almost
incessantly in the air. During migrations a
large variety of birds, including some of the
smallest and feeblest, undertake rapid and ex-
tensive journeys, reaching in some cases almost
half around the world ; and some regularly pass
over spaces of ocean as much as 2,000 miles in
width, while a flight of 500 miles from land to
land is accomplished by many species. This is
the more notable as a feat because in many
cases they are birds which during nine tenths
of the year only flit from bush to bush. In these
migratory journeys (see Migration) birds often
fly very high : but this is the regular custom of
certain ones, especially vultures, which soar be-
yond human sight, yet will swoop to the earth
in a swift dash, betraying great adaptability to
sudden changes in atmospheric density. Other
notable qualities are the power (largely residing
in the tail) to suddenly change speed and direc-
tion, helping them to dodge and elude winged
pursuers, and to catch the agile aerial insects,
upon which many of the smaller species depend
for subsistence. The sharpness and quick ad-
justability of eyesight also involved in this is
noteworthy.

These abilities in flight have led to the very
wide distribution of birds, which occur in every
part of the world j'et seen by man ; and are the
most numerously represented of all terrestrial
branches of animal life in the oceanic islands.
Nevertheless very few are cosmopolitan, and
not many range beyond the confines of a single
continent, while many are more narrowly re-
stricted, so far at least as their habitat in the
breeding season is concerned. Thus the geo-
graphical distribution of birds has been found
perhaps the best criterion for the mapping out
of zoogeographical regions (see Zoogeography).
The greater number of families of birds is tropi-
cal, and both, variety of kinds and numbers of
individuals decrease toward the poles. A striking
fact is the great difference between the birds
of the northern and the southern hemispheres —
a difference much more decided than exists
between Europe and North America, or South
America and Australasia.

Birds in ev-ery case reproduce their kind by
means of eggs protected by a calcareous, often
highly-colored shell, laid by the mother a con-
siderable time before they are ready to hatch,
which consummation is brought about by the
application of warmth. This may be arranged
for in two ways. A few birds bury their eggs
in rotting vegetation, or in hot sand, and let
the chemical heat evolved by the ferment in the
former case, or the sun's rays in the latter,
accomplish the desired result. The great
majority, however, place their eggs in some sort
of a receptacle (sometimes a mere hollow on

BIRDS

the ground, .or hole or niche in a cliff or tree,
sometimes in a burrow or nest of more or less
elaborate construction (see Nests), and there
brood upon, or "incubate" them until the
chick matures and emerges. In one class
of birds {Prcccoces) incubation is so long con-
tinued, and the embryonic chick becomes so
far advanced before leaving the shell, that
it is well coated with feathers, and can at
once begin to take care of itself. These birds
are the sea-birds, water-birds, game-birds, and
their allies of comparatively low organization.
In another class (Altriccs) of higher organiza-
tion as a group, the chicks are permitted to
break from the shell before they have acquired
feathers or are able to move about or obtain
food. They must therefore be shielded, de-
fended, fed, and cared for by the parents for
several days or weeks. Out of this condition
have grown some of the most interesting, com-
plicated, and delightful features, habits, and in-
stincts of bird-life.

Birds as a class are omnivorous, but each of
the various groups might be characterized by
its food, which, more than anything else in the
process of evolution, has determined the various
types of structure, which distinguish the tribes,
and which are indexed, as it were, by the form
of the bill and feet. Those of lowest organiza-
tion, — nearest the ancestral type, — are the sea-
birds, which live upon fish varied to some ex-
tent by mussels and other small marine creatures.
Many of the ducks and shore-birds share this
marine diet, and numerous wading birds eat
fresh-water fish, frogs, crayfish, and the like.
The great body of ratite and gallinaceous birds,
— ostriches, emeus, partridges, pheasants, etc.,
that run and nest on the ground. — are vegetable-
eaters, seeking green leaves, fruits, seeds,
lichens, etc., and picking up such insects
as come in their way. All the foregoing
are prascocial birds, and the young feed on the
same things as their parents. These classes
have little relation to mankind so far as their
food is concerned except that they sometimes
devour too much grain or spoil certain plants.
Among the higher class, or altricial birds, the
fare is more varied, and while there is a very
numerous group (the cone-billed or fringilline
birds; see Finch; Sp.a.rrow, etc.), which live
altogether upon seeds, and a few others, like the
kingfishers, which catch fish, the great majority
indulge themselves in a miscellaneous diet of
both vegetable and animal materials. Some,
called "soft-billed,* and including most of our
song-birds, except the finches, are mainly in-
sect eaters, some catching them upon the wing,
others digging them out of rotten wood, and the
greater number picking them off the leaves of
trees or searching for them among the herbage.
Another large class, embracing the birds of
prey, and a few others, like the shrikes, depend
for food upon capturing and devouring other
smaller birds, together with such small mam-
mals, reptiles, amphibians, fish, and insects as
they are able to seize and kill. These are the
falcons, owls, and their relatives ; but a related
group varies this fare by feeding upon carrion.
In the case of all of these altricial birds, how-
ever, except the birds of prey, the young are
fed upon soft insect food, mainly worms, cater-
pillars and maggots ; and the period of their
nesting coincides with the time when these larval
insects abound. In the feeding habits of these

higher birds man has a great interest, for
nearl}' all of the innumerable insects which they
capture for themselves, or for the nourishment
of their young, are such as are annoying or in-
jurious to him; and experience in manj' locali-
ties has shown that the destruction of bird-life
is accompanied by a distressing increase of
noxious insects. In the same way the hawks
and owls, by their incessant pursuit of mice,
and other small animals injurious to agriculture,
so reduce the numbers of these pests, as greatly
to benefit the farmer; while the useful work
done by the vultures, as scavengers, bj"^ removing
offal and dead animals, is recognized by every-
one in the tropical regions where these birds
most abound.

Nor does the relative usefulness of birds to
man stop here. They not only afford him
great pleasure, by their pleasing colors and ani-
mated behavior, and delight his ear by their
voices, but large numbers of them furnish him
with excellent and even dainty food. Lastly,
this group has furnished men with several varie-
ties of domestic poultry, such as the turkey,
peacock, guinea-fowl, duck, goose, and various
pigeons and chickens, which are among the
most valuable of his animal possessions.

Birds are extremely rare as fossils, compared
with other vertebrates, and little is known about
their evolution. Four or five hundred extinct
species have been described, as against 12,000
living, and most of them are from very frag-
mentary remains. The reasons for their scarcity
is partly their small size and the slight construc-
tion of their skeletons, which makes their bones
less likely to be buried in sediments and pre-
served as fossils. At a few localities, however,
as in the Oligocene strata of the department of
Allier in France, and the Pleistocene deposits
of Fossil Lake in Oregon, they occur abundantly.
Birds have been found as far back in geological
time as the Jurassic Period of the Age of Rep-
tiles. The supposed bird-tracks of the more
ancient Triassic sandstones of the Connecticut
valley are now believed to be mostly, if not all,
tracks of Dinosaurs (q.v.), a group of reptiles
having many bird-like characters. From some
ancient offshoot of this group the birds are
probably descended, but the early stages of their
evolution are not known. Jurassic birds (see
Archaeopteryx) had teeth instead of a horn\'
beak, a long reptilian tail and other primitive
characters. In the succeeding Cretaceous
Period the tail has become short and rudimen-
tary, with its feathers springing from a small
bony plate at its tip as in modern birds, but
some genera {Ichthyornis, etc.) retain the
teeth. In all later birds the teeth are replaced by
a horny beak. They appear to have changed
comparatively little during the Tertiary and
Quaternary Periods, in marked contrast to the
great evolution of the mammals during the same
time, and most Tertiary birds are closely re-
lated to. or included in modern genera. There
are a few remarkable extinct forms known,
among which are the gigantic ground-birds of
New Zealand, Madagascar, and elsewhere, more
or less nearly related to the modern ostriches
and the Phorohachos of South America.

References to books upon birds will be found
under the title Ornithology, where also the
structure, and classification of birds are con-
sidered. Ernest Ingersoll,
Editorial Staff ^Encyclopedia Americana?

FAMILIAR AMERICAN BIRDS

1. Yellow-bellied Woodpecker, or Sapsucker. 2. Black-capped Titmouse, or Chickadee. 3. Black-and- White Creeping-
Warbler. 4. Wood Thrush. .5. Cedar Waxwing. or Cherr>- Bird. 6. Black-billed Cuckoo. 7. Tree, or Canada Sparrow.
8. Red-eyed Vireo. 9. Golden-crowned Kinglet. 10. Little Screech-owl (red phase). 11. American Redstart.

PARTS OF BIRDS

1. Digestive organs.

2. Forms of feet. — ■ a, partially webbed; b, lobe-foot;
c, insessorial foot; d, runner's foot; e, walker's foot;
f, palmated foot; g, gressorial foot; h, web foot; i,
cloven foot; j, scansorial or yoke foot; k, cloven web
foot; 1, staff-foot; m, cramp foot.

3. Forms of head and bill. — a, flamingo; b, spoon-
bill; c, yellow-hammer; d, thrush; e, hawk; f, pelican;

g, avocet; h, saw-bill; i, scissor-bill; j, dove; k, shoe-
bill; 1, gap bill; m, arassari; n, ibis; o, song-bird; p,
stork.

4. Feathers of a bird.— a, frontal; b, crown; c,
occipital; d, bill; e, cheek; f, breast; g, abdominal; h,
rump; i, croup; j and k, sickle feathers; 1, back; m,
primary quilis; n, secondary quilis; o, coverts; p, pin-
ions; q, shoulder-pinions.

BIRDS — BIRDS OF PARADISE

Birds, The, a comedy by the Greek drama-
tist Aristophanes, that appeared in 414 b.c. It
belongs with the writer's earlier plays, in which
farcical situations, exuberant imagination, and a
hnguistic revel, are to be noted. The comedy
is a burlesque on the national mythology; the
author creates a cloudland for his fancy to sport
in without restraint.

Birds of America, The, the monumental
work of John James Audubon, the great Amer-
ican naturalist, first published in England be-
tween the years 1827 and 1830. It contained
colored illustrations of 1,065 species of birds.
The text is descriptive of the habits and man-
ners of the birds observed by Audubon himself
in his long wanderings over the North American
continent.

Bird's-eye Limestone, the old name of a
rock of the Trenton formation, now called
Lowville Limestone. It is a fine-grained, dove-
colored stone, in which the crystallized corals of
the genus Tetradium appear as whitish points.

Bird's-ioot, iOniifJiofytis) . a genus of about
seven species of small slender pinnate-leaved,
white, pink, or yellow flowered annual herbs of
the natural order Legtiminosce. The common
and generic names were suggested by the shape
of the articulated, cylindrical pods which re-
semble the bent claws of a bird. The prin-
cipal species, O. sativiis, is used as a forage
plant.

Birds' Nests. See Nests.

Birds' Nests, Edible, the nests of the
salangane {Collocalia fiiciphaga) and other spe-
cies of swifts or swiftlets, found in the Malay
Archipelago, and used as an article of luxury
among the Chinese. They are particularly
abundant in Sumatra and Borneo, especially near
the north end of the island. The nest has the
shape of a common swallow's nest, is about the
size of a half teacup, is found in caves, particu-
larly in sea-cliffs, and has the appearance of
fibrous gelatine or isinglass. They appear to
be composed of a mucilaginous substance secret-
ed by special glands, and are not, as was for-
merly thought, made from a glutinous marine
fucus or seaweed. The finest nests at present
.are said to bring as high a price as $12 or $13
a pound. Seventy-five or one hundred dollars'
worth are said to be sent to Singapore and
China annually. They are bought almost ex-
clusively bj' the rich Chinese, who consider
them a great stimulant and tonic, and are used
in making soup. The finest are those obtained
before the nest has been contaminated by the
young birds ; they are pure white, and are
comparativeh"^ scarce. The inferior ones are
dark, streaked with blood, or mixed with feath-
ers ; they are chiefly converted into glue. Sorne
of the caverns in which these nests are built
are difficult of access and dangerous to climb,
so that none can collect the nests but persons
brought up to the trade. The following account
of the traffic in these birds' nests is extracted
from Crawfurd's excellent work on the East-
ern Archipelago: *The best nests are those
obtained in deep, damp caves, and such as are
taken before the birds have laid their eggs
. . . They are taken twice a year, and if regular-
ly collected, and no unusual injury be offered to
the caverns, will produce very equally, the
quantity being very little, if at all, improved by

the caves being left altogether unmolested for a
year or two. Some of the caverns are ex-
tremely difficult of access, and the nests can only
be collected by persons accustomed from their
youth to the office. The most remarkable and
productive caves in Java, of which I superin-
tended a moiety of the collection for several
years, are those of Karang-bolang, in the prov-
ince of Baglen, on the southern coast of the
island. Here the caves are only to be ap-
proached by a perpendicular descent of many
hundred feet by ladders of bamboo and rattan
over a sea rolling violently against the rocks.
When the mouth of the cavern is attained, the
perilous office of taking the nests must often be
performed with torchlight, by penetrating into
recesses of the rock, where the slightest trip
would be instantly fatal to the adventurers, who
see nothing below them but the turbulent surf
making its way into the chasms of the rock.
The only preparation which the birds' nests
undergo is that of simple drying, without direct
exposure to the sun, after which they are
packed in small boxes, usually of half a picul
. . . They are consumed only by the great ; and
indeed the best part is sent to the capital for
the consumption of the court. The sensual
Chinese use them under the imagination that
they are powerfully stimulating and tonic ; but
it is probable that their most valuable quality
is their being perfectly harmless. The people
of Japan, who so much resemble the Chinese in
many of their habits, have no taste for the
edible nests ; and how the latter acquired a taste
for this foreign commodity is no less singular
than their persevering in it.*'

Birds of Passage, any migratory birds.

See ^IlGRATION.

Birds of Paradise, a family of birds of
New Guinea, northern Australia, and the neigh-
boring islands, which contains a large number
of species, notable for splendid plumage, al-
though they are most nearly allied to the plainly
dressed crows. The name "bird of paradise'*
is a translation of the native name in the Island
of Batchian, "manukdewata," meaning birds of
the gods. About 50 species of these birds are
known, varying in size from that of a crow to
that of a sparrow ; all are forest birds, spend-
ing their lives in the tree-tops, where many of
them go about in small flocks, active and noisy,
but are inclined to hide themselves in the
thickest foliage, as though aware that their
plumage rendered them easily conspicuous to
their enemies. None are singers, and in most
cases the voice is a loud, harsh cry, or a sharp
whistle, or in some species, strange mewing
notes. It is related that on some of the islands
certain species were called "birds of the sun.'*
because of their habit of joining in loud cho-
ruses at sunrise. Their diet consists mainly of
fruit, and especially of berries and seeds ; the
fig and the nutmeg are especially eaten, and
some species suck honey from the large tropical
flowers. Insects are captured by all species,
as also are the numerous snails inhabiting the
trees and bushes of that region, and the larger
forms devour frogs and lizards. In pursuit of
insects, worms, and snails, several species spend
much of their time scrambling about the trunks
of trees, and searching the bark, like creepers.
The breeding habits of these birds vary extens-
ively, and the nests and eggs of many have not

BIRDS OF PARADISE

yet been discovered. The typical paradise-birds
construct rather loose, careless platforms of
sticks and leaves, moss, etc., placed in trees or
bushes, and lay eggs which are much streaked
and spoiled, and vary in color and patterns.
The very extraordmary nests and play-grounds
of that section of the family which is terrestrial,
and inhabits Australia, are described under
bower-birds (q.v.).

Interest in the birds of paradise centres in
their marvelous displays of plumage. These
are exhibited in most species by the male alone,
the female being comparatively plain and simple
in her attire, as also are the young of both sexes,
until the young males arrive at maturity. This
dissimilarity between the females and males of
birds in which the latter are highly adorned, is
a protective arrangement, designed to keep the
females from observation while they are sitting
defenseless upon their nests, where they would
easily be discovered, and often killed, did they
wear the conspicuous colors and ornaments of
their brilliant mates. Natural selection, by keep-
ing their colors, and those of the inexperienced
and comparatively helpless young ones plain,
has tenued to preserve the species ; and at the
time when the females are brooding their mates
remain at a discreet distance from the nests, so
as not to iDCtray their position to the monkeys,
lemurs, civets, serpents, and other searchers
for eggs and fledglings. The same influence,
acting through sexual selection (q.v.), has de-
veloped in the males the bright colors and eccen-
tric adornments which distinguish this group of
birds as a means of increasing their attractive-
ness in the eyes of the females. The theory is
that the most beautiful male will be chosen first
as a mate, and will transmit to its offspring its
tendency toward ornamentation or high color,
and that thus, by constant rivalry between the
males, the excessive ornamentation in this group
has slowly arisen. A justification for this view
is found in the fact that in the courting season,
which occurs at the opening of the rainy season,
numbers of males of each species gather in
certain spots, sometimes on the ground, but
more usually on the limbs of the forest trees,
and go through a great variety of movements
and strange antics, lifting their wings, spreading
their tails, erecting their crests, and apparently
doing everything in their power to display their
finery in the eyes of the females, and thus solicit
them to make a choice. Natives call these as-
semblages, which usually occur at sunrise, and
always in the same place, ^^dancing parties,'*
and it is during this time that they secure
specimens for the trade, by shooting them from
ambush with blunt arrows. So persistent has
been the demand for their skins and feathers,
chiefly for millinery purposes, that many of the
species have been nearly exterminated. This
may easily occur from the fact that the range
of most of the birds of paradise is very limited,
several species being confined to a single island.
Their increase, too, is slow, as most of them
lay only two or three eggs, a condition which
has arisen from the fact that their natural
enemies are comparatively few. They have oc-
casionally been captured alive, and kept for a
time in captivity, even in the zoological gardens
of Europe, btit they do not thrive in confinement.
The best-known of the birds of paradise, is the
great emerald paradise bird (Paradcisea apoda)
of the Moluccas which was brought to Europe

first in 1523, by the members of Magellan's com-
pany, on their return from the first circumnavi-
gation of the world. They brought two dead
specimens which had been given to them in the
island of Batchian as a mark of royal favor.
From these skins the natives, as was their
custom, had cut off both the wings, and the
feet; and this gave rise to the absurd stories of
the early books, that the paradise birds were
naturally footless and wingless, never perched,
suspended themselves by the tail-feathers, etc.
It was also said that they gazed perpetually at
the sun, and that the hen laid her eggs on the
back of her spouse. This species is as large as
a crow. The male is rich brown, becoming
purplish beneath ; the head and neck are pale
yellow, the forehead, cheeks, and throat, metallic
green. From the sides of the body, beneath the
wings, spring thick tufts of delicate, loosely-
webbed, golden-orange feathers, which, v'hen
the wings are lifted, may be lifted and spread
out so as to seem to fall like a shower over the
whole bird ; and the two middle tail-feathers
are like long wires, each with a very slight
flag-like web at the tip. It would be impossible
to describe at length the great variety and
splendor of the plumage of these eccentrically
ornate birds, only a few of which may be further
alluded to. In the red bird of paradise (Para-
disca sangiiinca) the plumage is like velvet in
a variety of gorgeous colors, and the tufts at
the sides are rich crimson, while the elegantly
curling central tail-shafts are 21 inches in
length. A genus of New Guinea (Cincinntirus)
includes a number of species, only about six
inches long, called the king birds of paradise,
which are distinguished by large tufts of fan-
like plumes on each side of the breast. Another
genus (Parotia) has as its especial ornament a
group of three long feathers springing from
behind each eye, which are in the form of me-
tallic wires, with a racket-like web at the end
that may be erected and moved about as the
bird wishes. Otherwise the plumage is black,
except for some vivid steel-green and white
feathers about the head. Some species have a
distinct shield of metallic, scale-like feathers,
upon the back or upon the breast, which may
be glossy blue, or green, or violet, or glowing
scarlet, or a mixture of these. The acme of
this strange and gorgeous development in plu-
mage seems to be attained by the "superb'' bird
of paradise (LopJwrliiiia superba), which is cha-
racterized by the presence of an enormous erec-
tile forked shield of velvety hlack feathers
arising from the nape of the neck, and when in
repose lying flatly on the back. So strange and
apparently incongruous is this shield, that it
might suggest to the beholder that the tail of
some other bird had been stuck on to the skin,
were it not that its feathers are of a different
type. The ground-color of the plumage is of the
deepest black, but with bronze reflections on the
neck; while the feathers of the head are metallic
green and blue. Spreading over the breast is
a shield composed of narrow and rather stiff
feathers, which extends in a pointed form, along
each side, and is emarginate in the middle. In
color, this is bluish-green, with a satiny sheen;
the back shield, on the other hand, is velvety black,
with reflections of bronze and purple, its outer'
most feathers exceeding the primaries of the
wing in length. The natives say that the enor-
mous crest, when displayed during the courtship

BIRDS OF PREY.

1. Hobby (Falco subbuteo).

2. RuppelTs African Vulture (Gyps Ruppelll).

3. Carancho (Polyborus Brasiliensis).

4. Common Buzzard (Buteo vulgaris).

5. Sparrow Hawk (Accipiter Nisus).

6. Bataleur Eagle (Helotarsus ecaudatus).

7. South American Buzzard-Hawk .Vsturira polyzona).

8. East Indian Pigeon-Hawk or Turumti (Falco chiquera)

BiRDS OF PREY — BIRETTA

of the female, is not only raised, but spread
widely out, in a fan-like manner, while the
chest shield is similarly expanded. Hence the
head of the bird forms a circle of irregular
feathers of velvety black and emerald, completely
concealing the rest of the body when viewed
from the front.

General information as to the birds of para-
dise vcill be found in books of East Indian travel,
especially in ^The Malay Archipelago* (1869),
by Alfred Russel Wallace, the first naturalist
to study these birds attentivel}' in their native
haunts. As early as 1873, Daniel Elliot com-
pleted a magnificent monograph of the family,
illustrated with colored folio plates, and in
1881 was published a second monograph, by Sal-
vadori. as a part of his general work on the
ornithology of the Papuan region. Still more
recently German naturalists have increased our
knowledge of this family by many papers in
■German scientific periodicals, which have been
titilized by Rothschild in the preparation of his
account of these birds in ^Das Tier-reich* (Ber-
lin 1898). The most recent sketches are those
of the 'Ro3'al Natural History^ (Lond. 1895),
and Evans, ^ Birds* (Lond. 1900).

Birds of Prey. This group is a survival
of the old-fashioned classification of animals by
resemblances in appearance and function, rather
than in structure. Broadly speaking, a bird of
prey is merely one which subsists by attacking
and' devouring living creatures, and hence the
name covers such birds as skuas, frigate-birds,
shrikes, and fish-catching birds, as well as the
■eagles, hav.'ks, and owls, to which it is restricted
by popular usage. In all these cases ihe adapta-
tions are for a predatory life, especially marked
in the strong seizing talons of the hawks and
owls, and in their hooked, sharp-edged beaks,
suitable for tearing and cutting, along with
which go suitable modifications of the digestive
organs, characteristic of the accipiters. These
adaptations bear a curious, yet natural likeness
to the claws, teeth, etc., of carnivorous mam-
mals and reptiles.

Birdsall, William W., American educator:
b. Richmond, Ind., 1854. He was graduated
from Earlham College, Indiana. 1873 and was a
successful teacher in and head of large secondary
schools until 1898. He was president of Swarth-
more College, Pennsjdvania, 1898-1902.

Birdwood, Herbert Mills, English lawyer:
b. Belgaum, Bombay Presidency, 29 May 1837.
He was educated at Edinburgh University, and
w^as dean of arts (1868, 1881, 1888, 1890) and
syndic at the Bombay University, and vice-
chancellor 1891-2. He entered the Bombay civil
service 1858 .; was made assistant collector and
magistrate 1859; assistant judge 1862; under
secretary to the government, judicial, political,
and educational departments, and secretary of
the legislative council 1863 ; acting registrar of
the high court, Bombay 1867; district judge
for Ratnagiri, Surat, and Thana 1871-80; judi-
cial commissioner and judge of the sadar
court, Sind 1881 ; three times acting judge of
the high court, Bombay 1881-5 : puisne
judge of the high court of Bombay 1885-92; and
member of the executive council of the governor
of Bombay 1892-7. His publications include
< Catalogue' of the Flora of Matheran and Ma-
Jiableshwar* ; < Catalogue of Bills Introduced

into the Bombay Legislative Council in 1862-5* ;
and papers relating to the constitution of the
council, the plague in Bombay, etc.

Bireme, a Roman ship of war with two
banks of oars. It was inferior, in magnitude
and strength, to the trireme.

Biren, be-ron, or Biron, Ernest John von
(Duke of Courlandj, Russian statesman
(grandson of a groom of James, Duke of Cour-
land, and the son of a Courland proprietor of
the name of Biihren) : b. 1687; d. 28 Dec. i'/'72.
He studied at Konigsberg, secured the favor of
Anna, Duchess of Courland, and niece of Peter
the Great of Russia ; but he was unsuccessful in
b's attempt to obtain admission among the
Courland nobility. When, in 1730, Anna as-
cended the Russian throne Biren was loaded by
her with honors and introduced at the Russian
court. Here he assumed the name and arms of
the Dukes of Biron in France. Fierce and
haughty by nature, he indulged his hatred
against the rivals of his ambition. The Princes
Dolgorucky were his first victims. He caused
11,000 persons to be put to death, and
double that number to be exiled. It is said that
the empress often threw herself at his feet to
induce him to lay aside his severity, but that
neither her entreaties nor her tears were able
to move him. The firmness of his character,
however, introduced vigor and activity into all
branches of the administration throughout the
empire. In 1737 Anna forced the Courlanders
to choose her favorite (who had in 1722 mar-
ried a Courland lady) for their Duke. After
declaring Prince Ivan her successor, she ap-
pointed Biren regent. Anna died 28 Oct. 1740,
The new regent acted with prudence and mod-
eration. But a secret conspiracy was soon
formed against him. Field Marshal Miinnich
caused him to be arrested in his bed during the
night of 19 Nov. 1740, and to be confined in
the castle of Schliisselburg. He was subjected
to a trial ; but the sentence of death was changed
into that of imprisonment for life, and his for-
tune was declared confiscated. Together with
his family he was transported to Pelym, in Si-
beria, and thrown into a prison, of which
Miinnich himself had furnished the plan. In the
following year Elizabeth, daughter of Peter the
Great, being raised to the Russian throne by a
new revolution, Biren was recalled 20 Dec.
1 74 1, and Miinnich was obliged to occupy his
prison. At Kasan the sledges met ; the travelers
recognized each other, and proceeded on their
way without interchanging a word. Biren was
detained at Jaroslav, and only received his full
liberty in 1762 from Peter HI. When Catherine
II. ascended the throne the Duchy of Courland
was restored to Biren in 1763. He governed
with wisdom and lenity, transferring the gov-
ernment to his eldest son, Peter.

Biretta, a cap worn by ecclesiastics, espe-
cially those of the Roman Church, though .some
ritualistic clergymen of the Anglican Church also
wear it. It is of considerable antiquity, though
it has varied in shape and material at different
times. It is at present a stiff-sided, square-
shaped cap with sharp edges, a flattened top sur-
mounted by ridges rising above it, having in
the centre a sort of tuft or tassel. It is made
of cloth or stuff, the color being black for
priests, purple or violet for bishops, and scarlet
for cardinals. See Vestments.

BIRGE — BIRMINGHAM

Birge, Edward Asahel, American natural-
ist: b. Troy, N. Y., 7 Sept. 1851. He graduated
at Williams College 1873 ; studied physiology
and histology at Leipsic 1880-1 ; became instruc-
tor of natural history in the University of Wis-
consni 1875; professor of zoology 1879; dean of
the College of Letters and Science in 1891 ; and
acting president of the . university 1900-1. In
1894 he became director of the Geological and
Natural History Survey of Wisconsin. He has
written many articles and papers on zoology.

Birge, Henry Warner, American soldier:
b. Hartford, Conn., 25 Aug. 1825 ; d. New York,
I June 1888. At the outbreak of the Civil War
he organized the 4th regiment Connecticut Vol-
unteers, and was commissioned its major 23
May 1861. In November 1861 his uncle. Gov.
Buckingham of Connecticut, appointed him
colonel of the 13th Connecticut Volunteers,
which joined Butler's army at New Orleans.
He took part in the siege of Vicksburg and the
first Red River campaign ; commanded a divi-
sion in Grant's Virginia campaign ; and was
with Sheridan in the latter's most brilliant move-
ments in the Shenandoah valley. In November
1865 he resigned with the rank of brevet major-
general. His services were recognized by an
appreciative vote of thanks from the legislature
of Connecticut.

Birkbeck, George, originator of mechanics'
institutes: b. Settle, Yorkshire, 10 Jan. 1776; d.
I Dec. 1841. He studied medicine at Edinburgh
and took the degree of M.D. in 1799, among his
friends and fellow students being Brougham
and Jeffrey. Being appointed to the chair of
natural and experimental philosophy in the
Andersonian University at Glasgow, in 1799, he
delivered his first course of lectures. The fol-
lowing year he began to give gratuitous lectures
to mechanics, which were soon largely attended.
This was the first attempt to establi,sh mechanics'
institutes, and to Dr. Birkbeck the honor of
being their founder belongs. The Glasgow
Mechanics' Institution, though not established
till 1823, owed its origin to these lectures de-
livered by him. In 1804 he settled as a physi-
cian in London, and was soon engaged in an
extensive practice ; but the extension of scientific
knowledge to mechanics was ever in his
thoughts, and in 1824 he had the happiness of
being elected pjresident of the London Me-
chanics' Institution, for which that at Glasgow
had led the way. Similar institutions soon
arose and prospered in all the larger towns
of the kingdom. Dr. Birkbeck was also
connected with the foutading of University Col-
lege, London, advocated the repeal of the tax
on newspapers, and was active as a lecturer and
promoter of various educational movements.
The London Mechanics' Institution still exists,
but it is now known as the Birkbeck Literary
and Scientific Institution.

Birkenhead, England, a parliamentary,
county, and municipal borough of Cheshire, on
the estuary of the Mersey, opposite Liverpool.
Its growth has been rapid. It owes its pros-
perity to the same causes that have made Liver-
pool a great seaport, and may be regarded as
a suburb of that city. Its docks have a lineal
quay space of over nine miles, with a complete
system of railway communication for the ship-
ment of goods and direct coaling of steamers.
It has a handsome square, a town-hall ; sessions

court and police courts ; market ; moderr?
slaughter-houses ; public baths ; and ranges of
dwelling-houses for workmen, unusually com-
plete in their accommodation and in all their
appointments. The system of drainage and
sewerage is very complete. There is a theo-
logical college of the Church of England (St.
Aidan's) ; a free public library, schools of art,
etc. The ruins of an ancient Benedictine priory
founded in 1153 still exist in a good state of
preservation. The ferry privileges were for-
merly vested in the monks of this priory. The
benevolent institutions comprise an infirmary,
children's and lying-in hospitals, and a dispen-
sary. It has a large public park of 114 acres
beautifully laid out, and another and smaller
public park. Its magnificent docks and dock
warehouses, however, which belong to the splen-
did Liverpool system, form the distinguishing
feature of Birkenhead. The Mersey tunnel, 4J/2
miles long, including the approaches, 21 feet
high, and 26 feet wide, and which cost $6,100,000,.
now connects Liverpool with Birkenhead.
Communication with Liverpool is also kept up
by steam ferries, the property of the corporation,
which yield a handsome revenue. The corpora-
tion also owns the gas, water, and electric light-
ing plants, and the tramway lines, which were
introduced here by George Francis Train, one
of the earliest systems in Great Britain. The
water-supply, which is abundant and of excel-
lent quality, is obtained within the borotigh by
pumping from the red sandstone strata which
underlies it. Birkenhead has gained a distin-
guished name for ship-building, the extensive
yards of Laird Bros, (builders of the famous
Confederate ship Alabama) being located here.
There are machine and engineering works,
wagon factories, flour-mills, oil-cake mills, etc.
Birkenhead has returned a member to Parlia-
ment since 1861. It received a charter of incor-
poration as a municipal borough in 1877. Pop.
(1821) 236; (1901) 110,926.

Bir'ket-el-Keroon' ("lake of the horn^>),
Egypt, a lake in the Fayoom, about 30 miles long
and 6 miles wide. It communicates with the
Nile and had connection formerly with the ar-
tificial Lake Mosris, with which it has been con-
founded.

Birkett, Herbert Stanley, Canadian physi-
cian: b. Hamilton, Ont., 17 July 1864. He grad-
tiated at McGill University in 1886; was senior
house surgeon to the Montreal General Hos-
pital 1886-7 ; and assistant physician to the
Montreal Dispensary 1887-9. He is a Fellow
of the American Laryngologist Association. In
1889 he was appointed demonstrator of anat-
omy at McGill University, and in 1900 was
laryngologist to the Montreal General Hospital,
and aurist to the Mackay Institute for Deaf
Mutes.

Birmingham, Ala., ^'the Pittsburg of the
South," the industrial head of the entire South
between Atlanta and New Orleans, and the chief
centre of the iron and coal industry south of
Pennsylvania ; county-seat of Jefferson County,
in the northern centre, midway between the
Coosa and Black Warrior rivers, 608 feet above
the sea in a valley, near where the last Appala-
chian spurs sink to the coast plain ; 96 miles-
north of Montgomery, the State capital, and i68-
miles west of Atlanta, on six trunk roads : the:
Southern, L. & N., Kansas Citj', M. & B.. Cen-

BIRMINGHAM

trai of G., Alabama G. S. (Queen & Crescent),
and Seaboard A. L. R.R.'s. It is situated in
the heart of the greatest coal, iron, and lime-
stone district of the South. Around it lie
three huge coal fields, the Warrior, Cahaba, and
Coosa, aggregating over 8,6io square miles, with
some 60 seams, more than half of them worka-
ble; the nearest deposits being only 4 miles
from the city. Birmingham is built partly upon
the slope of Red Mountain, named from its out-
crop of hematite iron ore, which extends many
miles in every direction from the city, in a vein
from 6 to 26 feet thick with an indefinite depth.
This district produced in 1902 about 90 per cent
of the State's production of 10,329,479 tons of
coal, 2,210,735 tons of coke, and 1,472,211 tons
of pig iron. Six hundred thousand freight cars
were handled in and out of Birmingham, carry-
ing 70 per cent of the entire tonnage of Ala-
bama in 1902, and also hauling nearly 1,000,000
tons of limestone. This ideal equipment for the
production of iron and steel at the lowest cost,
is building up a great city with such rapidity
that no statistics can be other than temporary.

Business Interests. — It is estimated that
there are in Jefferson County more than 300
mining and manufacturing plants of various
kinds, among which are 27 blast furnaces, 7,168
coke ovens, 60 coal mines, a large number of
mines and stone quarries, 2 steel plants, 3 roll-
ing mills, a wire rod and nail mill, a steel rail
mill, besides other plants of various kinds.
There are in Jefferson County 50,000 wage-
earners who receive more than $2,750,000 per
month. The gross volume of business in mining
and manufacturing during the year 1902 was
estimated at $60,000,000, and the gross volume
of business in the general wholesale and retail
trade amounted to about $42,000,000, making the
total amount of business for the year 1902,
$102,000,000. In 1901 alone, 124 new companies
were organized with a capital of $8,955,100 and
existing corporations increased their capital
stock $2,650,000 and made extensions to their
plants costing over $4,000,000. The record for
the year 1902 will show an increase of at least
10 per cent over the year 1901 in new companies
and in additional capital. The furnaces of the
district (including the suburbs, practically part
of the city, though not yet formerly incorpo-
rated) turned out in 1902 1,472,211 tons of pig
iron, against 1,225,308 in 1901, and 68,927 in
1880. In 1900 it furnished six sevenths of the
total United States' export of pig iron, but since
then none of the product has been exported on
account of the increased home demand. The
first steel plant .in the South was started in
1897 at Birmingham, two open-hearth furnaces
of 160 tons a day ; now^ the Tennessee Coal, Iron
& Railroad Company has in operation at Ensley.
a suburb, 10 furnaces and a 44-inch blowing
mill, capacity 1,000 tons a day. This is the
largest basic open-hearth plant in the world
except the Carnegie works at Homestead.
There is a casting plant and rail mill in connec-
tion with it. The Alabama Steel and Ship-
building Company began in 1899 with $1,000,000
capital, and the Alabama Steel and Wire Com-
pany with $2,000,000 capital. Besides the plants
already mentioned, Birmingham has a steel cast-
ing plant, a bi-product plant, a wrought pipe
plant, 2 cast pipe and foundry plants, 2 soil pipe
plants, I clay pipe plant. 2 cement factories, 1
chemical works, i fertilizer factory, 2 breweries.

I corn mill, i flour mill, 5 ice factories, r
gas and gasoline engine works, i iron and steel
bridge works, 2 boiler works, 6 foundries and
machine shops, i stove foundry, 3 railroad shops,
3 sash factories, 2 wagon factories, i agricul-
tural implement works, 3 printing and book-
binding concerns, i hollow ware plant, 20 brick
plants, 15 planing mills and wood-working
plants, and i packing company. Birmingham is
also a cotton market, the cotton receipts for
1901-2 amounting to 100,000 bales. It has 2
cotton factories, 2 cotton-seed oil mills, and I
knitting factory. Besides the unparalleled
cheapness of material, its transportation facilities
are shortly to be greatly increased by the com-
pletion of the government improvements on the
Warrior and Tombigbee rivers, by which coal
and other products can be transported to tide
water at Mobile, thence to the Atlantic sea-
board, at greatly reduced cost.

Public IVorks and Institutions. — Birming-
ham is a handsome and solidly built city, with
wide avenues, handsome dwellings, and imposing
public buildings. It has a large government
building, county court-house, new city hall,
costing over $200,000, and three new lo-story
steel-frame "skyscrapers," one of them costing
over $600,000. Among the other notable build-
ings are the Jefferson Theatre, the Auditorium,
St. Vincent's Hospital, Hillman's Hospital,
Union Station, and Hillman Hotel. There are
16 or more public parks, the most prominent of
which are the Capitol, North Birmingham, East
Lake, and Lakeview. The city has an extensive
waterworks system, with a reservoir on Shade's
^Mountain, 225 feet above the city, a Waring
system of sewerage, and over 100 miles of street
railroads, connecting it not only with its imme-
diate suburbs, but with points many miles away.
There are over 50 white churches, a public
library, 11 ho.spitals and infirmaries, 13 public
schools, 16 newspapers, including 3 dailies. ^
military organizations, 2 telephone companies,
13 private sciiools and colleges, including i
medical college, i dental college. 2 business col-
leges, Howard College (Baptist, at East Lake,
5 miles northeast, founded 1841). Northern Ala-
bama (Methodist) and a colored normal train-
ing school. Its charitable institutions comprise
St. Vincent's Hospital, Hillman Hospital. Mercy
Home. Jeffer.son County Alms House, and the
Boys' Industrial School at East Lake.

Finances and Government. — The assessed
valuation of the city property for 1902 was
$18,318,408, which is on about a 50 percent basis;
tax rate for 1902. State, county, and city, $2.30;
public outlay for 1902, in':luding $39,362.60 iot
public schools. $463,489.69. In 1902. however, a
special expenditure of $229,856 was made for
cement sidewalks, street improvements, and
sewers. The government of the city is in the
hands of a mayor and city council, elected bien-
nially, and an elected police commission and a
nominated board of education.

The rapid development of Birmingham's
business is best shown by the infallible test of
the clearing house, the only one in Alabama.
In 1897 the clearings amounted to $20,907,495 J
in 1899. to $34,469,751. and in 1902 to over
$56,000,000, having nearly trebled in five years.
Part of this is due to the increasing use of the
Birmingham banks by territory which formerly
sought those of the other large cities. The Bir-
mingham banks furnish funds for moving

BIRMINGHAM

125,000 bales of cotton. Their business often
exceeds $1,000,000 a day. In 4 years, 1898-1902,
their deposits increased from $3,500,000 to
$9,251,820. There are 9 banking institutions in
the city, 2 national, with an aggregate capital of
$1,848,500.

Popiilaiion and History. — By the census, the
population in 1880, the first after Birmingham's
settlement, was 3,086; in 1890, 26,178; in 1900,
38,415. But these figures tell only part of the
story and are very misleading. Birmingham is
entirely the creation of the last 30 years. The
future of the district was foreseen as early as
1849, but the first attempt t® realize it was
about 1870, by a company which bought a large
tract of land around Elyton, then the county-
seat, now a suburb of Birmingham, which
sought to make that the centre of the new de-
velopment. It failed because prices were too
high, and another company bought a tract to the
east, where stood a single shanty on the spot
where the Florence Hotel now stands, which
they named Birmingham. The next year a
small iron furnace was erected and this started
up coal mining. Coal had hitherto lacked a
market, but in 1874, 50,400 tons were mined.
The demand of the Oxmoor furnace for coal
led, in 1879, to the opening of the Pratt mines,
and with this began the era of great growth.
The population leaped in the next decade from
3,000 to 26,000, a growth unparalleled in United
States history, except by Chicago. Retarded for
some years by the collapse of the boom, it still
had grown 50 per cent by 1900. In fact, the in-
crease was more than double that, for the nomi-
nal city is only the business hub of a large group
of cities and towns, built up by the same inter-
ests and but little removed from each other,
which will probably in the near future be an-
nexed under the name Greater Birmingham, giv-
ing it a population of more than 200,000. The
largest of these surrounding towns is Bessemer,
1 1 miles away ; others are Ensley, Pratt City,
Elyton, Gate City, Irondale, Powderly, West
End, Smithfield, East Birmingham, North Bir-
mingham, East Lake, Woodlawn, Kingston,
Jonesville, and Avondale. The figures for the
county are equally significant: When Birming-
ham was settled, it had 12,345 inhabitants; in
1900 it had 140,420, practically all the growth of
the Birmingham district. The rapidity of the
city's present growth is shown by the fact that in
1902 nearly 1,900 new dwellings and business
buildings were erected, at a cost of over
$3,250,000. Roy McCullough,

Secretary Board of Trade.
Birmingham, England, one of the greatest
manufacturing cities of the world, situated on
the River Rea, near its confluence with the
Tame, an affluent in the northwest extremity of
the county of Warwick, 112 miles northwest of
London, and nearly in the centre of England
(north iat. 52° 28' 45", west long. 1° 54'). The
lower part of the city, consisting chiefly of old
houses, is crowded with workshops and ware-
houses, and inhabited principally by the working
classes; but the upper part has some fine streets
and buildings, and there are fine suburbs west-
ward and southward of the city.

Public Bitildinss. — The town hall, built of

Anglesey marble in 1832, is a rectangular build-
ing, modeled after the temple of Jupiter Stator
at Rome. Its large hall is 145 feet long, 65 feet
wide, and 65 feet high, seating 2,250 persons, and
contains a magnificent organ. In this hall a
great musical festival is held once every three
years the proceeds of which go to the General
Hospital. It was at the Birmingham Festival
that Mendelssohn's oratorio, 'Elijah,^ was first
performed (1846), and Gounod's * Redemption'
and Elgar's ^Dream of Gerontius' are among
other famous works first heard at this festival.
Among other public buildings of note are the
council-house, for the accommodation of the
different corporation offices, with fine reception
rooms and council chamber, erected 1874-S (cost
$1,000,000) ; the Victoria Law Courts, a fine
edifice in terra cotta (Renaissance), (cost $580,-
000) ; University buildings, municipal technical
school, municipal schools of art and design,
Bingley Hall (a large covered place holding
25,000 persons, wherein the late John Bright,
W. E. Gladstone, and Joseph Chamberlain have
addressed vast audiences), post-office, corpora-
tion baths, the stations of the L. & N. W., Mid-
land, and Great Western R.R.'s, cavalry bar-
racks, public libraries, the Exchange buildings,
art gallery (special features, paintings by David
Co.x and by the Pre-Raphaelite school of artists,
and valuable collections illustrative of industrial
arts), Birmingham and ^Midland Institute, corn
exchange. Masonic hall, markets, etc.

Monuments. — The public statues include
those of Queen "Victoria, Prince Albert, James
Watt, Joseph Priestley, Lord Nelson, Sir Robert
Peel, John Bright, Joseph Sturge, Thomas Att-
wood, George Dawson, Dr. R. W. Dale, Sir
Josiah Mason, etc.

Churches, Hospitals, etc. — The mother church
of Birmingham is that of Saint Martin's, or the
Old Church (built about 1250, rebuilt 1875),
the parish registers of which date from the year
1544; this church contains several altar tombs
of the Birmingham family. Saint Philip's (re-
cently constituted the cathedral church) was
the second parish church, built 171 1, palladian
style, restored 1868; both churches contain fine
stained-glass windows designed by Sir E. Burne
Jones, a native of Birmingham. Among the
more noteworthy non-anglican churches are the
Roman Catholic Cathedral of Saint Chad, a
noble Gothic church designed by Pugin, richly
adorned with stained-glass windows, and with
fine i6th century pulpit and stalls ; the Oratory
of S- Philip Neri (founded by Cardinal New-
man) ; the old Meeting House of Carr's Lane
(Congregational), associated with the labors of
John Angell James and R. W. Dale ; the Wes-
leyan Central ^Mission Hall, erected 1903, sur-
mounted by a lofty Renaissance tower, and seat-
ing over 2,000 persons (cost $300,000) ; the two
LTnitarian churches, "Old Meeting House* and
"Church of the Messiah," the successors of the
old meeting houses destroyed in the memorable
riots of 1791. Among the charitable institutions
the most important are the General Hospital
(founded 1766, rebuilt on new site 1894-7, cost
over $1,000,000); the Queen's Hospital; Free
Hospital for Sick Children ; Women's Hospital :
Ear and Throat Hospital ; Orthopaedic and

BIRMINGHAM

Spinal Hospital; Homoeopathic Hospital; Skin
and Lock Hospital ; Dental Hospital ; Eye Hos-
pital; Jaffray Hospital for Convalescent pa-
tients, etc.

Educational Institutions. — The principal edu-
'Cational institutions are the Birmingham Uni-
versity, incorporated 1900, a growth of Mason
University College, founded by Sir Josiah Mason
in 1875 (and further endowed by public sub-
scription with about $2,000,000), which has fac-
ulties of arts, science, medicine, and commerce,
and new buildings for the engineering, physics,
and science sections generally are now (1907)
in course of erection at a cost of over $1,500,000;
Roman Catholic College at Oscott ; Wesleyan
Theological College at Handsworth ; Saltley
diocesan training college; Free Grammar School
founded by Edward VI. out of the endowments
of the older Birmingham town gild, which has
a central and five branch schools ; Blue Coat
School ; Protestant Dissenting Charity School
(for maintaining and educating poor girls for
domestic service) ; the municipal schools of art
and design, and technical schools; industrial
schools, and numerous public elementary schools,
mostly erected by the now defunct School Board,
and maintained by the council under the Educa-
tion act, 1902.

Libraries. — There is a central free library,
having 170,000 volumes in its reference library,
a Shakespeare Memorial Library (11,500 vol-
umes), and eleven lending libraries, containing
over 110,000 volumes; the Birmingham Library,
an old proprietary library (established 1779),
contains 80.000 volumes.

Parks, etc. — There are ten public parks and
several recreation grounds, and the city owns
two natural beauty-spots somewhat remote from
its boundaries, viz. Rednal Hill (Lickey), and
Warley Abbej' estate. In Aston park (one of
the oldest belonging to the city) is Aston Hall,
a fine Jacobean residence built by Sir Thomas
Holte in 1618, which was besieged in the civil
war by the parliamentary forces, December 1643.
Its chief features are the long gallery, one of
the finest in England, and the great staircase,
which was injured during the siege. The Hall
is now a public museum.

Industries. — The prosperity of Birmingham is
attributable to the excellence, variety, and ex-
tent of its hardware manufactures, as well as
to its geographically central situation on the
horder of the great South Staffordshire coal and
iron district, combined with the command of
a wide and ready transit by canal and railway.
There is an extensive system of tramways. At
Soho, in the vicinity of the city, was the earliest
and one of the largest steam-engine manufac-
tories in the world, belonging to Boulton, part-
ner of the celebrated James Watt. The Soho
works were founded in 1757 and came into the
possession of Matthew Boulton in 1762. Not a
vestige of the building now remains. One of the
most important manufactures is that of firearms.
The number of gun-barrels tested in some recent
years has been between 500,000 and 600,000.
The manufacture of swords is also one of the
■staple trades. Cast-iron articles of all kinds,
and of the m.ost beautiful patterns and work-
manship, are manufactured at Birmingham to a
great extent. In former years iron-founding

was limited to large and heavy articles, but
is now extended to the lightest and most grace-
ful, in the finishing of which bronze is very
generally employed. The manufacture of rail-
way wagons and carriages has been very exten-
sively developed. The quantity of solid gold
and silver plate manufactured is large, and the
consumption of silver in plating is very great.
Electro-plating was first practised in this town
in 1840. Japanning, brass-founding, glass man-
ufacturing, and glass staining or painting, are
important trades. There are also large chemical
works for vitriol, sal-ammoniac, cobalt, and
other substances. Steel pens, of which hundreds
of millions are manufactured annually, pins,
fancy seals, brooches, clasps, and other trinkets
are made in immense quantities. Bicycles are
now made in Birmingham in greater numbers
than in any other town.

Government, etc. — The charter of incorpora-
tion dates from 1838. By the Reform Act of
1S32, Birmingham was constituted a borough,
sending two members to Parliament. The act
of 1867 gave it a third, while that of 1885 added
four others and divided the borough into seven
parliamentary districts. In 1888 it was raised
by order in council to the rank of a city, and
by the Local Government Act of that year, it
also became a county borough. A further order
in council (1896) conferred upon the chief
magistrate of the city the title of lord mayor.
In 1891 the boundaries of the borough were ex-
tended, and its area is now 12,705 acres compris-
ing the parishes of Birmingham and Edgbaston,
and parts of others. The borough is divided
into 18 wards, and has 18 aldermen and 54 coun-
cillors. The municipal and parliamentary bound-
aries are the same, the parliamentary divisions
being North, South, East, West, Central,
Bordesley, and Edgbaston. Water is now
brought from the Elan Valley, Wales, a distance
of 80 miles, at a cost of about $30,000,000. The
corporation of Birmingham has long been rec-
ognized as in the forefront of British municipal-
ities, a reputation which it largely owes to the
work done by the Right Hon. Joseph Chamber-
lain (three times mayor). The corporation pur-
chased the gasworks and waterworks in 1875,
and the Electric Company's rights in 1898. In
1876 an "Improvement .\ct'* was obtained, by
which at a cost of about $10,000,000 a large area
of insanitary property in the centre of the city
was removed, and Corporation Street was laid
out on the site thereof.

History, Populations, etc. — The city of Bir-
mingham is supposed to have originated in a
Saxon settlement formed in a clearing in the
great central forest of England, the forest of
Arden, near to the Icknield Street, a Roman road
of which an original portion is still visible in
Sutton park. It was the home of the Bermings
— the young, or progeny of Berm, from whence
the name is derived. It was a place of compar-
atively small importance at the Conquest, al-
though it is mentioned in Domesday Book
(10S6) where it is called Bermingham, a name
of which there were many corruptions, chiefly
arising from the old pronunciation and from
misspellings, wherefrom the popular local •.-.anic
"Brummagem^^ is derived. In the 14th centurv
two gilds were founded, the more important of

BIRNAM— BIRNEY

which (the Gild of the Holy Cross) exercised
functions akin to those of a municipal character,
until the dissolution of the monasteries and re-
ligious houses. There was also a priory or hos-
pital of Saint Thomas, and several chantries
attached to the parish church, but all these were
sequestrated with the religious houses. Some of
the revenues of the town gild were devoted by
Edward VI. to the foundation of the Free
Grammar School. Birmingham was visited in
1532 by John Leland, who wrote of it in his
Itinerary as having "many smiths in the town,
that make knives and all manner of cutting
tools, loriners that make bits, and many nay-
lors.^* Camden, in 1576, found it "swarming
with inhabitants and echoing with the noise of
hammers and hammers.'* In the civil war Bir-
mingham suffered considerably at the hands of
Prince Rupert and the royalists, who encoun-
tered the inhabitants in a fierce hand-to-hand
fight in the streets, and burnt a great many
houses, in 1643. The plague also ravaged the
town in 1665. The old market town first began
to outgrow its ancient boundaries in 1700, at
which date the population was about fifteen
thousand. Birmingham began to assume im-
portance as a manufacturing town about the
middle of the iSth century. John Baskervillc,
by his fine printing, John Taylor by innumera-
ble fancy articles, Boulton and Watt by the in-
troduction of the steam engine, helped to make
Birmingham "the toyshop of Europe" as Burke
described it. In the 19th century the introduc-
tion of steel pens and electro-plated goods, gave
Birmingham new fame as a manufacturing cen-
tre. It also attracted attention as the centre
from whence spread the Reform agitation of
1830, which culminated in the Reform Bill of
Earl Grey, which became law in 1832. Bir-
mingham had also an unenviable reputation for
rioting and disturbance at the end of the iSth
century, and the Priestley Riot of July 1791 is
among the memorable nncntes of that century.

The general healthfulness of Birmingham
is probably due to the large quantity of open
space which it possesses; to the general excel-
lence of its drainage, greatly facilitated by the
substratum of sand and gravel (belonging to
the new red sandstone or Trias formation) on
which it is built; and the circumstance that there
is scarcely an underground dwelling or cellar
(used as a dwelling) within its precincts. In
1905 the birth-rate was 29.2 and the death-rate
16. 1 per thousand. In 1801 the population was
75,670; in 1901, 522.102, but this does not take
into account the densely populated boroughs
and urban districts by which the city is closely
surrounded. With the inclusion of these the
urban population of the midland metropolis
would amount to 820,000.

Bibliograj^hy. — Bunce and Vince, ^History of
the Corporation of Birmingham' (1878-1902) ;
Dent, 'Old and New Birmingham' (1880);
*The Making of Birmingham' (1894); Hutton,
'History of Birmingham^ (first pub. 1781) ;
Langford, 'A Century of Birmingham Life'
(1741-1841; 2 V. 1868).

R. K. Dent,
Chief Librarian Aston Manor, and author of
^Old and Nezv Birmingham,^ etc.

Birnam, Scotland, a hill in Perthshire, irr.
the western highlands, Scotland, rendered fa-
mous by its connection with the history of Mac-
beth, and immortalized by Shakespeare. It was
foretold to the ambitious thane, yet guiltless,
except in thought, of bloody ambition, that, un-
til Birnam wood should come to Dunsinane, his
life and power could suffer no disaster. On the
approach of Malcolm with the avenging army,
composed of the loyal clans, aided by Seward,
Earl of Northumberland, ignorant of the proph-
ecy, the invaders cut down the boughs and bore
them as leafy screens, by which to conceal their
numbers, when the report of "the moving for-
est" marching upon Dunsinane struck a fatal
despair into the soul of the usurper.

Birney, David Bell, American military
officer (son of J. G. Birney, q.v.) : b. Hunts-
ville, Ala., 29 Alay 1825 ; d. Philadelphia, Pa., 18
Oct. 1864. He was graduated at Andover, later
studied law in Cincinnati and in 1848 began
practice in Philadelphia where he remained for
several years. In April 1861, upon the outbreak
of the Civil War, he entered the Union army
as lieutenant-colonel of the 2^ Pennsylvania
Infantry ; in the summer of 1861 was commis-
sioned colonel ; in February 1862 was raised to
the rank of brigadier-general of volunteers; and
was promoted major-general of volunteers 23
May 1863. He served throughout the Penin-
sula campaign (q.v.) and with particular dis-
tinction at the battles of Yorktown and Wil-
liamsburg. He subsequently distinguished him-
self at the second battle of Bull Run and in the
battles of Fredericksburg and Chancellorsville.
He was in command of the Third Army Corps
during a part of the battle of Gettysburg ; from
May to June 1864 was in command of a division
under Gen. Hancock; and from July 1864 com-
manded the Tenth Corps of the Army of the
James.

Birney, James G., American politician : b.
Danville, Ky., 4 Feb. 1792; d. Perth Amboy,
N. J., 25 Nov. 1857. He studied law. and re-
moved early to Alabama, where he flourished
in his profession and held the office of district
attorney. Having had his attention turned to-
ward the question of property in slaves, in
1833 he interested himself in the organization of
a branch of the Colonization Society for the
State of Alabama. Soon afterward, returning to
Kentucky, he organized one there also, of which
he became president. But in 1834. his views
rapidly advancing, he espoused the cause of im-
mediate emancipation in a public letter, at the
same time emancipating all his own slaves, about
20 in number. This letter, the 'Letter on Col-
onization' (1834) was shortly afterwards fol-
lowed by 'American Churches the Bulwarks of
American Slavery' (1840) ; 'Speeches in Eng-
land' (1840); and 'Examination of the Decision
of the United States Supreme Court in the
Case of Stroder et al. vs. Graham' (1850).
Making arrangements to establish a news-
paper to disseminate these vievi^s at Dan-
ville, where he resided, and where he held
the situation of professor in the university,
he found it impossible to have such a paper
printed in Kentucky, and removed to Cincinnati,
where he began to issue the Philanthrof^ist. It

BIRNEY — BIRTH

Siad not been long published before it was found
no less obnoxious to public sentiment in Ohio
than it had been in Kentucky, and the press
was thrown into the river. The editor, how-
«e\er, managed to revive the paper, and, in connec-
tion with Dr. Bailey, made it a powerful instru-
ment in acting upon the opinion of the State.
About the year 1836 he went to New York as
secretary of the American Anti-Slavery Society,
and for many years devoted his time and
strength to the furtherance of the objects of
that society by letters and articles from the
press and by public addresses wherever he could
make an opportunity to be heard. His purpose
Avas to build up a political parly upon the single
question of slavery, to act upon the govern-
ment within the forms of the Constitution ; and
he succeeded in forming an organization in most
of the northern States, under the name of the
Liberty Party. During his absence in England
he was nominated in 1840 by that party for the
presidency, but met with little success. He was
again nominated in 1844, when he received more
votes. It was charged upon his friends at the
time that by withdrawing their votes from Mr.
Clay, especiall}' in the State of New York, they
.accomplished the election of Mr. Polk, thus
aiming the death-blow at their own projects.
Previous to this, in 1842. Mr. Birney had be-
come a resident of Michigan, where not long
afterward he was disabled, by a fall from his
horse, from taking the active part in politics to
which he had been accustomed. The latter
part of his life was spent at Perth Amboy, N. J.

Birney, William, American lawyer: b.
Madison County, Ala., 28 May, 1819. He was
educated in Paris ; took part in the Revolution
•of 1848, and was appointed, on public competi-
tion, professor of English literature in the
■college at Bourges, France. In 1861 he entered
the United States army as a private, and was
promoted through all the grades to Ijrevet
major-general. In 1863-5 he commanded a
division. His writings include 'Life and Times
of James G. Birney-*; 'Plea for Civil and Re-
ligious Liberty,' etc.

Biron, be-ron, Baron de (Arm.\nd de Gon-
TAULT. Jir-miin de gon-to), French soldier: b.
1524; d. 1592. He took a prominent part in the
civil wars between the Huguenots and Catholics,
and served at the battles of Dreux, St. Denis,
and Moncontour. He was made marshal of
France in 1577 by Henry HI. He negotiated
the peace of St. Germain, and narrowly escaped
the massacre of St. Bartholomew. He recov-
ered Guienne and Languedoc from the Protes-
tants, served in the Netherlands again.st the
Duke of Parma, and was one of the first to
recognize Henry IV. as king. He distinguished
himself in various battles and was killed at the
siege of Epernay.

Biron, due de (Ch.\ri.es de Goxtault, sharl
de goii-to). French soldier, son of the preced-
ing: b. about 1562; d. 31 July 1602. He served
Henry IV. in the field with much zeal and cour-
age, was raised to the rank of Admiral of
France in 1.SQ2, and in 1598 was made a peer
and duke. He thought himself, however, not
sufficiently rewarded, and began to intrigue with
the Spanish party against the king. In 1599 be
concluded an agreement with the Duke of Savoy
•and the Count of Fuentes, by which he pledged
Jiimself to take up arms against his benefactor.

Meanwhile, war being declared against the Duke
of Savoy (1600;, Biron saw himself reduced
to the necessity of attacking him. He still con-
tinued his negotiatipns with the enemy, however,
and at last they became known to the king,
who interrogated the marshal as to his designs,
with promises of pardon. Biron made a partial
confession and continued his intrigues as before.
Notwithstanding this, Henry sent him in 1601,
after the conclusion of peace with Savoy, as en-
voy to Queen Elizabeth of England. In the
meantime the Count of Fuentes discovered the
whole plot. He was tried before Parliament,
and was beheaded.

Biron, Ernest John. See Biren.

Birrell, Augustine, English essayist: b.
Wavcrtrce, near Liverpool. 19 Jan. 1850. He
graduated from Cambridge and was called to
the bar. In 1903 he became a Bencher of the
Inner Temple ; from 1896-9 was Quain pro-
fessor of law in University College, London ;
and from 1889-1900 represented Fifeshire W. in
Parliament. He is author of charming critical
and biographical essays on literary subjects,
collected in the two series of 'Obiter Dicta'
(1884, 2d series 1887 J and 'Res Judicatae'
(1892; ; 'Men, Women and Books' (1895). 1"
1S87 be published a 'Life of Charlotte Bronte*;
in 1897 edited BoswelFs 'Life of Johnson,' in
i8g8 published 'Life of Sir Frank Lockwood* ;
'Copyright in Books' (1899) ; 'Collected
Essays' (1900); 'Miscellanies' (1901); 'Wil-
liam Hazlitt' (1902). In 1905 he became Presi-
dent of the Board of Education in the Liberal
Cabinet and in 1907 Chief Secretary for Ireland.

Birth, or Labor, in physiology, is the act by
which a female of the class Mammalia brings
one of her own species into the world. When
the foetus has remained its due time in the womb,
and is in a condition to carry on a separate
existence, it is extruded from its place of con-
finement, in order to live the life which belongs
to its species independently of the mother. The
womb having reached its maximum of growth
with the increasing size of the foetus, its pe-
culiar irritability excites in it the power of
contraction ; it thereby narrows the space
within and pushes out the mature foetus.
The period of gestation is very different in
different animals, but in each particular
species it is fixed with much precision. In
the womb the corporeal frame of man com-
mences existence as an embryo ; after
further development, appears as a foetus ; then
as an immature, and finally a mature, child.
With its growth and increasing size the mem-
branes which envelop it enlarge, the womb also
expanding to give room for it. At the end of
the 39th or the beginning of the 40th week
the child has reached its perfect state and is
capable of living separate from the mother;
hence follows in course its separation from her,
that is, the birth.

Contractions of the womb gradually come on,
which are called, from the painful sensations
accompanying them, labor-pains. These are of
two kinds: first, the preliminary pangs, which
begin the labor, do not last long, are not violent,
and produce the feeling of a disagreeable strain-
ing or pressure. When the pregnant female is
attacked by these she is often unable to move
from her place till the pang is over, after which

BIRTH RATE — BIRTHWOKT

she is often free from pain for some hours.
Then follow the true labor-pains; these always
last longer, return sooner, and are more violent.
The contractions of the womb take place in
the same order as the enlargement had previously
done, the upper part of it first contracting, while
the mouth of the womb enlarges and grows thin,
and the vagina becomes loose and distensible.
By this means the foetus, as the space within the
womb is gradually narrowed, descends with a
turning motion toward the opening; the fluid
contained in the membranes enveloping the foe-
tus, as the part making the greatest resistance,
is forced out, and forms a bladder, which con-
tributes much to the gradual enlargement of
the opening of the womb. It is therefore inju-
rious to delivery if hasty or ignorant midwives
break the membranes too soon. By repeated
and violent throes the membranes at length burst
and discharge their contents, and some time
after the head of the child appears. As the
skull-bones have not yet acquired their perfect
form and substance, but are attached at the
crown of the head only by a strong membrane,
and may be brought nearer together, the head,
by the pressure which it undergoes, may be
somewhat diminished in size and squeezed into
a more oblong form, so as to pass through the
opening of the matrix and the pelvis in which
it is contained, and. finally, through the exter-
nal parts of generation ; and when this is done,
the rest of the body soon follows.

The act of birth or delivery is accordingly, in
general, not an unnatural, dangerous, and dis-
eased state of the system, as many timid women
imagine. It is a natural process of development,
which is no more a disease than the cutting
of the teeth or the coming on of puberty,
although, like them, it may give rise to impor-
tant changes in the body and to various dis-
eases. It is true that the process of child-birth
requires a violent exertion of nature, but this
is facilitated by many preparatives and helps
adapted to the purpose. If the birth succeeds
in the way described, it is called a natural birth.
For this it is requisite that the pelvis should
be properly formed, and that the opening should
permit a free passage to the perfect fcetus ; that
the growth and size of the foetus should be
proportioned to the pelvis, especially that the
head should have the size designed by nature,
proportioned to the diameter of the pelvis ;
also, that there should be a proper situation of
the womb, in regard to the axis of the pelvis,
and a proper position of the fcetus, namely, the
head down, the back of the head in front and
toward the opening of the womb, so as to appear
first at birth : and, finally, that the external
parts of generation should be in a natural state.
An easy birth takes place without any exces-
sive strainings and in due season. A diflficult
birth proceeds naturally, but is joined with
great efforts and pangs, and occupies a long
time — over six or eight hours. The cause of it
is sometimes the stiffness of the fibres of the
mother, her advanced years, the disproportion-
ate size of the child's head, and various other
causes. Nature, however, finishes even these
births ; and women in labor ought not to be
immediately dejected and impatient on account
of these difficulties. An unnatural (or properly,
an irregular) birth is one in which one or more
of the above-mentioned requisites to a natural
birth are wanting. An artificial birth is that

which is accomplished by the help of art, with
instruments or the hands of the attendant.
Premature birth is one which happens some
weeks before the usual time, namely, after the
seventh and be.ore the end of the ninth month.
Though nature has assigned the period of 40-
weeks for the full maturing of the foetus, it
sometimes attains, some weeks before this period
has elapsed, such a growth that it may be pre-
served alive, in some cases, after its separation
from the mother. That it has not reached its
mature state is determined by various indica-
tions. Such a child, for instance, does not
cry like full-grov.^n infants, but only utters a
faint sound, sleeps constantly, and must be kept
constantly warm, otherwise its hands and feet
immediately become chilled. Besides this, in a
premature child, more or less, according as it is
more or less premature, the skin over the whole
body is red, often indeed blue, covered with a
fine, long, woolly hair, especially on the sides
of the face, and on the back ; the fontanel of the
head is large, the skull-bones easily moved ; the
face looks old and wrinkled ; the eyes are gen-
erally closed ; the nails on the fingers and toes
short, tender, and soft, hardly a line in length ;
the weight of such a child is under six, often
under five pounds. The birth is called untimely
when the foetus is separated from the womb be-
fore the seventh month. Such children can be
rarely kept alive ; there are instances, however,
of five months' children living. Some writers
have contended that a seven months' child is
more likely to live than one born a month later.

Late birth is a birth after the usual period of
40 weeks. As this reckoning of the time from
pregnancy to birth is founded for the most part
solely on the evidence of the mother, there is
much room for mistake or deception. The ques-
tion is one of much interest in medical juris-
prudence, as the inquiry often arises whether
a child born more than 40 weeks after the death
of the reputed father is to be considered legiti-
mate or not. The importance of the question
and the uncertainty of the proof have occasioned
a great variety of opinions among medical
writers. Most of them doubt the truth of the
mother's assertions about such a delayed birth,
and give, as their reason, that nature confines
herself to the fixed period of pregnancy; that
grief, sickness, etc., cannot hinder the growth
of the foetus, etc. Others maintain, on the con-
trary, that nature binds herself to no fixed
rules ; that various causes may delay the growth
of the child, etc.

Abortion and miscarriage take place when a
foetus is brought forth so immature that_ it
cannot live. They happen from the beginning
of pregnancy to the seventh month, but most
frequently in the third month. The occasions,
especially in those of a susceptible or sanguine
temperament, are violent shocks of body or mind
by blows, falling, dancing, cramp, passion, etc.

Birth Rate. See Vital Statistics.

Birthmark. See N.^vus.

Birthright, any right or privilege to which
a person is entitled by birth, such as an estate
descendible by law to an heir, or civil liberty
under a free constitution. See Primogeniture.

Birthroot.
Birthwort.

See Trillium.
See Aristolochia

BIRU — BISCHOFF

Biru, the name of a warlike chief of South
America who flourished in the i6th century.
During an exploring expedition of Caspar de
Morales in 1515 the Spaniards encountered a
chief called Biru, by whom they were repulsed.
His territory extended on both sides of the river
Biru or Piru. All the country south of the
Gulf of Panama was soon characterized as the
Biru country. In 1526 this name was given to
the empire of the Incas, now known as Peru.

Bisbee, Arizona, town of Cochise County,
the terminus of a branch line of the El Paso and
Southwestern R.R., which connects with the
Soutliern Pacific R.R. at Benson. Bisbee lies in
a canon of the ]\Iule Pass Alountain, about 30
miles south of Tombstone, the county capital,
and is a busy copper mining and smelting centre.
Pop. 3,000.

Bis' cay, (Spanish Vizcay.\, veth-ca-ya), also
called Bilbao, a province of Spain, forming one
of the three Basque provinces (Provincias Vas-
congadas), the other two being Alava and Gui-
puzcoa. It lies near the northeast corner of
Spain, between the Bay of Biscay and the pro-
vinces of Santander, Burgos. Alava, and
Guipuzcoa. The area is 850 square miles ; the
population 183,098. The surface is generally
mountainous ; the principal river is the Nervion
or Ibaizabal. In point of soil and natural pro-
ductions Biscay is one of the least favored
provinces of Spain ; but the industry of the in-
habitants has been successfully exerted in con-
verting naturally barren tracts into fruitful fields
and verdant pastures. The chief crops are maize
and barley. Many fine fruits, especially nec-
tarines, are raised ; walnuts and chestnuts every-
where abound and form a considerable export
to England and Germany. The cattle are of a
small and inferior breed ; and the rearing of
sheep for wool is rendered difficult by the brush-
wood which covers great part of the moun-
tain districts and tears and destroys the fleece.
Fish abound along the coast, and give occupa-
tion to a great number of fishing-boats. The
most important mineral is iron, which is found
of excellent quality throughout the province,
and is extensively worked. Lead, copper, and
zinc also occur. The inhabitants of Biscay, who
are called Basques, are brave, active, and in-
dustrious. The capital of Biscay is Bilbao ; of
Guipuzcoa, St. Sebastian ; of Alava, Vittoria ;
of Navarre, Pampeluna.

Biscay, Bay of, that portion of the Atlan-
tic Ocean which sweeps in along the northern
shores of the Spanish Peninsula in an almost
straight line from Cape Ortegal to St. Jean de
Luz, at the western foot of the Pyrenees, and
thence curves north along the western shores
of France to the island of Ushant. Its extreme
width is about 400 miles, and its length much
about the same. The depth of water varies from
20 to 200 fathoms, being greatest along the
northern shores of Spain. The whole of the
southern coast is bold and rocky, and great parts
of the French shores are low and sandy. The
bay receives numerous unimportant streams from
the mountains of Spain, and. through the rivers
Loire. Charente. Gironde. and Adour. the wa-
ters of half the surface of France. Its chief
ports are Santander. Bilbao, and San Sebastian,
in Spain ; and Bayonne, Bordeaux, Rochefort,

La Rochelle, and Nantes, in France. Navi-
gation of the bay is proverbially trying to inex-
perienced voyagers, and is frequently rendered
dangerous by the prevalence of strong winds,
especially westerly ones. Rennel Current sweeps
in from the ocean round the northern coast
of Spain.

Bisceglie, be-shal-ya, Italy, a seaport town
in the province of Bari, 13 miles east-southeast
of Barletta, on a rock on the western shore of
the Adriatic, surrounded by walls, and in general
badly built. It has a cathedral, two collegiate
and several other churches, convents for both
sexes, a seminary, and hospital. The port ad-
mits vessels of small burden only. The town
being almost destitute of water, rain is col-
lected in large cisterns cut in the solid rock.
The neighborhood produces good wine. Impor-
tant fairs are held here twice a year. Pop.
(1901) 30.855.

Bischof, Karl Gustav Christoph, bish'of,
karl goo'stav kris'tof, German geologist and
chemist: b. Nuremberg, 18 Jan. 1792; d.
Bonn, 30 Nov. 1870. He studied in Erlangen ;
became professor of chemistry and technolog;.
there in 1819, and professor of chemistry and
mineralogy at Bonn in 1822. He devoted him-
self especially to geological research and ad-
vanced some entirely new opinions in regard
to the formation of mountain ranges. In con
nection with his work in this line he wrot i
'The Volcanic ^Mineral Springs of France and
Germany* ; * Concerning Glaciers and their Re-
lation to the Elevation of the Alps' ; and 'Con-
cerning the Formation of Quartz and ^letal
Ores.-* His paper on internal terrestrial heat
received a prize from the Scientific Society of
Holland; and he also published in English 'Re-
searches on the Internal Heat of the Globe.*
His greatest work 'Text-book of Chemical and
Physical Geolog>-* is an important contribu-
tion to the development of that phase of geo-
logical research.

Bischoff, Joseph Eduard Konrad, bish'of,
yo'sef ed'oo-ard kon'rad, German novelist: b.
Niedergailbach, 9 Aug 1828. He was fitted for
the priesthood, studying at the Catholic Semi-
nary at Munich, and was ordained a priest, but
later gave his whole attention to literary work
and wrote a number of novels in which he
attacks the Protestant Reformation and the
modern movement in literature and science.
Among his works are 'Historical Novels con-
cerning Frederick II. and his Time* ; 'Gustavus
Adolphus' ; 'The Free Thinkers' ; 'The Social
Democrats and their Fathers' : and 'Otto the
Great.'

Bischoff, Theodor Ludwig Wilhelm, ta'o-
dor lood'vig vIl'lK-lm. bish'of. German physi-
ologist: b. Hanover, 28 Oct. 1807; d. Munich,
5 Dec. 1882. He was educated at Bonn : was
lecturer in the university there in 1833 : and
professor at Heidelberg in 1836; in 1844 he
went to the university at Giessen ; and in 1855 to
Munich, retiring from active work in 1878. His
chief work was a series of books on the history
of the development of man and some of the
higher animals, and his 'Evidence of the Periodic
Ripening and Detachment of the Ova. independ-
ently of Generation in Man and the Mammals.*
He also established the presence of carbonic acid
and oxygen in the blood, and studied the differ-
ence between man and the anthropoid apes.

BISCHOFF — BISHOP

Bischoff, Mount, Tasmania, a town 60
miles west of Launceston, which owes its exist-
ence to the discovery here in 1872, by James
Smith, of some of the richest tin mines in the
world. Between 1884-6 more than 20,000 tons
of tin ore had been mined. The yield of pure
tin from the ore is from 70 to 80 per cent.
There is railwaj' communication with Emu
Bay, 45 miles distant.

Biscuit, a thin cake, baked until crisp and
■dry. In this shape it is known in the United
States as a cracker; the name biscuit being
applied to a soft cake made from dough raised
with yeast. Plain biscuits are more nutritious
than an equal weight of bread, but owing to
their hardness and dryness, they should be more
thorough]}' masticated to insure their easy diges-
tion. When exposed to moisture, biscuits are
apt to lose their brittleness and become moldy,
hence it is necessary to keep them in a dry
atmosphere. Digestive biscuits consist almost
entirely of bran. Charcoal biscuits contain
about 10 per cent of powdered vegetable char-
coal. Meat biscuits, which are very nutritious,
contain either extract of meat, or lean meat
which has been dried and ground to a fine
powder.

In pottery, articles molded and baked in
an oven, preparatory to the glazing and burn-
ing. In the biscuit form, pottery is bibulous,
but the glaze sinks into the pores and fuses
in the kiln, forming a vitreous coating to the
ware.

Bisharrin, be-sha-ren', a tribe of northeast
Africa, forming the northern division of the
Beja, said to be the Kushites of the Bible. They
live between the Red Sea and the Nile and
"between Egypt and Abyssinia ; they are nomadic
in habit and nominally Mohammedans. They
are of Caucasian race and speak a well-devel-
oped Hamitic language.

Bishop, Anna Riviera, English singer: b.
London, 1814 ; d. New York, 18 March 1884.
She married Sir Henry Rowley Bishop, the com-
poser, in 1831, and was married a second time
to Mr. Schultz of New York in 1858. She made
her first appearance as a concert singer in 1837 ;
made a tour of the Continent in 1839: and 1847
sang in United States, Canada, and Alexico,
where she was very popular. She lost her voice
in 186S.

Bishop, Sir Henry Rowley, English musi-
cal composer: b. London, 18 Nov. 1786; d. 30
April 1855. He was trained to his profession
under Signer Bianchi, composer to the London
Opera House. In 1809 his first important opera,
the < Circassian Bride,* was produced at Drury
Lane with great success ; but the following even-
ing, the theatre, with the score of Bishop's
opera, was consumed by fire. Numerous operas
and other musical pieces now followed of his
composition, and from this period to 1826
upward of 70 works were produced by him.
Among others may be mentioned the music of
^Guy Mannering* : <The Slave' ; ^The Miller
and His Men* ; "^Maid Marian* ; ^The Virgin
of the Sun,* and adaptations of *^The Barber
of Seville* and the ^Marriage of Figaro.* From
1810 to 1824 he acted as musical composer and
director to Covent Garden Theatre. He also
arranged several volumes of the 'National Melo-
dies,* and completed the arrangement of the
music for Moore's "Irish Melodies,* commenced

by Sir John Stevenson. In 1826 Bishop produced
an opera called *Aladdin,* which was not suc-
cessful. He was elected Reid professor of music
in Edinburgh University in 1841, was knighted
in 1842. and in 1848 became professor of music
in the Universit}' of Oxford. Some of his work
is the most popular of all music among English-
speaking people, particularly his setting of John
Howard Payne's "Home Sweet Home,'* and
"When the Bloom is on the Rye.**

Bishop, Isabella (Bird), English author and
traveler: b. Boroughbridge Hall, Yorkshire, 15
Oct. 1832; d. 7 Oct. 1904. She began to
travel at the age of 22 and made her first
trip abroad in 1855, when she visited Prince
Edward's Island and the United States, and
afterward circumnavigated the globe three
times. In recent years she spent much time
in Japan, and in 1894-5 made her third
trip to Korea. She was in Seoul when the
war broke out, 1894, and was the first per-
son whose war correspondence reached London.
She was a Fellow of the Royal Geographical
Society. In 1892 she was elected the first lady
Fellow of the Royal Geographical Society and in
1901 rode 1,000 miles in Morocco. She was
married in 1881 to John Bishop, who died five
years later. Her publications include: 'The
English Woman in America* (1856) ; 'Six
I^Ionths in the Sandwich Islands* (1873) ; *The
Hawaiian Archipelago* (1875) ; 'A Lady's Life
in the Rocky Alountains* (1874) ; 'Unbeaten
Tracks in Japan* (1880) ; 'Journeys in Persia
and Kurdistan* (1892) ; 'Among the Tibetans*
(1894) ; 'Korea and Her Neighbors* (1898) ;
'The Yangtze Valley and Beyond* (1899) ;
'Pictures from China* (1900), the three last-
named works being the result of three years
of Asiatic travel.

Bishop, John Remsen, American educator:
b. New Brunswick, N. J., 17 Sept. i860. He
was graduated at Harvard University in 1882;
taught Greek and English at St. Paul's School,
Concord, N. H., in 1882-3 : was principal of
the Princeton Preparatory School in 1884-7; in-
structor of Greek and Latin at Hughes High
School, Cincinnati, in 1888-95 • principal of the
Walnut Hills High School, Cincinnati, 1895-
1904; and since 1904 principal of the Eastern
High School, Detroit. He is the author of
'Virgil's Georgics Edited for Sight Reading,*
etc.; editor of 'Cicero's Orations*; an active
promoter of local and national educational or-
ganizations ; and a member of the American
Social Science Association.

Bishop, Louis Faugeres, American physi-
cian : b. New Brunswick, N. J., 14 March 1864.
He graduated at Rutgers College in 1885, and at
the New York College of Physicians and Sur-
geons in 1889. He was resident physician of
St. Luke's Hospital, New York, in 1889-92, and
secretary of the New York Academy of Medi-
cine and chairman of its Section of Aledicine in
1900. His publications include 'Theory and
Treatment of Rheumatism* : 'Diagnosis and
.Treatment of Gout* ; 'Important Points in
the Treatment of Pneumonia,* etc.

Bishop, Seth Scott, American physician:
b. Fond du Lac, Wis., 7 Feb. 1852. He gradu-
ated at the Northwestern University in 1876.
He began practice in Chicago, and in 1900 was
profes.sor of otology in the Chicago Post-
Graduate Medical School and Hospital; Profes-

BISHOP

sor of diseases of the nose, throat, and ear in
the Illinois Medical College ; and surgeon to the
Illinois Hospital and the Post-Graduate Hospi-
tal. He was also consulting surgeon to the
Mary Thompson Hospital, the Illinois Masonic
Orphan's Home in Chicago, and the Silver Cross
Hospital in Joliet. He was a member of the
International Medical Congress, the Pan-
American Medical Congress, the American
Medical Association, etc. He has written <Dis-
tases of the Ear, Nose, and Throat, and Their
Accessory Cavities,^ besides many monographs,
and is one of the editors of ^The Laryngoscope.^

Bishop, William Henry, American novel-
ist : b. Hartford, Conn., 7 Jan. 1847. He was
graduated at Yale in 1867, and became pro-
fessor of Spanish language and literature in its
scientific school (Sheffield), resigning in Feb-
ruary 1902 to spend several years in travel in
Spain and elsewhere. He became U. S. consul at
Genoa, Italy, 1903, and was transferred to Paler-
mo, I Jan. 1905. He has written several novels,
including <Detmold> (1879) ; <Tlie House of a
Merchant Prince' (1882); *A Pound of Cure •
A Story of Monte Carlo' (1894) ; *^Fish and
Men in the Maine Islands* ; *A House Hunter
in Europe'; 'Writins: to Rosina,' a story; ^The
Golden Justice' ; 'Choy Susan and Other Sto-
ries' ; n'he Brown-Stone Boy and Other Queer
People,' and many similar works ; also a book of
travel, 'Old Mexico and Her Lost Provinces.'
Bishop-Auckland, England, a market
town, in the county and nine miles southwest
from the city of Durham, is situated on an emi-
nence at the confluence of the Gaunless with
the Wear, and has much improved in recent
times. Near it is Auckland Palace, the episco-
pal residence, and among its buildings are a free
grammar school (founded 1605), St. Anne
Chapel, Edgar Memorial Hall, Lightfoot Church
Institute, and the Temperance Hall. It is
almost wholly supported by the coal traffic.
Pop. (1901) i 1.966.

Bishop (Sax. biscop, from Gr. episcopos,
a superintendent), in the Greek, Latin, and An-
glican churches, the title given to those who are
of the highest order of the priesthood, to the
successors of the 12 apostles, in distinction from
the priests who are the successors of the 72
disciples : in the Methodist Episcopal and Mora-
vian churches, and in the Protestant churches
of Sweden, Norway, and Denmark, it is the title
given to the highest officers in the ministry, who
are not, however, regarded as a distinct order ;
in Germany the office is hardly more than titu-
lar, and is conferred upon princes as well as
ecclesiastics. The name was borrowed by the
first Christians from the languages of Greece
and Rome, in which it designated a civil magis-
trate. Thus, Cicero was at one time episcopus
orce campanicc. In the New Testament, the
words bishop and presbyter, or prie.st, are some-
times interchanged, as in Acts xx. 17, 28, and
St. John, in his last two epistles, adopts the
title of priest. Yet. as maintained by Roman
Catholic writers, it does not follow because
the names priest and bishop were then applied
indistinctly, that there existed no distinction be-
tween the episcopate and the priesthood. "There
might have been confusion in the names.® says
St. Thomas, "but not in the character." The
identity of the original signification of the words
"presbyter" and "bishop" was acknowledged by

\'ol. 2—43.

the Christian fathers St. Jerome and St. Angus-
tine in the 5th century, and even by Pope Urban
II. at the end of the nth century, and it is not
denied by many Episcopalians even at the pres-
ent day. By the Council of Trent, however, the
doctrine which placed presbyters and bishops
originally on a footing of perfect equality in
the early Church was declared as a heresy, the
object of which was to deny to the bishops
of the Church the priority of rank which they
claimed.

Those who adhere to the Episcopalian form
of Church government, and at the same time
admit the original identity of presbyters and
bishops, diff'er from the Presbyterians in their
theory of the origin of the episcopal authority.
The Episcopalians maintain that even before
the words had a separate meaning attached to
them the. distinction between bishops and subor-
dinate pastors existed in fact, and was a regu-
lar ecclesiastical institution, those who held a
peculiar authority over others being appointed
originally by the apostles. The Presbyterians,
on the other hand, believe that the authority
that was undoubtedly conceded to certain of
the "bishops" or "presbyters" when they met
to consider the aff^airs of the Church, was not
due to any formal appointment, but merely
to the mutual agreement of the assembled pres-
byters, and that this distinction was no more
than a mark of respect paid to some member
who was venerable by his age or distinguished
by his piety. But, whichever of these two the-
ories may be correct, there is no doubt of the
fact that a comparatively early period in the
history of the Church a position of authority
was acquired by the pastors of the Christian
communities belonging to certain places, and that
these came to be distinguished from the others
by the name of bishops. The growth of this
authority was favored by the doctrine which
we find stated in the beginning of the 2d cen-
tury with regard to the priestly dignity being a
peculiarly divine institution. The more this doc-
trine was affirmed the higher grew the claims
of the bishops. Ignatius of Antioch, who died
about 115, had already declared every bishop to
be a representative of Christ, in which we have
the statement of the doctrine of the apostolic
succession, that is to say, the doctrine
of the transmission of the ministerial author-
ity in uninterrupted succession from Christ
to the apostles, and through these from one
bishop to another. By the foundation of new
churches in the larger towns which were affil-
iated to the original churches, and by the de-
pendence of the presbyters in the country dis-
tricts upon those having urban charges, the
authority of the bishops came to be gradually
extended over greater or less dioceses ; and at
the same time the bishops began to reserve to
themselves peculiar privileges. As the early
Church advanced and increased in growth, the
offices and jurisdiction of the bishops developed
correspondingly and by the 2d century their
duties are clearly marked off from the sub-
ordinate clergy.

\\Tiile this then was the position of the
bishops in relation to the presbj^ers, they at
first considered themselves as standing on a
footing of equality in relation to each other.
But as certain of the presbyters in their assem-
blies had acquired a priority of rank over the
others, it gradually came about in the same

BISHOP

way that the bishops of the chief cities (Jerusa-
lem, Antioch, Corinth, Alexandria, Constanti-
nople, Rome) obtained a similar precedence
among the bishops, and received the title of met-
ropolitan bishops ; and ver^' early in the history
of Christianity we find the Bishop of Rome claim-
ing to be the head of the Church as the true suc-
cessor of Peter, whom Christ himself had pro-
nounced to be the rock on which he would build
his Church. Roman Catholic writers found
this supremacy of Peter upon the evidence of
Scriptures, upon the a priori argument of the
necessity of one supreme head both in the matter
of government and the preservation of the integ-
rity of doctrine, and upon the testimony of early
ecclesiastical writers, who witness to the tra-
dition of the universal supremacy of the Roman
see.

After the transfer of the capital of the Ro-
man empire to Constantinople, this city rapidly
rose to ecclesiastical importance and became a
metropolitan see. Its bishops made claim to be
the first see in the Christian world after Rome
on account of the imperial dignity of the city,
but this assumption was stoutly resisted by the
apostolic sees of the East, whom Rome always
sustained against Constantinople's claim. After
the Greek schism, Constantinople assumed the
primacy of the Greek Church.^

The practice of solemnly investing bishops
with their offices dates from the 7th century.
Already in the 5th century the Popes had begun
to send to the newly elected metropolitan bish-
ops (now called archbishops) the pallium, a
kind of official mantle worn by archbishops, as
a token of their sanction of the choice. Two
centuries later it became the custom to conse-
crate bishops by investing them with the ring
and crosier, the former as a token of marriage
with the Church, the latter as a symbol of the
pastoral office. Since this investiture was what
gave validity to the election of the bishops, it
became the source of long-continued contests
between the Popes and the temporal sovereigns
in the Middle Ages. The influential position
which the bishops occupied in the state caused
the temporal rulers to be desirous of keeping the
right of investiture in their own hands, while
the Popes with equal determination claimed
the right for themselves. The contest was most
bitter between the Popes and the emperors of
the Romans, as they were called. It began in
the nth century, but was not settled till 1122,
when it was agreed in the concordat of Worms
between Pope Calixtus II. and the Emperor
Henry V. that the election of bishops should
take place according to the laws of the Church,
under the direction of the emperor, and that
the spiritual investiture (with ring and crosier)
should remain in the hands of the Pope, while
the bishops were to be invested with the tem-
poral rights of their office by the emperor.
This is still the fundamental law of the Roman
Catholic Church with regard to investiture. The
election to a bishopric is for the most part
in the hands of the dean and chapter of the
cathedral of the diocese; but in some cases
it is a right of the territorial sovereign. In
any case papal confirmation is requisite before
the appointment is complete. Roman Catholic
bishops in England are appointed exclusively by
the Pope.

When the system of the ecclesiastical rule was
matured, the almost absolute authority which'

they exercised over the clergy of their dioceses ;
their intervention in the secular concerns of the
governments, to which they soon rendered them-
selves necessary by their superior information
and their elevated rank; the administration of
the Church revenues ; and their extensive eccle-
siastical as well as criminal jurisdiction, drew
them into the vortex of secular affairs, some-
times at spiritual expense. Still it continued to
be the bishop's duty to teach and preach in his
own diocese, to watch over purity of doctrine,
to see that the people were provided with the
sacraments, to visit the churches in his dio-
cese, etc. The most distinctive functions of
their spiritual office remained as they still are,
the ordination of the clergy, the consecration of
other bishops, the confirmation of youth, the
consecration of churches, etc. In the Middle
Ages they attached to themselves subordinate
or assistant bishops called suffragans or coadju-
tors, who often had intrusted to them the per-
formance of those functions which more espe-
cially concerned the Church. The episcopal
office being such as we have described it, the
nobility, and even the sons of princes and kings,
strove to obtain a dignity which was as honor-
able as it was profitable, and was not deemed
incompatible with festivities and luxurious en-
joyments. The splendid establishments which
they were able to maintain from the large reve-
nues derived chiefly from rich donations to their
churches by pious devotees, gave, to the bishops
of Germany particularly, a high degree of dig-
nity. They became princes of the empire, and
their influence on public affairs was highly
important.

The Reformation lessened the number of
bishops, and though in some of the Protestant
countries of the north of Europe the higher
clergy have retained the title of bishop, yet they
have lost the greater part of their former reve-
nues and privileges, though in neither of these
particulars have those of England any reason
to complain. The English Church has left to
its bishops more authority than the rest, and
this is one reason why it bears the name of
episcopal. To them belong ordination, confir-
mation, the consecration of churches, the licens-
ing of curates, and institution to benefices. They
receive their appointment from the Crown. In
Prussia, though the majority of the population
are Protestants, the Roman Catholic bishops
receive an annual allowance from the state.
Some bishops in the Roman Catholic Church
are nominally in charge of dioceses in countries
which do not acknowledge the Christian faith.
The dioceses of such bishops are said to lie in
parfibits infideUuni (in parts belonging to un-
believers), and they are chiefly those that were
wrested from the Christian Church by the
Mohammedans.

The appointment of bishops was one of the
grievances of the American colonists ; few
things more exasperated them than the scheme
of appointing and sending out a bishop from
England. It is said that there was a project
of making Dean Swift bishop of the American
colonies. In 1771. at the instance of the clergy
of New York and New Jersey, the plan was
again urged. The clergy of Virginia generally
assented, but throughout America the dissent-
ers and the Episcopal laity opposed. After the
Revolution the case was altered. The first Epis-
copal bishop, Samuel Seabury, of Connecticut,

BISHOP'S BOOK— BISMARCK-SCHONHAUSEN

was consecrated by Scotch non-juring bishops in
1784. The Methodists began to use the term
bishop in 1787. The first Roman CathoHc bishop,
John Carroll, of Baltimore, was consecrated in
1790. See Archbishop; Apostolic Succession.

Bibliography. — Baur, 'Christianity and the
Church in the First Three Centuries* ; Dollin-
ger, ^The First "Age of the Church * ; Hatch,
'Organization of the Early Christian Churches' ;
Lightfoot, <St. Paul's Epistle to the Philip-
pians' ; Moberly, < Ministerial Priesthood.*

Bishop's Book, a handbook of instruction
and doctrine compiled in 1537 by a committee
of bishops and ministers of the Anglican
Church. It is to be found in 'Formularies of the
Faith Put Forth by Authority During the Reign
of Henry VIII.>

Bishops Suffragan, a class of bishops in
England appointed by the Crown to take the
places of the early bishops in partibus, who were
assistants to the active bishops of English sees,
and who held their warrant at the pleasure of
the bishops to whom they were assigned. They
were distinguished from suffragan bishops in
the Church of England, as every regular bishop
was a suffragan of his superior or metropolitan.

Biskara, bes'ka-ra, or Biskra, Algeria, a
town situated at the southern base of the last
spurs of the Aures Mountains, about 120 miles
south-southwest of Constantine. The railway
from Philippeville, on the Mediterranean, termi-
nates here. New Biskara, or the French town,
has (1903) 9,076 inhabitants. Old Biskara
has a population of about 75,000.

Bismarck-Schonhausen, Herbert Nikolaus,
Prince von, her'bert nik'5-lows bes'mark-
shen'how-sen, German statesman : b. Berlin,
28 Dec. 1849; d. Friedrichsruhe, Prussia, 18
Sept. 1904; son of Otto Eduard Leopold
Prince von Bismarck-Schonhausen. He served
as secretary to the London Embassy, and on
his father's retirement he was provisionally
charged with the foreign affairs of the em-
pire. In 1886 he was secretary of state, and in
January 1889, the emperor conferred on him
the first class of the Order of the Red Eagle.
When his father resigned, Herbert withdrew
from the diplomatic service, and remained upon
his estate for several years. In 1893 ^nd 1898
he was a member of the Conservative party in
the Reichstag. His speeches are published-
under the title. 'Politische Reden> (1899).

Bismarck-Schonhausen, Otto Eduard Leo-
pold, Prince, ot'to ed'oo-ard la'o-puld bes'-
mark-shen'how-sen: b. of a noble family of the
*Mark" (Brandenburg), at Schonhausen. i
April. 1815 : d. 30 July i8q8. He studied at
Gottingen. Berlin, and Greifswald : entered the
army and became lieutenant in the Landwehr.
After a brief interval devoted to his estates and
to the ofiice of inspector of dikes, he became in
1846 a member of the provincial diet of Saxony.
And later he entered the diet of Prussia, when
he began to attract attention as an Ultra Roy-
alist. He opposed the scheme of a German
empire as proposed by the Frankfort Parlia-
ment of 1849. His diplomatic career began in
185 1, when he was appointed Prussian member
of the resuscitated German diet at Frankfort.
In the diet, he gave open expression to the long-
felt discontent with the predominance of Aus-
tria, and demanded equal rights for Prussia.

He remained at Frankfort till 1859, when he
beheld in the approach of the Italian war an
opportunity of freeing Prussia and Germany
from the dominance of Austria. In the spring
of 1862 King William, on the urgent advice of
the Prince of Hohenzollern, transferred Bis-
marck as ambassador to Paris, in order to give
him an insight into the politics of the Tuileries.
During his short stay at Paris Bismarck visited
London, and had interviews with the leading
politicians of the time, including Lord Pal-
merston and Disraeli. In the autumn Bis-
marck was recalled, to take the portfolio of the
ministry of foreign affairs, and the presidency
of the cabinet. Not being able to pass the
reorganization bill and the budget, he closed
the chambers (October 1862), announcing to
the deputies that the king's government would
be obliged to do without their sanction. When
the "conflict era,** as it was called, approached
a crisis, the death of the king of Denmark re-
opened the Schleswig-Holstein question, and ex-
cited a fever of national German feeling, which
Bismarck was adroit enough to work so as to
aggrandize Prussia by the acquisition of the
Elbe duchies.

The action of France in regard to the can-
didature of Prince Leopold of Hohenzollern for
the throne of Spain gave Bismarck the oppor-
tunity of carrying into action the intensified feel-
ing of unity among Germans. During the war
of 1870-1, Bismarck was the spokesman of Ger-
many; he it was that in February 1871, dictated
the terms of peace to France. Having been
made a count in 1866, he was now created a
prince and chancellor of the German empire.
Following the Peace of Frankfort (10 May
1871), the sole aim of Bismarck's policy, domes-
tic and foreign, was to consolidate the young
empire of his own creating. Thus, conceiving
the unity of the nation and the authority of its
government to be endangered by the Church
of Rome, and its doctrines of papal infallibility,
he embarked on that long and bitter struggle
with the Vatican, called the Kulturkampf, in
the course of which the Imperial and Prussian
parliaments passed a series of most stringent
measures (Falk or May laws) against the Ro-
man Catholic hierarchy. But Bismarck had
underrated the resisting power of the Roman
Catholic Church, and motives of political ex-
pediency gradually led him to modify or repeal
the most oppressive of the anti-papal edicts,
leaving the Roman Catholics virtual masters
of the field. Otherwise, his domestic policy-
was marked, among other things, by a re-
formed coinage, a codification of law, a na-
tionalization of the Prussian railways (as a pre-
liminary step to Imperial State lines), fiscal
reform in the direction of making the empire
self-supporting (that is, independent of matric-
ular contributions from its component states),
repeated increase of the army and the regular
voting of its estimates for seven years at a
time (military septennate), the introduction of
a protective tariff (1879), and the attempt to
combat social democracy.

In 1884 Bismarck inaugurated the career of
Germany as a colonizing power, a new depart-
ure which brought him into sharp but temporary
conflict with the England of Gladstone. For the
rest, his foreign policy mainly aimed at isolating
France and rendering her incapable of forming
anti-German alliances. On the other hand, he

BISMARCK — BISMUTH

gradually combined the central powers of
Europe into a peace league, aiming at counter-
acting the aggressiveness of Russia and France,
separately or combined, on the Danube or the
Rhine. The nucleus of this peace league was
formed in 1879 by the Austro-German Treaty
of Alliance (published in February 1888) which
Italy formally joined in 1886, and which en-
titles Bismarck to be called the "peacemaker'^
and the "peacekeeper" of Europe, a character
he first publicly acquired when, as "honest
broker'^ between Austria and Russia, he pre-
sided over the Berlin Congress in 1878. The
phrase, "man of blood and iron," is based on
the Iron Chancellor's own use of the words in
a speech in 1862.

Bismarck's life was often threatened, and
twice actually attempted — once at Berlin in
1866, just before the Bohemian campaign, by
Ferdinand Cohen (or Blind), a crazy youth
who aimed at making himself the instrument
of popular dissatisfaction with Bismarck, as
the champion of absolutism and the fancied
apostle of a fratricidal war; and again in 1874
at Kissingen, by a Roman Catholic tinsmith
named Kullmann, who was unquestionably a
product of Ultramontane fury engendered by
the May laws.

Emperor William died 9 March 1888. The
short reign of Emperor Frederick followed and
then William II. ascended the throne. On 18
March 1890 Bismarck fell. The last cause of
his fall has not been told. Many explanations
have been given — that Bismarck objected to
the labor rescripts, that he opposed the aboli-
tion of the laws against Socialists, that he would
not tolerate the emperor's direct consultation
with the other ministers or the parliamentary
leaders. After the war with Denmark, King
William had made Bismarck a count. After
the conquest of France, Emperor William had
named him prince. Emperor William II. gave
him the title of Duke of Lauenburg. When
Bismarck's 81 st birthday was celebrated in 1896,
there was talk of a reconciliation between the
prince and his sovereign. The emperor sent
his photograph to Bismarck, the latter returned
thanks, and little by little the way was paved
for a meeting between the two men, and event-
ually for the state visit which the emperor paid
to Bismarck at Friedrichsruhe, where the states-
man died.

Bibliography. — Bismarck's "^ Autobiography' ;
Busch, < Bismarck: Some Secret Pages of His
History^ (2 vols.) ; Blum, <^Das Deutsche Reich
zur Zeit Bismarcks' ; Sybel, 'The Founding of
the German Empire' ; Dawson, 'Bismarck and
State Socialism' ; Munroe-Smith, 'Bismarck and
German Unity' ; 'Hoche, 'Bismarck at Home' ;
Hay ward, 'Bismarck in Private Life' ; and
^Lives,' by Gorlach, Jacks, Lowe, and Stearns.

Bismarck, N. Dak., city and capital of
the State ; and county-seat of Burleigh Coun-
ty ; on the Missouri River, and the Northern
Pacific R.R. ; 194 miles west of Fargo. It
contains the State capitol (which cost over
$500,000), the State penitentiary, court-house,
city hall, opera house, a State hospital for the
insane. Saint Alexius' Hospital, Saint Paul's
Seminary, and an immense river warehouse.
The river is here spanned by a bridge that cost
$1,500,000. Bismarck has improved waterworks,
electric lights, several flour mills, a national

bank, the State Library, and an assessed prop-
erty valuation of nearly $2,000,000. The city is a
supply and trade centre for an extensive agri-
cultural section, and is also a base of supplies
for Indian agencies and United States military
posts. Its river traffic with stations above and
below it, is very heavy. Pop. (1890) 2,186;
(1900) 3,319-

Bismarck Archipelago, official name
given by Germany to New Britain, New Ire-
land, New Hanover, and several smaller adjoin-
ing islands in the South Pacific, since in 1884,
when they became a German dependency.

Bismark, Friedrich Wilhelm, fred'riH vil'-
helm, bes'mark (Count von), German gen-
eral : b. Windheim, Westphalia, 28 July
1783 ; d. 18 July i860. In 1796 he en-
tered the army of Hanover as an ensign,
and in 1804 was attached to the Hano-
verian legion in the English army. The result
of a duel forcing him to leave the English ser-
vice, he entered that of the king of Wiirtem-
berg, in 1807, and was soon after appointed cap-
tain of cavalry. During the campaign in
Russia, he served under the command of Ney,
and distinguished himself at the Beresina. He
was made a prisoner at Leipsic, but returned
to Wiirtemberg in 1813. In 1815 he received
the title of count ; in 1819 he was appointed
brigadier-general. In 1828 Count Bismark in-
troduced his system of cavalry tactics into the
Danish army, and was soon after appKjinted
commander-in-chief of the cavalry of Wiirtem-
berg. He published several military treatises,
and also a work upon Russia.

Bismuth, biz'muth, a metallic element,
first accurately described by Pott in 1739. It
was known before that time, but had been previ-
ously confounded with antimony and zinc, which
it resembles to some extent. The origin of the
word "bismuth" is not known, although several
highly improbable derivations have been sug-
gested. For example, miners often call the
metal "wismuth," and Mathesius suggests that
this word comes from "Wisse," or "Wiese,"
meaning a meadow ; because, he says, in the
mines it is often found covered with incrusta-
tions of various colors, resembling a meadow
covered with brilliant flowers. Bismuth occurs
in nature in the metallic form, and several
ores of it are also known, from which the metal
may be easily obtained by roasting and smelt-
ing. The principal supply comes from Saxony,
but considerable quantities are obtained from
Austria, Norway, Cornwall, Spain. California,
New South Wales, and portions of South Amer-
ica. The total consumption of the metal prob-
ably does not greatly exceed 50 tons per annum,
and the demand for it is so variable that the
price has ranged all the way from 50 cents to
$5 a pound. Bismuth is of a peculiar light-red-
dish color, and is highly crystalline, and so
brittle that it can be readily pulverized. It
melts at 510° F., and boils in the vicinity of
2300° F. Its specific gravity is about 9.82 at
54° F., that of the melted metal, just above the
point of fusion, being 10.06. Its specific heat is
about 0.030 at ordinary temperatures, and 0.036
just above the melting point. Its coefficient of
expansion is about 0.000736 per degree Fahren-
heit, its conductivity for heat is about one fiftieth
of that of silver, and its electrical resistance at
32° F. is 1. 1 5 times that of mercury at the same

BISMUTHINITE — BISON

temperature. Bismuth is readily recognized by
the spectroscope, as it shows a large number of
characteristic lines. Its chemical symbol is Bi,
and its atomic weight is 208.5 for O = 16, and
206.9 for H = i. It has a tensile strength of
6,400 pounds per square inch. According to
some authorities, the specific gravity of metallic
bismuth is diminished by pressure; but Spring
has shown that this is not the case. He sub-
jected a sample whose specific gravity was
9.804 to a pressure of 20,000 atmospheres, and
found that the specific gravity rose to 9.856,
while a second compression increased it still
further, to 9.863. Bismuth expands upon solidi-
fying, but Tribe has shown that this expansion
does not take place until immediately after the
congelation of the metal. Bismuth is the most
diamagnetic substance known, a sphere of it
being sensibly repelled by a magnet. It has
marked thermo-electric properties also, on ac-
count of which it is much used in laboratories
in the construction of delicate thermo-piles. In
the arts, metallic bismuth is used chiefly in the
preparation of alloys. By adding a small
amount of it to lead, that metal may be hard-
ened and toughened. An alloy consisting of
three parts of lead and two of bismuth has 10
times the hardness and 20 times the tenacity of
pure lead. The alloys of bismuth with both
tin and lead are extremely fusible, and take
fine impressions of casts and molds. An alloy
of one part of bismuth, two parts of tin, and
one part of lead, is used by pewter workers as
a soft solder, and by soap-makers for molds.
An alloy containing five parts of bismuth, two
of tin, and three of lead melts at 199° F., and
is somewhat used for stereotyping, and for the
manufacture of metallic writing pencils. Thorpe
gives the following proportions for the better
known fusible metals, into which bismuth enters :

Newton's: Bismuth, 50; lead, 31.25; tin,
18.75. Melts at 202° F.

Rose's: Bismuth, 50; lead, 28.10; tin, 24.10.
Melts at 203° F.

D'Arcet's : Bismuth, 50 ; lead, 25 ; tin, 25.
Melts at 201° F. (If 250 parts of mercury are
also added, the resulting alloy, or amalgam,
melts at 113° F.)

Wood's: Bismuth, 50; lead, 25; tin, 12.50;
cadmium, 12.50. Melts at 149° F.

Lipowitz's : Bismuth, 50 ; lead, 26.90 ; tin,
12.78; cadmium, 10.40. Melts at 149° F.

Guthrie's "eutectic^^ alloy: Bismuth, 50;
lead, 20.55; tin, 21.10; cadmium, 14.03. Melting
point not definitely stated, but said to be *'very
low.»

The action of heat upon some of the fore-
going alloys is remarkable. Thus, Lipowitz's
alloy, which solidifies at 149°, contracts very
rapidly at first, as it cools from this point. As
the cooling goes on, the contraction becomes
slower and slower, until the temperature falls
to 101.3° F- From this point the alloy expands
as it cools, until the temperature falls to about
77° F., after which it again contracts, so that
at 32° a bar of the alloy has the same length
as at 115° F. Alloys of bismuth have been
used for making fusible plugs for steam boil-
ers, but it is found that they are altered in
some unknowm way by prolonged exposure to
heat, so that they cannot be relied upon, after
any great length of time, to melt at the proper
temperature. Some of the alloys of bismuth
are also used in tempering steel.

In its Compounds, bismuth has an odd
valency — usually three, but sometimes five.
Metallic bismuth does not oxidize readily in
dry air at ordinary temperatures, but it burns
with a blue flame when strongly heated in pres-
ence of air, passing into the trioxid, BisOs. If
the trioxid is dissolved in a solution of caustic
potash, and nitric acid is subsequently added,
bismuth peroxid (or pentoxid, Bi-Os, is pre-
cipitated. The trioxid is pale yellow, and the
pentoxid is brownish-red. Both unite with acids
to form salts. Bismuth trichlorid, BiCU, is
formed when the metal is heated in chlorine
gas ; it is a white, crystalline, deliquescent sub-
stance, which is decomposed by water with the
formation of hydrochloric acid and bismuth oxy-
chlorid, BiOCl. Bismuth trisulphid, Bi2S.-!, is
thrown down as a black, insoluble precipitate,
when a stream of sulphuretted hydrogen gas is
passed through an acid solution of a salt of
bismuth. The trisulphid also occurs native as
"bismuth glance," or Bismuthinite (q.v.). Bis-
muth dissolves readily in nitric acid, with the
formation of the nitrate, Bi(N03)3 + 5H,0.
A peculiarity of the soluble bismuth salts, as a
class, is that their solutions are rendered milky
by the addition of water in considerable excess,
owing to the formation of insoluble basic com-
pounds. The nitrate, for example, becomes
transformed by this process into a series of
so-called sub-nitrates.

In medicine, bismuth is used in the form of
some one of this metal's insoluble salts, the solu-
ble salts of bismuth being actively poisonous.
The poisoning closely resembles that caused by
lead (q.v.). The insoluble salts used most
frequently are bismuth subnitrate, subcarbon-
ate, salicylate, and subgallate. These are for
the most part employed as gastric sedatives, as
gastro-intestinal anti-fermentatives, and locally
as bland astringent dressings.

Bis'muthinite, a native sulphide of bis-
muth, having the formula BijSs. It commonly
occurs massive, but is also found in needle-like
crystals belonging to the orthorhombic system.
It is opaque, and leaden in color, often with a
superficial yellowish or iridescent coating. Its
hardness is 2, and its specific gravity usually
about 6.5. In the United States it occurs in
Connecticut, California, North Carolina, and
Utah. It is also found in Mexico and Canada,
and in Sweden, France, England, and Bolivia.
Where it can be had in quantity, it is mined as
an ore of bismuth.

Bison, a form of wild cattle regarded by
some naturalists as constituting a genus Bison,
separated from the larger group Bos, which is
represented by the American "buflFalo,'* the
European aurochs, and some extinct species.
Bisons diflfer from other cattle, in external
appearance, mainly by their massive and shaggy
forms. Their heads are exceedingly broad, and
the horns curve outwardly from each side of
the forehead, and are short, round, and thick.
A mop of long and shaggy hair covers the fore-
head, nearly hiding the little eyes, and forms
a great Iseard upon the throat and chin, espe-
cially of the bulls. In order to support this
massive head, which is usually carried low,
great spines rise from the vertebrse of the
back over the shoulders, giving attachment to
the huge muscles necessary to support the skull.
This makes the neck very thick, and the fore-

BISON

quarters much higher than the haunches, which
droop away from the arched contour of the
back, over the withers. The massive appear-
ance of the fore-quarters is increased by the
long growth of hair on the neck, shoulders, and
fore-legs, which is especially coarse and shaggy
in bulls, and is of protection to them in their
furious assaults upon one another in the rut-
ting season. This hair consists mainly of a
short, crisp, wool-like growth, different from
that of other cattle, and capable of being \yoven.
Internally, the bisons are peculiar in having 14
ribs, instead of 13 ; in the breadth and convex-
ity of the frontal bones of the skull ; in having
six, instead of four nasal bones ; and in the com-
parative slenderness of the bones of the limbs.
The bisons are inhabitants of the northern
hemisphere, and, in the era preceding the pres-
ent, were represented by two or three species of
probably circum-polar range. The race is rep-
resented in the Old World by the aurochs, now
preserved only in small, protected herds in
Russia (see Aurochs) ; and in America, by
the buffalo (Bison americaiius), now nearly
extinct.

The American bison or buffalo is somewhat
smaller than the aurochs, and has shorter and
thicker horns, and a shorter tail, but its hump
and fore-quarters are higher, and more shaggy.
The females are much inferior to the males in
bulk, weighing only about 1,200 pounds, whereas
an old bull in good condition will weigh 2,000
pounds. The American animal differs in one
very important respect from the European spe-
cies, due to the difference in their habitats.
The auroch was a native of a region covered
with forests, where large herds could not find
open pasturage of any considerable extent, and
consequently moved about only in small bands,
whereas the American animal had open to it
the immense, grassy prairies and plains of the
interior of this continent, and was able, and in
effect, forced to join into vast herds, so that
it acquired gregarious habits. When North
America was explored by white men, the bison
was first encountered in the valleys of the Alle-
ghanies, and scattered throughout the prairies
of the Mississippi valley, north of the Tennessee
River. Its principal home, however, was upon
the grassy plains, between the IMissouri River
and the Rocky Mountains, where the herds
sometimes contained hundreds of thousands of
individuals, and grazed all the way from south-
ern Texas to the shores of Great Slave Lake.
They wandered through the valleys of the Rocky
Mountains, to the plains of New Mexico, Utah,
and Idaho, but seemed never to have crossed
the Sierra Nevada. Those east of the Missis-
sippi River were probably killed off before the
beginning of the igth century, and by 1850 none
remained east of the dry plains. The building
of the Union P. and Kansas P. R.R.'s. where
the early trains were sometimes stopped by
herds crossing the tracks, soon led to the dis-
appearance of the animals from the central
plains ; and by 1875 they w^ere divided into two
distinct groups, a northern and a southern.
These were rapidly slaughtered by parties of
men who followed the animals at all seasons,
and killed them for their hides, which, as
^buffalo robes*^ became more and more valuable,
until by 1890 the Texan herd had been utterly
exterminated, and of the northern herd, none
remained except such as had been gathered by

the government for preservation in Yellowstone
Park, and a few hundred that still survive in
the remote forests beyond the North Saskatch-
ewan. The herd in Yellowstone Park amounts
to about 100 and will probably be maintained
under the protection of law. Small bands are
living in private parks and zoological gardens
in various parts of the world. Thus, perhaps,
500 or 6od living bisons remain as the sole relic
of the millions of these valuable animals, which
half a century ago ranged our western plains,
and which were recklessly wasted.

The buffalo herds were made up of small
companies, consisting of a patriarchal old bull,
several cows, and a number of young of various
ages, and thousands of these companies would
graze in the same region, all moving slowly in
the same direction, so that travelers would never
be out of sight of bisons during a whole day's
journey. They were more or less nomadic,
wandering from one part of the plains to the
other in search of fresh pasturage. Thus on
the approach of winter a general movement
always took place from the high, central plains
toward the warmer south, and also into the
shelter of the wooded valleys of the foot-hills.
In these journeys they had the habit of travel-
ing in single file, thus forming long, narrow
paths, which the plainsmen called ^buffalo
trails,'^ yet traceable in many places. In spite
of their weight and apparent clumsiness, they
swam rivers with ease, and climbed about the
mountains with remarkable agility. Neverthe-
less they chose the easiest places, and the well-
marked buffalo-trails were the guides for ex-
plorers, and were most deeply imprinted in those
mountain passes, which are now the highways
of commerce. The sexes kept together through-
out the year, and as is usual among gregarious
animals, there was constant fighting among the
bulls for the supremacy of their bands, the old
leaders being overthrown by j^ounger and more
vigorous aspirants, as soon as their strength
began to wane. Thus the very best sires were
continually selected by the law of battle, and
the race kept at its highest point. The herding
was a measure of protection against the enemies
which hung upon the skirts of every band. The
grizzly bear was perhaps the only animal that
could vanquish a bison bull in fair fight, but
pumas and wolves were ever on the watch to
seize any young or feeble ones that strayed
from the band. When attacked the band would
instantly form a close crowd with the cows and
calves in the centre, protected by the bulls,
forming a circle with lowered heads on the out-
side. The calves were born in the spring, a
single one, as a rule, to each cow after a gesta-
tion of about nine months.

To the western Indians the bison was the
principal resource for food and shelter, and
was continually hunted. In the days before
firearms, the Indians would approach them on
foot, by creeping within bowshot on all fours,
often disguised in the skin of a calf or an ante-
lope; or would rush the herds upon horseback.
They_ also had the practice in rough countries
of driving the buffaloes into enclosures or small
canyons, where they could easily be slaughtered ;
or sometimes would force them over a cliff, to
be killed by the fall. Besides eating the flesh
as fresh meat, vast quantities of it would be
cut into strips each autumn, and dried in the
sun for winter use : while the northern tribes

BISPHAM — BISTINEAU

chopped it into fine pieces, mixed it with ber-
ries, and preserved it in skin bags, mixed with
boiled fat, and so formed the highly portable and
nutritious food called "pemmican." The dis-
appearance of the buffalo consequently meant
starvation to the Indians, as well as the loss of
the principal material for warm clothing and
bedding, and the Indian wars which raged upon
the plains, during the thjrd quarter of the 19th
century, were mainly due to the desperate
efforts made by these people, to preserve their
hunting-grounds.

Species of fossil bisons have been found
both in Europe and America, associated with
the remains of mammoths, mastodons, and other
extinct animals of the Quaternary Period. Some
of these extinct bisons exceeded in size any of
the living species, the bony horn-cores in one
being six feet from tip to tip (the length of the
horns themselves must have been considerably
greater) ; the height of this species is estimated
to have been over six feet at the shoulder.

The literature relating to the American buf-
falo is as extensive as the story of the western
States. The most complete and special accounts
are: J. A. Allen's monograph, ^The American
Bisons* republished by the United States Geo-
logical Survey in 1875 ; ^ind W. T. Hornaday's
^Extermination of the American Bison,* in the
annual report of the Smithsonian Institution for
1887. For the more picturesque and adventur-
ouii side of the animal's history, and its hunt-
ing, consult Audubon's ^Quadrupeds of Amer-
ica* ; Catlin's * North American Indians* ;
Gregg's * Commerce of the Prairies* ; Dodge's
<Black Hills*; ^Butler's <Great Lone Land* ;
and the accounts of western explorations by
such writers as Pike, Fremont, Marcy, Long,
Emory, and Stansbury.

Bispham, bis'pam, David S., baritone
singer: b. Philadelphia, Pa., 5 Jan. 1857, of
Quaker parentage. Educated at Haverford Col-
lege, Pennsylvania, he later studied music and
singing in England and Italy. His debut was
made as the Due de Lonqueville in *The Ba-
soche,* London, in 1891, and since then he has
been the principal baritone of the Royal Opera
Company, Covent Garden, London, occasionally
visiting the United States on an operatic tour.
An accomplished linguist, he is equally at home
in German, French, or Italian, but his greatest
successes have been in Wagnerian roles, such as
^Alberich* and ^Wolfram.*

Bissagos, bis-sa'goz, a group of islands.
about 20 in number, near the west coast of
Africa, opposite the mouth of the Rio^ Grande,
between lat. 10° and 12° N., belonging, like
the mainland opposite, to Portugal. The largest,
Orango, is about 2=; miles in length, and most
of them are inhabited by a rude negro race.
The inhabitants cultivate maize, bananas, and
palms, but their chief employment is in fishing.
Most of the islands are under native chiefs,
who are nominally vassals of Portugal. At
Bolama, or Bulama. once a British settlement,
"but abandoned in 1793, there is a thriving Por-
tuguese town, which is the seat of government.

Bissao, bes-sa'o, an island and Portuguese
station closer to the African coast than the
Bissagos and opposite the Jeba's delta. Before
the prohibition of slavery by the Portuguese
government It was an important slave market.

Bissell, Edwin Cone, American biblical
scholar : b. Scoharie, N. Y., 2 March 1832 ; d.
Chicago, 9 April 1894. He prepared for the
ministry at Union Theological Seminary, N. Y.,
and held Congregational pastorates at West-
hampton, Mass., San Francisco, Cal., and Win-
chester, Mass., and was professor of Hebrew in
the Hartford Theological Seminary, 1881-92, and
at the McCormick Presbyterian Seminary, Chi-
cago, 1892-4. He published: *The Historic
Origin of the Bible* (1873) ; <The Pentateuch:
Its Origin and Structure* (1885); 'Biblical
Antiquities* (1888) ; < Genesis Printed in Col-
ors, Showing the Original Sources from which
it is Supposed to Have Been Compiled* (1892) ;
'The Apocrypha of the Old Testament, with
Historical Introductions,* his greatest work
(1880).

Bissell, William Henry Augustus, Ameri-
can prelate of the Episcopal Church : b. Ran-
dolph, Vt., 10 Nov. 1814; d. Burlington, Vt., 14
May 1893. Entering the Episcopal ministry in
1839, he was successively rector at West Troy,
Lyons, and Geneva, N. Y., and 3 June 1868 was
consecrated second bishop of the diocese of
Vermont.

Bissell, Wilson Shannon, American law-
yer: b. New London, N. Y., 31 Dec. 1847; d. Buf-
falo, 6 Oct. 1903. He graduated at Yale Univer-
sity in 1869 ; and studied law in Buffalo with
Lansing, Cleveland & Folsom. In 1872 he formed
a partnership with Lyman K. Bass, the firm of
which Grover Cleveland became a member in
1873. When Mr. Cleveland was elected governor
of New York the firm was dissolved. Subse.
quently it was reorganized, and in 1900 consisted
of Bissell, Carey & Cooke. He has been a dele-
gate to several State conventions ; in 1884 was a
Democratic presidential elector; and in 1893-5,
during Mr. Cleveland's second term as President,
was postmaster-general of the United States.

Bissen, Hermann Wilhelm, bis'sen, her'-
man vil'helm, Danish sculptor : b. Schleswig,
1798 ; d. Copenhagen, 10 March 1868. From
1823 to 1833 he studied in Rome under Thor-
waldsen, who, in his will, commissioned him to
complete his unfinished works. In 1850 he was
made director of the Academy of Arts. Copen-
hagen. Among his masterpieces are the 'Val-
kyrie,* 'Cupid Sharpening His Arrow,* and
'Moses* ; his 'Orestes.* and a frieze 134 feet
long, perished in the burning of the Christian-
borg at Copenhagen (1884).

Bissex'tile, the ancient name of leap year,
so called from the sixth day before the calends
of March being repeated or taken twice. See
Calendar.

Bisson, Alexandre, be-s6n, a-leks-andr,
French dramatist and musical composer: b.
1848. His vaudeville, 'Four Cuts with a Pen-
knife.* won for him instant celebrity. 'The
Deputy from Bombignac* is his masterpiece.
Other comedies or operettas were: 'The Late
Toupinel* : 'The Joys of Paternity* ; 'The
Pont-Biquet Family.* With Theodore de La-
jarte he was joint author of a 'Grammarof
Music* and of a 'Little Encyclopaedia of Music*

Bistineau, bis-te-no', a lake in northwest-
ern Louisiana, dividing Bossier and Bienville
parishes, about 30 miles in length from north to
south and 2 in breadth. It receives the Dauchite

BISTORT — BITTER-SWEET

River from the north, and communicates with
Red River by an outlet at its sout'iern extrem-
ity. It is navigable for steamboats.

Bis'tort {Polygonum Bistorta), a perennial
plant of the buckwheat family, and from its
astringent properties (it contains much tannin)
sometimes used medicinally. It bears a raceme
of flesh-colored flowers. It is also called
adder's-wort and snake-weed, from being a sup-
posed remedy against snake bites. The Ameri-
can representative is a naturalized plant {P.
vivipivum), found on Alpine summits of New
England and on the shores of Lake Superior
and northward. It bears an erect spike of flesh-
colored flowers.

Bistre, bis'ter, a reddish brown water-
color, generally obtained from the soot that col-
lects in chimney-flues. This is pulverized and
washed to remove the saline ingredients. The
finest sediment is then dissolved in vinegar, to
which gum-water is afterward added. It was
formerly much used for making painters' cray-
ons, and also for a paint in water-color de-
signs. Sepia, however, is now preferred to it,
as it has a more agreeable color and is more
easily employed.

Bithur, be-thoor', India, a town 12 miles
northwest of Cawnpore, on the right bank of the
Ganges. In the Indian mutiny it had some
notoriety conferred on it from being the resi-
dence of Nana Sahib, also styled the rajah of
Bithoor. The town was long the abode of a
line of Mahratta chiefs, the last of whom died
without issue in 185 1. His adopted son. Nana
Sahib, whose proper name, however, was Dhun-
doo Punt, claimed the succession, but his title
was ignored by the East India Company, a pro-
ceeding which is believed to have stimulated
him to his subsequent deeds of atrocity. Gen.
Havelock gained a brilliant victory over the
rebels in the vicinity, and subsequently quanti-
ties of treasure belonging to the Nana were dis-
covered by the troops in a well close to the
palace. Pop. 7,000.

Bithyn'ia, anciently a country in Asia
Minor, on the Black Sea, the Bosporus, and the
Sea of Marmora, and bounded on the south by
Phrygia. In early times it was called Bebrycia,
from the Bebrycians who inhabited it. Before
the time of Croesus, Bithynia was an independ-
ent state, under its own princes. After the
death of Prusias I., in the war against Croesus,
it fell into the power of the Lydians, 560 B.C. ;
into that of the Persians, 555 B.C. ; and into that
of Alexander, 334 B.C. The restorer of the
Bithynian throne was Bias or Bas, a native
prince, at the court of one of whose successors,
Prusias II.. Hannibal took refuge, and where
he ended his life by poison, 183 B.C. Nicomedes,
the la.st king of this race, bequeathed his king-
dom to the Romans, 75 b.c. The famous cities
of Nicomedia, Nicaea, and Heraclea were in
Bithynia. In the nth century Bithynia was
conquered by the Seljuks. In 1298 a new king-
dom was founded there by the Ottoman Turks,
of which, in 1327, Prusa was the capital. See
Ramsay, ^Historical Geography of Asia Minor^
(1890).

Biting-lice. See Bird-lice.

Biton, bl'ton, Greek mathematician, of un-
certain date, but supposed to have been a con-
temporary of Archimedes, wrote a work of some

interest on warlike engines, and dedicated it
to Attalus. king of Pergamos. It is to be found
in the 'Mathematici Veteres^ of Thevenot. (2)
The son of Cyclippe mentioned in the legend of
Cleobis and Biton.

Bitter, Arthur, pseudonym of Samuel
Haeerstich, Swiss poet and story writer : b.
Ried, near Schlosswyl, 21 Oct. 1821 ; d. Bern, 20
Feb. 1872. Novelettes, stories, and poems pro-
ceeded from his pen for many years, all charac-
terized by sympathy of tone and inoffensive
realism. < Tales, Romances, and Poems^
(1865-6), being most pleasing.

Bitter, Karl Theodore Francis, Austro-
American sculptor : b. Vienna, Austria. 6 Dec.
1867. He came to the United States in 1889
and soon acquired world-wide reputation. He
executed the sculpture on the main buildings of
the World's Columbian Exposition, and was ap-
pointed director of sculpture at the Pan-Ameri-
can Exposition at Buffalo, and the Louisiana
Purchase Exposition at Saint Louis.

Bitter Almonds. In medicine the oil of
bitter almonds, containing prussic acid, is used
as a gastric sedative and as an antispasmodic.
See Prussic Acid.

Bitter Ash, the quassia tree. See Quassia.

Bitter-root, Lczvisia rediviva, a plant of
Canada and part of the United States, order
Portiilacecc, so called from its root being bitter
though edible, and indeed esteemed as an article
of food by whites as well as Indians. From the-
root, which is long, fleshy, and tapering, grow
clusters of succulent green leaves, with a fleshy
stalk bearing a solitary rose-colored flower ris-
ing in the centre, and remaining open only in
sunshine. Flower and leaves together, the-
plant appears above ground for only about six
weeks. California bitter-root (Echinocystis^
fabacea) and Natal bitter-root (Gerardanthus-
macrorhisa) both belong to the gourd family.

Bitter Root Mountains, a range of the
Rocky Mountains, in Montana, deriving its
name from a plant with rose-colored blossoms,
whose slender roots are used by the Indians
for winter food. The chief surnmits are Lolo
Peak and St. Mary's Peak.

Bitter Root River, a tributary of the Co-
lumbia in Montana, flowing north into Clark's
River in Missoula County; length about iiO'
miles. Gold has been found in this region.

Bitter Root Valley, a valley on the east
of the Bitter Root range, in Montana. 90 miles
long and 7 miles wide, enwalled by lofty moun-
tains, and abounding in farms and cornfields.

Bitter Spar, rhomb-spar, the crystallized
form of dolomite or magnesian limestone. The
name is derived from the magnesia contained
in it, the taste of salts of magnesia being bitter.

Bitter-sweet, Dulcamara, or Woody Night-
shade, Solatnim Dulcamara, a sprawling vine of
the natural order Solanacea, native of Europe
and Asia, and introduced into the United States.
It has purplish or blue flowers arranged in
cymes which are succeeded by attractive inedi-
ble berries. The leaves have been used medi-
cinally in the form of an extract. The name,,
properly false bitter-sweet, is given to Celastrus-
scandcns, a handsome climber of the natural
order Celastracea found from eastern Canada
to South Dakota and southward to New Mexico.

BITTER-SWEET — BITUMEN PROCESS

It often grows 20 feet tall and is perhaps most
attractive on account of its orange-yellow fruits
which split open and expose the crimson seeds.
Both seeds and fruits remain attached to the
plants during the winter.

Bitter-Sweet, a once popular narrative
didactic poem by J. G. Holland, published 1858.
It contains about 3,500 lines, and is descriptive
of New England rural life.

Bitter Vetch, a name applied to two kinds
of leguminous plants: (i) Ervuin ervilia, a len-
til cultivated for fodder ; and (2) all the species of
Orobus, for example, the common bitter vetch
O. tuberosus, a perennial herbaceous plant with
racemes of purple flowers and sweet edible
tubers.

Bittern, a bird of the heron family and
genus Botaurus, several species of which exist
in various parts of the world. The bitterns
differ from the herons in their lesser size,
shorter neck, comparative shortness of the legs,
and superior length of toes, and in their noctur-
nal habits and loud voices. Otherwise their
haunts, food, and manner of life closely re-
semble those of herons (q.v.). The only North
American species is the common bittern (B.
lentiginosus) , which is spread throughout the
United States and southern Canada in all suit-
able places, often close to towns. Its length
is about 25 inches, and the plumage is tawny
brown of various shades, excessively variegated
everywhere ; the neck is striped with dull yellow
and has on each side a dark patch. Both sexes,
and the young, are alike in plumage. The Old
World species {B. stellaris) is very similar, but
has more red on the upper parts, and green
about the head. It is found numerously from
Ireland to Japan, in India and throughout all
Africa. Other species or varieties spread the range
of the genus to New Zealand and the South
Sea Islands. The one great peculiarity of
the bitterns, to which they owe their Latin
and many local names, is their extraordinary
vocal utterance in spring, which in the European
species is likened to booming by everyone who
has heard it, and has been called "a loud and
awful voice. *^ The old fable that this sound
was produced in some mysterious way by the
bird while it held its beak plunged into the mud
is untrue; and the flesh is no longer esteemed
as a dainty, as it was some centuries ago. The
voice of the American bittern is a droning,
thumping noise, which has been likened to the
driving of a stake with an axe, or, more often,
to the working of an old-fashioned pump-
handle. Hence the rural names, "stake-driver,*
*mire-drum," "bog-pumper,'^ "thunder-pump,"
and the like. Nuttall attempted to suggest the
sound of the syllables "pump-au-gah" ; but Sam-
uels succeeds better. He writes : "In the mat-
ing season, and during the first part of the period
of incubation, the male has a peculiar love-note,
that almost exactly resembles the stroke of a
mallet on a stake ; something like the syllables
'chunk-a-lunk - chunk, quank - chunk - a - lunk -
chunk. ^ I have often, when in the forests of
northern Maine, been deceived by this note into
believing that some woodman or settler was in
my neighborhood, and discovered my mistake
only after toiling through swamp and morass
for perhaps half a mile.*

A genus of smaller birds, Ardetta, is known
as that of the "least bitterns.* One species {A.

exilis) occurs over most of North America, and
related species belong to South America. They
are intermediate between the true bitterns and
the night-herons.

Consult Coues, * Birds of the Northwest^
(1874) ; and Newton, * Dictionary of Birds*
(1896), and the other authorities therein cited.

Bittern, or Salt Oil, the name given to the
syrupy residue from evaporated sea-water after
the common salt has been taken out of it.
The syrup contains salts of magnesium, which
give it a bitter taste, and it is employed as a
source of them. It is also one of the sources of
bromine. Bittern procured from the salt works
at Epsom, England, was formerly the source
of sulphate of magnesium, hence styled Epsom
salts. See Salt.

Bitternut, See Hickory.

Bitters, a class of compounds largely em-
ployed as appetizers and digestants. They are
for the most part alcoholic drinks to which
some plant containing a bitter principle is added.
The bitter principles are either alkaloids,
as in the quinine of calisaya, or amaroids,
W'hich are widely distributed in plants. The
most commonly employed bitters are quassia,
gentian, angostura, cascarilla, wild cherry, and
cinchona. Medicinally bitters are classed as
simple and aromatic, the latter containing vola-
tile oils in addition to the bitter principles. The
simple bitters mostly used are quassia, gentian,
and calumba. The aromatic bitters are cas-
carilla, eupatorium (boneset), angostura, ser-
pentaria, and chamomile.

Bitterwood, various trees and shrubs of
the genus Xylopia of the natural order Sima-
lubiacccc, noted for the bitterness of their wood
which is used for funiture because of its resist-
ance to insects. One Brazilian species {X.
sericea) furnishes a peppery fruit and a cordage
fibre. The name bitterwood is also given to
Picrcenia excelsa (Quassia excclsa of some bot-
anists) belonging to the natural order Simani-
bacccE. This tree is a native of the West Indies
and is used like quassia (q.v.).

Bit'tinger, Lucy Forney, American his-
torical writer : b. Cleveland, Ohio, 29 Aug. 1859.
She has published ^Memorials of Rev. J. B.
Bittinger* (1891); * History of the Forney
Family of Hanover, Pennsylvania' (1893) ; and
^The Germans in Colonial Times,* (1901), a
work of much value.

Bitu'men, a general term, perhaps first
used by Pliny, and including various native
hydrocarbons, such as petroleum, asphaltum,
elaterite, and grahamite. The bitumens are
probably all of vegetable origin, and while not
confined to any particular geological formation,
they occur most abundantly at or near the
earth's surface, often in connection with rocks
containing organic remains.

Bit'umen Process, the first known method
of fixing the image of the camera, so as to
make it permanent. The blackening action of
light upon salts of silver was known in the
i8th century, but no method was known for
fixing the image obtained with salts of silver
until about 1838. The bitumen process was
perfected in 1827 by a Frenchman, Nicephore de
Niepce. He coated plates of metal with a solu-
tion of asphaltum in oil of lavender, and then,
after drying them, he exposed them for a pro-

BITUMINOUS COAL — BIVALVES

digious length of time in a camera. A very
faint image was the result. The plate \yas sub-
sequently immersed in a developer consisting of
one part of oil of lavender and lO parts of pe-
troleum, which slowly dissolved the parts un-
affected by light, leaving a permanent picture
formed of those parts of the asphaltum that the
light had rendered insoluble. Subsequently
Daguerre became associated with Niepce, and
together they improved the bitumen process
until Daguerre said that "the time required to
procure a photographic copy of a landscape is
from seven to eight hours ; but single monu-
ments, when strongly lighted by the sun, or
which are themselves very bright, can be taken
in about three hours." See Camera; Photog-
raphy.

Bitu'minous Coal. See Coal.

Bituminous Limestone, a limestone im-
pregnated with asphaltum or mineral pitch.
Petroleum grades insensibly into maltha, and
this in turn into asphalt or solid bitumen. The
term bituminous limestone is therefore applied
to almost any limestone carrying hydrocarbon
compounds having an asphaltic base, as dis-
tinguished from the paraffine base of many
petroleums. Bituminous limestone is foimd at
many localities in the United States, particularly
in Indian Territory, California, and Arkansas.
Its chief commercial use is as a paving material,
but it also serves as a source of asphaltic
products.

Bivalves, those mollusks of the class
Pelecypoda (q.v.) whose coverings consist of
two concave shell plates or valves.

Bivalves, (for example, the clam) are entire-
ly protected by the valves, which are connected
by a hinge, consisting of a large tooth or teeth
(usually three), and a ligament. In the clam
both valves are alike, in the scallop the hinge
margin is eared, and the shell is marked with
radiating ridges, while in most bivalves there
are simple lines of growth. On the interior,
which is usually lined with mother-of-pearl, are
either one (in oysters and scallops) or two
(clams, etc.) roundish muscular impressions
made by the single or the two adductor muscles
by which the valves are closed. The shell is
often covered by an epidermis. The hinge is
situated directly over the heart, and is therefore
dorsal or "hjemal." The shell is secreted by the
thickened edge of the mantle or body-walls.
There is in bivalves in distinction from snails
(Gastropoda) no head, and the mouth is not
armed with teeth or a lingual ribbon, present in
snails. The mouth is small with soft lips, and
in each side is a pair of labial palpi. The short
oesophagus opens into a small stomach which
receives the contents of the liver. The long
intestine is coiled in the visceral mass, the solid
disk-like portion of the body in the clam and
oyster ; the intestine also passes through the
ventricle of the heart, and then ends opposite
the upper division of the siphon. This heart
is three-chambered, consisting of a ventricle and
two auricles. The siphon forms the so-called
head of the clam, though it is situated at the
posterior end of the body ; it forms a double
tube, ending in an excurrent and incurrent
orifice surrounded by a circle of tentacles which
are sensitive to the touch. The siphon is very
long in the clam (Mya) and other bivalves
which burrow in the sand or mud and live
in deep holes. Locomotion is effected by the

so-called "foot,* which is a wedge-shaped or
hatchet-shaped fleshy tongue-like mass situated
at the front end under the mouth. Its hatchet-
shape gives the name Pelecypoda to the class.
This foot is enormous in the razor-fish, which
burrows with extreme rapidity in the sand. In
fixed bivalves, such as the oyster and mussel,
the foot and siphon are reduced by atrophy
or are entirely w^anting. There being no head,
there are usually no ej^es, except in the scallops,
where they are numerous, large, and situated
on the thickened edge of the mantle. Bivalves
breathe by one pair, more usually two pairs, of
leaf-like gills ; situated on each side of the
visceral mass. The individuals are bisexual, each
being male or female. The nervous system con-
sists of three pairs of ganglia, connected by a
nerve-thread. The supraoesophageal ganglion is
the so-called "brain,* being situated over the
mouth ; the pedal ganglion is in the centre of
the foot, while the visceral ganglion is near the
middle of the body. Most bivalves possess an
organ of hearing: or of equilibration, a very
minute otocyst situated in the centre of the
foot, and connected by a nerve with the pedal
ganglion. The ovaries are yellowish, volumin-
ous glands forming the larger part of the
visceral mass. These mollusks are very prolific,
the oyster laying about 2,000,000 eggs.

In the oyster (Ostrea) or in Anomia the
shell is inequilateral, one valve, usually the left
and lower one, being fixed to some object, and
the intestine does not pass through the ventricle ;
in Area the ventricle is double. In Lueina and
Corbis there is but one gill on each side, and
in Peeten, Spondylus, and Trigonia the gills
are reduced to comb-like processes. Contrary
to the habits of most bivalves, the scallop can
skip over the surface of the water by violently
opening and shutting its shell. Trigonia is also
capable of leaping a short distance, while Lima
is an active flyer or leaper. The American
oyster is dioecious, while most mollusks are
monoecious or hermaphroditic. The foot varies
much in form ; in the mussel, Pinna, Cyelocar-
dia, and the pearl-oyster it is finger-shaped and
grooved, with a gland for secreting a bundle of
threads, the byssus, by means of which it is
anchored to the bottom. The foot in the quo-
hog, Neulinia and Clidiophora, is large, these
mollusks being very active in their movements.
In Glycimeris the fringe is toothless, much as
in the oyster. In Mactra the middle tooth of the
hinge is large, the corresponding cavity large
and triangular. In Saxieava and Panopcca, the
pallial line is represented by a row of dots.
In Macoma the siphons are very long.

Lithodomns, the date-shell, one of the mus-
sels, bores into corals, oyster shells, etc. ; the
common Saxieava excavates holes in mud and
soft limestone, as does Gastroehocna, PJwlas, and
Petricola. Certain boring lamellibranchs, such
as Pholas, are luminous.

A very aberrant form of bivalve mollusk i.s
Clavagella, in which the shell is oblong, with
flat valves, the left cemented to the sides of a
deep burrow. The tube is cylindrical, fringed
above, and ending below in a disk, with a mi-
nute central fissure, and bordered with branch-
ing tubules. In Aspcrgillum. the watering-pot
shell, the small bivalve shell is cemented to the
lower end of a long shelly tube, closed below
by a perforated disk like the nose of a watering-
pot.

BIVALVE MOLLUSCA.

'-' Cytheria dione. *, ^ Cardium aculeatum. •'-^ Ilemicardium cardissa.

'* Hippopus maculatus.

10.13 Tridacua squamosa.

BIXBY — BLACAS

Bivalves, in growing, pass through a pre-
swimming larval stage called a "trochosphere.**
resembling a top, and moved by a circlet or zone
of cilia. After a while two flaps (vela) arise on
each side of the mouth, forming the vegliger
stage; meanwhile the shells arise, and as they
become larger and heavier, the young bivalve
sinks to the bottom, and begins to use its "foot"
for burrowing.

Some bivalves arrive at maturity in a single
year. The fresh-water mussels live from lo to
12 years, while the giant clam (Tridacna gigaii-
tea) probably lives from sixty years to a cen-
tury.

The bivalves began to appear in the Cam-
brian Period ; they became more frequent in the
Ordovician and Silurian, but they did not abound
until toward the Mesozoic Age, since the seas
during the Palsozoic Age were crowded with
brachipods (q.v.). Oysters date from the be-
ginning of the IMesozoic. The genus Muciila
and its allies are very primitive forms, and
nearly allied to the earliest known bivalves. Of
about 15.000 known species of bivalves, two
thirds (10,000) are fossil.

The class Pelecypoda (or Lamellibranchiata)
is divided by the gill characters (see Parker and
Haswell's Zoology) into five orders, namely:
(i) Protohranchia. (2) Filibranchia, (3)
Pseudo-lamellibranchia. (4) Eulamellibranchia,
(5) Scptibranchia: and by Dall. from the hinge-
characters, into three ordinal groups: Priono-
dcsmacca, Anomalodesmacca. and Tcleodesma-
cea. In Neumayr's group Palccoconcha, now
forming a part of the Prionodesmacea, are in-
cluded certain primitive types which appear to
have given origin to certain more modern
groups. For further information and the litera-
ture of the subject see Mollusca.

Bixby, James Thompson, American au-
thor and clergyman : b. Barre, Mass., 30 July
1843. He graduated at Harvard in 1864. and
became a Unitarian minister. He has published:
'Similarities of Physical and Religious Knowl-
edge* (1876); 'The Crisis in Morals' (1891) ;
'Religion and Science as Allies' (1895) ; 'Ethics
of Evolution' (1900) ; 'The New World and the
New Thought' (1902).

Bizet, Alexander Cesar Leopold, be-za,
a-leks-andr sa-zar la-6-p61d (better known as
George Bizet), French composer: b. Paris, 25
Oct. 1838; d. there, 3 June 1875. He studied with
Halevy, whose daughter he married, and at the
Paris Conservatory. His operas include: 'The
Pearl Fishers' (1863) ; 'The Fair Maid of
Perth' (1867); 'Djamileh' (1872); and 'Car-
men' (1875), his most famous composition,
which retains all its early popularity and is
founded on Merimee's novel of that name.

Bjerregaard, byer-re-gard, Carl Henry
Andrew, Danish-American w-riter: b. Fred-
ricia, Denmark. 24 May 1845. He served five
years in the Danish army, and came to America
in 1873. He has been librarian of the Astor
Library. New York, from 1879, and has written :
'Mysticism and Nature Worship' ; 'Being and
the Philosophical History of the Subject.'

Bjornson, Bjornstjerne, byern'son, byern'-
sher-ng, Norwegian novelist, poet, and dram-
atist: b. Kvikne, 8 Dec. 1832. He entered the

University of Christiania in 1852, and he speed-
ily became known as a contributor of articles
and stories to newspapers and as a dramatic
critic. From 1857 to 1859 he was manager of
the Bergen theatre, producing during that time
his novel, 'Arne' (1858), and his tragedy of
'Halte Hulda.' He was at Christiania part
editor of the Aftenblad in i860, then lived sev-
eral years abroad, and in 1866 became editor of
the 'Norsk Folkeblad.' In 1869-72 he was co-
director of a Copenhagen periodical, and much
of his later life has been passed abroad. The
democratic tendencies to be found in his novels
have found a practical outcome in the active part
taken by him in political questions bearing upon
the Norwegian peasantry and popular represen-
tation. He has been for a long period the leader
of the Norwegian republicans, and the national
entity symbolized by the change made in the
Norwegian flag on i Jan. 1901 is more nearly
due to him than to any one else. He is the
greatest distinctively Norwegian writer of his
day, and his popularity among his countrymen is
very great. In 1880-1 he traveled and lectured
in the United States. His dramas include:
'Sigurd Jorsalfar' (1872) ; 'Mary Stuart in
Scotland' (1864); 'The Newly Wedded Pair'
(1866); 'Sigurd Slembe' (1872); 'The Editor'
(1874); 'A Bankruptcy' (1875); 'The King'
(1877) ; 'Leonarda' (1879) ; 'The New Svstem'
(1879); *A Glove' (1883); 'Beyond Our
Strength' (1883) ; 'Geography and Love' ^1885).
His verse includes: 'Poems and Songs' (1870) ;
'Arnljot Gilline,' an epic (1870). Besides the
pastoral tales: 'Arne' (1858); 'A Happy Boy'
(i860); 'The Fisher Maiden' (1868); 'Syn-
ncEve Solbakken.' he has written the novels:
'The Bridal March' (1873) ; 'Magnhild' (1877);
'Captain Mansana' (1879) I 'The Heritage of
the Kurts' (1884); 'In God's Way' (1889);
'Absalom's Hair' ; etc. See Boyesen, 'Essays
on Scandinavian Literature' (1895) ; Gosse, 'An
Essay on the Writings of Bjornson' (1895);
Brandes, 'Moderne Geister' (1897).

Bjornstjerna, byern'sher - na, Magnus
Frederick Ferdinand, mag-noos fred'er-ik fer'-
de-nand (Count), Swedish statesman and au-
thor: b. Dresden, 10 Oct. 1779; d. Stockholm, 6
Oct. 1847. He was educated in Germany, and
in 1793 proceeded to Sweden to enter the army.
At the storming of Dessau he received a severe
contusion from a cannon-ball, but he was able,
notwithstanding, to be present at the battle of
Leipsic. He afterward concluded the capitula-
tion of Liibeck with Gen. Lallemand. and re-
ceived the surrender of the fortress of Maest-
richt. He concluded with Prince Christian
Frederick at Moss the convention which was
followed by the union of Norway and Sweden.
He published 'The British Rule in the East
Indies' and 'Theogony, Philosophy, and Cos-
mogony of the Hindoos' (1843).

Blacas, Pierre Louis Jean Casimir, bla-ka,
pe-ar loo-e zhon (Due de), French statesman:
b. Aups, Var., 12 Jan. 1771 ; d. Kirchburg, Aus-
tria, 17 Nov. 1839. He was cabinet minister
in the time of Louis XVIII., and a confidential
adviser of the Bourbons ; twice minister to
Naples ; ambassador to Rome to negotiate the
concordat of 1817; went into exile upon the
banishment of Charles X. ; and offered the king
his fortune, which was not accepted. He was so

BLACK

faithful to the Bourbons as to be unpopular
with the people. He was a large collector of
antiquities and founded the Egyptian Museum
at Paris.

Black, Adam, Scotch publisher: b. Edin-
burgh, 20 Feb. 1784; d. there, 24 Jan. 1874. In
1808 he began business as a bookseller, and
later with his nephew, Charles B. Black, estab-
lished a publishing house in Edinburgh. Their
most famous publications were: *^ Encyclopaedia
Britannica,^ and the ^Waverly Novels.^ Adam
Black was twice lord provost of Edinburgh,
and in 1856-65 represented that city in Parlia-
ment. He declined the honor of knighthood,
and a statue was erected in Edinburgh in recog-
nition of his public services in 1877.

Black, Alexander, American author : b. New
York, 7 Feb. 1859. He has published <The
Story of Ohio^ (1888) ; 'Photography Indoors
and Out> (1894); ^Miss Jerry> (1895); ^A
Capital Courtships (1897) ; 'Miss America^
(1898) ; 'Modern Daughters^ (1899) ; 'The Girl
and the Guardsman ^ (1900).

Black, Charles Clarke, American lawyer:
b. Mount Holly, N. J., 29 July 1858. He stud-
ied law and was admitted to the New Jersey
bar in 1881. He has since practised in Jersey
City, and has published 'Proof and Pleadings
in Accident Cases^ (1886) ; 'New Jersey Law
of Taxation^ (1893) ; 'Law and Practice in
Accident Cases^ (1900).

Black, Frank Swett, American lawyer : b.
Limington, Me., 8 March 1853. He graduated
at Dartmouth College in 1875 ; was editor of the
Journal in Johnstown, N. Y. ; studied law at
Troy in the office of Robertson & Foster, and
was admitted to the bar in 1879. He won
much popularity by his activity in prosecuting
the men who murdered Robert Ross in the
election riots in Troy in 1892. In 1895-7, he
was a member of Congress, and in 1897-9 gov-
ernor of New York.

Black, James, American prohibitionist : b.
Lewisburg, Pa., 23 Sept. 1823; d. 16 Dec. 1893.
He joined a temperance society at the age of 17,
and throughout his life was a determined advo-
cate of prohibition and legislation for its en-
forcement. He was the first to propose the
formation of a temperance partv, was one of
the committee that called a national convention to
organize the Prohibition party (q.v.) and was
elected its president when the convention met
in Chicago, i Sept. 1869. At the Columbus,
Ohio, convention, 22 Feb. 1872, he was m.ade
the first nominee of the party for President of
the United States. His ticket received 5,608
votes in the election of that year. He pub-
lished: 'Is There a Necessity for a Prohibition
Party ?s (1876) ; ^^istorv of the Prohibition
Party) (1880) ; 'The Prohibition Party > (1885).

Black, Jeremiah Sullivan, American jurist
and statesman : b. Glades, Somerset county, Pa.,
ID Jan. 1810; d. York, Pa., 19 Aug. 1883. At
17 years of age he entered the law office of
Chauncey Forward, in Somerset, an eminent
member of the bar, and was admitted to the
courts in 1830, being still in his minority. In
April, 1842, he was appointed by the governor
president judge of the judicial district in which
he resided, and confirmed by the Senate upon a
strict party vote. In 1851, when a change in the

State Constitution made the judges elective.
he was nominated as judge of the Supreme
Court by the Democratic convention, before
which he was not a candidate. Of the 10 can-
didates named by the two parties, he obtained
the largest popular vote. Under the mode of
drawing provided by the Constitution, a three
years' term was assigned to him, and he became
chief justice of the court. In 1854 he was re-
elected to this place, by a majority of 47,000
votes, though the candidate for Governor on the
same ticket was defeated by 37,000. On 5
March 1857, while engaged in the discharge
of his judicial duties at Philadelphia, he re-
ceived a telegraphic despatch from President
Buchanan, tendering him the appointment of
Attorney-General of the United States. He
soon after appeared on behalf of the government,
in a disputed land claim from California, involv-
ing an important principle upon which hundreds
of similar cases depended. He achieved a great
success, at once becoming famous as a jurist.

In December, i860, Mr. Black succeeded Mr.
Cass as Secretary of State. After the election
of Lincoln, Judge Black retired to his law prac-
tice. In 1868, he was counsel for President
Johnson in the famous impeachment trial. In
1877 he appeared as counsel for S. J. Tilden
before the Electoral Commission. Besides a
great jurist. Judge Black was a brilliant conver-
sationalist, classical scholar, and powerful ora-
tor. His collected 'Essays and Speeches^ were
published in 1885.

Black, John Charles, American lawyer, sol-
dier, and statesman: b. Lexington, Miss., 27
Jan. 1839. He entered the Union army in i86r
as colonel of the 37th Illinois Volunteers ; was
severely wounded in the service ; and was brev-
etted brigadier-general. After the war he was
elected Congressman-at-large from Illinois; was
appointed commissioner of pensions by Presi-
dent Cleveland during the latter's first term,
and United States attorney for the northern
district of Illinois during his second term.

Black, Joseph, Scottish chemist: b. Bor-
deaux, France, 1728; d. Edinburgh, 6 Dec. 1799.
He studied medicine, and in 1754 delivered a
thesis. 'De Humore Acido a Cibis Orto et Mag-
nesia Alba,) in which he ascribes the difference
between the mild and caustic alkalies to the
presence of fixed air (carbonic acid) in the
former. The discovery of carbonic acid is of
interest not only as having preceded the other
gases made by Priestley, Cavendish, and others,
but as having preceded in its method the expla-
nation given by Lavoisier of the part played
by oxygen in combustion. In 1756 he was ap-
pointed professor of medicine and lecturer on
chemistry in the University at Glasgow; and
in 1766 to the same chair in Edinburgh. No
teacher inspired his disciples with such a zeal
for study; his lectures, therefore, contributed
much to make the taste for chemical science
general in England. Upon Lavoisier's proposal,
the Academy of Sciences in Paris appointed him
one of its eight foreign members. Black did
not adopt the Lavoisierian system until he was
satisfied that it was more accurate than that of
which he had been so long a teacher. In his
later courses, however, he taught the anti-
phlogistic system. His 'Lectures on Chemistry^
appeared in 1803.

BLACK — BLACK-BELLIED PLOVER

Black, William, Scottish novelist: b. Glas-
gow, 13 Nov. 1841 ; d. Brighton, England, 10
Dec. 1898. He first studied art, but eventually
became connected with the Glasgow press. In
1864 he went to London, and in the following
year joined the staflf of the Morning Star, for
which he was special correspondent during the
Austro-Prussian war of 1866. His first novel,
^Love or Marriage* (1868), was only moder-
ately successful, but his *In Silk Attire' (1869),
^Kilmeny' (1870), <The Monarch of ]\Iincing
Lane,* and especially *A Daughter of Heth*
(1871), gained him an increasingly wide circle
of readers. For four or five years he was as-
sistant editor of the Daily News, but in 1874 his
connection with journalism practically ceased.
His other works include: *The Strange Adven-
tures of a Phaeton* (1872), containing descrip-
tions of scenery much praised by Ruskin ; *A
Princess of Thule* (1873) ; 'The Maid of Kil-
leena* (1874) ; <Three Feathers* (1875) ; ^Mad-
cap Violet* (1876) ; ^Green Pastures and Picca-
dilly* (1877); 'Macleod of Dare* (1878);
^White Wings, a Yachting Romance* (1880);
<Sunrise* (1880); <The Beautiful Wretch*
(1881) ; <Shandon Bells* (1883) ; « Judith Shake-
speare* (1884); <White Heather* (1885); ^Sa-
tina Zembra* (1887) ; *The Strange Adventures
of a House-Boat* (1888); <In Far Lochaber*
(1889); ^The New Prince Fortunatus* (1890);
^'Wolfenberg* (1892) ; ^Highland Cousins*
(1894J: <Briseis* (1896); and <Wild Eelin*
(1898) Black's novels have enjoyed much pop-
ularity es_pecially in the United States. His
subject"; are drawn from many lands, but it is in
dealing with the Scottish Highlands that he is at
his best. He also wrote a *^Life of Goldsmith*
foi the English Men of Letters series. See
Wemyss Reid, ^William Black, Novelist* (1902).

Black Acts. Acts of the Scottish Parlia-
ments from 1424 to 1594, so called from their
teing printed in black-letter. The term "Black
Act** is also applied to an act of George I. with
reference to the "Blacks,** a body of armed deer-
stealers and poachers, who infested Epping For-
est.

Black and Tan Terrier. See Terriers.

Black Art, the art or pretended art or
practice of producing wonderful effects by the
aid of superhuman beings or of departed spirits
or the occult powers of nature. The reason
why it was called black was that proficients in
it were supposed to be in league with the pow-
ers of darkness. A large proportion of magical
rites are connected with the religious beliefs of
those using them, their efficacy being ascribed
to supernatural beings. There is, however, a
non-spiritual element in magic which depends
on certain imagined powers and correspond-
ences in nature, that can be utilized in various
ways. In savage countries the native magician
is often sorcerer and priest, and sometimes chief
of the tribe. Among the ancient Egyptians
magic was worked into an elaborate system and
ritual, and it was regularly practised among the
Babylonians and Assyrians, as well as in Greece
and Rome. Alexandria, from the 2d to the 4th
century, became the headquarters of theurgic
magic, in which invocations, sacrifices, dia-
grams, talismans, etc., were systematically em-
ployed. This system, influenced by Jewish
magical speculation, had a strong hold in

mediaeval Europe, and many distinguished
names are found among its students and pro-
fessors. The magic which still holds a place
among the illiterate and ignorant classes has
come down by tradition in popular folk-lore.
The name natural magic has been given to the
art of applying natural causes to produce sur-
prising effects. It includes the art of perform-
ing tricks and exhibiting illusions by means of
apparatus, the performances of automaton fig-
ures, etc. See Alchemy ; Astrology ; Charm ;
Divination ; Legerdemain ; Witchcraft.

Black Ash, a mixture of 25 per cent of
caustic soda with calcium sulphide, quicklime,
and unburnt coal, obtained in the process of
rnaking sodium carbonate. The mixture of so-
dium sulphate, chalk, and powdered coal is fused
in a furnace, gases escape, and the residue is the
black ash, which is lixiviated with warm water,
and the solution, evaporated to dryness, yields
soda ash, an impure sodium carbonate. See
Sodium.

Black Assize, a judicial sitting of the
courts held at Oxford in 1577, and rendered
historical by the pestilential and deadly fever
which was introduced into the court from the
jail, and swept away judges, jurymen, and
counsel, and extended itself into the town and
neighborhood. The superstitions of the age
invested it with a special character, and it was
remarked that no women nor poor people died
of it.

Black Bass, Duck, etc. See Bass ; Duck.

Black Beauty, His Grooms and Com-
panions, a story by Anna Sewall. It is writ-
ten in the form of a horse autobiography, and
is really a tract on the proper treatment of
horses. The story is told with simplicity and
restraint, and its vogue has been great, and its
influence very wide.

Black Beetle, the English name for a
cockroach, especially the Oriental cockroach
(q.v.) ; also less commonly for the dark-colored
beetles of the bad-smelling genus Blaps.

Black-bellied Plover, or Black-breast, one

of the largest of the American plovers (Cliara-
dritis squatarola), also known throughout the
northern parts of the Old World, where it is
known as "gray'* or "Swiss" plover, and whence
it goes in winter to all parts of the southern
hemisphere. It breeds in the Arctic regions, and
is known in the United States onlv in its spring
and fall migrations which are carried along the
coasts, so that the bird is rare throughout the
interior. Great flocks sometimes visit Eng-
land in autumn, spreading over cultivated fields,
and remaining until the coming of frost. It is
about 11.50 inches in lene'h, and has a large
round head, and large Cjcs, whence the gun-
ner's names, "bullhead,** "beetlehead,** and "ox-
eye.» In general form it resembles the golden
plover (q.v.), but has a distinct though small
hind toe. The general aspect is gray, dusky on
the back, with the throat, breast, and a large part
of the abdomen black, and the tail barred with
black; bill and feet black. It is a favorite object
of sport, and the young migrants in autumn are
delicious eating; but it is not as easily shot as
most of the shore-birds. It breeds along the
shores of the Arctic Ocean.

BLACK BELT — BLACK EARTH

Black Belt, an agricultural region of Ala-
bama ; 70 miles wide, extending entirely across
the State, between 33° and 31° 4°'; so called
from the fact that the negroes greatly pre-
dominate in numbers, raising vast quantities
of cotton from the richest of lands. It includes
17 counties, with over 500,000 inhabitants.

Black-cap, the name of various birds hav-
ing the crown of their head black. In the
United States it is given most often to the
common titmouse, the chickadee (q.v.) ; and to
a small fly-catching warbler, Sylvania pusilla,
an olive and yellow bird with the top of the
head crested with black. In England the com-
mon "black-cap" (Curruca atricapilla) is a small
warbler, closely related to the nightingale, and
one of the sweetest of _ European song-birds,
which is frequently kept in cages.

Black Cat, an American fur-bearing ani-
mal.

Black Cockade, a badge first worn by the
American soldiers during the Revolution, and
later, during the hostility toward France occa-
sioned by the X. Y. Z. Correspondence (q.v.),
adopted by the Federalists as a patriotic em-
blem and as a rejoinder to the tri-colored
cockade worn by the Republicans as a mark of
affection toward France.

Black Co'hosh. See Cimicifuga.

Black Death, The, one of the most mem-
orable of the epidemics of the Middle Ages, Avas
a great pestilence in the 14th century, which
devastated Asia, Europe and Africa. It was an
Oriental plague, marked by inflammatory boils
and tumors of the glands, such as break out in
no other febrile disease. On account of these
boils, and from the black spots (indicative of
putrid decomposition) which appeared upon the
skin, it has been generally called the Black
Death. The symptoms were many, though all
were not found in every case. Tumors and
abscesses were found on the arms and thighs of
those affected, and smaller boils on all parts of
the body ; black spots broke out on all parts of
the skin, either single, united, or confluent.
Symptoms of cephalic affection were frequent ;
many patients became stupefied and fell into a
deep sleep, losing also their speech from palsy
of the tongue ; others remained sleepless, with-
out rest. The fauces and tongue were black,
and as if suff^used with blood. No beverage
would assuage the burning thirst. The plague
spread with the greater fury as it communicated
from the sick to the healthy; contact with the
clothes or other articles which had been used
by the infected induced disease, and even the
breath of the sick, who expectorated blood,
caused contagion far and near. As it advanced,
not only men but animals fell sick and expired.
In England the plague first broke out in the
county of Dorset, whence it advanced through
the counties of Devon and Somerset to Bristol,
and thence reached Gloucester, Oxford and Lon-
don. Probably few places escaped, perhaps not
any, for the annals of contemporaries report
that throughout the land only a tenth part of
the inhabitants remained alive. From England
the contagion was carried by a ship to Norway,
where the plague broke out in its most frightful
form, with vomiting of blood, and throughout
the whole country spared not one third. The
sailors found no refuge on their ships, and ves-
sels whose crews had perished to the last man

were often seen drifting on shore. The whole
period of time during which the Black Death
raged with destructive violence in Europe was
(with the exception of Russia, where it did not
break out until 1351) from 1347 to 1350; from
this latter date to 1383 there were various pesti-
lences, bad enough, indeed, but not as violent
as the Black Death. Ireland was much less
heavily visited than England, and the disease
seems scarcely to have reached the mountainous
regions of that land ; and Scotland, too, would
perhaps have remained free from it had not the
Scotch availed themselves of the discomfiture of
the English to make an irruption into England,
which terminated in the destruction of their
army by the plague and the sword and the ex-
tension of the pestilence through those who es-
caped over the whole country. It may be as-
sumed that Europe lost by the Black Death some
25,000,000 of people, or about one fourth of her
entire population. That her nations could re-
cover so quickly from this terrible loss without
retrograding more than they did is a most con-
vincing proof of the indestructibility of human
society as a whole. In Hungary, and afterward
in Germany, rose the brotherhood of the Flagel-
lants, who undertook to expiate the sins of the
people and avert the pestilence by self-imposed
sufferings. While the wanderings of the Flagel-
lants threw society into confusion, and helped
to spread the plague, the horrors of the time
were further heightened by the fearful persecu-
tions to which the Jews were subjected, from a
popular belief that the pestilence was owing to
their poisoning the public wells. The people
rose to exterminate the Hebrew race, of whom,
in Mayence alone, 12,000 were cruelly murdered.
They were killed by fire and by torture wherever
they could be found, and for them to the terrors
of the plague were added those of a populace
everywhere infuriated against them. In some
places the Jewish people immolated themselves
in masses ; in others, not a soul of them survived
the assaults of their enemies. No adequate no-
tion can be conveyed of these horrors. To ag-
gravate the pestilence, the poison-panic made
the people shut up their wells. With terror of
poison and of plague in a state of society rude
at the best, but now disorganized, what means
were available to mitigate or prevent the suffer-
ings of the people were rendered altogether
nugatory.

Black Duck. See Dusky Duck.

Black Earth, a deposit in South Russia,
extending over the steppes that border on the
Black Sea, and the depressed area to the north
of the Caspian, with a breadth from north to
south of from 200 or 300 to nearly 700 miles. It
varies in color from dark brown to black, and
in thickness from a foot or two up to six or
seven yards, occasionally reaching, it is said,
even to 60 feet. It is composed chiefly_ of sili-
ceous sand (about 70 per cent), alumina and
other ingredients {2^, per cent), and organic
matter (about seven per cent). It appears to
be unfossiliferous. It bears the same relation
to the glacial accumulations of Russia that the
loess of the Rhine, the Danube, etc., does to
those of central Europe, and is probably the
fine-grained silt derived from the torrents and
flooded rivers that escaped from the melting
snows and glaciers of the glacial period. Ac-
cording to some geologists, however, it may

BLACK-EYED SUSAN — BLACK FRIDAY

owe its origin to the action of the wind. It is
supposed by them to be simply an accumulation
of wind-blown dust — the finely sifted material
being fixed by the abundant grasses of those
steppe regions.

Black-eyed Susan, the name of a once
popular comedy by Douglas Jerrold. It ap-
peared in 1829 and was founded on Gay's ballad
* Sweet William's Farewell to Black- Eyed
Susan. ^

Black Flags, an organization of Chinese
rebels who established themselves in the Red
River valley in Tonquin, after the suppression
of the Taiping Rebellion in southern China
(1850-4). From their warlike character and
desperate deeds they were called Black Flags
as distinguished from the peaceable Yellow
Flags. They assisted the Tonquinese and Chi-
nese in opposing the French wars (1873, 1882,
and 1885), with signal results. Their principal
object was plunder. They were responsible for
the appalling massacre, in 1884, of French mis-
sionaries and native Christians, to the number
of 10,000.

Black Fly, a species of the genus Simu-
lium, the common black fly of northern New
England, Canada, and Labrador probably being
6". molestmn. In this tormenter of travelers and
fishermen the body is short and thick, the
labrum is free, sharp as a dagger, and the pro-
boscis is well developed and draws blood pro-
fusely. It is black, with a broad silvery ring
on the legs. The species are numerous.

The cylindrical larva is furnished with short
antennjE, and near the mouth are two flabelli-
form appendages. The pupa has eight very long
lateral filaments on the front of the thorax, and
the posterior end of the body is enclosed in a
semi-oval membranous cocoon, open in front,
and posteriorly attached to some submerged
plant such as eel-grass. The fly leaves the pupa
beneath the water. She deposits her eggs on the
rocks in a compact layer a few inches above the
surface of the water. The eggs of the Hun-
garian or **Columbacz midge" are enveloped
in a yellowish-white slime and deposited
at the end of May or early in June upon
stones or grass over which water flows, or in
the brooks of the more elevated regions. The
number laid is variously estimated at from
500 to 5,000. The food of the larva of the
buffalo-gnat has been proved to be carnivorous,
and it is supposed that the larvEe of all the
species live on animal matter, though possibly
in some cases on dead leaves. On hatching
the larvae become attached to plants, etc., or to
each other, by a silken thread, forming long
floating strings. When the fly issues from the
submerged pupa-case she rises to the surface,
then being protected by a fine silky covering of
hairs. The adult fly in central New York issues
about the first of April, and those apparently
of a new brood the first of June; after this there
is a succession of generations throughout the
season ; the development of a single brood
occupying about two months. The larva hiber-
nates.

While the black fly of Maine, and presum-
ably of Labrador, is of the species S. molestum,
that of the St. Lawrence valley has been named
S. invenustum, and is said to be different from
that of Lake Superior. A remarkably large
species is known as 5". pictipes; its larvse

and pupae were found in the rapids of the Au
Sable River, and also similar ones on the north
shore of Lake Superior.

The black fly is mostly active in the bright
sun-light, mostly disappearing on cloudy days,
but it is known to crawl under one's clothes and
to bite in the night. The bite is often severe,
the creature leaving a large clot of blood behind
it. The best preventive is oil of tar, and the
use of various ointments.

Black Forest (German, Schwarzwald), a
chain of mountains in the grand-duchy of Baden
and the kingdom of Wiirtemberg. It runs al-
most parallel with the Rhine, from south to
north, often only from 15 to 20 miles distant;
is about 85 miles long, and from east to west in
the southern part about 30 miles wide; in the
northern about 18. The Danube, as well as many
other rivers, rises in these mountains. Those
on the west side run into the Rhine; those on
the east side into the Danube. The Black For-
est is rather a chain of elevated plains than of
isolated peaks. The highest summit, the Feld-
berg, measures 4,900 English feet. Except from
June to September, these mountains are gen-
erally covered with snow, and even during this
period are not entirely free from it. Among
the many valleys of this chain, the Murgthal is
particularly celebrated for its beautiful scenery.
The whole chain consists of primitive mountains :
its skeleton throughout is granite; its higher
points are covered with sandstone, and other
layers of less consequence. On the western side,
at the foot, appears gneiss. Porphyry and clay-
slate are found on several heights, as likewise
silver, lead, copper, iron, cobalt, and other min-
erals. The forests are extensive, and consist
mostly of pines and similar species. The raising
of cattle is the principal branch of husbandry
carried on in this district. The ground is not
fertile, and the inhabitants scattered over the
mountains live very frugally, and are very
industrious. The vast quantity of timber grow-
ing here has long been a considerable source of
revenue. The timber of the Black Forest was
always highly prized by the Dutch, and the ex-
port to Holland is still largely carried on, the
trees being conveyed down the Rhine in the form
of rafts. Many saw-mills are kept at work cut-
ting up the timber ; and the forests also give em-
ployment to charcoal-burners, potash-boilers, etc.
The manufacture of the well-known wooden
clocks, toys, etc., is another important branch
of industry, in which many persons are em-
ployed. Watches are also made, as well as or-
chestrions and other musical instruments. Neu-
stadt, Friberg, Hornberg, and Furtwangen are
central points of the manufacture of wooden
wares, the commerce in which embraces all
Europe, and extends to America and Australia.

Black Friars, friars of the Dominican
order : so called from the color of their habit.
See Dominicans; Orders, Religious.

Black Friday, the name given in the
United States to two days that ushered in finan-
cial panics. First, Friday, 24 Sept. 1869, when
the attempt of Jay Gould and James Fisk, Jr.,
to create a corner in the gold market by buying
all the gold in the banks of New York city,
amounting to $15,000,000, culminated. For sev-
eral days the value of gold had risen steadily,
and the speculators aimed to carry it from 144
to 200. Friday the whole city was in a ferment.

BLACK GUM — BLACK HOLE OF CALCUTTA

the banks were rapidly selling, gold was at \62y2,
and still rising. Men became insane, and every-
where the wildest excitement raged, for it
seemed probable that the business houses must
be closed, from ignorance of the prices to be
charged for their goods. But in the midst of
the panic it was reported that Secretary Bout-
well of the United States treasury had thrown
$4,000,000 on the market, and at once gold fell,
the excitement ceased, leaving Gould and Fisk
the winners of $11,000,000. The second was 19
Sept. 1873, when numerous failures on the New
York Stock Exchange precipitated the panic of

1873-

The term was first used in England, being
applied in the first instance to the Friday on
hhicli the news reached London, 6 Dec. 1745,
that the young pretender, Charles Edward, had
arrived at Derby, creating a terrible panic ; and
finally to 11 May 1866, when the failure of
Overend, Gurney & Company, London, the day
before was followed by a widespread financial
ruin. Good Friday is also known as Black Fri-
day in some countries, because of the use of black
vestments and draperies in the churches.

Black Gum, Sour Gum, or Pepperidge.
See Tupelo.

Black Hawk, chief of the Sac Indians : b.
Kaskaskia. 111., 1767; d. near Fort Des Moines,
3 Oct. 1838. He was made chief of the Sacs
in 1788; and in 1804 repudiated the first agree-
ment made by the Sacs and Foxes with the
United States to give up their lands east of
the Mississippi. The possession of the terri-
tory was disputed for a number of years ; in
1823 the majority of the two tribes moved across
the river, and a treaty with the United States,
ceding the disputed territory, was signed in
1830. Black Hawk, however, objected to the
whites occupying the vacated territory, and in
June 1831, he began the Black Hawk war by
crossing the Mississippi with a small force and
attacking some Illinois villages. Driven off by
the militia under Gen. Gaines, he returned in
the spring of 1832 with a larger force and began
to massacre the white settlers. The Indians
were however defeated by United States troops
in two battles near the Wisconsin River, 21 July
1832, and near the Bad-Axe River, 1-2 Aug.
1832. The war was brought to an end by the
surrender of Black Hawk in the latter part of
August. He was kept a prisoner till 1833, then
rejoined his tribe on their reservation, near Fort
Des Moines.

■ Bibliography. — Drake, ^Life of Black
Hawk> ; Patterson, <Life of Black Hawk> ;
Snelling, *Life of Black Hawk^ ; Thwaite,
^ Story of the Black Hawk War' (Wisconsin
Historical Society ^Papers' Vol. XII.).

Black-Hawk War. See Black Hawk.

Black Hills, a region in South Dakota,
extending into Wyoming. It was purchased
from the Indians in 1876, for whom it had been
one of the finest hunting grounds in the West.
In 1877-8 thousands of miners went there, and
in 1880 there had already sprung into existence
three towns, Deadwood, Central City, and Lead-
ville. Around these lay also groups of smaller
towns and villages. From 1880 the gold mines
yielded about $4,000,000 annually, and the silver
mines about $3,000,000 annuallv. The region is
also rich in copper, lead, iron and mica. The

soil is fertile and the hills have abundant facili-
ties for the grazing of cattle. Thrifty farmers
have settled there, and many of them have good
farms and fine improvements. Good school-
houses have also been built in different settle-
ments. See South Dakota.

Black Hole of Calcutta, a small chamber,
20 feet square, in Fort William, Calcutta. On
the capture of Calcutta by Surajah Dowlah, 20
June, 1756, the English garrison, consisting of
146 men, under the command of Mr. Holwell,
were locked up for the night in the common
dungeon of the fortress, a strongly barred room,
18 feet square, and never intended for the con-
finement of more than two or three men at a
time. There were only two windows, and a pro-
jecting veranda outside and thick iron bars
within materially impeded what little ventila-
tion there might be, while conflagrations raging
in different parts of the fort gave the atmos-
phere an unusual oppressiveness. The unhappy
creatures, exhausted with previous fatigue, were
packed so tightly in their prison that it was with
difficulty the door could be closed. A few mo-
ments sufficed to throw them into a profuse per-
spiration, the natural consequence of which was
a raging thirst. One of the soldiers stationed in
the veranda was offered 1,000 rupees to have
them removed to a larger room. He went away,
but returned saying it was impossible. The
bribe was then doubled, and he made a second
attempt with a like result ; the nabob was asleep,
and no one dared wake him. By nine o'clock
several had died, and many more were delirious.
A frantic cry for water now became general,
and one of the guards, more compassionate
than his fellows, caused some to be brought to
the bars, where Mr. Holwell and two or three
others received it in their hats, and passed it
on to the men behind. In their impatience to
secure it nearly all was spilt, and the little they
drank seemed only to increase their thirst. Self-
control was soon lost ; those in remote parts of
the room struggled to reach the window, and
a fearful tumult ensued, in which the weakest
were trampled or pressed to death. They raved,
fought, prayed, blasphemed, and many then fell
exhausted on the floor, where suffocation put an
end to their torments. About 11 o'clock the
prisoners began to drop off fast. At length,
at six in the morning, Surajah Dowlah awoke,
and ordered the door to be opened. Of the 146
only 23, including Mr. Holwell (from whose nar-
rative, published in the ^Annual Register' for
1758, the account of this event is partly derived),
remained alive, and they were either stupefied
or raving. Fresh air soon revived them, and
the commander was then taken before the na-
bob, who expressed no regret for what had oc-
curred, and gave no other sign of sympathy than
ordering the Englishman a chair and a glass
of water. Notwithstanding this indifference,
Mr. Holwell and some others acquit him of any
intention of causing the catastrophe, and as-
cribe it to the malice of certain inferior of-
ficers, but many think this opinion unfounded.
Holwell and three others were sent prisoners
to Muxadavad ; the rest of the survivors ob-
tained their liberty, and the dead bodies were
carelessly thrown into a ditch. The Black Hole
is now used as a warehouse, and an obelisk, 50
feet high, was erected in memory of the vic-
tims.

BLACK JACK — BLACK RIVER

Black Jack. i. A term loosely applied by
miners to blende, the sulphuret of zinc, or to
any other ore which resembles it in being ob-
noxious to them, if in no other respect.

2. One of several small oak trees of the
southeastern coast, especially Qucrcus Mary-
landica, which has a rough, dark, scaly bark,
and peculiar broadly wedge-shaped 3-5 lobed
leaves, dark green and lustrous above, and
somewhat rusty beneath.

Black Knight, The, a name given by ro-
mantic writers to various heroic characters. In
Scott's ^Ivanhoe^ Richard Cceur de Lion mas-
querades as the Black Knight. The Knight Es-
plandian, son of Amadis of Gaul and Oriana, is
also so called. In the Arthurian legend the Black
Knight, Sir Peread, was one of the four brothers
who kept the passage of Castle Dangerous.

Black Law, in the United States the name
given to certain laws in force before the Civil
War in many of the northern and border States
discriminating against free negroes who might
become citizens. Such laws excluded negroes
from the public schools and from the militia,
forbade them to testify in court against a white
man, or in any case in which a white man was
interested.

Black Lead. See Graphite.

Black Letter, that variety of type other-
Avise designated Gothic, and which in a modified
form is the ordinary type made use of in Ger-
many, although in recent years there has been a
tendency to employ the Roman letter, the Gothic
tj'pe being considered injurious to the eyes.
The earliest printed books were in black letter.
See Printing.

Black Lilly. See Fritillary.

Black List, a list of bankrupts or other
persons whose names are officially known as
failing to meet pecuniary engagements. The
term is also applied to a list of employees who
have been discharged by a firm or corporation
and against whom some objection is made and
reported to other firms or corporations to pre-
vent them obtaining employment. Blacklisting
is made a punishable ofifense by the laws of some
States. See Eddy, ^Laws of Combinations^
(1901).
^ Black Monday, (i) A name for Easter
Monday, in remembrance of the dreadful ex-
periences of the army of Edward III., before
Paris, on Easter Monday 14 April 1360. Many
soldiers and horses perished from the extreme
cold. (2) The 27th of February, 1865, a memor-
able day in Melbourne, Australia, when a des-
tructive sirocco prevailed in the surrounding
country.

Black Mountains, the culminating group
of the Appalachian system, named from the dark
growth of balsam-firs and other evergreens
which cover their summits. Their position is in
Yancey and Buncombe counties. North Carolina,
between the main central ridges on the west and
a portion of the Blue Ridge on the east. Un-
like the other ridges of the Alleghanies, they
lie for the most part transverse to the g:eneral
trend of the range, and give this direction to
the great valleys and rivers included between
them. They rise from a district of great eleva-
tion, the height of the valley at Asheville, on
the French Broad River, being about 2,000 feet
above the sea, and that of Toe River, at Burns-
V'ol. 2 — 44

ville, Yancey County, about 2,500 feet. From
this plateau the drainage is toward the Ohio in
a northerly direction by the branches of the
Great Kanawha, by those of the Holslon and the
French Broad toward the southwest, and by
those of the Yadkin and the Catawba into the
Pedee and Santee toward the southeast. This
position at the sources of streams flowing in
such diverse directions, long since pointed out
this district as probably the most elevated east
of the Rocky Mountains. The chief peaks are
Mitchell, 6,710, and Clingman's Peak, Guyot's
Peak, or Balsam Cone, Sandoz Knob, Hairy
Bear, Cat Tail Peak, Gibbe's Peak, Sugar Loaf,
or Hallback Peak, Potato Top, Black Knob,
Bowler's Pyramid, Roan Mountain, all of which
are above 6,500 feet in height.

Black Prince (Edward, Prince of Wales),
the son of Edward III. of England. He is thus
styled in history by reason of the color of his
armor. He died in 1376 and his son became
king in 1377 as Richard II.

Black-quarter, an apoplectic disease which
attacks cattle, indicated by lameness of the fore-
foot, one of the limbs swelling, and after death
being suffused with black blood, which also is
found throughout the body. The disease, which
chiefly attacks young cattle, is due to undrained
fertile pasture, or to the too rapid transference
of the cattle from poorer to richer soils. It is
difficult to cure, but may be prevented by thor-
ough draining or by giving regular doses of nitre
to all the animals. The usual treatment con-
sists in blood-letting, cutting into the swollen
parts, and administering first nitre and after-
ward ammonium acetate and purgatives. In the
United States the disease is especially prevalent
in Texas, Kansas, Nebraska, South Dakota, and
Colorado.

Black Republic, a name applied to the
Republic of Haiti, which is under the dominion
of the African race.

Black Republicans, a name applied to
those members of the Republican party,
who resisted the introduction of slavery into
any State where it was not already recog-
nized.

Black River, the name of several Ameri-
can rivers, (i) A river which rises in New York
in Herkimer County, and after passing through
Oneida and Lewis counties, changes its course
at a place called Great Bend, passes by Water-
town, and flows through Black River Bay into
Lake Ontario. Near Turin, in Lewis County,
it has a fall of about 63 feet. Below the fall,
it is navigable to Carthage, a distance of 40
miles. The whole length of the river is 125
miles, and its breadth at Watertown (six miles
from its mouth) is 60 yards. (2) A river of Mis-
souri and Arkansas, also known as the Big Black
River, the largest affluent of White River. It
rises in the southeastern part of the former
State, takes a southerly course, enters Arkan-
sas, and joins the White River 40 miles below
Batesville. During nine months of the year it
is navigable for a distance of 100 miles from
its mouth. Its entire length is about 400 miles.
Trout and other excellent fish are caught in its
waters in great abundance. (3) A river of Wis-
consin. It rises in Marathon County and en-
ters the Mississippi 15 miles above La Crosse,
after a course of 225 miles. (4) A river of Ver-
mont which rises in the town of Plymouth and

BLACK RIVER FALLS — BLACKADDER

is a tributary of the Connecticut. Its abun-
dant water power is utilized by various manu-
factories along its course, (s) A portion of the
Washita River in Louisiana between the mouth
of the Tensaw River and the Red River; also
sometimes styled Black River.

Black River Falls, Wis., a city and the
county-seat of Jackson County, 171 miles
north of Milwaukee. A fine water power is
afforded by the falls of the Black River, and
there are flour and lumber mills, wagon and
other factories, foundaries, machine shops,
and nurseries. There are iron mines in the
neighborhood, and kaolin deposits from
which fire-brick are manufactured. Pop.
(1900) 1,938.

Black Rock Desert, a tract of nearly 1,000
square miles, north of Pyramid Lake, in Ne-
vada. In summer it is a barren level of alkali
and in winter covered in places with shallow
water. Called also "Mud Lakes.®

Black Rod, Usher of the, an officer of the
House of Lords, appointed by letters patent
from the Crown, and employed to execute orders
for the commitment of parties guilty of breach
of privilege and contempt, to assist at the in-
troduction of peers and other ceremonies ; and
to summon the Commons to attend in the House
of Lords when the royal assent is given to bills.
His proper title is gentleman-usher of the black
rod ; that of his deputy, yeoman-usher.

Black Rood of Scotland, a cross of gold
in the form of a casket, alleged to contain a
piece of the true Cross. It was brought to Scot-
land in the nth century by Margaret, queen of
Malcolm III. ; was bequeathed as an heirloom,
and regarded as a sacred relic. It was delivered
to Edward I. in 1291, but restored to Scotland
after the Peace of Northampton in 1328. It
was finally taken in battle by the English in
1346, and hung in the Cathedral of Durham un-
til the Reformation, when it disappeared.

Black Saturday, 4 Aug. 1621; so called in
Scotland because a violent storm occurred at
the very moment the parliament was sitting to
enforce episcopacy on the people. The name
has also been applied to 10 Sept. 1547 on which
date the disastrous battle of Pinkie was fought.

Black Sea (Lat. Pontus Euxinus), a sea
situated between Europe and Asia, and bounded
on the west by Turkey, Bulgaria, and Rumania,
northwest, north and east by the Russian do-
minions, and on the south by Anatolia (Asia
Minor), being connected with the Mediterranean
by the Bosporus, and with the Sea of Azov by
the Strait of Yenikale. The area of the Black
Sea and the Sea of Azov amounts to 168,500
square miles. The water is not so clear as that
of the Mediterranean, and, on account of the
many large rivers which fall into it, — the Dan-
ube, Dniester, Dnieper, Don, Kuban, etc., — be-
ing less salt, freezes more readily. The tempests
on this sea are sometimes tremendous in win-
ter, as the land which confines its agitated wa-
ters gives to them a kind of whirling motion ;
but being practically clear of islands and rocks
its navigation is not difficult on the whole. In
1854 one of its tremendous storms occasioned a
very serious loss to the shipping of the allied
British and French. The fisheries in the Sea
of Azov and the Black Sea are not unimportant,
various kinds of valuable fish both large and

small being taken ; among others, several species
of sturgeon. Caviare is made on the coast, as
well as fish-glue, fish-oil, and, from the spawn
of the sea mullet, botargo. The chief ports are
Odessa, Kherson, Nicolaiev, Sebastopol, Novo-
rossisk, Batoum, Trebizond, Samsun, Sinope,
and Varna. ' It contains no islands of any note.
After the capture of Constantinople (1453) the
Turks excluded all but their own ships from the
Black Sea till 1774, when the Russians obtained
the right to trade in it, the same right being ac-
corded to Austria in 1784, and to Britain and
France in 1802. The preponderance thereaftei
gained by Russia was one of the causes of the
Crimean war, by which she was compelled to
cease keeping armed vessels on it, the sea being
declared neutral by the Treaty of Paris in 1856.
In 1871, however, the sea was deneutralized by
a conference of the European powers (France
being unrepresented) at London in response to
a protest from Russia.

Black Tin, tin ore w^hen dressed, stamped,
and washed ready for smelting, forming a black
powder. See Tin.

Black-vomit, a form of vomiting occurring
usually in severe cases of yellow fever, due to
the presence of blood in the stomach. See Yel-
low Fever.

Black Wad, an ore of manganese, used in
making chlorine gas and as a drying ingredient
in paints. It is an earthy variety of the diox-
ide found in low-lying districts, and is often
mixed with oxides of cobalt or copper.

Black Walnut. See Walnut.

Black Warrior, an American merchant
vessel, seized and confiscated by Cuban customs
officers in May 1854. This seizure was used as
an excuse for proposed filibustering expeditions
against Cuba. Spain, however, made compensa-
tion for the seizure.

Black Warrior, a river of Alabama, formed
by the confluence of the Locust and Mulberry
forks. It flows into the Tombigbee near De-
mopolis, after a course of 300 miles, and is nav-
igable in its lower course to Tuscaloosa.

Black Watch, The, a famous British regi-
ment, originating as a body of Highlanders,
raised about 1668, for the purpose of keeping
the peace in the Highlands, and so n?med frcm
their dark dress. They were embodied in the
regular army under the title of the 42d regi-
ment in 1739. It first distinguished itself in the
battle of Fontenoy (i745)- From 1750 till
1767 the regiment was in America, and on its
return it received the title of Royal Highland-
ers. It again served in America during the
War of Independence; and in 1801 it particu-
larly distinguished itself in Egypt at the battle
of Alexandria. The Black Watch was also
present at Napoleon's final defeat in the battle
of Waterloo. It has gained special mention for
its conduct at the Alma, in the Ashantee
war, and at Tel-el-Kebir. The regiment
was practically annihilated in the Boer war in
1901. Few English regiments surpass them for
number of engagements or battle honors.

Black Water State, a popular nickname
for Nebraska.

Blackadder, John, Scottish preacher: b.
1615; d. December 1685. He entered the Pres-
byterian ministry and when, in 1662, the episcopal

WHITE BLACKBERRY. "ICEBERG/

BLACKBERRY — BLACKBIRD

form of church government was forced upon a
people who were generally repugnant to it,
Blackadder, so far from complj'ing with the
new system, employed himself for several suc-
cessive Sundays in exposing what he considered
its unlawfulness, and, in his own words, en-
tered his ^dissent in heaven*^ against it. He
was obliged to demit his charge in favor of an
Episcopal incimibent, and in 1670, having per-
formed worship at a conventicle near Dunferm-
line, where the people had armed themselves for
self-defense, he was summoned before the privy
council, but contrived to elude their power. On
one occasion he preached at Kinkell, near St.
Andrews ; the people flocked from the metropoli-
tan city to hear him, notwithstanding all the
injunctions and surveillance of Archbishop
Sharpe. It is said, that on Sharpe desiring the
provost to send out the militia to disperse the
cong:regation, he was informed that it was im-
possible — the militia had gone alreadv as wor-
shippers. After spending several months in
Holland, in 1680 he returned to Scotland, and
in the succeeding year was apprehended, and
confined in the state prison upon the Bass Rock,
where he died. See Crichton, ^Life of Black-
adder' (1823).

Blackberry, various species of Rubus
(q.v.), in which the drupelets adhere to the re-
ceptacle after ripening. Two general types are
common: the trailing or dewberry (q.v.), and
the upright, which is more generally known as
the blackberry. The leading or representative
species of this group is the very variable R. nig-
robaccus (R. villosiis of some botanists), which
since 1841, when the first variety was introduced,
has developed numerous varieties and has be-
come in America, but not elsewhere, an im-
portant commercial fruit. It is used chiefly as
a dessert fruit, but is also preserved, canned and
evaporated. The plant thrives best on a north-
ern slope and on rather heavy, loamy soils re-
tentive of moisture but well drained. The soil
must not be rich in nitrogenous food, since this
tends to increase wood at the expense of fruit-
fulness. On light soils the plants are likely to
sufl'er from lack of moisture in drj' seasons.
Potash fertilizers are required jn abundance.
Plants are usually propagated from root cuttings
or suckers, and when one season old the smaller
varieties are set in the field usually three by
eight feet apart, the larger four by ten or else in
checks six by six feet or more. When set in
checks cultivation may be given both ways. For
cultivation, diseases, etc., see Raspberry. In
Europe the bramble {R. fruticosus) is called
the blackberry. It is not extensively cultivated.
Consult: Bailey and Miller, < Cyclopaedia of
American Horticulture* (1900-2) ; Card, "^Bush
Fruits' (1901).

Blackberry Lily (Leopard Flower) (Bel-
amcanda punctata), a perennial herb, out of the
two species of its genus of the natural order
Iridacece, native of Japan and China and long
cultivated as a garden plant for its orange, red-
spotted flowers. Its popular names were sug-
gested by the blackberry-like clusters of round-
ish seeds and the spotted flowers. The seed
stalks are occasionally used for decoration with
dried grass. The seeds may be sown in a sunny
place where the soil is light and rich, and in
after years the root-stocks may be divided.

Blackbird, the name given to two distinct
species of birds: (i) The American grakles
(q.v.) of the family Icteridcc, which consists of
about a dozen species differing in size and color.
(2) The English song-thrush or ^'merle." Four
species are known in the eastern States, namely :
the purple grakle, and rusty grakle, the red-
winged blackbird, and the cow-bird.

The most familiar American one is the crow-
blackbird, more properly termed purple-grakle,
because of the iridescent or metallic gloss on
its plumage. This bird is found throughout the
entire East, and as far west as Dakota. It is
the largest variety, being 12 inches in length.
In the spring flocks of these grakles are found
among the advance guard of the returning hosts
of the homeward-bound migrants, although
many remain in the southern States throughout
the entire winter season. Their nests, located
along the edges of the swamps, are rude, strong
structures of sticks and reeds, placed among
the branches of bushes, in the tops of tall pine
trees, or in holes of old tree-stumps. The eggs
are remarkably varied in size, shape and color,
some being pointed, others long and slender,
while others are nearly globular, the length
averaging about 1.25 by .90 of an inch. The
color is any shade of dirty white, light-blue or
green, and the markings consist of confused
blotches, scratches, and straggling lines of vari-
ous dark tints. A bird similar in its habits and
mode of life to the purple-grakle is the rusty
blackbird, lacking only the metallic hues, its
plumage being rusty black. The marshes where
they breed are great centres of blackbird popu-
lation, and there they collect in great flocks
of young and old as the end of the season ap-
proaches. At this time they visit any neighbor-
ing fields of Indian corn, sometimes in hordes,
to tear open the husks, feed upon the milky
kernels, and make themselves obno.xious to the
farmers, although, indisputably, they are, on the
whole, beneficial by their destruction of insects.
The red-winged blackbird (Agelceus phceni-
ccus), a variety of which is also found on the
Pacific coast, varies in color from the bird of
the eastern States, in the fact that it has on the
wing a dark, blood-red patch, bordered witK
pure white, the other possessing only the scarlet
patches on each shoulder, from which it takes
its name. The nests of the red -winged black-
bird are placed near the ground, among reeds or
in small bushes and swamps. The eggs are
smaller and lighter in color than those of the
grakle, but resemble them in the scrawled mark-
ings. The French-Canadians call them "officer-
birds.'' The impression upon the beholder, as he
gazes at the prodigious flocks of tens of thou-
sands of these red-epauleted blackbirds, when
gathered upon the marshes preparing for the fall
migrations, and wheeling in regular lines as they
fly, their epaulets glistening in the sun, is that
of an army of soldiers. Besides these, there is
found in the middle west the handsomest of the
family, the yellow-headed blackbird (Xanthoce-
phalus xanthoceplwlus), in which the whole head
and throat are rich orange-yellow. The females
of many species are strikingly contrasted in
plumage to their mates, having only a streaked
brown dress instead of glossy black and red or
yellow of the males. The young resemble the
females in their protected dullness of plumage.
For the English Blackbird, see Song Thrush.
For the cow-bird, see Cow-Bird.

BLACKBREAST — BLACKFISH

The name is given to various other birds,
prevailingly black in plumage, as, for example,
to the bobolink (q.v.), which is called "skunk
blackbird," because of the resemblance in its
black and white markings to those of a skunk;
and to the ani of Florida and the West Indies,
which is commonly termed "savanna blackbird.*^

See Baird, Brewer and Ridgway, < North
American Birds' (Boston 1874) ; IngersoU,
<Wild Life of Orchard and Field* (1902).

Blackbreast, a local name among Ameri-
can sportsmen for (i) the black-bellied plover
(Charadrius squatarola) ; (2) the dunlin
(Tringa alpina), also called "blackheart.^*

Blackbuck, the common small antelope
{Antilope cervicapra), of the plains of India
and Assam. This is the typical antelope, with
horns from 16 to 20 inches long, rising in an
elegant spiral from the top of the head. The
body is blackish brown above, sharply contrasted
with white on the under parts, and with a con-
spicuous white ring around each eye. These
handsome little antelopes go about ordinarily in
family parties, but sometimes gather in large
herds, and are a favorite object of sport in In-
dia, where they are usually chased on horseback
with greyhounds — sometimes also with the
cheeta (q.v.), or by the aid of falcons. They
are so swift that the best of dogs are required
to catch them. They continue numerous be-
cause they are never hunted by the native Hin-
dus, on account of religious prejudices. Con-
sult: Baker, *^Wild Beasts and Their Ways,*
and other writers upon the sport and natural
history of India.

Blackburn, Henry, English journalist and
art critic: b. Portsea, 15 Feb. 1830. He was
educated at King's College, London. Beside
contributions to newspapers and magazines, he
has written ^Life in Algeria* (1864); <Art in
the Mountains : the Story of the Passion Play in
Bavaria* (1870); ^Breton Folk* (1879); etc.

Blackburn, Joseph Clay Styles, American
lawyer: b. Woodford County, Ky.. i Oct. 1838;
was graduated at Centre College, Danville, Ky.,
in 1857; admitted to the bar in 1859, and prac-
tised in Chicago. During the Civil War he
served in the Confederate army, and after the
war resumed practice in Kentucky. In 1871 he
was elected to the Kentucky legislature, and in
1874 to Congress ; and was a United States
Senator in 1885-97 and again elected for the
term 1901-7. During the presidential campaign
of 1896 he was a leader in the free coinage sil-
ver movement.

Blackburn, Luke Pryor, American physi-
cian: b. Fayette Count}', Ky., 16 June 1816;
d. 14 Sept. 1887; was graduated at Transyl-
vania University, Lexington, Ky., in 1834, and
began practising in that city. When cholera
broke out in the town of Versailles he went there
and gave his services free during the epidemic.
In 1846 he went to Natchez, Miss., and in 1848,
when yellow fever appeared in New Orleans, as
health officer of Natchez, he originated the first
quarantine against New Orleans that had ever
been known in the Mississippi valley. During
the Civil War he was a surgeon on the staff
of Gen. Price. In 1875, when yellow fever
broke out in Memphis, he hastened to the city
and organized a corps of physicians and nurses,
and in 1878 gave his services to the yellow fever

sufferers at Hickman, Ky. He was elected
governor of Kentucky in 1879. He founded the
Blackburn Sanitarium for Nervous and Mental
Diseases in 1884.

Blackburn, William Maxwell, American
Presbyterian clergyman and educator: b. Car-
lisle, Ind., 31 Dec. 1828; d. 1900. He became
president of the University of North Dakota
in 1884 and of Pierre University, South Dakota,
in 1885, and president-emeritus of the last (now
Huron College) in 1898. He wrote ^St. Patrick
and the Early Irish Church* ; ^Admiral Coligny
and the Rise of the Huguenots* ; < History of
the Christian Church,* etc.; and the <Uncle
Ahck* series of juvenile stories.

Blackburn, England, a municipal, parlia-
mentary, and county borough in Lancashire, 21
miles north-northwest from Manchester. There
is a free grammar school, founded by Queen
Elizabeth in 1557; a free school for girls,
founded by William Lej'land in 1765 ; a technical
school, and a free library. The town-hall, in-
firmary, exchange, municipal offices, county
court, county police station, opera house, library
and museum, and union workhouse are all mod-
ern and handsome buildings. There are two
public parks, one beautifully situated on the
declivity of Revidge Hill. The railways all con-
verge, and pass through one large railway sta-
tion belonging to the Lancashire & Y. Ry. Com-
pany. The corporation owns all the public
utilities. Blackburn is one of the chief seats of
the cotton manufacture, there being upward of
140 mills, as well as works for making cotton
machinery and steam-engines. The cottons
made in the town and vicinity have an annual
value, of about $25,000,000. Pop. (1901)
127,527.

Blackcock, or Heathcock, a large Euro-
pean grouse {Teirao tctrix), so called because
of the glossy black color of the cock. The fe-
male is grayish, mottled in darker colors, and
is called "grayhen,** or "heathhen.** See Caper-

CALLIE.

Blackfeet Indians, a tribe of Indians in-
habiting the United States and Canada from
the Yellowstone to Hudson Bay. They received
this name from the fact that the first ones seen
by white men wore leggings blackened by
traveling over the burnt prairie. They call
themselves "plainsmen.** At the end of the
first quarter of the 19th century they numbered
nearly 50,000. In 1903, less than 6,000 re-
mained, of whom nearly half were on the reser-
vation in ]\Iontana.

Blackfin. See Bluefin.

Blackfish, any one of a variety of dark-
colored fishes, both of America and Europe.
For the American "blackfish,** see Tautog ; Sea-
bass, and Minnow. The English "blackfish**
is a kind of mackerel (Centrolophtis niger),
about two feet long. It occurs rather abun-
dantly off the south coast of Europe, and is much
esteemed as a food fish.

The name is also given to a small "killer**
whale of the genus Globiocephalus, which goes
about in herds that often enter harbors. They
are sought by fishermen for the sake of a small
amount of oil, resembling sperm-oil, to be ob-
tained from their fat, and also for the sake of
their beef-like flesh. The common blackfish of
the Atlantic is G. brachypteriis, and that of the

BLACKGUARD ~ BLACKMAIL

North Pacific G. scammoni. Sailors give the
name <'blackfish*^ to the ^^caaing,'^ or "pilot**
whale (q.v.), and to various other small ceta-
ceans. Consult: Bullen, ^Cruise of the Cacha-
lot* ; Scammon, ^Marine Mammals of North
America.* See also Killer.

Blackguard, a term used in the i6th cen-
tury for the lowest menials of a noble house,
the scullions who cleaned pots and pans. It
was also used of the hangers-on of an army,
camp followers, then a rabble, and to vaga-
bonds in general.

Blackhead, the name for several animals,
characterized by the blackness of the head ; es-
pecially in the United States: (i) the scaup
duck; (2) a common minnow, the fathead (q.v.).
The name is also applied to the accumulations
of dirt found in the sebaceous follicles. See

ACARUS.

Blackheath, England, an elevated heath in
the county of Kent. It borders on Green-
wich Park, and is about five miles from St.
Paul's, London. It contains 267 acres, and is
a place of popular resort, much used for cricket-
playing. In 183 1 Wat Tyler and John Ball
mustered their followers here. Jack Cade oc-
cupied the same position twice in 1450. In 1497
the Cornish insurgents, under Lord Audley,
were routed there by the king's forces. Black-
heath has been the scene of many historical pa-
geants and processions, as it was formerly the
custom for the mayor and corporation of the
city of London, and even the king and court,
to repair thither to meet illustrious foreigners
from the Continent. Henry IV. met there
(1400) the Byzantine emperor, Michael Paleeo-
logus ; the corporation of London there met
Henry V., on his return from Agincourt, and
the year afterward, the Emperor Sigismund.
The most splendid, and one of the last of all,
was the reception of Anne of Cleves, by Henry
VIII., January 1541 ; she was conducted through
Greenwich Park to the palace at Greenwich,
followed by prodigious numbers of nobility and
gentry, and 1.200 privileged citizens, clad in vel-
vet and chains of gold.

Blackhorse, a fish, one of the suckers of
the Mississippi valley (Cycleptus elongatus) ;
also known as the Missouri or gourdseed
sucker. It is about two feet long, with a small
head, suggesting, in profile, that of a horse, and
becomes almost jet-black in spring. See
Sucker.

Blackie, John Stuart, Scottish poet, littera-
teur, and professor : b. Glasgow, 1809 ; d. 2
March 1895. He was educated at the universi-
ties of Aberdeen and Edinburgh ; subsequently
went to Gottingen, Berlin, and Rome, where he
continued his studies, which were chiefly con-
nected with philologj'. In 1834 he published a
translation of Goethe's ^ Faust,* and the same
j-ear became an advocate at the Scottish bar;
in 1841 he accepted the chair of humanity in
Marischal College, Aberdeen. This position he
held imtil, in 1852, he was appointed to the pro-
fessorship of Greek in the University of Edin-
burgh, a chair which he resigned in 1882. By
his unwearied eft'orts to preserve the Gaelic lan-
guage, he succeeded in raising $60,000, with
which sum a Celtic chair was endowed in Edin-
burgh University. Among his more important
writings are: <Lyric Poems'; ^Horner and the

Iliad* ; ^Musa Burschicosa' ; ^Horse Hellenicse' ;
* Self-culture* ; ^ Songs of Religion and Life*;
^Lays of the Highlands and Islands* ; 'Lay Ser-
mons* ; 'Altavona* ; < Wisdom of Goethe* ; 'Life
of Burns*; 'Scottish Song*; and 'Song of
Heroes.* His biography has been published
(2 vols.) by Anna M. Stoddart.

Blacking, the article employed in blacking
boots and shoes, usually contains for its principal
ingredients oil, vinegar, ivory, or bone black,
sugar or molasses, and strong sulphuric acid,
though every manufacturer has his own recipe,
and endeavors to turn it to best account by con-
cealing its composition and puffing its merits.
Blacking is used either liquid or in the form of
a paste, but both are obtained from the same
ingredients, the only difference being that in
making the paste a portion of the liquid is with-
held. A celebrated old English blacking con-
sists of 18 ounces of caoutchouc dissolved in 9
pounds of hot rape-oil, 60 pounds ivory-black,
45 pounds molasses, and 20 gallons vinegar, of
strength No. 24, in which i pound finely ground
gum-arabic has been dissolved. The whole mix-
ture, after being carefully triturated in a grind-
ing mill, receives 12 pounds sulphuric acid, in
small successive quantities, stirring strongly for
half an hour. The stirring is continued for half
an hour daily during a fortnight, and then 3
pounds of gum-arabic are added, after which
the stirring is resumed, and continued as before
for another fortnight. This gives fine liquid
blacking; the paste is obtained within a week
by wnthholding 8 of the 20 gallons in which the
gum-arabic is dissolved.

Blackleg, a cattle disease. See Black Quar-
ter.

Blackmail, originally a certain rate of
money, corn, cattle, or the like, anciently paid, in
the north of England and in Scotland, to certain
men who were allied to robbers, to be protected
by them from pillage. It was carried to such an
extent as to becom^e the subject of legislation.
Blackmail was levied in the districts bordering
the Highlands of Scotland till the middle of the
l8th century. In the United States, in common
language, and in general acceptation, it is equiva-
lent to, and synonymous with, extortion — the
exaction of money, either for the performance
of a duty, the prevention of an injur}', or the
exercise of an influence. It supposes the service
to be unlawful and the payment involuntary.
Not unfrequently it is extorted by threats, or by
operating upon the fears or the credulity or by
promises to conceal, or offers to expose, the weak-
nesses, the follies, or the crimes of the victim.
There is moral compulsion, which neither ne-
cessity nor fear, nor credulity can resist. The
New York statutes upon the subject have been
adopted in substance by many other States of the
Union. These statutes provide, substantially,
that a person who knowing the contents thereof,
and with intent, by means thereof, to extort or
gain any money or other property, or to do, abet,
or procure any illegal or wrongful act, sends,
delivers, or in any manner causes to be for-
warded or received, or makes and parts with
for the purpose that there may be sent or de-
livered, any letter or writing, threatening to
accuse any person of a crime, or to do any injury
to any person or to any property, or to publish
or connive at publishing any libel, or to expose
or impute to any person any deformity or dis-

BLACKMORE — BLACKSNAKE

grace is punishable by imprisonment for a term,
usually, not exceeding five years. In New York
and in various other States it is also a misde-
meanor for any person who, under circumstances
not amounting to robbery, or an attempt at
robbery, with intent to extort or gain any money
or other property, verbally makes such a threat
as would be criminal under the statute men-
tioned above, and it is immaterial whether a
threat made as specified in the statute, is of
things to be done or omitted by the offender, or
by any other person.

Blackmore, Richard Doddridge, English
novelist : b. Longworth, Berkshire, 7 June 1825 ;
d. 20 Jan. 1900. His father, curate of Long-
worth, and a graduate of Exeter College, Ox-
ford, was a man of scholarly character; among
his ancestors on his mother's side Blackmore
numbered Philip Doddridge, the Non-Conformist
divine. Blackmore was educated at Blundell's
School at Tiverton and at his father's college,
which he entered in 1843 with a good reputation
for scholarship, and where he had a successful
career. In one of his long vacations he began
<The ]Maid of Sker,^ which was not published
till 1872. He was graduated in 1847, with M.A.
in 1852. In 1852 he married IMiss Lucy Maguire,
and while supporting himself in London read
law in the Inner Temple. Admitted to the bar
the same year, he had some success as a con-
veyancer, but finding London life detrimental to
his health, gave up his work and in 1855 became
classical master at Wellesley House School,
Twickenham Common. In 1853 he published
his first volume, ^ Poems by Melanter,' and a
little later <Epullia,> also an anonymous volume
of verses. In 1855 appeared <The Bugle of the
Black Sea,) and in i860 <The Fate of Franklin. >
About this time a legacy from his uncle, the
Rev. H. H. Knight, enabled him to build him-
self a substantial country house, Gomer House,
at Teddington, near Twickenham. Here he
lived the rest of his life, devoting his mornings
to the raising of fruits and flowers, famous for
quality but costing him an average loss of £250
a year. The remainder of his time he gave over
to literature. A translation of two of the
Georgics of Virgil, entitled 'The Farm and Fruit
of bld> (1862), was followed by < Clara
Vaughan' (1864) and 'Cradock NowelP (1866),
neither very successful novels. His third novel,
<Lorna Doone> (1869), after a somewhat slow
start, became one of the great popular novels of
the century; up to the time of Blackmore's
death it had gone through nearly 50 editions,
and has now assumed the place of a semi-classic.
Uneven in structure, often prolix, exaggeratedly
romantic, occasionally falling into a false metri-
cal prose, it nevertheless continues to hold the
interest of its readers through the fine sense of
the Devon country where the scene is laid, the
very real and human country types, and the es-
sentially manlv character of its hero, John
Ridd. Up to the time of his death, Blackmore
continued to produce novels at the rate of about
two in five years. Of these the most important
are <The Maid of Sker,> regarded by the author
as his best, ^Springhaven' (1887) which he
thought superior to "^Lorna Doonc,' <Alice Lor-
raine' CT875). and <Cripps the Carrier^ (1876).
The other titles are: <Erema, or My Father's
5in> (1877), <Mary Annerley> (1880), <Chnsto-

welP (1882), <The Remarkable History of
Tommy Upmore' (1884), <Kit and Kitty'
(1889), <Perleycross> (1894), < Tales from the
Telling House' (1896), and *^I)arieP (1897). A
volume of verse, 'Fringilla' (1895), completes
the list of his published work. No life has as
yet been published, and most of the commentary
on him is to be found in magazine articles and
^^^^^^3- _ W. T. Brewster,

Professor of English in Columbia University.

Blackpool, England, a town and county bor-
ough on the west coast, and in the Blackpool
Division of North Lancashire, between the es-
tuaries of the Ribble and Wyre, 27 miles south-
west of Lancaster, which has of late years
attracted many visitors by its advantages as a
watering place. It affords excellent accommoda-
tion for visitors in the numerous hotels, hydro-
pathic establishments, and lodging-houses, and
consists of ranges of loft}' houses about three
miles long facing the sea, in front of which ex-
tends an excellent promenade and carriage drive.
The town is abundantly supplied with the means
of amusement and recreation, including theatres,
concert rooms, fine winter gardens, aquarium,
extensive pleasure-grounds, park of 60 acres, a
great steel tower over 500 feet high, a gigantic
wheel, and other attractions. There are a court-
house and three markets, several churches, six
council schools, eight non-provided schools and
one for higher education, libraries and news-
rooms. Blackpool was incorporated as a muni-
cipal borough on 21 Jan. 1876, and as a county
borough I Oct. 1904. Pop. (1903) 48,000.

Blacksnake, or Blue Racer, a common colu-
brine serpent (Zamenis constrictor) found
throughout the United States, and the adjacent
parts of Canada. The typical eastern black-
snake is uniform lustrous black above, and slate-
color beneath, the lower jaw, chin, and some-
times upper edges of the lip-plates white, the
tongue black. Western specimens are bright
olive-green, with the entire under surface
greenish-white, varying to bright yellow, which
accounts for the name, "blue" or «green racer,"
often heard in the Mississippi valley. The
3-oung, under 18 inches in length, are variegated
with dark blotches upon olive, and light mar-
gins to the scales, especially on the sides. The
female is larger than the male, but rarely if
ever exceeds six feet in length. This is one
of the most numerous and vigorous of Ameri-
can snakes, making its home in hollow stumps
and underground dens. At the approach of win-
ter, many are likely to gather together in simi-
lar retreats, and remain there in a torpid condi-
tion until spring, entangled into a ball, for the
sake of mutual warmth. Its motions are of the
swiftest, it being capable of running with great
rapidity and of scaling trees, sometimes to a
height of 100 feet above the ground, where it
searches from branch to branch for birds' eggs,
young squirrels, etc. It seeks much of its food
in swamps and along streams, mainly frogs,
toads, eggs and young of birds, insects, and
other snakes. Cope says: «The constricting
power of blacksnakes is not sufficient to cause
inconvenience to a man, but might seriously
oppress a child. ... It is easy to unwmd the
snake with the free hand and arm.» The black-
snake is harmless, and its bite is no worse than

BLACKSTOCK HILL — BLACKSTONE RIVER

that of a mouse. It is readily tamed, and shows
some intelligence. It is courageous and will
sometimes attack an enemy, moving forward
with the head raised a foot or two above the
ground, and waving about with a most terrifying
aspect. Its principal enemies are the badger
and skunk, and it seems to hold a special ani-
mosity toward the copperhead and rattlesnakes,
whose trail it follows, at night, by its power of
scent; and having overtaken the object of its
pursuit, it leaps upon it, avoiding its stroke by
its swiftness, wraps itself about it, and slowly
crushes its victim to death, after which it
swallows it whole. The blacksnake breeds dur-
ing the summer, the female laying 15 or 20 eggs
at a time in the hollow of a sunny bank, or in
the midst of a decayed stump, around which she
stays, guarding her young until they reach a
considerable age.

Several other species of the genus belong to
the southwestern United States, Mexico, and
the West Indies, and the Texan whipsnake (q.v.)
is a near relative. The '^'^chainsnake" is some-
times called "mountain blacksnake.'^ Other
blackish serpents known as blacksnakes include
a colubrine of Jamaica (Ocyophis atcr) ; the
death adders (q.v.) of Australia and Tasmania,
and some others notable for dark hues. One of
the most widespread of the native names of the
East Indian Cobra de Capello has the meaning
^blacksnake.'' Consult: Cope, 'Snakes of North
America.^

Blackstock Hill, South Carolina, a locality
where, on 20 Nov. 1780, the patriots of the State,
under Gen. Sumter defeated Tarleton's cavalry
after a sharp encounter.

Blackstone, William, the first inhabitant
of Boston, was an Episcopal minister, who set-
tled there as early as 1625 or 1626, and died 26
May 167s, on Blackstone River, a few miles
north of Providence. On the arrival of Gov.
Winthrop at Charlestown, in the summer of
1630, it is stated in the records of that place that
'*Mr. Blackstone, dwelling on the other side of
Charles River, alone, at a place by the In-
dians called Shawmut, where he only had
a cottage, at or not far off from the place, called
Blackstone's Point, he came and acquainted the
governor of an excellent spring there, withal
inviting him and soliciting him thither ; where-
upon, after the death of Mr. Johnson and divers
others, the governor, with IN.Ir. Wilson, and the
greatest part of the Church, removed thither."
At a court held in April 1633, 50 acres of land
near his house in Boston were granted to him
forever. In 1634 he sold his land and became
the first white settler within the present limits
of Rhode Island.

Blackstone, Sir William, English lawyer,
and the most popular writer on the laws and
constitution of his country: b. London, 10 July
1723; d. 14 Feb. 1780. He was educated on the
foundation of the Charter House, whence in
1738 he was removed to Pembroke College, Ox-
ford. He was much distinguished, both at
school and at the university, and at an early
age compiled a work for his own use, entitled
the < Elements of Architecture,' which has been
much praised. Having chosen the profession of
the law, he was in due time entered at the Middle
Temple, and on this occasion published the ad-
mired verses called the * Lawyer's Farewell to
His Muse,' which appeared in 'Dodsley's Mis-

cellany.^ In 1743 he was elected Fellow of All-
Souls College, Oxford, and in 1746 was called to
the bar, and commenced the practice of law. Be-
ing deficient in elocution, and not possessed of
the popular talents of an advocate, his progress
was slow. Having attended the courts of law
at Westminster for seven years, without success,
he determined to quit the practice of his pro-
fession, and retire to his fellowship at O.xford.
The system of education in the English universi-
ties supplying no provision for teaching the laws
and constitution of the country, Blackstone
undertook to remedy this defect by a course of
lectures on that important subject; and the
manner in which he executed the task has con-
ferred a lasting distinction on Oxford. His first
course was delivered in 1753, and was repeated
for a series of years with increasing effect and
reputation. These lectures doubtless suggested
to Mr. Viner the idea of founding, by his will,
a liberal establishment in the University of Ox-
ford for the study of the common law ; and
Black.stone was, with great propriety, chosen the
first Vinerian professor. His engagements at
Oxford did not prevent his occasional practice as
a provincial barrister; and in 1754, being en-
gaged as counsel in a contested election for the
county of Oxford, he was led into considerations
on the elective franchise, which produced his
work entitled 'Considerations on Copyholds.^
In 1759 he published a new edition of the
Great Charter and Charter of the Forest, with
an historical preface; and during the same
year, the reputation which he had obtained by
his lectures induced him to resume his attend-
ance at Westminster Hall, when business and
the honors of his profession soon crowded in
upon him. In 1761 he was elected member of
Parliament for Hindon, made king's counsel
and solicitor-general to the queen. About this
time he also married, and thereby losing his
fellowship, was appointed principal of New
Inn Hall ; which ofiice, with the Vinerian pro-
fessorship, he resigned the next year. In 1765
he also published the first volume of his 'Com-
mentaries on the Laws of England' ; a work of
greater merit than any which had yet appeared
on the subject. The real merit and talents of
Blackstone, backed by political tendencies which
are generally favorable to advancement, now
made him an object of ministerial favor, and he
was offered the post of solicitor-general in 1770,
and, declining it, was made one of the justices
of common pleas, which station he held until
his death, in his 57th year.

Blackstone, Mass., town in Worcester Co.,
on the Blackstone River, and on the New York,
New Haven and Hartford R.R. It is an
important manufacturing town and the centre
of an extensive agricultural region. It has
numerous churches, schools, library, weekly
newspapers, electric lights, and excellent water
power. Pop. (1890) 6,138; (1900) 5.72I.

Blackstone River, a river of eastern New
England ; rises in Paxton and Holden townships,
Worcester County, Mass., flows southeast into
the State of Rhode Island, and empties into the
Providence River, near Providence, where it is
known as the Seekonk. It is over 50 miles
long, and falls over 700 feet, thus affording
abundant water-power, and for a great part of
its course flows through an almost continuous
village of manufacturing establishments.

BLACKTAIL — BLACKWELL

Blacktail, the name of two different spe-
cies of western American deer, notable for the
blackness of the tail as compared with the snowy
white tail of the eastern or "white-tailed*^ deer.
One of them is more suitably called "mule*' deer,
and is described elsewhere under that title. The
other is the Columbian or Pacific Coast deer
{Cervns, or Odocoileus, columbiamis) .

The Columbian blacktail is somewhat smaller
than the mule deer, with relatively shorter ears
and finer hair. The general color in summer is
red or reddish-yellow; in winter the color is
more varied. The coat is then brownish-gray,
darkest along the spine; top of head, chestnut
and black; face gray, with a black spot on the
forehead, passing backward as a stripe over
each eye; chin white, behind which is a black
patch ; upper throat, posterior portion of under
part, and base of tail, white; chest, sooty; legs,
dark cinnamon, white inside, and rest of under
parts covered with black; upper surface of the
tail, black. The antlers of the buck resemble
those of the mule deer. This deer is limited to
the Pacific coast, from central California north-
ward to Alaska, and does not pass east of the
coast ranges of mountains. It is a deer of the
woods, frequenting the foot-hills and valleys
especially those covered with small brush ; and
its habits and gait, more nearly resemble those
of the white-tailed deer, than of the mountain-
loving mule deer. Its hunting affords excellent
sport, and its venison is highly prized. See
also Deer. Consult: Farell, ^Big Game in
North America^ and VanDyke, <The Deer
Family.'

Blackthorn, a shrub or small tree. See
Sloe.

Blackwater Fever, an obscure disease of
■uncertain causation that is prevalent in Africa,
and is said to be present in other parts of the
world. By many it is regarded as a very severe
form of malaria, a malignant _ form, associated
with great prostration and with bloody urine.
By others it is considered a disease of itself and
due to a special parasite of the blood. The
question will undoubtedly be settled within a
short time as soon as skilled physicians have the
opportunity of studying the disease in Africa,

Blackwell, Mrs. Antoinet Louisa (Brown),
American woman suffragist and Unitarian min-
ister: b. Henrietta, N. Y., 20 May 1825. A grad-
uate of Oberlin (1847), she "preached on her
own orders,* at first in Congregational churches,
becoming at length a champion of women's rights.
She married Samuel C, a brother of Dr. Eliza-
beth Blackwell (1856). She has written < Shad-
ows of Our Social System' (1855); <The Is-
land Neighbors' (1871), a novel of American
life; 'Sexes Throughout Nature' (1875), etc.

Blackwell, Elizabeth, the first woman
who ever received the degree of M.D. in the
United States: b. Bristol, England, 3 Feb.
1821. Elizabeth, a girl of 17 years at the time
of her father's death, and one of the elder of
nine children, opened a school, which she con-
ducted successfully for several years. But her
energetic temperament and strong desire for the
acquisition of knowledge demanded a wider field ;
and long reflection having persuaded her that
some avenue should be opened to women whom
either necessity or choice impelled to gain a
subsistence by their own exertions, she felt that

her path of duty lay in that direction. She re-
solved to become a physician, and to return
again to teaching to acquire the requisite means
of education. A situation as governess was
found in the family of Dr. John Dixon, of Ashe-
ville, N. C, where she remained a year, having
access, during that time, to a medical library,
and receiving from Dr. Dixon some direction as
to her reading, but no encouragement in her
purpose. At the end of the year she removed to
Charleston, S. C, still acting as a teacher of
music, but pursuing her studies with the aid
and sympathy of Dr. S. H. Dixon, subsequently
professor of the institute and practice of medi-
cine in the University of New York. Miss
Blackwell next went to Philadelphia, and passed
six months in study under Dr. Allen and Dr.
Warrington, of that city. During that time she
made formal application to the medical schools
of Philadelphia, New York, and Boston, for ad-
mission as a student. In each instance the re-
quest was courteously but firmly denied, on
the ground of a want of precedent for such
an admission, and of the impropriety of such an
innovation upon established custom. Several of
the professors, however, avowed a sincere inter-
est in her hopes and purposes, and some of them
urged her to seek admission into one or another
of the schools under the disguise of a feigned
name and male attire. She declined to take into
consideration any such suggestion, for, though
anxious to obtain a medical education for her-
self, she was hardly less desirous of asserting
her right to it as a woman. Undismayed by
these difficulties, however, she next made appli-
cation to 10 other medical schools in different
parts of the country, which was rejected by all
except those at Geneva, N. Y., and at Castleton,
Vt. At Geneva, the faculty, after expressing
their own acquiescence, laid the proposition be-
fore their students, leaving the decision with
them. The young men unanimously assented to
the reception of the new pupil, and pledged
themselves that no conduct of theirs should ever
cause her to regret the step she had taken. It
is to their credit that they faithfully observed
this pledge during the two subsequent collegiate
years that she passed among them. Here Miss
Blackwell took her degree of M.D., in regular
course, in January 1849. During her connec-
tion with the college, but when not in attendance
there upon lectures, she pursued a course of
clinical study in Blockley Hospital, in Philadel-
phia. The spring after her graduation she went
to Paris and remained six months as a student
in the Maternite, devoting herself to the study
and practice of midwifery. The next autumn
she was admitted, as a physician, to walk the
hospital of St. Bartholomew, in London, where
she could not have been received as a student.
After nearly a year spent in St. Bartholomew's
she returned to New York, where she practised
her profession with credit and success, and es-
tablished the New York Infirmary for Women
and Children, and the Woman's Medical Col-
lege. In 1859 she registered as a physician in
England, and since 1869 has practised in Lon-
don and Hastings; she founded the National
Health Society in London, and assisted in found-
ing the London School of Medicine for Women.
Her works include: <Phvsical Education of
Girls' ; < Religion of Health' ; 'Counsel to Par-
ents on Moral Education' ; 'Pioneer in Opening

BLACKWELL — BLADDER

the Medical Profession to Women^ ; ^The Hu-
man Element in Sex^ ; *^ Decay of Municipal
Representative Institutions.^

Blackwell, Lucy Stone. See Stone, Lucy B.

Blackwell, Thomas, Scottish writer: b.
Aberdeen, 4 Aug. 1701 ; d. Edinburgh, 1757.
After receiving the rudiments of his education
at the grammar-school of his native city, he
entered Marischal College, where he took the
degree of A.M. in 1718. A separate professor-
ship of Greek had not existed in this seminary
previous to 1700. Blackwell, having turned his
attention to Greek, was honored in 1723, when
only 22 years of age, with a Crown appointment
to this chair. His 'Inquiry into the Life and
Writings of Horner^ was published at London
in 1737. A second edition of the work appeared
in 1746, and shortly after "^Proofs of the Inquiry
into Homer's Life and Writings.^ In 1748 he
published anonymously 'Letters Concerning My-
thology.^ In the. course of the same year he
was advanced to be principal of his college. In
1750 he opened a class for the instruction of the
students in ancient history, geography, and chro-
nology. In 1752 he obtained the degree of
LL.D., and in the subsequent year published, in
quarto, the first volume of 'Memoirs of the
Court of Augustus.^ A second volume appeared
i" I755j ^iid a third, which was posthumous, and
left unfinished by the author, was prepared for
the press by John Mills, Esq., and published in
1764.

Blackwell's Island, N. Y., an island in the
East River belonging to New York city. It
has an area of about 120 acres, and contains the
penitentiary, almshouse, lunatic asylum for fe-
males, workhouse, blind asylum, hospital for
incurables, and a convalescent hospital. Nearly
all of these buildings were erected from granite
quarried on the island, by convict labor, the
style of architecture being of a turreted and
battlemented design of the feudal character.
The island is bordered by a heavy granite sea
wall, also built by the convicts, and a large
amount of farming and gardening is carried on
by inmates of the penitentiary.

Blackwood, Adam, Scottish writer: b.
Dunfermline, 1539; d. 1613. Scotland, during
his youth, was undergoing the agonies of the
Reformation. He therefore found it no proper
sphere for his education, and went to Paris,
where, by the liberality of his youthful sover-
eign. Queen IMary, then residing at the Court
of France, he was enabled to complete his studies,
and to go through a course of civil law at the
University of Toulouse. Having now acquired
some reputation for learning and talent, he was
patronized by James Beaton, the expatriated
Archbishop of Glasgow, who recommended him
very warmly to Queen ]\Iary and her husband
the dauphin, by whose influence he was chosen
a member of the Parliament of Poitiers, and
afterward appointed to be professor of civil law
at that court. His first work was one entitled
^De Vinculo Religionis et Imperii, Libri Duo'
(Paris 1575), to which a third book was added
in 1612. His next work was entitled 'Apologia
pro Regibus,' and professed to be an answer to
George Buchanan's work, 'De Jure Regni
apud Scotos.' He next published, in French,
an account of the death of his benefactress.
Queen Mary, under the title. 'Martyre de Maria
Stuart Reyne d'Escosse' (Antwerp, Svo. 1588).

At the end of the volume is a collection of
poems in Latin, French, and Italian, upon Mary
and Elizabeth; in which the former princess is
praised for every excellence, while her murder-
ess is characterized by every epithet expressive
of indignation and hate. In 1644, 30 years after
his death, appeared his 'Opera Omnia,' in one
volume, edited by the learned Naudeus, who pre-
fixes an elaborate eulogium upon the author.

Blackwood, William, Scottish bookseller,
known as the projector and publisher of 'Black-
wood's Magazine* : b. Edinburgh, 20 Nov. 1776;
d. 16 Sept. 1834. He settled in his native city
as a bookseller in 1804, and soon added the
trade of a publisher to his original business.
The first number of 'Blackwood's Magazine' ap-
peared on I April 1817, and from the first was
conducted in the Tory interest. It was started
just at the time when the general peace which
had been established in Europe was beginning
to reanimate the hopes of the Whigs, and when
it was all the more necessary for the Tories to
defend by the press that preponderance which
they still held in Parliament. Mr. Blackwood
was fortunate enough to secure as his coadjutors
in his new literary undertaking most of the lead-
ing authors of the day belonging to the Tory
party, among them Sir Walter Scott, John Gib-
son Lockhart, Hogg (the Ettrick Shepherd),
Prof. Wilson (Christopher North), De Quincey
(the English Opium-eater), and others. All
that was connected with the management of the
magazine he took into his own hands, and he
himself selected the articles for each nmnber —
a task for which he was admirably qualified,
for although he wrote little himself, he was an
admirable judge of literary works. The new
magazine on its first appearance entered upon a
campaign against the Edinburgh 'Review,' com-
bating both its political views and its literary
decisions. From the first it attracted a great
deal of attention, and its success was decided by
the appearance of the 'Noctes Ambrosianae,' a
series of articles in the form of dialogues, in
which the current questions in politics and lit-
erature were discussed with the most pungent
sarcasm and inexhaustible humor. The brilliant
articles of Dr. Maginn added not a little to its
reputation, and constantly, as the original con-
tributors withdrew, new and valuable accessions
were made to the staff of its supporters. After
his death his business continued to be carried
on by his sons, and the magazine, although it
has perhaps lost some of its former reputation
(or notoriety), still keeps its place as one of the
leading periodicals.

Blackwood. See Dalberqia.

Blacky/cod's Magazine. See Blackwood,
William.

Bladder, the muscular organ that in man
and the lower animals holds the urine. The
kidneys .secrete urine constantly, the bladder
stores' it and only empties itself at more or less
definite intervals. In man the bladder is a flat-
tened rounded to conical organ about the size of
an orange, and holding under normal conditions
about 16 ounces of urine (one pint). It is sit-
uated in the lower portion of the abdominal
cavity just behind the pubic bone, which serves
as a protection. Its general shape is rounded
triangular, the flat side being above, the ureters
leading from the kidneys entering at the cor-
ners; the pointed end corresponding to the

BLADDER-NUT — BLADDERWORM

opening into tlie urethra, through which canal
the urine is voided. The walls of the bladder
are made up of several layers ; the outer wall
is of peritoneum in part, or serous and connective
tissue combined. The greater part of the wall
is made up of mvoluntary muscle fibre, arranged
longitudinally and circularly ; the innermost coat
is thin and delicate, — the mucous membrane, —
and is lined throughout by layers of regularly
flattened squamous epithelial cells. The nervous
supply of the bladder, by means of which it is
emptied, is complex and probably threefold. It
is under the influence of the sympathetic nervous
system of the hypogastric plexus ; there are sub-
sidiary centres in the spinal cord and higher up
in the human cortex certain voluntary efforts
have their influence on the bladder control. The
primary centres of control are in the sympathetic.
These cause the bladder in the young infant and
also in the patient whose spinal cord and cen-
tres are diseased to be emptied and in the so-
called irritable bladder it is probable that this
part of the mechanism is mostly affected.

There is a very marked relation between the
skin activities and the kidney and bladder ac-
tion, for while the skin is acting freely as in
exercise in warm weather, a large amount of
water is thus given off, which in cold weather is
eliminated through the kidneys and thus by the
bladder. This is noted daily when in cold
weather one leaves the warm house and shortly
after walking in the cold of the outside air,
the desire to urinate becomes urgent. Irrita-
bility of the bladder, particularly in children,
and bedwetting is often a very troublesome com-
plaint. It may be due to a variety of causes,
excessive irritation, however, would probably not
result in bedwetting, particularly in older chil-
dren, if the control (inhibition) normally main-
tained by the brain were not cut off by deep
slumber. The treatment is always medical and
is often very difficult. Infection of the bladder
frequently occurs and leads to many serious
complications. (See Cystitis.) Stones also de-
velop in the bladder. (See Calculus.)

Paralysis of the bladder per se is a rare af-
fection ; paralysis of the sphincter that controls
the outlet may result from a variety of causes.
It usually results in incontinence of urine. Re-
tention is an opposite condition and is frequently
due to loss of sympathetic nerve action, such as
follow labor, or an operation, or from the
anaesthesia of opium, belladonna, or similar nar-
cotics. It may also be due to mechanical ob-
struction, in old men, particularly being due to
an hypertrophied prostate gland.

Bladder-nut (Staphylen), the type genus of
the order Sapindacece, consisting of eight species
of ornamental shrubs or small trees, natives of
the northern hemisphere. The common blad-
der-nut (S. pinnata) a native of Europe and
Asia, which attains a height of 15 feet, and is
often planted for ornament, bears panicles of
whitish flowers in late spring. The American
bladder-nut (5". trifolia), which ranges from
Quebec to Minnesota and southward to South
Carolina and Missouri, bears nodding panicles
or umbel-like recemes of white flowers and, like
several of the other species, is used in shrub-
beries. The wood of the two species mentioned
is white and hard and is used in turning. The
flower buds are pickled like capers and the seeds
sometimes eaten. The common name is sug-
gested by the inflated capsule and the hard shell

of the seed; the generic name by the resem-
blance of the raceme to a bunch of grapes, the
staphyle of the Greek language.

Bladderworm, Cysticercus or immature
stage of the tapeworm, the hydatid of physicians.
By far the most injurious species is Tcsnia tchino-
coccus, more frequently causing death than any
other entozoon. In its adult or strobila state
this worm only infests the dog and wolf, but
its larva, the hydatid of physicians, frequently
occurs in the human body. It is very small,
seldom exceeding six millimetres in length, there
being but four segments, including the head,
which has a pointed rostellum, with a double
crown of large-rooted hooks ; there are four
suckers present, and the last segment, when
sexually mature, is as long as the anterior ones
taken together. The hydatid (Proscolex) forms
large proliferous vesicles, in which the scolices
(echinococcus heads) are developed by budding
internally. About 5,000 eggs are developed in
a single segment (Proglottis). The six-hooked
embryos develop, are expelled from the dog, and
find their way in drinking water or in food into
the human intestines, whence they bore into the
liver, their favorite habitat, or are carried along
the blood vessels into some other organ, where
they develop into bladder-like bodies, called
hydatids. In its earliest stages the hydatid is
spherical and surrounded by a capsule of con-
densed connective tissue of its host. By the
fourth week the young F. ecliinococcus is one-
fiftieth of an inch long, and it is probably many
months before the echinococci heads are entirely
developed. When this stage is reached the tape-
worms become sexually mature in from seven
to nine weeks after, when the milk-white worms
may usually be found imbedded in the mucus
of the duodenum and upper part of the small
intestines, with their heads attached to the vil-
lous surface of the intestine. The hydatids or
cysts in which the echinococci develop are of
three kinds, — exogenous, endogenous, and multi-
locular, — and lie imbedded in the parenchyma
of the liver, etc., and are filled with a clear
amber-colored fluid. The echinococcus heads,
first on the inner surface of the cyst and in the
interior of the echinococcus head (brood-
capsule), develops a second brood of scolices,
contained in a secondary cyst. Finally, a ter-
tiary cyst, containing tertiary or granddaughter
scolices, arises. In such cases the number of
tapeworms which arise from one embryo is
naturally enormous, and the parent vesicle may
reach a very considerable size, being sometimes
as large as a man's head. In consequence of
this enormous growth the vesicles frequently ob-
tain an irregular shape; while on the other
hand the tapeworms which develop from them
remain very small, and carry, as a rule, only
one ripe proglottis. Sometimes the secondary
hydatids will develop scolices and granddaughter
vesicles before the original maternal hydatid has
acquired echinococcus heads.

So long as the tapeworm head (scolex) re-
mains attached to the body of the bladder-worm
and in the host of the latter, it never develops into
a sexually mature tapeworm ; although in many
cases it grows to a considerable length (Cysticer-
cus fasciolaris of the house-mouse) . The blad-
derworm mu.st enter the alimentary canal of
another animal before the head can, after sepa-
ration from the body of the bladderworm. de-
velop into the sexuallv mature tapeworm This

BLADDERWORT — BLAINE

transportation is effected passively, the new host
eating the flesh or organs of the animal infected
with Cysticerci. The tapeworms, therefore, are
principally found in the Carnivora, the Insecti-
vora, and the Omnivora, which receive the blad-
derworms in the flesh of the animals on which
they feed. The vesicles are digested in the
stomach, and the cestode head becomes free as
a scolex. The latter is, perhaps, protected from
the too intense action of the gastric juice by its
calcareous concretions, and at once enters the
small intestine, fastens itself to the intestinal
wall, and grows by gradual segmentation into a
tapeworm. From the scolex the chain of pro-
glottides proceeds as the result of a growth in
length accompanied by segmentation, a process
which is to be looked upon as a form of asexual
reproduction (budding in the direction of the
long axis). The development of the scolex
is then to be explained as a metamorphosis, cha-
racterized by the individualization of certain
stages of the development. But the whole life-
history is a case of metagenesis, inasmuch as the
sexual proglottides alternate with the asexual
scolex. See Tapeworm.

Bladderwort, Utricularia, a genus of
about 150 species of largely aquatic herbs of
the natural order Lentibulariacea, widely dis-
tributed throughout the world, but especially
abundant in the tropics. The aquatic species
are remarkable for the little, sometimes valved,
bladders which entrap and digest aquatic insects
and other water animals. The bladders which
are at first filled with water become inflated with
air at flowering time so that the flower instead
of being submerged like the rest of the plant,
is raised above the surface until after blossom-
ing, when water again fills the bladders, the
plants sinking to the bottom, where the seeds
are ripened. These aquatic species, of which
about a dozen with yellow or blue flowers are
natives of the United States, are common in
ditches, ponds, and marshes throughout the
world. They are sometimes cultivated in
aquaria more as curiosities than for any intrin-
sic beauty. In the marsh species the bladders
are less effective and numerous than in the pond
species, and in the terrestrial kinds they are
small, abortive, and useless. These last have
leaves of ordinary forms and are often tuberous,
whereas members of the first group have much
dissected foliage like other pond plants and are
rootless. Some of the tropical species are showy
epiphytes and are cultivated in hot-houses like
orchids, with some of which they compare in
beauty. Consult: Bailey, < Cyclopedia of Ameri-
can Horticulture^ (1900-2).

Bla'densburg, Maryland, a small town in
Prince George County, on the east branch of the
Potomac, about six miles east from Washington,
with a population in 1900 of 463. At the bridge
over the Potomac west of Bladensburg, the bat-
tle with the English which preceded the cap-
ture of Washington, took place toward the latter
part of the War of 1812, Gen. Ross and Admiral
Cockburn with about 5,000 men, appeared in
Chesapeake Bay to attack Washington. The
American forces fell back to Bladensburg and
awaited the British. The Americans numbered
about 7.000, but were scattered and untrained.
On 24 Aug. 1814, the British advanced to the
attack. The American artillery held them in
check for a time, but the troops pushed forward.

The Americans fled in wild disorder ; the confu-
sion spread and soon Gen. Winder, the American
commander, gave orders for a general retreat.
The American loss was 76 men ; the British more
than 500 killed and wounded. Bladensburg is
famous in American history as the site of the
duelling ground, where many famous duels
growing out of quarrels in Washington were
fought, as that in which Barron killed Decatur
in 1820.

Blagoveshtchensk, blii - go - vyesh'chensk,
Russia, a town of eastern Siberia, capital of the
province of the Amoor, and of the general gov-
ernment of the Amoor, on the river Amoor,
where it receives the Zeya, near the Chinese town
of Aigoon. Founded as a military post in
1856 it is now an important place, with sec-
ondary schools, theological seminary, etc. Pop.
(1903) 37,841.

Blaikie, William, American athlete and
writer on physical training: b. York, N. Y., 1843;
d. there 6 Dec. 1904. He became a lawyer in
New York. He has written <Ho\v to Get
Strong > (2d ed. 1880); < Sound Bodies for our
Boys and Girls > (1883).

Blaikie, William Garden, Scotch clergy-
man: b. Aberdeen, 1837; d. 11 June 1899. He
was graduated at the University of Aberdeen;
ordained a minister of the Established Church in
1842; joined the Free Church in 1843; and was
appointed professor of apologetics and pastoral
theology in New College, Edinburgh, 1868. He
was a delegate to the Presbyterian General As-
sembly of the United States in 1870 ; took a
leading part in the formation of the Alliance of
the Reformed Churches ; and was editor of the
<Free Church Magazine^ in 1849-53; the ^ North
British Review* in 1860-3; the < Sunday Maga
zine* in 1871-4; and the 'Catholic Presbyterian*
in 1879-83. His writings include 'Bible His-
tory in Connection with General History*
(1859) ; 'Bible Geography* (i860) ; 'Glimpses
of the Inner Life of David Livingstone* (1880) ;
'Public Ministry and Pastoral Methods of Our
Lord* (1883) ; 'Leaders in Modern Philan-
thropy* (1884), etc.

Blaine, Ephraim, American soldier: d.
Carlisle, Pa., 1808. He entered the army as a
colonel, at the commencement of the Revolution-
ary War, and was subsequently made commis-
sary-general. His services were gallant and pa-
triotic. He was with Washington in many of
the most trying scenes of the Revolution, and
enjoyed the confidence of his chief to the fullest
extent. During the "dark winter** at Valley
Forgt, the preservation of the American army
from starvation was in a great degree owing to
the exertions and sacrifices of Col. Blaine.

Blaine, James Gillespie, American states-
man: b. West Brownsville, Pa., south of Pitts-
burg, 31 Jan. 1830 ; d. 27 Jan. 1893. His father,
a cultivated landowner, was a Presbyterian of
Scotch-Irish blood ; his mother was a Catholic.
He was a precocious boy with a strong taste ior
history and literature, and the star of his de-
bating club as orator and parliamentarian. _At
13 he entered Washington College in his native
county, graduated at 17, and after teaching and
studying law, removed to Augusta,_ Me.._ in
1854. He entered journalism and politics, joined
the new Republican party the next year, was a
delegate to its first (Fremont) convention in
1856, and in 1858 became chairman of the State

BLAINVILLE

Republican committee — an extraordinary posi-
tion at 28 after but four years' residence.
He remained such for 20 years, the almost omnip-
otent dictator of the party's State action. In
1858, also, he was elected to the legislature, and
re-elected three more terms, being speaker the
last two ; and in 1862 was sent to Congress, and
re-elected six additional terms to the House.
In the House he was the most efifective and dex-
terous of debators, an adept at parliamentary
law, of instant readiness and endless resource ;
and outside he became earl}' the most captivat-
ing, magnetic, and brilliant of party leaders. With
a prodigious and instant memory both for facts
and faces, saturated with political history and
the records of all prominent public men, with
great charm of utterance and exuberant geni-
ahty of manner, he excited in the mass of his
party the most enthusiastic devotion ; but un-
fortunately in the "independent" wing an equally
invincible distrust, which ultimately defeated
his most cherished ambition. As congress-
man, his most noted positions were oppos-
ing Thaddeus Stevens' reconstruction plans for
putting the South under military government,
and of cutting down the representation of the
States when readmitted to a basis of legal
voters ; opposing the payment of the public
debt in greenbacks ; and supporting the agitation
which led to Great Britain's admitting her cit-
izens' right to change their allegiance (1870).
From 1869 to 1874 he was speaker, and gained
the highest reputation for parliamentary ability,
firmness, impartiality, and dispatch of business.
The tremendous reaction of 1874 against Grant's
second term swept the Democrats into control of
the House by an immense majority, and Mr.
Blaine became the leader of the Republican mi-
nority. An envenomed struggle at once began.
As a matter of party tactics, and to pave the
way for the election of 1876, Mr. Blaine sought
to inflame Republican feeling by dwelling on
the harshest memories of the war; the Dem-
ocrats retorted by a series of attacks on his
personal integrity in the speakership, as evidence
of which they cited letters to a Boston broker
which had been kept by a clerk named Mulligan.
(See Mulligan Letters.) He exhibited and
read the letters on the floor of the House to
prove that they contained nothing discreditable ;
but the charges, in the hands of his enemies,
remained one of the influences which twice lost
him the nomination and at last the election to the
presidency. In 1876 he received 285 votes, much
the largest single vote, on the first ballot at the
Republican convention, and 351 on the seventh ;
his imminent success then produced a coalition
on Gen. Hayes. Senator Morrill of Maine becom-
ing secretary of the treasury, Mr. Blaine was
chosen senator for the unexpired term, and the
following winter for the full term. He opposed
the electoral commission on the ground that Con-
gress was conferring powers beyond its own ;
opposed Hayes' withdrawal of the troops that
upheld the carpet-bag governments ; opposed the
Bland Silver I3ill and the adoption of the gold
standard alike, believing bimetallism feasible and
preferable; advocated ship subsidies, and rigid
prohibition of Chinese immigration. In 1880
the attempt at a third term for Grant was de-
feated by the Blaine forces, who gave him 284
on first ballot ; but after six days and 35 ballots,
seeing that Blaine could not be nominated, united
with the Sherman party to nominate Garfield,

by 399 to Grant's 306. Garfield made him secre-
tary of state, and in his short tenure he planned
a Pan-American Congress, attempted medi-
ation between victorious Chile and crushed Peru,
and attempted to cancel the Clayton-Bulwer
Treaty (q.v.). But the speedy assassination of
Garfield, and the accession of Arthur, the lieuten-
ant of Blaine's mortal enemy, Roscoe Conkling,
made his place tmtenable, and on 19 December
he resigned. He at once began his two-volume
^Twenty Years in Congress,' a work of great
charm and value ; issuing the first volume in
1884, in time to do good work conciliating sup-
port for the next election. But meantime a
memorable political letter to a New York State
friend, widely published, was taken as a cue to
his adherents in that State to vote against the
administration candidate; and caused such a
heavy fall in the Republican vote for governor
that S. J. Folger, secretary of the treasury, was
overwhelmed, and Grover Cleveland, the mayor
of Buft'alo, in high repute for having crushed a
ring of plunderers there, was elected by 192,000
plurality. This unprecedented victor}^ in the
largest State of the Union gave Mr. Cleveland
the Democratic nomination for President in
1884 ; and when Mr. Blaine was at last nomi-
nated by the Republicans (541 out of 813 on
fourth ballot), the Independents carried out the
threat of many years b}' bolting the nomination
and mostly voting for Cleveland, who carried
New York by 1,047 and with it the electoral
majority. After his defeat he issued the second
volume of his work (1886), and the next year a
volume entitled ^Political Discussions.^ Again a
candidate in 1888, he withdrew in favor of Harri-
son, and was made secretary of state once more ;
he resumed his Pan-American policy, made a
futile attempt to induce Great Britain to join
in preserving the seals from extermination (see
Bering Se.\ Question), and favored a reciproc-
ity commercial policy which made many of his
old opponents draw toward him. He resigned
in June 1892, in hope of securing the next
Republican nomination, but found it out of the
question. He died early the following year, of
Bright's disease. His life was written by his
kinswoman, Gail Hamilton (1895).

Blainville, Henri Marie Ducrotay de,

6h-re ma-re dii-kro-ta de, French naturalist:
b. Arques, near Dieppe, 1778; d. I May 1850.
He studied medicine and the allied sciences at
Paris, and obtained his degree of M.D. in 1808.
He was for a time assistant to Cuvier, whose
influence helped to place him in the chair o£
anatomy and zoology in the Faculty of Sciences
at Paris in 1812. Unfortunately misunderstand-
ings soon arose between the master and his
comparatively youthful rival, and ultimately ter-
minated in an open rupture. In 1825 Blainville
was admitted to the Academy of Sciences as the
successor of Lacepede, and on the death of La-
marck in 1829, the chair which he held in the
Museum of Natural History having been di-
vided, the department of mollusca, zoophytes,^
and worms was committed to Blainville, whose
important works on these groups made it impos-
sible to confer it on any other. In 1832 he
quitted this department to become the not un-
worthy successor of Cuvier in the chair of com-
parative anatomy in the same establishment.
His works, contained both in the more impor-
tant collections of the period, and in separate
treatises, are too numerous to be enumerated.

BLAIR

but mention is especially due to <L'Organisa-
tion des Animaux, ou Principes d'Anatomie
Comparee^ (1822) ; 'Manuel de Malacologie et
de Conchyliologie avec Atlas de 100 Planches^
(1825) ; 'Cours de Physiologie Generale^
(1829-32) ; 'Manuel d'Actinologie' 1834) ;
'Sur les Principes de la Zooclassie^ (1847) ; and
above all, the gigantic but unhappily unfinished
work entitled *Osteographie ou Description
Iconographique Comparee du Squelette et du
Systeme Dentaire des Cinq Classes d'Animaux
Vertebres, Recents et Fossiles^ (1839-50).

Blair, Andrew Alexander, American chem-
ist: b. Kentucky, 20 Sept. 1848. He graduated
at the United States Naval Academy, 1866; was
chief cheinist to the United States Commission
to test iron, steel, and other metals, 1875-8, and
to the United States Geological Survey and loth
census, 1879-81. Since then he has been en-
gaged in general practice. Besides reports to the
government and contributions to scientific jour-
nals he has published 'The Chemical Analysis
of Iron : Complete Account of all the Best-
Known Methods for the Analysis of Iron, Steel,
etc.> (Phila. 1888).

Blair, Austin, American la\vyer: b. Caro-
line, N. Y., 8 Feb. 1818; d. Jackson, Mich., 6
Aug. 1894. He graduated at Union College in
1839 ; studied law in Oswego, N. Y., and re-
moved to Jackson, Mich., where he was ad-
mitted to the bar in 1842. He was elected to
the legislature in 1846; became conspicuous in
the convention which established the Republi-
can party in Michigan ; and was elected gover-
nor of Michigan in i860. He w^as a member
of Congress (1866-70).

Blair, Francis Preston, American journal-
ist and politician: b. Abingdon, Va., 12 April
1791 ; d. Silver Spring, Md., 18 Oct. 1876. In
early life he was a Jacksonian Democrat. He
edited the Washington Globe from 1830 to 1845.
Through his anti-slavery sentiments he became
one of the founders of the Republican party,
but in later years returned to the Democratic
faith.

Blair, Francis Preston, Jr., American sol-
dier and statesman (son of the preceding) : b.
Lexington, Ky., 19 Feb. 1821 ; d. St. Louis, Mo.,
5 July 1875. He was a representative in Con-
gress from Missouri (1857-9 and i86i-3)_; be-
came a major-general in the Union ariny in the
Civil War, taking an active part in the Vicks-
burg campaign and Sherman's march to the
sea; was an unsuccessful Democratic candidate
for Vice-President in 1868, and United States
senator (1870-3).

Blair, Henry William, American legis-
lator : b. Campton, N. H., 6 Dec. 1834. He re-
ceived an academic education ; was admitted to
the bar in 1859; served through the Civil War,
becoming lieutenant-colonel of the 15th New
Hampshire Volunteers, and was twice wounded.
After serving in both branches of the State
legislature he was a member of Congress
(1875-9 and 1893-5), and United States Sena-
tor (1879-89). He is the author of what was
known as the "Blair Common School Bill,^^ de-
signed to distribute a certain amount of Fed-
eral money for educational purposes among the
various States in proportion to the number of
illiterates. He was a strong opponent of Chi-
nese immigration, and. when he was appointed
and confirined United States minister to Qiina,

that government objected to receiving him. He
has been an active worker in the cause of tem-
perance and other reforms.

Blair, Hugh, Scottish divine: b. Edin-
burgh, 7 April 1718; d. 27 Dec. 1800. He corn-
menced his academic career at Edinburgh Uni-
versity in 1730. In 1741 he was licensed as a
preacher, and the following year was ordained
to the parish of Collessie, Fife, but a few months
after he was elected to the second charge of
the Canongate, Edinburgh. In 1754 he received
one of the city charges, that of Lady Yester's
church, and in 1758 one of the charges of the
High Church. In 1759 he commenced a course
of lectures to students upon the principles of
literary composition; and in 1762 he was made
professor of rhetoric and belles-lettres in the
University o-f Edinburgh, being the first that
ever occupied this chair. He continued the
course till 1783, when he published his lectures,
which received very high praise. In 1763 he
published a dissertation on the 'Poems of Os-
sian,^ in the authenticity of which he firmly
believed.

It was not till 1777 that he could be pre-
vailed upon to offer to the world any of those
sermons with which he had so long delighted a
private congregation. One of the sermons hav-
ing been sent by Strahan, the king's printer,
to Dr. Johnson for his opinion, Strahan
received from him the following characteristic
note: "I have read over Dr. Blair's first ser-
mon with more than approbation ; to say it is
good is to say too little.^' Strahan there-
upon agreed to purchase the volume, with Mr.
Cadell, for $500. The sale was so rapid and
extensive, and the approbation of the public
so high, that the proprietors voluntarily doubled
the stipulated price. The volume speedily fell
under the attention of George III., and by royal
mandate a pension of $1,000 a year was bestowed
on Dr. Blair. During the subsequent part of his
life Dr. Blair published three other volumes of
sermons ; and it might safely be said that each
successive publication only tended to deepen the
impression produced by the first.

Blair, James, American clergyman and
educator: b. Scotland, 1656; d. Williamsburg,
Va., I Aug. 1743. In 1685 he was sent as a mis-
sionary to Virginia by Dr. Compton, Bishop of
London. There he secured the confidence of
the planters, and proved himself far in advance
of his contemporaries on the question of slav-
ery. In 1689 Sir Francis Nicholson appointed
him "commissary,^* the highest ecclesiastical of-
fice in the colony. This ofiice gave him a seat
in the Council of the colonial government; he
presided over the trials of clergymen, and pro-
nounced sentence upon conviction of crimes or
misdemeanors. His great desire was to see a
college established in the colony. The Assembly
and governor warmly sympathized with his pro-
ject; he went to England and laid his plan be-
fore William and Mary, and on 14 Feb. 1692, a
charter for the college was granted, the bishop
of London being appointed chancellor and Blair
president, and the institution named "William
and Mary.** Its opening was repeatedly de-
layed, and Blair did not enter on his duties as
president until 1729. but his enthusiasm never
wavered, and his efforts were finally crowned
with success. He left his library to the college.
He wrote 'Our Saviour's Divine Sermon on the
Mount' (London 1722, 4 vols.; 3d ed. 1740), a

BLAIR — BLAKE

work highly considered throughout the i8th
century.

Blair, John, Scotch chronologist and
geographer: d. 24 June 1782. He went to Lon-
don about the middle of the 18th century. In
1754 the publication of a work in folio, en-
titled "^The Chronology and History of the
World from the Creation to 1753 a.d.,' gained
him great reputation. He dedicated his work to
Lord Chancellor Hardwicke, and in 1757 was ap-
pointed chaplain to the Princess Dowager of
Wales, and mathematical tutor to the Duke of
York, whom he accompanied, in 1763, on a tour
to the Continent, having already received sev-
eral ecclesiastical preferments. On his return
to England he published, in 1768, a new edition
of his * Chronological Tables,^ with 14 maps of
ancient and modern geography annexed.

Blair, John Insley, American philanthro-
pist : b. Belvidere, N. J., 22 Aug. 1802 ; d. 2 Dec.
1899. In early life he was a merchant and
banker ; subsequently becoming the individual
owner of more miles of railroad property than
any other man in the world. He acquired a
very large fortune ; loaned the Federal gov-
ernment more than $1,000,000 in the early part of
the Civil War ; built and endowed at a cost of
more than $600,000 the Presbyterian Academy
in Blairstown, N. J. ; rebuilt Grinnell College,
Iowa ; erected Blair Hall and made other gifts
to Princeton University ; was equally liberal to
Lafayette College ; and had erected more than
100 churches in different parts of the West, be-
sides laying out many towns and villages on
the lines of his numerous railroads.

Blair, Montgomery, American lawyer: b.
Franklin County, Ky., 10 May 1813 ; d. Silver
Springs, Md., 27 July 1883. He was graduated
at the United States Military Academy in 1835 ;
resigned from the army, 1836 ; was admitted to
the bar, 1839, and began practice in St. Louis.
He was judge of the court of common pleas,
1843-9 ; removed to Maryland in 1852 ; was
United States solicitor in the court of claims,
1855-8. He acted as counsel for the plaintiff in
the widely known Dred Scott case. In 1861-4
he was postmaster-general. In 1876-7 he acted
with the Democratic party in opposing Hayes'
title to the office of President.

Blair, Robert, Scotch clergyman and poet:
(eldest son of the Rev. David Blair, one of the
ministers of Edinburgh, and chaplain to the
king) : b. Edinburgh, 1699 ; d. Athelstaneford,
1746. He was ordained, in 1731, minister of
Athelstaneford, in East Lothian, where he spent
the remainder of his life. He was a man of
learning and of elegant taste and manners. A
botanist and florist ; he was also skilled in opti-
cal and microscopical knowledge, on which sub-
jects he carried on a correspondence with some
learned men in England. He was a man of sin-
cere piety and very assiduous in discharging the
duties of his clerical functions. His best-known
poem, ^The Grave,^ was chiefly composed be-
fore his ordination. It was first printed in 1743,
and is now esteemed as one of the standard
classics of English poetical literature, in which
rank it will probably remain longer than many
works of greater contemporary or even present
fame.

Blake, Edward, English statesman: b.
Cairngorm, Ont., Canada, 13 Oct. 1833. He was

educated at Upper Canada Cpllege and Toronto
University ; was called to the bar in 1856 and
engaged in practice in Toronto. He entered
public life in 1867 ; was premier of Ontario,
1871-2; minister of justice, 1875-7, and the
recognized leader of the Canadian Liberal party,
1880-91. He declined the appointments of chan-
cellor of upper Canada in 1869, chief justice ot
Canada in 1875, ^nd chief justice of Ontario in
1897, and also the honor of knighthood. In
1892 he was invited by the leaders of the Anti-
Parnellites in Ireland to enter the British House
of Commons as the representative of an Irish
constituency. Consenting, he removed to South
Longford, was elected for that district, and in
1895 was re-elected. In 1896 he was appointed
a member of the judiciary committee of the
privy council.

Blake, Eli Whitney, American inventor:
b. Westboro, Mass., 27 Jan. 1795 ; d. New
Haven, 17 Aug. 1886. He graduated at Yale
University in 1816, and began business with his
uncle, Eli Whitney, in the manufacture of fire-
arms. In 1834 he founded, near New Haven,
Conn., the pioneer factory for the manufacture
of domestic hardware. In 1857 he invented the
widely-known stone- and ore-crusher called the
Blake crusher, which introduced a new era in
road-making and mining industries, and is used
throughout the world.

Blake, Francis, American inventor: b.
Needham, Mass., 25 Dec. 1850. He served for
13 years on the United States Coast Survey, part
of the time engaged in field work and its reduc-
tion to determine dififerences of longitude be-
tween the observatories at Greenwich, Paris,
Cambridge, and Washington. Having devoted
himself to the study of experimental physics, in
1878 he invented the famous Blake transmitter,
which is the telephonic transmitter now most
widely used throughout the world. He has also
patented other electrical devices.

Blake, John Laurie, American clergyman
and author: b. Northwood, N. H., 21 Dec. 1788;
d. Orange, N. J., 6 July 1867. He was educated
at Phillips Exeter Academy and at Brown Uni-
versity. He first entered the Congregational
ministry, but in a short time became an Episco-
palian and was ordained in that Church. He
settled in Pawtucket, and later in Hopkinton.
N. H., and in 1822 removed to Boston. He
continued to teach in this school till 1830, then
devoted himself to literary work. While a
teacher he published several text-books, pre-
pared for his own classes, and was editor of
the "^Gospel Advocate.^ His greatest work, a
^Biographical Dictionary,^ was first published in
1835.

Blake, Mrs. Lillie (Devereux) Umstead,
American advocate of woman's rights and novel-
ist : b. Raleigh, N. C, 1835. Her first husband,
Frank G. Quay Umstead, died in 1859 ; she mar-
ried Grenfill Blake in 1866, who died in 1896.
She has written and spoken much on woman
suffrage, and her novels bear on this theme.
She has written ^Southwold^ (1859) ; ^Rock-
ford^ (1863) ; * Fettered for Life^ (new ed.
1885); 'Woman's Place To-Day> (1883), a
reply to Dr. Morgan Dix's 'Lenten Lectures
on Women, ^ which attracted attention; etc.
In 1900 she was president of the Civic and
Equality Union.

BLAKE

Blake, Mary Elizabeth McGrath, American
poet and writer: b. Dungarven, Ireland, i Sept.
1840. In verse she has written < Poems' (1882) ;
< Youth in Twelve Centuries' (1886) ; etc. Of
her travels may be named <0n the Wing'
(1883); ^A Summer Holiday.'

Blake, Robert, British admiral: b. Bridge-
water, Somerset, August 1599; d. 17 Aug. 1657.
After attending the grammar school of his na-
tive place he was sent to Wadham college, Ox-
ford, where he took the degree of B.A. in 1617.
On his return to Bridgewater he lived quietly
on the fortune left him by his father, and was
led to embrace the principles of the Puritans,
by whose interest he was elected member for
Bridgewater in the Parliament of 1640. This
being soon dissolved, he lost his election for the
next, and immediately sought to advance the
cause in a military capacity in the war which
then broke out between the king and the Par-
liament. He soon distinguished himself by his
activity. In 1649 he was sent to command the
fleet in conjunction with Cols. Deane and Pop-
ham, and thus commenced the naval career
which has given him so distinguished a place
in British history. He immediately sailed to
Kinsale in quest of Prince Rupert, whom he
attempted to block up in that port. The prince
escaped to Lisbon, where Blake followed him ;
and, being refused permission to attack him
in the Tagus by the king of Portugal, he took
several rich prizes from the Portuguese (against
whom the Parliament declared war), and fol-
lowed Rupert to Malaga, where, without asking
permission of Spain, he attacked him and nearly
destroyed the whole of his fleet. On his re-
turn to England he was made warden of the
Cinque Ports, and soon after reduced the islands
of Scilly and Guernsey. In 1652 he was made
sole admiral, and on the 19th of May was at-
tacked in the Downs by Van Tromp with a fleet
of 45 sail, the force of Blake amounting only
to 23. He fought so bravely, however, that
Van Tromp was obliged to retreat. He then
continued his cruise, took a number of Dutch
merchantmen, and after several partial actions
drove the enemy into their harbor and returned
to the Downs. On 29 May he was again attacked
by Van Tromp, whose fleet was now increased
to 80 sail. Blake engaged this vast force with
a very inferior number and an unfavorable
wind ; but, after every possible exertion, was
obliged to retreat into the Thames, on which
Van Tromp was so much elated that he sailed
through the Channel with a broom at his mast-
head, to signify that he had swept the sea of
British ships. In the February following, Blake,
having with great diligence repaired his fleet, put
to sea with 60 sail, and soon after met the
Dutch admiral, who had 70 sail and 300 mer-
chantmen under convoy. During three days a
furious running fight up the Channel was main-
tained with obstinate valor on both sides, the
result of which was the loss of 11 men-of-war
and 30 merchant ships by the Dutch, while
that of the English was only one man-of-war.
It was in April of this year that Cromwell
assumed the sovereignty, on which occasion
Blake and his brother admirals issued a dec-
laration that, notwithstanding this change, they
resolved to persist in faithfully performing their
duty to the nation. "It is not for us," said
Blake to his officers, "to mind state affairs, but
to keep the foreigners from fooling us." On 3

June he again engaged Van Tromp with dubious
success ; but, renewing the action the next day,
he forced the Dutch to retire with a consider-
able loss in ships and men. On his return he
was received by Cromwell with great respect,
and returned member in the new Parliament
for Bridgewater. Aware of his aff'ection for a
republican government, the protector was not
displeased at having occasion to send him, with
a strong fleet, to enforce a due respect to the
British flag in the Mediterranean. He sailed
first to Algiers, which submitted, and then de-
molished the castles of Goletta and Porto Fer-
ino, at Tunis, because the dey refused to deliver
up the British captives. A squadron of his ships
also blocked up Cadiz and intercepted a Spanish
plate fleet. Being now very sick, he resolved to
do one more service to his country before his
death, and sailed with 24 ships to Santa Cruz,
in Tenerift'e, and, notwithstanding the strength
of the place, burned the ships of another Spanish
plate fleet which had taken shelter there, and by
a fortunate change of wind came out without
loss. His brother having failed in some part
of duty during this service, he immediately re-
moved him from his command. Finding his
disorder making rapid progress he then sailed
for England, and expired while the fleet was
entering Plymouth Sound. His body was hon-
ored with a magnificent public funeral, and in-
terred in Westminster Abbey, whence it was,
with pitiful spite, removed at the Restoration
and buried in St. Margaret's churchyard. So
disinterested was he that, after all his rich
captures and high posts, he scarcely left behind
him $2,500 of acquired property, freely sharing
all with his friends and seamen, into whom he
infused that intrepidity and spirit of enterprise
by which the British navy has been ever since
so highly distinguished.

Blake, William, English poet, painter,
and engraver: b. London, 28 Nov. 1757; d. 12
Aug. 1857. At the age of 10 he was sent to
a drawing-school, and four years later he was
apprenticed for seven years to the engraver
James Basire, for whom he drew from the
monuments in the older London churches and
Westminster Abbey. In 1778 he studied in the
Royal Academy, and about this time he began
to engrave for the booksellers, among his chief
productions being plates after Stothard for the
< Novelists' Magazine.' To the first exhibition
of the Royal Academy he sent a drawing en-
titled "^The Death of Earl Godwin.' He mar-
ried in 1782, and for the three years 1784-7
carried on a printseller's shop in partnership
with another engraver. From his earliest years
Blake was a mystic. He believed that all things
exist in the human imagination alone, and had a
wonderful power of imaginative vision which
enabled him to see angels in trees and in fields,
great men of past times, etc. His * Songs of
Innocence,' verse and designs (1789), and the
companion ^ Songs of Experience' (i794)> were
reproduced by himself and his wife by a process
which he believed to have been revealed to him
in a dream by a dead brother. Between 1793
and 1800 he produced a large number of designs,
among them 537 illustrations for Young's <Night
Thoughts.' In 1800 he became acquainted,
through Flaxman, with the poet William Hayley,
who gave him artistic commissions, and for
three years he lived in his neighborhood at Felp-
ham. He next produced the designs to Blair's

BLAKE — BLANC

^Grave' (engraved by Schiavonetti), which
stand in the forefront of his artistic work. In
1808 he sent to the Royal Academy the pictures
< Christ in the Sepulchre Guarded by Angels,^
and 'Jacob's Dream, ^ the last pictures he exhib-
ited there. From 1813 till his death he had a
staunch friend and patron in the painter John
Linnell. It was about this time that he exe-
cuted the series of pencil drawings known as
•Spiritual Portraits.^ The highly prized wood-
cuts to Thornton's '^VirgiP were executed in
1820, and in 1825 he produced for Linnell his
wonderful • Inventions to the Book of Job,-*
which, containing 22 engravings, 21 original de-
signs in colors, with the original colored draw-
ings by the artist (the property of the Earl of
Crewe), sold in London, in 1903, for $28,000.
He also executed a series of engravings and de-
signs from the *^Divina Commedia.* At the sale
just mentioned 12 drawings in colors for
•L'Allegro^ and 'II Penseroso' brought $9,800,
and the original colored issue of 'America, a
Prophecy,^ sold for $1,475. Among Blake's
other writings are : 'Poetical Sketches^ (1783);
'Gates of Paradise^ (i793) ; 'Prophetic Books,^
sadly incoherent, but with splendid designs
(i793~i8o4). The only complete edition of his
works is that of E. J. Ellis and W. B. Yates
(3 vols. 1893). Consult Gilchrist's 'Life'
(1863). and ' Works > by Swinburne (1868),
and Story (1893).

Blake, William Phipps, American min-
eralogist : b. New York, i June 1826. Graduat-
ing at the Sheffield Scientific School in 1852, he
joined the United States Pacific Railroad ex-
ploring expedition (1853) as mineralogist and
geologist. In 1861 he became mining engineer for
the Japanese government, and with R. Pumpelly
organized the first school of science in Japan.
As an expert in his specialty he was connected
in important capacities with the Paris Exposition
of 1867, the Vienna Exposition (1873), United
States Centennial Exhibition (1876), Paris Uni-
versal Exposition (1878), and drafted the sys-
tem of classification of United States ores and
minerals at the Columbian Exposition (1893).
He has .conducted important explorations in
Alaska, California, and NeA'ada, and the chief
mining districts of the United States, frequently
publishing his results in valuable reports and
scientific papers. Publications: 'Silver Ores and
Silver Mines' (1861) ; 'California Minerals'
(1863) ; 'Production of the Precious Metals'
(1867) ; 'Iron and Steel' (1873) ; 'Ceramic
Art and Glass' (1878) ; 'History of the Town
of Hamden, Conn.' ; 'Life of Captain Jona-
than Mix.'

Blake, William Rufus, American actor: b.
Halifax, N. S., 1805 ; d. Boston, 22 April 1863.
His first appearance on the American stage
was at the old Chatham Theatre, New York,
under the management of Mr. Barrere, in 1824,
as Frederic in 'The Poor Gentleman,' and in
Elliston's favorite character in 'The Three Sin-
gles.' His success was great. Jesse Rural, in
'Old Heads and Young Hearts,' was one of
his best parts. Mr. Blake was a fluent and
effective speaker. He was stage manager of the
Tremont Theatre, Boston, joint manager of the
Walnut Street Theatre, Philadelphia, and stage
manager of the Broadway Theatre, New York.

Blakeley, Johnston, American naval offi-
cer: b. near Seaford, County Down, Ireland,

October 1781 ; lost at sea, 1814. His father emi-
grated to the United States in 1783, and event-
ually made his home in Wilmington, N. C.
Johnston graduated at the University of North
Carolina in 1800, and on 5 February of that
year entered the navy as midshipman, and rose
to the rank of captain. On i May 1814 he
left Portsmouth, N. H., in command of the
new sloop-of-war Wasp, and very shortly ap-
peared in the English Channel, spreading terror
among the merchant ships and seaport towns.
On 28 June he fought and defeated the British
sloop Reindeer, for which exploit Congress
voted him a gold medal. On i September he
destroyed the Avon and on the 21st, near the
Azores, took the Atlanta, which he sent home to
Savannah. On 9 October the Wasp was spoken
by the Swedish bark Adonis ; and that was
the last ever heard of the vessel and of those
on board of her. It seems probable that, being
heavily armed and sparred, the vessel foundered
in a gale.

Blakelock, Ralph Albert, artist: b. New
York, 15 Oct. 1847. He graduated at the Col-
lege of the City of New York in 1867, and it
was intended that he should follow his father's
profession of medicine, but he developed a
strong taste for music and the arts, and with-
out a master taught himself painting. He has
painted landscapes, moonlight scenes, and In-
dian figures ; one of the last-named represents
the Ta-vo-kok-i, or circle-dance of the Kavavite
Indians. His work is very striking on account
of its harmonious color-schemes. His studio
is in New York.

Blakesley, Joseph Williams, English clergy-
man : b. London, 6 March 1808; d. Lincoln, 18
April 1885. He graduated at Trinity College,
Cambridge, in 1831 ; was Fellow there 1831-45,
and select preacher 1840-3 ; became a member
of the New Testament Committee on Bible Revi-
sion in 1870; became dean of Lincoln in 1872.
His publications include 'Life of Aristotle'
(1839) ; 'Conciones Academicge' (1843) ; and
an edition of 'Herodotus' (2 vols., 1852-4).

Blakey, Robert, English writer: b. Mor-
peth, Northumberland, 18 May 1795 ; d. Belfast,
26 Oct. 1878. He bought the Newcastle Liber-
ator in 1838, and got himself into trouble with
the government on account of certain alleged
seditious articles which he published. In 1848
he became professor of logic and metaphysics at
Queen's College, Belfast. Among his works are
'Treatise on tbe Divine and Human Wills' ;
'History of Moral Science' ; 'Historical Sketch
of Logic' ; 'Temporal Benefits of Christianity' ;
and 'The Angler's Song Book.'

Blanc, bloii, Anthony, American clergy-
man: b. Sury, France, 11 Oct. 1792; d. New
Orleans, 20 June i860. He was ordained to the
Roman Catholic priesthood in 1816 ; went to
Annapolis, Md., in 1817; was appointed bishop
of New Orleans in 1835 ; and became archbishop
there in 1850.

Blanc, Jean-Joseph-Louis, zhoii-zhd-sef-
loo-e, French historian, publicist, and socialist:
b. Madrid. 29 Oct. 181 1 ; d. 6 Dec. 1882. He
studied with great success in the college at Ro-
dez, and completed his education at Paris. He
was for a short time an attorney's clerk, after-
v/ard a teacher of mathematics and a private
tutor. Subsequently at Paris he devoted him-

BLANC — BLANCHARD

self to the career of journalism, fighting stoutly
in the ranks of the militant democracy. In 1839
he founded the Revue du Progres, in which first
appeared his great work on socialism, ^De I'Or-
ganisation du TravaiP (separately published in
1840). In this work he condemns individual
and competitive rivalry in labor; society should
not be subjected to a perpetual combat, but
should form a harmonious whole, in which each
member should contribute according to his abili-
ties and be recompensed according to his needs.
In 1841-4 appeared his *Histoire de Dix Ans'
(1830-40), in which he vigorously exposed the
trickery and jobbery of the government of Louis
Philippe, and which greatly contributed to bring
about its downfall. On the outbreak of the
revolution of 1848 Blanc was elected a member
of the provisional government, and appointed
president of the commission for the discussion
of the question of labor. He has been unjustly
charged with creating and organizing the disas-
trous scheme of national workshops, a scheme
which he strenuously opposed. After the closing
of these workshops, and the June insurrection
of 1848, he was prosecuted for conspiracy, but
escaped to England, where he took up a length-
ened residence. During this period he wrote the
Ibulk of his famous "-Histoire de la Revolution
Frangaise^ (12 vols. 1847-62). His other
works are: ^Lettres sur I'Angleterre^ (1865-7);
<Histoire de la Revolution de 1848^ (1870) ;
^Questions d'Aujourd'hui et de Demain^
(1873-4) ; etc. On the downfall of the second
empire (1870) Blanc returned to Paris and be-
came a member of the National Assembly in
1880.

Blanc, Ludwig Gottfried, lood'vig got'-
fred, German philologist, b. Berlin, 19 Sept.
1781 ; d. Halle, 18 April 1866. He was educated
at the French Theological Seminary in Berlin
and ordained as pastor at Halle. In 181 1 he
was accused of taking part in a conspiracy
against the king of Westphalia, and was irn-
prisoned at Magdeburg, and later at Kassel, until
released in 1813 by a Russian skirmishing corps.
He was chaplain in the Prussian army in the
war of 1814-15 ; from 1822 was professor of the
Romance languages at the University of Halle;
and in i860 was appointed preacher at the ca-
thedral in that city. He was an authority on the
Romance languages and especially on the works
of Dante. In connection with his study of
Dante he wrote a 'Dante Vocabulary^ (in
French) ; 'Attempt at a Philological Explana-
tion of Several Disputed Points in the "Divine
Comedy'^ ^ ; and translated the 'Divine Com-
edy^ into German. He has written also 'Gram-
mar of the Italian Language^ ; and a 'Hand-
book of the Most Remarkable Facts of Nature
and the History of the Earth and Its Inhabi-
tants.'

Blanc, Marie Therese, ma-re ta-raz
(Therese Bextzon), French novelist and lit-
terateur: b. Seine-Port, 21 Sept. 1840. She has
been for many years on the editorial staff of the
<Revue des Deux Mondes,^ to which she has
contributed notable translations and reviews of
many American, English, and German authors.
Her literary essays on these contemporaneous
writers were collected in 'Foreign Literature
and Customs^ (1882). and 'Recent American
Novelists^ (1885). Her first work to attract
attention was 'A Divorce^ (1871), published in

Vol. 2 — je.

the 'Journal des Debats.* Two other novels,
'A Remorse* (1879), and 'Tony> (1889), were-
crowned by the French Academy. Other stories
are 'Georgette* and 'Jacqueline* (1893); 'Con-
dition of Woman in the United States* (1895)-

Blanc, Paul Joseph, pol zho-zef, French
genre painter: b. Paris 1846; d. Paris 5
July 1904. He studied under Bin and Ca-
banel. He won the Grand Prix de Rome in
1867 ; the first-class medal of the Paris Salon
in 1S72; the decoration of the Legion of Honor
in 1878; and the first-class medal in the Paris
Exposition of 1889. One of his best-known
works is a decorative composition depicting the
consecration, baptism, and triumph of Clovis.

Blanc, Mont. See Moxt Blanc.

Blanchard, blan-shard, Edward Laman,

English dramatist and novelist : b. London,
1820; d. 1889. His novels, 'Temple Bar* and
'A Man Without a Destiny,* evinced no special
talent for story-telling; on the other hand he
composed for Drury Lane Theatre about 100
Christmas pantomimes in the vein of grotesque
burlesque, among them 'Sinbad the Sailor,*
which were received with unbounded popular
favor.

Blanchard, Emile, a-mel bloh-shar, French
naturalist : b. Paris, 6 March 1819. He is espe-
cially renowned as an entomologist, and is the
author of many scientific works, including
'Researches into the Organization of Worms'
(1837) ; 'Natural History of Orthopterous and
Neuropterous Insects* (1837-40); 'History of
Insects, etc.* (1843-5).

Blanchard, Frangois, fran-swa, French
aeronaut : b. 1753 ; d. 1809. He displayed great
ingenuity by the invention of a hydraulic ma-
chine in the 19th year of his age, and afterward
in the construction of a flying ship, which, by
means of a counterpoise of six pounds, was
raised to more than 20 feet from the ground.
He eagerly availed himself of the discoveries of
the brothers Montgolfier, and the improvements
of the same by Prof. Charles and M. Robert in
Paris. After having made his first aerostatic
voyage. 4 March 1784, he crossed the Channel
from Dover to Calais, 1785, with Dr. Jeffries,
a gentleman of Boston. For this exploit
he was rewarded by the king of France
with a present of $2,400 and a pension of $240.
In the same year, at London, he first made
use of a parachute invented by him, or, accord-
ing to others, by Etienne Montgolfier. After
having performed many aerostatic voyages in
foreign countries also, he \yas accused of propa-
gating revolutionary principles, and imprisoneo
(1793) in the fortress of Kufstein, in the Tyrol.
Havmg obtained his liberty, he made his 46th
ascent in the city of New York in 1796. In
1798 he ascended with 16 persons in a large
balloon at Rouen, and descended at a place 15
miles distant. In 1807 his aerostatic voyages
amounted to more than 66. His wife continued
to make aerial voyages. In 181 1 she ascended
in Rome, and after going a distance of 60
miles she rose again to proceed to Naples. In
June 1819 having ascended from Tivoli, in
Paris, her balloon took fire at a considerable
height, from some fire-works which she carried
with her. The car fell in the Rue de Provence,
and the aeronaut was dashed to pieces.

BLANCHARD — BLANCHING

Blanchard, Jacques, zhak, French painter:
b. Paris, 1600; d. 1638. He received the first
lessons of his art from Bellori, his rnaternal
uncle, studied some time at Lyon, and in 1624
repaired to Rome. After two years he visited
Venice, studied the works of Titian and the
other great colorists of his school, and executed
several paintings which gave him a name. After
his return to Paris he executed a great number
of works, which procured him the surname of
Hhe French Titian." His best piece, a *^ Descent
of the Holy Spirit,^ is in the cathedral at Notre
Dame.

Blanchard, Jonathan, American educator:
b. Rockingham, Vt, 19 Jan. 1811; d. Wheaton,
111., 14 May 1892. He graduated at Lane Theo-
logical Seminary in 1832 and was ordained a.
Presbyterian minister in 1838. He was Ameri-
can vice-president of the World's Anti-Slavery
Convention in London in 1843 ; and in 1846
became president of Knox College at Galesburg,
111. He was president of Wheaton College, 111.,
1880-2 ; and, on resigning, was chosen president-
emeritus, and subsequently gave most of his
time to editing ^The Christian Cynosure.^

Blanchard, Thomas, American inventor: b.
Sutton, Worcester County, Mass., 24 June 1788;
d. 16 April 1864. He joined his brother in the
manufacture of tacks lay hand, and at the age
of 18 commenced his invention of a tack-
machine, which in six years he brought to such
perfection that by placing in the hopper the iron
to be worked, and applying the motive power,
500 tacks were made per minute with better
finished heads and points than had ever been
made by hand. He sold the patent for $5,000.
About this time various attempts were made in
the United States armories at Springfield and
Harper's Ferry, to turn musket-barrels with a
uniform external finish. Blanchard undertook
the construction of a lathe to turn the whole of
the barrel from end to end, by the combination
of one single self-directing operation. About
three inches of the barrel at the breech was partly
cylindrical and partly with flat sides ; these were
all cut by the same machine, ingeniously chan-
ging to a vibrating motion as it approached the
breech. The superintendent of the Springfield
armory contracted with Mr. Blanchard for one
of his machines. While it was in operation
one of the workmen remarked that his own
work of grinding the barrels was done away
with. Another, employed on the wooden stocks,
which were then all made by hand, said that
Blanchard could not spoil his job, as he could
not make a machine to turn a gunstock. Blanch-
ard answered that he was not sure, but he
would think about it, and as he was driving
home the idea of his lathe for turning irregular
forms suddenly struck him. The principle of
this machine is, that forms are turned by a
pattern the exact shape of the object to be pro-
duced, which in every part of it is successively
brought in contact with a small friction-wheel;
this wheel precisely regulates the motion _ of
chisels arranged upon a cutting wheel acting
upon the rough block, so that as the friction-
wheel successively traverses every portion of the
rotating pattern, the cutting wheel pares off
the superabundant wood from end to end of
the block, leaving a precise resemblance of the
model. This remarkable machine, with modi-
fications and improvements, is in use in the

national armories as well as in England, and
in various forms is applied to many operations in
making musket-stocks, such as cutting in the
cavity for the lock, barrel, ramrod, butt-plates,
and mountings, comprising, together with the
turning of the stock and barrel, no less than 13
different machines. Beside gunstocks, it is also
applied to a great variety of objects, such as
busts, shoe lasts, handles, spokes, etc. Mr.
Blanchard was also interested at an early day in
the construction of railroads and locomotives,
and in boats contrived to ascend rapid rivers.
He also invented a machine for cutting and fold-
ing envelopes, a steam wagon, and a process for
bending heavy timbers.

Blanche of Bourbon, Castilian queen: b.
1338. She was the daughter of Peter, Duke of
Bourbon, and in 1353 married Peter, king of
Castile, surnamed the Cruel. Don Frederick,
Peter's natural brother, had been deputed to
meet her at Narbonne and bring her into Spain,
and she is said to have so far forgotten herself
as to conceive a violent passion for him. Ru-
mors to this effect had reached the king's ears,
and though he celebrated the marriage he soon
showed that he had placed his affections else-
where. He shortly after declared the marriage
null, imprisoned the queen in the castle of
Medina Sidonia, and is said to have gotten rid
of her by poison.

Blanche of Castile, French queen: b. 1187;
d. Milan, November 1252. She was the
daughter of Alphonso IX., married Louis VIII.
of France and became the mother of Louis IX.
(«St. Louis"). On the death of her husband
she anticipated the formal appointment of a
regency by procuring the immediate coronation
of her son, and during his minority held the
reins of government in his name with distin-
guished ability and success. In 1244, when St.
Louis took his departure for the Holy Land
she again became regent and gave new proofs
of her talents and virtues. Her days are said
to have been shortened by the long absence of
her son, and a prevailing rumor that he had
resolved to remain permanently in Palestine.

Blanche, August Theodor, ow'goost ta'6-
dor blansh, Swedish dramatist and novel-
ist: b. Stockholm, 17 Sept. 181 1; d. Stockholm,
30 Nov. 1868. His comedies and farces, — more
particularly <Jennv. or the Steamboat Trip' ;
<The Doctor > ; <the Rich Uncle' ; and <The
Foundling' — have made all Sweden laugh;
while his realistic fictions, — among them ^The
Spectre' ; H'ales of a Cabman,' and ^Sons of
North and South,' — are eagerly read.

Blan'chet, Joseph Goderick, Canadian
statesman: b. Saint Pierre, 1829. He studied
medicine, graduating from the College of Saint
Anne ; but has been especially active in public
life ; he has been mayor of Levis, speaker of the
Provincial legislature of Quebec for seven years,
and member of the Canadian Assembly, from
which he resigned on account of the law on dual
representation.

Blanching, the process which prevents or
checks the formation of chlorophyll and other
substances in plants by excluding light. Tt alters
the flavor as well as lightens the color of celery,
sea-kale, asparagus, etc., and is generally accom-
plished by covering the plants with earth,_ boards,
straw, paper, etc., or, in a small way, by inverted
flower-pots, kegs, barrels, etc.

BLANCO — BLAND

Blanco, Antonio Guzman, an-to'nyo gooz'-
man blan'ko, Venezuelan soldier: b. Cara-
cas, 29 Feb. 1828 : d. 29 July 1899. He became
prominent in the Federalist revolts, 1859-63, and,
when his party triumphed, was made first vice-
president in 1863 under Falcon, who was de-
posed in the revolution of 1868. Blanco led a
successful counter-revolution in 1870, became
president, and retained the office till 1882. In
1893 he was appointed minister to France, where
he resided till his death.

Blanco, Jose Felix, ho'sa fa-leks, Venezue-
lan historian : b. Mariana de Caracas, 24 Sept.
1782; d. Caracas, 8 Jan. 1872. At different
times he acted in the capacity of priest, soldier,
and statesman. He was one of the leaders in
the revolution at Caracas, 19 April 1810, and
was the first editor of the great historical work,
^Documentos para la historia de la vida publica
del Libertador,^ etc.

Blanco, Pedro, pa'dro, Bolivian states-
man: b. Cochabamba, 19 Oct. 1795; d. Sucre,
January 1829. He joined the Spanish army in
1812, but soon deserted to the patriots, and
served with them till the end of the revolution.
In 1828 he became a general, and in the same
year, when Sucre fell, was made president of
Bolivia, but was superseded in the revolution of
31 Dec. 1828. He was shot in Sucre.

Blanco, Ramon y Arenas, ra'mon e a-ra-
nas, ]\I.\RQcis DE Pexa Plata, Spanish sol-
dier: b. San Sebastian, Spain, 1833; d. IMadrid,
4 April 1906. He began his military career
in 1855 as lieutenant; was promoted captain in
1858, and won the rank of lieutenant-colonel in
the war with San Domingo. In 1894 Blanco
went to the Philippines as governor of ]Min-
danao. When he returned to Spain he was
assigned to the Army of the North, and in
the war with the Carlists made a brilliant
record. He successfully stormed Pena Plata,
for which achievement he was created a mar-
quis with that title. He succeeded Gen. Weyler
as captain-general in Cuba, and his career was
marked by deeds of blood and violence. When
in command at the Philippines he ordered 169
prisoners to be thrown into a dungeon, where
they were left for two days. When the guard
opened the door they were all dead from asphyx-
iation. In the second Cuban insurrection 1,500
defenseless prisoners were slaughtered by his
orders. At Cavite the Spanish captured several
native leaders, and. by Blanco's instructions,
after being tortured, the unhappy wretches were
disemboweled and their bleeding bodies hung
on the gates of the city. The Spanish govern-
ment permitted him to resign his post in Cuba
before the day set for the American occupation.

Blanco, Encalada, Manuel, ma-noo-el
blan-ko-en-ka-la'da, Spanish-American sol-
dier: b. Buenos Ayres, 5 Sept. 1790; d. 5 Sept.
1875. He distinguished himself in the Chilean
war of independence. He was chosen president
of Chile in July 1826, but soon resigned and was
made general of the army. He unsuccessfully
invaded Peru in 1837, and was not allowed to
retire till he had signed a treaty of peace. Chile
annulled this treaty, and he was court-martialed,
but freed. In 1847 he was intendant of Valpa-
raiso, and in 1853-8 minister to France.

Blanco, blan'ko. Cape (literally, Svhite
cape"), a name given to a great number of capes
by the Spaniards, Portuguese, and Italians. It
corresponds to the French caf> blanc. The name
is as common and as unphilosophical as that of
White Hill, Black River, etc. The cape best
known by this name is a headland on
the west coast of Africa, in lat. 20° 47' N., and
Ion. 16° 58' W., the extremity of a rocky ridge
which projects from the Sahara in a westerly
direction, and then bending southward forms a
commodious harbor called the Great Bay. Cape
Blanco was first discovered by the Portuguese
in 144 1.

Bland, Edith Nesbit (E. Nesbit), English
writer: b. London, 15 Aug. 1858. She was mar-
ried to Hubert Bland, 1879. She has written
several volumes of verse, as well as a series of
popular children's books and several novels.
Her published works include: ^Lays and
J.egends> (1886-92); ^Leaves of Life^ (1888);
^A Pomander of Verse^ (1895) ; <Grim Tales^
(1893); 'Something Wrong> (1893); 'The
Marden Mystery* (1896) ; < Songs of Love and
Empire* (1897); 'The Secret of Kyriels*

(1898) ; ^The Story of the Treasure Seekers*

(1899) ; ^ Pussy and Doggy Tales* (1899) ; 'The
Book of Dragons* (1900) ; <The Would-be
Goods* ; 'Nine Unlikely Tales* ; 'Thirteen Ways
Home* (1901) ; ^Five Children and It* (1902) ;
^The Red House* (1902); with Hubert Bland,
^The Prophet's Mantle* (1889) ; with Barron,
^The Butler in Bohemia* (1894).

Bland, Richard Parks, American legis-
lator : b. near Hartford, Ky., 19 Aug. 1835 ; d.
Lebanon, Mo., 15 June 1899. He received an
academical education, and, between 1855 and
1865, practised law in Missouri, California, and
Nevada, and was engaged for some time in min-
ing. In 1865 he settled in Rolla, Mo., and
practised there till he removed to Lebanon
in the same State. He was a member of
Congress in 1873-95 ^rid from 1897 till his
death. In 1896 he was a conspicuous candidate
for the presidential nomination in the Demo-
cratic National Convention, but on the fourth
ballot his name was withdrawn, and the vote
of his State was cast for William J. Bryan.
Mr. Bland was best known as the leader in the
Lower House of Congress of the Free-Silver
movement, and the author of the Bland Silver
Bill. At the time of his death he was a member
of the committees on coinage, weights and mea-
sures, and expenditures on public buildings.

Bland, Theodoric, American military offi-
cer: b. Prince George County, Va., 1742; d. I
June 1790; he studied medicine in the Univer-
sity of Edinburgh, and for a time practised in
England. He returned home in 1764, wrote
against Gov. Dunmore under the name of Cas-
sius ; and was active in his profession until
the outbreak of the Revolutionary War, when he
sided with the Colonists, and became captain
of the first troop of Virginia cavalry. In 1777 he
joined the main army as a lieutenant-colonel,
and later became a colonel. He distinguished
himself at the battle of Brandywine, and was
placed in command of the prisoners taken at
Saratoga, who were marched to Charlotteville,
Va. In 1780-3 he was a member of the Conti-
nental Congress, and was a representative from
Virginia to the First Federal Congress in 1789.

BLANK VERSE — BLANQUI

Blank Verse, verse without rhyme. This
was the invariable form of the poetry of the
ancients, but it is now peculiar to the Italian,
English, and German languages. The poetry of
the Anglo-Saxons and the earliest English
poetry was not rhymed, yet it is not generally
called blank verse, as their versification had a
peculiarity of its own called alliteration. When
rhyme, however, was once introduced into Eng-
lish verse, it was for a long time regarded as
the exclusive form of versification, and the Earl
of Surrey, who was beheaded by order of Henry
VIII. in 1547, is said to have been the first to use
blank verse in England, namelJ^ in his transla-
tion of the second and fourth books of Virgil's
*^neid.^ The most common form of blank
verse in English poetry is the decasyllabic, such
as that of Milton's ^Paradise Lost^ and the
dramas of Shakespeare. From Shakespeare's
time it has been the kind of verse almost uni-
versally used by dramatic writers. Dryden, in-
deed, after the Restoration, introduced ryhme
into his tragedies, in imitation of the French
rhymed plays ; but after keeping the stage for
a number of years, they became intolerable to
the English ear, and the introduction of rhyme
into the drama has never since been attempted
in England. Shakespeare not uncommonly ends
a scene with a few lines of rhyme, although the
rest of the scene is in blank verse, and in the
subordinate play interwoven with the action of
Hamlet blank verse is used throughout. The
first use of the term blank verse is said to be
in Hamlet, ii. 2: "The lady shall say her mind
freely, or the blank verse shall halt for't.''

Blanket (that is "fine white^^ goods), a
heavy bed or horse cover, of a fabric with a thick
soft nap on both sides. Originally made entirely
of wool, and still so in the finest grades, the bulk
of medium and cheap blankets are now made
with a cotton chain or warp and a wool filling,
as cheaper, stiffer, and little less durable in
good condition. In the finest grades of Amer-
ican blankets, the filling is Australian wool, the
longest and softest fibre known ; the warp of
American wool. The cheapest ones have for
filling the shorter combings of wool, shoddy,
etc. ; ordinary horse blankets the same or still
coarser half-cleaned wool, and largely animal
hair. Of late also an immense quantity of all-
cotton blankets are made, the nap being cotton
wool ; these have competed less with wool
blankets than with comfortables, whose sale for
a time they cut in half. They are used for
economy, where heavy blankets are not needed,
and to replace cotton sheeting in cold rooms,
for children, etc. The most famous blankets
in the world are those of the Mysore in India,
so delicate that one 18 feet long can be rolled
inside a hollow bamboo. In the United States
they are a specialty in southwestern Indian
domestic manufacture, especially among the
quite civilized Navajos (q.v.), whose rough
hand looms and stick shuttles turn out blan-
kets weighing 20 pounds or more, and selling
for $1 and $2 a pound, much prized by Alaskan
and Klondike gold-seekers. But of civilized
rnanufacture, the finest are from California,
JNevada, and Oregon, and from Minneapolis;
sorne of these retail for $25 per pair with a
weight of less than 10 pounds. Maine, Ohio,
?.r.d West Virginia also produce very fine
goods. Below the above fancy price, of which

much is loading for short runs, prices range
for all-wool blankets from $20, the highest usu-
ally kept in stock, down to $7.50, and for cot-
ton-warp down to $2, all-cotton, $1. Few
blankets have been imported into this country
since i860. The early manufacture here was
"a series of costly and futile experiments,^^ ex-
cept a few coarse ones for army or navy
use, and for slaves on plantations, for which
in 1831 a mill was started in Pendleton,
S. C. ; another to make "Indian'^ blankets was
opened in Buffalo the same year. But the
first effective attempt was under the sharp
tariff of 1842, soon swept away by the
moderate one of 1847. The tariff bill of 1857,
however, which formed one of the southern
counts for secession, ta.xed imported blankets so
heavily that by 1861 importations had practically
ceased. In i860 the United States' total manu-
facture was 616,400 pairs, mainly in New Eng-
land, Pennsylvania, and California. In 1880 this
had increased to 4,400,000, gross value $6,840,000,
and the prices had dropped so much that the
cheaper grades had gone out of use ; the foreign
commissioners at the Centennial of 1876 reported
that for weight, thickness, softness, and perfec-
tion of surface, nothing in Europe compared
with the American, and that the European
cheaper grades could not be sold even to the
Indians. But competition had so glutted the
market that in 1878 a great auction was held in
New York to clear them off, at heavy sacrifice.
In i8go the manner of report was changed to
square yards, — 20,793,644 of "house blankets,*^
valued at $7,153,900, and 5,507,074 of horse
blankets, $1,721,516. For some reason, probably
the larger use of comfortables, the use of the
all or part-wool article fell off heavily in the last
decade — to 18,155,505 square yards, valued at
$5,200,959; though horse blankets increased to
7>3i5>304. valued at $1,740,988 or about the same
as before. The chief seats of manufacture were
Pennsylvania for all-wool, and Massachusetts
for cotton-warp, though Indiana, Minnesota,
California, and several other States furnished
large quantities.

The nap is formed in the finest grades, and
till recently was so altogether, by pulling up the
fibre with teazles ; these have now been replaced
in the cheaper makes with steel teeth or brushes
on revolving cylinders, which, however, are too
inflexible and liable to tear the goods to be
trusted with expensive ones. The use of Jac-
quard patterns with two or three colors, in
place of printed ones, is another change which
has popularized blankets by increasing their
beauty.

Blanqui, blaii-ke, Jerome Adolphe, French
economist: b. Nice, 1798; d. 1B54. While study-
ing medicine at Paris he made acquaintance
with Jean Baptiste Say, and was induced to
devote himself to the study of economics. He
succeeded Say in the Conservatoire des Arts et
Metiers as professor of industrial economy.
Blanqui, who favored a free-trade policy, pub-
lished, among other works, ^Precis Elementaire
d'ficnnnmie Politique^ and ^Histoire de I'ficono-
mie Politique en Europe.'

Blanqui, Louis Augusta, French revolu-
tionist: b. Nice, 7 Feb. 1805; d. i Jan. 1881. He
made himself conspicuous chiefly by his passion-
ate advocacy of the most extreme political opin-

BLANQUILLO — BLASPHEMY

ions, for which' he suffered with the pride of
a martyr. He was one of the foremost fighters
in all the French revolutions of the 19th cen-
tury. In 1830 he was decorated for his valor
at the barricades. In 1848 he figured as the
chief organizer of the popular movement under
the provisional government. He took the lead
also in the revolutionary attentat of 15 May, the
aim of which was to overthrow the Constituent
Assembly. At the head of an excited mob he
demanded of the French representatives the
resuscitation of the Polish nationality, while one
of his friends pronounced the dissolution of the
Assembly. For his share in these disturbances
he was rewarded with a 10 years' imprisonment
in Belleisle. In 1861 Blanqui was sentenced to
another imprisonment of four years. After the
downfall of the second empire in 1870, Blanqui
resumed his revolutionary activity, and, in 1871,
took a prominent part in forming the Commune.
Being too unwell to endure transportation to
New Caledonia, he was condemned to imprison-
ment for life, from which he was released in
1879. He spent nearly half of his life in prison.

Blanquillo, blan-kel'yo, a fish of the Gulf
of Mexico (Caiilolatihis chrysops), related to
the tile-fish. The name is also given in southern
California to the yellow-tail (q.v.).

Blarney, Ireland, a village four miles
northwest of the city of Cork, near the stream
of same name, here crossed by a handsome
bridge of three arches. It is a small but well-
built place ; and besides the parish church, con-
tains a national school. Flax and cotton were
formerly manufactured to some extent, but both
of these branches have now decayed. Spinning
and dyeing woolen 3'arn is, however, still car-
ried on ; and there is an extensive tweed manu-
factory employing a number of people. Blarney
Castle stands on an isolated limestone rock at
the junction of the Blarney and Comane.
Erected in the 15th century, it was the scene of
several interesting historical events ; but de-
rives its chief notoriety from a stone in its
northeast angle, several feet from the top, bear-
ing a Latin inscription, recording the date of the
erection, and called the "Blarney Stone.'^ To
this stone tradition ascribes the faculty of com-
municating to all who kiss it that species of
most persuasive fluency of speech commonly
called "blarney.^^ The "groves of Blarney'^ are
extensive and interesting, and beneath the castle
there are also some curious natural caves.

Blaser ble'zer, Gustav, German sculptor:
b. Diisseldorf, 9 ]\Iay 1813; d. Cannstatt, 20
April 1874. He was associated 11 ji-ears with
Ranch and for that time shared in all his work.
In 1845 he went to Rome, but returned to Berlin
when appointed to design one of the groups for
the "Schlossbriicke.^ His group, ^Minerva
Leading a Young Warrior to Battle,' is thought
to be the best of the series. Among his other
works are a statue of St. Matthew in the church
at Helsingfors ; the ^Prophet DanieP ; Barussia
in the new museum at Berlin ; the statues of
Jeremiah, Daniel, and Charlemagne for the
church at Potsdam ; the equestrian statue of
Frederick William III. at Cologne; ^Hospital-
ity-* ; and many busts, including one of Lincoln
and one of Washington.

•Blashfield, Edwin Howland, American art-
ist: b. New York, 15 Dec. 1848; studied in
Paris under Leon Bonnat ; and began exhibiting

in the Paris Salon in 1874. He returned to the
United States in 1881, and has since distin-
guished himself by the execution of large deco-
rative works. Among his noteworthy produc-
tions in this line are one of the domes of the
Manufacturers' building in the World's Colum-
bian Exposition, the great central dome of the
Library of Congress, and the new apartment of
the appellate court in New York ; besides ceil-
ing and panel work in the residences of C. P.
Huntington, W. K. Vanderbilt, and George W.
C. Drexel, and in the Astoria ballroom and sev-
eral clubhouses in New York.

Bla'sius, St., or St. Blaise, Bishop of Se-
baste, in Armenia, is said to have suffered
martyrdom about 316, by order of Agricola.
governor of Cappadocia and little Armenia. His
feast day is celebrated in the Greek church on il
February and he is commemorated in the oldest
martyrologies of the Roman church. In the
Roman iMartyrology, 3 February is assigned to
him. He is the patron saint of wool-combers,
his flesh having been torn by iron combs. He is
especially invoked in diseases of children and
animals, and ailments connected with the
throat are more particularly in his province.

Blasphemy, is somewhat variously defined.
According to the most general definition,
it means the speaking irreverently of the
mysteries of religion ; and formerly, in Roman
Catholic countries, it also included the speaking
contemptuously or disrespectfully of the Holy
Virgin or the saints. Public blasphemy has been
considered by the Catholic Church as an un-
pardonable sin, and it was formerly punished
with death by the municipal laws. The 77th
novel of Justinian assigned this punishment to
it ; and the capitularies inflicted the same pun-
ishment upon such as, knowing of an act of
blasphemy, did not denounce the offender. The
former laws of France punished this crime with
fine, corporal punishment, the gallows, and
death, according to the degree and aggravation
of the offense. The records of the parliaments
supply numerous instances of condemnation for
this crime, and many of punishment by death ;
others of branding and mutilation. A man was
for this offense condemned to be hanged, and to
have his tongue afterward cut out, and the sen-
tence was executed at Orleans as late as 1748.
But it is remarked by a writer in the French
^Encyclopedie Moderne,' that we should form an
erroneous opinion from the present state of
society of the effect of this offense, and the dis-
orders it might introduce in former times; for
religion was once so intimately blended with
the government and laws, that to treat the re-
ceived articles of faith or religious ceremonies
with disrespect was in effect to attack civil
institutions.

By the common law of England, as stated
by Blackstone, blasphemy consists in denying
the being and providence of God, contumelious
reproaches of Jesus Christ, profane scoffing at
Holy Scripture, etc., and is punishable by fine
and imprisonment, or corporal punishment; the
offense is also statutory, the statute 9 and
10 William III. cap. xxxii., declaring that if
any one shall deny any of the persons of the
Trinity to be God, or assert that there are more
gods than one, or deny the truth of Christianity
or of the Scriptures, he shall be incapable of
holding any office; and for a second offens& be

BLAST FURNACE

disabled from suing any action, or being an
executer, and suffer three j^ears' imprisonment.
By the law of Scotland, as it stood under
acts of 1661 and 1695, the punishment of blas-
phemy was death. Blasphemy consisted of rail-
ing at or cursing God, or of obstinately persist-
ing in denying the existence of the Supreme
Being, or any of the persons of the Trinity.

The early legislation of the American colo-
nies followed that of the mother country, and
in some of them the crime of blasphemy was
punished with death; but the penalty was miti-
gated before the establishment of independence,
and imprisonment, whipping, setting on the pil-
lory, having the tongue bored with a red-hot
iron, etc., were substituted. Several penalties
against blasphemy are to be found in the laws
of some of the New England States, according
to which it is provided that, if any person shall
blaspheme, by denying, cursing, or contumeli-
ously reproaching God, his creation, govern-
ment, or final judging of the world, or by curs-
ing or reproaching Jesus Christ or the Holy
Ghost, or contumeliously reproaching the Word
of God, consisting of the commonly received
books of the Old and New Testament, he is
liable to imprisonment for a term not exceed-
ing five years. But the most direct and public
violations of these laws are passed over with-
out punishment or prosecution, due probably to
the provisions of the National and State Consti-
tutions, guaranteeing religious liberty, and the
freedom of speech. In many States, the offense
of blasphamy, not being a subject of special
statutory provision, is only punishable either as
an offense at common law, or a violation of the
statute laws against profane swearing.

Blast Furnace, a modern mechanical appli-
ance, or structure built of refractory material
in which metallic ores are smelted in contact
with fuel and flux, the combustion of the fuel
being accelerated by air under pressure. The
materials are fed in at the top of the furnace,
and after the ores are reduced, the metal, or
in some cases the matte, and the resulting slag
are tapped in a molten state at or 'near the bot-
tom; as a rule, the slags, being of less specific
gravity than the metal, float upon it. The sizes
of blast furnaces vary from a few feet to over
100 feet in height, a horizontal section through
the structure showing either circular or rectangu-
lar interiors, the circular form being adopted
for the larger sizes, while those of smaller
height are often made rectangular to permit of
introducing a number of tuyeres with air noz-
zles into a narrow hearth.

A vertical section of a modern American
blast furnace shows at the lower part, the hearth
or crucible of the shape desired, into which the
air is admitted under pressure through tu3'-eres.
On this hearth is superposed an inverted frustum
of a cone forming the boshes, and above
these the shaft of the furnace ascends in the
form of a right cone. The shafts are inclosed by
shells of sheet steel or by crinolines formed of
bands and beams, and carried on columns. The
boshes are usually secured bj' bands and the
crucibles by sheet and metal jackets. The mate-
rials are charged into the shaft so that layers of
fuel alternate with layers of ore and flux, the
taper of the shaft being sufficient to permit of ex-
pansion as the materials are heated, and facilitate
their delivery to the hopper formed by the boshes.

where reduction of the ores takes place. The
reduced ore, meeting the burning fuel near the
tuyeres, is melted, and the liquid slag and metal
drop into the hearth or crucible (the cinder or
slag floating on the liquid metal), from which
they are tapped out from time to time. By
heating the blast before it enters the tuyeres
combustion is accelerated, and the furnaces pro-
duce increased quantities of metal with reduced
fuel consumption per unit of product.

The large blast furnaces smelt ores of iron
or manganese, or of iron and manganese, and
are from 40 to 106 feet in height, a cross sec-
tion at the top of the boshes showing a circle
from 10 feet to 23 feet in diameter. The blast
is heated to 1,000°, and sometimes to 1,200°, or
1,400° F., and is forced into the crucibles 'or
hearth through from 6 to 20 tuyeres, at pres-
sures from 5 to 15, and, at times, exceeding 20
pounds per square inch. The blast furnaces
smelting silver or copper ores seldom exceed 30
feet in height, the horizontal section being rec-
tangular, and the blast pressure but a fraction of
a pound. A modern blast furnace will produce
from 300 to 600 tons of pig iron daily, requiring
from 1,000 to 2,000 tons of ore, fuel and flux
to be fed into it. The cost for construction and
equipment of one of these modern furnaces,
with its necessary railroad tracks, storage room
and bins for receiving the raw material, the
mechanism for elevating it to the top of the
stack, with sufficient blowing engines, boilers,
hot blast stoves, etc., ranges from $400,000 to
$800,000.

As a rule, blast furnaces smelting other ores
than those of iron have the top of the furnace
stack open, while, in those producing iron, the
top is usually sealed by a bell closing against a
hopper, to distribute the stock in the wide throat
of the furnace and to control the gases which
are the result of the smelting operation, so as to
employ the calorific value of these gases for
heating the blast or for generating steam in
boilers to operate machinery. The practica-
bility of using these gases in engines, where the
gas, in exploding, gives impetus to a piston, has
also been demonstrated. The blast is heated
in hot blast stoves, generally cylinders from 14
to 25 feet in diameter and from 50 to 115 feet
high, filled with checker work of fire brick.
These stoves are placed in series; the gas being
admitted to and burned in a stove raises the
temperature of the masonry, after which the
gas is shut off and the blast forced through the
highly heated checkers. By alternating a series
of stoves on gas or blast, at intervals of one or
two hours, a nearly uniform temperature is
maintained.

The blast, after passing through the hot blast
stoves, is conveyed in iron or steel conduits,
lined with fire brick, to tuyeres, set in the walls
of the crucible. These tuyeres are formed of
an inner and outer shell with closed ends, water
circulating between the two shells. The tuy-
eres are mostly made of bronze or copper and
are set in larger tuyere blocks (also water
cooled) of iron or bronze. Nozzles connect the
lined air conduits to the tuyeres. The cooling
water required by a modern blast furnace
amounts to millions of gallons daily. A large
furnace requires a boiler equipment of from
3,000 to 3.500 horse power for its blowing, pump-
ing and elevating machinery, electric plant, etc

MODERN BLAST FURNACE, SHOWING AUTOMATIC HOISTING AND CHARGING

EQUIPMENT.

BLAST FURNACE PRACTICE

Blast furnaces are numerous in Great Brit-
ain, Germany, France, Belgium, Spain, Russia,
Austria-Hungary, Sweden, and they also exist
in Canada, ^lexico, Italy, China, India, and
Japan. Data as to the number of these is not
at hand, but the pig iron production of various
countries gives an approximate idea. In 1905
these figures (in metric tons) were approxi-
mately as follows : United States 25,340,258
tons; United Kingdom 9,746,221 tons; Germany
10,987,623 tons; France 3,077,000 tons (for the
first six months of 1906, 1,573,504 tons) ; Russia
2,125,000 tons; Austria-Hungary 1,372,300 tons;
Belgium 1,310,200 tons; Sweden 531,200 tons;
Spain 383,100 tons; Canada 475,491 tons; Italy
31,300 tons; all other countries (estimated)
655,000 tons ; making a total production of about
54,054,783 tons.

It is impossible to give the total number of
blast furnaces in the United States, for the rea-
son that the number of those used for producing
copper, silver, etc., are not collated, but lists of
the furnaces employed in reducing iron ores are
carefully reported by the American Iron and
Steel Association. There were in 1906, in the
United States, a total of 424 blast furnaces,
whose aggregate reported capacity amounted to
over 25,000,000 long tons of pig iron, but as all
of these furnaces are not active at one time (on
31 Dec. 1905 only 313), it is more equitable to
consider the practical production as between
that reported and the greatest annual output,
which, in 1905, amounted to 22,992,380 long tons,
valued at $382,450,000 See Steel ; Iron and
Steel; Foundry Practice; etc.

Blast Furnace Practice, Modem. The first
requisite for the conduct of Blast Furnace
Practice is equipment, and therefore although
the space allotted for this article is very limited,
a brief description of the apparatus required to
obtain modern furnace practice is necessary.

The construction of the Duquesne Blast Fur-
naces in 1902 and 1903 marked a great advance
in the evolution of the modern blast furnace,
for the labor of filling the furnaces formerly
done by hand was performed mechanically, and
their size far exceeded any previously built.
The capacity predicted of 600 tons per day and
actually accomplished, was the most marked
achievement, as it was fully 50 per cent greater
than any furnace production at that time. These
furnaces were 100 feet high and were equipped
with powerful blowing engines of large capacity.

The ore was handled in and out of stock
pile mechanically, by means of a large gantry
crane euipped with a scraper bucket spanning
the ore yard. The stock house was equipped
with steel bins for ore, stone, and coke, and the
furnaces were filled by an inclined hoist, oper-
ating a cylindrical bucket, which w^as deposited
in the stock house on a low car and transferred
to the bin chutes for filling.

This bucket was closed by a bell, to the rod
of which the hoist rope was hooked when the
tub was hoisted, and this bell when lowered on
top discharged the contents automatically into
the receiving hopper, thus forming a complete
ring in layers of m.aterial in this hopper each
time a tub was hoisted.

The success of these stacks was followed
rapidly by the construction in different parts of
the country of stacks of similar dimensions, but

differing somewhat in equipment, particularly in
the charging mechanism. These furnaces for a
while gave good results, but later were a grave
disappointment, owing to the almost universal
failure of their linings after a few months' oper-
ation, while the Duquesne furnaces made over
one million tons on their first lining, a result
which the writer believes to have been clearly
shown since to be due entir 'y to the good dis-
tribution obtained by the mechanical charging
apparatus installed at the Duquesne Works.

The hoist and di.stributing mechanism in-
stalled at Duquesne seemed to engineers, when
built, more complicated and expensive than was
necessary, and at the same time they aimed to
make a still greater reduction in the labor em-
ployed, but they failed to appreciate the import-
ance of good stock distribution on top of the
furnace and how it was accomplished by the
Duquesne design.

The usual construction now adopted for
charging the furnace is mechanical stock hand-
ling, storage bins, and skip hoists equipped with
single or double skips. These dumping skips
are responsible for the short life of the fur-
nace linings, for, in discharging their load on
top of the furnace, they cause a sorting of the
stock, the finer parts dropping down near the
dumping point of the skip, and the lumps going
farthest away. It was quite possible to obtain
a uniform layer in the furnace of coke^ lime-
stone, and ore, but the fact that more of the
lumps went to the side of the furnace farthest
from the skip made the gases channel on that
side and thus cut the inwall by concentrating
the smelting action to that side of the furnace.
Good stock distribution may be obtained by me-
chanically filled furnaces provided with any
kind of skip hoists by the use of the rotary dis-
tributor, of which there are three distinct types.

From the bins, an electrically driven larry
should weigh and deliver the stock to the skip
at the foot of the inchned furnace hoist. Plants
operating on lake ore must receive most of their
yearly requirements during warm weather, and
hence a stocking equipment is required, and
even at all furnaces some form of stocking plant
is desirable.

When the plant is located on navigable water
and receives its ore that way, the unloading
machines operating grab buckets are arranged
to deliver the material into the stock piles,
from whence it is recovered by another grab
bucket, operated by a gantry crane spanning the
ore yard, and delivering its load into an elec-
trically driven transfer car serving the stock
bins. When two or more large furnaces are
located away from navigable water, and hence
receiving all the stock by rail, a mechanical car
dumper is an economy.

Considering next the power equipment, we
find that the water tube boiler gives the best re-
sults WMth waste gas as a fuel, but for more
than two furnaces, much greater economy _ is
obtained by burning the gas direct in the cylin-
der of the' gas engine, and thus furnishing the
electric power required to drive auxiliary- ma-
chinery about the plant, and in the gas driven
blowing engine the blast required for the fur-
nace. In plants where the water tube boiler is
still in use, the steam engines are compounded
and the cxhau.st steam condensed in a central
condenser of large capacity.

BLAST FURNACE PRACTICE

Furnace gas is made much more efficient
under boilers, if cleaned before use, and if go-
ing to internal combustion engines, a thorough
cleaning is absolutely necessary.

For use under boilers, the cleaning may be
effected by the wet dust catcher of the contact
type, where the gas is repeatedly directed against
a' surface of water kept clean by circulation.

Such dust catchers remove 95 per cent of
the solid matter in the gas, absorbing less than
I per cent of moisture, and reducing the temper-
ature about S per cent. For use in the gas
engines, the gas must be thoroughly cooled and
scrubbed to remove the solid matter very com-
pletely, for which a great variety of devices
are used. It is good practice to pass all the
gas through a good contact wet dust catcher
and thus retain most of the initial heat for the
gas to be burned in the stoves, subjecting the
balance to a more thorough treatment for use
in the gas engines.

No furnace plant to-day is complete without
some means of regulating the amount of mois-
ture admitted into the furnace in the blast, and
the most satisfactory way to do this is to re-
duce the amount to the lowest possible mini-
mum. This is accomplished by refrigeration of
the air admitted to the air cylinders of the
blowing engines, a process patented by James
Gayley, and accomplishing greater economical
results than was estimated possible in that di-
rection.

h-on Ores. — Such ores are smelted when con-
taining from 40 per cent and upwards, and, in
case of calcareous ores, even lower grade ma-
terial has been treated profitably, but the costs
of manufacture increase very rapidly as the
yield in metallic iron drops in the mixture. It
is, therefore, important to give attention to the
preparation of the ore before smelting, with the
view of removing objectionable elements. This
concentration frequently removes considerable
phosphorus which is practically unaffected by
the smelting process, and occasionally reduces
the sulphur, which is always a difificult and ex-
pensive element to remove.

In concentration, it is usually necessary to
crush fine, which leaves the product in a finely
divided state, and, as the ore grains decrease
in size below what would stay on a 60 mesh
sieve, the difficulty ot smelting increases ; hence
two methods are used to agglomerate this fine
product and thus render it more easily and
economically smelted.

One is, briquetting either with or without
binder, in the latter case, it is necessary to burn
the product in a continuous furnace. The other
is nodulizing, that is, agglomerating by u.se of
the rotary kiln. This latter process practically
removes all the sulphur, that occasions any
trouble in the smelting ; breaking up sulphates,
as well as sulphides. Ores carrying 6 per cent
of sulphur, contain after such treatment, less
than .3-10 of I per cent. Some ores, principally
the soft brown hematites, found quite abund-
antly in the Southern states, are best concen-
trated by washing.

The point necessary to emphasize in dis-
cussing this subject is the importance of bring-
ing the material for smelting into the blast fur-
nace as pure as possible, consistent upon se-
curing the proper slag volume for good working.

Fuels. — For the blast furnace, coke (q.v.) is

to-day the most commonly used, on account of
the wide distribution of coking coals, but anthra-
cite is still used largely by the plants within
easj' radius of the anthracite field of Pennsyl-
vania and charcoal is still used, where timber is
abundant.

The development of the retort oven, partic-
ularly with the saving of by-products, has made
possible the coking of coal that is practically
non-coking, in the ordinary beehive oven. At
the same time, it has reduced the cost of coking
from 40 cents to $1.50 per ton of coke, depend-
ing upon the nature of the coal and the market
value of the by-products at the ovens.

With fuel, as witli ores, it is important to
eliminate earthy impurities before the smelt-
ing operation. It is therefore found advanta-
geous to wash coal, high in sulphur and ash,
that is, such as will, in the raw state, give a
coke over 1.25 per cent in sulphur and 15 per
cent in ash.

By-product coke, however, lacks the silvery
color of beehive coke, and is not quite as effi-
cient in the blast furnace pound per pound of
the carbon contents. It is also frequently high
in moisture, due to faulty methods of quench-
ing.

In order of efficiency in the blast furnace,
charcoal comes first, next anthracite, beehive
coke, retort coke.

Small furnaces operate with lower fuel con-
sumption on anthracite than on coke and it is
always necessary to lighten the burden when
changing such furnaces from anthracite to coke
fuel. Other things beings equal, the fuel with
high combined carbon is more efficient in the
blast furnace than one of lower carbon content.
For example, the best coke from the Pocahon-
tas region is more efficient than the best Con-
nellsville; the former, while a soft coke, has
from 5 to 7 per cent of ash, while the latter,
although hard and silvery, has from 10 to 12
per cent of ash.

Fluxes. — Purity is here a desideratum as well
as in ores and fuels, but the only way it can be
obtained is by choosing as pure a deposit as
possible, then strip off the overlying earth
carefully, and, in quarrying, thro'U' out stratas
or dykes of silicious material.

It is important that the flux for the furnace
be crushed to conform with the average of the
stock, which ordinarily means, broken to pass
a three-inch ring.

Both Dolomite and Calcite are used as flux,
the latter is a itiore active desulphurizing agent,
but does not make as fluid a slag, and this lack
of fluidity oflfsets to a large extent its greater
affinity for sulphur. While the greater fusibil-
ity of dolomite slag increases the opportunities
of calcium present to combine with the sulphur,
and hence as a rule, one flux is as efficient as
the other, as a purifying agent in the blast
furnace process.

Ihroughout the South, dolomite is used when
basic pig is desired and calcite when foundry
iron is sought. In other words, dolomite is
found to give low silicon and low sulphur, while
calcite gives higher silicon in the pig.

Blast. — Each furnace should be equipped
with blowing engines, capable of delivering the
full quota of air at 30 lbs. pressure, if neces-
sary, and provided with governors, to give a
constant speed without regard to the pressure

BLAST FURNACE PRACTICE

of the blast. This practice has been one im-
portant cause of the very large production ob-
tained for American blast furnaces, and has
been adopted by some of the English iron mas-
ters, after remodelling their plants.

The volume of the blast required for a mod-
ern stack is 85 cu.ft. per min. for each ton of
pig made per 24 hours and weighs nearly i^
times all the solid materials charges into the
furnace, hence any variations in the quantity or
temperature of this blast, acts quickly upon the
smelting process going on in the furnace.

In the desire to return as much heat as pos-
sible to the furnace, the use of the iron pipe
stove, where the maximum temperature of the
blast is limited to 950°F., has been superseded
by the firebrick stove, where the temperature
is only limited by the refractory quality of the
firebrick lining.

The iron pipe stoves have the advantage of
maintaining a nearly constant temperature of
the blast, so long as there is gas enough to fully
supply the burners in the stove setting, but has
the disadvantage of cooling off very rapidly,
when blast is taken off the furnace for any pur-
pose.

Firebrick stoves drop in temperature from
50° to 250° F. from the beginning to the end of
an hour's blow, the usual period, but hold their
heat when closed up tightly during a shut
down of the furnace for a short period.

The best results Avith use of firebrick stoves
is obtained by means of a good recording pyrom-
eter to give the temperature of the blast going
into the furnace and by introducing cold air
through a tempering pipe, so as to hold the
mixture of cold and hot blast at the tempera-
ture desired.

It is a good practice to maintain the temper-
ature of the stoves two hundred degrees (200°)
hotter than the blast going into the furnace,
as a reserve to be called upon, should the fur-
nace turn cold. With blast at constant volume
and temperature, there is still another variable,
which needs controlling, and that is the humid-
ity of this blast.

The humidity of the atmosphere may vary
from 9 grains in the summer to as low as i
grain in the winter, and between these extremes,
the humidity varies widely and rapidly during
even a few hours of any day. Just the importance
of this variable to furnace operation was never
demonstrated until ^Ir. James Gayley con-
structed at the Isabella furnaces in the year
1904 his desiccating apparatus to furnish dry
air for that plant. This trial showed that with
blast at less than 2 grains of moisture per cubic
foot, a saving of 20 per ceiit of the fuel required
per ton of coke was effected, while theoretically
only 37-10 percent was expected. Since these
astounding results, many eft'orts have been made
by prominent metallurgists to explain the dis-
crepancy between the actual and theoretical
saving, current metallurgical literature contains
much of interest on this subject. <

Gas. — The waste gases issuing from the fur-
nace consist principally of nitrogen, carbonic
oxide (CO), carbonic acid (C d.) and water
in the form of steam.

The ratio C O and C O2 indicates the char-
acter of the combustion taking place in the fur-
nace hearth, the larger the percentage of C O2,
the better the combustion and the lower the

fuel consumption. A good average ratio for
the United States is C O-2 and C O2-1, that is
(2 to i). In rare instances it has been as low
as i^ toi, but with a hot furnace making
foundry or high silicon pig, it may reach 4 to i,
or in speigle manufacture, from 10 to 15 to i,
depending on the mixture being smelted.

1 o obtain the maximum economy in iron
smelting, every effort is made to utilize the heat
units escaping in the waste gases. This is ac-
complished in two ways. One portion is used
in heating the blast, as already described, and
the remainder is burned for power, either under
water tube boilers, for the generation of steam,
or in the' cylinder of gas engines, about 65 per
cent of the total waste gas produced being
usually available for this purpose, and the bal-
ance 35 per cent going into the stoves for heat-
ing the blast.

The modern furnace is a large producer of
power in excess of its own requirements, es-
pecially when the gas is utilized in gas driven
engines. Such engines may furnish the blast
required, and electrical energy for distribution
about the furnaces, providing also an excess for
sale or distribution elsewhere, amounting to
800 H.P. per ton of pig per hour.

Cinder or Slag. — This by-product in the
manufacture of pig iron is a silicate of the
oxides of the metals not reduced in the pro-
cess. Various attempts have been made to
utilize this material, and it is quite extensively
used for road making and for railroad ballast.
For this purpose it is frequently run when hot
onto an endless chain of cast iron pans, and dis-
charged broken and chilled, in cars for distribu-
tion. This method has the advantage of making
the surface of the slag vitreous, and thus im-
pervious to water.

The most remunerative use for furnace slag
of certain composition is in the manufacture of
slag cement. For this purpose the slag must
not be over 4 per cent in magnesia and from 12
to 14 per cent in alumina. Two kinds of slag
cement are manufactured, the ordinary Puzzo-
lani, made direct from the slag without reburn-
ing, and slag Portland cement, made by clinker-
ing the slag in a rotary kiln and then grinding.
When slag is intended for cement purposes it
is granulated, that is, run while hot into water,
which breaks it up in the form of sand. Such
material is also useful to replace sand in mak-
ing concrete.

Granulated cinder is light or heavy, depend-
ing upon the amount of water used in quench-
ing. In the first case, it seems to consist of
small globules of chilled cinder, in the latter,
it resembles sand.

The quantity of slag made per ton of pig
produced varies from 600 lbs. per gross ton
of pig to 3,000 lbs. and over. The slag has an
important bearing on the quality of the pig
made, and is one of the great purifying agents
of the blast furnace. The greater part of the
furnace slag produced, however, is unutilized,
and is usually tapped into iron cars called ladles
and hauled in the fluid state to the bank,
where it is poured out.

Iron Product. — This metal is a crude carbide
of iron, containing about 94 per cent of metallic
iron, from 3.25 per cent to 3.75 per cent of car-
bon and graphite, silicon varying usually from
y2 per cent to 4 per cent, and sulphur usually

BLASTING

from .01 per cent to .10 per cent, while the phos-
phorus in Bessemer pig is less than .10 per cent
and in low phosphorus pig down to .03 per cent,
and in basic from .10 per cent to 3 or 4 percent,
depending on the ores used. In the manufac-
ture of pig iron, it is possible to vary the per-
centage of carbon somewhat and the proportions
of carbon to graphite.

It is also possible to control the sulphur, and
the silicon, but the phosphorus must be con-
trolled solely by the choice of the materials
charged. This choice also influences the for-
mation of other elements under discussion, but
in case of phosphorus, it is the only means for
effecting such control or regulation.

Practically all of the phosphorus contained in
the fuel flux and ore passes into the product,
except a loss when making high silicon foundry
iron of about 7 per cent by volatilization, and
this loss may be increased to 10 per cent in
the manufacture of speigle.

The usual way of handling the pig product
is to run the metal while hot into moulds made
in sand, forming a runner called a sow and short
branches about three feet long, called pigs.

In case of gray iron, this metal is broken
hot, when it has first solidified, and then cooled
with water and loaded into cars. This iron has
considerable sand adhering to the surface of
the pigs, and for that reason is unsuited to
melt in the open hearth furnace, where the
lining is made of basic material. In order to
obtain iron free from sand, and to reduce the
arduous work of breaking this product hot, and
carrying same by hand into cars for shipment,
various devices have been constructed.

The Uehling pig machine is the most com-
mon device employed to make sandless pig. It
consists of an endless chain of moulds, which
are filled at one point and after spraying with
water, discharge the pig into a transverse pan
conveyer, which carries the pig under water,
where it is thoroughly cooled and afterwards
is delivered into cars for shipment.

Another form is provided with moulds and
pans made of soft flange steel, and these when
filled, pass into a tan where they are sub-
merged, the metal cooled, and then delivered
into cars. Still another form consists of a sub-
stantial turntable on which the moulds are
mounted.

When it is not necessary to obtain sandless
pig, the mechanical pig breaker is used. In the
operation of this device the metal is cast in
sand and the whole bed is removed mechan-
ically by a travelling crane or trolley to the
breaker, where the pigs are broken and fall
into cars.

With the pig machines the metal must be
first run into cars or ladles, from which it is
poured into the machine, but with the pig
breaker no ladles are required, the metal going
direct into sand beds, as when it is to be handled
by hand. Sandless pig may also be obtained
by equipping the cast house with cast iron
moulds or «chills,» which are washed with loam
while hot, thus making it easy to lift the pig
when it is cooled.

Pig iron before_ the advent of the pig ma-
chine, and even since for some purposes, is
graded according to fracture as follows :

No. I, No. 2, No. 3 forge, mottled and white.

the first No. i and No. 2 being made in a hot
furnace and white in a cold furnace. No. i is
called the highest grade and contains, as a rule,
the lowest sulphur, and the highest percentage
of graphitic carbon ; white is called the lowest
grade and is usually high in sulphur, low in
graphite and high in combined carbon. These
grades are practically obliterated in machine
cast pig, and the iron is usually sold by anal-
ysis. This method of classifying also obtains
at large steel plants, where most of the pig is
taken direct, that is, in the fluid state, to the
Bessemer or Open Hearth for treatment.

Blast Furnace Lines. — In the blast furnace
the hearth represents the grate surface, and its
area determines the amount of fuel burned per
unit of time, hence, the production of the fur-
nace. The top of the furnace controls the dis-
tribution of the charged materials, and has an
important bearing on the working of the fur-
nace, the character of the combustion taking
place in the hearth, and hence the burden or
amount of charge the coke unit is capable of
carrying in smelting.

The bosh determines to a large extent, de-
pending upon its height and angle of slope, the
regularity of the working of the furnace, by
assisting or retarding the descent of the charge
in the smelting zone.

The largest furnaces in the United States
at this writing are built with the hearth and
top diameters practically equal, i5'-6" to i6'-o",
while the diameter of the bosh is usually 25 per
cent greater and the angle of the slope approx-
imately 74°.

The tendency of the last five years has been
to increase the hearth and top diameters, while
the bosh has remained about the same in diam-
eter, but lower in height. These changes seem
to cause the stacks to work with greater regu-
larity, and larger outputs on burdens composed,
largely, of fine ore, and, at the same time, the
loss of ore in flue dust has been materially re-

^"^^^- David Baker,

Consulting Metallurgical Engineer, Philadelphia.

Blasting, the technical term for splitting and
breaking up any object by means of gunpowder
or some of the other powerful explosives now in
use. The operation, which is of extensive use
in quarrying, mining, and other branches of en-
gineering, is often performed by boring a hole
in the substance to be exploded, by means of an
iron rod, called a jumper, filling it with gun-
powder, and igniting this by means of a match,
burning so slowly as to allow the parties em-
ployed to remove to a sufficient distance before
the explosion takes place. At one time it was
supposed that the force of the explosion de-
pended on the firm packmg of the gunpowder in
the hole by means of small chips of stone, sand,
etc. It has since been ascertained that loose
sand is as effectual as firm packing, which in
consequence has been generally laid aside. One
of the most important modern improvements in
blasting is the firing of the charge by electricity.
This mode is more especially applicable to sub-
marine blasting, and was first practised for that
purpose by Gen. Pasle^', in 1839. The only thing
necessary is to make an interruption in the con-
ducting wire at the point where the explosion is
to take place. In passing the electric current,

BLASTOMERYX — BLAUBOK

a spark produced at the interruption fires the
charge. The effect being instantaneous the op-
erator can fire any number of charges simulta-
neously. Gun-cotton is often employed in blast-
ing, and nitro-glycerine has also been found to
be a very powerful agent in such operations, but
its use requires the utmost caution, as it is very
liable to explode unexpectedly with most dis-
astrous results. The same objection does not
apply to dynamite, which is quite as efYective
and perfectly harmless when properly handled.
For removing small volumes of rock in mines,
quarries, and other engineering enterprises at a
single blast, small-shot blasting is the most
common method employed. This consists of
drilling a small number of holes in the rock
from 1 54 to 3 inches in diameter and from i8
inches to several feet in depth which are then
filled with dynamite or blasting-powder or some
other safe and easily handled explosive, and
properly connected by fuse or with a magneto-
machine or electric battery by electric wires.
The space above the explosive is then plugged
up with sand, dirt, clay, or other matter, and
the charge exploded. For breaking the rock
into small pieces so as to be more easily re-
moved (as in excavating for a foundation) the
holes are drilled close together and heavily
charged, but where it is unnecessary to break
into small pieces (as in quarrying) and large
shapely masses are more desirable the holes are
drilled in rows with greater distance between
and filled with a smaller amount of explosive.
This will split the rock practically along one line
and will not shatter it as in the first case. In
excavating tunnels, it is in many cases desirable
to remove a mass of rock the size of the tunnel
cross-section, an object which is generally ac-
complished by drilling and firing a small num-
ber of converging holes, thus forming and re-
moving a cone-shaped or wedge-shaped centre-
core. This central opening thus formed is en-
larged by drilling and blasting successive rings
of holes around it.

For removing vast quantities of rock or
blowing up ledges, the best method is mine
blasting. For this purpose shafts are sunk
either vertically, or horizontally, or both, into
the ledge to be removed ; enormous quantities of
powder, dynamite, or other explosives are placed
at the bottom or end of the shafts, which are
then closed up by rocks, earth, etc., and the
charge is fired either by fuse or by electricity,
most generally the latter.

One of the greatest mine blasting operations
ever attempted was the removal of the reefs in
the East River, near New York, known as Hell
Gate. An entrance shaft was sunk on the Long
Island shore, from which the reef projected.
From this shaft nearly 20 tunnels were bored in
all directions, extending from 200 to 240 feet,
and connected by lateral galleries. Upward of
52,000 pounds of dynamite, rend rock, and pow-
der were used, and millions of tons of rock were
dislodged. In May 1894 a vertical cliff, Greben
Point, was blown up in order to remove a rock
obstruction in the Danube River, known as
the "Iron Gates* ; in 1889 the face of a quarry
at South Bethlehem, N. Y., was broken down
by a mine blast and in 1886 the same operation
was carried out at Crarae Quarry in Argyllshire,
Scotland ; and on t8 Dec. 1899 a granite mound,

known as Vesuvius Butte, was blown up in
order to secure a sufficient quantity of rock to
build a dam near Teller, Colorado. Surface
blasting is generally used to remove reefs and
obstructions to navigation, high explosives such
as dynamite, gun-cotton, or nitro-glycerine be-
ing the only effective agencies in an unconfined
space, as the detonation is so sudden that the
shock is instantly transmitted to the rock with
which it is in contact. Numerous important im-
provements have been made in blasting by the
substitution of rock boring machines for hand
labor. Of such machines, in which the jumper
or drill is repeatedly driven against the rock
by compressed air or steam, being also made to
rotate slightly at each blow, there are many
varieties. See also Explosives.

Blastomeryx. See Merycodus.

Blatchford, Samuel, jurist: b. New York,
9 March 1820; d. Newport, R. I., 7 July 1893.
He graduated at Columbia, 1837; became sec-
retary to Gov. W. H. Seward of New York, and
practised law at Auburn, N. Y., as a member
of the governor's firm, 1845-54. In 1854 he
settled in New York as head of the firm of
Blatchford, Seward & Griswold. Though he
attained success in general practice, it was his
application to admiralty law that gave him his
widest repute. On 3 May 1867 he was appointed
judge of the United States district court for the
Southern district of New York ; in March 1878,
judge of the United States circuit for the sec-
ond circuit; and in March 1882 he became an
associate justice of the United States supreme
court. Here he continued to give close atten-
tion to admiralty cases, and also rendered im-
portant decisions on bankruptcy, copyright, pat-
ent, and libel cases. Publications: ^Reports
of Cases in Prize in the Circuit and District
Courts for the Southern District of New York
1861-5^ (1866) ; ^Reports of Cases in the Cir-
cuit Court of the United States, Volumes 4-6'
(1867-9) ; 'Circuit Court Reports for the Sec-
ond Circuit, 1847-75^ (12 vols, octavo) ; 'Re-
ports of the Circuit Courts of the United States,
Second Circuit, Volumes 13-20^ (N. Y. 1877-
83, 8 vols.) ; with E. Howland and E. R. Olcott,
'United States District Court Reports (Admi-
ralty Cases Decided by, Judge Betts) for the
Southern District of New York, 1827-47'
(N. Y., 2 vols, octavo).

Blatchley, Willis Stanley, naturalist: b.
Madison, Conn., 6 Oct. 1859. He graduated at
Indiana State University 1887, and was success-
ively an assistant on the Arkansas Geological
Survey 1889-90, a member of Scoville's scien-
tific expedition to Mexico 1891, and assistant on
the United States Fish Commission in 1893. In
1894 he was elected State geologist of Indiana,
and re-elected 1898 and 1902. Besides his an-
nual reports his scientific writings include :
'Gleanings from Nature' (1899) ; 'Locustidae
and Blattidre of Indiana' (1892) ; 'Some In-
diana .ALcrididae' ( 1891-8) ; 'Descriptions of
New Species of Orthoptera' ; 'A Nature V/oo-
ing' (1902) ; etc.

Blat'tidae. See Cockroach.

Blaubok, blow'bok, a large antelope of
South Africa. {Hippctragns nigcr). It is of a

BLAUVELT — BLEACHING

bluish hue, and has long, stout horns which
sweep back from its forehead like those of its
relatives, the isabel and equine antelopes. It
formerly occurred in large herds, but had a
limited habitat, and is now probably extinct.

Blauvelt, blow'velt, Mme. Lillian Evans
(Mrs. Wm. F. Pendleton), prima donna: b.
Brooklyn, N. Y., about 1870, of Welsh and
Dutch ancestry. When eight years old she rnade
her debut as a violinist. She studied (voice)
with M. Jacque Bouh}', of Paris, for three years.
Her debut in opera was made at the Theatre
de la Mormari, Brussels, and she has taken the
principal roles in ^Faust,^ < Romeo and Juliet,^
^Myna,^ etc. Of late her work has been chiefly
in concert and oratorio. Besides Great Britain,
(ianada, and the United States, she has sung in
Russia, Germany, France, Italy, Holland, Bel-
gium, Austria-Hungary, and Switzerland.

Blavatsky, bla-vats'ke, Helene Petrovna,
Russian theosophist: b. Yekaterinoslay, Russia,
1831 ; d. London, 8 May 1891. She traveled in
all parts of the world and succeeded in entering
Tibet. In 1873 she came to the United States,
founded the Theosophical Society in New York,
and aided in establishing <The Theosophist.^
She studied the East Indian esoteric doctrines
and Buddhist philosophy, and by her writings
contributed to make this philosophy popular. She
wrote <Isis Unveiled'; ^The Secret Doctrine';
<Key to Theosophy.' See Theosophy.

Blazing Star. Various hardy perennial
plants. See Liatris.

Blazonry, the art of describing a coat of
arms in such a way that an accurate drawing
may be made from the verbal statements given.
To do this a knowledge of the points of the
shield is particularly necessary. Mention should
be made of the tincture or tinctures of the
field; of the charges which are laid immediately
upon it, with their forms and tinctures ; which
is the principal ordinary, or, if there is none,
then which covers the fess point ; the charges on
each side of the principal one; the charges on
the central one, the bordure — with its charges;
the canton and chief, with all charges on them ;
and, finally, the differences or marks of the
cadency and the baronet's badge.

Bleaching (Fr. blancJiiment, ^^ whitening'' ) ,
the process of removing the coloring matters
from fabrics of cotton, linen, wool, silk, etc.,
or from the raw materials, and also from straw,
wax, and other substances, and leaving them
perfectly white. Steeping cloths in lyes ex-
tracted from the ashes of plants, appears to
have been practised by the ancient Egyptians for
this purpose. In modern times the Dutch have
almost monopolized the business, at least till
within about 100 years. Previous to this time
the brown linens manufactured in Scotland
were regularly sent to Holland to be bleached.
A whole summer was required for the opera-
tion; but if the cloths were sent in the fall of
the year, they were not returned for 12 months.
It was this practice which caused the name of
Hollands to be given to these linens. The
Scotch introduced the business of bleaching for
themselves about the year i749'> but it was long
believed that the peculiar properties of the water
about the bleaching grounds of Haarlem gave to
this neighborhood advantages which no other
region couid possess. The use of chlorine as
a bleaching agent was first proposed by Ber-

thollet in 1785, and shortly afterward intro-
■duced into Great Britain, where it was first used
simply dissolved in water, afterward dissolved
in alkali, and then in the form of bleaching
powder, commonly called chloride of lime, the
manufacture of which was suggested by Mr.
Tennant, of St. RoUox, Glasgow, in 1798. At
first he passed the chlorine into milk of lime,
and thus obtained the solution known as bleach
liquor. In 1799 he took out a patent for ab-
sorbing chlorine by dry lime, and thus obtained
bleaching powder. Bleaching powder has little
bleaching action till the chlorine is liberated by
the action of an acid. The best bleaching pow-
der contains about 36 per cent of available
chlorine ; that is, chlorine which is liberated by
acid.

In Silesia and Bohemia, where the chlorine
process is not adopted, the linens are exposed
to a fermenting process, then washed, and
steeped in alkaline liquors, with alternate ex-
posures upon grass, which processes are re-
peated a great number of times for 60 to 70-
days ; but to render them properly white, they
are afterward passed through a bath acidulated
with sulphuric acid, then treated again with
the potash lye several times and alternately ex-
posed on the grass, and finally thoroughly
cleansed by washing in a revolving cylinder
called a dash-wheel. This machine is also em-
ployed in the English and Scotch processes for
washing the goods without subjecting them tO'
unnecessary wear. The frequent repetition of the
different processes is rendered necessary by the
complete diffusion of the coloring matters
through the flax fibres, and their close union
with them ; each operation decomposing and
removing in succession small portions only.

In the bleaching of cotton cloth, the pieces^
after being singed, by passing them over a red-
hot plate or a semi-cylinder of iron or copper>
are steeped in lukewarm water or old lyes, till
they are completely soaked, which loosens any
paste or filth got during weaving; they are then
well washed through the dash-wheel, and put
through the hydro-extractor or drying machine.
If the cotton is in the hank, this process of
steeping and washing is not required.

The mechanical operations of the bleaching
house vary considerably, according to the qual-
ity of the goods and the facility for mechanical
appliances. In the chemical operations of whit-
ening the cloth there is little variation, further
than that heavy fabrics require longer time and
more frequent repetition of the processes. The
first operation, after steeping and washing, is
boiling. The boiling liquor is made by adding
a quantity of water to slaked lime, and when
the grosser particles of lime have settled to the
bottom of the vessel, the milky liquor is put
into the boiler, or, it may be, filtered through
a cloth. Some bleachers use with the lime
a little carbonate of soda ; the quantity of lime
varies from four pounds to eight pounds for
every 100 pounds of cotton, and from one pound
to two pounds of soda ash, where this is used.
The boilers used for boiling the goods are
called kiers, and many kinds are used, the boil-
ing liquid being made to shower over the goods
and percolate down through them. This is
effected by having a false bottom or frame
fitted inside the boiler at about one third of
its depth from the bottom, upon which the goods
are laid. The space between the false bottom

BLEACHING

and real bottom of the boiler is filled with the
liquor or lye, connected with which is a pipe lead-
ing to the top of the boiler. When the heat is
applied, either by steam or fire, and the liquor
begins to boil, it is forced up through this pipe,
which is made to shower its contents over the
surface of the goods. This boiling is continued,
according to the quality of the goods, from 6
,o 12 hours. The goods are now removed from
the boiler and washed in water ; they are then
passed through dilute hydrochloric acid, again
washed, and boiled for 12 hours with dilute
caustic soda, after which they are passed into a
solution of bleaching powder contained in a
large stone or wooden trough or cistern, where
they are left for from two to four hours. The
bleaching solution is prepared by first dissolving
a quantity of bleaching powder in water in a
large cask and allowing the whole to settle; a
quantity of the clear liquor is then drawn from
the cask and put into the large bleaching cis-
terns, which have been previously nearly filled
with water. To ascertain the necessary quan-
tity of this strong bleaching liquor to be added
to the troughs or cisterns, a certain measure of
sulphate of indigo is taken in a graduated vessel,
termed a test glass, and then, according to the
number of graduated measures of the bleaching
solution required to decolor the sulphate of
indigo, the strength of the bleaching liquor is
regulated. These test glasses and sulphate of
indigo are carefully prepared for the purpose.

Instead of dash wheels, a more improved
method of cleaning and washing is adopted by
some bleachers previous to boiling the goods.
They are all sewed together, end to end, mak-
ing one line of the whole. This line of pieces
is drawn along by machinery between rollers
and squeezers, with a plentiful supply of water,
and having been thus thoroughly washed and
cleaned, is at last laid out by a mechanical con-
trivance into the bleaching trough. The goods
are allowed to steep in the bleaching liquor
from two to four hours ; they are then lifted
and washed, either by the dash wheel or rollers,
as before, and are then laid in a sour, made
by adding about one pint of hydrochloric or
sulphuric acid to every four gallons of water.
After steeping in the sour for four hours, the
goods are again washed, as before, and are sub-
jected to another boiling for eight hours; but
this time the lye is caustic soda or potash, gen-
erally the former, made caustic by boiling to-
gether a quantity of soda ash and slaked lime,
and allowing the sediment to settle, and using
only the clear solution. About eight pounds of
soda ash suffice for 100 pounds of goods. After
the boiling the goods are again washed and
steeped in the bleaching liquor for eight hours,
and again washed and soured — the sour in this
case being always made with sulphuric acid.
Light fabrics require no further treatment ; but
heavy fabrics need a clearing process, which is
a repetition of the last course, the liquors being
generally, however, a little weaker, and the
processes shorter. Cotton, in the hank, under-
goes the same operation, except in the washings,
which are performed by hand, not with the
wheel. The goods being bleached and dried by
the extractor, are now prepared for the opera-
tions of finishing. For this ourpose they are
stretched by women to their breadth, and the
folds, as much as possible, taken out by beating
hem; then they are stitched together by the

ends with a sailor's needle, and being thus pre-
pared for the mangle the cloth is now starched,
common wheat flour and a portion of porcelain
clay being employed. It is then subjected to
to the action of the stiffening machine, and hav-
ing been thus impregnated with starch, the
superfluous portion of which is pressed out as
it passes through the rollers above, the goods are
then hung upon rails in an apartment,
called the stove, heated by two furnaces from
which flues are led through the room. The heat
thus generated is sometimes so great that the
workmen, in hanging up the cloth, are obliged
to throw oft" most of their clothes. When the
goods are dried thoroughly, they are taken
from the stove and carried 10 the damping ma-
chine, where they are subjected to the action
of a shower of water. When the cloth comes
from the damping machine, it may be seen
covered with wet spots, the greater portion,
however, being dry; but after remaining some
time it becomes uniformly damp. The goods
are now passed through the calender; they are
then regularly folded and put into a Bramah
press, with a sheet of pasteboard between each,
and, being sufficiently pressed, they are then
finished for the market. The process has been
greatly shortened by the introduction of the
Mather-Thompson process (1884). In this pro-
cess an important feature is the use of the
steamer kier, in which the goods are submitted
to the action of low-pressure steam. The ma-
terial is passed through soda lye, squeezed, and
washed; then through boiling caustic soda,
squeezed, and run into a steamer kier, where it
is boiled for four hours under a pressure of four
pounds, washed with hot water, and then passed
continuously through a series of vats containing
water, bleaching powder solution, carbonic acid
gas, water, alkaline solution, water, bleaching
powder, carbonic acid gas, water, hydrochloric
acid.

The bleaching of linen is conducted after a
similar manner to that of cotton ; but there is
much more coloring matter in the former than
in the latter, and it is therefore found necessary
in the bleaching of linen to repeat the boiling in
lye and the steeping in chloride of lime three
or four times. An electrolytic method of
bleaching (the Hermite process) has recently
been introduced. The chlorine for bleaching is
liberated by the action of an electric current on
solutions of calcium or magnesium chloride.
Wool and silk cannot be bleached with chlorine,
so sulphur dioxid, usually prepared by burning
sulphur, is used instead. In the case of wool,
the material is well washed with water and
scoured with alkaline solutions to remove fatty
matters. It is then exposed, while still wet, to
the action of sulphur dioxid in a brick
chamber for six or eight hours, — or it may
be soaked for several hours in a solution of
sulphurous acid, — after which it is well washed.
Silk is treated with dilute acid, then worked
in a soap bath for about 20 minutes to remove
the gummy matter present, after which it is
rinsed, tied up in bags of cotton, and boiled
for from one to three hours in water, and rinsed
in dilute alkali and finally in water. The
bleaching is effected by stoving in sulphur di-
oxid, exactly as in the case of wool. In place
of sulphur dioxid, hydrogen peroxid is coming
into use for both wool and silk bleaching.

BLEACHING POWDER — BLEEDING

Bleaching Powder, a compound of lime,
chlorine, and oxygen, greatly used for bleaching
purposes, and as a disinfectant. It is commonly
known also as "chloride of lime,^^ a name some-
what unfortunately chosen, since it appears to
imply that the substance is simple chloride of
the element calcium, which is far from being the
case. Its precise chemical nature has never
been satisfactorily demonstrated, but it is be-
lieved to consist essentially of a mixture of
calcium chloride and calcium hypochlorite. In
preparing bleaching powder on a commercial
scale, slaked lime is spread out, in a thin layer,
on the floor of a chamber constructed of stone,
or lined with lead. Chlorine gas is then ad-
mitted to the chamber, and allowed to act upon
the lime until the latter has absorbed consid-
erable of it, and has been superficially trans-
formed into the substance desired. The lime
on the floor is then thoroughly raked over,
so as to expose a fresh surface to the chlorine,
and the process is continued until samples of
the powder, withdrawn for the purpose of
analysis, are found to contain about y] per
cent of available chlorine. The lime used in
the process should be as free from magnesia
as possible, as otherwise more or less of the
chlorine is wasted by the formation of unde-
sirable compounds of chlorine and magnesium.
The chlorine used in the manufacture of bleach-
ing powder has been largely produced, in the
past by heating manganese dioxid with the
hydrochloric acid obtained as a by-product in
the manufacture of soda from common salt.
The tendency in recent times, however, has been
toward the more direct manufacture of soda by
the electrolysis of a solution of salt in water.
Free chlorine gas is given off at the anode
during this electrolytic process, and this is now
largely utilized for the manufacture of bleaching
powder ; bleaching powder and soda being both
produced in the same factory. _ Large works
embodying this idea are in operation at Niagara
Falls, and most of the soda and bleaching
powders manufactured in the United States now
come from that place. Bleaching powder is
white, or nearly so, and has a strong smell
of chlorine. Its disinfecting properties are sup-
posed to be due to the slow liberation of that
gas, which is a powerful germicide.

Bleak, or Blick (Leuciscus alhurnus), a
small river fish, six or seven inches long, of the
carp family. It somewhat resembles the dace.
Its back is greenish, otherwise it is of a silvery
color, and its silvery scales are used in the
manufacture of artificial pearls. It is a good
food fish.

Bleak House, a novel by Charles Dickens
(1853). Its secondary theme is the monstrous
injustice and even ruin often wrought by delays
in the old Court of Chancery, which defeated
all the purposes of a court of justice.

Blechen, Karl Eduard, karl ed'oo-ard
bhen'en, German landscape artist: b. Kottbus,
1798; d. 1840. After studying art in Italy for
some years he settled in Berlin in 1830 and
became professor at the Academy of Fine Arts
there in 1835. The first representative of the
Berlin landscape school, he painted 'Villa Este^ ;
* Villa Borghese^ ; <View Near Nami* ; <View
of Naples^ ; 'View at Tivoli^ ; etc.

Bled'soe, Albert Taylor, American clergy-
man and writer : b. Frankfort, Ky., 9 Nov.
1809 ; d. Alexandria, Va., i Dec. 1877. He was
assistant secretary of war of the Southern
Confederacy, and successively an Episcopal and
a Methodist minister. He was also professor
of mathematics at Kenyon College and at Miami
University, 1833-6. Besides editing the 'South-
ern Review' and contributing frequently to lead-
ing literary, scientific, and theological period-
icals, he wrote 'Examination of Edwards on
the WilP (1845); ^Theodicy> (new ed. 1853);
'Philosophy of Mathematics' (1868) ; etc.

Bleecker, Ann Eliza, American poet.
daughter of Brandt Schuyler : b. New York,
Oct. 1752; d. Tomhanick, near Albany, N. Y.,
23 Nov. 1783. She married, in 1769, John J.
Bleecker, and moved to Tomhanick, whence
she was driven by the news of the approach of
Burgoyne's army. Her husband had already
left to provide m.eans of escape, when she was
obliged to fly on foot, in the midst of her family,
and of a crowd of other helpless persons, for
refuge from the advancing savages. After en-
during great horrors and distresses, they made
their escape to Albany, and thence by water to
Red Hook, where they remained until the sur-
render of Burgoyne enabled thein to return to
their home. Her poems were written as sug-
gested by occasions, without a view to publica-
tion. She possessed a sportive fancy, with
much tenderness of feeling, but the sad ex-
periences of her life produced upon her such
an effect, that she destroyed "all the pieces that
were not as melancholy as herself.® Her poems
are to be found in the earlier numbers of the
'New York Magazine,' and a collection of her
stories and "poetics* in a volume published in
1793. by her daughter Margaretta.

Bleeding, the escape of blood from thv"".
arteries or veins. Bleeding may be external, and
thus readily seen and prevented by proper sur-
gical measures, or it may take place internally,
into one of the large body cavities, and is then
a serious matter. The amount of blood that is
in the human body varies from one tenth to one
twelfth of the weight of the individual, and of
this from 40 to 60 per cent may be lost without
resulting in death from the direct effects of
bleeding. Death may result in some individuals
from the loss of much smaller quantities, but
most persons can lose two fifths of their blood
and not die. Bleeding varies widely in its
rapidity. Some wounds ooze, others well-up,
and again bleeding may be very rapid when
a large vessel has been cut.

Bleeding from a vein or an artery may be
recognized by the dark color and regular flow
from the former, and the brighter red and
spurting or throbljing flow from the latter. If
bleeding is taking place while pressure is being
applied to a cut these differences may not be so
pronounced. In emergencies bleeding from an
artery may be stopped by direct and hard pres-
sure of the carefully cleaned finger immediately
over the source of the issuing jet of blood. ThiJ
pressure must be hard and continued. This
will permit time to find the chief artery that is
supplying the bleeding vessel, and as soon as
this is found pressure upon it will further aid
in suppressing the flow. Thus the brachial
artery can be found on the inside of the arm by
feeling on the patient's well side, and firm pres-

BLEEDING HfiART YARD — BLENDE

sure on it will stop all bleeding in the parts
below, as in a cut wrist or cut hand. Pressure
on the femoral artery in the groin will control
all bleeding below the point of pressure. As
pressure by means of the finger is difficult to
maintain, an improvised apparatus may be made
of a knotted napkin or large handkerchief. This
may be placed about the arm or leg, the knot
brought to press on the artery and then by
means of a short stick the whole may be made
to tightly compress the entire limb. (See
Tourniquet). Pressure of this kind should
not be too prolonged, or serious damage to the
parts may result. Venous bleeding is usually
controlled by direct pressure of the limb on the
side away from the heart and by direct pressure
of antiseptic gauze. In oozing, direct pressure
of antiseptic gauze or direct application of hot
water, 118-120° R, is most effective. Powders,
cobwebs, iron, alum, etc., are not advisedly used.

Internal hemorrhage is extremely important,
since the blood cannot be seen, and one has to
rely on the symptoms solely. These are usually
a beginning sense of faintness or weakness, and
perhaps some nausea. The extremities com-
mence to get cold and white, the face becomes
pale and anxious, and the patient may com-
mence to have air-hunger. He desires the win-
dows to be opened wide, thinking thereby to
get more air. Thus the beginning symptoms are
very similar to those of a severe fainting spell.
But as the bleeding continues there is increas-
ing restlessness with increased air-hunger ; there
may be cold, clammy sweat over the patient's
body; there is sighing to gasping respiration,
and the heart-beat is hard to hear and it may be
impossible to feel the pulse beat. The patient
may die in convulsions, the face becoming
deeply cyanosed, and the respirations spasmodic
or convulsive in type. If the patient does not
die he will have a long, tedious convalescence.
Prompt medical or surgical aid is imperative
in all such cases. The best temporary stimulant
is an enema of hot (118-120° F.) salt solution,
one teaspoonful to the pint, which is allowed to
run in and out of the rectum, a quart or two
at a time.

Bloodletting. — This procedure was one much
in vogue in former years, and while still a
most desirable operation to perfonn for certain
types of disease, the conditions brought about
by its use are now largely induced by other
means. In conditions of poisoning, some cases
of pneumonia, and in some apoplexies, bleeding
is still performed by competent medical practi-
tioners, and is advocated in most manuals of
practice. It is its indiscriminate use for all ills
that has fallen out of favor.

Bleeders. — Certain individuals have a ten-
dency to bleed inordinately from even the slight-
est wound. They are called "bleeders," and are
frequently found in families,, most of the mem-
bers of which have like traits. The pulling of
a tooth is often followed by continuous hemor-
rhage. The causes for this idiosyncrasy are not
all known. In some an insufficient quantity of
calcium salts in the blood has been thought to
be the most important cause.

Bleeding Heart. See Dicentra.

Bleeding Heart Yard, a squalid locality in
London, mentioned by Dickens in < Little Dor-
rit.^ The origin of the name is unknown.

Bleek, Friedrich, fred'riH blak, German
biblical scholar and critic : b. Arensbok, Hol-
stein, 4 July 1793 ; d. 27 Feb. 1859. He was
appointed professor of theology at Bonn, 1829,
and spent the remainder of his life there. Ha
was the author of much esteemed commentaries
and expository books, valuable Introductions to
the Old and New Testaments (1860-2), his most
important work bein<T one on the 'Epistle to the
Hebrews' (1828-40).

Bleek, Wilhelm Heinrich Immanuel, vil'-
helm hln'riH im-man'oo-el, German philolo-
gist, son of Friedrich Bleek (q.v.) : b. Berlin, 8
March 1827 ; d. Cape Town, 17 Aug. 1875. !•-
1855 he went to South Africa and devoted him-
self to the study of the language, manners, and
customs of the natives. In i860 he was ap-
pointed public librarian at Cape Town, and his
researches were rewarded with a pension from
the civil list. He was principal author of the
'Handbook of African, Australian, and Poly-
nesian Philology* (1858-63), his other chief
productions being 'Vocabulary of the Mozam-
bique Languages* (1856) ; 'Comparative Gram-
mar of South African Languages* (1862);
'Hottentot Fables and Tales* (1864) ; and 'The
Origin of Language* (iT

Bleibtreu, Georg, ga-orn blTp'troi, Ger-
man artist : b. Xanten, Rhenish Russia, 27
March 1828; d. Berlin, 16 Oct. 1892. His first
important picture was the 'Destruction of the
Kiel Turner-Corps at Flensburg* (1852) and his
subsequent works are also battle pieces. Among
them are 'Episode from the Battle of Waterloo*
(1858) ; 'Battle of Koniggratz* ; 'Surrender of
Napoleon after Sedan* ; 'Attack of Saxon Corps
at Saint Privat* (1880).

Bleibtreu, Karl August, karl ow'goost
bllp'troi, German poet and novelist : b. Berlin,
13 Jan. 1859. He is one of the foremost repre-
sentatives of the youngest German school in
literature, and a pronounced realist. All his
views are radical, as shown by the very titles of
his works; for example. 'Revolution in Litera-
ture* (1885); 'Literature's Struggle for Life.*
He also wrote 'Dies Irse* ; 'Napoleon at Leip-
sic* ; 'Cromwell at Marston Moor.* His
dramas are: 'Lord Byron* (1888); 'The Day
of Judgment* ; 'The Queen's Necklace* ; etc.

Bleichroder's, bllh're-derz, a celebrated
banking house in Berlin, established by Samuel
Bleichroder, who died in 1855, continued by his
son, Gerson Bleichroder, who died in 1893, ana
subsequently by the two sons of the latter.
Under the patronage of Bismarck it entered
into commercial relations with the Prussian gov-
ernment, rendering material assistance in 1866
and again in 1871. Gerson Bleichroder was
raised to the hereditary peerage in 1872.

Blemmyes, blem'i-ez, or Blemyes, a people
of ancient Ethiopia, who for several centuries
after Christ gave much trouble to the Romans
during their occupation of northern Africa.
Their influence extended to a period as late as
the 7th century.

Blende (German, "to blind,** in allusion to
the fact that the mineral is easily mistaken for
galena, and yet yields no lead). A native sul-
phide of zinc, having the formula ZnS, and
known also as sphalerite. It crystallizes in
tetrahedral forms belonging to the isometric

BLENHEIM — BLENHEIM HOUSE

system, and has a very perfect cleavage. It is
commonlj' brown, black, or yellow, but may
have other colors also, and may be nearly color-
less when pure. Its hardness is from 3.5 to 4,
and its specific gravity is about 4.00. It usually
occurs massive, with dodecahedral cleavage, and
is found commonly in connection with galena,
and also in deposits of considerable extent in
cavities in limestone. It is a valuable ore of
zinc, and is mined near Joplin, Mo., in Corn-
wall (England), and in various parts of the
United States, notably in Kansas, Illinois, and
Colorado. The miners of Cornwall call it
*mock lead* and ^^black-jack.®

Blenheim, blen'Tm, or Blindheim, a Bava-
rian village about 23 miles from Augsburg,
the theatre of a great battle, fought 13 Aug.
1704 (also called the battle of Hochstadt,
from another village of this name in the
vicinity), in which Marlborough and Prince
Eugene, commanding the allied forces of
England and the German empire, gained a
brilliant victory over the French and Bava-
rians. The latter armies were drawn into
the engagement under the most unfavorable
circumstances. Both these armies amounted
to 56,000 men, while the forces of Marl-
borough and Eugene w^ere about 52,000. The
first had throwm their troops chiefly into the
two villages of Blenheim and Kinzingen,
which they considered as points of support
for their wings, though at too great a dis-
tance in front of their main position. A
large proportion of cavalry was in the cen-
tre, since each army, the Bavarian as well
as the French, had their horse on their wings,
and in this w^ay those of two wings must
necessarily join each other. Both the com-
manders would undoubtedly have perceived
and corrected this mistake, as Tallard, the
French general, had in Blenheim alone 27
battalions of infantry; but they expected so
little to be attacked, that when the line of
the allies began to move, 13 August, at two
o'clock in the morning, they supposed them
to be marching off. The greatest part of
their cavalry was sent to forage. Even at
seven o'clock, when the heads of the eight
columns with which Eugene -and Marl-
borough advanced toward the Nebelbach
w'ere to be seen, Tallard thought the whole
a stratagem intended to cover the retreat;
but he soon saw his error. The dispersed
troops were recalled in the greatest hurry,
and the cannon were drawn up in line. The
French and Bavarians made every exertion
to prevent the passage of the enemy over the
small stream of Nebelbach, and the capture
of the two villages, the conquest of which
was considered by Marlborough and Eugene
as decisive. Their line of attack w^as un-
commonly long, about four and a half miles.
Marlborough, in order to secure his right
wing, attacked Blenheim, but wnthout suc-
cess; he then changed his plan, and threw
himself with his principal forces into the
wide interval between the right wing and
the centre of the enemy, leaving only as
many troops before Blenheim as were neces-
sary to check the body which occupied this
position. At five o'clock in the afternoon
he succeeded, after great efforts, in passing
the Nebelbach, by which his victory was de-
cided. Tallard himself was among the pris-

oners; his son was killed. The consequences
of the battle Avere decisive. Bavaria, as
Marlborough had anticipated, fell into the
power of Austria.

Blenheim Dog. See Terriers.

Blenheim House, the name of the seat of
the Duke of Marlborough, in the parish of
Woodstock, and county of Oxford. The estate
having been given by Queen Anne to Marl-
borough for his eminent services. Parliament
granted the sum of half a million sterling to
erect a suitable family seat. The building was
intrusted to Sir John Vanbrugh, and called
Blenheim, from the village where the Duke
gained his great victory. In this park once stood
the royal palace of Woodstock, where Alfred
is said to have resided, and which was the
favorite residence of Henry II., who erected
a house in the park for his favorite mistress,
Rosamond Clififord, whence the well-known
legend of Woodstock-bower, Queen Eleanor,
and the Fair Rosamond. Edward III. was also
much attached to this palace, in which his eldest
son, the illustrious Black Prince, was born, as
well as his youngest son, Thomas, Duke of
Gloucester, usuall}' called Thomas of Wood-
stock, from that event. Richard II. likewise
kept his court here, at which time the poet
Chaucer resided at Woodstock, in a house
wdiich stood near the present entrance to the
park. During the civil wars of the 17th
century it was for some time defended for
the king; but it ultimately surrendered, and
was much injured and dilapidated by the
parliamentarians. The usual approach to
Blenheim from Woodstock is through a tri-
umphal arch or portal. In front of the build-
ing stands a sculptured column 130 feet high,
surmounted by a statue of the duke, whose
victories and achievements are recorded on
tablets round the base. The front of the
house measures 348 feet from wing to wing,
and although architectural critics find many
faults in detail, the general effect is in the
highest degree noble and commanding. The
interior is extremely magnificent; the hall,
supported by Corinthian pillars, is 67 feet
high; and the ceiling was painted by Sir
James Thornhill, the design representing
Victory crowning the Duke. The gallery and
bow-window room abound in portraits by the
most eminent masters, both foreign and Eng-
lish. On the tapestry of the latter are figured
the various battles gained by the same great
general, and more especially that of Blen-
heim. The saloon, a noble and spacious
apartment, communicates with the hall, and
occupies the entire breadth of the centre.
The lower part is lined with marble, and six
of its compartments are decorated with pic-
tures by La Guerre, representing the inhabi-
tants of the different nations of the world in
appropriate costume. On the ceiling is a
representation by the same artist, of the vic-
torious Duke arrested in his career by Peace
and Time. The remaining principal subjects
of admiration are the library, theatre, state
drawing-room, blue and green drawing-room,
grand cabinet, the dining-room, etc. In the
chapel, which forms one of the wings, is a
fine marble monument by Rysbrack, to the
great Duke and his almost equally celebrated
duchess, Sarah. The gardens and grounds.

BLENKER — BLENNY

•which are exceedingly spacious, were laid out
by Brown, who contrived to make a most
admirable use of the small river Glyme in
the formation of a lake, or piece of water,
v;hich is justly deemed one of the greatest
beauties of the place. It is crossed by sev-
eral arches, and at the middle or grand ap-
proach is a magnificent bridge, the span of
the centre arch of which is loi feet.

Blanker, blenk'er, Louis, German-Ameri-
can soldier: b. Worms, Germany, 1812; d.
16 Oct. 1863. He took an active part in the
revolutionary movement of 1848 in Germany
and was forced to leave his native land, emi-
grating to the United States. He organized
the 8th regiment of New York Volunteers at
the outbreak of the Civil War, and was its
colonel. He was pfl-omoted to the rank of
brigadier-general at the first battle of Bull
Run, and engaged in the battle of Cedar Keys
in 1862. He died of wounds received while
at Warrenton, V'a.

Blennerhas'sett, Harman, English emi-
grant in America: b. Hampshire, England, 8
Oct. 1764; d. on the island of Guernsey, 2
Feb. 1831. He sprang from a wealthy and
highly connected house which traced its an-
cestry back to Edward III.; was educated at
Westminster School, London, and Trinity
College, Dublin, graduating 1790. The young-
est of three sons, he studied for the law, but
the death of his brothers soon after made him
head of the family. Early in 1796 he privately
married his sister's daughter, Margaret Ag-
new, a beautiful and highly accomplished girl
of 18, also of excellent family, her father
having been lieutenant-governor of the Isle
of Man, and her grandfather an English of-
ficer killed at Germantown. This incestuous
union brought its ultimate punishment from
nature in a family of physical and moral
wrecks; but a more immediate one was en-
tire social ostracism, which soon drove him
to break his entail and sell his estates, ex-
cept some reserved incomes, and come to
America with his wife and a library and philo-
sophical apparatus. Arriving i Aug. 1796,
he finally, in 1798, settled on a small island
in the Ohio River a few miles below Park-
ersburg, W. Va., and spent $60,000 on a
house and grounds, pictures, and statuary.
This was for years the show place of America
west of the Alleghanies, and drew a stream of
notable guests, whom he entertained with
elaborate hospitality. Here he read, made
music, which was his chief passion, and dab-
bled in feeble absent-minded scientific experi-
ments. In 1805 Aaron Burr (q.v.) was one of
his guests, and then or next year induced him
to join in the scheme for a southwestern em-
pire, to include Mexico; Blennerhassett was
to be prime minister and a duke, and perhaps
ambassador to England. He was a tirnid,
dreaming, futile, unadventurous man. but, like
many such, may have fancied himself a great
statesman and hero in posse. He may, per-
haps, have consented because Mexico was
farther from Great Britain than the Ohio,
and the canker of his life was fear lest chance
should disclose his secret to his friends and
children. His wife, much the stronger nature
of the two, was certainly ambitious for him,
and he would not have embarked in such a

Vol. 2—46.

venture without her approval. Anyway, he
advocated Burr's "colonization^^ plan in the
papers, and invested a great sum in arms, am-
munition, provisions, boats, etc., on the faith
of obligations from Burr's son-in-law Allston,
which were largely defaulted. The scheme
fell through; Blennerhassett was twice ar-
rested, imprisoned and tried for treason, but
discharged in 1807 on the acquittal of Burr.
His place, however, had been wantonly in-
jured by the militia, and was seized by his
creditors and turned into a hemp field. The
mansion was converted into a granary and
was finally burned by accident. Blennerhas-
sett now settled in Xatchez, and soon after
bought a i,ooo-acre cotton plantation on the
Mississippi, a few miles above Port Gib-
son, which he called La Cache. It was un-
successful, and the War of 1812 injured his
commercial speculations; and in 1819 he sold
it for $28,000 and removed to Montreal, prac-
tising law in hope of obtaining a judgeship
through his old schoolmate, the Duke of
Richmond. This failing, he returned to Eng-
land in 1822 in hope of winning back his
property by a reversionary action- and then
of obtaining employment through an influence
which no longer existed. In 1824 he came
back after his family. Everything failed him,
though he and his wife were decently treated;
at last his health gave way, and he died at
Port St. Pierre on the island of Guernsey.
He was generous with his money while he
had it, and helped out of financial difificulties
several of the musicians he consorted with.
His wife, though disinherited, had always
had an income paid her by her sisters; and
in 1838 received a property by the will of her
husband's maiden aunt. In 1840 she came to
the United States to push a claim before Con-
gress for the island property, and indemnity
for the ravages of the militia. Henry Clay
favored it, and its passage was probable; but
before it came up she died in New York, 16
June 1842. The story of her being left penni-
less with a dependent family (the youngest
was 19 at his father's death), and of her dying
in poverty and being buried by sisters of
charity, are fictions. She had some literary
ambitions, and while in Montreal wrote two
volumes of verse. *The Deserted Isle^
(1822), and 'The Widow of the Rock, and
Other Poems^ (1824).

Bibliography.- — Therese Blennerhassett- Ad-
ams, 'The True Story of Harman Blenner-
hassett,^ in the 'Century' (Vol. 62 1901) ; 'The
Blennerhassett Papers* (1864) ; Safford, 'Life
of Blennerhassett' (1835) '> Pidgin, 'Blenner-
hassett,* a romance (1902).

Blenny. These small fishes of the spiny-
rayed marine family Blcunida, frequent
rocky coasts and shallows, in seas of all parts
of the world. Their elongated bodies, some
of which are scaleless. are remarkable for the
abundance of slimy matter with which they
are covered. These fishes are extraordinary
in possessing but one dorsal fin. which in
some species is deeply divided; and in having
the faculty of using their ventral fins to aid
them in moving about among the rocks and
sea-weed. They are frequently deprived of
water, by the ebb of the tide, when they are
capable of subsisting for some hours. Small

BLENORRHCEA — BLESSINGTON

crustaceans form their main food. In some
species the eggs are retained in the oviduct
until they hatch, so that the young are pro-
duced alive.

Blenorrhoea, an old term signifying a
muco-purulent discharge from any mucous
membrane. This discharge is usually creamy
white and consists usually of water, mucus,
epithelial cells, white blood cells, or pus cells,
and bacteria. At the present time a blenor-
rhagic discharge is definitely named according
to the structure involved. Thus a blenorrhoea
of the eyes is termed a purulent conjuncti-
vitis ; of the vagina, leucorrhoea ; of the ure-
thra, gleet or urethritis ; if a urethritis of
infectious origin, gonorrhoea, etc. Treatment
is usually local and general. Tonic stimulat-
ing applications may be locally applied, and
the general health built up as thoroughly as
possible.

Blepharitis, an inflammation of the margin
of the eye-lids and hair follicles. It may con-
sist of a very slight hyperasmia or redness
that causes itching and discomfort. This
form may be due almost entirely to eye-
strain and proper glasses will usually cure it.
The disease may be more extensive, involv-
ing the margin and the follicles, with redness
and swelling and whitish scales. The eye-
lashes may drop out, but usually are regrown,
and there is much itching and discomfort.
This form may also result from refractive
errors, or may be the index of a bad consti-
tutional state from poor food, bad surround-
ings, or it may follow the infectious diseases,
notably measles. A more persistent form is
associated with ulceration and loss of the
eyelashes. This is usually a very chronic
type and resistant to treatment. In the man-
agement of all forms, all errors of refraction
should be corrected by properly adjusted
glasses, — not on opticians' prescriptions, —
and the local treatment by stimulating oint-
ments.

Bl€re, bla-ra, a French town, in the de-
partment of Indre-et-Loire, on the Cher, 15
miles east-southeast of Tours. It contains a
notably fine i6th century chapel. Pop.
(1896) 3,269. In the vicinity is the Chateau
Chenonceaux, built in the time of Francis I.,
and still in excellent preservation. It was
given by Henry II. to his mistress, Diana de
Poitiers, who was dispossessed on the death
of Henry by Catherine de jMedici. In the
latter part of the i8th century it was fre-
quented by Fontenelle, Voltaire, Rousseau,
and all the wits of the time, who were drawn
together by the then owner of the chateau,
Madame Dupin, widow of a fennier-gencral
;who died in 1799. See Cook, *01d Tou-
raine.^

Bles, Henri, 6n-re' bles, Flemish painter:
b. probably at Dinant, about 1480; d. 1550.
Very little is known of his career, and the
^Adoration of the Magi^ in the Dresden Gal-
lery is his only signed picture. He is known
to have been a very prolific artist, and almost
all the European galleries contain paintings
ascribed to him.

Blesbok, bles'bok, one of the African hart-
beests, now rare, which was distinguished by
the violet color of its coat. See Hartbeest.

Blessing, or Benediction. The expression
of wishing one well soon gave rise, in early
ages, to a solemn act, accompanied, like other
solemnities of those periods, by symbolic signs,
this was the blessing or benediction. In patri-
archal times, when the authority of the head
of a family included that of the priest and the
civil ruler, the blessing of course appertained
chiefly to him, on account of his venerable cha-
racter, and when the priests began to form a
separate class, became, in certain cases, a pre-
rogative of theirs. As the authority of the
father, in the infancy of every nation, is ex-
tremely great, the idea soon sprung up that
his prayers, invoking the favor of the Deit}%
were more effectual than those of others, and
that whatever he blessed would be likely to
receive the favor of God. The same importance
was soon attributed to blessings conferred by
a priest. The heathens, the Jews, and many
Christian sects, have cherished this idea. By the
Jewish institutions, certain benedictions were
reserved to the priest ; the same is the case in
the Roman Catholic Church, in which different
benedictions are appropriated to different degrees
of the clergy. We shall mention only a few
of them. The Roman Catholic bishops alone
can confer those benedictions which are con-
nected with unction, and are called consecra-
tions, as, for instance, the consecration of kings
and queens, of the cup and patera, the church
and altar. To them also is confined the bene-
diction of abbots and abbesses, of knights, and
the holy oil. For the benediction of the holy
vestments, etc., they may employ a substitute.
Eveiy Roman Catholic clergyman may confer the
benediction on the occasion of betrothment ; also
the marriage benediction ; may bless the fruits
of the earth, and the holy water. The benedic-
tion of a bishop is eagerly sought for by a faith-
ful Roman Catholic, as contributing peculiarly to
his spiritual welfare ; and the Catholic clergy, in
general, use the benediction as a salutation or
reward for a service, etc. When the Pope rides
or walks out the Roman Catholics kneel to re-
ceive his blessing, which he gives by a motion of
his hand. In his ante-chamber are often seen
things of different kinds, rosaries, etc., in large
quantities, which he blesses in passing by. The
Roman Catholic Church blesses things animate
and inanimate, and this is believed by many to
preserve them from sickness, injury, etc. Among
most Protestant bodies there is a blessing pro-
nounced upon the people at the close of a reli-
gious service, that of the Church of England
being contained in the ■Pra3'er Book. Roman
Catholics in many cases use the consecrated
water in giving the benediction.

Blessington, Margaret (Countess of) : b.
Knockbrit, near Clonmel, Ireland, i Sept.
1789; d. Paris, 4 June 1849. She was the
daughter of Edmund Power, and at the age of
15 was married to a Capt. Farmer, who died in
1817. A few months after his death she mar-
ried Charles John Gardiner, Earl of Blessington.
In 1822 they went abroad together, and continuec
to reside on the Continent till the Earl's death in
Paris, in 1829, when Lady Blessington returned
to London and took up her abode in Gore
House. Kensington, which had been bequeathed
to her by her husband. Here_ for many years
she held those celebrated reunions and soirees,
at which the most distinguished literary cha-
racters in London were wont to assemble. The

BLICHER — BLIND

fascination of her manners and conversation,
with her genial warm-heartedness of character,
rendered these gatherings most attractive ; but
certain equivocal circumstances in relation to
her connection with a Count d'Orsay prevented
their being frequented much by respectable
female society. The count had married a daugh-
ter of Lord Blessington by his first wife, and
been separated from her shortly afterward, but
after the death of his father-in-law, resided with
the countess during the remainder of her life.
Lady Blessington had made her debut as an
authoress in 1822 by the publication of two
volumes of ^ Sketches.^ In 1832 she contributed
to the ^New Monthly Magazine,* "Conversa-
tions with Lord Byron,** considered by many as
the best of her productions. She also wrote
numerous novels, including, among others, 'The
Belle of a Season'; 'The Two Friends*;
'Strathern*; and 'The Victims of Society.*
None of these have much literary merit, but de-
scribe scenes in fashionable life with considera-
ble power, and enjoyed at the time a large share
of popularity. She acted as editress for several
years of 'Heath's Book of Beauty* and the
'Keepsake,* and also of another annual, the
'Gems of Beaut3^* In 1849 she proceeded to
Paris, whither Count d'Orsay had previously
gone, in the hope of obtaining an appointment
under Louis Napoleon, with whom they had
been intimate during his exile in England, Con-
sult Madden, 'Life of the Countess of Blessing-
ton* (1855).

Blicher, Steen Steensen, stan stan'sen
bliH'er, Danish poet and novelist: b. Vium,
Jutland, II Oct. 1782; d. Spentrup, 26 March
1848. His first work was a translation of 'Os-
sian' (2 vols. 1807-9), a^d his first original
poems appeared in 1814, but attracted little
notice. He quickly won a national reputation
with his novels, and in 1842 appeared his master-
piece of novel writing, 'The Knitting Room,*
a collection of short stories in the Jutland
dialect.

Blida, ble-dii', a fortified town of Algeria,
30 miles inland from Algiers, well-built, with
modern houses and public edifices, the centre of
a flourishing district, and having a good trade.
There are cedar and cork trees in the neigh-
borhood and mines of copper and lead. The
principal exports are oranges, grain, tobacco,
raisins, etc. It is one of the chief stations on
the railway connecting Oran, Algiers, and Con-
stantine. Pop. (1896) 13,026.

Bligh, William, English navigator: b. Ply-
mouth. England, 9 Sept. i7.S4; d. 7 Dec. 1817.
He acquired considerable celebrity from having
been the commander of the ship Bounty when
the crew mutinied in the South Seas and car-
ried her off. She had been fitted out for the
purpose of procuring plants of the bread-fruit
tree, and introducing these into the West Indies.
Bligh. who had sailed with Capt. Cook, ob-
tained the command, and in December 1787.
left Spithead for Otaheite. where he arrived,
and remained till April 1789. Having loaded
his vessel with plants he set sail and was pro-
ceeding on his voyage for Jamaica when he
was seized in bed, bound, and brought on deck
The launch was lov.-ered. and Bligh. with 18
men supposed to be well disposed to him. were
forced into it, with no other provision than 1 50
pounds of bread, 32 pounds of pork, a little

rum and wine, and 28 gallons of water. Thus
scantily provided they found themselves in the
open sea, not far from the island of Tofoa, in
lat. 19° S. and Ion. 184'' E., and managed by
admirable skill and perseverance, though not
without enduring fearful hardships, to reach the
island of Timor in 41 days, after running nearly
4,000 miles without the loss of a single man.
Ultimately 12 of the number reached England.
Of these, Bligh was one, and in a second voyage
accomplished the object of the first bj' giving
the bread-fruit tree to the West India Islands.
When several of the mutineers were afterward
tried at Portsmouth, sufficient evidence was ob-
tained to show that Bligh himself was not free
from blame, and had on many occasions been
too much inclined to play the tyrant. This
feature in his character was afterward mani-
fested on a larger scale. In 1805 he was ap-
pointed governor of New South Wales, and
acted so harshly that the other authorities inter-
fered and put him in confinement. On his
return he was made an admiral. See Pitcairn
Island.

Blighia, bli'i-a, a genus of numerous trees
and shrubs of the natural order Sapindacem, the
principal species of which is B. saoida {Ctioania
saoida of some botanists), the akee tree indige-
nous to west tropical Africa and naturalized in
the West Indies since the close of the 17th
century. It is also planted in southern Florida.
The tree attains a height of 30 feet, bears
pinnate ash-like leaves and very fragrant whitish
flowers, from which by crude distillation the
colored people obtain a cosmetic and which
would probably yield a valuable perfume under
proper management. The rich, red fruits, as
large as goose eggs, are used for dessert and
largely also in cookery. In Jamaica the tree
is cultivated as high as 3.000 feet above sea-
level, although it can withstand slight frosts.
Cuoania anacardioidcs, which also bears an edi-
ble fruit, has been introduced into California,
and C. clegantissima is sometimes raised in
warm greenhouses for its attractive foliage and
racemes of white flowers.

Blight, an indefinite term applied to any
diseased state of cultivated plants, but gradu-
ally being restricted to plant diseases caused
either by bacteria or fungi. See sections on
diseases in articles on various plants.

Blight, American, an English and Austra-
lian name for the woolly apple louse or "apple
blight," one of the aphides (q.v.).

Blight-bird, a small insectivorous bird
{Zostcrops cacnilcsccus) of New Zealand,
which devours the "blight** or plant-lice on fruit
trees. It is one of the white-eyes (q.v.).

Blimbing, Bilimbi, Cucumber-tree {Aver-
rlioa bilimbi), a tropical tree of the natural order
Geraniacccr. native of southern Asia, where it
is largely cultivated and whence it has been in-
troduced in other tropical countries. It is
extensively . raised in South America. The tree
attains a height of 15 feet, bears racemes of red
flowers followed by smooth cucumber-shaped
green fruits as large as hen's eggs, which are
highly esteemed for their acid pulp. The ca-
rambola (q.v.) is a close relative.

Blind, blint. Karl, German political agi-
tator and writer on history, mytholog}", and
Germanic literature : b. Mannheim, 4 Sept. 1826 ;

BLIND

d. London. Eng., 31 May 1907. He was edu-
cated at Heidelberg and Bonn, and from his
student days till he settled in England in 1852
he was continually engaged in agitating or in
heading risings in t!:e cause of German freedom
and union, being frequently imprisoned. The
democratic propaganda was afterward supported
by his pen ; and he wrote political and biog-
raphical works: < Fire-burial Among Our Ger-
manic Forefathers^ ; 'Teutonic Cremation* ;
<Yggdrasil, or The Teutonic Tree of Exist-
ence* ; biographies of Freiligrath, Ledru Rollin,
and Francis Deak.

Blind, Mathilde, German-English poet :
b. Mannheim, 21 March 1847 ; d. London, 26
Nov. 1896. She went to England in 1849. and
won fame bv her writings: 'The Prophecy of
St. Oran, and Other Poems' (Lond. 1881) ; 'Life
of George Eliot> (1883) ; 'Madame Roland*
(1886) ; 'Tlie Heather on Fire,' a tale (1886) :
'Ascent of Man> (1889); 'Dramas in Minia-
ture> (1892) ; 'Songs and Sonnets> (1893) ; and
'Birds of Passage^ (1895).

Blind. The loss of the sense by means of
which man receives an idea of the world that
surrounds him, clothed in light and color, is an
event as melancholy as it is frequent. Blindness
is different: (i) In its degrees, some persons
being partially blind, retaining a slight perception
of light, with the power of distinguishing very
brilliant colors, and the general outlines of bod-
ies ; others being entirely deprived of the fac-
ulty of seeing. (2) In its causes: some men
are blind from their birth; others have become
blind by local diseases of the eyes, — for instance,
— by inflammation, suppuration, cancer of the
eye-ball, spots, films, tumors on the cornea (by
which its transparency is destroyed), also by
closure of the pupil, by a turbid state of the
humors, by a debility of the optic nerve, or by
general diseases of the body, violent fevers, ner-
vous fevers, plethora, and tendency of the blood
to the head, erysipelas in the face, smallpox,
scarlet-fever, etc., or by excessive exertion of
the eyes, by which the optic nerve is enfeebled ;
for which reason, some classes of mechanics
and artists, as blacksmiths, laborers in glass and
smelting houses, watch-makers, etc., not unfre-
quently lose their sight, and in northern coun-
tries, which are covered with snow for a long
time, and which dazzle the eyes by the reflec-
tion of the sunbeams, as well as in the sandy
deserts of Africa, blindness is a frequent com-
plaint. Old age is sometimes accompanied with
blindness, occasioned by the drying up of the
humors of the eye, or by the opacity of the
cornea, the crystalline lens, etc. There are sev-
eral causes which may produce blindness from
birth. Sometimes the eyelids adhere to each
other, or to the eye-ball itself, or a membrane
covers the eyes ; sometimes the pupil of the
eye is closed, or adheres to the cornea, or is
not situated in the right place, so that the rays
of light do not fall in the middle of the eye;
besides other defects. Those who are born blind
have no idea of vision, and are entirely desti-
tute of all the ideas derived from the sense of
sight. They cannot, therefore, be sensible of
their misfortune in the same degree as those
who have lost their sight at a later period. Ex-
perience has shown that those who acquire the
power of seeing after being born blind, or having
lost their sight in their childhood, form very
different ideas of visible objects from other

persons. A young man, whom Cheselden
couched for a cataract, at the moment he re-
ceived sight imagined that all the objects which
he saw were in contact with his eyes ; he could
not distinguish objects, although of very dif-
ferent forms. Those with which he was already
familiar by the touch he examined with great
attention, in order to recognize them another
time; but having too many things to notice at
once, he soon forgot all that he had observed.
He wondered that those persons whom he loved
most were not handsomer than others. Before
he received his sight he had expressed a great
desire to obtain this sense. The other senses
of persons, who have been blind for a long time,
become more exquisite, perhaps, because they
are not subject to the distraction produced by
the sight of so many objects. The blind, there-
fore, are often distinguished for a remarkable
mental activity, and a wonderful development
of the intellectual powers. Their touch and
hearing, particularly, become very acute. Thus it
is related of a blind man, who lived at Puiseaux,
in France, and was a chemist and musician, that
he could accurately estimate the proportions of
objects, could judge of the distance of fire by
the degree of heat, determine the quantity of
fluid in vessels by the sound it produced while
running from one vessel into another, and the
proximity of objects by the effect of the air
upon his face. He determined very accurately
the weights of bodies and the capacities of ves-
sels. The celebrated Saunderson, professor of
mathematics at Cambridge, lost his sight in his
early youth. He invented several processes to
facilitate his studies in arithmetic and geometry.
His sense of touch was so acute that he dis-
tinguished spurious coins merely by letting them
pass through his fingers, though they were so
well executed that even skilful judges were
deceived by them.

When it is a case of imparting instruction to
persons destitute of sight, it is necessary to have
recourse to the other senses to supply the want
of the eye. If, for instance, we wish to teach
them the arts of reading and writing, letters must
be prepared which will be palpable to the touch,
and the hand guided until they are able to
copy them. If we wish to communicate to them
a knowledge of the surface of the earth, globes
and maps must be prepared with the divisions,
etc., in relief. Knowledge obtained in this way
must, of course, be acquired much more slowly
than that received by the sight. The senses of
touch and of sight differ in this respect, that the
former ascends by degrees from the perception
of parts to the perception of the whole, while
the latter views the whole at a single glance. It
is therefore evident that the blind cannot be
instructed in the common schools destined for
those who see: in the first place, because the
means of instruction by the touch are wanting;
and secondly, because the progress of the other
children would be retarded by the slow appre-
hension of the blind pupils. (See Blind, Edu-
cation OF THE.)

The occupations in which the blind are found
capable of engaging are such as the making of
baskets and other kinds of wicker-work, brush-
making, rope and twine-making, the making of
mats and matting, knitting, netting, fancy work
of various kinds, cutting fire-wood, the sewing
of sacks and bags, the carving of articles in
wood, etc. Piano-tuning is also successfully car-

BLIND, EDUCATION OF THE

ried on by some, the typewriter is used by others
and the cleaning of clocks and watches has also
been occasionally practised by them. Skilled
musicians are sometimes foimd among the blind.

Reading Room for the Blind. — By an act of
Congress passed in 1879, entitled an Act to Pro-
mote the Education of the Blind, $250,000 was set
apart to be permanently invested in securities of
the United States, the proceeds of which were
to be applied, through the American Printing
House for the Blind at Louisville, to the making
of books and apparatus used in the education of
the blind, to be annually distributed to the
schools for the blind in the several States in
proportion to attendance. For almost a quarter
of a century this benefaction has been available
for the youthful blind of the country in the
schools, and the books in embossed characters
have multiplied amazingly. The catalogue now
embraces nearly or quite every title in popular
literature and technical subjects, and as only the
best books are printed in raised letters, the en-
tire catalogue constitutes the finest and best
library of equal numbers in the world. There is
a steady increase in t'le number of visitors in
the reading room for the blind in the library of
Congress. To Helen Marr Campbell is given by
many the credit of having taken the initial steps
to procure this reading room. She was a fre-
quent visitor to the crowded rooms of the old
Congressional Library, and often found the ex-
periences there far from agreeable. The few
books for the blind were often difficult to obtain
and equally difficult to read in cramped rooms,
and too often under the scrutiny of curious and
annoying strangers. Going to John Russell
Young, then librarian, she made a request for a
special reading room in behalf of the blind read-
ers of Washington. He was quick to see the
justice of the request, and at once placed the
fitting up of Pavilion No. 7 in the new library in
charge of the second assistant librarian, David
Hutcheson. This is in the extreme northwest-
ern corner of t'^e ground floor of the great build-
ing and is a large and well-appointed room,
with square bay windows and a groined ceiling
resting upon massive pillars. The alcoves along
the eastern wall are filled with the specially pre-
pared books for the blind ; the Bible, making so
many large volumes that it completely fills one
of the alcove shelves.

Dictionary for the Blind. — The first general
dictionary ever issued in any country or lan-
guage was published in 1903 by the Maryland
School for the Blind. It contains 40,000 words,
with complete diacritical marks and definitions
and fills 18 volumes. In the last 10 years more
books have been printed for the blind than in
all previous time. This is due largely to the
rapid spread of the New York point system of
printing for the blind. The new dictionary, as
well as all the books from the Maryland School
printing house, is printed in New York point.
The American Printing House for the Blind at
Louisville expends its annual subsidy of $10,000
entirely in New York point printing. The annual
appropriation of $1,000 by the State of New
York for the publication of general literature for
the blind department of the State Library at Al-
bany goes into New York point. The Interna-
tional Sunday-School Lessons go out weekly
over the United States in New York point.
Three periodicals are published in it. There is
an excellent musical library in it, includmg a

dictionary of 6.000 musical terms. The Society
of St. Francis Xavier uses the system in its pub-
lishing house for the blind.

Photophonic Books for the Blind. — A sheet
of transparent paper contains, printed upon a
black background, a number of small white
.squares, separated from each other by intervals
one, two, or more lengths of a square in size.
These squares, together with the intervals, rep-
resent the letters of the alphabet, exactly as do
the dots and dashes of Morse. In order to
enable the blind to read these letters, the printed
sheet is placed in a frame between two thin
plates of glass fully exposed to the light, and
an opaque piece of cardboard, or some other
material, with a square-shaped opening in the
centre, is moved by the reader along the priiited
lines from left to right. Whenever the opening
passes over one of the white transparent squares,
the rays of light illuminating the printed sheet
pass through this opening, and, by means of a
photophonic apparatus, are changed into sound.
In this way, the blind reader receives the letters
in the form of sounds separated by longer or
shorter intervals of silence, and his ear fulfills
the functions of the eye.

Blind, Education of the. — When it is stated
that prior to 1830 the blind of America were to
be found "moping in hidden corners or de-
graded by the wayside, or vegetating in alms-
houses,^^ it is the adult blind that is meant.
Still blind children were occasionally found in
these places, though it could scarcely be said'
that they were vegetating, as could be said of
the untrained deaf children.

The British census of 185 1 first showed the
world that over 80 per cent of the blind are
adults. Our schools for the blind were started,
first, because of the wide-spread interest in the
results of educating the young deaf and dumb,
which furnished inspiration for new fields of
educational endeavor ; secondly, because the
country was coming to the conviction that all
the children of the state should receive educa-
tion both as a matter of public policy and as a
private right; and thirdly, because reports of
what had been accomplished abroad in schools
for the blind were being promulgated in our
land. By 1830 the more progressive states of
the east were ready to give their blind children
school training. In that year the government
first included in the national census the deaf
and dumb and the blind. The work of the blind
was to begin with scientific foreknowledge as to
their number. In 1829 certain gentlemen in
Boston obtained the incorporation of the "Now
England Asylum for the Blind. '> By a most
fortunate circumstance, the interest and ser-
vices were obtained of a graduate of Brown
University, Dr. Samuel G. Howe, who after
finishing his medical studies had chivalrously
gone to the aid of the Greeks. Dr. Howe
went at once to Europe to study methods of
instruction. Upon his return, in 1832, the
school was opened with six pupils. In New
York the act of incorporation of the New York
Institution for the Blind was passed in 1831 ;
but funds were needed and no one went abroad
to study methods. This school opened in March,
1832, antedating by a few months the school at
Boston. In the very same year a German
teacher of the blind, a Mr. Friedlander, mcst

BLIND, EDUCATION OF THE

opportunely came to Philadelphia, in the hope
of starting a school for the blind there. Hav-
ing trained certain blind children he exhibited
their accomplishments, first, to a few influential
people, secondly, before a large audience among
whom he distributed a leaflet, ^-Observations
on the instruction of blind persons.^^ A meet-
ing of public-spirited citizens followed, funds
were liberally contributed, fairs held, and the
success of the cause was assured. The Penn-
sylvania institution for the instruction of the
blind was opened in 1833, fully ten months be-
fore an act of incorporation was obtained. The
three schools at Boston, New York, and Phila-
delphia are called the pioneer schools. All
sprang from private effort and private funds.
A.11 were incorporated as private institutions,
and remain so to this day. Two similar in-
stitutions for the blind have arisen in this
country, that at Baltimore and that at Pittsburg.

The origin of the State schools dififers from
that of the type above given only in that classes
of trained pupils from the earlier schools were
exhibited before the state legislatures, as well
as before the people. State appropriations fol-
lowed and the institutions were inaugurated as
state institutions. The new schools sprang into
being with astonishing rapidity. There were
in 1899 forty schools for the blind in the United
States, and every State in the union makes pro-
vision for its blind of school age either in its
own school or in that of a neighboring state.
In our sparsely-settled country, especially west
of the Alleghenies and south of Maryland, great
efforts had to be made to find the children and
still greater eff^orts to persuade the parents to
send them to school. In certain states where
the amount of the public fund seemed to pre-
clude a special grant for the blind, pupils of
this class were brought together in connection
with a school for the deaf and dumb, forming
"dual schools," as they are called. These in-
stitutions could not help being unfair to their
blind contingent ; for in nearly every such case
the blind came to a school already established
as a school for the deaf, and under the superin-
tendence of a man especially interested in the
education of the deaf; moreover, the number
of the deaf pupils usually far exceeded that of
the blind. There are still a few of these dual
schools, but wherever possible they have been
divided into two distinct institutions. In north-
ern schools the colored blind are educated with
the white; in southern schools it is best for the
colored to have schools of their own. Both the
whites and they prefer this arrangement. The
first school for the colored blind was opened in
North Carolina in 1869.

All the institutions for the blind were in
their very inception schools. The pioneer
schools imported literary teachers from Paris
and handicraft teachers from Edinburgh. At
first only the brighter class of pupils came
under instruction. Teaching them was easy.
They progressed with amazing strides ; all was
enthusiasm ; exhibitions were called for and
widely given (Dr. Howe's pupils gave exhibi-
tions in 17 states) ; large editions of the various
annual reports were exhausted. Soon, however,
less bright pupils came to be admitted ; then
the curriaulum of studies began to sober down
to the practical and comprehensive one pre-
vailing to-day. Whatever occupation the boy

or girl expects to follow after leaving school,
it is assumed he will follow it better and thus
live more happily and worthily if he has a
general education. When, as was formerly the
case, the period or term of schooling allowed
pupils was shorter than it is now, they were not
admitted before the age of eight or nine. Now
that kindergarten departments have been uni-
versally added to the schools, the pupils are
urged to enter at an early age ; because experi-
ence has shown that at home these little blind
folks are coddled rather than trained, so much
so in fact that by the time many of them come
to school their natural growth of body and mind
has been so interfered with by inaction, that all
the efforts of the schools cannot make up for
lost time and opportunity. The principle of
periodicity of growth has now come to be
understood and the importance of applying the
proper stimulus at the period most sensitive to
it, comprehended. Children with good sight
and hearing have got along without kinder-
garten training, and so have blind children,
but of all the useful means of reaching and
developing the average blind child none is so
effective as the properly-conducted kindergarten.
The practical knowledge of things comes to
the blind through the hand, their fingers being
veritable projections of their brains. Thus must
their hands not only be trained to sensitiveness
of touch but to be strong and supple, so that
they may, indeed, be dexterous ; for as their
hands are so are their brains. The kinder-
garten cultivates ear and heart and hand and
brain as nothing else does. Even color is not
wholly omitted in kindergartens for the blind.
Many see colors, and those who do not love
to talk about them and certainly derive some
indirect value for considering them.

Blind children with kindergarten training are
more susceptible to instruction than those with-
out it. Above this department the course of
studies in American schools requires from seven
to eight years, which means a primary, a gram-
mar and a high school education, or instruction
in object lessons, reading, writing, spelling,
grammar, composition, arithmetic, history, physi-
ology, botany, zoology, geology, physics, algebra,
geometry, civics, English literature, typewriting
and sometimes Latin and modern languages.
Not a few pupils have fitted for college where
they took the regular course with the seeing
students, and from which they were graduated
usually with distinction. Formerly much of
the teaching was oral, which, in many cases,
was apt to be more pleasant than profitable
to the pupil. Since the general introduction of
the embossed text book and tangible writing,
the pupil has been forced to depend more and
more upon himself, obviously with better re-
sults. In fact, the work has been growing more
and more practical. The methods of teaching
the blind correspond in general to those of
teaching other hearing children. The com-
mon appliances have but to be raised and en-
larged as in maps and diagrams, or simply made
tangible, which may be done, for example, by
notching an ordinary ruler so that the gradua-
tions can be felt.

Industrial training has been an integral part
of the school course from the beginning. Re-
cently educational manual training has been
generally introduced as preliminary to the

BLIND, EDUCATION OF THE

trades. Sloyd has been found especially adapted
to the blind. The handicrafts — chair-caning,
hammock-making, broom-making, carpet-weav-
ing, and a few others, alone remain of all the
many trades taught at one time or another in
our schools. Manual occupations of some kind
will always be taught, even were it evident that
none of them would be followed by the blind
as trades ; for it is by doing and making that
the blind especially learn best. Then, it is essen-
tial that they be kept occupied. In the past,
before the introduction of such varieties of
labor-saving machinery as the last half century
has seen, many of the discharged pupils fol-
lowed some manual trade and succeeded in sub-
sisting by it. To-day this is less and less pos-
sible. The mind itself of the blind is least
trammeled by the lack of sight ; hence some
pursuit where intelligence is the chief factor
would seem to be best adapted to his condition.
Music, of course, opens up his most delightful
field. It is said that all the force of the super-
intendents of the early schools was required to
prevent the institutions from becoming mere con-
servatories of music. To-day only those pupils
pursue music in regular course who have talent
for it ; but even those are not allowed to neglect
other studies for it. It is the experience of the
American schools, as of the European, that the
profession of music offers to the educated and
trained musician who is blind, a field in .which
he can work his way with least hindrance from
his lack of sight, and many are they who have
found in it a means of livelihood for them-
selves and their families. A few in nearly every
school fit themselves to be tuners of pianos.
The American schools for the blind were
founded upon embossed books. Dr. Howe
states somewhere that the simple reading from
embossed print did more to establish the schools
in the country than any other one thing. Extraor-
dinary pains were taken by Dr. Howe and
his assistants to perfect a system which should
be at once readily tangible to the fingers of the
blind and legible to the eyes of their friends.
The resiJt was the small lower-case letter of Dr.
Howe, the Boston line print, as it is often
called. To this the jury gave preference before
all other embossed systems exhibited at the
great exhibition of the industry of all nations,
in London, in 1851. Backed by such indorse-
ment and all the authority of Dr. Howe the
system was rapidly adopted into the American
schools. It was then the theory that the blind
would be further isolated from their friends if
their alphabets were dissimilar. The blind of
themselves had devised a writable system — ar-
bitrary and composed of dots or points — one
which they could both read and write. But the
early superintendents would not countenance it.
However, many of the blind failed to read the
line-letter system ; because to read it requires
extreme nicety of touch, which all the blind
"by no means have. Characters composed of
points, not of lines, are scientifically adapted
to touch reading. In the 33d report of the
New York institution, Supt. William B. Wait
wrote : "Now, which is the more important,
that all the young blind should be able to read,
thus being made, in fact, like the seeing, or that
they should be taught an alphabet zvhich in
some sort resembles that used by the seeing,
l3Ut by doing which only 34 per cent of them

will ever be able to read with any pleasure or
profit?'* This attitude of the New York school
was the outcome of statistics gathered from
seven institutions, in which 664 pupils were in-
volved, and of experiments made by Mr. Wait
with his own pupils, using a system scientifically
devised by him, composed of points in arbitrary
combination. This was in 1868. At the next
convention of the American instructors of the
blind, it was resolved "That the New York hori-
zontal point alphabet as arranged by Mr. Wait
should be taught in all institutions for the educa-
tion of the blind.*' Europe was a long time
accepting a writable point system. That of
Louis Braille, devised in 1829, though much
used by individuals, was not officially adopted
into the Paris school where it originated until
1854. In contrast, America devised, printed,
spread, and resolved to accept its writable sys-
tem in less than one-half the time. The benefits
of a tangible writable system are vast. It puts
the blind more nearly on a par with the seeing,
particularly as pupils in school. Its adoption
here, next to that of tangible printing, makes
obtainable the ideal of American schools for
the blind. Every tangible system has its defects.
French "braille" as adopted into England has
antiquated abbreviations and contractions for
the use of adults ; and is involved with rules
allowing much bad use, like the omission of all
capitals. The New York point as printed also
laid itself open to much criticism as to "good
use.'* The American braille, the latest system,
combining the best features of French braille
and of New York point, was devised by a blind
teacher of the Perkins institution. It takes full
account of "good use," and those who use the
system deem it very satisfactory. In 1892, when
the American braille system was adopted into
several schools, a typewriter for writing braille
was invented, and this was followed by the in-
vention of another machine for embossing braille
directly on plates of thin brass from which any
number of duplicates could be struck off on
paper. Here was a means of creating a new
library at once. But the chief value of the in-
vention lay in the fact that as the machine was
simple and inexpensive and could be operated
if necessary by a blind man, any institution
could have a printing office of its own. And
several schools immediately established such
offices, from which they issued at once whatever
their school classes demanded. By co-operating
in the selection of the books to be embossed
these schools have created in the space of seven
years a library of books in American braille
than which there is no superior in any svstem in
any country, and they have added an immense
amount of music in the braille music notation,
which is the same all over the world. A type-
writer, and a machine for embossing brass
plates in the New York point system, have also
appeared.

The Association of American instructors
was formed in 1871, has met biennially ever
since, usually as the guest of one or another of
the institutions. The proceedings of each con-
vention have been published. The principles
underlying the scheme for educating the blind
being to make them as little as possible a class
apart from the rest of the community, it has not
been deemed wise to attempt to establish p
national college for the higher education of

BLIND FISHES — BLINDAGE

those capable of taking it, but efforts are mak-
ing towards enabling the brighter and worthier
pupils to attend one of the colleges for the
seeing, at the expense of the states or the
schools from which thej'^ come. The school in-
struction of the blind is comparatively an easy
matter. The work is less of a science than the
more difificult task of instructing the deaf.

When an exhaustive census of the gradu-
ates from all over the country was compiled, it
revealed the following encouraging facts : i6
became superintendents of other institutions ;
214 became teachers or were otherwise em-
ployed in institutions ; 34 became ministers of
the gospel; 84 authors, publishers, or lecturers;
310 were engaged as teachers of music or were
vocalists outside of institutions ; 69 had been
organists in churches ; 125 piano tuners ; 937 had
been engaged as teachers, employees, and work-
ers in handicraft ; 277 were storekeepers, etc. ;
45 bcame owners and managers of real estate ;
760 (mostly women) were employed at house-
work at home or in families, or at sewing with
machines, or by hand, and 78 were in homes of
employment. Further, according to the nth
census of the United States (1890) when there
were 50,568 blind in the land, but 2,560 were
found in almshouses. What proportion of these
ever attended our schools, will never be known,
but it must be remembered that blindness is an
affliction of old age.

Bibliography. — Cary, T.G., < Memoir of Thomas
Handasyd Perkins^ (1856) ; Diderot, 'An Essay
on Blindness' (1895) ; Hauy, V., 'An Essay on
the Education of the Blind' (1894) ; Howe, J. W.,
'Memoir of Dr. S. G. Howe> (1877) ; Howe, S.
G., Fort}'-three Annual Reports of the Perkins
Institution (1833-1875) ; Kitto, J., 'The Lost
Senses' (1852) ; Mell, A., ^Encyclopadisches
Handbuch des Blinden-wesens' (1899) ; Pres-
cott. W. H., "^The Blind,' in 'Biographical and
Critical Essays' (1846) ; Robinson, E. B. F.,
'The True Sphere of the Blind' (1896);
Rutherford, J., 'William Moon and his Work
for the Blind' (1898) ; Sizeranne, M. de la,
Les Aveugles par un Aveugle (1891) ; Sturgis,
D., ^The Kindergarten for the Blind' (New
England Magazine, Dec, 1895, P- 433) ; *The
Mentor' (i89i;-94) ; Wickersham, J. P., < His-
tory of Education in Pennsylvania' (1886).
Edward Ellis Allen,
Principal Pennsylvania Institution for the
Instruction of the Blind.

Blind Fishes. See Cave Animals.

Blind Spot. The place of entry of the
optic nerve in each retina is insensitive to light.
Mariotte in 1668 first demonstrated the existence
of the blind spot. Its existence may be easily
shown as follows : Pin a large sheet of paper
against the wall so that a cross marked thereon
may be at the level of the eyes ; fix the position
of the head b}'^ means of a headrest (a ruler
about 50 centimeters in length, held by the teeth
at one end, the other end resting against the
paper, is a convenient headrest) ; with one eye
closed or covered, look steadily at the cross
with the other eye ; move a pencil, that has been
covered with paper so that the point only
shows black, from the cross toward the temporal
side of the field of vision ; mark on the paper
the position at which the pencil point dis-
appears ; move the pencil farther and mark the

position at which the point re-appears. By mov-
ing the point in various directions near this
place on the paper, and marking the positions
where the pencil point disappears, and re-appears,
a series of marks may be made which furnish an
outline figure of the form of the blind spot. The
diameter of the blind spot (1.5 mm.) corresponds
to a visual angle varying from 3° 39' to 9° 47'.
The average is about 6°. An image of light
sufificiently small thrown upon the optic nerve
by means of the ophthalmoscope, gives rise to
no sensations. These experiments show that at
the blind spot we see nothing, yet, as we look
at this page with one eye only the surface ap-
pears to be covered with letters in the regular
forms ; there is no blank space corresponding to
the blind spot. In binocular vision the blind
spot of one retina is covered with a sensitive
portion of the other retina. Why we should
not be aware of our inability to see a continuous
field with one eye, is a problem for which there
are two proposed explanations. The blind spot
may be filled out by association, whose nature
is determined by the character of the surround-
ing field, or, by eye movements which serve as
retinal local signs for the insensitive region.
Propably the two processes are necessary and.
aid each other in presenting to the mind the-
continuous visual field. Consult: Ladd, ^Ele-
ments of Physiological Psychology' ; Helmholtz,
'Physiologische Optik' (1901) ; Sandford,
'Course in Experimental Psychology' ex. 113,.
114; Wundt, 'Physiologische Psychologic'
(1893) : Titchener, ^Experimental Psychology.'
Blind Tom (Bethune^ Thomas), a musical'
freak: b. about the middle of the 19th century.
He was a negro slave in Georgia, and was born
blind and with very weak mental development.
He showed remarkable aptitude for music and
after hearing a piece played once could repro-
duce it accurately on the piano. He also per-^
formed other musical wonders, and for several
years was exhibited in various cities. His lack
of intellect developed into almost brutal idiocy,
and he disappeared from the public eye.

Blindage, in operations against fortresses,,
the name of all preparations which tend to in-
tercept the view of the enemy. There are sev-
eral species: (i) A fascine placed across the
embrasures, to prevent the enemy from observ-
ing what passes near the cannon. (2) Blinds
before port-holes are shutters made of strong
planks, placed before the port-holes, as soon as
the guns are discharged, to obstruct the enemy's
view. (3) Single and double blinds. The for-
mer consists of three strong perpendicular posts,
five feet in hei-ght, between which are planks
covered with iron plates on the outside, and thus
made shot-proof. This screen is furnished with
rollers, to enable the laborers in the trenches
to push it before them. The latter consists of
large wooden chests, on four block wheels, filled
with earth, or bags of sand, and serve likewise-
in the trenches, etc., to cover the soldiers from
the fire of the enemy. (4) Chandeliers used to
protect the workmen in the trenches. Two
square beams of timber are placed parallel,
and at a distance of six feet, on the ground, and
fastened by two cross beams. Upon the ends
perpendicular posts are erected, and the inter-
val is filled up with fascines, at least to a height
of five feet. (,5) Coverings placed over the
most exposed parts in the saps or the fortres-s.

BLINDNESS — BLISS

These are made of beams over which hurdles or
fascines are spread, that finally receive a suffi-
ciently thick layer of earth as a covering. Dur-
ing the Boer war of 1899-1902 Ladysmith,
Mafeking, and Kimberley were largely defended
by means of bomb-proof shelters or blinds.

Blindness, inability to see, resulting from
disease or injury of the external eye. of the
light-receiving portions of the eye, the retina,
of the nerve-conducting paths, the optic tracts,
or of the light-perceiving or intellectual centres
in the occipital cortex of the brain. It may be
transitory or permanent, partial or complete,
congenital or acquired, curable or incurable.
There is a form of night-blindness, in which dim
light fails to give impressions ; or of day-blind-
ness, in which excess of light is obstructive to
vision. Certain regular or irregular areas on
the retina may be blind ; one half of one eye or
of both eyes may be blind. Blindness to cer-
tain colors is a well-known form of this affec-
tion. Objects may look too small, or too large,
or be distorted. See Amaurosis ; Amblyopia ;
Blind; Eve, Diseases of.

Blinds, screens or shutters to prevent too
strong a light from shining in at a window,
or to keep outsiders from seeing in. Venetian
blinds are made of slats of wood, so connected
as to overlap each other when closed, and to
show a series of open spaces for the admission
of light and air when in the other position.

Blindsnake, a family of small serpents
{Typhlopidcc} having worm-shaped bodies, only
a few inches in length, very rigid, and suited for
burrowing. These little snakes exist in all warm
countries, and lead a subterranean life, worming
their way through the loose top-soil, and feed-
ing on earth-worms, grubs, and insects. Their
eyes, through disuse, have become minute and
weak, and in many species almost covered by
overlapping plates. In India thej'^ sometimes
come out upon the surface after showers, when
they are regarded with superstitious dread by
the natives ; but they are perfectly harmless.
Many species inhabit Mexico and tropical
America, two or three occurring in New Mexico
and Texas, where they are frequently found in
ant-hills.

Blindstory. See Triforium.

Bliss, Aaron Thomas, American politician:
b. Smithhald, N. Y., 22 May 1837 ; d. 16 Sept.
1906. He served in the Federal army during the
Civil War, and was for six months a prisoner
in Andersonville, Columbia, and other Southern
prisons. In 1865 he settled in Saginaw, Mich.,
where he engaged in lumbering, banking, and
other business ei^terprises. He was a member
of Congress, 1889-91, was elected governor
of Michigan in 1900, and re-elected 4 Nov.
1002.

Bliss, Cornelius Newton, American mer-
chant and statesman : b. Fall River. Mass., 26
Jan. 1833. He was educated in New Orleans;
entered his stepfather's counting room there;
engaged in the commission business in Boston,
and became head of the dry goods commission
house of Bliss, Fabyan & Company, New York,
in 1881. He was a member of the Pan-Ameri-
can Conference ; chairman of the New York Re-
publican State Committee 1877-8: and treasurer
of the National Republican Committee in 1892
and 1896; declined to be a candidate for gov-

ernor of New York in 1885 and 1891 ; and was
secretary of the Interior Department in Presi-
dent McKinley"s Cabinet in 1897-8.

Bliss, Daniel, American missionary: b,
Georgia, Vt., 17 Aug. 1823. He graduated
at Amherst College in 1852, and at the
Andover Theological Seminary in 1855; was
ordained a Congregational minister 17 Oct. 1855;
engaged in missionary work in Syria in 1855-62 ;
and in 1866 became president of the Syrian
Protestant College of Beyrout. His publica-
tions include: 'Mental Philosophy^ and 'Na-
tional Philosophy,* both in Arabic.

Bliss, Edwin Elisha, American mission-
ary': b. Putney, Vt., 12 April 1817; d. Constanti-
nople, 29 Dec. 1892. He graduated at Amherst
College in 1837, and at Andover Theological
Seminary in 1842; was ordained as a mission-
ary in 1843, and joined the American Mission in
Turkey, being stationed at Trebizond, 1843-52;
Marsovan, Armenia, 1852-6; and at Cons:anti-
nople after 1856. In addition to the ordinary
work of a missionary he edited, 1865-92, the
'Messenger,* published at Constantinople in the
Turkish and Armenian languages, and compiled
a number of text-books, notably the 'Bible
Handbook,* in Armenian.

Bliss, Edwin Munsell, American mission-
ary: b. Erzerum, I urkev, 12 Sept. 1848. He
was educated at Robert College, Constantinople ;
at the high school, Springfield, Mass., and at
Amherst College, where he graduated in 1871,
later taking a course at Yale Divinity School.
In 1872 he was sent to Constantinople as agen*:
for the American Bible Society, and traveled in
Turkey and Persia. On his return to the United
States in 1888 he edited the 'Encyclopaedia of
Missions.* He has also written 'The Turk in
Armenia, Crete, and Greece,* and 'A Concise
History of Missions.* Since 1896 he has been
associate editor of the New York 'Independent.*

Bliss, Frederick Jones, American explorer
(son of Daniel Bliss, q.v.) : b. Mount Lebanon,
Syria, 2t, Jan. 1859. He graduated at Amherst
College in 1880, and at the Union Theological
Seminary in New Y'ork in 1887 ; was principal of
the preparatory department of the Syrian Prot-
estant College of Beyrout for three years; was
appointed explorer to the Palestine Exploration
Fund in 1890, and is best known for his excava-
tions and finds in Jerusalem in 1894-7. Here he
unearthed an ancient city wall with towers, be-
sides streets, drains, stairways, churches, and
other structures. He has published 'Mounds of
Many Cities* ; 'Excavations at Jerusalem,* et'-

Bliss, George, American lawyer: b.
Springfield, Mass., 3 May 1830 ; d. near Wake-
field, R. I., 2 Sept. 1897. He graduated at
Harvard College in 185 1 ; studied for two years
in Berlin and Paris, and after his return read
law principally at the Harvard Law School.
He established himself in practice in New York.
In 1859-60 he was private secretary to Gov.
Morgan; in 1861 was appointed to his staff;
in 1862 became paymaster-general of New
York ; and in that and the following year or-
ganized three regiments of United States col-
ored infantry under instructions from the
secretary of war. In 1866 he was appointed at-
torney for the Metropolitan boards of excise and
health : in 1872, United States attorney for the
Southern District of New York, and in 1881 a

BLISS — BLISTER-BEETLE

special assistant to the United States attorney-
general for the prosecution of the 'Star Route'
postal cases. He drafted the New York charter
of 1873 ; drew up the New York Consolidation
Act, and was author of the first tenement-house
act for the city. He published three editions
of the *Law of Life Insurance' and four edi-
tions of the <^ Annotated Code of Civil Proce-
dure.^

Bliss, Philip Paul, American singing evan-
gelist : b. Clearfield County, Pa., 9 July 1838;
killed in railroad accident, Ashtabula, Ohio, 29
Dec. 1876. He received some musical instruc-
tion from G. W. Root, but was very largely
self-taught. His evangelistic work was done
chiefly in conjunction with Maj. D. W. Whittle
and D. L. Moody, who became his warm friend
and admirer. He had a fine personal presence, a
gift of ready and effective speech, and these,
combined with his wonderful voice, which ap-
pealed strongly to the hearts of the multitude,
gave him great power over his audiences. He
frequently composed both the words and music
of the songs which have made his name known
throughout Christendom. Of these the most
popular are : "Hold the Fort, for I am Com-
ing" ; «Down Life's Dark Vale We Wander";
«Jesus Loves Me» ; "Hallelujah! 'Tis Done» ;
and "Pull for the Shore, Sailor." His services
as a revivalist were in demand throughout the
United States and Canada. His songs appeared
in the following named collections: *^The
Charm> (1871) ; <The Song Tree' (1872) ; <The
Joy' (1873); 'Gospel Songs' (1874).

Bliss, Porter Cornelius, American diplo-
matist: b. Erie County, N. Y., 28 Dec. 1838;
d. New York, 2 Feb. 1885. He was educated
at Hamilton and Yale colleges ; became private
secretary to James Watson Webb, United States
minister to Brazil ; explored the Gran Chaco
for the Argentine government ; compiled the va-
rious Indian dialects, and investigated the an-
tiquities of that region ; and in 1866 became pri-
vate secretary to Charles A. Washburn, United
States minister to Paraguay. He was com-
missioned by President Lopez to write a history
of Paraguay, and while doing so war broke out
between that country and Brazil, and he was
imprisoned and tortured on suspicion of being a
Brazilian spy. It required the presence of an
American squadron to effect his release. In
1869-70 he edited the Washington Chronicle;
in 1870-4 he was secretary of the United States
legation in Mexico, and during that time made
several archaeological explorations and wrote on
the opportunities of American enterprise in that
country. In 1874-8 he was an associate editor
of 'Johnson's Universal Cyclopaedia,' and in
1879 went to South America as correspondent
for the New York Herald.

Bliss, William Dwight Porter, American
clergyman : b. Constantinople, 1856. He grad-
uated at Amherst College in 1878, and at Hart-
ford Theological College in 1882 ; was ordained
a Congregational clergyman : became an Episco-
pal priest in 1887 ; organized the first Christian
Socialist Society in the United States in 1889,
and was president of the National Reform
League. He edited 'The Dawn' (1889-96) ;
'The American Fabian' (1895-6) ; and the 'En-
cyclopaedia of Social Reform,' and published a
'Handbook of Socialism.^

Bliss, William Julian Albert, American
physicist : b. Washington, D. C, 1867. He grad-
uated at Harvard University in 1888 and pur-
sued a course of studies in electrical engineering
at Johns Hopkins, Baltimore, at which university
he became successively assistant in physics
(1895-8), associate (1898-1901), and professor
in the latter j^ear. He is the author of several
works bearing on his profession.

Blister, a local collection of blood serum
beneath the cuticle. Blisters may be produced
by a variety of agents. In all instances, how-
ever, there is irritation of the part ; this is fol-
lowed by dilated blood vessels and an exudation
of the serum from the blood vessels near the ir-
ritant. Medicinally, blistering agents or irri-
tants may be classified in four principal groups,
as follows : rubefacients, when redness alone
is produced ; vesicants, when blistering is
brought about; pustulants, when the blisters
are usually small and contain pus; and eschar-
otics, when burning or destruction of tissue
may take place. Heat is an excellent illustra-
tion. Mild heat will cause redness ; tempera-
ture above 125° to 400° F. will cause blister-
ing; temperature above 400° will burn; and
high temperatures can char. The most com-
monly used blistering agents are heat (the hot
iron iaeing lightly touched to the skin), mustard,
capsicum, mezereum, turpentine, and canthar-
ides. The hot iron and cantharides are pre-
ferred, because their actiorf can be controlled.
Mustard mixed with cold water makes an ex-
cellent rubefacient, but it is not advised to be
used as a vesicant. Blisters are used to influ-
ence deep-seated and chronic joint, muscle, and
tendon troubles. For general purposes of coun-
ter-irritation rubefacients are more serviceable
than vesicants.

Blister-beetle, or Spanish Fly, an oil-
beetle of the family Meloidcr, in which there is
a small head and a distinct neck ; the wing-
covers and sides of the body without any co-
adaptation, while each claw of the feet bears a
long appendage closely applied beneath it. The
integument is soft, flexible, and many of the
species contain a substance which forms an ac-
tive vesicant, called cantharadine. The Spanish
fly (Lytta vesicatoria) is larger than any of our
native species, is of a bright shining green, and
when powdered and applied to the skin raises
blisters. It inhabits the south of Europe, and is
usually imported from Spain. Our native blis-
ter-beetles, when dried, can also be used for
producing blisters or making blister-plasters.
They are black or gray, and occur on potato
plants, on the flowers of the golden-rod, etc.
Their transformations are wonderfully compli-
cated, since they pass through more than one
larval stage (see Metamorphosis). The fe-
males lay their eggs in the earth ; the young, on
hatching, are of a singular primitive shape,
called a "triungulin," which is very active, enter-
ing the egg-pods and devouring the eggs of lo-
custs. It soon molts, assuming a different but
still active larval stage; it molts again, enter-
ing its third larval stage, when it resembles the
grub of a May beetle (scarabaeid stage). In
the fourth stage the grub is helpless, lying on one
side; it increases rapidly in size, and when fully
grown leaves the remains of the egg-pod it has
been living on and forms a small cavity near
by. Here it lies motionless on its side, but grad-

BLISTER-STEEL — BLOCK BOOKS

ually contracting till the skin separates and is
pushed down to the end of the body, disclosing
the semi-pupa or coarctate larva, which hiber-
nates. In the spring the skin bursts and dis-
closes a sixth larval form like the fourth. In
this stage it is again active, burrowing in the
earth, but taking no food, and in a few days
passes into the pupa state. Other species of the
family pass through a similar hypermetamor-
phosis.

Blister-steel. See Steel ^Iaxufacture.

Blithedale Romance, The, the third of

Nathaniel Hawthorne's romances, published
1852. It was the outcome of an intimate ac-
quaintance with the members of the Brook Farm
(q.v.) Community, and immortalized the brief
attempt of that little group of transcendentalists
to realize equality and fraternity in labor. It is
more objective and realistic than Hawthorne's
other works, and therefore in a sense more or-
dinary. Its central figure is Zenobia, a beautiful,
intellectual, passionate woman ; drawn as to
some outlines, perhaps, from Margaret Fuller.
At the time it opens she has taken up her abode
at Blithedale Farm, the counterpart of Brook
Farm. The other members of the community
are Hollingsworth, a self-centred philanthro-
pist ; a Yankee farmer, Silas Forster, and his
wife ; Miles Coverdale, the relater of the story ;
and Priscilla, who is Zenobia's half-sister,
though of this fact Zenobia is ignorant. 'The
Blithedale Romance^ is a brilliant instance of
Hawthorne's power as a story-teller. No scene
in the whole range of fiction is more realistic
than the finding of Zenobia's body in the dead
of night ; drawn from the dank stream, a
crooked, stiff shape, and carried to the farm-
house where old women in nightcaps jabber over
it. Nothing could be more in the manner of
Hawthorne than his comment that if Zenobia
could have foreseen her appearance after drown-
ing, she would never have committed the act.

Blizzard, a peculiarly fierce and cold wind,
accompanied by a very fine, blinding snow which
suffocates as w'ell as freezes men and animals
exposed to it. The origin of the word is du-
bious. It came into general use in American
newspapers during the bitterly cold winter of
1880-1, although some papers claim its use as
early as the seventies. Such a storm comes up
very suddenly and overtakes the traveler without
premonition. The sky becomes darkened, and the
snow is driven by a terrible wind which comes
with a deafening roar. One of the most severe
of these storms recorded in the West was that
of January 1888 which extended from Dakota to
Texas. The thermometer in some places fell
from 74° to — 28° F., and in Dakota to — 40°.
The number of deaths amounted to 235. Chil-
dren were frozen on their way home from
school, and farmers in their fields, and travelers
were suffocated by the fine snow. The blizzard
which will long be remembered in the eastern
States began 11 March 1888, and raged until the
14th, New York and Philadelphia being the cities
most affected. The wind at one time blew at
the rate of 46 miles an hour. The streets and
roads were 'blocked, railroad trains snowed up
for days, telegraphic communication cut off,
and many lives were lost.

Blizzard State, a nickname for South
Dakota.

Bloat, Hoven, or Tympanites, a diseased
condition of sheep or cattle, consisting of disten-
tion of the first stomach (rumen) and com-
monly caused by an overabundance of legumi-
nous diet. Animals unaccustomed to graze in
clover are liable to the malady, but over-eating
of grain may also produce bloat. The use of
cathartic remedies, such as Epsom salts or lin-
seed oil, will often prove effective, except in
severe cases. Sometimes the accumulation of
gas in the rumen is so abundant and distressing
that relief must be obtained by an incision made
by a surgical instrument.

Bloch, Karl Heinrich, Danish painter: b.
Copenhagen, 1834; d. 1890. He studied at the
Copenhagen Academy and in 1852 went to Italy
where he spent about 12 years. In 1883 he be-
came a professor in the Academy in which he
had been trained. Although his chief paintings
are historical, he was also successful in nature-
studies, and some of his pictures are notable
for their humorous characteristics. Among his
works are: < Peasant's Cottage'; < Roman
Street Barber' ; 'James of Scotland Visiting
Tycho Brahe' ; 'Christian II.' ; and two fres-
coes in the Copenhagen University.

Bloch, Marcus Eliezer, Jewish naturalist:
b. Anspach (of poor parents), 1723; d. 1799.
In the 19th year of his age he understood
neither German nor Latin, nor had he, with the
exception of some rabbinical writings, read any-
thing. Nevertheless he became tutor in the
house of a Jewish surgeon in Hamburg. Here
he learned German and Latin, and besides ac-
quired some knowledge of anatomy. His prin-
cipal work is the 'Natural History of Fishes'
(folio, 1785-99), adorned with many colored
plates.

Block, or Blok, Adriaen, Dutch navigator
who visited Manhattan (now New York) about
1613 and again in 1614 in the Tiger. This ship
being accidentally burned he built the Unrest,
a craft of 16 tons, in which he coasted as far
north as Nahant, discovering the Housatonic
and the Connecticut rivers and the island which
bears his name. See Block Island.

Block, a mechanical contrivance consisting
of one or more grooved pulleys mounted in a
casing or shell which is furnished with a hook,
eye, or strap by which it may be attached to
an object, the function of the apparatus being
to transmit power or change the direction of
motion by means of a rope or chain passing
round the movable pulleys. Blocks are single,
double, treble, or four-fold, according as the
number of sheaves or pulleys is one, two, three,
or four. A running block is attached to the
object to be raised or moved ; a standing block
is fixed to some permanent support. Blocks also
receive different denominations from their
shape, purpose, and mode of application.

Block Books, before, and for a short time
after, the invention of printing, books printed
from wooden blocks, each the size of a page
and having the matter to be reproduced, whether
text or picture, cut in relief on the surface.
These were intended for the popular use and
were adorned with crude paintings, the mak-
ers of block books and card painters being the
same till about the opening of the 15th century.
As their work increased in favor they devised
the process of block printing, cutting into

BLOCK COAL — BLOCKADE

wooden blocks or metal plates in such a man-
ner as to leave letters and pictures in relief, and
after applymg color to these, taking impres-
sions from them. One or both sides of the
sheet were printed from these blocks. See also
Printing.

Block Coal, the name of certain kinds of
bituminous coal having a tendency to break into
forms approaching the cube. See also Coal.

Block Island, an island in the Atlantic
Ocean, midway between Montauk Point, L. L,
and Point Judith, R. I. ; eight miles long, and
from two to five miles wide. It belongs to the
State of Rhode Island, from the shore of which
it is about lo miles distant. It has become a
noted summer resort, and constitutes the town-
ship of New Shoreham. Pop. (1900) 1,396.

Block Printing. See Printing.

Block System, a system of working the
traffic on railroads according to which the line
is divided into short sections, each section with
a signal and telegraphic connection at the end.
The essential principle of the system is that no
train is allowed to enter upon any one section
till that section is signalled wholly clear, so that
between two successive trains there is not merely
an interval of time, but also an interval of
space. See Railway Signals.

Block Tin. See Tin.

Blockade' is the rendering of intercourse
with the seaports of an enemy unlawful on the
part of neutrals, and it consists essentially in
the presence of a sufficient naval force to make
such intercourse difficult. It must be declared
or made public, so that neutrals may have no-
tice of it. If a blockade is instituted by a suf-
ficient authority, and maintained by a suffi-
cient force, a neutral is so far affected by it
that an attempt to trade with the place invested
subjects vessel and cargo to confiscation by the
blockading power. The term is also used to de-
scribe the rtate of matters when hostile forces
sit down around a place and keep possession of
all the means of access to it, so as entirely to
cut off its communication with the outside
world, and so compel surrender from want of
supplies.

To be sufficient, the blockade must be effect-
ive and made known. By the convention of
the Baltic powers of 1780, and again in 1801,
and by the ordinance of Congress of 1781, it is
required that there should be a number of ves-
sels stationed near enough to the port to make
the entry apparently dangerous. The govern-
ment of the United States has uniformly in-
sisted that the blockade should be made effective
by the presence of a competent force stationed
and present at or near the entrance of the port.
(I Kent Com. 145.) But an accidental absence
of the blockading force, or the circumstance of
being blown off by the wind, if the suspension
and reason of the suspension are known, will
not be sufficient in law to remove a blockade.
But negligence or remissness on the part of
cruisers stationed to maintain the blockade may
excuse persons', under certain circumstances, for
violating the blockade. Taylor ('Interna-
tional Public Law,^ p. 767), upon this subject,
says:

" Under that rule the eovernment of Great Brita''n
ncturally accepted the contention of that of the
United States, made during the American Civil War,

to the effect that the legal efficiency of the blockade
CI Charleston, — usually maintained by one ship lying
off the bar between the two principal channels, with
two or three others cruising outside within signalling
distance, — w-as not destroyed by the absence of the
Niagara, a blockading vessel whose withdrawal, in
the attempt to intercept a cargo of arms e.xpected
at another part of the coast, left the harbor open for
at least tive days. It was admitted, under the British
rule, that there was no cessation of the Charleston
blockade, despite the fact that a large number of ves-
sels succeeded in passing it, owing to the peculiar na-
ture of the coast. As there is no rule requiring the
blockading squadron to remain witliin a certain dis-
tance of the place blockaded, provided access is really
interdicted, Buenos Ayres was held to have been suf-
ficiently blockaded by vessels stationed in the vicinity
of Monte Video; and, in like manner, the blockade
of Riga was maintained, during the Russian war in
1854, at a distance of one hundred and twenty mile?
from the town by a ship in the Lyser Ort, a channel
three miles wide, forming the only navigable entrance
to the gulf."

When on 21 Nov. 1806, the Berlin Decree of
Napoleon I. declared the whole British Islands
in a state of blockade, that blockade, being ludi-
crously ineffective, was illegal ; so also, though
to a somewhat less extent, were the British Or-
ders in Council of li and 21 Nov. 1807, which
placed France and all its tributary states in a
state of blockade. The retaliatory Napoleonic
Milan Decree of 27 Dec. 1807, extending the
previously announced blockade to the British
dominions in all quarters, labored to a still
greater extent under the same defect. More ef-
fective, as being more limited in area, were the
blockades of the Elbe by Great Britain in 1803,
those of the Baltic by Denmark in 1848-9 and
1864, those of the ports of the Confederate States
of America by President Lincoln on 19 April
1861, and that of the Cuban ports by the United
States in 1898.

To involve a neutral in the consequences of
violating the blockade, it is absolutely necessary
that he have due notice of it. This communica-
tion may be communicated in two ways, either
actuallj^ by a formal notice from the blockading
power, or constructively, by notice to his gov-
ernment, or by the notoriety of the fact. Formal
notice is not required ; any authentic informa-
tion is sufficient. Phillimore, 'International
Law^ (page 397) ; Taylor, 'International Pub-
lic Law^ (1901, p. 768). A violation may be
either by going into the place blockaded, or by
coming out of it with a cargo laden after the
commencement of the blockade. For a masjcr to
place himself so near a blockaded port as to be in
a condition to slip in without observation is a
violation of the blockade, and raises the pre-
sumption of a criminal intent. The sailing for a
blockaded port, knowing it to be blockaded, is, it
seems, such an act as may charge the party with
a breach of the lilockade. (i Kent Com. 150; 5
Cranch, 335.) By provision in the treaties be-
tween the United States and Greece, Prussia, and
Sweden and Norv/ay, it is agreed that vessels
arriving at a port supposed at the time of de-
parture to be blockaded shall not be captured
and condemned for an attempt to enter, unless
on proof that they had or could have learned
of the continuance of the blockade, but an at-
tempt to re-enter after warning will subject
them to condemnation. Vessels in pert before
the establishment of the blockade are to be per-
mitted to depart with their cargoes. They are
usuallv allowed from 15 to 45 days in which
to make their exit. Any one running a block-
ade does so at his peril; his government, by in-
ternational law, cannot protect him from for-

BLOCKHOUSE — BLOEMFONTEIN

ieiting his vessel with its cargo, and his liberty
if he be captured by the blockading fleet. See
International Law; U. S., Diplomacy of the.

Blockhouse, in fortification, a house made
of beams joined together crosswise, and often
doubled, with a covering and loopholes, large
enough for from 25 to 100 men. In addition to
this, it is commonly covered wMth earth, to ren-
der it entirely bomb- and fire-proof. Forts of
this kind are often fitted up to receive cannon.
Blockhouses are generally built in the form of
a square or a cross. Their use is to afford a
feeble garrison of an important place, which is
very much exposed, an opportunity of holding
out against the cannonade and assault of the
enemy till they are relieved. They also serve
for bomb-proof guardhouses, and places of last
resort, in the interior of intrenchments, and in
the covered passages of fortresses, where the
cannon are stationed. Blockhouses were much
employed as a defense against Indians in Amer-
ica, by the French in Algeria, and by the Span-
ish in Cuba, where a line of blockhouses con-
nected by wire barricades was built across the
island in 1898.

Blocks of Five, a political expression in
the United States, originating in the presidential
campaign of 1888. A letter purporting to have
been written by the treasurer of the Republican
National Committee to the chairman of the In-
diana State Committee, recommending securing
^'floaters in blocks of five.-** This was construed
to mean the bribery of voters at wholesale rates.
The Democratic managers circulated the letter
.as widely as possible, before election. Proceedi-
ings for libel were afterward begun, but never
brought to trial.

Blocksberg, the name of several eleva-
tions in Germany, particularly the Brocken
(q.v.), forming the summit of the Hartz Moun-
tains and the highest point in the northern part
of the empire.

Blod'get, Lorin, American statistician : b.
near Jamestown, N. Y., 25 May 1823 ; d. Phila-
delphia, 24 March 1901. He was educated at
Hobart College ; appointed assistant professor at
the Smithsonian Institution, Washington, D. C,
in charge of researches on climatology, 185 1 ; was
employed on the Pacific Railroad survey for the
War Department, 1852-6 ; and was engaged in the
United States treasury department, 1863-77. He
was also editor of the Philadelphia North
American, and secretary of the board of trade
-of that city, 1858-64. He is credited with hav-
ing laid the foundation of American climatology.
His publications include *The Climatology of the
United States* (1857), a work that met high
favor in the United States and Europe; ^Com-
mercial and Financial Resources of the United
States* ; and about 150 volumes of reports.

Blod'gett, Henry Williams, American ju-
rist: b. Amherst, Mass., 21 July 1821 ; d.
Waukegan, 111., 9 Feb. 1905. He was edu-
<:ated at Amherst Academy; studied survey-
ing and engineering ; was admitted to the bar
in 1844 ; and settled in Waukegan, 111., to prac-
tise, in the following year. He served in the
lower house of the legislature, 1852-4, and in the
State Senate, 1859-65 ; and was United States
district judge for the Northern District of Il-
linois. 1869-93, when he retired. He was ap-

pointed one of the counsel on the part of the
United States before the arbitration tribunal on
the Bering Sea fur-seal controversy between the
United States and Great Britain, in 1892.

Blodgett, Samuel, American inventor: b.
Woburn, Mass., i April 1724; d. Haverhill,
Mass., I Sept, 1807. He took part in the French
and Indian war ; was a member of the expedition
against Louisburg in 1745; and subsequently be-
came a judge of the court of common pleas in
Hillsboro County, N. H. He was the inventor
of an apparatus by which he recovered a val-
uable cargo from a sunken ship near Plymouth,
Mass., in 1783. His success led him to go to
Europe for similar enterprises. He met with no
encouragement in Spain, and in England pro-
posed to raise the Royal George, which went
down off Spithead with 800 persons on board,
but his proposition was not accepted. In 1793
he began the construction of the canal around
Amoskeag Falls in the Merrimac which now
bears his name, but did not live to complete the
work.

Bloede, ble'de, Gertrude, American poet
and novelist, better known as Stuart Sterne:
b. Dresden, Saxony, 10 Aug. 1845; d. Baldwin,
L. I., 14 Aug. 1905. She wrote in verse < Angelo'
(new ed. 1879); < Giorgio and Other Poems'
(1881) ; < Beyond the Shadow, and Other Poems'
(1888); <Piero da Castiglione'; and <The Story
of Two Lives, ' a novel.

Bloemaert, bloo'mart, or Blom, Abraham,
Dutch painter: b. Gorkum about 1565; d.
Utrecht, 1647, or more probably 1657. His paint-
ings are reproached with various faults, yet he is
distinguished by the brilliancy of his coloring
and the richness of his invention. He painted
all sorts of objects, but his landscapes are the
most esteemed. He had four sons, of whom
Cornelis (b. Utrecht, 1603; d. Rome, 1680), w-as
a distinguished engraver.

Bloemen, Jan Frans van, Flemish painter:
b. Antwerp, 1662; d. Rome, 1748 (?). He was
surnamed ^'Orizzonte,** an allusion to the great
beauty of the coloring he put into his land-
scapes.

Bloemen, Pieter van, Flemish painter,
brother of Jan Frans : b. Antwerp, 1651 ; d. 1662.
After study in Italy he was appointed dean of
the Guild of St. Luke in his native city. His
work is chiefly landscapes and military subjects.
He is known as Standaert.

Bloemfontein, bloom'fon-tin. Orange
River Colony, South Africa, the chief town and
seat of government of the colony, 680 miles
northeast of Cape Town, situated in an elevated
and healthy region. It stands on a plain sur-
rounded by low hills, and is regularly laid out,
having a large market-square in the centre. It
has several fine buildings, including the Angli-
can cathedral, the Dutch Reformed church, and
other places of worship ; the presidency ; the
tow^n-hall ; the post-office ; the library ; the na-
tional museum ; the new Raadzaal, or council-
chamber of the legislature ; the old Raadzaal ;
Grey College and St. Andrew's College for
boys; the Eunice Institute for girls; a govcin-
ment hospital and a cottage hospital ; a lunatic
asylum, etc. It is on the main railway line of
the Colony, which is continuous with the Cape
Colony and Transvaal systems. Pop. about
8,000, half being whites.

BLOIS — BLOMMAERT

In the war between Great Britain and the ham, 5 Aug. 1857. He studied for the

South African and Orange Free State republics church at Cambridge, where he took high

in 1899-1900 it was the seat of important mili- honors; and after filHng several curacies,,

tary operations. In June 1899, a conference was and acting for a time as chaplain to the

held here between President Kruger of the South bishop of London, was presented to the rec-

African Republic, and Sir Alfred Milner, the tory of St. Botolph, Bishopsgate. In 1824

British commissioner of Cape Colony, with a he was made bishop of Chester, and in 1828

\iew of averting war. After the appointment of bishop of London. He acquired considerable

Lord Roberts to the supreme command of the renown as a classical scholar from the edi-

British forces operating against the Boers, he tions published by him of several of the

led an expedition against the city and forced its dramas of ^schylus, and he also published

surrender on 13 March 1900, President Steyn es- an edition of Callimachus, which is much,

caping capture. Soon afterward the part of the esteemed. Along with Rennel, he edited, in

republic occupied by the British was formally 1812, the ^Musse Cantabrigienses,' and in

placed under British administration. 1814, along with Monk, the 'Posthumous

Blois, blwa (anciently Blesum), France, Tracts^ of Porson, followed two years after-

the capital of the department Loir-et-Cher, 99 ward by the <Adversana Porsoni.> In his

miles south-southwest of Paris, situated on ecc esiastical capacity he displayed great

the right bank of the Loire, from which it ^ea land energy, more churches having been

rises in the form of an amphitheatre. It ^uilt m London under his episcopate than

consists of an upper town, with very narrow ""f^ t^at of any bishop since the

a.nd crooked streets; a lower town, with Reformation. He incurred, however, some

many handsome houses, extending along a animadversions on his proceedings in rela-

handsome quay; and of Several suburbs, with tion to the Tractarian controversy by a

one of which it communicates by a stone vacillating policy which gave satisfaction to

bridge of II arches. The city is furnished "Either of the parties.

with spring water through an old Roman Blomfield, Edward Valentine, English
aqueduct, in excellent preservation. Thierry, clergyman (brother of the preceding): b,
the historian, was born here. The castle 1/88; d. October 1816. He studied at
of Blois is rich in historical associations. Caius College, Cambridge, and excited the
It was long occupied by the counts of highest expectations. Among several prizes
the name, and became a favorite residence which he gained was a medal assigned him^
of the kings of France. Louis XII. was in 1809 for his beautiful ode 'In Desidenum
born, Francis I., Henry II., Charles IX., Porsoni.' In 1812 a fellowship m Em-
and Henry III. held their courts in it; and manuel College was conferred on him. In
the Guises, by a cruel though not unjust 1813 he visited Germany, where he ac-
retribution, were murdered in it. When quired a good knowledge of the _ German
Maria de' Medici was, in 1617, exiled from language, and became acquainted with Wolf
the court, she resided, probably as a prisoner, in Berlin, and Schneider in Breslau. After
in this castle, whence, 18 months later, she his return he wrote in the 'Museum Crit-
escaped through a high window, which is icum,^ or 'Cambridge Classical Researches,'
also an object of curiosity. In 1814, on the remarks on German literature which were
approach of the European armies to Paris, received with approbation. The University
the Empress Maria Louisa and the council of Cambridge appointed him one of the
of regency repaired for a while to this place, preachers of St Mary's Church. He began
Afterward the castle was entirely neglected, a translation of Schneider's 'Gnechisch-
and even used as barracks for cavalry. Deutches Lexicon,' but did not live to-
During the later years of Louis Philippe's finish it. Matthias's 'Griechische Gram-
reign, this curious specimen of architecture matik,' however, he translated completely,
was carefully and tastefully restored. Blois His translation was published by his brother
has several literary and scientific societies, and was everywhere well received. He was
a botanical garden founded by Henry IV., in Switzerland in 1816 with his pupil, a young
a public library with 19,000 volumes, a de- nobleman, and in his haste to return to Cam-
partmental college, and a diocesan seminary, bridge on hearing that he was appointed
It trades in wines, spirits, vinegar, staves, proctor for the following year, the fatigue of
and licorice, while it produces serges, hosiery rapid traveling occasioned a sickness of
and gloves, cutlery and hardware. Pop. which he died.
(1896) 23,542. Blomfield, Reginald, English architect: b.

Blok. Petrus Johannes, pa-troos yo-han-es, 20 Dec. 1856. He was educated at Exeter

Dutch historian: b. Helder, 1855. He was College, Oxford. He is architect to the Army

educated at Leyden; in 1884 became professor and Navy Society and among his many im-

of history at Croningen and later at the portant professional works are 'Brocklesby

University of Leyden. He was also Queen Park.' 'Caythorpe Court,' 'Holbrook House.'

Wilhelmina's tutor in history. His work ^New Buildings at Haileybury College,'

has been chiefly in social-political history ^Lady Margaret Hall.' 'Portsea Institute.'

of the Netherlands. He is the author of He has published 'The Formal Garden

'History of the People of the Netherlands' in England' (1892); <A History of Renais-

(translated into English); 'Eene Hollandsche sance Architecture in England' two works of

stad in de Middeleuwen' and 'Eene Hoi- great value (1897); 'Short History of Renais-

landsche stad onder de Bourgondisch-Oos- sance Architecture in England' (1900).
tenrijksche Heerschappy.' Blommaert, blom-mart, Philip, Flemish

Blom'field, Charles James, English divine: philologist: b. Ghent about 1809. He has

b. Burv-St.-Edmunds, Suffolk, 1786; d. Ful- done much for the literature of his country

BLOMMAERT — BLOOD

by an edition of the old Flemish poets of
the nth, I2th, 13th, and 14th centuries, with
glossaries, notes, and emendations. He has
also republished the "^Nibelungenlied,' trans-
lated into Dutch iambics. His best work,
however, is the ^Aloude geschiedenis der Bel-
gen of Nederduitschers,^ in which he vindi-
cates the claims of his country to an
independent national existence and national
literature. Blommaert also writes French
well, and is a contributor to the ^Messager
des Sciences Historiques.^

Blommaert, Samuel, Colonial patroon: b.
1590; d. 1670. He bought a tract of land al-
most equal in size to the present State of
Delaware, extending from Cape Henlopen
to the mouth of the Delaware River. The
deed for this land given him by Peter
Minuit, and his Council is the oldest deed
for land in Delaware. He formed a company
to provide for the settlement of this land, and
a colony was started, but destroyed by the
Indians after a few years in revenge for an
act of the governor, Gillis Hosset.

Blond, Jacques Christophe le, zhak
kris-tof le blondt, printer of engravings: b.
Frankfort-on-the-Main, 1670; d. Paris, 1741.
He was bred a painter, and in 171 1 went to
Amsterdam, and some years after to England.
He conceived the idea of an establishment
to print engravings in colors, and, obtaining
means, produced many copies of engravings
and pictures, which of course had defects,
and the experiment failed. He now devoted
himself to producing the cartoons of Raphael
in tapestry, but this failed also, and he soon
after died.

Blon'del, a confidential servant and in-
structor in music of Richard Cceur de Lion
of England, about the year 1190. While his
master was the prisoner of the Duke of Aus-
tria, Blondel went through Palestine and all
parts of Germany in search of him. He under-
stood, it is said, that a prisoner of rank was
confined in Lowenstein Castle, and has-
tened hither. Placing himself under a grated
tower, he began to sing one of the French
lays which he had formerly composed for
Richard. Scarcely had he finished the first
stanza when a voice from the dungeon of the
tower responded. Thus he discovered his
king, delivered him, and gained the name of
the ^'faithful Blondel.* Gretry's fine opera,
< Richard Coeur de Lion,^ is founded on this
anecdote.

Blondin, Charles Emile Gravelet, sharl
a-mel grav-la blon-daii, French acrobat: b.
St. Omer, Pas-de-Ca)ais, 1824; d. London,
22 Feb. 1897. He was trained at Lyons,
where he made such rapid progress that he
was designated «The Little Wonder. » After
making a several years' tour of the United
States, on 30 June 1859, before a crowd of
25,000 persons, he crossed the Falls of Niag-
ara on a tight-rope in five minutes; on 4 Tuly
he crossed blindfold, trundling a wheelbar-
row; on 19 August he carried a man on his
back; on 14 Sept. i860 he crossed on stilts
in the presence of the Prince of Wales. His
engagement at the Crystal Palace in 1862,
where he performed on a rope 249 yards long,
and 170 feet from the ground, drew immense

crowds. After several years' retirement he
reappeared in 1880, and in 1888 again per-
formed in London, where he died.

Blood, Thomas (^commonly called Colonel
Blood): b. Ireland. 1618; d. 1680; was a dis-
banded ofiicer of Oliver Cromwell, and a man
distinguished in various audacious enter-
prises. He made an attempt to steal the
crown and regalia from the tower, in which
he almost succeeded. Being, however, taken,
he confessed his purpose without showing the
least fear of death. Charles XL from idle
curiosity, went to see him, and Blood per-
suaded the monarch to pardon him. Charles
even bestowed an estate with $2,500 a year
upon him, while poor Edwards, the keeper of
the jewel-office, who valiantly defended the
crown and was wounded, lived forgotten.

Blood, the yellowish to reddish liquid
alkaline medium present in the arteries and
veins, the chief tissue of oxidation in the
animal body. The composition and character
of the blood varies very widely in different
animals, and hence this description is con-
fined more particularly to the human blood.
From the standpoint of cell-structure the
blood is a tissue made up of a liquid plasma
and solid cells or corpuscles. It contains at
least four separate and important ingredients,
the plasma, or blood serum; red cells, or
erythrocytes; white cells, or leucocytes; and
blood plates. About one tenth to one twelfth
of the entire body is blood, of which nine
tenths is water.

Plasma. — The greater portion (56 per
cent) of the blood is plasma. This plasma is
composed of 90 per cent water containing
gases, mineral salts, fats, nitrogenous bodies,
and carbohydrates in solution. It is a clear
yellowish fluid. The mineral salts are sodium
chloride, common salt, the most abundant;
sodium carbonate, which renders the blood
alkaline; potassium chloride, potassium sul-
phate, calcium phosphate, sodium phosphate,
magnesium phosphate, and calcium chloride.
Traces of other inorganic salts are fre-
quently found. The gases in the blood
plasma are oxygen, nitrogen, and carbon
dioxide. Of the organic constituents the non-
nitrogenous ones are the fats and carbohy-
drates, with small amounts of fatty coloring
matters, lipochromes, cholesterin, and sarco-
lactic acid. The fats are present in variable
quantities, being particularly abundant fol-
lowing a meal. They are the glycerides of
stearic, oleic, and palmitic acids. The carbo-
hydrates are at least three, glycogen, dex-
trose or grape sugar, and animal gums. The
non-proteid nitrogenous constituents of the
plasma consist largel}' of the waste extrac-
tives. The most important of these are
urea, kreatin, kreatinin, uric acid, and hip-
puric acid. Three ferments or enzymes are
thought to be present in the plasma — a
diastatic ferment, converting starches into
sugars; a glycolytic enzyme, breaking up
sugar, and a lipase, or fat-splitting enzyme. Tn
addition, there is the ferment that causes coagu-
lation. Whether this is present in the serum
or in the white cells is a matter of inquiry. The
proteids of the plasma are serum albumins,
globulins (serum globulin and fibrinogen),
and nucleo-proteids.

BLOOD — BLOOD FEUD

Red Cells.— These are the most abundant
of the formed elements of the blood, making
up 99 per cent of the corpuscles. There are
thought to be in man at least 5,000,000 red
blood-cells to every cubic millimetre of
blood; their size, therefore, is very small,
averaging in man 7.8 m.mm. They are flat-
tened circular disks, with double depressed
centres, one fourth as thick as broad. In
the embryo and in certain diseased states
the red blood-cells have a nucleus, but the nor-
mal red blood-cell in man has lost this cell-
structure. Practically all of the mammals,
save the camel tribe, have circular red blood-
cells; the camels and most of the lower ani-
mals have oval red blood-cells; in the lower
animals they are mostly nucleated. There is
also great variation in size in the red cells
of the various animals, being largest among
the amphibia (Amphiuma 75 m.mm.). The
red blood-cells are mostly manufactured in
the marrow of the long bones. The chemical
structure of the red cells is complex, but
they contain an iron compound, hemoglobin,
which is the most important constituent of
the blood in the process of respiration and
oxidation; by it the complex processes of
chemical interchange in the body (metabolism)
are made possible. Poisoning of the hemo-
globin and the loss of its function means
death by asphyxia. The hemoglobin gives the
reddish-yellow tinge to the blood, and the dif-
ferences in shade between venous blood and
arterial blood are due to the state of oxidation
of the hemoglobin.

White Cells — Leucocytes. — These are much
less numerous than the red cells, varying
in number from 5,000 to 20,000 to the
cubic millimetre. At least five different forms
of white cells are normally present in human
blood. These are large and small lympho-
cytes, polymorpho-nuclear neutrophiles, eosi-
nophiles, and transitional forms. Mast cells
are another form of varying occurrence. The
polymorph neutrophiles are the most nu-
merous of the leucocytes and make up the
greater mass in pus-cells. In shape and size
these white cells differ, but all are spherical,
some smaller than the red cells (6.7 m.mm.),
but mostly larger (about 10 m.mm.), and all have
one or more nuclei. The leucocytes are
formed in a number of lymphatic tissues, the
haemolymph glands, the spleen, etc., and are
among the most interesting of the constitu-
ents of the blood, since one of their chief
functions is to protect the body from disease-
producing micro-organisms. They may be
aptly termed the human body's «army of the
interior» in the fight with disease-causing
agents. They are useful both physically (by
eating, as it were, the bodies of invading bac-
teria — phagocytosis, q.v.) or chemically (in
J.e elaborating of certain counter-poisons —
antitoxins, q.v.), or in the manufacture of spe-
cific immunizing bodies for the blood-serum
(see Immunity). Their careful study in
diseased conditions is very helpful in arriv-
ing at a diagnosis of the disease process.

Blood Plates. — These are of frequent oc-
currence, but as yet little is known of their
function. They are thought to be globulin-
like in their nature, and of use in the phe-
nomenon of coagulation; others claim them

as nucleo-proteids, made from the white
blood-cells.

Functions of the Blood. — These, as already
indicated, are numerous. Through the
haemoglobin, blood is the great oxidizing me-
dium. It carries products for anabolism and
products of katabolism, and is the great equal-
izer, by arterial pressure, of the osmotic pres-
sures of all the cells of the body. As a means
of defense in the struggle with parasitic in-
vaders the blood is the most important of
the body's bulwarks. See Blood Diseases.

(Consult Ewing, Xlinical Pathology of the
Blood^ (1902), with a most exhaustive bibli
ography on all blood subjects. For physiol-
ogy see Schafer, * Physiology,^ Vol. I., 1898.)

Blood, Avenger of, in Scripture, the near-
est relation of any one that had died by man-
slaughter or murder, so called because it fell
to him to punish the person who was guilty
of the deed. In the political law of Israel
the practice of punishment by the nearest
relative, which had alwaj^s been prevalent,
was allowed to continue, while rules were
laid down to prevent the chief abuses con-
nected with it. The distinction was sharply
drawn between murder and manslaughter.
For the former no ransoin or satisfaction was
permitted. In the case of the latter, however,
there were six cities set apart out of the
number which the Levites occupied, placed
at suitable distances over the extent of the
land, three on each side of the Jordan, with
roads leading to them which were well kept
up, and these were cities of refuge to which
the manslayer might flee, and within which
he might dwell in safety without fear of the
avenger. But he was not permitted to return
to his own place; in fact, he had no safety,
if he left his place of refuge, until the death
of the high-priest during whose term of office
his misfortune had occurred. See Cities of
Refuge,

Blood Clam, or Blood Quohog, a local
name given in Narragansett Bay to Area or
Scapliarca, transversa, a common bivalve rang-
ing from Narragansett Bay to Georgia, in ref-
erence to the reddish spots on the inside of the
edge of the shell, and to the reddish flesh-
color of the ovaries. It is not used as an article
of food.

Blood, Council of, the name popularly
applied to the Council of Troubles, estab-
lished by the Duke of Alva, in the Nether-
lands, in 1567. Although it had no charter
or authority from any source, it was omnipo-
tent and superseded all other authorities. In
the first three months alone its victims num-
bered 1,800, and soon there was hardly a
Protestant house in the Netherlands that had
not furnished a victim.

Blood Diseases. Many disorders are classed
under this head. See AN-i:MiA; Bleeding;
Chlorosis ; Circulation ; H.^smophilia ; Leu-
c^mia; Pernicious An.emi.'s..

Blood Feud, the right of individual, or
family, vengeance in cases of bloodshed. In a
very primitive state of society the tendency
toward private instrumentality in the punish-
ment of crime is largely unchecked. In pass-
ing from this stage to the highly organized
system of legal penalties enforced by modern

BLOOD. — The General Distribution of the Blood Vessels.
Arteries are shown in red, the veins in blue.

H, the heart. 1, left side r, right siae. Arising from the heart is the main artery Aorta (A). The letter is
put on the vessel at some distance from the heart, near where it gives off the branches < in red> for the head and
arms, and at the point where it arches backwards and downwards to pass through the chest and the belly till at
A, it gives off branches for the legs. Running alongside the arteries are represented in blue, veins At K, is
represented the position of the kidneys and their veins. L, represents veins of the lung. J, jugular vein. Ch
outhnes of the chest.

BLOOD-FLOWER — BLOOD-RAIN

civilized governments, the regulation cf the
blood feud was a marked step in the advance-
ment of the race. It is trr^ that the right of
private vengeance was recognized, but it was
put under restrictions and gradually nar-
rowed in its action. The slayer had the right
of sanctuary, illustrated by the cities of refuge
in Israel under the Mosaic economy, by the
altars of pagan deities and by the churches
of the Middle Ages. The danger of dragging
entire clans into retributive warfare to
avenge a single murder was averted bv limit-
ing the right of vengeance to the immediate
family, or the next of kin to the one slain, and
the privilege of purchasing exemption by
the weregild tended to check a blood penalty.
The acceptance of the blood-money was
iinallj- made obligatorv. The amount of the
fine imposed upon the murderer varied among
the Anglo-Saxons according to the rank of
'he victim. The family feuds among the
mountain whites in certain sections of the
United States form an interesting modern in-
stance of the survival of the primitive insti-
tution of blood feud. See Asylum, Right of.

Blood-flower, or Blood-lily, a genus
(H(riiia)ithus) of about 60 species of summer-
and autumn-blooming bulbous-rooted plants
of the natural order Amaryllidacccc, natives
mostly of South Africa, named from thie gen-
eral color of their flowers, which are arranged
in umbels arising on an often beautifully col-
ored scape either before the foliage or from
a rosette of radical leaves. The few species
cultivated in American greenhouses have not
become widely popular, but are worthy of
more extended culture, since the individual
flowers are often two inches in diameter and
the umbel sometimes a foot across. They
may be cultivated like the nerine. Since some
of the most attractive species reproduce
slow^ly, the bulbs are often cut in two horizon-
tally and treated like hyacinth bulbs simi-
larly cut. Several new bulbs form around.the
margin of the cut halves. Consult Bailey and
Miller, 'Cyclopedia of American Horticul-
ture^ (igoo-2).

Blood Indians, or Kino Indians, a tribe
of North American Indians of the Siksika
Confederacy, dwelling in the Northwest Ter-
ritories of Canada.

Blood-letting. See Bleeding.

Blood-lily. See Blood-flower.

Blood-money, money paid to the next of
kin of a man who met with his death at the
hands of another, accidentally or with pre-
meditation. The Greeks called it iroivrj, the
Latins poena, the Franks. Allemanni, and
Scandinavians manbote, xvclirgcld, or zvyrgilt,
the British Celts named it saarliard. and the
Irish Celts eric. The institution still flour-
ishes in many communities of Asia and Africa.
In English criminal law the term blood-money
was also applied to rewards paid to informers
against highway robbers, thieves, burglars,
and utterers of false coin or forged bank-
notes. Laws empowering such payments were
passed between 1692 and 1742. In 1813 the to-
tal amount paid in this way was £18.000.^ By
this time a number of persons made a living
out of these laws by entrapping unwary and
foolish people into the commission of the

Vol. 2 — 47.

crime of forging or uttering false coin, and
then informing against them. As early as
1756 one McDaniel had brought to the scaf-
fold and earned the blood-money of no less
than 70 victims. Parliament, recognizing the
abuses the system had engendered, repealed
all the laws relating thereto, except iu rela-
tion to the forgers of bank-bills, in which
case the informer can still get nis pecuniary
reward.

Blood-pheasant, one of the small quail-
like pheasants of the Himalayan genus If!<a-
gencs, whose throat and breast are blood-
red.

Blood-poisoning. From the standpoint of
bacteriology blood-poisoning may be of two
distinct types : It may be due to the presence
of the poisonous toxins taken up by the blood,
in which case it is called bacteriaeniia or
sapra^mia, sometimes septicaemia ; or it may
result from the toxins plus the micro-organ-
isms in the blood itself, a true blood infec-
tion, in which case it is termed, septicaemia,
or pyaemia. The bacteria most frequently
found in the blood in cases of septicaemia or
p.vaemia are the Streptococcus pyogenes aureus.
Staphylococcus pyogenes aureus. Diplococcus
lanceolatus. in pneumonia. Bacillus typhosus.
in typhoid, and occasionally others. See
Py.emia.

Blood Pressure. The pressure of the cir-
culating blood varies very markedly in the three
great divisions of the vascular system, the ar-
teries, capillaries and veins, being lowest in the
latter, highest in the arteries, and intermediate
in the capillaries. The arterial pressure is the
most important from the practical standpoint
of the physician, and depends on four factors :
the strength of the heart's pulsations, the degree
of peripheral resistance, the elasticity of the
arterial wall, and the volume of the circulating
blood. Although subject to not inconsiderable
fluctuations, the arterial pressure during health
is fairly constant, and in disease its study is
of great importance, both for purposes of diag-
nosis and of treatment. In a general way its
variations may be estimated by feeling the pulse
and judging the pressure by the resistance of
the artery to the fingers, but it has been found
of value to make more accurate observations by
means of special instruments, or sphygmoman-
ometers. Numerous forms of these are in use,
among the newer ones being Gartner's tonom-
eter, and the various modifications of the Riva-
Rocci instrument devised by Cook, Stanton,
and Janeway. Elevations of arterial tension are
commonly observed in certain diseases of the
heart, arteries, and kidneys ; while the pressure
is low in wasting diseases, after severe hemor-
rhage or grave injuries, and with impending
death. The blood pressure may also be raised
or lowered by the administration of appropriate
drugs. (See Circul.^tion.) Consult Janeway,
'The Clinical Study of Blood Pressure* (New
York 1904).

Blood-rain, showers of grayish and red-
dish dust mingled with rain, which occasion-
ally fall, usually in the zone of the earth which
extends on both sides of the Mediterranean
westwardly over the Atlantic and eastwardly
to Central Asia: the red color being due to the
presence of a red oxide of iron.

BLOOD-STAINS — BLOODY SHIRT

Blood-stains, in medico-legal investiga-
tions, are subjects of some importance, par-
ticularly when murder is suspected and so-
called blood-stains are to be investigated.
The first question to be _ determined is
whether the suspected stain is blood of any-
animal; secondly, is it human blood or that of
a lower animal. To determine the first ques-
tion certain tests have been devised. These
are (i) the guaiac test, by which blood
brought in contact with tincture of guaiac
and hydrogen peroxide develops a blue color
(not, however, conclusive) ; (2) the haemin
test, by which crystals are produced from
the haemoglobin and identified under the
microscope; (3) the spectroscope test, which
gives a spectrum of haemoglobin; (4) the mi-
croscope test, by which the blood-corpuscles
are identified. To answer the second ques-
tion requires either (i) the microscopical ex-
amination that determines the size, shape, and
qualities of the blood-corpuscles; or (2) a
much more reliable serum test, by which
human serum, if brought in contact with the
blood of an alien animal, causes dissolution
of the blood-corpuscles of that animal's
blood. By this serum test it is possible to
detect any blood of any animal.

Blood-transfusion. See Infusion; Trans-
fusion.

Blood-vessels. See Arteries ; Capillaries ;
Heart- Veins.

Blood of Our Saviour, an order of knight-
hood, known also as the Order of Our Re-
deemer, and the Precious Blood of Jesus
Christ. It was instituted in Mantua, Italy,
in 1608, by Duke Vincenzo Gonzaga, and con-
sisted of 20 members. Upon the collar was the
legend Domine probasti me, and on the pendant.
Nihil isto friste recepto.

Bloodbird, a black honey-eater of south-
ern Australia, whose head, neck, breast, and
back (of the male) are scarlet red.

Bloodhound, a dog of the **hound^^ build,
commonly used for tracking fugitives. It
usually stands from 25 to 27 inches high at
the shoulders and weighs about 90 pounds.
In appearance it is of a sedately noble ex-
oression, with a wise-looking, wrinkled face.
its color is black, mingled with a rich tan
on the legs; a few are all tan. Its coat is
short and glossy; the ears large and pendant;
and the eyes deeply sunken, and showing a
third lid or «haw.» It has a somewhat loose
akin for so muscular a dog, and quite a dew-
lap in front of the throat. It has a wonder-
ful power of scent, by means of which, aided
by judicious training, it is enabled to follow
the footsteps of a particular man, though they
may be crossed and recrorised a thousand
times by other footsteps, and though they
lead over bare pavements.

The true bloodhound si'fifers from an un-
fortunate name, which seems to suggest
bloodthirstiness, a quality very far removed
from his real disposition. The term "blood-
hounds originally meant simply that the dog
was thoroughbred in the same sense that a
horse or other animal is of "blood'^ or
«blnoded» stock. In the early davs the Span-
iards introduced into Cuba and South Amer-
ica dogs which had some of the character-

istics of the bloodhound, but were really »
cross between the ferocious war-dog of the
ancients and the big Spanish pointer. The.se.
dogs had evil dispositions and were capable
of great ferocity, and their sins have befin
visited on the real but innocent bloodhound.
The true bloodhound will trail a man to the
last of its strength, but will not voluntarily
attack him. When it has located him, it will
keep guard and prevent his escape; and may,
if attacked, use its great powers in self-de-
fense, but not in the savage manner generally-
attributed to it; it is not in its nature to be cruel.

Bloodroot. See Sanguinaria.

Blood'stone. See Heliotrope; Hematite.

Bloodworm, the larvse of species of Chi-
loiioimis. gnats allied to the mosquito. The-
worms live in fresh-water pools and sluggish
streams. They are long, slender, and worm-
like, and certain species are blood-red in
color. The flies have very feathery antennae
and do not bite. The larvae usually have no-
tracheae. The red color of these larvse is due-
to haemoglobin, a substance that has the
power of attracting and storing oxygen, and
giving it off to the tissues as they require it.
Such larvje are able to live in burrows which,
they construct in the mud. Some of them,,
provided plentifully with haemoglobin, are in
consequence able to live at great depths (it is
said even at 1,000 feet in Lake Superior), and.
come to the surface only occasionally. A few
are able even to tolerate salt water, and have
been fished up from considerable depths in
the sea. It is a remarkable fact that these-
physiological capacities differ gpeatly within,
the limits of the one genus, Chironojiius, for
some of these species are destitute of haemo-
globin, and have to live near the surface of
the water; in these there is a well-developed,
tracheal system.

Bloodwort. See S.\nguinaria.

Bloody Assizes, the name given by the-
people to a series of trials held in England
by the infamous Judge Jeffreys, in 1685. after
the suppression of the Duke of Monmouth's-
rebellion. Upward of 300 persons were exe-
cuted after short trials; very many were
whipped, imprisoned, and fined; and nearly
1. 000 were sent as slaves to the American,
plantations. See Jeffreys, George.

Bloody Bill, in American politics, an act;
sometimes called the Force Bill, passed by
Congress 2 March 1833. Its aim was to en-
force the tariff-law of 1832, which the legis-
lature of South Carolina had declared null
and void. See \J. S., Tariff in the.

Bloody Falls, the lowest cataract of the
Coppermine River in the Northwest Terri-
tories of Canada; so named because of a mas-
sacre here of Eskimos by Chippewa Indians-
in 1770.

Bloody Mary, a popular designation of
Mary, Queen of England, on account of the
persecutions of the Protestants during her
reign ( 1553-8) •

Bloody Shirt, a term used about 1880 in
Congress, to revive the memories of the Civil
War by impassioned allusions as, ^^to wave the-
bloody shirt.'^

BLOODY TOWER — BLOOMFIELD-ZEISLER

Bloody Tower, a term popularly applied
to that portion of the Tower of London in
which Richard III. is alleged to have caused
the murder of his nephews, Edward V. and
the Duke of York.

Bloom, the powdery or w^axy protective
film upon fruits, as grape and plum; and
upon leaves and stems, as cabbage. It is es-
pecially noticeable upon desert plants. See
also Xerophytes.

Bloom, a lump of puddled iron, which
leaves the furnace in a rough state, to be
subsequently rolled into bars or other form
into which it may be desired to convert the
metal. Also a lump of iron made directly
from the ore by a furnace called a bloomery.
See also Iron.

Bloomer, Amelia Jenks, American re-
former; b. Homer, N. Y., 27 May 1818; d.
Council Bluffs, 30 Dec. 1894. She was mar-
ried in 1840 to Dexter C. Bloomer, of Seneca
Falls, N. Y., where for several years she and
her husband w^ere engaged in publishing a
semi-monthly periodical. In 1S49 she began
publishing ^The Lily* in the interests of
temperance reform and women's rights; in
1853, on removing to Alount Vernon, Ohio, she
resumed its publication there, and also be-
came associate editor of 'The Western Home
Journal.* In 1855 the couple removed to
Council Bluffs, Iowa, where Mr. Bloomer be-
came an organizer of the Republican party
in that .State, and a Federal official and a
judge. She carried on her reformatory work
for many years. ]\Irs. Bloomer will be re-
membered longest because of her personal
adoption and her active advocacy of a cos-
tume which had been devised by Mrs. Eliza-
beth Smith Miller, and which became more
popularly known as the Bloomer cos-
tume, (q.v.)

Bloomer Costume, a style of dress intro-
duced about the year 1849 by Mrs. Amelia Jenks
Bloomer (q.v.j, who proposed thereby to effect
a complete revolution in female dress and add
materially to the health and comfort of her
sex. It consisted of a jacket with close sleeves,
a skirt reaching a little below the knee, and
a pair of Turkish pantaloons secured by bands
around the ankles. Though adopted rather ex-
tensively in America, it was unable to hold its
ground against the united strength of prejudice
and ridicule, and abroad it scarcely made further
way than furnishing a favorite subject of bur-
lesque on the stage, and of ridicule in the pages
of the comic papers. One or two "strong-
mmded'* women who ventured to brave public
opinion in London by donning the new costume,
were persecuted by the mob.

Bloomfield, Joseph, American soldier: b.
Woodbridge, N. J. ; d. Burlington. N. Y., 3 Oct.
1823. When the Revolutionary War broke out
he was studying law, but joined the cause of the
colonists with enthusiasm. In 1776 he received
a captain's commission in the 3d New Jersey
regiment, served with distinction throughout the
war, and was mustered out a major. Resuming
his legal studies, he acquired a successful prac-
tice in Burlington, was elected attorney-general,
and twice (1801, 1812) governor of the State.
During the War of 1812 he commanded a bri-
gade. From 1817 to 1821 he was a representa-

tive in Congress, and as chairman of the Com-
mittee on Revolutionary Pensions he reported
the bill granting pensions to soldiers of the
Revolutionary army. In 1793 he was appointed
a trustee of Princeton, and during his eight
years' membership of the board, did much to
promote the interests of that college.

Bloomfield, Maurice, American educator:
b. Bielilz. Austria, 23 Feb. 1855. He came to
the United States in 1857; entered the University
of Chicago, and was graduated at Furman Uni-
versity, in Greenville, S. C, in 1877 ; took a
course in Sanskrit and comparative philology in
Yale College 1877-8 ; and was a Fellow of Johns
Hopkins University i878-;9. He continued his
studies in Berlin and Leipsic 1879-81 ; became
an associate in Johns Hopkins University in
1881 ; and subsequently professor of Sanskrit
and comparative philology there. He published
numerous grammatical and philological papers;
edited for the first time f'-om the original San-
skrit MSS. the <Sutra of Kauqika' ; translated
the 'Atharva-Veda* in the 'Sacred Books of the
East* ; and has since been engaged in compiling
a 'Concordance of the Vedas.*

Bloomfield, Robert, English poet: b. Hon-
ington, 1766; d. August 1823. He learned to
read at the village school, and in 1781 was sent
to learn the trade of a shoemaker with his
brother in London. The visiting of several
places of worship, a debating society, Covent
Garden Theatre, and the reading of sundry
books, called forth his faculties, and he became
almost unconsciously a poet. Hearing him one
day repeat a song which he had composed, his
astonished brother prevailed on him to offer it
to the 'London Magazine,* and it was accepted.
The piece was called 'The Milkmaid.* A sec-
ond, 'The Sailor's Return,* likewise found a
place in that journal. Thomson's 'Seasons,*
'Paradise Lost,* and other works of this kind,
now became the subjects of his constant study.
In the country, where he resided for a short
time in 1786, he first conceived the idea of his
poem, 'The Farmer's Boy,* which is charac-
terized b}^ a spirit of rural simplicity and inno-
cence. It was written under the most unfavor-
able circumstances, in a garret. It was first
shown to Capel Lofft in 1798, who was so much
pleased with it that, in conjunction with his
friend Hill, he had it printed in 1800. Bloom-
field was patronized by the Duke of Grafton,
who bestowed on him a small annuity and made
him an under-sealer in the seal-office. This
situation he was forced to resign on account of
ill health. He then worked again at his trade
as a shoemaker, and emplo^-ed himself in con-
structing .Eolian harps. Engaging in the book
trade he became a bankrupt, and in the latter
part of his life was afflicted with violent head-
aches and became nearly blind. He was grad-
ually reduced to such a state of nervous irrita-
bility that apprehensions were entertained of
his becoming insane. These fears were termi-
nated by his death.

Bloomfield-Zeisler, Fanny, American pian-
ist : b. Bielitz, Austrian Silesia, 16 July 1866.
She came to Chicago with her parents in her
second year, and at an early age displayed
marked musical talent, which was later devel-
oped by study abroad, chiefly under Leschetizky
at Vienna. Since 1895 she has played regularly
in the principal cities of the United States. In

BLOOMFIELD — BLOUNT

1893-5 she made a tour of the chief cities in
Germany, everywhere meeting with great ap-
plause. In the spring of 1898 she made a suc-
cessful English tour.

Bloomfield, N. J., a township in Essex
County, on the Delaware, L. & W., and the
Erie R.R.'s, the Morris Canal, and trolley lines
connecting with Newark, the Oranges, Jersey
City, and other cities ; 10 miles northwest of New
York. It was founded in 1685, under the name
of Watsessing, and received its present name
from Gen. Joseph Bloomfield in 1796. The old-
est church in the town dates from this year.
Bloomfield once ranked as an educational centre.
Here were located in addition to other similar
institutions, the Bloomfield Classical School,
Madam Cooke's Female Seminary, and a Pres-
byterian Theological Seminary, the edifice of
the latter being now occupied by a German the-
ological seminary. It has a fine Mountainside
Hospital ; contains the residences of many New
York business men ; and is engaged in the man-
ufacture of church and cabinet organs, woolen
goods, hats, shoes, rubber goods, tissue and pho-
tographic paper, saddlery, hardware, electric ele-
vators, and a variety of brass goods. It has a na-
tional bank, daily and weekly newspapers, an as-
sessed property valuation of nearly $4,000,000 and
a total debt of about $250,000. Pop. (igoo* 9,668.

Bloomington, 111., city and county-seat of
McLean County, situated near the geographical
centre of the state, 126 miles south of Chicago
and on the Illinois Central, Chicago & Alton,
Big Four, and Lake Erie & Western R.R.'s.

Manufactures and Industries. — Bloomington
is in the heart of the famous Illinois corn belt,
surrounded by one of the richest and most pro-
ductive agricultural sections in the world, and
where the largest nurseries in the state, com-
prising over 1,000 acres, are located. It is en-
gaged in the manufacture of farm implements,
flour and feed, stoves and furnaces, brick and
tile, canned goods, harness, store fixtures, and
portable elevators ; has a coal shaft lifting 700
tons of coal per day, a bevel glass plant, orna-
mental iron works, paper and cigar factories, a
brewery and a pork-packing establishment.

Banks. — -There are seven banks — three na-
tional and four state — with a combined capital
and surplus of $1,700,000, and deposits of
$5,000,000.

Parks. — The city has three beautiful parks
and is noted for its fine brick pavements, having
more than any other city of its size.

Churches, Educational Institutions, Etc. —
There are 32 churches of all denominations, a
fine public school system, with a high school, 12
grammar schools, 3 parochial schools and sev-
eral excellent private schools; a commercial
college, a college of oratory and one of music.
Bloomington has one of the largest and best
selected public libraries in the state and several
law libraries. The Illinois Wesleyan University
(q.v.) and the Soldier's Orphan Home are lo-
cated here, and the Illinois State Normal Uni-
versity (q.v.), which has long been known as
one of the best institutions in the Lmion for the
education of teachers, is situated at Normal, a
suburb about two miles distant from the court-
house, and connected by electric railway. Among
the public buildings are a large court-house, two
opera-houses, and several commodious public
halls.

History, Government, Etc. — The citywas first
settled by pioneers from New England and Ken-
tucky and became a borough in 1831 and was in-
corporated in 185 1. The government is vested
in a mayor and board of aldermen, composed of
14 members, who are elected biennially. The
city has an electric railway system, operating
over 20 miles of track, and a well-trained fire
department ; is lighted by gas and electricity and
controls its water-works. Pop. (1905) 28,286.
, Adlai E. Stevenson.

Bloomington, Ind., city and county-seat of
Monroe County, on the Monon and the In-
dianapolis Southern R.R.'s ; 60 miles south of
Indianapolis. It is in a limestone and quarry
region; is the seat of the Indiana State Uni-
versity (q.v.) ; and besides its farming and
quarrying interests has important manufactur-
ing concerns, especially in the lines of leather
and hardware. The city has the Monroe County
Library, a national bank, several daily and weekly
periodicals, and a property valuation of over
$1,500,000. It was settled in 1818 and was in-
corporated as a city in 1876. Pop. (1900) 6,460.

Bloomsburg, Pa., a town and county-seat
of Columbia Co. ; on the Susquehanna River,
the Pennsylvania Canal, and several railroads ;
40 miles west of Wilkesbarre. It is in an iron
and limestone region ; contains a number of
iron furnaces and foundries, silk mills, brass
and copper tube works, furniture and desk fac-
tories, carpet factories, etc. ; is the seat of the
State Normal School and a literary institute,
and has an assessed property valuation of about
$2,500,000. Pop. (1900) 6,170.

Blouet, Paul, pol bloo-a (Max O'Rell),
French lecturer and author : b. Brittany, France,
2 March 1848; d. Paris, 24 May 1903. In early
life he was an officer in the French army, but in
1873 went to England and became a teacher.
After the publication of his first book, 'John
Bull and His Island' (1883), he abandoned
teaching and devoted himself to literature. His
works include 'John Bull and His Daughters'
(1884); 'Jonathan and His Continent' (1888,
with Tack Allvn) ; 'A Frenchman in America'
(1891") ; 'John Bull & Co.' (1894)-

Bloundelle-Burton, John Edward, English
novelist : b. 3 March 1850. He vvas educated
for the army, has lived and traveled in the United
States and many European countries and has
been a correspondent of various English and
French journals. His published works include:
<The Silent Shore' (1886); 'His Own Enemv'
(1887); 'Across the Salt Seas' (1898); 'The
Scourge of God' (1898) ; 'Fortune's My Foe'
(1899); 'A Bitter Heritage' (1899); 'The
Seafarers' : 'Servants of Sin' (1900) ; 'A Van-
ished Rival' (1901); 'The Year One' (1901):
•llie Fate of Valsee' (1902).

Blount, James H., American legislator: b.
Macon, Ga., 12 Sept. 1837 ; d. 8 March. 1903. He
first came into public notice in 1865, when, after
having served in the Confederate army he was
a delegate to the Georgia constitutional conven-
tion. Thereafter he devoted himself to the
practice of law until 1872, when he was elected
to Congress from the Sixth District of Georgia.
He held his seat by successive re-elections till
1893, when he declined a further term. As he
finished his last term the House paid him the
unusual honor of suspending its proceedings to
give the members an opportunity to testify to

BLOUNT— BLOWING MACHINES

their appreciation of his worth. In his last
term he was chairman of the Committee on For-
eign Affairs, and his famiharity with American
relations with other countries led President
Cleveland to appoint him commissioner para-
mount to Hawaii in March, 1893, for the pur-
pose of investigating the deposition of the royal
government and the establishment of the Amer-
ican protectorate over the kingdom. On his ar-
rival in Honolulu he at once caused the Amer-
ican flag to be hauled down from the Provisional
Government House, and the United States ma-
rines to be withdrawn from the locality. This
proceeding led to considerable excitement in
the United States ; the withdrawal of United
States Minister Stevens from Honolulu; the
appointment of Commissioner Bloimt as his
successor ; and a renewal both in Washington
and Honolulu of the agitation for the annexa-
tion of Hawaii to the United States. On the
completion of his mission IMinister Blount re-
tired to his large Georgia estates. See Hawaii.

Blount, William, American statesman : b.
North Carolina, 1754; d. Knoxville, Tenn., 21
March 1816. He was a delegate from his na-
tive State to the Continental Congress in 1782,
1783, 1786, and 1787; a signer of the Federal
Constitution in 1787, and governor of the ter-
ritory south of the Ohio (1790). In 1796 he
was chosen president of the Convention of Ten-
nessee, and was elected the same year by that
State to a seat in the U. S. Senate. But in 1797
he was expelled from that body for having, as
it was alleged, instigated the Creeks and Cher-
okees to assist the British in conquering the
Spanish territories near the United States. His
impeachment merely served to increase his pop-
ularity at home, where he was promptly elected
a member of the State Senate and chosen pres-
ident thereof.

Blow, John, English musical composer :
b. 1648; d. 1708. He became organist of West-
minster Abbey at the age of 21, and in 1676
also organist of the Chapel Royal, and obtained
the degree of Doctor of Music. In 1680 he re-
signed his post in Westminster Abbey to his
pupil Purcell. In 1699 he was appointed corn-
poser to the Chapel Royal. He was a volumi-
nous composer, but many of his works have
never been printed. Among his sacred pieces
are upward of 100 anthems, 14 church services,
and various other compositions. A number of
his secular compositions for one, two. or three
voices, with accompaniment, were published un-
der the name of *Amphion Anglicus.*

Blow-f!y, a common fly belonging to the
family Miiscid(C. It is the large, noisy fly which
enters houses, and was named Calliphora voiui-
toria by Linn?eus. It is black on the head and
thorax, while the abdomen is steel-blue. It is
similar to the flesh-fly in habits, but instead of
living larvae it deposits its eggs which are long
and cylindrical, in stacks ("fly-blowsw) on meat,
cheese, etc. The larv?e hatch in 24 hours; they
become fully grown in probably five or six
days, and transform into pup?e enclosed by a
brown shell (puparium), formed by the drying
and contraction of the larval skin. Oily or
greasv substances are avoided by them, and by
all other flies, and a cloth dipped in kerosene
oil and suspended in a room will keep them
from entering it. Another blow-fly is CalUphora

crythrocct^hala, common to Europe and North
America.

Blowgun, a weapon formerly used by the
Indians uihabitating the shores of the Gulf of
Mexico and still emploved by some of the In-
dian tribes of South America, botli in war and
for killing game. It consists of a long, straight
tube in which a small poisoned arrow is placed,
and forcibly expelled by the breath. The tube
or blowgun, called gravatdna, puncuna, etc., is
8 to 12 feet long, the bore not generally large
enough to admit the little finger. It is made of
reed or of the stem of a small palm. A sight
is affixed to it near the end. The arrows used
are 15 to 18 inches long, made of the spines
of another palm, sharply pointed, notched so as
to break off in the wound, and their points
covered with curari poison. A little soft down
of the silk-cotton tree is twisted round each
arrow, so as exactly to fit the tube.

Blowing Machines. The term blowing
machine or blower is applied to various forms of
mechanical arrangements employed for the pro-
duction of artificial currents of air for ventilat-
ing purposes, for forced draught for furnaces,
etc. They are also employed as exhausters for
the removal of smoke and fumes from smelting
works, foundries, etc., for the removal of saw-
dust and wood planings from saw mills and
planing mills, and for handling such material
as emery, coffee, metal filings, etc.

The various forms of blowers may be con-
veniently divided into the following general
classes :

Bellows. — These comprise the earliest forms
of blowing machines and are also the most
familiar at the present time. In their earlier
forms, still used in some oriental countries, they
consisted of simple bags of skin each equipped
with a valve and nozzle. A more elaborate ap-
plication of the same principle is found in the
ordinary domestic bellows and those used in the
blacksmith's shops. The only point of interest
in this connection is the means employed to
maintain a continuous blast. This is accom-
plished by introducing a third board between
the upper and lower boards of the ordinary
bellows. The middle board is fixed or arranged
to remain stationary. This board and the lower
board are provided with valves which open in-
wardly. A weight attached to the lower board
keeps the lower chamber filled with air, so that
when the lower board is raised by means of a
lever or some similar arrangement, the air in
the lower chamber is forced into the upper
chamber. The outlet nozzle is attached to the
upper chamber, and the upper board is suf-
ficiently weighted to press the air out through
the nozzle in a continuous stream, which is
maintained by the relatively large quantity of
air which is always present in the upper chamber
under the uniform pressure of the weighted
board. It is obvious that a spring can be used
instead of a weight to press out the air from the
upper chamber, and this arrangement is the one
usually employed in the case of the bellows
ordinarily used in blacksmith's shops.

Piston Blowers. — The simplest form of a
piston blower consists of a square wooden
chamber with a close fitting piston working
within it. When the piston is drawn backward,
air is sucked into the chamber through a flap

BLOWING MACHINES

valve, and when the piston is pushed forward
this air is compressed and forced out through
the nozzle.

Blounng-Engincs. — The air pump or air com-
pressor used for producing low pressures rep-
resents the modern form of piston blowers.
Various types of these machines are extensively
used for supplying the air blast to the cupolas
of blast furnaces, Bessemer converters, etc.
They are driven by either steam, gas, or water
power, and are then commonly known as blow-
ing-engines. A machine of this type usually
consists of a power cylinder operating a piston
either by steam or gas, and an air compressor
cylinder which delivers the compressed air into
the blast pipes. In the horizontal engines, the
two cylinders are placed tandem to each other
with the compressor cylinder in front. In the
vertical engines, the compressor cylinder is

developing as high as 7,000 horsepower are being
buih both in the United States and in Europe
for this purpose. See Gas Engines.

Rotary Blowers.— This type of machines in-
cludes various forms of disk blowers and fans
which are generally used for ventilating pur-
poses. See Coal AIining Machinery.

The disk blowers are built in sizes ranging
from one to ten feet in diameter, and are capable
of delivering from 1,000 to 250,000 cubic feet of
air per minute, according to their size and the
number of revolutions per minute at which they
are operated. The accompanying table of
capacities of open air delivery, gives some
normal values relative to the size of the disks,
the speed at which they are run, the cubic feet
of air propelled per minute, and the horsepower
required to operate them.

Disk blowers are often called fans, but it is

TABLE

OF open-air delivery capacities.

Veloci-
ty of
air in

Cu. ft.

R.P.M.

B.H.P.

Diameter of fan in inches

ft. per
min.

30 36

108

120

750

Cu. ft. 1 1,473 2,620
R.P.M. 415 300
B.H.P. .03 .06

4,li5
250
.10

5.G30
200
.15

8,081
175
.20

10,550
150

.24

13,874
150
.40

16,489|23.474
125 100
.39 .60

30,323
100
.90

56,218

100

1.17

53,564

1.50

66,444

1.70

1,100

Cu. ft.
R.P.M.
B.H.P.

1,912 3,956
620 450
.00 .14

6,615
400

. 22

8,895
300
.38

12,121
250
.45

15,826
225
.60

20,034 24,734

200 175

1.00 .95

35,620 51.284

150 150

1.40 2.00

64,927

125

2.30

80,159

100

4.00

98.910

100

5.00

l.SOO

Cu. ft.
R.P.M.
B.H.P.

2.640 5,275
850 600
.10 .26

8,232
500
.40

11,861
400
.66

16,162

350

1.00

21,100

300
.90

26,712

275

1.90

34,378

250

2.10

47,494

200

2.50

64,646

175

4.00

84,437

150

4.75

112,420

150

7.50

131,936

125

7.00

1.875

Cu. ft.
R.P.M.
B.H.P.

3,300

1,050

.20

6,594
700
.50

10.290
600
.73

15.885

500

1.10

20,202

450

1.67

28,376

400

2.25

34,790

350

3.20

41,223

300

3.50

59,367

250

3.95

81,144

225

7.50

109,746

200

10.50

134,960

175

11.25

164,990

150

12.00

2.500

Cu. ft.
R.P.M.
B.H.P.

4,400

1,400

.75

8,792

1.000

1.00

13,720

800

1.40

20,230
700

2.25

26,036

550

3.30

34,168

500

4.00

44,520

450

4.50

54,964

400

6.00

79.156

350

7.00

107,744

300

10.00

140,728

300

13.50

178,080

225

20.00

219.940

200

28.00

Cu. ft. Cubic feet of air delivered per minute.

R.P.M. Revolutions per minute.

B.H.P. Brake horsepower required to operate fan.

usually placed on top of the power cylinder.
The pistons of both cylinders are carried on a
common piston rod, and the engines are usually
provided with heavy flywheels to insure steady
operation.

In many forms of steam blowing-engines,
the power cylinders are compounded, while those
of gas engine installations are often made
double-acting, and sometimes two power cylin-
ders placed tandem to each other and to the
compressor cylinder are successfully employed.

The ■'^cent discovery of the suitability of
blast furnace gas, ?'. e. the gas which passes out
of the top of blast furnaces employed for the
smelting of iron ores, has greatly tended to-
wards the development of large gas engines
specially adapted for blowing purposes. Up to
the year igoo, the largest engine of this type
was a Cockerill engine of about 600 horsepower,
but since then, the capacities of these machines
have been greatly increased, and engine units

well to understand, that in the former the blades
are set at an angle to the axle while in a fan
blower proper, the blades are set parallel to the
axle on radial spokes in a manner similar to the
setting of the paddles on a paddle wheel. These
blades may be either flat or curved in both
cases, and are arranged to revolve in a steel
or cast iron casing or shell so designed that the
air is sucked in through a larger or smaller
orifice at the side and forced out through an
outlet leading from the periphery.

The ordinary pressure blowers are merely
another form of fan blowers. They were orig-
inally designed for use with cupola furnaces,
and forges, but are also extensively used for
producing mechanical draught for the furnaces
of boilers, for use with mechanical stokers, sand
blast machines, pneumatic tube delivery systems,
etc., or for any work requiring pressures as high
as 16 ounces per square inch.

The fan wheels are usually made of thin

BLOWING MACHINES

galvanized steel, and are enclosed in a shell of
cast iron. The larger sizes are usually provided
with two driving pulleys, and are usually made
to discharge horizontally at the bottom, but they
can be built in any other of the four right
angles. See Fig. i.

Positive Blozi'crs. — These machines are a
more recent form of the rotary blowers, and
are very extensively used for operating high
pressure forges, blow-torches, gas furnaces, low
pressure sand blasts, small pneumatic tube
systems, and similar purposes requiring a
capacity ranging from 25 to 150 cubic feet of
air per minute at a pressure ranging from four
to eight ounces. They can be driven by direct
connection engines and electric motors, or by
power driven belting, and the principle of rotary
motion applied to air under high pressure ap-
pears to eliminate a great deal of the incidental
friction, so that when high efficiencies can be
obtained they are preferable to fans and blow-
ing engines.

These machines consist of an outside casing
or cylinder of cast iron provided with massive
head plates which carry the journal boxes as
shown by Fig. 2, which illustrates a horizontal

water is forced into the impellers at one end
through a hole drilled into the center of the
shaft, and out at the other through a similar
passage.

These machines will maintain a pressure
ranging from seven to ten pounds per square
inch. In some designs a spray of water is used
to pack the machines so as to prevent the air
from escaping backwards, and also for the pur-
pose of absorbing the heat due to compression.

Fig. 1.— Pressure Blower.

blower geared to an electric motor on the same
bed plate.

Within this casing, two impellers A and B,
Fig. 3, revolve on horizontal shafts which are
connected by gear wheels outside the casing,
thus giving them an invariable relative motion.
The contact surfaces of the impellers are formed
on mathematically correct lines, and they revolve
together with uniform clearance and without
metallic contact either with each other or with
the enclosing casing, thus preventing internal
friction. There are no waste spaces between the
impellers to cause the formation of air pockets,
and no sharp corners or edges to produce sound
vibrations, and as the impellers are symmetrical
relatively to their shaft centers, they remain
perfectly balanced at all speeds.

High Pressure Positive Blozvers. — In this
type, where the heat of compression constitutes
an element of danger, the entire casing and
journal boxes are water jacketed, and complete
water circulation is maintained through the im-
pellers and the casing during operation in order
to prevent expansion under the temperatures due
to the high pressures of compression. The

Fig. 2.— Positive Blower.

This water is carried over into a separating
tank and drained off automaticall3^ This method
enables the attainment of an efficiency under
high pressures fully as high as that attained
under pressures ranging from three to four
pounds.

In operating positive pressure blowers, it is
generally estimated that 30,000 cubic feet of air
are required to melt a ton of iron, and that
under a pressure of one pound per square inch,
an energy of five horsepower is required to
deliver 1,000 cubic feet. These values form a
fair basis for the calculation of the speed or
capacity of a blower of this type for any desired
purpose.

Jet Blozvers. — These arrangements do not
strictly belong to any class of blowing machines.

Fig. 3.— Cross Section Through Positive Blower.

They simply represent the utilization of a jet
of steam or water to produce an artificial
current of air. This is usually accomplished by
forcing the jet of steam or water through a pipe
of small diameter inserted in a pipe of larger
diameter open at both ends, thus creating a
current of air through the larger pipe in the

BLOWITZ — BLOWPIPE ANALYSIS

direction of motion of the jet. The steam-jet
devices are represented by the exhaust nozzles
used in the smokestacks of fire engines and loco-
motives. See Heating and Ventilating.

William Morey, Jr., C. E.,
Consulting Civil and Mechanical Engineer,
New York.

Blowitz, Henri Georges Stephane Adolphe
Opper de, 6h-re zhorzh sta-fiin ad-6If 6p-per
de blo-vitz, French journalist: b. Pilsen,
Austria, 28 Sept. 1832; d. Paris, 18 Jan. 1903.
He settled in France ; was successively appointed
professor of German in the Lycee of Tours and
at Limoges, Poitiers, and Marseilles ; was nat-
uralized a French citizen in 1870; and became
the Paris correspondent of the London Times in
1871. Laurence Oliphant was then the corre-
spondent at Paris, and de Blowitz became his as-
sistant. During the war of 1870-1 Mr. Oliphant
was excluded from Paris during the siege by
the Germans, but de Blowitz, by means of car-
rier pigeons, balloons, and numerous ingenious
devices, kept his chief outside the city walls in-
formed as to what was going on within the
beleaguered city. He was noted for his success
in obtaining secret and important information
long before it was ready for official promulga-
tion ; and for his personal interviews with
Thiers, Bismarck, Comte de Chambord, Alfonso
Xn., Gambetta, the Comte de Paris, the Sultan
of Turkey. Marquis Tseng, the King of Ruma-
nia, Leo XHL, Jules Ferry, Duclerc, Prince
Lobanoff and many other eminent men of the
time in Europe. Many of his disclosures in his
letters to the Times, such as the text of the
Treaty of Berlin, which he forwarded before
it had been signed, created much excitement
throughout Europe. He contributed more than
4,000 columns to the Times; was made an officer
of the Legion of Honor, an officer of the Insti-
tute of France, and doctor of philosophy. He
published <Feuilles Volantes> (1858); L' Alle-
magne et la Provence^ (1869) ; *Le Mariage
Royal d'Espagne' (1878); *Une Course a Con-
stantinople* (1884). He retired from his posi-
tion as Times correspondent only three weeks
prior to his death.

Blowpipe, an instrument by means of
which the flame of a candle, a gas-jet, etc., is
made to produce an intense heat, being then em-
ployed for a variety of useful purposes. Its
most usual form is described in the article on
blowpipe analysis (q.v.). It is employed by jew-
elers and goldsmiths in the work of soldering,
and by other workers on small metallic objects;
by the glassblower in making thermometers,
barometers, and other glass instruments; by
the enameler ; and indeed wherever it is re-
quired to subject a small body to a strong heat.
It has undergone a variety of improvements in
the hands of the chemist, to whose researches
it has proved an excellent auxiliary. Wollas-
ton's portable blowpipe is formed of three pieces
fitted into one another when in use, but which
may be taken down and made to slide within
each other. Most laboratory blowpipes have a
hollow bulb or enlarged part at or near the end,
the object of which is to condense the vapor
of the breath, which often proves injurious in
the common form of the instrument. To pre-
vent corrosion from the action of the moisture,
the bulb is made either of silver or sheet-tin,
and it is capable of being opened in order that

it may be more easily cleaned. A little prac-
tice is necessary to enable the operator to keep
up a constant blast for any length of time, the
current of air being propelled through the pipe
by the muscular exertion of the cheeks, while
respiration is carried on through the nose. But
when the process has to be long continued, the
current of air is supplied by bellows. This is
the form commonly used by glassblowers. The
gas blowpipe, commonly called the oxyhydrogen
blowpipe, is a very important and intensely pow-
erful variety, whose structure is due to Mr,
Newman of London. Sir Humphry Davy sug-
gested the employment of other gases instead
of common air, and Dr. Clarke of Cambridge
adopted the suggestion. Dr. Clarke found that
a mixture of two volumes of hydrogen and one
of oxygen produced the greatest effect. These
gases are contained in a bladder attached to the
end of a pipe which leads into a vertical cylin-
der, in which is fitted a piston, working through
a collar at the top. By the action of this piston
the gas from the bladder is compressed into
a copper chamber, and thence issues to the flame
through an ordinary blowpipe nozzle. To guard
against explosions, the gases are kept in separate
holders, and by means of a special kind of
burner are prevented from mixing until they
are just going to be burned. There are various
other species of blowpipe, and many uses to
which they may be applied. For information on
the subject see Plattner, ^On the Blowpipe'
to whom the present form of the instrument is
due.

Blow'pipe Anal'ysis, a branch of chemical
analysis in which the composition of the sub-
stance under examination is inferred from its
behavior when subjected to certain flame tests.
The blowpipe itself commonly consists of a
tapering brass tube about eight inches long,
provided with a bell-shaped mouthpiece at one
end, and at the other with a nozzle that is turned
at right angles to the general length of the
instrument. The nozzle should be tipped with
platinum, and provided with a very minute per-
foration through which the operator blows a tiny
blast of air that drives the flame of his lamp
against the object to be analyzed. The flame
used in blowpipe work should not be round
and colorless, like those of spirit lamps and
Bunsen burners, but should be flat and luminous,
containing plenty of free, incandescent carbon.
A large candle-flame serves very well, although
it is not flat. L'sually a gas-flame is employed,
in connection with a burner formed by flatten-
ing a piece of brass tubing, and then cutting
it off at the top, at an angle. When the blow-
pipe is in service its tip is introduced into the
flame of the lamp, which the air-blast deflects
laterally in the form of a long, almost non-lumi-
nous cone, which consists of two visibly differ-
ent portions. The inner part is somewhat
brighter, and is richer in unoxidized gases. The
outer layer, being more plentifully supplied with
oxygen, consists almost entirely of completely
oxidized gases. The outer portion of the blow-
pipe flame is called the "oxidizing flame,*' since
this part, when directed against the specimen
under examination, heats it while it is iri con-
tact with the air, and causes it to oxidize, if it is
capable of doing so at the temperature that is
attainable by the blowpipe. The inner portion
of the flame is called the "reducing flame,*

BLOWPIPE ANALYSIS

from the fact that when the specimen is ex-
posed to this part, it is heated, not in contact
with the air, but while surrounded v/ith an
atmosphere of partially unoxidized hydrocarbon
gases. Under these circumstances many metallic
oxides give up their oxygen to the hot hydrocar-
t bon gases in which they are bathed, and are
themselves reduced to the metallic form. If a
fiame still richer in free carbon and uncon-
sumed hydrocarbons is desired, the tip of the
blowpipe is held just outside of the lamp-flame,
and a jet of flame with a luminous tip con-
taining particles of solid carbon can easily be
thrown down upon the specimen.

In blowpipe analysis there is no recognized
^^scheme'^ to be followed out. The method is
oftenest used for the determination of minerals,
and in such cases the analyst usually has some
sort of idea, in advance, of the elements that
may possibly be present. The substance to be
examined is usually first pulverized, and a por-
tion of it heated in a tube that is open only
at the upper end. If it carbonizes, it contains
organic matter of some kind, and the odor that
is produced is often a good indication as to
whether the organic matter is of an animal or
vegetable nature. If the substance, when heated
in the closed tubes, gives off water which con-
denses in the upper part of the tube, the moisture
so condensed should be tested with litmus
paper. If it is neutral, the substance is a hy-
drated compound, or a hydroxide. An acid re-
action indicates acid salts, and an alkaline one
may usually be taken to indicate the presence
of compounds of ammonia. If the substance
melts but does not change its color, it is an
alkaline or a hydrated salt. If it melts and
turns yellow, remaining yellow even after cool-
ing, it contains oxide of bismuth ; while if it
melts to a yellow color, but turns red upon
cooling, it contains oxide of lead. If it does
not melt, but changes color, the indications
are as follows : Yellow, both hot and cold, indi-
cates stannic oxide ; if yellow while hot, but
white when cold, zinc oxide ; if black while hot,
and reddish-brown when cold, ferric oxide ; if
black while hot, but bright red when cold, mer-
curic oxide. If gas is evolved, its nature should
be determined. Oxygen may be detected by the
kindling of a glowing splinter of wood inserted
into the tube ; carbon dioxide by its extinguish-
ing such a spark promptly ; carbon monoxide by
the gas burning with a bluish flame when ignited
at the mouth of the tube ; sulphur dioxide,
ammonia and cyanogen, by the odor. Oxygen
indicates chlorates, peroxides, etc. : carbon diox-
ide indicates carbonates or oxalates; carbon
monoxide indicates oxalates or formates ; sul-
phur dioxide indicates certain sulphites or sul-
phates ; cyanogen indicates cyanides ; and ammo-
nia indicates some compound of that substance.
If the gas is reddish-brown in color, bromides,
nitrates, or nitrites, are probably present; if it
is violet, an iodide is indicated. A sublimate
may also be deposited upon the tube. If the
sublimate is black, or nearly so, selenium or
mercuric sulphide are indicated ; if yellow, sul-
phur or a sulphide ; if white, a salt of ammo-
nia or mercury, a volatile organic acid, or an
oxide of antimony or arsenic. Gray rnetallic
globules indicate mercury, and a metallic mir-
ror may represent either antimony or arsenic.

When the substance is heated in an inclined
tube, open at both ends, similar indications are

to be observed ; modified somewhat, however, by
the fact that oxygen can now pass up through
the tube and come in contact with the specimen
under examination. Thus sulphides are com-
monly oxidized in the open tube, arsenic will
sublime as the trioxide and not as the metai,
and selenium gives a sublimate that may be
gray or red, and also a strong odor of horse-
radish.

The color that the specimen communicates
to the non-luminous part of the flame is like-
wise of great service in determinations by the
blowpipe. A piece of platinum wire, bent at the
end into a small loop, is dipped in hydrochloric
acid and held in the flame, this process being re-
peated several times until "the analyst is con-
fident that the wire itself is free from any sub-
stance that can color the flame. The little loop
at the end is then brought into contact with
some of the finely pulverized specimen, and
introduced into the flame again. Sodium gives a
strong lasting yellow ; calcium an orange red ;
lithium and strontium a crimson ; potassium a
lavender ; barium an apple green ; thallium, cop-
per, and boracic acid a brighter green ; lead and
antimony a pale blue; selenium a deep blue.
The yellow due to sodium is so powerful,
even when that metal is present only in slight
amounts, that the colors due to the other metals
present are sometimes difficult to observe by
the unaided eye. Hence colored glasses are
often used, through which to take note of the
flame color ; the tint of the glass being selected
so as to cut off the yellow light of the sodium,
while allowing the particular color that is sought
to pass through unobstructed. Cobalt blue glass,
for example, is used in this way in testing, by
flame coloration, for potassium.

When a sample of the specimen to be ana-
lyzed is heated upon charcoal, it is often possible
to obtain some of the elements that are present,
in the form of a metallic bead, by the reduction
of their oxides or of the other compounds in
which they were originally contained. Lead, tin,
and silver give beads that are white and mal-
leable; copper gives a malleable red bead; anti-
mony and bismuth give brittle beads ; and iron,
cobalt, and nickel may often be obtained in the
form of gray, magnetic powders.

While the substance is being heated upon
charcoal, an incrustation commonly forms on
the charcoal, from the character of which useful
inferences can be drawn. Thus antimony gives
a white incrustation ; bismuth, an incrustation
that is deep yellow when hot and lighter yellow
when cold ; lead, one that is light yellow when
hot and deep yellow when cold, and is sur-
rounded by a white border ; arsenic gives a
white incrustation that is very volatile ; and with
zinc the color is yellow when hot and white
when cold.

Many metallic oxides are soluble in melted
borax, and valuable color indications are ob-
tained by heating small quantities of the sub-
stance in little beads of melted borax, that are
held in the flame upon tiny loops of platinum
wire. The phenomena that are observed in this
way are quite complicated, however, and for
an account of them the manuals on blowpipe
analysis should be consulted. See Cornwall,
* Manual of Blowpipe Analysis^ ; Moses and
Parsons, < Elements of Mineralogy, Crystallogra-
phy, and Blowpipe Analysis' ; Dana, ^Minerals
and How to Study Them.^

BLUCHER

Blucher, Gebhard Leberecht von, geb'hart
la'be-reHt fon blii-ker ( Prince of Wahlstadt,
val'stat), Prussian soldier: b. Rostock, i6 Dec.
1742; d. Krieblowitz, Silesia, 12 Sept. 1819. When
14 years of age he visited the island of Riigen,
-where the sight of some Swedish hussars aroused
a desire to become a soldier, and in spite of
the opposition of his parents and relatives he
took service in a Swedish regiment as cornet.
His first campaign was against the Prussians,
and he was taken prisoner by the same regiment
of hussars which he afterward commanded. The
commander of this regiment, Col. von Belling,
induced him to enter the Prussian service. An
exchange was agreed upon with the Swedes, and
Blucher was made lieutenant in Belling's regi-
ment. Discontented at the promotion of other
officers over his head, he left the army, devoted
himself to agriculture, and by industry and pru-
dence acquired an estate. After the death of
Frederick 11. he became a major in his forrner
regiment, which he commanded with distinction
on the Rhine 1793-4. Orchies, Luxemburg,
Frankenstein, Oppenheim (16 Jan. 1794), Kirr-
weiler and Edisheim in the Palatinate, bear wit-
ness to his achievements. After the battle of
Kirrweiler, in 1794, which added greatly to his
reputation, he was appointed major-general of
the army of observation stationed on the lower
Rhine. In 1802, in the name of the king of Prus-
sia, he took possession of Erfurt and Miihl-
hausen. On 14 Oct. 1806, he fought at the bat-
tle of Auerstadt. He then, with the greater
part of the cavalry, followed the retreat of the
Prince of Hohenlohe to Pomerania. His squad-
ron, moving on the left of the main army, be-
came separated from it, and the Prince of
Hohenlohe was forced to surrender at Prenzlau.
Blucher, cut off from Stettin by this accident,
threw himself into Mecklenburg where he
joined at Dambeck the corps of the Duke
of Weimar, commanded by Prince William
of Brunswick-Oels. All the troops, how-
-ever, were too much fatigued to under-
take any enterprise. Having the Grand
Duke of' Berg on his left flank, the Prince
of Ponte Corvo in his front, and Marshal Soult
on his right, Blucher was obliged to take post
behind the Trave in order to draw off the three
great divisions of the French forces from the
Oder as long as possible. With this view he
entered the territory of the free city of Lii-
beck, which was soon stormed by the French.
Although BKicher escaped with some troops he
was obliged to surrender at Ratkau on 6 Novem-
ber, but with a clause in the capitulation that
he "accepted it only from want of ammunition,
provisions, and forage." He was soon ex-
changed for the French general Victor, and on
his arrival at Konigsberg was placed at the
head of a corps and sent to Swedish Pomera-
nia to share in the defense of Stralsund and to
assist the efforts of the Swedes. After the Peace
of Tilsit he labored in the department of war at
Konigsberg and Berlin. He then received the
chief military command in Pomerania, but at
the instigation of Napoleon was afterward dis-
missed from the service. In the campaign of
1812, when the Prussians assisted the French,
he took no part ; but no sooner did Prussia rise
against her oppressors than Blucher, already 70
years old, engaged in the cause with all his
former activity. He was appointed commander-
m-chief of the Prussian army and the Russian

corps under Gen. Winzingerode, which at a later
period was separated from him. In 1813 he was
created field-marshal. His heroism in the battle
of Liitzen (2 May 1813) was rewarded by the
Enjperor Alexander with the order of St. George.
The battles of Bautzen and Hanau, those on the
Katzbach (26 Aug. 1819) and Leipsic added to ,
his glory. On the Katzbach Blucher defeated
the army of Marshal Macdonald and delivered
all Silesia. On 3 October Blucher crossed the
Elbe at Wartenburg, and encouraged the Bohe-
mian army under Schwartzenberg, and the north-
ern army under the crown-prince of Sweden, to
act with more spirit. On 16 October he gained
a signal advantage over Marshal Marmont at
Mockern, forcing his way as far as the suburbs
of Leipsic. On the i8th, in connection with the
crown-prince of Sweden, he contributed greatly
to the defeat of the enemy, and on the 19th
his troops made the first assault upon Leipsic.
His promptitude and peculiar manner of attack-
ing had already procured him from the Russians
the name of "Marshal Forward.^^ On i Jan. 1814,
with the Silesian army, which now consisted of
two Prussian, two Russian, one Hessian, and
one mixed corps, he crossed the Rhine at Kaub,
took possession of Nancy on the 17th, gained
(i February), the battle of La Rothiere, and
pushed forward toward Paris. His detached
corps were, however, checked by Napoleon ; yet
Bliicher, though with a great loss, effected his
retreat toward Chalons. He then crossed the
Aisne at Soissons, joined the northern army,
obtained (9 March) a victory over Napoleon
at Laon, and, in connection with Schwartzen-
berg, at the close of the month, pressed forward
to Paris. The day of Montmartre crowned
this campaign, and on 31 March Blucher entered
the capital of France. For this triumph he was
created Prince of Wahlstadt, with a suitable
income. In England, whither he followed the
allied monarchs in June of the same j^ear, he
was received with enthusiasm. The University
of Oxford conferred on him the degree of Doctor
of Laws. He then lived on his estates in Silesia
till 1815, when the chief command was again
committed to him, and he led his army into the
Netherlands. On 15 June Napoleon threw him-
self upon him, and Blucher, on the i6th, was
defeated at Ligny. In this engagement his horse
was killed, and he was thrown under his body.
In the battle of the i8th Blucher arrived at the
most decisive moment upon the ground, and,
taking Napoleon in the rear and flank, assisted
materially in completing the great victory of
Belle Alliance, or Waterloo (q.v.). He refused
the proffered armistice, and forced Paris to
surrender ; opposing with energy, on this second
conquest of the capital, the system of forbear-
ance practised on the former occasion. As he
was already a knight of all the military orders
of Europe, the king of Prussia, to reward his
new services, created the new order of the
Iron Cross expressly for him. After the Peace
of Paris he retired to his estate, where he died.
On the anniversary of the battle on the Katz-
bach, a monument commemorating his glory,
executed by Schadow in Berlin, was erected at
Rostock. On that of Waterloo (18 June 1826)
a bronze statue 12 feet in height, modeled by
Ranch, was erected to his memory in Berlin.
Blucher was not so eminent for military science
as for ability in action. His simplicity, good
nature, and bravery endeared him to his sol-

BLUE — BLUE BOY

•diers, who loved him as a father. His ad-
dresses and proclamations are distinguished for
their brevity, precision, and simplicity. Consult
*Blucher's Life,^ by Varnhagen von Ense (Ber-
lin 1827) ; and Scherr's *Blucher's Life and
Times ^ (Leipsic 1862).

Blue, Victor, American naval officer: b.
North Carolina, 6 Dec. 1865. He graduated at
the naval academy June 1887, and serving
through the grades of ensign and junior lieuten-
ant, was promoted lieutenant 3 March 1899.
At the outbreak of the war with Spain he was
ordered to the gunboat Suwanee, and while on
duty off the Cuban coast captured two Spanish
patrol sloops having on board a heliographic
.signal outfit. On 11 June 1898 he landed at
Aserraderos, passed through the Spanish lines,
proceeded to the hills overlooking Santiago city
and harbor, where he located the Spanish fleet
commanded by Admiral Cervera. On 25 June
he made a further reconnoissance and mapped
the position of the Spanish ships. To accom-
plish these things he traveled a distance of nearly
140 miles, mostly through territory occupied
by the intrenchments of the Spanish army. Ad-
miral Sampson highly commended the manner
in which these tasks had been performed and
recommended that Lieut. Blue be advanced ten
numbers as a promotion. He was placed in
command of the captured gunboat Alvarado,
and on 12 Aug. i8q8 bombarded the fortifica-
tions of Manzanillo. Subsequently he served
in China and the Philippines.

Blue, one of the seven primary colors.
The blue pigments commonly employed by art-
ists are few in number, including native and
artificial ultramarine, cobalt, indigo, and Prus-
sian blue. Genuine ultramarine, prepared from
the inineral lapis lazuli, and ordinary cobalt
blue, sold for artists' work, are permanent colors.
They are used either alone, or mixed with other
pigments, chiefly for skies and distances in
landscape, and by themselves, or to make up
grays and other mixed tints in figure painting.
Owing to the exceptionally high price of real
ultramarine, the artifi.cial color, which is of
■doubtful permanency, is usually substituted for
it. Prussian blue and indigo are highly useful
■colors, since it is only these that yield dark
blues, and only from them, mixed with yellows
■or browns, that strong greens can be obtained.
It is unfortunate accordingly that both are more
or less fugitive. All the blues above named
are used both in oil or water color painting,
but indigo less than the others in oil, since it
is most apt to fade in that medium.

A number of different names are used in
commerce for what is essentially the same pig-
ment, or for pigments closely resembling one
another. The following statement gives some
explanation of these: Cobalt blues are mixtures
of cobalt with earthy or metallic bases, which
have been subjected to the action of heat, and
have received the following names : Cobalt blue,
cerulean blue, royal blue. Dumont's blue, Saxon
blue, Thenard's blue, Leithner's blue, Hun-
gary blue, Zaft're or enamel blue, Vienna blue,
azure blue, and Paris blue. The last name is
also applied to a Prussian blue, and azure is also
given to a variety of ultramarine blue. Smalt is
a powdered cobalt glass used in illumination and
flower painting. Artificial ultramarine is also
called French ultramarine, French blue, new

blue, and permanent blue. Coarse qualities ot
this color are largely used by house painters.
Intense blue is a refined indigo. Prussian blue
(sesqui-ferrocyanide of iron) is otherwise
named Berlin blue, Paris blue, and ferrocyanide
of iron. The name Paris blue is also given to a
cobalt color. Antwerp blue is a variety of Prus-
sian blue made lighter by the addition of an
aluminous base, and not so permanent. Blue
ochre (hydrated phosphate of iron) is a sub-
dued permanent blue, but not much employed.
Blue verditcr is a hydrated oxide of copper
which changes and ultimately blackens by time.
It is used in distemper work and paper staining.
Blue was adopted as their distinctive color by
the Scottish Covenanters in the 17th century and
is the usual color of the uniforms of the sol-
diers of the United States army. A dark shade
of this color is generally worn by the sailors of
most countries, whence the term navy blue is
derived.

Blue Beech. See Hornbe.\m.

Blue Bird, or the North American thrush,
is widely distributed throughout the United
States, where it holds a similar place, in the
hearts of the people, as the redbreast in Eng-
land. In fact, locally, it is sometimes termed
*^blue-robin.'^ It is a smaller bird than the rest
of the thrushes. Its whole upper parts are sky
blue, shot with purple, with its throat, neck,
breast, and sides reddish chestnut, and part
of its wings and its tail feathers black. The
*'soft and agreeable warble" of the bluebird is
one of the first and most welcome sounds of
bird-music, that we hear in the early spring.
The male is remarkably attentive to his more
protectively colored mate, and takes exuberent
pride in their five or six pale-blue eggs, laid
in holes in the trees of gardens, and often also
in bird-boxes, and in the crevices in the walls of
outbuildings. There are often two broods in a
season. The bluebird fights hard to protect his
small, neatly constructed nest from the house-
sparrow, swallows, wrens, and other birds, which
make his life miserable by their intrusion on his
domestic privacy. Several other sorts of birds,
of other countries, prevailingly blue in color,
receive the name "bluebird.** such as the "Orien-
tal fairy-bluebirds'* of the genus Irena, more
particularly Irena puella, one of the East Indian
bulbuls.

Blue Books, the official reports, papers,
and documents printed for the British govern-
ment to be laid before the Houses of Parliament.
They are so called simply from being stitched
up in blue paper wrappers, and include bills
presented to, and acts passed by, the houses ;
reports and papers moved for by members or
granted by government ; reports of committees :
statistics of trade, etc. The term is used also
in a broad way as descriptive of special reports
put forth by the government of any country or
its various executive departments. In the
United States the publi.shed lists of government
employees and the navy regulation manual are
known as Blue Books and the foreign diplomatic
correspondence is commonly issued in Red Books.
French official reports, etc.. are called Yellow
Books : those of Italy are styled Green Books,
and those of Spain Red Books.

Blue Boy, The, a celebrated picture by
Gainsborough, dated 1679; its subject, a boy
dressed in a blue satin i6th century costume.

BLUE-COAT SCHOOL — BLUE LAWS

Blue-coat School. See Christ's Hospital.

Blue Flag. See Iris.

Blue Grass, Kentucky Blue Grass, June
Grass, Meadow Grass, Spear Grass, a species
{Poa pratensis) of the natural order Craminw,
native of the cooler parts of the northern hemi-
sphere. The plant is a perennial with very
numerous rootstocks and long, soft radical
leaves. The more or less leafy stems w^hich
rise from one to two feet are terminated by
a loose, pyramidal panicle three to four inches
long, which readily distinguishes it from its
somewhat larger close relative, Texas bhie
grass {P. arachnifera) , in which the panicle is
contracted and which is further distinguished
by its woolly seeds. Blue grass forms a dense
sod, which is very resistant to the trampling of
stock, upon soils favorable to its growth, and is
ranked as the best pasture and lawn grass
throughout its range in districts and upon soils
adapted to it. It attains its highest develop-
ment upon limestone soils, and where found
growing naturally, is considered to indicate a
superior agricultural soil especially useftil for
stock raising. The Blue Grass region of Ken-
tuck}', which also extends into Tennessee, and
from which the former State derives one of its
popular names, is of limestone formation, and
is noted for its superior, strong-boned, well-
formed stock, especially horses. Upon soils
other than limestone this grass does not produce
so well and upon sandy soils it usually fails.
Blue grass hay is of high quality, but is pro-
duced in too small amount to pay as well as
other hay grasses. The hay cut when the seed
is in the milky stage, has the following com-
position : Nitrogen-free extract, 34.3 ; crude
fibre, 24.5 ; water, 24.3 ; ash, 7.0 ; proteid matter,
6.3 ; fat. 3.6. If the grass be allowed to mature
its seed before being cut it is somewhat less
nutritive because of the change in the relative
proportion of nutrient material to non-digestible
matter. The composition of the fresh grass is
as follows : Water, 65.1 ; nitrogen-free extract,
17.6; crude fibre, 9.1; proteid matter, 4.1; ash,
2.8; fat, 1.3. Texas blue grass (P. arachnifera)
is a valuable species for the Southern States,
where Kentucky blue grass is less resistant to
the effects of drouth. Both species may be
propagated by sowing seed or by setting out
pieces of sod, a method most commonly prac-
tised with the southern species, because of the
difficulty of spreading its woolly seeds evenly.
The method is very popular in lawn-making
with the northern species. Since the seed of
Kentucky blue grass is often of low vitality, and
is frequently mixed with chaff, it should be
sown rather thickly. A permanent blue grass
pasture requires about three years to become
established, after which, without much atten-
tion, beyond ordinary fertilizing, it may remain
profitable for half a centurj'- or more. In long
settled districts there are occasional pastures of
more than 75 years standing.

Blue Grass State, a nickname for Ken-
tucky.

Blue-green Algae. See Cyanophyce;e.

Blue Hen State, a nickname for Delaware.
During the War for Independence, a certain
popular officer of Delaware, named Capt. Cald-
well, asserted that a game cock to be unconquer-
able must be *a blue hen's chicken.'' This name

was at once applied to his regiment and later
to the State and its people.

Blue Island, III, a city of Cook County-
situated on the Calumet River and on the Illi-
nois C, the Chicago, R. I. & P., the Chicago ik
G. T., and the Chicago & C. T. R.R.'s. It forms
a southern suburb of Chicago, about two miles
south of the city limits, and is an important
manufacturing, commercial, and railroad centre.
Among its industries are brick-making, stone-
quarrying, etc. There are also smelting-works,
oil-works, and breweries. It was settled in 1833
and incorporated in 1872. The municipal organ-
ization provides for a mayor with a term of two
years, and a city council. The city operates its
own waterworks and electric light system. Pop.
(1900) 6,114.

Blue Jay. See Jay.

Blue John, a name for fluorspar (q.v.).

Blue Laws, a term sometimes applied to
the early enactments of several of the New Eng-
land colonies, but more frequently limited to
the laws of New Haven Colony. The origin of
the term is not exactly known. Various con-
jectures have been made, but the most probable
derivation is that given by Prof. Kingsle}', who
thinks the epithet "blue" was applied to any one
who immediately after the Restoration of the
Stuart,s looked with disapprobation on the licen-
tiousness of the times. Thus, in Hudibras,

For his religion, it was fit

To match his learning and his wit;

'Twas Presbyterian true hhie.

That this epithet should find its way to the
colonies was a matter of course. It was here
applied not only to persons, but to the customs,
institutions, and laws of the Puritans, by those
who wished to render the prevailing system
ridiculous. Hence, probably, a belief with some
that a distinct system of laws, known as the
blue laws, must somewhere have had a local
habitation. The existence of such a code of
blue laws is fully disproved. The only author-
ity in its favor is Rev. Samuel Peters, whose
'General History of Connecticut' (1781) is a
spiteful, satirical work, full of exaggerations.
The traditions upon this subject, from which
Peters framed his stories, undoubtedly arose
from the fact that the early settlers of New
Haven were uncommonly strict in their applica-
tion of the ^'general rules of righteousness.*
Judge Smith, in his continuation of the history
of New I'ork, published in 'New Yo/k Histori-
cal Collections,' Vol. IV., gives evidence against
the existence of the blue laws, which is particu-
larly valuable, as it was put on record some
15 years before Peters' history was published.
He writes: "Few there are who speak of the
blue laws (a title of the origin of which the
author is ignorant), who do not imagine they
form a code of rules drawn tip for future con-
duct, by an enthusiastic precise set of religion-
ists ; and if the inventions of wits, humorists,
and buffoons were to be credited, they must con-
sist of many large volumes. The author had
the curiosity to resort to them when the com-
missioners met at New Haven for adjusting
a partition line between New York and Massa-
chusetts in 1767; and a parchment covered book
of demi-royal paper was handed him for the
laws asked for, as the only volume in the office
passing under this odd title. It contains the

BLUE LIGHT — BLUE-STOCKING

memorials of the first establishment of the
colony, which consisted of persons who had
wandered be}^ond the limits of the old charter of
Massachusetts Bay, and who, as yet unauthor-
ized by the Crown to set up any civil govern-
ment in due form of law, resolved to conduct
themselves by the Bible. As a necessary con-
sequence, the judges they chose took up an au-
thority which ever}- religious man exercises over
his own children and domestics. Hence their
attention to the morals of the people in instances
with which the civil magistrate can never inter-
meddle in a regular well-policied constitution,
because to preserve liberty they are recogniz-
able only by parental authority." See Trumbull,
<True Blue Laws of Connecticut and New
Haven, and the False Blue Laws Invented by
Rev. Samuel Peters* (1876) ; Prince, 'An Ex-
amination of Peters' Blue Laws,* in Annual
Report of the American Historical Association
for i8q8.

Blue Light. See Bexg.\l Light.

Blue-light Federalists, a term applied to
the party in American politics which opposed
the War of 1812. In 1813 Decatur made several
attempts on dark nights to escape from the
blockaded port of Xew London, Conn. He de-
clared that his failure was due to signals of
blue lights flashed from the shore to warn the
British. This led to the opponents of the war,
who were accused of having shown the lights,
bein^ stigmatized as '*Blue-light Federalists."

Blue Lodges, a secret association of advo-
cates of slavery, organized about 1854, •" Mis-
souri, for the purpose of aiding the work of
establishing slavery in Kansas. The members
of the order, although citizens of Missouri,
crossed into Kansas in 1855 and forcibly de-
posited their ballots for the pro-slavery candi-
date?.

Blue-Mantle, one of the English pursui-
vants at arms, connecced with the Heralds' Col-
lege, so styled from tne color of his robe.

Blue-mass. See Mercury.

Blue Monday, a name formerly given in
Europe to the Monday before Lent, when the
churches were decorated with blue. It was
kept as a holiday by classes whose ordinary
avocation required them to labor on Sundays.
As this led to violent disturbances the custom
was legally abolished. The term now signifies
a Monday of depression, or blue spirits, par-
ticularly among clergymen, but is very loosely
used, and b\' hard-working persons is applied to
Monday in general.

Blue Mountains, (i) a beautiful wooded
range of mountains in Oregon, from 8.000 to
9.000 feet high, which, with the Powder River
Mountains, separate the Columbia River valley
from the Great Basin ; (2) a mountain chain of
New South Wales, part of the great Dividing
Range. The highest peak is Mount Beemarang.
which attains an elevation of 4.100 feet above
sea-level. The range is now traversed by a
railway, which attains a maximum height of
3.404 feet: (3) the Central mountain range of
Jamaica, the main ridges of which rise to 8.000
feet : (4) the second main ridee of the Appa-
lachian?, known also as the Kittatinny Moun-
tains in Pennsvlvania, as the Shawangunks in
New York. This range should not be con-
founded with the Blue Ridge (q.v.).

Blue Nile. See Nile.

Blue Nose, a popular nickname for a
native of Nova Scotia.

Blue Peter, a blue flag having a white
square in the centre, used to signify that the
ship on which it is hoisted is about to sail, and
for recalling boats. The term is a corruption
of Blue repeater, one of the signal flags in the
British code. A flag known as the comet is
used as a sailing signal in the United Stetes in-
stead of the blue peter.

Blue-pill. See Mercury.

Blue Point, N. Y., the southern extrem-
ity of Patchogue Bay, Long Island, which
lends its name to the well-known oysters. Blue
Points.

Blue Print, a positive photographic print
from a transparent negative on paper sensitized
by potassium ferricyanide and citric acid, giv-
ing white lines on blue ground.

Blue, Prussian. See Dves.

Blue-ribbon Army, the name of an Eng-
lish total abstinence society, so called from the
color of the membership badge. The organiza-
tion grew out of the Murphy Movement in
America and dates from 1878. About five years
later the society become known as the Gospel
Temperance Union. See Temperance Societies.

Blue Ridge, the most easterly ridge of the
Alleghany or Appalachian Mountains, which ex-
tends from the Hudson River southwest to
Georgia. It first receives the name of Blue
Ridge when it enters Virginia, the western por-
tion of which it traverses. In south Virginia,
the range becomes a broad plateau, which is at
its widest in North Carolina, and is here crossed
by the Black, Cowee, Nantahala, and South
mountains, extending transversely to the axis
of the Blue Ridge. The highest peaks of the
range occur in the Black Mountain group,
where are found Mount Mitchell or Black
Dome. 6.710 feet ; Guyot"s Peak, Sandoz Knob,
Gibbe's Peak, and a few others over 6.000 feet.
In Virginia the Blue Ridge nowhere rises much
above 4.000 feet, and in Penns\-lvania and New
Jersej- its height is much less. Several large
rivers pierce the ridge, such as the Hudson in
the Highlands, the Delaware at the Water Gap,
and the Potomac at Harper's Ferry. See also
App.\l.\chiax?.

Blue-stone, or Blue-vitriol. See Copper.

Blue-stocking, a pedantic woman; a lady
regarded as too fond of learning. The origin of
this name is thus given by Bcswell in his 'Life
of Johnson*: "About this time (1780) it was
much the fashion for several ladies to have
evening assemblies, where the fair sex might
participate in con'i-ersation with literary and in-
genious men. animated with a desire to please.
These societies were denominated blue-stocking
clubs, the origin of which name was as fol-
lows : One of the most eminent members of
these societies was Mr. Stillingfleet, who
always wore blue stockings. Such was the ex-
cellence of his conversation. _ that his absence
was felt as a great loss, and it used to be said,
<We can do nothing without the blue stock-
ings* : and thus by degrees the title was estab-
lished.** One of the most famous of these clubs
was that which met at Mrs. Montagu's. This
was sometimes honored by the presence of Dr.

BLUE THISTLE — BLUEFIELDS

Johnson, and its principal members have been
sketched and eulogized by Hannah More, in her
poem entitled the ^Bas Bleu.^

Blue Thistle. See Bugloss.

Blue-vitriol, called also Blue-stone, the
salt, sulphate of copper, composed of sulphuric
acid, oxide of copper, and water. It is a natural
product of some mines of copper ores, and is
also largely prepared for economical purposes.
See Copper.

Blueback, the salmon of the Fraser River,
B. C, one of the most valuable of the Pacific
salmon (q.v.). The name is given to various
other fishes having bluish backs.

Bluebeard, a famous hero of legend and
folklore, familiarized to English readers in the
i8th century through a translation from the
French of Charles Perrault, 1697. This tale of
Bluebeard has been regarded by some as partly
historic, of which the original was Gilles de
Laval, Baron de Retz, who was burned at
Nantes in 1440 for his cruelty to children, whom
he is supposed to have enticed into his castle,
where he sacrificed them to the devil. It is,
however, really a marchen, and the leading idea
of curiositj' punished is world-wide. The for-
bidden chamber is a counterpart of the treasure-
house of Ixion, on entering which the intruder
was destroyed, or betrayed by the gold or blood
that clung to him ; also of Pandora's box, as
well as of Proserpine's pyx that Psyche opened
in spite of the prohibition. There are several
parallels among the German fairy-tales col-
lected by Grimm ; and one feature at least is
found in the Kaffir tale of the Ox (Callaway's
•Nursery Tales of the Zulus^). Variants are
found in Russia, and among Gaelic popular
tales; and in the Sanskrit collection *Katha
Sarit Sagara,-* the hero Saktideva breaks the
taboo, and like Bluebeard's wife, is confronted
with the horrible sight of dead women. Possi-
bly in the punishment following the breaking of
the taboo may be a survival of some ancient
religious prohibition ; among the Australians,
Greeks, and Labrador Indians, such an error
n'as regarded as the means by which death
came into the world. Frescoes of the 13th cen-
tury have been found in Morbihan, Brittany,
representing scenes from the similar legend of
St. Trophime. Tales similar to that related by
Perrault are found in Straparola's ^Piacevoli
Notti^ (1569), and in Abbatutis' ^11 Pentame-
rone,' while a not very dissimilar tale is that of
the Third Calendar in the ^Arabian Nights En-
tertainment.^ Operas founded upon it are
Gretry's <Raoul Barbe-Bleu> (1789) ; Offen-
bach's <Barbe-Bleu^ (1866).

Bluebell, Bellflower, Hairbell, or Harebell,
Caiiipaiiula rotiindifolia, a plant of the natural
order Campaiudacccc, native of the colder parts
of the northern hemisphere. Its common name
is suggested by the shape and color of its
flowers, and its specific name from the shape of
its root-leaves. The stem leaves are lanceolate
or otherwise than round. This is the bluebell
of Scotland and of literature. It may be found
peeping through the snow and ice which are
supposed to be melted by the self-generated heat
of these little plants. They have long been
favorites in the hardy flower border and are
of simplest culture. CSee also Campanula.)
The name is also applied to a species of Scilla
(q.v.).

Blueberry. See Huckleberry ; Vaccinium..

Bluebill, one of the most common ot
American fresh-water ducks, which breeds
throughout Alaska and the northern part of
Canada generally, spending the cold months in
the United States, but going only as far south
as is necessary to avoid the freezing of the lakes
and ponds. The head, neck, and fore part of the
body of the drake are black, the head with a
green gloss. The back and sides are whitish
wuth finely waved blackish markings. The ab-
domen and speculum of the wing are white.
In the female the head and anterior parts are
brown, and the face pure white. The most dis-
tinguishing part of the bird is the very broad,
spatulate bill, which is light blue, with a black
nail. Hence the other names *broadbill,'' and
"scaup duck.'^ There are two species, the larger
(Ayfliya mai'ila ncarctica) the one just de-
scribed, which is regarded as a variety of the
European scaup duck; and the lesser (A. af-
finis}, which is very similar to the preceding,,
but smaller, and rather more southerly in its
distribution. These ducks are close relatives of
the canvasback and redhead (qq.v.), and re-
semble them in habits. Other local names for
them are "blackhead" and "shuffler."

Bluebottle, or Corn-flower See Centau-

REA.

Bluebottle Fly, a greenish-blue fly, some-
times called by English authors "green-bottle*
fly (Lucilia cccsar). It closely resembles the
blow-fly (q.v.), but is smaller and entirely blue
or green. These flies hibernate through the
winter, appearing early in spring. Its eggs are
deposited upon meat and decaying animal mat-
ter. The larvse are said to be indistinguishable
from those of the blow-fly. They are white,
footless maggots, of an elongated conical shape,
which transform in the ground. It is said that
bluebottle flies do not commonly enter houses.

Bluebreast. See Bluethroat.

Bluebuck, the name given by English
workmen in South Africa to one of the duikers,
the pigmy antelope {Cephalolophns nwnticola)
of Natal. These tiny creatures, which stand
only 13 inches high, are the smallest of the
antelopes, and grayish-blue in color, with short,
spike-like horns, which hardly show above the
tuft of stiff hairs on the top of their heads.
They swarm in the thickets of southeast Africa,
feeding on herbage berries and buds, scram-
bling about the rocks, and climbing leaning tree
trunks, with amazing agility.

Blue-eye, a small and favorite species of
honey-eater (Entomysa cyanotis) with a con-
spicuous patch of blue about the eyes. It
frequents the eucalyptus trees, and has the
curious habit of depositing its eggs in a neat
depression on the top of the big. oven-shaped
nest of a certain starling, whenever it can find
a deserted one. Otherwise it constructs a nest
for itself. See Honey-eater.

Bluefields (formerly written Blewfields),
a town oi Nicaragua, on the Caribbean coast
and at the mouth of the Escondido or Bluefields
River. Lat. 12° N., Ion. 83° 44' W. It wa?
the capital of Mosquitia (see Centr.\l Amer-
ica) . In the latter part of 1847 the population
was about 600, one sixth white, five sixths_ black.
Slavery was abolished in 1841. The king of
Mosquitia, who resided here in one of the few

BLUEFIN — BLUING

houses built of boards, claimed sovereignty over
a territory 235 miles wide and 340 miles long;
also the districts of Talamanca and Chiriqui in
Costa Rica. A British agent and consul-general
also was stationed at Bluefields, the English
government maintaining a protectorate over the
Mosquito Indians until i860. A German colony
at Carlsruhe, adjoining Bluefields, was founded
in 1844, but abandoned in 1849. The climate
is moist and hotter than in the interior. In
1901 the company to which the Nicaraguan gov-
ernment granted a concession and monthly sub-
vention for the establishment of a line of steam-
ers agreed to make six trips a month between
Bluefields and New Orleans, and to carry the
mails between those points eight times monthly.

Bluefin, or Blackfin, a large cisco-like
whitefish (Argyrosoi)ius nigripinnis) of the
deep waters of Lake Michigan and some other
of the lakes of Wisconsin and Minnesota,
readily known from other species by its black
fins.

Bluefish The bluefish or ^^skipjack^* (Poma-
to))ius saltatrix) is one of the most widely dis-
tributed and abundant of sea-fishes, being found
in the Atlantic from the Mediterranean and
Novia Scotia to Brazil, and in the Pacific and
Indian oceans. It is taken casually at all sea-
sons on the eastern coast of the United States,
but becomes numerous irregularly in summer,
when its presence or absence seems to be gov-
erned largely by the movements of its principal
food, the menhaden (q.v.), when seeking their
inshore spawning-grovmds. The only wonder
is that both have not been exterminated many
centuries ago, for of all the butchers of the
sea the bluefish is the most wolfish and diabol-
ical, snapping its prey in half for a mouthful
and passing on in ruthless industry. It is
beautifully shaped for swimming, built with the
fine lines of the mackerel and the strength of
the salmon. It is a near relative of the pom-
panos and horse-mackerels (family Carangidce),
but is set apart in a family (Poinatoniidcr) by
itself, which Jordan considers an offshoot
toward the percoids. In color it is steel-blue,
and its flesh is very sweet and savory. The
weight varies, five pounds being the common
run, although 20 pounds are recorded.

The favorite method of fishing for it is
"squidding," or casting from a platform built
out into the surf, with a rod and line armed
with a spoon, or a bone-baited hook. Its vo-
racity makes ft a free biter, and its tempera-
ment makes it a fierce one, so that the angler
may expect a fight from the strike to the death,
and only by sheer strength can the prey be
landed. The bluefish is also trolled for from
boats, especially in Florida, and off the south
coast of New England.

On our Pacific coast the ^'California bluefish*
(Cyiwscion parvipinnis) is found from Santa
Barbara to Guaymas and Mazatlan. and is a
near relative of the eastern weakfish (q.v.),
locally called *totuava*^ (Cynoscion macdonal-
di). In the Gulf of California it congregates at
the mouth of the Colorado River and attains
enormous size, having been taken in hand-lines
as high as 170 pounds. Like other species of
this genus, it is erroneously yet frequently called
*<5ea-bass." The bluefish thrives on sardines and
other small fish. Assuming that one bluefish
eats ID small fish a day, it has been figured that
^t requires ten thousand million sardines to feed

the one thousand billion bluefish on our coasts
every summer.

Consult Jordan and Evermann, 'Food and
Game Fishes of America^ (1902) ; Goode, "^ Fish-
ery Industries, Section i^ (loth census, Wash-
ington, 1884) ; Mayer (editor), 'Sport with
Rod and Gun' (1892).

Bluegowns, an order of paupers in Scot-
land, called also the "King's Bedesmen," to
whom the kings annually distributed certain
alms on condition of their praying for the royal
welfare. Their number was equal to the num-
ber of years the king had lived. The alms con-
sisted of a blue gown or cloak, a purse contain-
ing as many shillings Scots (pennies sterling)
as the years of the king's age, and a badge
bearing the words "Pass and repass," which
protected them from all laws against mendicity.
Edie Ochiltree, who figures prominently in
Scott's novel 'The Antiquary,' is a type of the
class, but probably a favorable specimen as com-
pared to those who were to be met with in real
life. The practice of appointing bedesmen was
discontinued in 1833, and the last of them drew
his last allowance from the exchequer in Edin-
burgh in 1863.

Bluethroat, an Old World bird (Cyanccula
siiccica) related to the European robin, and
deriving its name from its bright blue throat,
which is separated from the white below it by
crescent-shaped bands of rust-red and white.
It is one of the most highly migratory birds
known, spending its winters in tropical Africa
and India, and during the summer breeding in
Scandinavia, northern Russia, Siberia, and west-
ern Alaska. It makes its nest in bushes and
weeds along streams, as far north as 71 degrees.
It is extraordinary in never beeing seen in the
intermediate countries, between its summer and
winter homes, so that it stands to reason that
the journey is made at a single flight, either
at night, or at an invisible altitude. The blue-
throat is celebrated for its fine singing, and
powers of mimicry when in its summer home,
on account of which the Laplanders call it "the
bird of the hundred voices." Consult Gatke,
'Birds of Heligoland' (English translation
1895) ; and works on European, Siberian, and
Alaskan ornithology.

Bluewing, a duck. See Te.vl.

Bluffs, a term of American origin, synony-
mous with cliffs. It has long been used to
designate the high cliffs met with along the
Mississippi River ; particularly those abrupt
banks of loam on its eastern side below the
mouth of the Ohio. These are continually
washed and undermined by the action of the
river, while the opposite side, rising more gently
back from the river, is but slightly washed
by its waters. On the south shore of Lake
Superior, near the Pictured Rocks, is a most
remarkable bluff of loose, blowing sand, which
rises so steeply from the edge of the water
to the height of 200 feet, that one would in vain
endeavor to ascend it. The waves and the
winds beat against it from the north, and keep
its materials continually in motion ; but more
sand appears to be always supplied to replace
that which is borne away.

Bluing, a compound dissolved in water to
whiten clothes after washing. The indigo prep-
aration once largely used has been extensively
superseded by Prussian blue.

BLUING OF METALS — BLUMENTHAL

Bluing of Metals, the process of giving a
blue color to metallic substances by heat. Iron,
when heated, becomes first of a light, then of
a darker gold color, and finally blue. Steel
heated to redness and suddenly cooled, is ren-
dered hard and brittle. It is restored to any
degree of softness, by heating it up to certain
temperatures and allowing it to cool slowly.
These temperatures are precisely indicated by the
color of the film of oxide which forms upon its
surface. At 430° F. it is straw yellow of the
very hard temper suitable for lancets. At higher
temperatures it appears successively a golden
yellow, then brown, purple, blue, and finally
green. Pale blue at 550° is the temper for
swords and watch springs. The common shade
of blue, at 560°, is the temper for fine saws and
dirks. Deep blue, at 600°, is the soft quality of
steel for large saws.

Blum, bliih, Ernest, French dramatist: b.
Paris, 15 Aug. 1836. Either alone or in col-
laboration with other dramatists he is the au-
thor of many highly successful plays. The
drama of 'Rose MicheP (1877), of his own
composition, insured his place among the most
successful French dramatists of the time.
Among his later compositions are "^Adam and
Eve^ (1886): 'The Nervous Woman^ (1888);
'End of the Century^ (1890); 'La rieuse^
(1894); 'Le Carillon* (1897).

Blum, Hans, hants bloom, German publi-
cist: b. Leipsic, 1841. He is a son of Robert
Blum (q.v. ), was educated in the universities
of Leipsic and Bern, sat in the North German
Reichstag 1867-70, and was a barrister in Leip-
sic 1869-97. He has written extensively on
contemporary politics and among his works are
*Die Liigen unserer Socialdemokratie' (1891) ;
'Fiirst Bismarck und seine Zeit' (1894-5) ;
'Das erste Vierteljahrhundert des deutschen
Reichs* (1896 J ; 'Personliche Erinnerungen an
den Fiirsten Bismarck' (1900). He has also
written two dramas and several novels.

Blum, bloom, Robert, German patriot: b.
•Cologne, 10 Nov. 1807: d. Vienna, 9 Nov. 1848.
He served for a short time in the army, and be-
came subsequently connected with the Leipsic
Theatre, of which he acted for some time as
secretary and treasurer. Abotit the year 1840 he
began to come prominently forward as the
champion of the Liberal cause, and acquired
much renown as a popular orator. On the out-
break of the commotions of 1848 he manifested
great enthusiasm, and became soon the rallying-
point of democracy in Saxony, and the leading
member of opposition in the National Assembly
at Frankfort, to which he was sent that year
as member for Leipsic. The events of October
at Vienna inspired him with fresh energy, and
be proceeded thither at the head of a deputation
10 express the sympathy of the German demo-
crats in the Frankfort Assembly with the Vien-
nese. _ He took an active part in the conflict of
the citizens with the imperialists; but on the
surrender of the capital to Windischgratz, was
arrested with several of his companions on 4
November. Brought before a military tribunal,
be pleaded in vain his privileges as a deputy
-from the German diet, and was condemned to be
hanged, a sentence which was changed to death
by the bullet.

Blum, blum, Robert Frederick, American
artist: b. Cincinnati, O., July 1857; d. 1903.

He studied at the Philadelphia Academy of Fine
Arts, and among his works are 'Venetian Bead
Stringers,* which received a prize of $2,500 at
the American Art Association exhibition in New
York in 1889. Although he worked in oils he
was best known as a water-colorist and painter
in pastels. He ranked among the most bril-
liant of American water-color artists.

Blumenbach, Johann Friedrich, yo'han
fred'riH bloo'men-baH, German naturalist of
distinction: b. Gotha, 11 May 1752; d. Gottin-
gen, 22 Jan. 1840. He studied at Jena and
Gottingen, and was appointed in the latter, in
1776, extraordinary professor of medicine and
inspector of the museum of natural history, and
in 1778 ordinary professor. In 1812 he was ap-
pointed secretary to the Royal Society of
Sciences at Gottingen, in 1816 became physician
to the king of Great Britain and Hanover, in
1821 was made a knight-commander of the Guel-
phic Order, and in 1831 was elected a member of
the Academy of Sciences at Paris. In 1825 the
jubilee of his graduation as doctor was cele-
brated. On this occasion a medal was struck,
and an endowment founded under the name of
the Blumenbach Stipendium or Bursary, to as-
sist talented young physicians and naturalists,
and enable them to make scientific travels. In
1835 he retired from public life. The first work
which brought him into notice was the 'De
Generis Humani Varietate Nativa,* and from
its publication in 1775 he continued almost for
60 years to exert a powerful influence on the
progress of science, both by the number of
distinguished pupils who were indebted for their
first training to his admirable lectures, and by
his valuable writings, partly inserted in the
'Transactions^ of scientific societies, and partly
published as separate works. Among the latter,
in addition to the thesis, which received im-
portant additions in subsequent editions, and
may be said to have given a direction to the
most important studies of his after life, are the
'Institutiones Physiologicae-* (1787), long a text-
book in many of the most celebrated schools of
Europe; the 'Handbuch der vergleichenden
Anatomic-* (Handbook of Comparative Anat-
omy), and 'Collectio Craniorum Diversarum
Gentium.* The last work gives descriptions and
figures of his collection of skulls, one of the
most extensive in existence, and still preserved
at Gottingen. In regard to the important sub-
ject of which it treats. Blumenbach held de-
cidedly that the human race formed only one
species, and had originally descended from a
single pair ; but he divided it into the five
varieties of Caucasian, Mongolian, Negro.
American, and Malay.

Blumenreich, Franziska, frantsTs-ka bloo'-
men-rlH, German novelist: b. Bohemia, 2
April 1849. Among her very numerous novels
the more notable are ^At the Abyss of Mar-
riage> (1888); 'Freighted with Bliss> (1890);
< Storms in Port* (1802). She is a zealous ad-
vocate of woman's rights.

Blumenthal, Jacob von, ya'kob fon bloo'-
men-tal, German pianist and composer: b.
Hamburg, 4 Oct. 1829. Going to London jn
1849, he became pianist to Queen Victoria,
taught music, and was soon well known as a
composer of popular pianoforte numbers and
equally popular songs such as 'My Queen' ;
<The Venetian Boat Song* ; <The Broken

BLUMENTHAL — BLUNT

Flower^ ; <The Bend in the River.^ The famil-
iar hymn tune, <Blumenthal,> is an adaptation
of his composition, <The Two Angels.^

Blumenthal, Oskar, os'kar bloo'men-tal,
German dramatist and critic: b. Berlin, 13
March 1852. Sprightliness of dialogue is the
most distinguishing character of his plays ; the
most successful of them are *The Big BelP ;
<A Drop of Poison' ; <The Black Veil.> He
has published several volumes of critical an"d
miscellaneous essays.

Blundell, (Mrs.) Francis (M. E. Francis),
English novelist : b. Dublin. She is the widow
of Francis N. Blundell and has lived for many
years in Lancashire, but more recently in Dor-
setshire. Her writings, which have steadily in-
creased in popularity, both in England and the
United States, are: ^Whither?' (1892); *In a
Nort^ Country Village* (1893) ; ^The Song of
Dan* (1894) ; ^Town Mice in the Country, a
Story for Children* (1894) ; ^A Daughter of
the Soil* (1895) ; "^Frieze and Fustian* (1896) ;
* Among the Untrodden Ways (1896) ; ^Maime
o' the Corner* (1897) ; <Miss Erin* (1898) ;
^The Duenna of a Genius* (1898) ; * Yeoman
Fleetwood* (1899); < Pastorals of Dorset*;
^Fiander's Widow* (1901) ; ^ North. South, and
Over the Sea* ; ^The Manor Farm* (1902).

Blundell's School, a famous English free
grammar school in Tiverton, Devonshire,
founded in 1604 by Peter Blundell, who left his
fortune to charities, the school being the most
important of his benevolences. In connection
with it five Balliol College scholarships were
founded and many persons who afterward be-
came eminent went to Balliol College, Oxford,
from Tiverton School. The school is men-
tioned in the novel ^Lorna Doone* as the
scene of John Ridd's early education. In 1880
new buildings in the Tudor style were built for
vhe school in the outskirts of the town. The
late archbishop of Canterbury, Frederick Tem-
ple, was a student at Blundell's School.

Blunderbuss, a short, heavy, large-bored
firearm, often brass-barrelled, and bell- or trum-
pet-mouthed. It was used to discharge a hea\'y
load of slugs or small bullets at a short range,
and was once generally employed as a weapon
for the defense of houses against burglars. As
a military weapon, it was used occasionally on
shipboard for repelling boarders, or pouring
heavy volleys into boats, when attempting to cut
vessels out from anchorage. It is now wholly
disused. See Small Arms.

Blunt, Edmund March, American author:
b. Portsmouth, N. H., 20 June 1770; d. Sing
Sing, N. Y., 2 Jan. 1862. He is remembered
for his publication of the ^American Coast
Pilot* (1796), describing all the coasts of the
United States, and containing a vast amount
of invaluable information for seamen. More
than 30 editions of this work have been pub-
lished, and it is still in use in the United States
and the principal European countries, having
been translated into nearly every foreign lan-
guage. He also compiled a number of nautical
books and charts.

Blunt, George William, American hydrog-
rapher: b. Newburyport. Mass., n March
1802; d. New York, 19 April 1878; a son of
Edmund March Blunt (q.v.). He went to sea
when 14 years old and served as a sailor till

Vol. 2—48.

nearly 21 ; and in 1822-66 was a publisher of
charts and nautical books in New York. He
made original surveys of many American har-
bors ; was one of the committee that organized
the present system of pilotage for New York ;
made several revisions of the ^American Coast
Pilot* ; and was influential in causing the Fed-
eral government to adopt the French system of
lighthouses and to organize the Lighthouse
Board.

Blunt, James G., American soldier: b.
Trenton, Maine, 1826; d. Washington, D. C,
1881. He settled as a physician in Anderson
County, Kansas, in 1856; became prominent in
the contest over the introduction of slavery into
that State, and was a member of the convention
that framed its constitution. Entering the army
as lieutenant-colonel of the 3d Kansas Volun-
teers, he became brigadier-general, 8 April 1862,
and was assigned to the command of the mili-
tary department of Kansas. As such he was
engaged in the battle of old Fort Wayne, de-
feated Marmaduke at Cane Hill, Ark., and,
with the aid of Gen. Herron, defeated Hind-
man at Prairie Grove, and thus checked the
Confederate advance into Missouri. He was
promoted major-general, 29 Nov. 1862, and in
October 1864 gave the final blow to Price's in-
vasion of Missouri.

Blunt, John Elijah, English consular
agent : b. 14 Oct. 1832. He entered the English
consular service in 1850, and held various con-
sular posts in Turkey, receiving in 1862 and
again in 1868 the thanks of the President of the
United States for his services to American citi-
zens in the province of Adrianople. Since 1899
he has been consul at Boston, Mass., with the
rank of consul-general.

Blunt, John Henry, English High Church
theologian: b. London, 25 Aug. 1823; d. there,
II April 1884. He held various curacies, and in
1873 was appointed to the living of Beverston,
Gloucestershire. He wrote much, among his
chief works being: 'Dictionary of Doctrinal and
Historical Theology* (1870); 'Dictionary of
Sects, Heresies, etc.* (1874); 'History of the
English Reformation* (1868-82) ; 'Household
Theology* (1865) ; 'Annotated Book of Com-
mon Prayer* (1866; revised and enlarged,
1884).

Blunt, John James, English divine: b.
Newcastle-under-Lyme. 1794: d. Cambridge, 18
June 1855. From 1839 he was Lady Margaret
professor of divinity at Cambridge. His works
include: 'Sketch of the Reformation in Eng-
land* (1832) ; 'Undesigned Coincidences in the
Old and New Testament, an Argument for their
Veracity* (1847): 'On the Right Use of the
Early Fathers* (1857) ; 'History of the Church
During the First Three Centuries* (1856) ; sev-
eral volumes of sermons ; etc.

Blunt, Stanhope English, American mili-
tary officer : b. Boston, Mass., 29 Sept. 1850. He
was graduated at the United States Military
Academy and commissioned 2d lieutenant in
1872; rose through the ranks to major in the
ordnance department ; served at various posts
and arsenals in the West; was a member of
several boards, including that which selected
the Krag-Jorgensen rifle for use in the army;
and had command of the Rock Island Arsenal,

BLUNT — BOA

fW. He has written < Firing Regulations for
Small Arms/ and numerous papers on the use
of small arms.

Blunt, Wilfrid Scawen, English poet and
traveler: b. Crabbet Park, Sussex, 17 Aug.
1840. He was attache of legation at The Hague,
Athens, Madrid, Buenos Ayres, and elsewhere;
supported Arabi Pasha in the revolt in Egypt
in 1881 ; and was imprisoned in 1888 for his
insurrectionary actions in Ireland. He is author
of: "^Sonnets and Songs by Proteus' (London
1875) ; *The Love Sonnets of Proteus' (1881) ;
<The Future of Islam' (1882) ; <The Wind and
the Whirlwind,' political poems (1884) ; ^ Ideas
About India' (1885); <In Vinculis' (1889); ^A
New Pilgrimage' (1889) ; ^Esther: a Young
Man's Tragedy' (1892) ; ^Stealing of the Marc'
(1892) ; ^Griselda' (1893) ; ^Satan Absolved'
(1899).

Blunthead, a columbrine snake of Java and
the East Indies {Amblycephalus monticola). It
is about three feet in length, and purple in
ground color, but this is almost entirely con-
cealed by the brown markings and mottlings,
and the cheeks and lip-plates are carnation-red.
It is perfectly harmless, and is welcomed by
the natives to their houses as a vermin-destroyer.
It owes its name to the squarish form of the
head, which, as in many other species of the
family, looks so much like that of a poisonous
snake as to deceive most observers.

Bluntschli, Johann Kasper, yd'han kas'par

blimt'shle, Swiss jurist and statesman : b. Zurich,
7 March'1808; d. Carlsruhe, 21 Oct. 1881. Hebe-
came professor in the newly founded university
in that city in 1833 ; took an active part in the
political struggles that divided his country, and
at first inclined to the party of reform, until the
events of 1839 induced him to join the Con-
servatives, of whom he was, for a time, a leader.
He was a councilor of state, and became a
member of the government and of the Federal
Directory, and afterward worked for the forma-
tion of a moderate Liberal Conservative Party
in Switzerland. In 1848 he went to Munich as
professor of civil and international law. There
he published his ^Allgemeines Staatsrecht'
(5th ed. 1876), on which his reputation as a
jurisconsult chiefly rests; 'Deutsches Privat-
recht' (3d ed. 1864) ; and, in conjunction with
Arndts and Pozl, ^Kritische Ueberschau der
Deutschen Gesetzgebung und Rechtswissen-
schaft (6 vols. 1853-8). In 1861 he removed to
Heidelberg University, and became a privy coun-
cilor of Baden, actively forwarding all Liberal
measures in the state. Liberty in ecclesiastical
matters he had equally at heart ; he acted several
times as president of the Protestantenverein,
and it was after delivering a closing speech at
the general synod of Baden that he died sud-
denly at Carlsruhe. He was the author of valu-
able histories of Zurich and of the Swiss Con-
federation, and of a number of works on law,
being especially an authority in international law.
His library is now possessed by the Johns Hop-
kins University at Baltimore.

Blushing, a sudden reddening of the face,
caused by a rush of blood into the capillary ves-
sels of the skin. A blush is excited by con-
fusion of mind, arising from surprise or diffi-
dence, modesty or shame, or conscious guilt
and apprehension, showing the influence of the

passions and emotions on the nervous system
and the circulation of the blood. Sudden fear
and apprehension cause the blood to rush from
the external surface to the internal organs, leav-
ing the bloodless lips quite pale, and the whole
face suifused with deathly pallor. It is a kind
of inverse blushing; the one being a sudden
flash of color in the face, the other a sudden
flash of paleness.

Bliithgen, August Eduard Viktor, ow'-
goost ed'oo-ard vik'tor bliit'-gen, Gennan
novelist : b. Zorbig, near Halle, 4 Jan. 1844. He
has won high distinction as a writer for the
young. Among his stories for boys and girls
are: ^The Rogues' Looking Glass' (1876) ;
<The Battle of Frogs and Mice' (1878) ; and
with these is to be classed the letter-press
(verses) of O. Pletsch's *^ Picture Books.' Of
novels and romances he is author of a great
many; for example, 'The Peace Breaker'
(1883); 'The Step-Sister' (1887); 'Madame
the (Countess' (1892) ; etc.

Blyden, Edward Wilmot, a negro author:
b. St. Thomas, W. I., 3 Aug. 1832. After vainly
seeking, in 1845, admission to some college in
the United States, he went to Liberia, and grad-
uated at the Alexander High School, of which
he afterward was principal. In 1880 he became
president of Liberia College, has held impor-
tant government positions, and was commis-
sioner to the Presbyterian General Assembly
of the United States in 1861 and 1880. He is
proficient in many languages, including Latin,.
Greek, Spanish, Hebrew, and Arabic. He has
published: 'Liberia's Offering' (1873); 'From
West Africa to Palestine' (1873) > 'The Negro
in Ancient History' ; etc.

Blythe, Herbert. See Barrymore, Maurice.

B'nai B'rith, b'ni b'reth, Independent
Order of the, an association of German Jews
formed in the United States in 1843. Its pur-
pose is the moral improvement of the mem-
bers. Its organization resembles that of the
Free Masons, but it is not a secret society, and
has no elaborate ceremonial. The organization
has since been established in Germany, and in
the East. In 1901 it had over 400 lodges and
28,000 members.

Bo-tree, the sacred fig of India. See

Peepul.

Boa, a serpent of that section of the fam-
ily BoidcE called Boince. The boas are mostly
of great size, and inhabitants of the forests of
tropical America ; and, with the pythons, consti-
tute a family of the largest of modern snakes,
which are noted for their power to enfold and
fatally crush their prey in muscular coils. These
serpents are notable not only for great size, but
for certain structural peculiarities, of which the
most noteworthy and characteristic is the fact
that vestiges remain of the pelvis and hinder
limbs, which appear externally as claw-like
spurs on each side of the vent, which are of
service in hanging from trees. The muscular
power is very great, the tail is partly prehen-
sile ; and the bones of the head, and especially
of the jaws, are more than ordinarily loosely
joined together (see Serpent), so that bodies
surprisingly large may be swallowed. This fam-
ily is distributed throughout all tropical re-
gions, and is divided into two sub-families, by
diversities of structure. One (Pythonince) con-

BOAS.

I. Boa Constrictor.

2. Dog-Headed Boa (Xiphosoma Caninum).

BOABDIL — BOADICEA

tains the Old World pythons (q.v.), which have
a pair of supraorbital bones, some teeth on the
premaxilla, and the sub-caudal scales in two
rows ; while the boas lack supraorbital bones,
never have premaxillary teeth and but a single
row of scales on the under side of the tail.
Most of 'the 40 or 50 species of Boince are
American, but several small species inhabit the
warmer parts of the Old World. Several of the
American boas are very large snakes, perhaps
occasionally reaching 30 feet in length, though
few carefully measured have exceeded 20 feet ;
but such a one would weigh several hundred
pounds, and be a very formidable foe to the
largest animals exposed to their attacks. They
inhabit the forests, and climb to the lower
.branches of the trees, where they seek or await
their prey, usually above a path. There the ser-
pent swings about in the air till some luckless
animal approaches ; then, suddenly relinquish-
ing its position, he seizes the victim, and coils
his body spirally round its throat and chest,
till, after a few ineffectual cries and struggles,
the animal is suffocated, and expires. In pro-
ducing this effect, the serpent does not merely
wind itself around its prey, but places fold
over fold, as if desirous of adding as much
weight as possible to the muscular effort ; these
folds are then gradually tightened with enor-
mous force, and speedily induce death. The
animals thus destroyed by the larger boas are
sometimes as large as tapirs, deer, and even bul-
locks, but ordinarily the much smaller mam-
mals and birds of the forest, while one species
feeds mainly upon aquatic prey. Having crushed
and rolled its prey until its bones are broken into
pieces, and it is compacted into the form of a
sausage, it takes it into its mouth, and at first
by the help of the strong recurved teeth on its
jaw bones, and later by reflex movements of
its throat and ribs slowly engulfs it, the action
being facilitated by a copious flow of saliya;
but there is no truth in the reputed preparation
of the prey by a covering of slime, etc., related
in so many books. The process of digestion is
slow, and while it is proceeding, the snake is
inert, and easily caught and killed.

Several of the larger species are well known
and often seen in menageries, where they are
easily distinguished by the shape of the head and
by the well-defined pattern of the markings.
These are exceedingly handsome in most cases,
the colors being yellow, buff, chestnut, and vary-
ing browns, set off by black and white ; and the
skins, whicn may be tanned into good leather
with the scales on, are of high commercial value
for making purses, belts, and other ornamental
articles. Among the best known species are the
common boa — the Boa constrictor proper (for
that term is ignorantly given to all), which is
one of the lesser forms, rarely exceeding 10 feet
in length. Its home is the region of the Ama-
zon and Orinoco rivers, and it is pale brown,
with a chain-like series of dark-brown mark-
ings on each side of the spine, enclosing large
oblong-oval spots, and a series of large dark
spots along the sides, each with a light centre;
on the tail the markings become brick-red. Sev-
eral other species of this genus, some much
larger, inhabit South and Central America. One,
the imperial boa, has a Mexican variety, often
called the abonia, which is believed to be the
serpent venerated by the ancient Mexicans, and
worshipped with bloody sacrifices. Two species of

true boas also inhabit Madagascar. Of a clostly
related genus is the great water-boa, or ana-
conda (Eunectes nuerinus) , which adds to the
arboreal habits of the others the custom of
crawling into the rivers and swamps of the
half-flooded forests, where it lives, and there
lying in wait for animals that come down to
drink, or seizing those of semi-aquatic life. This
is the largest, most formidable, and one of the
handsomest of the tribe. Many species are of
smaller size, down to only three feet in length,
but all have similar habits. One genus (Licli-
anura) has a few species that dwell in the
West Indies and Mexico, and are occasionally
taken in Arizona and southern California ; and
small boas of this or an allied sort are fre-
quently brought into the United States from
Cuba, tightly coiled about bunches of bananas.
They are harmless, of course, unless of a great
size, having no poison sacs or fangs, and all the
larger ones are susceptible of taming, and seem
to acquire a positive regard for their human
friends.

Boabdil, bo-ab-del', or Abu-Abdullah,

a'boo-abd-ool'ah, last Moorish king of Gra-
nada. He gained the throne in 1481 by expelling
his father, Mulei Hassan ; but being attacked
by Ferdinand of Aragon, was defeated and
taken prisoner. His father having resumed his
crown, Ferdinand set Boabdil at liberty, and
promised to assist him against his father, on con-
dition of his agreement to become the vassal of
Spain. He accepted the ignominious condition,
and his father died of a broken heart. Boabdil
was not permitted to reign in peace. By his
tyranny he provoked the hostility of his own
subjects, and Ferdinand, taking advantage of
the dissensions which prevailed, laid siege to
Granada. The Moors made a valiant defense,
and were prepared to bury themselves under
the ruins of the city, but Boabdil capitulated,
and retired to a domain of the Alpuj arras
asigned him by the victor (1491). When on
his way he turned round to take a last look of
the city, and burst into tears. "Right, my son."
exclaimed his mother, Aixa, who was standing
by him, *^weep like a woman for the throne
which you had not the spirit to defend as a
man and a king.'* The spot is still called "El
Ultimo Sospiro del Moro" (the last sigh of the
Moor). (See Granad.\.) Boabdil soon after-
ward passed into Africa, and fell in battle
while assisting the king of Fez in an attempt to
dethrone the king of Morocco.

Boadice'a, queen of the Iceni, a British
tribe, inhabiting what are now the counties of
Cambridgeshire. Suffolk. Norfolk, and Hert-
fordshire. She died about 62 .\.d. The cele-
brated earthworks still extant, known as the
Devil's ditch, at Newmarket heath, and at Six-
I\Iile bottom, are supposed to be the fortifica-
tions of this tribe, and perhaps of this queen,
against the Romans. She was a contemporary
of Nero, and was a woman of remarkable
character, both for firmness and ability. Her
husband, the king of the Iceni. Prasutagus,
dying, left Nero and his own two daughters
joint heirs to his great wealth, hoping thereby
to preserve his family and kingdom from the
rapacity of the conquerors. But immediately
on his death his kingdom was taken possession
of by the Roman centurions. For some real or
imaginary offen.se, the British queen was pvb-

BOANERGES — BOAS

licly scourged by the executioner, and her
daughters were abandoned to the lust of the
slaves. Stung to frenzy by this outrage, taking
advantage of the absence of Suetonius Paulinus,
the Roman governor, from that part of Eng-
land, Boadicea raised the whole military force
of her barbarians, and bursting upon the
Roman colony of London, reduced the city to
ashes, and put to the sword in that and neigh-
boring places, — of Roman citizens, traders,
Italians, and other subjects of the empire, — at
least 70,000 individuals. Suetonius lost not a
moment in hurrying to the scene of action,
although it was well known that the queen of
the Iceni was in command of 120,000 men,
which gradually increased to 230,000, according
to Dion Cassius, while he could bring into the
field in all less than 10,000 soldiers. It is true
that absolute credit cannot be given to state-
ments of prodigious numbers, such as the
above, but at all events the disparity of force
was extraordinary. The legion, posted on
heights, where its flanks and rear were covered
by woods, seems to have received the attack
passively, sheltered from the missiles of the
Britons by their large, oblong bucklers, until,
when the darts and arrows of the barbarians
began to fail, by one compact charge they car-
ried all before them. They spared nothing;
women, children, the beasts of burden, the dogs,
were all cut to pieces. It is said that 80,000
Britons were butchered that day, while of the
legionaries only 400 fell, and about as many
more were wounded. It is believed that the
action took place not far from St. Albans, Veru-
lamium, a Roman colony, which at the first
irruption had shared the fate of London. The
queen, seeing that her cause was lost, committed
suicide, rather than submit to the conqueror.
Beaumont and Fletcher's play, <^ Boadicea,^ is
founded upon the resistance made by Boadicea
against Suetonius.

Boanerges, bo-a-ner'jez, an appellation
given by Christ to two of his disciples, the
brothers James and John, apparently, on account
of their fiery zeal. See Mark iii. 17.

Boar, Wild, a ferocious, swift-footed
species {Sus scrofa) of wild swine, made
dangerous by its extreme courage and superior
strength. It is found in marshy forest-grounds
of Europe, Asia Minor, and North Africa.
The boar is much larger than the domesticated
swine ; and covered with short, grayish-black,
woolly hair, thickly interspersed with stifl:
bristles, assuming the form of a crest along the
spine. The great tusks of the lower jaw are
formidable weapons in youth, but later becom-
ing useless by curving over the snout, when the
teeth of the upper jaw which protrude and curve
out take their place as weapons. The boar seeks
its food at night and feeds on roots, grain, and
small animals, birds' eggs, etc. Besides this
species, several others exist, notable among which
are Sus vittatiis of Asia and Africa, Sus ver-
rucosus of Java, and the Celebes and Sus bar-
batus of Borneo. Boars were common in Eng-
land until the time of Henry II., when they
seemed to disappear for the time being, re-
appearing again in the reign of Charles I.
Formerly the sport of hunting this animal with
the aid of great dogs (boarhounds), was the
favorite amusement of the nobles of France
and Germany, but is now rarely followed except

in a few estates in eastern Europe, where the
animal is preserved for the purpose. In India,
however, the chase of the wild boars of that
country, usually called "pig-sticking,^^ is still
foremost among the field-sports of the Anglo-
Indians.

Board, the collective name applied to a
number of persons having the management,
direction, or superintendence of some public
or private office or trust ; often an office under
the control of an executive government, the
business of which is conducted by officers
specially appointed, as board of admiralty, board
of trade, etc.

Boardman, George Dana, American mis-
sionary: b. Livermore, Me., 8 Feb. 1801 ; d. 11
Feb. 183 1. He studied at Andover and was
ordained in the Baptist Church. In 1825 he
went to India, and in 1827 to Burma, where he
labored assiduously in spreading Christianity.
The mission planted by him became the central
point of all Baptist missions in Burma.

Boardman, George Dana, American cler-
gyman and author : b. Tavoy, British Burma,
18 Aug. 1828; d. Atlantic City, N. J., 28
April 1903 ; son of the American Baptist
missionary of the same name. He was educated
in the United States, graduating at Brown Uni-
versity in 1852, and at Newton Theological In-
stitution in 1855. He was pastor at Barnwell,
S. C. ; afterward at Rochester, N. Y., till 1864,
when he became pastor of the First Baptist
Church in Philadelphia. In 1899 he established
a lectureship at the University of Pennsylvania,
known as the ^^Boardman Foundation in Chris-
tian Ethics.'' Besides sermons and essays, his
chief works are : '■ Studies in the Creative Week'
(1878) ; < Studies in the Model Prayer' (1879) :
^Epiphanies of the Risen Lord^ (1879) ; ^Stud-
ies in the Mountain Instruction' (1880) ; ^The
Kingdom' (1899) ; <The Church^ (1901) ; 'The
Golden Rule' (1901).

Boardman, Richard, English missionary:
b. 1738; d. Cork, Ireland, 4 Oct. 1782. He be-
came a member of Wesley's conference in 1763,
and volunteered for service in America in 1769.
He preached in New York and through the
Middle States till 1774, a.- J "^len, returning to
England, continued his itinerant ministry. He
is known as one of the founders of Methodism
in the United States.

Boarfish, a fish of the family Caproidce.
found off the southern coast of Europe. The
body is small, oval, compressed, and carmine in
color, with seven transverse orange bands on
the back, and has a long, hog-like snout.

Boarhound. See Hound.

Boar's Head, The, a tavern in Eastcheap,
London, destroyed in the great fire of 1666 ; its
site is now occupied by a statue of William IV.
The inn figures in Shakespeare's 'Henry IV.*
and 'Henry V.* as the resort of Falstaff and
his boon companions.

Boas, Franz, frants bd'as, German-Ameri-
can ethnologist: b. Minden. Westphalia, 9 July
1858. He studied at Heidelberg, Bonn, and Kiel
universities, 1877-82; traveled in the Arctic re-
gions, 1883-4; was assistant in the Royal
Ethnographical Museum in Berlin, and privat
docent in geography at the University in 1885-6 ;
and teacher of anthropclcvgy in Clark Universitj',

BOAT — BOBADILLA

Worcester, Mass., in 1888-92. In 1901 he be-
came curator of the American Museum of
Natural History. He has spent much time
among various American Indian tribes, and,
among other works, has published * Baffin
Land> (1885) ; "The Central Eskimo," in the
^Annual Report^ of the United States Bureau
of Ethnology (1888); 'Indians of British Co-
lumbia^ (1888-92) ; etc.

Boat, properly a small vessel propelled by
oars or poles. Boats are made of iron, copper.
India-rubber, gutta-percha, skins, and of all
kinds of wood. Wooden boats are usually built
either smooth or lap-streak, that is, where the
upper plank laps over the next lower. Boats
differ much in shape and size, depending on the
use to which they are to be put. Launch is the
largest boat carried by a man-of-war. Long
boat, used by merchant vessels for conveying
heavy burdens ; this name is given to the largest
boat, without regard to size. Cutter, shorter
and lighter than the launch, and much faster.
Jolly boat, smaller than the cutter, and not so
fast, used for going on shore, usually rowed
with four oars. Gig, a fast-rowing boat nearly
the size of the cutter, employed both in the mer-
chant service and navy. Barge, in the English
navy, about the 'size of the cutter. This name
is given to the large boats used on occasions of
state. On the Mississippi it means a scow, flat-
bottomed, and of very light draught. Some-
times also applied to the large 8- and lo-oared
race boats. Pinnace, smaller than the barge,
used for conveying light articles. In the Eng-
lish navy the pinnace launch is next in size to
the launch. Paddle-box boat, so called from
the place where they are stowed, commonly
built like a whale boat, and smaller than the
cutter. Whale boat, a sharp, light boat, very
wide amidships, bow and stern alike, rowed
W'ith six oars. All surf boats are whale-boat
model, or modifications of it. Dory, light, flat-
bottomed, very sharp, with sloping sides, froni
15 to 20 feet long, used very extensively in
the fisheries. Wherrj^ in the United States, a
dory ; in England, a race boat for one rower,
and from 15 to 30 feet long. Skiff, a little
boat for crossing rivers, or going on shore from
a vessel. Cobble, a small fishing boat, flat-
bottomed. Punt, a flat-bottomed, decked boat,
of very light draught, used chiefly by gunners.
Shallop, small ship's boat ; term not now used.
Scow, a broad flat-bottomed boat, with square
bow and stern, for conveying heavy weights,
propelled by poles or sweeps, from 30 to 50 feet
long, and 12 to 18 feet wide. Canal boat,
a broad shallow boat, like the scow, except
in having a keel and a rather sharper bow, used
only on canals. Flats, flat boats, arks, etc., boats
resembling scows, save in being decked. They
are still to be found on the Mississippi and its
tributaries, and are used for bringing all kinds
of produce down the river. Bateaux, boats
smaller than the scow, and used in the same
way. Gondola, in the United States, a scow;
properly, a very sharp, fast boat, sculled with
one oar. Moses, large flats, used in the West
Indies for taking molasses hogsheads from
shore to ship. Felucca, a large boat with lateen
sails, decked, and rowing from 10 to 16 banks
of oars. Life-boats, boats used in storms for
saving life. (See Life-eoat.) Dingy, a
wooden life-boat, carried by a man-of-war, has

wooden air-chambers at each end, and is about
18 feet in length. Waist boats and quarter
boats take their name from the part of the ves-
sel where they are kept, and are somewhat
smaller than the cutter. Race boats differ very
much in shape from any of those before named.
Having only speed in view, they are built as
light, narrow, and sharp as possible. They are
rowed with from 2 to 12 oars, and are from 15
to 70 feet in length, and generally not more
than eight inches above water. The two-oared
boats are called shells, sculls, or wherries; the
larger ones sometimes barges.

Boatbill, a South American heron (Cjh-
croma cochlearia), having a remarkable bill,
suggesting in its broad, inflated shape an up-
turned boat, the keel of which is represented by
the ridge of the culmen. The bird is about the
size of a night-heron, but with shorter legs. Its
general color is reddish-gray, with black and
white markings. The back of the head and neck
are covered with elongated, erectile feathers.
A naked gular pouch hangs beneath the lower
jaw. It feeds upon worms, crabs, and other
small aquatic animals caught in muddy shal-
lows. Another species {Cancroma zelendom)
inhabits Central America.

Boat-fly {Notonecta glatica), an aquatic
hemipterous insect which swims on its back ;
the hind-legs aptly enough resembling oars, the
body representing a boat ; hence the name. It
frequents stagnant waters, swimming rapidly on
the surface, but diving below whenever the
water is disturbed. In color it is gray and
black, with greenish elytra and white wings.
The small insects which constitute its food are
devoured in very large numbers. The female
visually deposits the eggs on the stems and
leaves of aquatic plants.

Boatswain Bird, or Marlin-spike, either of
two species of a sea-wandering bird, so called
because of the long, pointed feathers in its tail,
which resemble a marlin-spike. the boatswain's
badge of office. One is the skua-gull (Stereo-
rariiis parasiticus), and the other a tropic bird
(q.v.).

Bo'az, a wealthy Bethlehemite, who took
upon himself the duty of providing for Ruth,
as the near relation of her dead husband,
Elimelech. From him Jesus Christ was directly
descended.

Bob-white. See Quail.

Bo'bac, a European and Central Asian
gregarious marmot (Aretomys bobac), re-
sembling the American woodchuck in habits and
appearance, but smaller.

Bobadilla, Francisco de, fran thes'ko de
bo-ba-del'ya. Spanish soldier: d. 29 June
1502. In the year 1500 he was selected as a
commissioner to enquire into the condition of
the new Spanish colony of Hispaniola, and
especially into the complaints which had been
made against the administration of Columbus
(q.v.). He was entrusted with unlimited pow-
ers, which he immediately exercised by arresting
Columbus, putting him in chains, and sending
him to Spain. He next abolished the regula-
tions which had been enacted by Columbus, and
indulged the colonists in all the excesses of
power, and, above all, in boundless oppression
of the natives. The unexpected outrage upon
the most noted man of the time excited general

BOBBIN — BOCAUE

indignation in Spain, and was regarded as a
national dishonor. Orders were accordingly sent
fcr the recall of Bobadilla, and when Columbus,
now reinstated in his honors and emoluments,
made his fourth landing in Hispaniola, the fleet
bearing Bobadilla and other enemies of Colum-
bus started for Spain. A fearful tropical hurri-
cane wrecked the ships, and Bobadilla perished.

Bobbin, a reel or other similar contrivance
for holding thread. It is often a cylindrical
piece of wood with a head, on which thread is
wound for making lace ; or a spool with a head
at one or both ends, intended to have thread
or yarn wound on it, and used in spinning
machinery (when it is slipped on a spindle and
revolves therewith) and in sewing-machines
(applied within the shuttle).

Bobbinet, a lace, with a hexagonal eyelet,
manufactured by machinery, in imitation of the
lace made on a pillow.

Bob'bio, Italy, a small town in the prov-
ince of Pavia, the seat of a bishop, with an old
cathedral, and formerly a celebrated abbey
founded by St. Columbanus, in the library of
which was a famous collection of manuscripts
now divided between the Vatican and the Am-
brosian Library at Milan. The population of
the commune is about 5,000.

Boboli (b5'b6-le) Gardens, the grounds of
the Pitti Palace at Florence, planned in 1550 by
Eleanora of Toledo. They contain many fine
statues and the Isoletto fountain, designed by
Jean de Bologne.

Bobolina, bo-bo-le'na, a heroic Greek
woman ; d. 1825. Her husband was put to
death at Constantinople in 1812 by order of the
Sultan, and Bobolina vowed revenge. At the
beginning of 1821 she fanned the flames of
insurrection among the Greek population in
Turkey, equipped at her own expense three
ships, herself taking command of one bearing
her flag, as admiral, and giving the others to
competent captains, while her two sons fought
against the Turks on land. In September 1821
she attended the siege of Tripolitza, to meet the
Peloponnesian leaders there assembled. She
put her ships at the disposal of the government
and maintained the blockade of Nauplia for 14
months, until the Turks were forced to capitu-
late. She then proceeded, with a small Greek
fleet, which was entrusted to her charge, to
the coasts of Morea, and during the siege of
Monemvasia, when one of her nephews lost his
life, she did not even waste one hour upon him,
but quietly drawing a cloak over his body,
avenged his death by continuing to bombard the
city. After the war she lived with her brothers
at Spezzia. In 1825 her house was attacked by
the friends of a young lady who was supposed
to have been dishonored by some member of
her family, and she was killed by a rifle shot
fired by one of the assailants.

Bob'olink, an oriole of the family Icteridce,
found in plains, prairie-lands, meadows, and
cultivated fields throughout the entire United
States, except on the Pacific coast. The male
is 7.7 inches long, its tail taking up fully half
of its length. It is distinguished from the black-
birds and other orioles by its pointed tail-feath-
ers, long middle toe, and variegated plumage.
The male has two distinct sets of plumage, a
summer or breeding dress, and a winter one.

The former dress is lustrous black, with the
neck, scapulars, rump, and upper tail coverts
buff, inclining to ochraceous on the neck, and
ashy on the tail ; the latter is similar to that of
the female, who is protectively clothed in much-
streaked yellowish-brown neutral tints; the
young of both sexes also resemble her, until
the young males reach maturity. The gay sum-
mer dress of the male, especially the black part,
is due to the black margins upon the feathers
that come in with the spring renewal of plum-
age. These edges wear away, and thus, as the
season advances, the brownish centres of the
feathers are gradually revealed. The song of
the male is a varying melody, an incessant out-
pour of ecstatic music, in which one detects
distinctly enunciated the word "bob-o-link.*^ Its
excited manners are as peculiar as its song,
which often bubbles out of its beak as it flutters
and dances in mid-air. As the summer advances
and the plumage changes, the song diminishes,
and finally ceases altogether.

Their nests consist of grasses neatly and
skilfully entwined, and ingeniously hidden
among the stems and leaves of plants, and are
guarded carefully and most jealously by the
male, whose exuberant pride in the four or five
dull-white, flecked, and marbled eggs is remark-
able. The bobolink goes in summer as far north
as the banks of the Saskatchewan, but is most
plentiful in the northeastern States, where it ren-
ders good service by the destruction of insects
and their larvae. It begins to migrate southward
in August, and assembles in huge flocks in early
autumn in the great wild-rice marshes that bor-
der Delaware and Chesapeake bays and their
rivets, where they fatten on the wild rice, and
are shot in vast numbers for market, under the
name of ^'reedbird." Later in the season these
birds advance southward and assail the culti-
vated rice plantations, where they are known
as rice-birds and would ruin the crops, partly
by eating, but mainly by breaking the stalks and
shaking out the grain, were they not constantly
killed or scared away by thousands, by men and
boys who are employed to shoot them. On their
return from the tropics in the spring they also
attack the young plants. In consequence of this
necessary persecution in the rice fields the species
has been seriously diminished of late years, and
bobolinks are becoming rare in many parts of
the United States and Ontario. On account also
of their beauty and powers of song, many are
caught, caged, and sold in the bird-stores.

Bobruisk, bo-broo'esk, Russia, a fortified
town in the government of Minsk, on the right
bank of the navigable Beresina, at its junction
with the Bobruisk, 108 miles southeast of Minsk,
with which it is connected by rail. By steam
navigation it is connected with stations on the
Dnieper and the Beresina. The chief exports
consist of timber and grain. The place was
fortified by Alexander I., and the defenses were
extended by Nicholas I., who raised it to the
position of a fortress of the first rank. In 1902
an extensive conflagration nearly destroyed the
town. Pop. (1902) 26,000.

Bobs, a nickname given by English sol-
diers to Gen. Lord Roberts (q.v.).

Bocaue, bo-kow-a, Philippines, a town in
the province of Bulacan, Luzon, situated a few
miles east of Manila Bay, near the city of Bula-
can, and near the railroad line.

BOCCACCINO — BOCCACCIO

Boccaccino, Boccaccio, bok-kacho bok-kii-
che'no, Italian painter: b. Cremona, 1460; d.
1518. Few details of his life are known. He
came under the influence of Mantegna, and in
his school in Cremona numbered Benvenuto
Garofalo among his pupils. In 1497 he painted
a series of frescoes in St. Agostino in his native
city, but he is better known by his frieze in the
cathedral. This represents the birth of the
Virgin and various incidents in her life. Among
his paintings are: 'Marriage of St. Catharine,^
in the Venice Academy; 'Virgin and Two
Saints,' in San Quirilo, Cremona, and a 'Holy
Farnily,' in the Louvre, Paris. He committed
suicide.

Boccaccio, Giovanni, j6-van'ne bok-kach'o,
Italian novelist: b. 1313, in Paris or Florence;
d. Certaldo, 21 Dec. 1375. His family was
originally of Certaldo, but his father being en-
gaged in commerce, removed to Florence, where
he amassed wealth, and filled several important
public offices. Very early in life Giovanni dis-
played a remarkable aptitude for learning, and
before he was seven years old, composed verses
with perfect facility. He was placed under
the care of an eminent master, Giovanni da
Strada, but his father having determined on
a commercial career for his son, removed him
from his tutor before his Latin course was
completed, and as soon as he had acquired a
sufficient knowledge of arithmetic appren-
ticed him to a merchant, with whom he re-
mained six years. His master finding that
he profited nothing, although he made in his
company several commercial journeys, finally
in despair sent him back to his father, and
was accustomed to regard him as a very nar-
row-minded youth. His father discovering
that his son would never make a merchant,
thought that his studious habits might serve
him in the legal profession. But the law
proved as distasteful as commerce, and the
father, finding that the law had little attrac-
tion for Giovanni, forced him to return to
commerce, and fix his residence in Naples.
The king, Robert of Anjou, a friend and
patron of Petrarch, was greatly devoted to
literature, and thus drew to his court the
most eminent scholars of Italy. Boccaccio
was well acquainted with Giovanni Barrili,
a man of erudition, and Paolo of Perugia, the
king's librarian, and excited by their example
and encouragement, he entirely abandoned
commerce and gave himself up to the pursuit
of learning. His father gave his consent only
on the condition that he should study the
canon law, and although against his disposi-
tion, he applied himself to it for some time,
took his doctor's degree, and after that found
himself more at liberty to indulge his pas-
sion for poetry, while at the same time he
devoted himself to the higher branches of
philosophy, astrology, then a favorite study,
and to the fathers of the Church. He re-
mained eight years in Naples, and during his
stay there was filled with desire of distinction
by the visit of Petrarch on his way to Rome,
where he had been decreed the honor of the
laurel crown. Boccaccio marked with de-
light the splendid reception given to Petrarch,
his examination of three days, his noble ora-
tion, and the applause which followed, but
was far more pleased in after years to make
the acquaintance of the illustrious poet, with

whom he formed a life friendship. Boccaccio
was naturally fond of gay company, and
fell in love with the princess Alary, illegiti-
mate daughter of King Robert, and half-
sister of the celebrated Joanna of Naples.
She was married to a Neapolitan gentleman,
but at once ardently returned Boccaccio's
love and became his avowed mistress. At
her instance, he composed his romance of
'II Filocopo,' and 'L'Amorosa Fiammetta,'
in the latter of which his lady, under the
name of Fiammetta, bewails the loss of Pam-
philo, supposed to represent himself. The
^Filocopo* is not skilfully constructed, and
is filled with spectres and visions of every
kind, and the powers of darkness are sum-
moned before the reader to account for its
scenes and incidents. Yet it contains pas-
sages of that wondrous grace and vivacity
afterward so signally displayed in the 'Deca-
merone,' and touches of human nature in
which the whole character is pictured in a
single sentence. While thus employed at
Naples he was suddenly summoned to Flor-
ence by the illness of his father. His separa-
tion from the princess Mary appears to have
afifected both lovers with violent sorrow, and
it was only by the composition of the ro-
iTiance of 'Ameto' that he could console
himself during his absence. His father's re-
covery and marriage set him again at liberty
to return to the favors of his adored princess.
He was not only happy from his connection
with the princess Alary, but possessed the
favor of Acciajuoli, who had great power
in Naples, and even the regard of Queen
Joanna herself. It is asserted on respectable
authority that many of the most licentious
passages in the 'Decamerone' were written
in conformity with the taste and by the com-
mand of the queen. His father died in 1350,
leaving a son by his wife Bice dei Bosticchi,
who was also dead, to the care of Boccaccio.
The poet faithfully attended to his trust, and
becoming acquainted with Petrarch, the lat-
ter's example and influence began very
shortly to act upon the mind of his younger
friend, who from the date of their friendship
commenced to turn his thoughts more from
licentious pleasures to purer fame. Being
now permanently settled in Florence, Boc-
caccio, by Petrarch's advice, began to take
some interest in the affairs of state. His mo-
tives were appreciated, however, and he was
sent on an embassy to Padua, to invite
Petrarch to accept the presidency of the uni-
versity. Several other missions followed,
and in April 1353, he took part in one to
Pope Innocent VI., the papal court then
residing at Avignon. In the same year was
published his 'Decameron' or '10 Days'
Entertainment,' one of the most extraor-
dinary works of genius ever written, and
which after the lapse of five centuries is still
regarded as one of the purest specimens of
Italian prose, as an inexhaustible repository
of wit, beauty, and eloquence, although un-
happily deformed with licentious descrip-
tions. While occupied with these popular
compositions, Boccaccio did not lose sight of
higher pursuits in literature. Like Petrarch
he was a devoted collector of ancient manu-
scripts, and a diligent student of the classics.
On one occasion Boccaccio visited Monte

BOCCAGE

Cassino, within whose monastery he knew
many works had been collected, which had
escaped the ravages of the barbarians, but
fonnd, to his amazement, that they were suf-
fered to rot in a damp loft exposed to the
weather, and that frequently when the monks
were in want of money, they took some of
the manuscripts, obliterated the writing, re-
placed it by copying on the parchment some
part of the ritual, and then sold the new pro-
ductions among the people of the neighbor-
hood. To such collectors as Petrarch and
Boccaccio, and to the latter pre-eminently, the
world owes a debt of gratitude for the rescue
of many of the great classic works which
otherwise would have been irretrievably lost.
In 1359 the author of the Decameron visited
Petrarch at Milan, conversed with him, as he
informs us, at great length on the subjects of
morality and religion, and determined to de-
vote himself more seriously to holy studies.
This resolve received additional stimulus in
1362 from a singular circumstance. A monk
from the Carthusian monastery at Sienna
came to visit him, saying that he was charged
with a message to him from Father Petroni,
who on his death-bed, although he had never
seen Boccaccio, declared that he knew him in
spirit, and commissioned the inonk to exhort
him to repentance. In order to prove the
truth of his words, the monk told Boccaccio
of a circumstance in his life which the poet
thought known only to himself. So great
was the effect of this warning, that he deter-
mined to abandon poetry, sell his library,
and lead a life of penance and meditation.
With this view he wrote to Petrarch, sup-
posing that his sudden purpose would meet
with kindred enthusiasm, but his friend an-
swered in a strong, common-sense letter,
instructing him to receive the warning to re-
pentance, but informing him that there was
no necessity for selling his books or aban-
doning his studies. Boccaccio accordingly
wrote in a strain altogether free from his
former one, while he assumed the ecclesiasti-
cal habit, and applied himself to theology.
With disinterested generosity a large part
of his means was dissipated in the collection
of Greek manuscripts, his emissaries visiting
many parts of Europe to procure them. His
fortune was thus gradually impaired, and
toward the decline of life he found himself
poor and deserted by all his friends, except
the noble-minded and constant Petrarch.
That great poet wished his friend to take
up his abode with him, but Boccaccio prefer-
red independence, and declined the offer, al-
though he visited Petrarch whenever he
found an opportunity. In 1363 he was in-
vited to Naples by the grand seneschal Ac-
ciajuoli, but was so hurt by his cold recep-
tion, that he soon left and went to Venice
to meet Petrarch. On returning to Florence
he found its turbulent state of society in lit-
tle accordance with his wish of retirement,
and took up his abode in a little cottage in
Certaldo, in the vale of Elsa, dear to him as
the birthplace of his family. From this re-
treat he was soon summoned by the chief
citizens of Florence, to undertake an em-
bassy to Urban V. at Avignon, and repair-
ing to the papal court he experienced the
most flattering reception. He was again sent

to Urban in 1367, after the pontiff had re-
moved to Rome, when the character of Boc-
caccio had so completely changed from his
former looseness, that he was characterized
by the bishop of Florence as one in whose
purity of faith he had the utmost confidence.
He was now honored by the Florentine
magistrates with a professorship founded in
memory of Dante, for the better explication
of the 'Divina Commedia.' His lectures
commenced in October 1373, and continued
until his death, which was doubtless hastened
by the demise of Petrarch 10 months before
his own. In eloquent language he bewailed
his loss. Boccaccio wrote numerous works
in Italian and Latin, and both in prose and
poetry, few of which are referred to at the
present day; his great fame rests upon the
Decameron. In these hundred tales of love,
displaying the most wondrous fertility of
invention, the reader is perpetually delighted
with the beauty of the narrative and the
variety of the scenes, whether of intrigue,
wit, or pathos — no two stories, nor even
their introductions, resembling each other.
The author's fondness for involving friars in
every imaginable scene of mischief and
ludicrous mishap, created great scandal to
the Church, and his famous romance, the
tenth novel of the sixth day, in which "Friar
Onion promises some country people to
show them a feather from the wing of the
angel Gabriel, instead of which he finds only
some coals, which he tells them are the same
that roasted St. Lawrence,'^ drew^ down the
solemn anatheina of the council of Trent.
The editions of the Decameron are almost
innumerable, and translations exist in all the
languages of Europe. The earliest editions
are extremely rare, and of that of Valdarfer
in 1471, only one copy is known. Boccaccio's
poem, 41 Teseide* is written in the ottava
rinia, of which he is usually considered as
the inventor, and is the first Italian poem
which presents a specimen of the epopee.
Chaucer borrowed from this poem his
^Knight's Tale,^^ and Shakespeare a part of
his < Midsummer Night's Dream. ^ The great
English dramatist has also, in some measure,
availed himself of Boccaccio's Decameron,
as in ^Cymbeline-* and ^ All's Well that Ends
Well.^ With all his faults, we may consider
Boccaccio one of the great revivers of learn-
ing and a benefactor to mankind, as well as
worthy of the third place in that great
triumvirate with Dante and Petrarch, ^^which
renders the 14th century so splendid an
epoch in the history of literature.* See
Cochin, ^Boccaccio, etudes italiennes' (1890),
Symonds, ^Giovanni Boccaccio as Man and
Author> (1895).

Boccage, Marie Anne Piquet du, ma-re an
fe-ka dii bok-kazh (Le Page) French poetess:
b. Rouen, 22 Nov. 1710; d. there, 8 Aug. 1802.
She was educated in Paris, in a nunnery, where
she discovered a love of poetry. Her first pub-
lished work, a poem on the mutual influence of
the fine arts and sciences, appeared in 1746, and
gained the prize from the Academy of Rouen.
She next attempted an imitation of * Paradise
Lost,^ in six cantos; then of the ^Death of
AbeP ; next, a tragedy, ^The Amazons^ ; and a
poem in 10 cantos, called *The Columbiad.*

BOCCANERA — BOCHART

Madame du Boccage was praised by her con-
temporaries with an extravagance for which
only her sex and the charms of her person can
account. Forma Venus, arte Minerva, was the
motto of her admirers, among whom wer€ Vol-
taire, Fontenelle, and Clairaut. There is a great
deal of entertaining matter in the letters which
she wrote on her travels in England and Hol-
land. She was a member of the academies of
Rome, Bologna, Padua, Lyons, and Rouen.
Many of her works have been translated into
English, Spanish, German, and Italian.

Boccanera, Simone, se-mo'na bok-ka-na'-
ra, first doge of Genoa: d. 1363. He was
born of an illustrious noble family, but early
took part with the democratic party and gained
great popularity by undertaking the defense of
the people against the nobles. During a com-
motion caused by the severity with which Philip
of Valois had punished a mutiny on board some
Genoese galleys in the service of France, the
people wished to appoint Boccanera their abbe,
an office which appears to have been similar to
that of the tribunes at Rome. Boccanera de-
clined to accept, on the ground that his noble
birth would not allow him to become a plebeian
magistrate. The excuse only made the people
more determined to place him at their head and
as he would not be abbe they by acclamation
hailed him doge. The office, thus introduced
into Genoa for the first time in 1339, was exer-
cised by Boccanera till 1344, when the ascen-
dency of a faction opposed to him obliged him
to aiadicate and retire to Pisa. He afterward
regained the office in 1356, and had held it for
seven years, when his enemies succeeded in de-
stroying him by poison.

Boccherini, Luigi, loo-e'je bok-ka-re'ne,
Italian composer of instrumental music : b. Luc-
ca, 14 Jan. 1740; d. Madrid, 28 May 1805. He
received his first instruction in music and on the
violoncello from his father and the Abbe Va-
nned, music-master of the archbishop. He fur-
ther improved himself in the art at Rome, and
afterward went, with Filippo Manfredi, his
friend and countryman, to Spain, where he met
with but indifferent patronage, and latterly suf-
fered greatly from indigence. Previous to 1797
the king of Prussia, Frederick William II., who
was a great lover of the violoncello and admired
Boccherini's compositions, had paid him a pen-
sion on condition of his sending him yearly some
of his quartets and quintets. The compositions
which Boccherini published himself consist of
symphonies, sestets, quintets, quartets, trios,
duets, and sonatas for the violin, violoncello,
and pianoforte. He never composed anything
for the theatre; and of church compositions we
find but one, his <Stabat Mater. ^ The adagios
of Boccherini excited the admiration of the con-
noisseurs and the despair of the composers of
his time. He may be regarded as a sort of
minor Haydn, and he was the first who wrote
instrumental quartets, of which all the parts
are obbligafo, and determined the true character
of this species of music. His melodies are more
highly esteemed in England, France, and Spain
than in Germany.

Bocchetta, bok-ket'ta, Italy, a pass of the
Apennines, leading from Lombardy to Genoa,
and traversed by the road from Novi. In the
Austrian war of succession (1746-7), and in the

French wars toward the end of the i8th century,
it was the scene of several important events.

Bocconia, or Plume Poppy, a genus of
four or five species of plants of the natural
order Papaveracece. F. cordata, a native of
Japan and China, is the only species of special
merit. It is a hardy perennial herb with large
leaves similar to those of bloodroot, and small
usually pinkish apetalous flowers borne in large
terminal panicles rising like spires from four to
eight feet above the dense foliage. Where known,
it is a favorite in borders and shrubberies and is
also largely used upon lawns for its remarkable
appearance. It is very much sought by bees,
and should prove a valuable bee-forage, since
it will thrive almost anywhere. It is readily
propagated by seeds, divisions of the root, and
by suckers. If set in rich soil the plants will
attain the greatest size and attractiveness.

Bochart, bo-shar, Samuel, French divine:
b. Rouen, 1599; d. Caen, lO May 1667. He was
son of a Protestant minister descended from an
illustrious family, and gave proof of precocious
talents by composing, at the age of 14, a Greek
poem in praise of his master, Thomas Dempster,
who was so much pleased with it that he pub-
lished it at the head of his work on Roman
antiquities. He afterward studied philosophy
and theology at Sedan, visited England and
Leyden, and, returning to France about 1628,
became Protestant minister of Caen, a post
which he held till his death. Shortly after, a
Jesuit of the name of Veron, who had been
specially trained to controversy, and had re-
ceived a diploma entitling him to travel the
country and debate the points of difference be-
tween the Protestant and Roman Catholic
churches, challenged Bochart to a discussion.
It took place in 1629, in the castle of Caen, in
presence of the Due de Longueville, governor
of Normandy, and a large assemblage of nobility
and gentry, and had continued for 11 days,
when Veron, without waiting to bring it to a
close, judged it prudent to take his departure.
The debate was published by Bochart under the
title of *Actes de la Conference Tenue a Caen.^
His next work, entitled 'Geographia Sacra seu
Phaleg et Chanaan.^ added so much to his repu-
tation that Christina, queen of Sweden, sent
him a letter in her own hand, inviting him to
Sweden. He accepted the invitation, and had
for his traveling companion the celebrated
Huetius, afterward Bishop of Avranches, and
author of an excellent work on the Christian
evidences, entitled <Demonstratio Evangelica.'
On his return to Caen in 1653 he learned that
an academy had been founded there in his ab-
sence. He immediately joined it, and was after-
ward one of its most distinguished members.
Bochart's next great work is entitled 'Hiero-
zoicon, or an Account of the Animals men-
tioned in Scripture.' It was scarcely completed
when its distinguished author, while addressing
the academicians of Caen, was struck with apo-
plexy and died almost instantaneously. His
health had previously given way under grief
for the loss of a daughter, his only child. Be-
sides the works above mentioned, he wrote sev-
eral others, among which is a ^Letter to Dr.
Morley.' written, it is said, at the request of
King Charles II.. and discussing three impor-
tant questions — De Presbyteratu et Episcopatu;
De Provooatione a Judiciis Ecclesiasticis ; Dfe

BOCHNIA — BODENSTEDT

Jure et Potestate Regum. Bochart's principal
works are still standards on the subjects of
which they treat.

Bochnia, boH'ne-a, Austria, a town in the
government of Lemberg, Galicia, near the Raba,
25 miles east-southeast of Cracow. It is toler-
ably well built, with several churches, a gym-
nasium, a grammar and other schools, and a
board for the regulation of mines and saltworks.
The salt mines here employ 500 persons, and
yield 15,000 tons per annum. Pop. about 9,000.

Bochum, boH'oom, Prussia, a town in the
government of Arnsberg, province of West-
phalia, five miles east-northeast of Essen and
between 20 and 30 miles northeast of Diissel-
dorf. It is on the railway from Dortmund to
Duisburg, and has manufactories of iron, steel,
hardware, carpets, tobacco, etc. Pop. (1895)
65,980.

Bock, Jerome, German botanist, better
known under his Latin name of Cragus : b.
Heidesbach, 1498; d. Harnbach, 1554. He was
a schoolmaster, and then a physician. Bock
may be considered as one of the founders of
modern botany ; he was the first who endeav-
ored to form a natural botanical arrangement.
He is the author of a Herbal of German
Plants.

Bock, Karl Ernst, German anatomist : b.
Leipsic, 1809; d. 1874. He studied at the Uni-
versity of Leipsic and at the outbreak of the
Polish revolution he went to Warsaw, where he
acted as hospital physician, first in the Polish
service and later in the Russian. On his return
home he was elected extraordinary professor in
the University of Leipsic. His works attained
popularity and have been translated. His title
to fame rests chiefly on his ^Handbook of
Human Anatomy.^

Bock Beer, a strong beer, the first drawn
from the vats in the spring, when the winter's
brew of lager beer is broached. See Beer;
Brewing.

Bocklin, berk-lin, Arnold, German painter:
b. Basel, 16 Oct. 1827; d. 1901. He studied at
the Diisseldorf Academy and also at Brussels,
Paris, and in Italy, devoting himself mostly to
landscape painting. A contract to decorate the
dining-hall of a villa summoned him to Han-
over; in 1856 he went to Munich, where Count
Schack became his patron. In 1858 he became
teacher in the art school at Weimar; in 1866-71
he was in Basel ; in 1871 he returned to Munich
and lived also in Zurich and Florence. He is
in the first rank of landscape painters, showing
a real poetic power and wealth of coloring, yet
his most poetical conceptions in landscape
painting are often marred by the figures intro-
duced. Among his most notable paintings are
^ Venus Reposing^ ; ^Pan in the Rushes^ ; * Cas-
tle by the Sea Surprised by Corsairs' ; ^Villa by
the Sea' ; and ^The Isle of the Blessed.'

Bocland, Bockland, or Book-land, one of

the original English modes of tenure of manor-
land which was held by a short and simple deed
imder certain rents and free services. This
species of tenure has given rise to the modern
freeholds.

Bocskay, boch'ko-e, Stephen, Hungarian
national leader: b. 1556; d. 1606. In 1604, when
the Emperor Rudolf II. attempted to suppress

Protestantism in Hungary, a rebellion broke out,
and Bocskay joined the malcontents and became
their leader. He was well supported by the
people, drove back the emperor's troops, and
was made Prince of Transylvania. In 1606 he
concluded the Peace of Vienna with the em-
peror, and this secured religious freedom to
Hungary for a long time.

Bode, Johann Ehlert, yo'han a'lert bd'da,
German astronomer: b. Hamburg, 19 Jan. 1747;
d. 23 Nov. 1826. He gave the first public proof
of his knowledge by a short work on the solar
eclipse of 5 Aug. 1766. The approbation which
this received encouraged him to greater labors,
and in 1768 appeared his ^Introduction to the
Knowledge of the Starry Heavens' (9tli ed.
1822). In 1772 the Berlin Academy chose him
their astronomer, and 10 years afterward he was
made a member of that institution. His best
works are his ^Astronomical Almanac' (com-
mencing 1774), — a work indispensable to every
astronomer, — and his large ^Celestial Atlas'
in 20 sheets, in which the industrious editor has
given a catalogue of 17,240 stars (12,000 more
than in any former charts). In 1825 he was re-
leased, at his own wish, from his duties in the
Academy of Science and the observatory in
Berlin. His place was filled by Professor Encke.
His empirical law as to the distance of the
planets is well known. See Bode's Law.

Bode's Law, an empirical law formu-
lated by the German astronomer Bode (q.v.)
to give the arithmetical relation subsisting be-
tween the distances of the planets from the
sun. It may be thus stated : Write, in the first
instance, a row of fours, and vmder these place
a geometrical series beginning with 3, and in-
creasing by the ratio of 2, putting the 3 under
the second 4 ; and by addition we have the series
4, 7, 10, etc., which gives nearly the relative
distances of the planets from the sun.

4
24

4
96

4
192

384

4 7 10 16 28 $2 100 196 388

Thus, if 10 be taken as the distance of the
earth from the sun, 4 will give that of Mercury,
7 that of Venus, and so forth. The actual
relative distances are as follows, making 10 the
distance of the earth :

n!
W

a
3

3-9

7.2

15.2

27.4

52.9

95-4

192

300

Close as is the correspondence between the law
and the actual distances, no physical reason has
been given to account for it, although there is
little room for doubt that such exists. Kepler
was the first to perceive the law, and Bode
argued from it that a planet might be found
between Mars and Jupiter, to fill up the gap
that existed at the time in the series. The dis-
covery of the planetoids has proved the correct-
ness of this prediction.

Bodenstedt, Friedrich Martin von, fre'driH
mar-ten fon bo'dcn-stet, German poet and
miscellaneous writer: b. 1819; d. 1892. He stud-
ied at Gottingen, Munich, and Berlin, and be-
came tutor to the young Prince Gallitzin at
Moscow. Having obtained an educational ap-
pointment at Tiflis he published a work on the
peoples of the Caucasus (1848), and *^A Thou-

BODIE — BODLEY

sand and One Days in the East* (1849-50),
■which were very successful. In 1854 he was
appointed professor of Slavic at Munich, and
in 1858 was tranferred to the chair of Old Eng-
lish. He subsequently was theatrical director
at Meiningen, and traveled and delivered lec-
tures in the United States. Among the best of
his poetical works are the * Songs of Mirza-
Schaffy,^ purporting to be translations from
the Persian, but really original, which have
passed through more than 150 editions. He pub-
lished translations from Marlowe, Ford, Web-
ster, and other contemporaries of Shakespeare,
translated Shakespeare's ^Sonnets,* and with
■other writers joined in a new translation of
Shakespeare's dramatic works (1866-72, 9 vols.).

Bodie, or Body's Island, an island of sand
between the Atlantic Ocean and Albemarle and
Roanoke sounds. The sand shifts often, and
inlets from the ocean appear and disappear.
There is a lighthouse with a first-class light on
the island.

Bodieron, bo-di-e'ron, a fish {Hexagram-
mus lagoccphalus) of Puget Sound, similar to
the rock-trout (q.v.), but having greenish-
colored flesh.

Bodin, Jean, zhon bo-dan, French political
writer: b. Angers, 1529 or 1530; d. Laon, 1596.
He studied law at Toulouse ; delivered lectures
■on jurisprudence there, and afterward went to
Paris and practised. Being unsuccessful in his
profession, he turned his talents to literary
labors; was invited by Henry HI. to his court;
and afterward traveled with the king's brother,
Francis, Duke of AlenQon and Anjou, to Flan-
•ders and England, where he had the gratification
•of hearing lectures in Cambridge on his work,
*De la Republique,^ originally written in French,
but afterward translated by Bodin himself into
Latin. He died of the plague.

Bodkin, Matthias M'Donnell, Irish novel-
ist and journalist. He has written ^Poteen
Punch'; < Pat o' Nine Tales' ; <The Rebels';
•< White Magic' ; etc.

Bod'kin, (i) an instrument used by women
of ancient times to fasten the hair, worn at the
back of the head ; (2) a sharp instrument for
piercing holes in cloth; (3) a blunt instrument
with an eye, for drawing tape, etc., through
hems; (4) a small tool used by printers.

Bodle, a copper coin formerly current in
Scotland, of the value of two pennies Scotch, or
the sixth part of an English penny. It is said
to have been so called after a mint master named
Bothwell.

Bodleian (bod-le'an) Library, the public
library of the University of Oxford, so called
from Sir Thomas Bodley (q.v.) who restored it
toward the close of the i6th century, many of
the previous collections of books and manu-
scripts having been destroyed during the reign
of Edward VI. Beside restoring the building
and providing a fund of $10,000 for the purchase
of books, he also presented a collection which
was valued at $50,000, and left an estate for the
maintenance of officers and for keeping the li-
brary in repair. For the government of the
library he drew up some statutes, which were
afterward incorporated with those of the Univer-
sity. The library was first opened to the public
8 Nov. 1602. The liberal example of Bodley
was soon followed by the Earl of Essex, who

presented part of the Portuguese bishop Osorius'
library, which had been .captured by Esse.x in
1596, shortly after the expedition against Cadiz.
After the death of Bodley, the Earl of Pembroke
added a valuable collection of Greek manu-
scripts procured by Baroccio, a Venetian. At
later dates Sir Thomas Roe, Sir Kenelm Digby,
the "learned Selden," Cough the antiquary, and
Archbishop Laud, made donations of valu-
able Greek, Oriental, and German manuscripts
to this magnificent library. The library of the
Hebrew scholar Oppenheim, rich in rabbinical
lore, a great collection of Eastern manuscripts,
of early editions of the Bible, original editions of
ancient and classic authors, together with
50,000 dissertations by members of foreign uni-
versities, and an extensive collection of medals,
coins, prints, etc., were also subsequently de-
posited in this library. In 1809, Clarke, the
traveler, gave to it some rare Greek and Latin
manuscripts, including a ^ Plato' from the Isle
of Patmos. In 1818 an exceedingly valuable col-
lection of Hebrew, Greek, and Arabic manu-
scripts procured from Venice, was added, to-
gether with a portion of the famed library of
Richard Heber (1834), and lastly, the rare
books, manuscripts, and coins of the scholar,
antiquary, and Shakespearean commentator,
Francis Douce. This renowned library, in fine,
is rich in many departments in which other li-
braries are deficient, and forms altogether the
noblest collection of which any university can
boast. It is constantly increasing by dona-
tions, by copies of every work printed in the
United Kingdom, as well as by books purchased
from the fund left by Bodley, by fees received
at matriculation, and by an annual payment of
all persons (servitors excepted) who have the
right of admission to the library. It is now
estimated to contain upward of 500,000 bound
volumes, and between 30,000 and 40,000 manu-
scripts. The first catalogue of the printed
books was issued by Dr. James in 1605.

Bodley, Sir Thomas, English scholar, and
founder of the Bodleian Library (q.v.) at
Oxford: b. Exeter, 1544; d. London, 1612.
He was educated partly at Geneva, whither
his parents, who were Protestants, had re-
tired in the reign of Queen Alary. On the
accession of Elizabeth thej^ returned home,
and he completed his studies at Magdalen
College, Oxford. He afterward became a Fel-
low of Merton College, and read lectures on
the Greek language and philosophy. He went
to the Continent in 1576, and spent four years
in traveling. He was afterward employed in
various embassies to Denmark, Germany,
France, and Holland. In 1597 he returned
home and dedicated the remainder of his
life to the re-establishment and augmenta-
tion of the public library at Oxford. This he
accomplished, procuring books and manu-
scripts himself, both at home and abroad, at
a great expense, and by his influence and
persuasion inducing his friends and ac-
quaintances to assist in his undertaking. Sir
Robert Cotton, Sir Henry Savile, and Thomas
Allen the mathematician, were among the
principal contributors on this occasion. The
library was so much augmented that Sir
Thomas Bodley, who was knighted at the
accession of James I., was induced to erect
an additional structure for the reception of

BODMER — BODY AND MIND

the increasing quantity of valuable books and
manuscripts. He was interred in the chapel
of Merton College, in the university. He
bequeathed nearly the whole of his property
to the support and augmentation of the library.
See ^Reliquiae Bodleiana:^ (London, 1703)-

Bodmer, Georg, ga-orn bod'mar, Swiss
mechanic: b. Ziirich, 6 Dec. 1786; d. Ziirich,
29 May 1864. He invented the screw and
cross wheels; and made valuable irnprove-
ments in firearms and in various kinds of
machinery, particularly in that of wool-
spinning.

Bodmer, Johann Jakob, yo'han ya'kdb,
German poet and scholar: b. Greifensee, near
Ziirich, 19 July 1698; d. Ziirich, 2 Jan. 1783.
Although he produced nothing remarkable
of his own in poetry, he helped to open the
way for the new German literature in this
department, which was then in a low and
barbarous state. He was the _ antagonist of
Gottsched in Leipsic, who aspired to be the
literary dictator of the day, and had embraced
the French theory of taste, while Bodmer in-
clined to the English. He has the honor of
having had Klopstock and Wieland among
his scholars. Bodmer was for a long time
professor of history in Switzerland. He was
a copious and indefatigable writer, though
he entertained many incorrect views.

Bodoni, Giambattista, jam-bat-tes'ta bo-
do'ne, Italian printer: b. Saluzzo, Piedmont,
1740; d. Padua, 29 Nov. 1813. His father
owned a printing establishment at Saluzzo,
and he began, while yet a boy, to employ
himself in engraving on wood. His labors
meeting with success, he went in 1758 to
Rome, and was made compositor for the
press of the Propaganda. By the advice of
the superintendent he made himself ac-
quainted with the Oriental languages, in order
to qualify himself for the kind of printing
required in them. He made himself of great
service to this press by restoring and putting
in place the types of several Oriental alpha-
bets which had fallen into disorder. The
Infante, Don Ferdinand, about 1766, had, with
a view of diffusing knowledge, established a
printing-house in Parma, after the model of
those in Paris, Aladrid, and Turin. Bodoni
was placed at the head of this establishment,
which he made the first of the kind in Eu-
rope, and gained the reputation of having
far surpassed all the splendid and beautiful
productions of his predecessors in the art.
The beauty of his tj^pe, ink, and paper, as
well as the whole management of the techni-
cal part of the work, leaves nothing for us
to wish; but the intrinsic value of his edi-
tions is seldom equal to their outward splen-
dor. His Homer is a truly admirable and
magnificent work; indeed, his Greek letters
are the most perfect imitations of Greek
manuscript that have been attempted in
modern times. His splendid editions of
Greek, Latin, Italian, and French classics are
highly prized. He was a member of several
academies of Italy and knight of several
orders.

Body and Mind, in philosophy, the prob-
lems of the reality of mind and body, and of

the relations conceived to exist between them
Mind and body, positing temporarily theii
reality, may first be regarded from the poin*;
of view of correlated action. Generally expe-
rience reveals indisputablj'^ the intimate relation
which exists between the constitution and modi-
fications of bodily functions and the character
and alterations of consciousness. Consider
the following : the dependence of certain forms
of consciousness upon the functioning of the
senses; modifications due to injury by a blow,
on lesion in the cerebral cortex ; effect of loss
of sleep upon attention ; effect of the use of
certain drugs ; pleasures and pains resulting from
functioning of sense ; feeling of effort which
accompanies bodily work; the phenomena of
sleep ; diseases of memory and will, double per-
sonality ; phenomena of hypnotism, hallucina-
tion, etc. ; the evidence from heredity, sexual
dift'erences, and other allied phenomena. All
these, as facts, afford an indisputable conclusion
concerning the correlated action of mind and
body.

But difficulties arise as soon as we under-
take to state the nature of the relations which
exist between them. The general truth which
the phenomena referred to appear to establish,
that every psychosis has its concomitant neu-
rosis and every neurosis a concomitant psy-
chosis, is not entirely borne out in fact. The
former part of the statement is indubitable;
the latter by no means so. Mental activity
always involves nervous activity, but the ner-
vous system does work other than that con-
nected with mind. jMoreover the precise
interconnections of mental fact with cerebral
fact, and vice versa, is not only not known, but
the specific character of the neurosis concomi-
tant with the psychosis is perhaps impossible of
final analysis. But until these phenomena are
understood, the nature of the relations of body
and mind cannot be finally determined. How-
ever, physiological psychology has successfully
established certain general conclusions concern-
ing the existence of uniform relations between
concomitant psychical and neural processes. The
most obvious of these is the time-order or syn-
chronous occurrence of the two series of events.
The remainder are concerned, in the main, with
variations of intensity, quality, combination, and
complexity. Qualitative psychical differences,
however, are not accompanied by corresponding
differences of molecular movement. These are
quite different from the corresponding sensa-
tional differences.

Philosophical systems, from the days of
Greek thought (see Anaxagoras; Aristotle)
down to the present, have taken up the prob-
lem where psychology leaves off. These sys-
tems may be divided into dualism and monism.
According to dualism, the first and crudest
theory of which was promulgated by Descartes,
both mind and body are real existences, and
their relations must accordingly be determined.
The problem assumes two forms, the epistemo-
logical and the genetic. According to the
former of these a knowledge of both body and
mind is posited. Various theories concerning
their interaction then arise, such as the causal
relation, parallelism, pre-established harmony,
and occasionalism. The first of these is not
only the most important, but the philosophical
conceptions concerning it may be said to strike

BODY COLOR — BOECE

at the inmost heart of the problem, and their
assumption determine the acceptance or rejec-
tion of general theories. Physiological psychol-
ogy has demonstrated the temporal concomi-
tance of the psychosis with the intermediate
central portion of the neurosis. But we have
certain neuroses revealing physiological pro-
cesses devoid of conscious concomitant. Now,
the question arises : How may this partial
parallelism be accounted for? Is there a causal
relation such as our initial phenomena seemed
to indicate, or have we only the appearance of
it in a general parallelism? Science has failed
to afford precise answers to these qviestions.
According to it the series of nervous events is
complete in itself and self-sufficient. Hence,
since antecedent events fully account for con-
sequent ones, consciousness can have no causal
action upon the neural series. Consciousness,
then, is a mere accident and without determin-
ing power in any series. This gives us the doc-
trine of human automatism, according to which
all our nervous actions are determined, and con-
sciousness is an unnecessary attachment. On
the other hand, others regard psychical phe-
nomena as having a reality equal to that of
physiological phenomena. They acknowledge,
generally, the conditioning effect of nervous
processes upon mental ones, but they divide
again on the question of the reality of causal
connection. Finally the genetic view traces its
distinction of mind and body upon the dualism
which a developmental theory in general
appears to demand ; or it accepts it as an hypoth-
esis, uncritically examined, but convenient for
practical purposes.

It is the attempted unification of mind and
"body which brings us to the doctrine of monism.
Under this general theory we find spiritual
monism, materialism, panpsychism, epiphenom-
enon, mind-dust, etc. The most obvious means
of reconciliation is that of resolving either one
of the ultimate factors into the other. The
metaphysical conception of materialism is the
doctrine by which all substance whatsoever is
conceived of as being reduced to matter, of which
conscious mind is but a product. The chief
objections urged against it are: (i) that it
makes our mental states, which of all know-
ledge we know most immediately and directly,
subordinate to our indirect and inferential
knowledge of things ; (2) that consciousness is
a reality distinct from material phenomena, and
therefore incapable of being analyzed into it ;
and (3) that no external world is possible apart
from a perceiving subject. Spiritualism, on the
other hand, escapes these objections by positing
mind as the primordial substance, and further
regarding material things as in themselves
essentially expressive of spirit. It encounters,
however, certain difficulties in the concomi-
tance and juxtaposition of its elements for
which, as yet, it has afforded no adequate solu-
tion.

According to Spinoza's doctrine of monism,
both spirit and matter, or the mental and the
material, are posited as real, self-existent reali-
ties, but not standing independent of each other.
There is a common ''substance,'^ and in this,
consciousness and extension, the fundamental
attribute of external reality, find themselves
connected. Hence the doctrine is neither purely
materialistic nor purely spiritualistic, but in-

cludes both these theories. The parallelism
which physiological psychology demonstrates,
then, in the two classes of phenomena, indi-
cates not only their ultimate inseparability, but
the fact that they are but different modes of
manifestation of a common substance. Mani-
festly, then, this doctrine calls for no interac-
tion theory and disposes of the troublesome
question of causal connection above referred to.
There is no interaction, merely a parallelism.
This parallelism, indeed, extends throughout all
material objects, all of which thus assume a
certain mental aspect also. It is at this point
especially that monism parts company, in its
speculation, from the teachings of non-
speculative psychology', according to which mind
and consciousness are invariably co-extensive.

Bibliography. — Bain, <Mind and Body^ ;
Hottding, 'Psychology,^ II.; Ladd, < Elements of
Physiological Psychology,^ Pt. III. ; Wundl,
< Physiological Psychology,^ c. XXIV.; Went-
scher, <Pliysische und Psychische Kausalitat'
(1896) ; Rehmke, 'Aussenwelt und Innenwelt^
(1898); < Psychological Review,^ III. (1896).

Body Color, a term applied to such pig-
ments as have body enough to be opaque,
as distinguished from those which are trans-
parent. As a rule, pigments have more body
the nearer they approach to white ; conse-
quently the light parts of pictures in oil are
in body color to give them brightness and
strength, while the dark parts are transpa-
rent to give them depth. Water color paint-
ing, when executed by mixing the pigments
with water after the manner of an oil paint-
ing, is said to be painted in body color.

Body of Liberties. See Law.

Body-snatching. See Corpse.

Boece, bois, Boeis, or Boyce, Hector,

Scottish historian : b. Dundee, about 1465 ;
d. 1536. Boece studied at Dundee, and
then at the University of Paris, and be-
came professor of philosophy in the Col-
lege of Montaigu. Here he became ac-
quainted with Erasmus, who professed a high
esteem for him. About 1500 Boece quitted
Paris to assume the principalship of the
newly founded University of King's College,
Aberdeen. He was also made a canon of
Aberdeen. The death of his patron in 1514
occasioned his first work — a history of the
prelates of JMortlach (the original see) and
Aberdeen, including the life of Bishop El-
phinstone, which occupies about a third of
the volume. It has been reprinted by the
Bannatyne and New Spalding clubs. Five
years afterward appeared the work on which
his fame chiefly rests, the 'History of Scot-
land. •• The first edition is without date, but
a commendatory epistle bears the date of
1527. It was written in Latin. He is distin-
guished by a patriotic zeal to magnify the
achievements of his countrymen, and by an
enlightened love of politicalliberty in advance
of the age in which he lived. In 1527 Boece
received an annual pension of 50 pounds
(Scots), which was to be continued "until
the king should promote him to a benefice
of 100 marks Scots of yearly value.» The
pension was paid till 1534, when it is supposed
he received the promotion — a very unsafe

BOECKH — BCEOTIA

inference. The rectorship of Tyrie, which
he held at his death, is, however, supposed to
have been the promotion in question.

Boeckh, August, ow'goost bek, German
classical scholar: b. Carlsruhe, 24 Nov. 1785;
d. Berlin, 3 Aug. 1867. In 1803 he entered
the University of Halle, where he was in-
duced by the influence of Wolf to devote him-
self to the study of philology. After spend-
ing three years here, and more than a year
in Berlin, he returned in 1807 to his native
state, and in the same year becaine extraordi-
nary, and two years later ordinary professor
in the University of Halle. He had already
acquired such renown as a scholar, that in
1810 he was offered the chair of rhetoric and
ancient literature in the newly founded Uni-
versity of Berlin; and here he remained en-
joying this and other important oftices and
dignities for the rest of his life. The works
of Boeckh have made an epoch in the history
of philology and archaeology. In his studies of
classical antiquities he set forth the princi-
ple that philology ought to be an historical
method intended to reproduce the whole so-
cial and political life of any given people dur-
ing a given period; and in accordance with
this he divided the science into two parts:
(i) Hermeneutics and Criticism; (2) the
Practical and Theoretical Life of the An-
cients. His views were vigorously attacked
in various quarters, but the majority of Ger-
man scholars gathered around him, and he
himself carried his views into effect in a num-
ber of important works. The most remark-
able of these are the following : an edition
of Pindar; ^The Public Economy of the
Athenians,^ which has been translated into
English; ^Metrological Investigations of the
Weights, Coins, and Measures of Antiquity^
and ^Documents Concerning the Maritime
Affairs of Attica.^ Besides these he was un-
interruptedly engaged from 1815 to the end
of his life in making a collection of Greek
inscriptions, which he published with the
title 'Corpus Inscriptionum Grgecarum,' and
the first four volumes of which appeared at
Berlin between 1824 and 1862. The first three
volumes of a collection of his minor works,
edited by Ascherson, appeared during the
lifetime of the author.

Boehler, be-ler, Peter, Moravian bishop:
b. Frankfort-on-the-Main, 1712; d. London,
1775. He was educated at Jena, joined the
Moravians and was ordained to the ministry.
He was sent as a missionary to America,
working among the negroes in Georgia, the
Germans in North Carolina (who later set-
tled Bethlehem, Pa.), and the Indians of
Pennsylvania. He went to Europe and re-
turned to Bethlehem with a large number
of colonists. In 1742, he was made bishop of
the Moravian churches in America, England,
Ireland, and Wales.

Boehm, bem, Henry, clergyman: b. Cones-
toga, Pa., 8 June 1775; d. near Richmond,
Staten Island, 28 Dec. 1875. Under the in-
fluence of Bishop Asbury, Boehm, whose
father was a Mennonite clergyman, became
an itinerant minister of the Methodist Church.
In this capacity he traveled over 100,000 miles
on horseback between the years 1800 and
1842, when he was stationed at Staten Island

as a supernumerary. He served 74 years
in the ministry, and at the time of his
death was the oldest Methodist minister in
America. A special service in honor of his
looth birthday was held 8 June 1875. He
wrote 'Reminiscences, Historical and Bio-
graphical, of Sixty-four Years in the Minis-
try^ (N. Y. 1865; new ed. 1875, ed. by J. B.
Wakeley and others).

Boehm, Sir Joseph Edgar, Hungarian-
English sculptor: b. Vienna, 1834; d. 12 Dec.
1890. He went to London in 1862, and lived
there from that date, becoming a member of
the Royal Academy in 1881. Among his im-
portant works are the great statue of Queen
Victoria at Windsor ; statues of Bunyan at
Bedford ; Wellington at Hyde Park Corner ;
Dean Stanley at Westminster Abbey; Drake
at Plymouth; Carlyle on Thames Embank-
ment, and busts of Ruskin, Gladstone, and
Huxley. In 1889 he was knighted. He was
the fashionable sculptor of his time, but
much of his work fails to reach a high stan-
dard and his designs for the jubilee coin-
age of 1S87 were very adversely criticised.

Boehme'ria, a large genus of plants of the
natural order Urticacece, natives of tropical
Asia, where various species furnish fibres used
in rope- twine- thread- and cloth-making.
B. nivea (China grass) is a nettle-like, but
non-stinging perennial herb which is propa-
gated by seeds or root division. When once
established three crops are obtained annually
and the fibre removed by hand stripping,
machinery, or boiling in water or chemical
solutions. None of these methods are wholly
satisfactory; for which reason China and
India, those lands of cheap hand labor, still
supply the world. The fibre is used to make
China-grass cloth. B. ienacissima {ramie)
(q.v.) or rhea, is considered by some botan-
ists as a variety of B. nivea. Attempts to
establish the China-grass and ramie industries
in the United States have not been very suc-
cessful; not because the plants cannot be
raised economically, but because of the high
price of labor in manufacture, and the ineffi-
ciency of iTiachines and degumming methods.
Both species and several others of the genus
are effective ornamental plants in borders and
are hardy as far north as Washington, prob-
ably farther. Consult: Dodge. 'Descriptive
Catalogue of Useful Fibre Plants of the
World'; Royle, 'Fibrous Plants of India.'

BcBo'tia, be-o'shi-a, a country of ancient
Greece, bounded north by Phocis and the
country of the Opuntian Locrians; east by the
Euripus, or Strait of Euboea ; south by Attica.
Megaris, and the Alcyonian Gulf, and west
bv Phocis. Its surface is estimated at 1,119
square miles; but the boundaries were not
always the same. In the north it is moun-
tainous and cold, and the air is pure and
healthy, but the soil is less fertile than that
of the other portion, which, however, is said
to suffer from malaria. The mountainous
part in the north was called in earlier times
Aonia. Among the mountains of Boeotia are
several remarkable in history and mythol-
ogy — Helicon (now Zagora), the mountain
of the Sphinx, the Teumessus, Libethrium,
and Petrachus. Hypatus (modern name
Samata), bounded the Theban plain on the

BOERHAAVE

east. A feature of the country was Lake
Copais, the district around which is a valley
completely surrounded by hills, and con-
nected with the Euboean Sea by subterranean
passages. The lake was fed by the Cephisus,
the largest river in the country, and the
water was liable to accumulate more rapidly
than the natural drainage of the country
could carry it off. Hence the early inhabi-
tants suffered much from inundations, and at
a period previous to historical annals subter-
raneous channels were built to carry off the
water, which indicate a very early civili-
zation, and recognized from the ruins which
still remain as among the greatest works
of antiquity. These works made Boeotia
one of the most fertile districts of Greece.
Recently the lake has been drained at great
expense and a large tract of land reclaimed.
The chief occupation of the inhabitants
was agriculture and the raising of cattle.
Boeotia was first occupied by the Pelasgian
tribes. In the time of Boeotus (son of Itonus,
and grandson of Amphictyon, from whom it
is said to have derived its name) these were
subject to the Hellenes. It was divided into
small states, until Cadmus the Phoenician
founded the government of Thebes. In later
times all Greece worshipped the Hercules of
Thebes. After the death of Xanthus, king of
Thebes, most of the cities of Boeotia formed
a kind of republic, of which Thebes was the
chief city. Epaminondas and Pelopidas raised
Thebes for a time to the highest rank among
Grecian states. In Boeotia are several cele-
brated ancient battlefields, namely, Platsea
(now the village Kokla), where Pausanias
and Aristides established the liberty of Greece
by their victory over the 300,000 Persians
under Mardonius; Leuctra (now the village
Parapogia), where Epaminondas checked the
ambitious Spartans; Coronea, where the Spar-
tan Agesilaus defeated the Thebans; and
Chseronea (now Capranu), where Philip
founded the Macedonian greatness on the
ruins of Grecian liberty. Near Tanagra, the
birthplace of Corinna, the best wine was
produced; here, also, cocks were bred of re-
markable size, beauty, and courage, with
which the Grecian cities, passionately fond
of cock-fighting were supplied. Refinement
and cultivation of mind never made such
progress in Boeotia as in Attica. The Boeo-
tians were vigorous, but slow and heavy. Sev-
eral Thebans, however, were worthy disciples
of Socrates, and Epaminondas distinguished
himself as much in philosophy as by his mili-
tary talents. The people were particularly
fond of music, and excelled in it. They had
also some great poets and artists. Hesoid,
Pindar, the poetess Corinna, and Plutarch,
were Boeotians.

Boerhaave, Hermann, her'man boor-ha've,
Dutch phj^sician: b. Woorhout, near Leyden,
13 Dec. 1668; d. 23 Sept. 1738. Boerhaavere-
ceived from his father a liberal education.
In 1682 he was sent to Leyden to study theol-
ogy. Here he gave, at the age of 20, the
first public proof of his learning and eloquence.
In 1678 he received a gold medal from the
city for an academic oration, in which he at-
tacked the doctrines of Spinoza. In 1689 he
received the degree of Doctor of Philosophy,
and maintained an inaugural dissertation, ^De

Distmctione Mentis a Corpore,' in which he
attacked Epicurus, Hobbes, and Spinoza. He
now commenced, at the age of 22, the study
of medicine. Drelincourt was his first and
only teacher. From him he received little in-
struction ; and by his own solitary study he
learned a science on which he was after-
ward to exert so important an influence. His
first study was anatomy, which he pursued
from books, rather than from observation.
He attended dissections, indeed, but his writ-
ings show a deficiency of practical knowledge.
Still he exercised a salutary influence on the
study of anatomy, as the use he made of me-
chanical illustrations induced anatomists to
apply themselves to a more accurate study of
the forms of the organs. After this prelimi-
nary study, Boerhaave read all the works,
ancient and modern, on medicine, in the order
of time, proceeding from his contemporaries
to Hippocrates, with whose superior excel-
lence and correct method he was forcibly
struck. He also studied botany and chem-
istry, and although still preparing himself for
the clerical profession, was made in 1693
Doctor of Medicine at Harderwyck. After
his return to Leyden, some doubts being
raised as to his orthodoxy, he finally deter-
mined to follow the profession of medicine.
In 1701 the University of Leyden chose him,
on the death of Drelincourt, to deliver lectures
on the theory of medicine. Boerhaave now
began to develop those great and peculiar
excellences which make him a pattern to all
who undertake the office of instruction. Pu-
pils crowded from all quarters to hear him.
His method was eclectic, combining the
speculations of opposing schools, and led him
to attach too much importance to mechani-
cal and chemical theories of vital actions. In
1709 the University of Leyden appointed him
successor to Hotton, in the chair of medicine
and botany. The course of instruction to
which Boerhaave was now devoted, induced
him to publish two works, on which his fame
still rests, namely, <Institutiones Medicse in
Usus AnnuEe Exercitationis Domesticos,*
and "^Aphorismi de Cognoscendis et Curandis
Morbis in Usum Doctrinse Medicina:.^ In
the former, which is a model of comprehen-
sive erudition and clear method, he unfolds
his system in its fullest extent; in the latter
he undertakes the classification of diseases,
and discourses separately on their causes,
nature, and treatment. The professorship of
botany, which he also filled, contributed no
less to his reputation. He rendered essential
services to botany by his two catalogues of
plants in the garden of Leyden, the number
of which he had very much increased. We
are indebted to him for the description and
delineation of several new plants, and the
introduction of some new species. In 1714 he
was made rector of the university. At the
end of this year he succeeded Bidloo in the
chair of practical medicine, which he occu-
pied for more than 10 years. In this office
he had the merit of introducing clinical in-
struction, that is, of lecturing to his students
at the bedside of patients in hospital, for the
first time in Europe. Busily occupied as he
already was, the university conferred on
him, at the death of Lemort, the professor-
ship of chemistry, which science he had

BOERS

taught since 1703. *His Elements of Chem-
istry^ is one of his finest productions, and
notwithstanding the entire revolution which
has taken place in this branch of science, is
still highly valuable. His experiments are
remarkable for their accuracy. So extensive
a sphere of action gained for Boerhaave a
fame that few learned men have enjoyed.
People came from all parts of Europe to ask
his advice. His property amounted at his
death to 2,000,000 florins. Peter the Great
visited him on his travels, and a Chinese man-
darin wrote to him with the address, «To
Boerhaave, the celebrated physician in Eu-
rope.'* In 1722 illness obliged him to remit
his active pursuits. In this he returned in
some measure to the principles of Hippo-
crates, from which, indeed, he had never de-
parted far in practice. Boerhaave was a man
of piety as well as learning. He arose early
and devoted an hour every morning to prayer
and the study of Scripture. He used to say
that the life of a patient, if trifled with or
neglected, would one day be required at the
hands of the physician.

Boers (Dutch boer, a peasant or husband-
man), the name commonly applied to the
South African colonists of Dutch descent.
The Cape Colony was founded by the Dutch
in 1650. The Dutch were at this period the
leading maritime power of Europe, and their
African colonies assumed great importance.
When Holland was reduced to the last ex-
tremity by the invasion of Louis XIV., serious
thoughts were entertained of making the
Cape Colony the final refuge of Dutch inde-
pendence, but this crisis passed away with'
the advancing power of William. The colony
subsequently fell into comparative neglect,
and the colonists, left to their own resources,
began to develop a character of their own.
The troubles in which the parent state was
involved by European wars now began also
to affect them. The colony was taken posses-
sion of by the English in 1795, restored at
the peace of Amiens in 1802, taken again in
1806, and finally ceded to England in 1815.
The last change was highly distasteful to the
colonists. Naturally distrustful of a foreign
government, they had formed from their ex-
perience of the country and its inhabitants
a policy and habits of their own, into which
the newcomers could not be expected at once
to enter. The Boers, moreover, were strongly
conservative, believing that they understood
the situation better than anyone else, and
they had acquired in their struggles with the
natives a reckless daring, which, added to the
coolness and caution of the Dutch character,
was likely to make them formidable opponents
to any government which provoked their
hostility.

The policy of the British governers was
not always adapted to the circumstances, and
the attempts of the British missionaries, en-
couraged by the colonial government, to
convert and civilize the natives, excited the
jealousy of the Boers, who thought their own
interests compromised by the encouragement
given to the converts. The government on
various occasions sided with the Kaffirs
against the Boers, which, whatever the merits
of the particular disputes, was not calculated

to conciliate the latter. The emancipation of
their slaves in 1833, and the cession to the
Kaffirs in 1835 of a frontier district of neutral
territory in the east, filled up the measure of
provocation, and the Boers resolved to place
themselves by emigration beyond the British
rule. A first band set out by land in 1835 for
Port Natal, but being ignorant of the passes
of the country, went out of their way. Part
of them settled in the district near the Zout-
pansberg or Salt-pan Mountain, part pro-
ceeded to Algoa Bay, but did not succeed in
forming a perfect settlement. Another band
also proceeding to Natal was attacked by the
Matebele Kaffirs, and obliged to fall back on
the Modder River. After receiving reinforce-
ments they again advanced and settling in the
Orange River district, formed a common-
wealth under Peter Retief. This colony was
in 1837 invited to join the British settlers who
had in the meantime taken possession of Port
Natal. Crossing the Quathlamba Mountains
for this purpose, Retief and some of his prin-
cipal followers were treacherously murdered
in an interview with the chief of the Zulu
Kaffirs. The remainder turned south, and
formed the settlement of Pietermaritzburg.
Under the leadership of Pretorius they de-
feated the Zulus, but the colonial government
denied their right to form an independent
community in this district.

In 1842, a British force was landed, and
the Boers were compelled to retire from the
coast and acknowledge the British sovereignty.
Many of them recrossed the mountains,
and settled in the Vaal district. Further
disagreements with the colonial government,
which had now possession of Natal, led
to another emigration to the north of the
Klipp River. Here they struggled success-
fully with the Kaffirs till 1845, when the co-
lonial government proclaimed the Buffalo
River the north boundary of Natal. The
Boers openly resisted, but finding their
strength unequal to the conflict, again emi-
grated to the Vaal country. In 1848 the co-
lonial government likewise annexed by proc-
lamation the Orange River settlement. The
Boers, headed by Pretorius, took up arms,
but being defeated retired beyond the Vaal,
and with the previous settlers formed the
Transvaal republic. Those who remained
continued their resistance to the British au-
thority until, in 1851, on the outbreak of the
Kaffir war, the British relinquished the
Orange River territory, and recognized the
independence of the Orange Free State. In
1877 the Transvaal was annexed by Britain,
according to the wish of many of the peo-
ple, but war broke out in 1880, British
forces suffered more than one defeat, and
in 1881 the country was accorded a modi-
fied independence. Henceforth it was a
common feeling among the Boers that
they and not the British must be pre-
dominant in South Africa, and in October
1899, after a defiant ultimatum, the united
forces of the Transvaal and Orange Free
State invaded Natal. After nearly three
years of warfare the two republics were an-
nexed by proclamation. See Jameson ; Kru-
GER ; Majuba Hill ; Natal ; Orange River
Colony; South African War; Transvaal,
etc.

BOETHUS — BOG

Boe'thus, Greek sculptor: b. Chalcedon in
the 2d century b.c. He is celebrated for his
statues of children. <The Boy With the
Swan^ was his most famous work. A girl
playing with dice and a boy extracting a
thorn were subjects of other masterpieces by
him.

Boethius, bo-e'thi-us, Anicius Manlius
Severinus, Roman statesman and philosopher:
b. about 470 A.D., in Rome or Milan ; d. 524
or 526. He was educated in Rome, in a man-
ner well calculated to develop his extraordi-
nary abilities. Theodoric, king of the Ostro-
goths, then master of Italy, loaded him with
marks of favor and esteem, and raised him to
the first offices in the empire. He exerted the
best influence on the administration of this
monarch, so that the dominion of the Goths
promoted the welfare and happiness of the
people who were subject to them. He was
long the oracle of his sovereign and the idol
of the people. The highest honors were
thought inadequate to reward his virtues and
services. But Theodoric, as he grew old, be-
came irritable, jealous, and distrustful of
those about him. The Goths now indulged in
all sorts of oppression and extortion, while
Boethius exerted himself in vain to restrain
them. He had already made many enemies
by his strict integrity and vigilant justice.
These at last succeeded in prejudicing the
king against him, and rendering him suspi-
cious of Boethius. His opposition to their
unjust measures was construed into a rebel-
lious temper, and he was accused of a treason-
able correspondence with the court of Con-
stantinople. He was arrested, imprisoned,
and executed. He made many laborious trans-,
lations of the Greek philosophers, particularly
of Aristotle. These translations, and especially
his commentaries on Aristotle, caused him to
be regarded up till the 14th century as the high-
est authority in philosophy. His treatise,
*De Musica,^ also supplied for many centuries
the place of Greek originals. His fame now
chiefly rests on his * Consolations of Philosophy,^
written in prison, a work of elevated thought
and diction. It is written partly in prose and
partly in verse. The oldest edition of this work
was published at Nuremberg in 1473. It was
translated by King Alfred and Chaucer, and
was highly prized during the Middle Ages.
Boethius also translated into Latin Euclid and
other Greek mathematical works, and wrote
short treatises on algebra and geometry, which
were used as school text-books during the Mid-
dle Ages. The appearance in these works of
characters similar to Hindu numerals has raised
the question as to whether he was familiar with
the works of the Hindu mathematicians.

BcEttcher, be'tlk-er, Jean Frederick (his
name is also spelled Boettiger), German
alchemist: b. Schleiz, 1681 ; d. 1719. A man of
dissolute manners and dishonorable conduct,
he is celebrated for his extraordinary ad-
ventures, and his fortunate discovery of the
famous Dresden porcelain. Apprenticed to
an apothecary in Berlin, he spent his time in
the pursuit of alchemy, and fraudulently pre-
tended to have made gold. This discovery.
as it was believed to be, exposed him to the
danger of a prosecution for sorcery, to avoid

Vol. 2 — 49.

which he fled. Such was the credulity of the
time, that the Prussian government was anx-
ious for his return, and the Elector of Sax-
ony, then king of Poland, supplied him with
the means of prosecuting his inquiries, and
was entertained by his promises for three
years. By the advice of Count Tschirn-
hausen, the elector was induced to turn the
real chemical knowledge and abilities of
Boettcher to account in developing the re-
sources of the country. This sensible advice
was rewarded with the discovery of a red clay
at Meissen, from which a beautiful porcelain
could be made. Boettcher was intrusted with
the direction of the manufacture, but was
so little trustworthy that he had almost to be
detained a prisoner to prevent his divulging
the secrets of the process. He had actually
entered into a negotiation with some Prus-
sians to do so, and his death alone saved him
from the punishment of his treachery.

Boeuf Bayou, bef bi'oo, a stream in Louis-
iana, formed in times of high water by over-
flow from the Mississippi, when it affords
nearly 100 miles of steamboat navigation.
It is an affluent of the Washita River.

Boffin's Bower, in Dickens' 'Our Mutual
Friend,^ home of the Bofiins. The name was
given by Mrs. Bofiin, who did not approve of
its former name, "Harmon's Jail."

Bog, an Irish word, literally meaning soft,
applied in Great Britain to extensive dis-
tricts of marshy land, such as we commonly
call in this country swamps. They consist,
in Europe, so universally of peat, that this
substance is there generally regarded essen-
tial to a bog. As we use the word, it is in
the sense of a quagmire; any soft and wet
spot into which a man would sink in attempt-
ing to cross it, being called a bog. The true
bog is most com^monly found in northern
latitudes, and in districts where great hu-
midity prevails. Their situation is not neces-
sarily low, nor their surface level. Some of
the great Irish bogs present even a hilly ap-
pearance, which, perhaps, is the result of the
spread of the mosses in their lateral growth
from lower situations over intervening higher
grounds. Bogs were formerly supposed to
owe their origin to the destruction of forests,
and in particular to the obstruction of drain-
age from fallen trees, causing lodgments of
water, and favoring the growth of marsh
plants. This theory can only be partially
true. Fallen trees and also standing roots
are frequently found in a state of great pres-
ervation in bogs, but the agency of felled
trees in the production of bog has been com-
pletely disproved, six or seven feet of bog
being found under the roots of remaining
trees, showing the previous formation of the
bog. The process of bog formation is thus
described: When a shallow pool induces
the formation of aquatic plants, they grad-
ually creep in from the borders to the deeper
centre. Mud accumulates round their roots
and stalks, and a spongy semi-fluid mass is
formed, well suited for the growth of moss,
particularly Sphagnum, which now begins to
luxuriate, continually absorbing water, and
shooting out new plants above as the old
decay beneath; these are consequently rotted,
and compressed into a solid substance, grad-

BOG-BUMPER — BOG IRON ORE

ually replacing the water by a mass of vege-
table matter. A layer of clay, frequently
found over gravel, assists the formation of
bog by its power of retaining moisture.
When the subsoil is very retentive, and the
quantity of water has become excessive, the
superincumbent peat has sometim.es burst
forth and floated over adjacent lands. This
happened near Killarnej^ in 1896, and caused
the loss of nine lives. Quagmires are caused
by the decay of the roots of plants under-
neath. The plants thus detached from the
bottom, rise to the surface, and are kept
floating in moisture. Elastic under light
pressure, they yield suddenly to the weight
of heavy bodies, their only strength consist-
ing in the interlacing of their decayed fibres.

Throughout the country, along the sea-
board to the gulf of ^Mexico, bog-like swamps
are of frequent occurrence. Their outer
portions are sometimes wooded swamps,
while within they present moss-covered
heaths, stretching, like the western prairies,
farther than the eye can see, and dotted oc-
casionally with clumps or little islands of
trees. In New England, the northwestern
States, and Canada, the bogs furnish genuine
peat, and some of those bordering on the
Great Lakes are of great extent. On Long
Island, near New York, the bogs present a
marked feature along the sandy coast.

British bogs are generally divided into
two classes — red bogs, or peat mosses, and
black bogs, or mountain mosses. The
former class are found in extensive plains
frequentlj'- running through several counties.
The Chatmoss in Lancashire, and the Allen
in Ireland, are examples of this class. Their
texture is light and full of filaments, and is
formed by the decay of mosses and plants
of different kinds. The color becomes darker,
and the density increases with the depth of
the bog. The lower parts, being more en-
tirely decayed, approach nearer to the nature
of humus than the upper portion. They are
also more carbonaceous, and consequently
more valuable for fuel. The depth of the
red mosses varies from 12 to 42 feet. The
chief reasons of the unproductiveness of this
class of bogs are the acids in which the plants
composing them abound, and which are nox>
ious to the higher orders of vegetation, and
the circumstance that the decomposition of
the plants takes place under water, where
they are excluded from the action of the oxy-
gen and nitrogen of the air, and consequently
deprived of the power of evolving carbon
and ammonia. Black bog is formed by a
more rapid decomposition of plants. It is
heavier and more homogeneous in quality.
It is common in Ireland and Scotland, but
is usually found in limited and detached por-
tions. In Ireland these frequently rest on
calcareous subsoil, which is of great value for
reclaiming them. The black bog is so fre-
quently found at high elevations that its re-
clamation presents considerable difficulties,
but when it is found in plains or gentle in-
clinations it may be reclaimed with compara-
tive ease. The soil in mountainous districts,
being shallow, is not suited for cereals, but if
the mistake of sowing these is avoided, they
may be made into good pasture land. The
reclamation of the extensive red bogs found

in various parts of the country, especially in
Ireland, which has more than 1,500,000 acres
of them, has long occupied attention; but the
progress of improvement has been hindered
by questions of land tenure, disposal of capi-
tal, and other difficulties external to the prac-
ticabilitj' of the desired reformation. IVIany
extensive experiments have, however, been
made with encouraging success, and while it
is perhaps doubtful how far reclamation will
repay the immediate improver, it appears
from a national point of view to offer un-
doubted advantages.

In the reclamation of bog land three
things require to be accomplished. The land
must be thoroughly drained, and a permanent
system of drainage established. The loose
and spongy soil must be mixed with a suf-
ficient quantitjr of mineral matter to give the
requisite firminess to its texture, and to fer-
tilize its superabundant huinus. Proper ma-
nures must be provided to facilitate the ex-
traction of nutriment from the new soil, and
a rotation of crops suitable for bringing it
into permanent condition adopted. The diffi-
culties of reclamation lie chiefly in the first
and second of these requirements.

The materials best adapted for reclaim-
ing peat are calcareous earths, limestone
gravel, shell marl, and shell sand. Caustic
lime, although it neutralizes the acids of the
soil, causes too rapid a decomposition of the
vegetable matter. These materials are fre-
quently found in the subsoil or in the neigh-
borhood, but the labor of raising them from
the subsoil is often greater than that of
bringing them from other, especially from adja-
cent quarters.

Paring and burning, or removing a por-
tion of the peat for fuel, when the subsoil is
good, are other modes of facilitating im-
provement. The limited demand for peat
fuel prevents the latter system being carried
on extensivel}^ Thoroughly reclaimed bogs are
not liable to revert to their former condition.
For further particulars see Chatmoss.

Bog-bumper, Bog-jumper, or Bog-pumper.
See Bittern.

Bog-butter, a fatty spermaceti-like sub-
stance found in masses in peat-bogs, com-
posed of carbon, oxygen, and hydrogen, and
for years supposed to have been formed by
the decomposition of peat. In 1885 Macadam
proved that it is of animal origin, being, in
fact, a variety of adipocere, and is formed by
the decomposition of animal substances, out
of contact with the air.

Bog Iron Ore, a variety of limonite
formed in bogs and swamps by the reducing
action of decaying vegetable matter on soluble
iron salts. It is generally loose textured, and
brown or brownish yellow in color. The ore
usvially contains such a high percentage of im-
purities, especially sulphur and phosphorus, that
it cannot be utilized for iron manufacture ; it
finds limited application, however, in the puri-
fication of illuminating gas. Deposits of bog
iron ore are widespread. In the United States
extensive beds occur along the Atlantic coast
from New York southward, and the first blast
furnaces erected in this country were supplied
from them. Similar deposits occur in Great
Britain and most of the countries of Europe,

BOG-MOSS — BOGDANOWITCH

Bog-moss. See Sphagnum.

Bog-oak, trunks and large branches of
oak found imbedded in bogs and preserved by
tiie antiseptic properties of peat, so that the
grain of the wood is Httle affected by the many
ages during which it has lain interred. It is
of a shining black or ebony color, derived from
its impregnation with iron, and is frequently
converted into ornamental pieces of furniture
and ornaments, as brooches, earrings, etc.

Bog-trotter, a name contemptuously ap-
plied to the Irish peasantry on account of their
ability to make their way across the bogs where
no one else can find footing, wdiich frequently
gives them a means of escape from officers of
police, and other pursuers.

Bogaers, Adriaan, a'dri-an bo'gars, Dutch
poet : b. The Hague, 1795 ; d. 1870. He holds
an eminent place among the many disciples of
Tollens, and surpasses his master in correctness
of taste. He long withheld his compositions
from publication, and not till 1832 did he be-
come known to his countrymen ; he then pub-
lished his first lyric poem, < Volharding,* — an
appeal to his countrymen to stand fast in the
struggle with Belgium, — together with other
patriotic pieces. His first poem of any consid-
erable compass, the epic '^Jochebed,' and his
masterpiece, 'The Voyage of Heemskerk to Gi-
braltar,' were first formally published in 1860-1,
though they had had for many years a private
circulation among friends. He afterward pub-
lished three volumes, 'Ballads and Romances,^
'Flowers of Poesy from Abroad,' and 'Poem.'

Bo'gan, or New Year River, a river of
East Australia, rises in the Harvey range, flows
northwest, and empties into the Darling River ;
length over 300 miles.

Bogar'dus Everardus, second pastor of the
church in New Amsterdam (New York) : d. 27
Dec. 1647. He is noted as the husband of An-
neke Jans, whose ownership of 60 acres of
land in the business portion of New York
has given her descendants occasion for almost
continuous law suits, during 200 years, to re-
cover possession of the property which is held
by the corporation of Trinity Church.

Bogardus, James, American inventor: b.
Catskill, N. Y., 14 March 1800; d. 13 April
1874. He was apprenticed to a watchmaker, and
early showed the bent of his mind by improve-
ments in the construction of eight-day clocks,
and by the invention of a delicate engraving
machine. The dry gas meter is his invention, as
is also the transfer machine to produce bank-
note plates from separate dies ; and in 1839 his
plan for manufacturing postage stamps was ac-
cepted by the British government. Later he in-
troduced improvements in the manufacture of
ind'a-rubber goods, tools, and machinery ; and
invented a pyrometer, a deep-sea sounding ma-
chine, and a dynamometer. In 1847 he built the
first iron building ever erected in the city of
New York.

Bogatzky, Karl Heinrich von, karl hin'-
riH fon bo-gats'ke, Protestant theological
writer: b. Tankowa, Silesia, 1690; d. Halle,
1774. His principal works are: 'Tagliches
Schatz-Kastlein der Kinder Gottes,^ published
in 1718; 'Geistliche Gedichte.' in 1749- The
former has been translated into English under
the title of Bogatzky's 'Golden Treasury.^

Bogdo-ola, bog-do-oo'la, or Holy Mount,

a hill in Russia, in the government of Astrakhan,
near the Aktuba, and 14 miles east of Tcher-
noiarsk. It forms an isolated cone, nearly 500
feet high, in the middle of a vast steppe. It ap-
pears to rest on limestone, overlain by sand-
stone, which on the northeast side rises per-
pendicularly like a wall, and is cut into deep
clefts, frequented by innumerable birds. The
sandstone is succeeded by alternate red and
white layers of clay and sand, which have a
very singular appearance. The summit is chiefly
composed of masses of rock-salt. At the foot
of the hill there is a salt lake called Bogdoin
Dabassu.

Bogdan, Negrul, governor of Moldavia,
son of Stephen the Great, who, at his death in
1522, counseled his son to anticipate by volun-
tary submission to the Turks, an inevitable
conquest. Bogdan did not at first follow this
counsel ; but having lost within a year the battle
of Mohacs, and Hungary having been invaded
by a large Turkish force, he sent to Solyman
off'ers of submission. He was received with
favor by the Sultan, and in return for an an-
nual tribute of 4,000 crowns of gold, beside
numerous horses and falcons, Moldavia was al-
lowed to preserve its own religion, an inde-
pendent administration, and the right to choose
its own princes. Bogdan did not long survive
this treaty, and his successor refusing to pay
the tribute, drew again the arms of the Turk's
upon the Moldavian principality.

Bogdanovich, Modest Ivanovich, mo-dast
e-van'o-vich bog-da-no'vech, Russian mili-
tary historian and commander : b. 1805 ; d. 6
Aug. 1882. He was a very able soldier, and
even abler with the pen; his 'Bonaparte's Cam-
paign in Italy, 1796,' and 'History of the Art
of War,' and particularly his 'History of the
Campaign of 1812,' having attracted wide
notice.

Bogdanowitch, Hippolyt Federowitch, hip'-
po-lit fed-er-6'vech bog-da-no'vech, Russian
Anacreon : b. Perewolotschna, in White Russia,
1743; d. 1803. His father was a physician. He
was designed for an engineer, but the sight ot
a splendid play, and the reading of Lomonos-
sow's poems, turned his inclination to poetry.
He wished to become an actor, but the managei-
of the theatre. Cheraskow, dissuaded him from
his purpose. By his advice he applied himself
to the study of the fine arts, and to learning
foreign languages. He gained patrons and
friends, and in 1761 was made inspector in the
Universit\f of Moscow, and afterward translator
in the department of foreign affairs. In 1762
he traveled with Count Beloselsky as secretary
of legation to Dresden, where he devoted his
whole attention to the study of the fine arts
and of poetry till 1768. The beautiful pictures
in the gallery of that place inspired him to write
his 'Psj'che,' which appeared in 1775, and fixed
his fame on a lasting foundation. After this he
devoted himself to music and poetry, in solitary
study at St. Petersburg, till Catharine called
him from his retirement. He then wrote on dif-
ferent occasions several dramatic and historical
pieces. In 1788 he was made president of the
imperial archives. In 1795 he took leave of the
court, and lived as a private man in Little
Russia. Alexander recalled him to St. Peters-
burg, W'here he lived till his death. He was as

BOGERMAN — BOGOS

remarkable for modesty as for genius, and a
man of childlike goodness and vivacity.

Bogerman, Jan, yan bo'ger-man, Dutch
theologian: b. Oplewert, 1576; d. 1637. He was
professor of divinity at the University of Frane-
ker; participated in the Armenian controversy,
and was president of the Synod of Dort, 1618.
With four others he translated the Bible into
Dutch; this translation is at present the common
Dutch version. He also wrote <^Annotationes
contra H. Grotium,^ and translated Beza's 'De-
la punition des heretiques.-*

Bogert, George H., artist: b. New York,
1864. His first studies were made under Thomas
Eakins ; later he studied in Paris under Raphael
Collins, Aime Morot, and Puvis de Chavannes.
He won the Webb prize, 1898; the first Hall-
garten prize of the National Academy of De-
sign, 1899; and was awarded a bronze medal at
the Paris Exposition, 1900. His studio is in
New York.

Boggs, Charles Stuart, American naval
officer: b. New Brunswick, N. J., 28 Jan. 181 1 ;
d. 22 April 1888. He entered the navy in 1826 ;
served on the Princeton in the Mexican war;
was assigned to the gunboat Varuna in Farra-
gut's Gulf squadron in 1861. In the attack on
forts St. Philip and Jackson, in April 1862, he
destroyed six Confederate gunboats and two
rams, and in the last moments of the fight his
own vessel was sunk. In 1869-70 he served with
the European squadron ; in the latter year was
promoted to rear-admiral; and in 1873 was re-
tired.

Boggs, Frank M., artist: b. Springfield,
Ohio, 6 Dec. 1855. He received his art educa-
tion at the ficole des Beaux Arts and under
Gerome in Paris. In 1882 the French govern-
ment bought his picture, 'Place de la Bastille,^
for the Luxembourg Museum, and in 1883 his
<Isigny^ for the Niort Museum. His pictures
are to be found in many of the best French
private collections, and in the museums at
Havre, Nantes, and Dieppe. In the first prize
fund exposition of the American Art Gallery
(N. Y.), he received a prize of $2,500 for his
picture 'A Rough Day, Honfleur,* now in the
Boston Museum.

Bogh, Erik, e'rik beg, Danish poet and
dramatist: b. Copenhagen, 17 Jan. 1822. _He is
best known for his witty stanzas and epigrams
in periodicals, for 'This and That,' a collec-
tion of humorous essays, and for a hundred or
so of plays and farces. A novel, *Jonas Tvar-
mose's Vexations,' has merit.

Boghaz-Keui, bo'gaz-kye'e, Asia Minor,
a village in the vilayet of Angora, commonly
identified with the ancient Pterium, though this
is now doubtful. The village is insignificant,
but important Hittite ruins, including a palace
and a number of unusual sculptures, have been
discovered near by.

Boghead Coal, a brown cannel-coal, found
at Boghead, near Bathgate, Scotland, and very
valuable for gas and oil making.

Bognor, bog'ner, an English watering-
place on the coast of Sussex, nine and a half
miles southeast of Chichester by railway.
There is a pier 1,000 feet long, constructed
chiefly of iron, and also an esplanade. The

place was brought into vogue toward the end
of last century by Sir R. Hotham, who spent
$300,000 on it. Pop. (1901) 6,180.

Bo'go, Philippines, a town with about
17,000 population, situated on the east coast near
the northern end of the island of Cebu. It has
a good harbor.

Bog'omiles, a religious sect, said to have
been pretty widely spread in Thrace and Bul-
garia as early as the loth century. They were
persecuted by the Byzantine emperor, Alexander
Comnenos, and their leader, named Basil, was
burned alive at Constantinople in 11 18. The
name of the sect is said to be composed of two
Slavonic words, meaning friends of God. The
Bogomiles believed that God had two sons, Sa-
tanael and Jesus, or Logos. The former re-
belled, and created the material world, and also
man. God gave a soul to man, but he was left
under the control of Satanael until the coming
of the Logos. The law was given to Moses by
Satanael, and is not recognized by the Bogo-
miles, who accept of the Old Testament only
the Psalms and the Prophets. The Logos, or
Christ, came down from heaven to deliver man
from the power of Satanael. This sect, which
held many extravagancies of doctrine, continued
to exist for several centuries. They practised
severe asceticism, rejected the sacraments, or
put new interpretations on them, and made fre-
quent prayers both by day and night.

Bogos, bo'goz, a people of Abyssinia,
occupying a district to the south of the Anseba,
to the east of Habab and Mensa, and to the
north and west of Barca. The land is inter-
sected by the broad and beautiful valley of the
A.nseba, and comprises on the west the elevated
and hilly region as far as the sources of the
Barca, and on the east the slopes of the plateau
of Mensa. The climate and vegetation are simi-
lar to those of Abyssinia. The rainy season
lasts from March to September, when the An-
seba overflows its banks and fertilizes the val-
ley through which it flows. There is a great
variety both in the flora and the fauna of the
country. Large baobab trees, sycamores, and
tamarinds overshadow the banks of the Anseba,
which are rendered almost impassable by the
number of Euphorbise and creeping plants. At
the same time there are to be found rhi-
noceroses, elephants, wild boars, buffalos, ante-
lopes, lions, leopards, wildcats, jackals, wolves,
etc., in great numbers. The population is only
about 10,000, which is engaged in agriculture
and the raising of cattle, and carry on a jrade
with the neighboring places in corn, butter,
ivory, skins, buffalo-horns, and ostrich-feathers.
Their language, which is akin to the Agow, is
called by themselves Bilin. Their countenance
is Greek in its contour, their body light, power-
ful, and well formed; the color of their skin
dark olive-brown ; their lips are thin, the cheek-
bones not prominent, and they have generally
bushy whiskers. The patriarchal institutions
of the Bogos are peculiar. The members of
each union of families are pledged to appre-
hend any one of their number who is charged
with the commission of a crime. The laws re-
lating to dowries, inheritance, and m.'.M-der are
regularly codified. The religion is the Christian,
but Mohammedanism, which is increasing, has a
considerable number of adherents.

BOGOSLOV — BOHA-EDDIN

Bogoslov, bo-go-slof, a small volcanic
island of the Aleutian archipelago, Ij-ing north-
west of Unalaska. It was formed in I795~6 by
a series of volcanic upheavals ; on the site pre-
viously there had been low rocks and reefs.

Bogota, bo-go-ta', or Santa Fe de Bogota',

the capital of the Republic of Colombia, has a
population of about 120,000; and despite the
fact that it is but 4° 41' north of the equator,
the elevation of the plateau on which it stands
is so grent that the breeze is cool and invigorat-
ing. A fertile plain or table-land of exquisite
beauty extends for a distance of about 30 miles
on three sides, while directly above rise two
mountains of moderate height, and surrounding
the whole scene are snow-capped peaks of the
Andes — among them the extinct volcano of
Tolima. Water is supplied by two mountain
streams flowing through the town itself. Un-
fortunately the overcrowding of buildings occu-
pied by the poorer classes, and the absence of
a good sj'stem of drainage, offset the conditions
otherwise favorable to health. Bogota is lighted
by gas and electricity ; its streets are well laid
out ; and the houses, though low, are substan-
tially built. There is a valuable library of over
50,000 volumes ; and the university, founded in
1867, is considered the best in the Andean re-
gion north of Peru. On 12 Sept. 1902, the gov-
ernment decreed the establishment of a museum
and academy, to increase the popularity and ef-
ficiency of the National School of the Fine Arts.
Founded in 1538 by Gonzalo Ximenes de Ques-
adk, a native of Santa Fe, a small town near
the city of Granada, and in the Spanish prov-
ince of that name, Bogota became the capital
of New Granada, as the country was first called
by the Spaniards. For history, industries, etc.,
see Colombia. Marrion Wilcox.

Bogue, David, the originator of the Lon-
don Missionary Society : b. Hallydown, Berwick-
shire, 18 Feb. 1750; d. Brighton, 25 Oct. 1825.
In 1771 he removed to London, and became min-
ister of an Independent chapel at Gosport. In
1780 he became tutor to an establishment for
directing the studies of young men destined
fc the ministry in the Independent communion.
He now began the formation of a missionary
scheme, which afterward resulted in the Lon-
don Missionary Society. The influence which
the establishment of this institution had on the
public mind was great, and the springing up of
the British and Foreign Bible Society and the
Religious Tract Society, at short intervals,
proves how much good was efifected by the im-
petus it imparted. In the establishment of both
of these he took an active part, contributing
to the latter body the first of a series of pub-
lications which have been of great use. In 1815
Mr. Bogue received the degree of Doctor of
Divinity from Yale College. The only works of
any extent for which we are indebted to the
pen of Dr. Bogue are: 'An Essay on the Di-
vine Authority of the New Testament.' < Dis-
courses on the Millennium,' and a 'History of
Dissenters,' which he undertook in conjunction
with his pupil and friend. Dr. Bennet. The first
o" these has been translated into the French,
Italian, German, and Spanish languages, and
bas been widely circulated on the continent of
Europe.

Boguslawski, bo-goo-slav'ske. Palm Henry
Louis von, astronomer: b. Magdeburg, 17S9;

d. Breslau, 185 1. He was educated in the
Cathedral School of Magdeburg, and early dis-
played a particular turn for astronomical pur-
suits. The comet of 1807 gave him the first
opportunity of making special observations. In
1809, having been appointed bombardier in the
Silesian Artillery Brigade, he passed his exami-
nation in Berlin with so much distinction that
he was named lieutenant, and remained in at-
tendance on the general military school in Berlin,
where he took part in Bode's observations on the
great comet. The campaigns of the war of in-
dependence procured him, through his connec-
tion with Bode, access to the best observatories
and the acquaintance of the most distinguished
astronomers. His military career terminated
at the battle of Waterloo, after which, in con-
sequence of a supervening weakness in his eye-
sight, he became unfit for further active service.
He afterward turned his attention to agriculture,
and in course of time his eyesight was com-
pletely restored. His love for astronomy had
always remained, though he had wanted proper
opportunity for cultivating it; but in 1829, on
resuming his residence in Breslau, his studies
again took that direction, and he became first
conservator and then director of the observatory.
By his discovery, in 1834, of the comet named
after him, and his observations on Saturn's
rings, and the comets of Biela, Encke, Halley,
etc., he rendered important services. As no
chair was connected with his position at the ob-
servatory, he at first merely delivered popular
lectures. A regular professorship, however, was
given him in 1836. As a writer he made himself
known by the publication of the 'Uranus.'

Boha-eddin, bo-ha-ed'din, or Bohaddin,
Arabian scholar and historian: b. Mosul. 1145;
d. 1235. Having attained proficiency in Moslem
law, he became, at the age of 27, a lecturer at
Bagdad. In 1186 he made the pilgrimage to
Mecca, and returned through the holy land, vis-
iting Jerusalem, Hebron, and other sacred cities.
While in Damascus, he was summoned to the
Moslem camp by Salad in, who was desirous of
availing himself of the services and influence
of so able a scholar, and a man of such re-
puted Moslem piety and zeal. He accordingly
brought his learning and talent to the work of
glorifying the wars of that ambitious monarch,
in a treatise on the 'Laws and Discipline of
Sacred War.' Saladin appointed him cadi of
Jerusalem and of the army, and a strong attach-
ment from the commencement existed between
them, which the scholar knew well how to turn
to good account. On the death of Saladin he
transferred his attachment to the son, Malek-al-
Dhaher, whom he was instrumental in estab-
lishing in the succession of the throne. In
return, the new prince of Aleppo appointed
Boha-eddin to the office of cadi of the city,
which brought him constantly to reside in the
royal court. Aleppo now became the resort for
men of science and learning. At this period of
his life Boha-eddin founded a college, and he
continued to give lectures until he was 90 years
old. His great work was, however, the 'Life
of Saladin.' It is a work pronounced, on the
whole, free from the extravagance which so
generally renders Oriental productions distaste-
ful to the more practical scholars of the West.
It is written from the standpoint of a zealous
Moslem, rather than from that of the practised
soldier or the politic statesman.

BOHEA — BO HEMIA

Bohea, an inferior kind of black tea. The
name is sometimes applied to 'olack teas in gen-
eral, comprehending Souchong, Pekoe, Congou,
and common Bohea.

Bohemia, Bohmen (anciently Boheim), a
province with the title of kingdom in the Aus-
tro-Hungarian monarchy, bounded on the
southwest by Bavaria, on the northwest by the
kingdom of Saxony, on the northeast by
the Prussian province of Silesia, and on the
southeast by Moravia and the archduchy of Aus-
tria. It contains 20,051 square miles, and has
(1900) 6,318,697 inhabitants, of whom above
three fifths are Czechs, nearly 90,000 Jews, and
more than 2,000,000 are Germans. Bohemia is
surroimded on all sides by mountains, possesses
large forests and many small lakes or ponds.
Its plains are remarkably fertile. The largest
rivers are the Elbe and the Moldau. All sorts
of grain, flax, hops (the best in Europe), and
fruits are exported. Wine is not abundant, but
in the neighborhood of Melnik is of pretty good
quality. The raising of sheep, horses, swine, and
poultry is carried on to a considerable extent.
The mines yield silver, copper, lead, tin, garnets,
and other precious stones, iron, cobalt, arsenic,
uranium, and tungsten, antimony, vitriol, alum,
calamine, sulphur, plumbago, and coal in abun-
dance. There are also numerous mineral springs,
but little salt.

The industry of Bohemia, favored by its
central situation, has long rendered it one of the
most important governments of the Austrian
empire. Spinning and weaving are extensively
carried on in the northern and southeastern dis-
tricts ; manufactures of lace, ribbons, metal, and
wood work, chemical products, and other
branches of skilled industry are also largely de-
veloped. Pottery, porcelain, glassware, cutting
of precious stones, give employment to many
hands. The glassware of Bohemia alone, which
is known all over Europe, employs 50,000
workers. Large quantities of beer (Pilsener)
of the kind known as lager are exported.
Prague, the capital, is the centre of the manu-
factures and of the commerce of the country.
The largest towms are Prague, Pilsen, Reichen-
berg, Budweis, Teplitz, Aussig, and Eger. For
internal intercourse there are excellent high-
ways, extending to 10,000 miles, and several im-
portant lines of railway leading both southeast
to Vienna and northwest toward Dresden. The
Bohemians of all ranks are distinguished for
public spirit. Among the public establishments
for education are a German and a Czech uni-
versity at Prague, two technical high schools,
four theological academies, many gymnasiums,
and over 5,000 schools. The prevailing religion
is the Roman Catholic ; other sects, however, are
tolerated. The language of the country is Bo-
hemian, a dialect of the Slavonic ; in some dis-
tricts, and in most of the cities, German is
spoken. See Bohemian Language and Litera-

i'URE.

History. — Bohemia received its name from
a tribe of Gallic origin, the Boii, who were ex-
pelled by the Marcomans at the commencement
of the Christian era ; the latter were in turn
obliged to give place to the Germans, and these
to the Czechs, a Slavonic people who had estab-
lished themselves in Bohemia by the middle of
the 5th century. The country was at first di-
vided into numerous principalities, which were

teniporarily united into a monarchy in 627 under
Samo, but the v/ork of this prince did not sur-
vive himself. Charlemagre attempted the con-
quest of Bohemia without permanent result, al-
though he succeeded in rendering it tributary;
and the Emperor Louis had his army nearly
destroyed by the Bohemians in 849. Christianity
was introduced into Bohemia in the reign of
Borzwog L (894-902), a descendant of Pfzemysl,
whose family held sway in Bohemia for about
six centuries (722-1306). In 1092 Bohemia was
finally recognized as a kingdom under Wratislas
II. Up to 1230 the monarchy was elective and
then became hereditary ; the right of election,
however, was suspended, not abrogated. The
monarchs received investiture from the German
emperor, held one of the great offices in the im-
perial court, and were recognized as among the
seven electors of the empire. Separated from
Germany, however, by a rampart of mountains,
by origin, language, and national customs, the
Bohemians kept aloof from the general politics
of the empire, and their kings frequently re-
ceived dispensations from attending the diet.
The peasantry were in a state of villenage, but
there was a nvmierous and powerful nobility, the
diet assembled frequently, and the nobles came
armed to defend their rights. The royal au-
thority was limited by the coronation oath. Bo-
hemia was frequently at war with Poland, the
emperor, or some of the surrounding states ; it
was successively united and disunited with Hun-
gary, Silesia, Moravia, '"tc, according to the
course of wars and alliances. Ottokar II.
(1253-78) had extended his conquests almost
from the Adriatic to the Baltic, when he lost
them and his life in contest with Rudolph, the
founder of the too successful house of Haps-
burg. His grandson Wenceslas III. was assas-
sinated at Olmiitz, and with him closed the
dynasty of Pfzemysl. The house of Luxemburg
succeeded in 1310, and governed Bohemia till
1437. Under Charles IV. (1346-78), who also
held the sceptre of the German empire, Bo-
hemia prospered, and advanced in civilization
and science. Toward the close of this second
dynasty civil wars were excited by the promul-
gation of the doctrines of Huss and the perse-
cution of his followers. These wars were pro-
tracted by the genius of John Ziska, the leader
of the Hussites, a man who, although latterly
quite blind, has for military genius been com-
pared to Hannibal.' Ziska was rarely defeated,
and his success inspired the utmost enthusiasm
in his followers. He has been called the in-
ventor of the modern art of fortification, and
by his skill in this art he made Mount Tabor
an impregnable fortress. After the death of
Ziska the moderate party of the Hussites, who
were called Calixtines, from their insisting on
the retention of the sacramental cup for the laity,
united with the Roman Catholics, and Sigismund
was acknowledged king in 1433. The conditions
of this compact being ill observed, G'^orge
Podiebrad, a nobleman of the reformed party,
was by them elected king in 1458. On his death
in 1471 they chose Wladislas, son of Cassimir,
king of Poland, who also obtained the crown of
Hungary. His son Louis lost both crowns with
his life in the battle of Mohacs against the
Turks, and Ferdinand of Austria became, in
1527, sovereign of both kingdoms. Bohemia
then lost its separate existence, being declared
hereditary in the house of Austria. Its subse-

BOHEMIA MANOR — BOHEMIAN LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE

quent history pertains to that of the Austrian
empire. It was desolated by the Thirty Years'
war, and it suffered severely from religious per-
secutions, by which, indeed, the reformed faith
was almost entirely suppressed in it. The Em-
peror Joseph II. gave some protection to the
Protestants. In 1848, when Europe was con-
vulsed with revolutionary movements, a momen-
tary attempt was made to assert the ancient
independence of Bohemia against the Austrian
dominion ; a conflict took place between the
army and the people, Prague was bombarded,
and the insurrection suppressed. Since then the
most prominent feature in the history of Bo-
hemia has been a constant struggle for ascend-
ency between the Slavonic Czechs and the Ger-
mans. See Austria.

Bohemia Manor, the name given to a tract
of some 5,000 acres bordering on the Elk River,
Maryland, granted by Lord Baltimore in 1666 to
Augustine Herman. The latter was a Bohemian
surveyor who pledged himself to make a map
of Maryland in return for the land. Obtaining
denization papers, he and his family were nat-
uralized under the first legislative act of that
kind in the province.

Bohemian Brethren, a Christian sect which
arose in Bohemia about the middle of the 15th
century from the remains of the Hussites.
Dissatisfied with the advances toward the Cath-
olic Church by which the Calixtines had made
themselves the ruling party in Bohemia, they re-
fused to receive the compacts, as they were
called, that is, the articles of agreement be-
tween that party and the council at Basel (30
Nov. 1433), and began about 1457, under the
■direction of a clergyman, JMichael Bradatz, to
form themselves into separate parishes, to hold
meetings of their own, and to distinguish them-
selves from the rest of the Hussites by the name
of Brothers, or Brothers' Union. Amidst the
hardships and oppressions which they suffered
from the Calixtines and the Roman Catholics
without making any resistance, their numbers in-
creased so much, through their constancy in their
belief and the purity of their morals, that in
1500 their parishes amounted to 200, most of
which had chapels belonging to them. The pe-
culiarities of their religious belief are seen in
their confessions of faith, especially their opin-
ions with regard to the Lord's Supper. They re-
jected the idea of transubstantiation, and ad-
mitted only a mystical spiritual presence of
Christ in the eucharist. In other points they
took the Scriptures as the ground of their doc-
trines throughout, and for this, but more espe-
cially for the constitution and discipline of their
churches, received the approbation of the re-
formers of the i6th century. This constitution
of theirs was framed according to what they
'lelieved to have been that ot the oldest apostolic
churches. They aimed at restoring the primitive
purity of Christianity by the exclusion of the
vicious from their communion, and by making
three degrees of excommunication, as well as by
the careful separation of the sexes, and the dis-
tribution of thf" members of their society into
three classes — the beginners, the proficients, and
the perfect. Their strict system of superintend-
ence, extending even to the minute details of
domestic life, did much toward promoting this
object. To carry on their system they had a
multitude of officers of different degrees ; or-

daining bishops, seniors, and conseniors, presby-
ters or preachers, deacons, sediles, and acolytes,
among whom the management of the ecclesiasti-
cal, moral, and civil affairs of the community
was distributed. Their first bishop received his
ordination from a Waldensian bishop, though
their churches held no communion with the Wal-
denses in Bohemia. They were destined, how-
ever, to experience a like fate with that op-
pressed sect. When, in conformity with their
principle of not performing military service,
they refused to take up arms in the Smalkaldic
war, Ferdinand took their churches from them,
and in 1548, 1,000 of their society retired in:o
Poland and Prussia, where they first settled in
Marienwerder. The agreement which they con-
cluded at Sendomir (14 April 1570) with the
Pohsh Lutherans and Calvinistic churches, and
still more the Dissenters' Peace Act of the Pol-
ish Convention (1372), obtained toleration for
them in Poland, where thej' united more closely
with the Calvinists under the persecutions of
the Swedish Sigismund, and have continued in
this connection to the present day.

Their brethren who remained in Moravia and
Bohemia recovered a certain degree of liberty
under Maximilian II., and had their chief resi-
dence at Fulneck in Moravia, whence they have
been known as the Moravian Brethren. The is-
sue of the Thirty Years' war, which terminated
so tmfortunately for the Protestants, occasioned
the entire destruction of their churches, and
their last bishop, Comenius, who had rendered
important services in the education of youth, was
compelled to flee. From this time they made
frequent migrations, the most important of which
took place in 1722, and occasioned the estab-
lishment of the new churches of the Brethren by
Count Zinzendorf (q.v.). Although the old Bo-
hemian Brethren must be regarded as now ex-
tinct, this society will ever deserve remembrance,
as a quiet guardian of Christian truth and
piety, in times just emerging from the barbarity
of the Middle Ages ; as a promoter of pure
morals, such as the reformers of the i6th cen-
tury were unable to establish in their churches;
and as the parent of the esteemed and widely
extended association of the United Brethren,
whose constitution has been modeled after
theirs. See United Brethren.

Bohemian Forest (Bohmerwald), a motm-
tain range or ridge of central Europe, extend-
ing from the Fichtelgebirge southward toward
the confluence of the Ilz and the Danube, and
separating Bavaria from Bohemia. The Bo-
hemian forest in ancient times formed a part
of the Silva Hercynia, the highest peaks being
the Arber (4.840 feet high) and Rachel. The
great abundance of wood has occasioned the es-
tablishment of many glass houses, forges, etc.,
in this region. The inhabitants have acquired
in their seclusion from the world, many cha-
racteristic virtues and vices.

Bohemian Language and Literature. The

language of Bohemia, otherwise called Czech, is
one of the Slavonic group of the Aryan of Indo-
European family of tongues, and accordmgiy al-
lied to Polish, Russian, Servian, Bulgarian, etc.
(See Slavs or Slavonians.) The Czech (Bo-
hemian) language or dialect was the first of the
Slavonic idioms which was cultivated scientific-
ally. It is spoken in Bohemia, Moravia, with
slight variations in Austrian Silesia, in Hun-

BOHEMIAN LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE

gary, and in Slavonia. Three chief dialects of
this language are recognized, namely the Bo-
hemian or Czech proper, the Moravian of Mo-
ravia and Silesia, and the Slovak of Hungary.
The Bohemian alphabet consists of 42 let-
ters, expressing a great variety of sounds.
The English sound of ts the Bohemian expresses
with c, the English y vi^ith g, the sli with ^^ or s,
the Italian ce or ci with c modified, the French
ge and gi with s, the Italian u with y, the gn
with 11, the English iv with w, particularly at
the end of words. The sound of entire words,
not that of the single letters which compose
them, determines the roughness or smoothness of
their pronunciation. The terminations of the
various declensions and conjugations are mostlj'
vowels, or the smoother consonants. In general,
the Bohemian has a natural melody like that of
the Greek.

The Bohemian language, moreover, has much
expressiveness and energy, as it is not weakened
by a number of articles, auxiliary words, con-
junctions, and words of transition, but is able
to represent the objects of imagination, of pas-
sion, and all the higher emotions of the poet and
orator, in a lively manner ; by its brevity, heap-
ing together the most significant words, and
arranging the connection of the parts of speech
according to the degree of feeling to be ex-
pressed, so as to give the style, spirit, and energy,
or gentleness and equability. Like various other
tongues, it designates many objects by imitation
of natural sounds. Thus the names of many
animals are taken from their voices, as kruta,
the turkey ; kachna, the duck. Many plants are
named from their effects, as bolehlaw, hemlock
(from headache). The conciseness of the lan-
guage is increased by the absence of auxiliaries
in the greater part of the verbs. The preterites,
in the third person singular and plural, express
a meaning still further condensed, as the varia-
tion in the last syllable is made to designate
the sex ; for example, psal, psala, psalo, he, she,
it, has written ; psali, psaly, psala, they have
written. In like manner the Bohemian saves
many prepositions and much circumlocution of
other kinds, by the use of the instrnuiental,
agreeing with the Latin ablative ; for instance,
secenjm mcce lilawii mu st' al (t read like te),
"with a blow of the sword he has cut off his
head." This language is, therefore, very well
fitted for the translation of the Latin classics.
By the use of the past participle active the Bo-
hemian can designate, as well as the Greek, who
has really performed the action contained in the
predicate of the accessory clause, which the
Latin, with its ablative absolute or participle
passive, must leave always undefined and du-
bious. The same kinds of actions performed
with different implements are often expressed by
peculiar words ; for example, the verbs sjti,
strjhati, krdgeti, rezati, denote to cut with the
scissors, with the sickle, with the knife, and with
the scythe. In the subtlety of grammatical struc-
ture the Bohemian is like the Greek, and has
the advantage over the Latin and other lan-
guages. In speaking of two hands, two eyes,
etc., the dual number is used ; for example,
ruce, oci, etc. The language is also capable of
expressing the idea of duration, referring to an
indefinite past time, like the Greek aorist ; for in-
stance, kvpozval diim, ale nekaupil ho, he was
engaged in buying the house, and did not buy it.
The language affords several preterite tenses,

distinguished with great subtlety, as kaupil, he-
has bought once ; kupozval, he had purchased
for a long time ; kupowdwal, he had purchased
formerly several times ; ktipozudwdzval, he seldom
had purchased in former times ; moreover, by
adding the auxiliary verb byl, a time still longer
passed may be expressed, though this is very sel-
dom used ; for instance, byl kiipozudzval, he had
purchased in times long past. Another advantage
of the language consists in the various future
tenses by which the Bohemian denotes not only
the time but also the duration, and the more
or less frequent repetition of the action ; for in-
stance, kaupjm, I shall purchase once; budu
kupozvati, I shall be purchasing for a long time ;
budu kupozvdzvati, I shall purchase several times;
and budti ktipozvdzvati, I shall be purchasing
very often. Not less manifold in signification,
and equally subtle in the determination of time,
are the participles and the participial construc-
tions. The determination of sex and number
by the final syllable of the participle gives the
Czech language no small advantage over others.
Small connective particles of speech the Bohe-
mian has in common with the Greek. The
Greek alia, men, gar, de, te, etc., agree with the
Bohemian ele, pak, zvsak, li, z, t' ; only the three
latter are always af^xed to a word. Finally,
the free, unrestrained arrangement of the words
contributes much to perspicuity, as the Bohe-
mian is less fettered than almost any other mod-
ern language to a particular order.

Bohemian Literature has been divided his-
torically into five periods. The first extends
from mythological times to 1409. It affords no
written documents of remote antiquity. We
know, however, that the language at an early
period was similar to the present from the names
of the gods, dukes, rivers, cities, and mountains
which have been preserved, such as Perun,
Przemysl, Borzwog, Wltawa, Bila, Praha, Tetin.
The Salvonian apostle Method, and the philos-
opher Constantine, called Cyril, made the Slavo-
nians in Moravia acquainted with Christianity.
Thence it penetrated to Bohemia, and thus the
people of this country received the Gr?eco-Sla-
vonic ritual in the year 845. The same Con-
stantine invented for the sounds of the Slavonic
language the Cyrillo-Slavonic alphabet, borrowed
mostly from the Greek. In later times the
Glagolitic alphabet sprang up, of which, how-
ever, less use was made. When the Latin
Church supplanted the Greek in Moravia and Bo-
hemia, the Latin alphabet came also into use in-
stead of the Cyrillic. In Bohemia the Cyrillic
character remained in use only with the monks
of Sazawa, who observed the Slavonic ritual.
As the Latins endeavored to annihilate all the
writings of the old ritual, and the Slavonic lan-
guage was, in many cases, obliged to give way
to the Latin, Bohemian literature suffered in-
calculable injury; hence we possess from the
earlier centuries but a few insignificant remains
in the characters above-mentioned. In the loth
century the Bohemians had a school at Kudet,
in which they learned Latin. Their most an-
cient relic is the hymn (Hospodine Pomiluyny)
of Bishop Adalbert (Wegtech), a native Bo-
hemian, sung to the present day even by the
Russians and Poles. The Bohemians possess
some remains of a collection of lyrico-epic na-
tional songs, without rhyme, which seem to have
been of great merit. The manuscript appears to
have been written in 1290 and 1310. Goethe

BOHEMIAN LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE

found these national songs worthy of particular
attention. Under the Emperor Charles IV., who
promoted the cultivation of the Bohemian lan-
guage, the University of Prague was founded
in 1348. In the Golden Bull he commanded
the sons of the German electors to learn the
Bohemian language. Under his son, the Em-
peror Wenceslas, all decrees were written in
Bohemian, which formerly were in Latin.
Prague was then not only the most populous
city in this part of Europe, but also, on account
of its splendid court and the wealth of its citi-
zens, the centre of the arts and sciences. Al-
most all the intellectual currents of the West
found entrance into Bohemia, and German lit-
erature in particular had a powerful influence.
The heroes of the Alexandrian and Arthurian
cycles of romance became familiar to the Czechs
in their own language. Dalimil IMezericky wrote
a history of Bohemia in verse ; Ondreg Z. Dube,
a collection of Bohemian laws, in three volumes ;
Warinec Z. Brezowa, a history of the Roman
emperors, and translated Mandeville's 'Travels^ ;
and Pribik Pulkawa, a Bohemian histor}'. This
period affords also many vocabularies, poems,
songs, and translations.

With Huss began the second period, from
1409 to 1500. The prevalence of religious dis-
putes caused the Bible to be generally read and
understood. Huss of Hussinetz translated
Wickliffe's book, ^Trialogus,^ into the Bohe-
mian tongue, and sent it to the laymen as pres-
ents. The "^Treatise of the Six Errors^ he
caused to be inscribed in Bohemian on the walls
of the chapel of Bethlehem. He wrote his first
collection of sermons when at the castle of Kozy
(1413), besides an 'Appeal to the Pope,^ 'Com-
mentary on the Ten Commandments,^ an 'Ex-
planation of the Twelve Articles,' two sermons
on the Antichrist; the 'Triple Cord,' and sev-
eral excellent hymns. His letters from the dun-
geon in Constance to the Bohemians were
translated by Luther into Latin, accompanied
with a preface, and printed at Wittenberg in
1536. He and Jakobellus and Jerome improved
and distributed the Bohemian Bible, of which
several copies have been preserved to our times.
Of Ziska of Trocnow, one of the greatest gen-
erals in history, several letters and his rules of
war have been preserved. From this period have
come down to us, several war songs of the
Taborites, also some songs of Prague. Martin
Lupac undertook, with the assistance of some
learned men, the labor of retranslating the whole
New Testament. The church service was now
performed entirely in the Bohemian language.
Alladienowic, an eye-witness of the execution of
Huss, wrote an account of his life. This used
to be read in the Bohemian churches. Procopius
continued the rhyming chronicles of Dalimil.
Lodkowic related his 'Journey to the Holy Sep-
ulchre,' Sasek of Mezyhor wrote 'Notes and
Travels Through Germany, England, France,
Spain, Portugal, and Italy of the Bohemian
Baron Loew of Rozmital and Vlatna' (whom
he accompanied), a contribution to our know-
ledge of the manners of the 15th century, pub-
lished in a German translation at Brunn (1824).
M. Gallus, Albjk, Chrislan, Zidek, J. Cerny, J.
Blowic, and Sindel. wrote on medicine, astrology,
and agriculture. As early as 1447 we have an
anonymous work on the grafting of trees. We
have also the rhjnning legend of the 10,000
knightS; a translation of the fables of ^sop, the

council of the beasts and birds, in prose and
verse, in three volumes (Placj Rada). Each
lesson, which flows in rhyme from the mouths
of the animals, is preceded by the natural his-
tory of the animals and the moral. It was
printed three times in the Bohemian language,
and published at Cracow in Latin verse (1521,
4to). Of the Bible 14 translations have come
down to us, besides 10 of the New Testament.
The oldest, of the year 1400, is in Dresden. The
typographic art made a rapid progress in Bo-
hemia. The first printed work was the Epistle
of Huss from Constance, in 1459; the second,
'The Trojan War,' in 1468; the third, a 'New
Testament,' in 1474; the whole Bible, in 1488;
the first almanac, in 1489.

The third age, from 1500 to 1620, may be
called the golden age of the Bohemian language.
The cultivation of learning — in other countries,
with only a few exceptions, the monopoly of the
clergy — was in this favored land open to the
whole nation. All branches of science were
elaborated, and brought to an uncommonly high
degree of improvement for that time. Gregory
Hruby of Geleni translated the work of Petrarch
'De Remediis utriusque Fortunse.' W. Pisecky
translated from the Greek the 'Exhortation of
Isocrates to Demonikos.' John Amos Comenius
wrote 54 works, some of which were very ex-
cellent. He published his 'Janua' and an 'Orbis
Pictus,' which were translated in his lifetime
into II languages, have passed through innumer-
able editions, and are not yet surpassed. In all
the north of Europe Comenius attracted atten-
tion by his projects for improving education,
which were deliberated upon even by the diet of
Sweden and the Parliament of England. The
hymns of this and the earlier ages, part of which
have been translated by Luther, may serve as
standards for all languages. In Prague alone
there were at this period 18 printing presses, in
the country towns of Bohemia 7, and in ^loravia
also 7; many Bohemian books, too, were printed
in foreign countries, as in Venice, Niiremberg,
Holland, Poland, Dresden, Wittenberg, and
Leipsic.

The fourth period begins with 1620 and ends
with 1774. After the battle at the White Moun-
tain, the whole Bohemian nation submitted en-
tirely to the conqueror. The population of most
of the cities and of whole districts migrated in
order not to be false to their faith. Alore than
70,000 men, and almost the whole of the nobility,
all the Protestant clergy, scholars, and artists, in
general the most cultivated part of the nation,
left their native country. Of these emigrants the
greater part formed the flower of the army of
Count Mansfield. Hence the Thirty Years' War
depopulated Bohemia more than any other coun-
try, since these fugitives endeavored to regain
their native country by repeated invasions. The
fugitives established at Amsterdam, Dresden,
Berlin, Breslau, and Halle printing presses, and
sent to their brethren in Bohemia, Moravia, and
Hungary a number of books, mostly new edi-
tions. Some Bohemians who observed the de-
cay of their language strove to remedy it; as
Pesina Z. Cechorodu ; Joh. Beckowsky, who
continued the Bohemian history to 1620; W.
Weseley, who wrote a work on geometry and
trigonometry, etc. ; but the decay was too great
to admit of being checked ; the nobility had be-
come strangers, and the government encouraged
only German literature. From this time, there-

BOHEMOND I. — BOHME

fare, the Bohemians wrote more in the German
language.

In the fifth period, from 1774 to the present
time, a new ray of hope shone on Bohemian
hterature, when, under the Emperor Joseph II.,
a deputation of secret Bohemian Protestants,
trusting to his Hberal views, made him ac-
quainted with the great number of their brethren
of the same faith. He perceived the necessity of
introducing toleration, and hundreds of thousands
of Protestants in Bohemia and Moravia came to
Hght : their concealed works were printed anew,
their classical language was again acknowledged
and cultivated. Under this protection many men
of merit, mindful of the fame of their ancestors,
endeavored to cultivate anew alf branches of the
sciences, and to rival, if possible, the results at-
tained by their more advanced neighbors. From
about the year 1820 great activity was mani-
fested by the Bohemian writers in the various
departments of literature. A little before this
Milton's "^Paradise Lost^ was translated into
Bohemian, and subsequentl}' Shakespeare's
dramas, or most of them, were likewise trans-
lated, the native drama being also cultivated.
Kollar and Chelakovsky distinguished themselves
in poetry, and perhaps even more Hynek Macha,
whose poem "May^' is said to still maintain an
'iifluence over Bohemian poetry. Kollar and
Chelakovsky were advocates of the Panslavic
movement. The chief work of the former was
'Slava's Daughter,^ a long lyrico-epic poem.
Several writers became well known as novelists,
some of them following the lead of Sir Walter
Scott. Jungmann (the translator of Milton),
brought out a valuable ^History of Czech Litera-
ture,^ and Schafarik his ^History of the Sla-
vonic Language and Literature^ and his "^Slavonic
Antiquities.^ Among more recent poets of note
may be mentioned the names of Halek Heyduk
and Neruda, but it must be admitted that few
Bohemian writers have become generally known,
even by name, to the European reading public.

Bo'hemond I., the son of the Norman ad-
venturer Robert Guiscard, who rose to be Duke
of Apulia and Calabria: b. 1056; d. mi. He
became familiar with warfare when a mere boy,
took a prominent part in various expeditions to
Greece and Illyria against Alexis Comnenus,
and repeatedly defeated his troops with a very
inferior force. As eldest son Bohemond natu-
rally expected to succeed his father, but when the
succession opened in 1085 Bohemond was ab-
sent in Greece, and his younger brother Roger,
having obtained possession of the paternal in-
heritance, declared his determination to maintain
it. A war between the brothers was followed
by an arrangement which gave Bohemond noth-
ing more than the principality of Tarentum.
While assisting his brother at the siege of
Amalfi he resolved to become a crusader, and
without waiting to complete it he harangued the
troops so effectually on the glory to be gained in
the Holy Land that the great body of them at
once joined his standard. Bohemond was soon
on his march, and after encountering considera-
'ile difficulties reached the scene of action. The
Crusaders had laid siege to Antioch, but had
made little progress and were beginning to
despair of success, when Bohemond found means
to gain over an Armenian renegade, who under-
took to introduce him and his men by night, and
thus give them possession of the town. Bohe-

mond laid the matter before his fellow-chiefs,
and in doing sc stipulated that in the event of
success he himself should be prince of Antioch.
The Armenian kept his promise, and accordingly
in 1098 Bohemond was installed in his sover-
eignty, which he retained ever after, and at his
death transmitted it to his son, who assumed the
title of Bohemond II.

Bohlau, be'lan, Helena, German novelist:
b. Weimar, 2.2 Nov. 1859. She shows now and
then a leaning toward the romantic school, but
on the whole her high power of description is
realistic and her writings are imbued with pas-
sion. Among her novels are ^ Under Death's
Ban> (1882) ; <Guilty of a Pure Heart^ (1888) ;
<In Fresh Water > (1891).

Bohlen, Peter von, pa'ter fon bd'len, Ger-
man Orientalist : b. Wiippels, Oldenburg, 9
March 1796; d. Halle, 6 Feb. 1840. He spent the
first 20 years of his life in straitened circum-
stances, but his talents and perseverance at-
tracted attention, and he obtained admission to
the Hamburg gymnasium. He afterward stud-
ied the Eastern languages at Halle and Bonn;
and he obtained an appointment at Konigsberg,
first in 1825 as extraordinary, and afterward in
1830 a* ordinary professor of Oriental literature.
Bohlen has left many works, which fully support
his title to the high place which he held among
Oriental scholars. One of the most important
is a work entitled *Das alte Indien' (1830-1),
not yet superseded by any other work on the
same subject. The details of his life are given
with great minuteness and honesty in an '^Auto-
biography^ (1841), which is full of interest,
and cannot be read without producing a full
conviction that he was no less distinguished by
his amiability in private life than by his literary-
acquirements.

Bohlen Lectures, a lecture course estab-
lished in 1875 on a foundation of $10,000 be-
queathed by John Bohlen, a lay member of the
Protestant Episcopal Church. They are deliv-
ered each year in Philadelphia, Pa., by eminent
representatives of that Church. Among the
most notable are those upon ''The Influence of
Jesus," by Bishop Brooks, and the "Fitness of
Christianity to Man," by Bishop Huntington.

Bohm, bem, Theobald, Bavarian musician:
b. Munich, 9 April 1798; d. Munich, 25 Nov.
1881. He is best known for his improvements
in the construction and fingering of the flute.
He wrote 'Ueber den Flotenbau und die neuesten
Verbesserungen desselben^ (1847), and ^Die
Flote und das Flotenspiel.^

Bohme, or Bohm, Jakob, ya'kob be'me,
one of the most renowned mystics of modern
times: b. 1575, Altseidenberg, a village in upper
Lusatia ; d. Gorlitz, November 1624. Boehrne
being the son of poor peasants, rem.ained to his
loth year without instruction, and employed in
tending cattle. Raised by contemplation above
his circumstances, and undisturbed by exterior
influences, a strong sense of the spiritual, par-
ticularly of the mysterious, was awakened in
him, and he saw in all the workings of nature
upon his mind a revelation of God, and even
imagined himself favored by divine inspirations.
He became afterward a shoemaker ; and this
sedentary life seems to have strengthened his
contemplative habits. In 1594 B6hme_ became
a master shoemaker in Gorlitz, married, and
continued a shoemaker during his life, but with-

BOHN — BOIELDIEU

drew himself more and more from the world.
If we take into view his retirement, his piety,
his rich and lively imagination, his imperfect
education, his philosophical desire for truth,
together with his abundance of ideas, and his
delusion in considering many of those ideas as
immediate communications of the Deity, we have
the sources of his doctrine and his works. His
first work, ^Aurora, oder die Morgenrote,' was
written in 1616, and contains his revelations on
God, man, and nature. This gave rise to a
prosecution against him ; but he was acquitted,
and called upon from all sides to continue writ-
ing. One of his most important works is ^De-
scription of the Three Principles of the Divine
Being.^ His works contain profound and lofty
ideas, mingled with many absurd and confused
notions, but the basis of his thought is the the-
orj'^ that everything exists and becomes intelligi-
ble only through its opposite. The first col-
lection of his writings was made in Holland in
1675 by Henry Betke; a more complete one in
1682 by Gichtel (10 vols. Amsterdam), from
whom the followers of Bohme, a religious sect
highly valued for their silent, virtuous, and be-
nevolent life, have received the name Gichte-
lians. Another edition appeared in Amsterdam
in 1730 under the title "^Theosophia Revelata,'
(2 vols.) ; the most complete in six volumes.
In England, also, Bohme's writings have found
many admirers. William Law published an
English translation of them, two volumes. A
sect, taking their name from Bohme, was like-
wise formed in England, and in 1697 Jane Lead,
an enthusiastic admirer of his, established a
particular society for the explanation of his
writings, under the name of the Philadelphists.
In very recent years his views have taken on
fresh importance, his fundamental principle hav-
ing been perceived as akin to that underlying
the philosophical systems of Spinoza, Schelling,
and Hegel. See Hartmann, 'Life and Doctrines
of Bohme^ (1893).

Bohn, bon, Henry George, English pub-
lisher, of German parentage : b. London. 4 Jan.
1796; d. Twickenham, 22 Aug. 1884. On com-
pleting his education he worked for a time under
his father, but about 1831 started business on his
own account as a second-hand bookseller, and in
1846 he began the issue of his famous libraries.
The first of these was the Standard, succeeded in
the following year by the Scientific and the An-
tiquarian, in 1848 by the Classical, and from then
till 1853 by the Illustrated, the Shilling, the Ec-
clesiastical, the Philological, and the British
Classics libraries. The whole number of volumes
contained in these series exceeded 600. In 1864
and subsequent years he sold all his copyrights
and other business property, thus realizing a
sum of nearly $500,000. Among his own works
were: 'The Origin and Progress of Printing'
(1857) ; 'Biography and Bibliography of
Shakespeare' (1863); 'Dictionary of Quota-
tions' (1867); 'Handbook of Proverbs'; 'Hand-
book of Games' ; * Guide to the Knowledge of
Pottery and Porcelain' ; and editions of Lown-
de's Bibliographer's Manual and Addison's
Works.

Bohol, bo-hol', Philippines, an island be-
longing to the Visayas or Bisayas group. It has
an area of about 1,300 square miles and an esti-
mated population (1900) of 245,000. Sugar-
cane is grown and the island is reputed rich in

gold deposits. The most important town is
Tagbilaran, a port on the southwest coast. In
the north is Caiape. These ports were officially
declared open to commerce 11 Dec. 1899. The
Visayas dialect prevails throughout Bohol.

Bo'hor, an east African antelope (Cervica-
pra bailor ), one of the reitboks.

Bohtlingk, bet'lmk, Otto von, German
.Sanskrit scholar: b. St. Petersburg, 11 June
1815; d. 16 April 1904. He received his edu-
cation in his native city, and in 1853 removed
to Germany. In 1842 he returned to St. Peters-
burg, but subsequently lived much in Jena and
Leipsic. His chief work is a Sanskrit-German
dictionary in seven volumes, prepared in con-
junction with Prof. Roth of Tiibingen (1853-
75). In 1S79-89 he issued a smaller edition
giving the meanings (with considerable addi-
tions), but omitting the quotations.

Boiardo, Matteo Maria, ma-ta'6 ma-re'a
bo-yar'do (Count of Scandiaxo), Italian poet:
b. near Ferrara, 1434 ; d. Reggio di Modena, De-
cember 1494. From 1488 to 1494, the period of his
death, he was commander of the city and castle
of Reggio, in the service of his protector, Er-
cole d'Este, Duke of Modena. This accom-
plished courtier, scholar, and knight was par-
ticularly distinguished as a poet. His 'Orlando
Innamorato' (1496) is continued to the 79th
canto, but not completed. He immortalized the
names of his own peasants and the charms of the
scenery at Scandiano in the persons of his he-
roes and his descriptions of the beauties of
nature. In language and versification he has
been since surpassed by Aricsto, whom he
equaled in invention, grace, and skilful conduct
of complicated episodes. Domenichi, Berni, and
Agostini new modeled and continued the work
of Boiardo without improving it. One continu-
ation only will never be forgotten — the Orlando
of Ariosto. In some of his works Boiardo was
led by the spirit of his times to a close imitation
of the ancients — for example, in his 'Capitoli' ;
also in a comedy borrowed from Lucian's 'Ti-
mon' ; and in his Latin eclogues and transla-
tions of Herodotus and Apuleius. In his son-
nets and canzoni (first printed at Reggio, 1499)
he has displayed great talents as a lyric poet.

Boiars. See Boyars.

Boieldieu, Adrian Frangois, a-dre-en fran-
swa bwal-dye, French composer of distinc-
tion: b. Rouen, 15 Dec. 1775; d. Groshois, 8
Oct. 1834. He early displayed great musical
talent, and at 18 wrote an opera, 'La fille cou-
pable,' which was performed with great ap-
plause. In 1795 he went to Paris, and rose rap-
idly in reputation, producing several operas and
various other pieces which have become classi-
cal. Such as 'Le deux lettres' ; 'La famille
Luisse' ; 'Calife de Bagdad' ; and '!Ma tante
Aurore.' When the Conservatoire de Musique
was established he was nominated a professor.
In 1803 he went to Russia as inaitre dc chapelle
to the Emperor Alexander, but returned to Paris
in 1811, and subsequently composed 'Jean de
Paris' (1812) ; 'Le chaperon rouge' (1818);
'La Dame blanche.' his masterpiece (1825);
'Les deux nuits' (1829). The 'Calife de Bag-
dad' ; 'Jean de Paris,' and *La Dame blanche-
still hold the stage and continue popular.

BOIES — BOILER

Boies, Horace, American statesman : b. Au-
rora, N. Y., 7 Dec. 1827. He went to Wiscon-
sin in 1844; and after working on a farm re-
turned, studied law and was admitted to the bar
in 1849. He practised at and near Buffalo till
1867. becoming active in Republican politics dur-
ing this period; and in the last year removed to
Waterloo, Iowa, where he continued law prac-
tice. His opposition to the tariff and prohibition
pohcy of the Republican party caused him to
unite with the Democrats; and, in 1890-4, he
served two terms as governor of Iowa, being
defeated for a third term in 1893. He was a
conspicuous candidate for the presidential nom-
ination in the National Democratic conventions
in 1892 and 1896; and in the campaign of 1896
he supported Bryan.

Boii, bo'i-T, a Celtic people, who at first
inhabited Transalpine Gaul. Their original seat
is supposed to have been between the upper
Saone and the higher parts of the Seine and
Marne. They migrated to Cisalpine Gaul,
crossed the Po, and established themselves be-
tween it and the Apennines, in the country pre-
viously occupied by the Umbrians. They are
found, 396 B.C., engaged along with the Insubres
and the Senones, two other tribes of Cisalpine
Gaul, in the capture and destruction of Melpum,
a neighboring city, of which the site and history
are unknown. They united their forces with
the Etruscans, 283 B.C., after the defeat of the
Senones, and were defeated by the Romans at
the Vadimonian Lake, the scene of a previous
defeat of the Etruscans. After another defeat
they made a peace with the Romans, which was
preserved for 45 j^ears, when the occupation of
the territory of the Senones by the latter led
to another war, in which the Boii were again de-
feated. At the commencement of the second
Punic war, 218 B.C., they again attacked the
Romans and supported Hannibal. From this
period they were engaged in almost constant
war with the Romans till they were completely
subdued by Scipio Nasica, 191 b.c. Many of
*hem were put to the sword; the remainder
were at length compelled to migrate, and cross-
ing the Alps found a refuge among the Taur-
iscans, a kindred tribe in the territory of
modern Bohemia, to which the Boii have given
their name. They were afterward driven out
or exterminated by the Dacians (some say the
Marcomans). Part of them migrated about 58
B.C. to Bavaria. The Boii, like the other Gauls,
were a people of considerable civilization, pos-
sessing a strong love of mdependence, and for-
midable from their military disposition and vir-
tues.

Boil, a superficial or deep localized in-
flammatory process of the skin leading to the
destruction of tissue and the formation of pus.
In practically all instances some form of in-
fection by a micro-organism, usually the
Staphylococcus pyogenes aureus, is present in
boils. In the superficial varieties, the bacteria
enter the hair follicles or the sebaceous glands
and travel down beneath the skin and here
either set up a process of destruction or con-
tinue one already begun by a wound. There
results a local swelling; with exquisite tender-
ness, and later a pointing and discharge of the
purulent detritus from the boil. In the deep-
seated varieties similar processes are in action,
but the heading and discharge of the boil is de-

layed. The marked tenderness is due to the
involvment of the nerve fibres in the tissues,
immediately surrounding the inflammatorj' cen-
tre. The predisposition to the formation of
boils varies widely, some people being particu-
larly prone to them. They are apparently more
liable in those who are ^"^run down," or in those
whose tissues are non-resistant. Boils are of
commoner occurrence following the winter time
of housed individuals, combined with the re-
newed activities of the skin in the warm spring
atmosphere, and they occur following the de-
pressed states of many diseases, and particularly
as a result of excessive athletic exercise, "over-
training." Faulty diet and hygiene are respon-
sible for many of them. In their treatment at-
tention to the intestines is imperative. Tonics,,
particularly those containing sorne forms of sul-
phur, are of value. Proper hygiene of the skin
is imperative. For the immediate treatment heat
is helpful. This is usually applied as a hot
flax-seed poultice, preferably, combined with a
mild antiseptic; two per cent carbolic acid, being
excellent. Early and complete incision is also
advisable.

Boileau Despreaux, Nicolas, nik-6-la bwa-
lo-da-pra-o, French poet of distinction: b.,
Paris, I Nov. 1636; d. there, 13 March 1711.
He applied himself at first to the study of the
law and afterward of theology, but devoting
himself eventually to the pursuit of literature, he
produced, within the space of 40 years, a vast
number of works, the most important of which,
is that on the art of poetry, establishing an
aesthetic code for all forms of poetical com-
position. His satirical poem, "^Le Lutrin,^ and
the * Dialogue des heros de roman,^ must also
be particularly mentioned. His other writings
comprise translations of the classics, miscel-
laneous effusions on art, music, and poetry, and
his famous epistles, of which those treating of
'Le respect humain,' ^La connoissance de soi-
meme,^ and ^Plaisirs de la campagne' are the
best. When Boileau began to write, Mon-
taigne, Pascal, Malherbe, Corneille, Moliere, La
Fontaine, and other eminent authors, had al-
ready made their appearance ; yet the people
were slow to appreciate the genius of the new
school, to which they preferred the previous
mediocre and imitative writers. Boileau's great
achievement was to cure this perversion of
taste. Like his friend Racine, he was histori-
ographer of Louis XIV., and the recipient of an
annual pension of 2.000 francs. His admission
to the French Academy did not take place be-
fore 1684, owing to his attacks upon some of the
members. The latter part of his life was passed
in neglect and troubles, which accelerated his
death. He left the reputation of a genial, h'gh-
minded, and generous man. The best edition
of his works is by Gidel (1870-3). See Descha-
nel, ^Le romantisme des classiques,' 4th series
(1888); Faguet, <XVII. Siecle, Etudes htte-
raires^ (1887) ; Hemon, ^Cours de litterature^
(1889-95) ; Lanson, ^Boileau' (1892) ; Mcrillot^
< Boileau' (1892).

Boiler, in steam engineering, a closed
vessel for the generation of steam tmder pres-
sure. In days when steam pressures did not
exceed a few pounds to the square inch, many
forms of boiler were used, that are now_ out
of the question, on account of the intrinsic
weakness of their forms. At the present time.

BOILER

•when steam pressures are often carried as high
as 150 or 250 pounds to the square inch, the
strictest attention must be paid to every trifling
detail of design and construction, in order to
ensure the safety of the structure. The fanci-
ful shapes that prevailed in the days of Watt
and other early steam engineers have perforce
disappeared, and given place to a limited num-
ber of standard types that have been found
to be capable of withstanding the severe condi-
tions of modern practice. The types at present
in use may be divided into two general classes,
according as they are "internally fired" or "exter-
nally fired'* ; that is, according as the fire which
furnishes the energy for the formation of steam
is contained within the general contour of the
boiler, or is situated externally to it. Inter-
nally fired boilers are the rule in England, but
a large majority of the boilers in use in the
United States are fired externally.

Internally Fired Boilers. — The Cornish and
Lancashire "lx)ilers are the commonest internally
fired types. Each consists of a cylindrical shell
with flat ends or "heads.** In the Cornish type
the boiler is traversed from end to end by a
large flue, which is often corrugated, to increase

Fig. I. The " Scotch," or Cylindrical, Marine Boiler.

its strength. The fire is built within this flue,
upon a suitable grate at one end of the boiler ;
and the gaseous products of combustion, after
passing through the flue, are returned along the
outside of the shell, so as to give up still more
of their heat to the water in the boiler. The
large flue in the Cornish type is an element of
weakness, since the tendency of a flue to col-
lapse through the action of an external pressure
increases very rapidly with the diameter of
the flue. To guard against collapse, the long
flue is often provided with strengthening rings,
which are riveted to it externally at short inter-
vals. The Lancashire boiler differs from the
Cornish type chiefly in having two comparatively
small flues in the place of a single large one.
Such a construction is intrinsically stronger,
and since there is a fire in each of the flues,
the fuel can be replenished, and the fires cleaned,
alternately. This implies a greater steadiness
of pressure, and less strain upon the boiler
from the chilling action of the comparatively
cold air that enters and strikes against the
heated flue-walls when the fire doors are opened.
The Cornish boiler is cheaper to build, and the
Lancashire boiler is harder to fire, owing to the

smaller size of its flues. The Galloway boiler
does not differ in any essential particular from
the Cornish or Lancashire types, except that its
flues are crossed by conical-shaped water tubes,
which serve the double purpose of increasing the
heating surface, and of stiffening the flues that
they traverse. The conical shape is adopted for
the cross-tubes chiefly on account of the ease
with which tubes of this form can be put in
position, by passing the flange of the smaller
end through the opening to which the larger end
is to be riveted.

The Scotch, or cylindrical marine boiler,
shown in Fig. i, is a very common type in
marine practice. It contains several furnaces
(three in the illustration), which are usually
corrugated. These furnace-flues do not pass
through the entire length of the boiler, as in
the Cornish and Lancashire types, but each is
connected, within the boiler, to a separate "com-
bustion chamber.** The products of combus-
tion pass from the furnace back into the combus-
tion chamber, and then return to the front
end of the boiler through banks of small tubes
which occupy the water space of the boiler,
above the furnace. A "breeching** (or hood)
of sheet steel, secured to the front of the boiler,
then receives them, and conducts them to the
stack.

Among the kinds of internally fired boilers
that are more familiar to the engineers of the
United States, the vertical tubular boiler and the
locomotive boiler deserve special mention. The
vertical tubular boiler consists of a cylindrical
shell, with flat heads at the top and bottom,
and traversed by a large number of small verti-
cal tubes. The Manning boiler, shown in Fig.
2, is a good example of this type. At the lower
end, the shell of this boiler is enlarged to
provide a greater space for the fire-box than
could be had if the shell were of the same
diameter all the way. Another object that the
designer had in view, in increasing the diameter
of the shell in this way, was to give the boiler
a certain degree of elasticity. The tubes are
often hotter, in service, than the outer shell ;
and hence they tend to expand more, and thus
throw stresses upon the heads and the tube
ends. The reversed flange by which the main
shell is secured to the fire-box is supposed to
yield sufficiently, under the bending stress thus
thrown upon it, to relieve the more vulnerable
parts of the boiler from the expansion strains
to which they would otherwise be subjected.
The fire-box of the Manning boiler is surrounded
by an annular space containing water, the inner
plates of this space (or "water leg**) being se-
cured to the outer ones by screw stay bolts
that are spaced evenly, at short distances, so
that they form the corners of a system of small
squares. These bolts are supposed to be screwed
into each of the shells of the water leg, and
afterward riveted over at both ends. They are
also commonly made hollow, or drilled through
lengthwise with a small hole, so that if one of
them should break or corrode away seriously,
the escaping steam or water would attract the
attention of the fireman. Vertical tubular boil-
ers are particularly useful when the available
floor space in the boiler room is small ; but they
are often hard to clean out, and hence are not
to be recommended when the water supply is
known to form considerable deposits of scale
matter. Such scale matter, in whatever part of

BOILER

the boiler it is formed, will eventually fall upon
the lower tube sheet, or else into the water leg.
That which falls into the water leg will do
no great harm unless it is allowed to accumu-
late to an unreasonable extent. Handholes are

Fig. 2. The Manning Boiler.

provided along the bottom of the water leg,
on the outer shell, and these should be opened
as often as experience with the particular feed
water that is used indicates to be necessary,
and the water leg thoroughly freed from scale
and mud. Handholes should also be provided

on the same level as the lower tube sheet, for
a like purpose; but it is not so easy to remove
the scale from this sheet as it is to remove
it from the water leg. That which lodges
around the edges of the tube sheet can be re-
moved without any great trouble, but the deposit
that lies toward the middle of the tubes can
hardly be got at from the handholes. Yet it is
of the highest importance that the tube sheet
should be kept free from such deposits, because
otherwise the ends of the tubes will become
overheated and loosened, and serious mischief,
or even disastrous explosion, may follow.

The locomotive boiler is built in a great
variety of forms and proportions, but the fun-
damental principles of design are substantially
the same in most of them. Like the vertical
tubular boiler, it has a fire-box that is sur-
rounded by a water leg on all sides, though it is
open at the bottom for the discharge of ashes,
and for the admission of air for combustion.
The inner and outer walls of the fire-box are
connected by stay-bolts, and the upper sheet of
the furnace (technically known as the ^^crown-
sheet") is supported in some efficient manner,
so that the pressure of the steam shall not
force it down out of position. The support thus
necessary for the crown-sheet is sometimes
afforded by running **sling stays" from it to the
neighboring parts of the outer shell, and some-
times by providing parallel, horizontal girders
over the sheet, these being secured to the crown-
sheet, at short intervals, by means of hangers,
or long, thimbled rivets. Not infrequently these
two methods of support are combined in the
same boiler, as suggested in the illustration
(Fig. 3). The products of combustion pass
forward from the furnace, through a bank of
small tubes that conduct them to a '^smoke-box"
or ^'extension" at the front end, to which the
stack is attached. \\'hen the locomotive type
of boiler is used in stationary practice, the draft
required for combustion is provided by a chim-
ney or tall stack, as in other types of stationary
boiler ; but when used in railway service it is
impossible to obtain the draft in this manner,
and a "blast-pipe" is therefore provided, through
which the exhaust steam from the engine cylin-
ders is discharged up the stack. The gaseous
products of combustion are expelled from the
"front extension" by the blast of steam, and
an equivalent quantity of air is drawn up through
the fire. The draft produced in this way is
quite powerful. "Baffle plates" are therefore
provided in the furnace, in many cases, to
deflect the hot gases that come from the fire,
and bring them into contact with a considerable
portion of the surface of the fire-box. before they
pass out into the tubes. The weakest points
about the locomotive type of boiler are the
crown-sheet and the stay-bolting. If sediment
lodges upon the crown-sheet, and thereby keeps
the water from direct contact with the metal
there, overheating is sure to occur, and the
sheet may become so softened and burned as
to lose its strength, tear away from its fasten-
ings, and permit the entire contents of the
boiler to be discharged into the furnace. Many
of the explosions of locomotive boilers are due
to this action. The stay-bolting at the sides of
the fire-box is likewise a source of frequent
trouble, because it is found that the stay-bolts
sometimes corrode away very rapidly, so that
they are in reality badly wasted and weakened.

BOILER

when the engineer in charge believes them
to be still sound and strong. As in the vertical
boiler, the stay-bolts are made hollow so that
they may automatically give notice of b'eakage
by leaking. This artifice is helpful, but unfor-
tunately it does not invariably work iS it is
intended to, and broken or badly corroded stay-
bolts exist, not infrequently, without giving the
alarm that they are supposed to give.

Externally Fired Boilers. — The commonest
type of externally fired boiler, in the United
States, is the horizontal tubular. The standard

underneath the boiler shell to the ^'combustion
chamber*^ at the rear, after which they rise and
return to the front end through the tubes. They
then enter the ''smoke box" at the front end, and
finally pass upward into the flue that leads
to the chimney. The weight of the boiler is
sustained by means of cast-iron (or steel)
projections, or "lugs,'^ that are -lot shown in
the illustration, but which are riveted to the
shell, and rest upon the side walls of the brick
setting. Three pairs of lugs are often provided,
but two pairs are sufficient except when the

STiAM OOMt

design of this boiler, according to the Hartford
Steam Boiler Inspection and Insurance Com-
pan}', is shown, with its brickwork (or "set-
ting'^) partially torn away, in Fig. 4. It con-

— ^ ' I ' ti A ^-

'iG. 4. Horizontal Tubular Boiler.

sists of a cylindrical shell, usually composed of
three courses or "rings" of plates, riveted to-
gether. The circular joints in these boilers are
almost invariable' single-riveted : but the longi-
tudinal joints arc double-riveted, triple-riveted,
or riveted in some even more substantial man-
ner, according to the pressure that the boiler
is to carry. The longitudinal joints, which are
not shown in the engraving, should be high
enough to be well out of the way of the hot
gases from the furnace. A multitude of tubes
extend through the boiler from end to end, and
the furnace gases pass from the furnace back

boiler is very long; and two pairs can be
brought to a good bearing upon the side walls
more readily than three. The boiler should be
"anchored" by the front pair of lugs, and th»»
rear pair should be provided with rollers so that
the boiler may expand and contract freely, with-
out producing strains in the setting or in itself.
The course of the feed-pipe, through which
water is introduced into the boiler, is indicated
quite plainly in the engraving. If there are
several boilers set together in one battery, the
main feed-pipe runs along the fronts, just
under the projecting ends of the boilers. From
this main feed-pipe a branch pipe is taken off
for each boiler. The branch pipe is taken off
on the left-hand side of the boiler, and near
the main pipe it is provided with a ground
union, or with a flanged connection. Imme-
diately above the union there is a check valve,
and above this is the globe valve which controls
the feed. The feed pipe enters the boiler just
above the tubes, and passes down the boiler on
the inside, nearly to the back head. It then
crosses over to the right-hand side, and dis-
charges downward between the tubes and the
shell. It is found by experience that when
feed water is introduced in this way it becomes
heated almost to the temperature of the water in
the boiler before it is discharged, so that the
annoying and often dangerous effects that are
produced when the shell is chilled by cooler
feed-water are entirely avoided. On large boil-
ers the feed-pipe should have a diameter of at
least an inch and a half. The blow-off pipe
(which is used for drawing off the contents of
the boiler) should be located at the rear end, and

BOILER

should enter the boiler at the bottom, and
not through the back head. To strengthen the
construction, the shell should be reinforced
where the blow-off enters it, by a ring of boiler
plate securely riveted in place, about the point
of attachment of the blow-off. The neglect of
this simple matter of reinforcement has led to
many serious accidents, through the blow-off
pipe pulling out and permitting the contents
of the boiler to be discharged through the open-
ing so made. As the blow-off is exposed to
the action of the fire, it is also important that
it should be encased in some sort of a protecting
sleeve, as indicated by the dotted lines. A
piece of larger pipe, slipped over the blow-off,
is often used for this purpose, but it has the
disadvantage of rendering the blow-off itself
inaccessible for examination. A piece of asbes-
tos rope coiled about the pipe is equally satis-

straight passage through them, and are therefore
likely to catch and retain pieces of scale, which
often prove to be very troublesome impediments.
It should be mentioned that those parts of the
heads of a horizontal tubular boiler that lie
above the tubes are intrinsically weak, and must
therefore be sustained in some manner. The
necessary support is usually secured by running
braces from the heads to the side of the boiler
shell, though sometimes the braces are run
through the entire length of the boiler, from
one end to the other.

The horizontal tubular boiler has many excel-
lent points, not the least of which is that it
is accessible for exam.ination and cleaning in
practically every part. No boiler can be ex-
pected to work ideally when the feed water
is bad, but the horizontal tubular type gives
as good service, even under this trying condi-

FiG. 5. The Babcuck & Wilcox Water Tube Boiler.

factory, and permits of easy inspection of the
pipe. The blow-off pipe of a boiler that is
properly cared for is not likely to burn nor to
become otherwise injured. Most of the acci-
dents from the burning of such pipes have
been primarily due to permitting the pipes to
become choked up with mud or scale, so that
water could not enter them freely from the
boiler, to keep them properly cool. This may
be almost certainly avoided by opening the
blow-off (say) twice a day for a moment or
two, until any sediment that may have fallen
into it has been thoroughly swept out. The
blow-off pipe is often so arranged that the elbow
comes in the combustion chamber ; but this is
not good practice, and it is much better to
carry the pipe down until it passes below the
floor of this chamber. The pipe itself should
be about two inches in diameter. It should be
provided with a plug cock or with a gate valve,
but a globe valve should never be used upon
it, since valves of this type do not have a

tion, as can be had from any known type. Its
weak points are (i) that it is not so well,
adapted to extremely high pressures as some of
the water-tube types, of which one will be pres-
ently noticed; and (2) when it ruptures (as
must happen occasionally with every type of
boiler) the explosion is likely to be considerably
more destructive than the explosion of a sec-
tional boiler, because the large quantity of
energy that it contains is liberated more sud-
denly.

Another class of externally fired boilers that
is becoming more and more widely used, both
in the United States and Europe, is the *water-
tube*^ type, which is characterized by the fact
that its tubular elements contain water, instead
of serving for the transmission of the furnace
gases, as in all the other forms that have been
considered above. One of the best-known boil-
ers of thi<; class is the Babcock and Wilcox,
which is shown in Fig. 5. This boiler is built
up of lap-welded wrought-iron tubes, placed

AN ENGLISH WATER-TUBE LOCOMOTIVE BOILER.

\iew Showing Auxiliary Fire-Tubes for stiffening Front End of Fire-box. - The Fire-box and Water-Tube Flue.

■■ Side Doors Open, Showing Cross Water-Tubes in Fire-box. * Complete Boiler, Showing

Side Door to Fire-box and Front End of Flue with Cross Water-Tubes.

BOILER

in an inclined position, and attached, both at
the front and at the rear, to an upper drum
that is made of extra thick steel or iron plates,
and double-riveted, or riveted with a butt-
strapped joint. The tubes are not vertically over
one another, but are "staggered,' so that each
tube comes directly over a space in the row
below it. The boiler is suspended from
wrought-iron girders, which rest upon iron col-
umns that are entirely independent of the brick-
work ; and hence the brickwork may be repaired,
or may even be removed altogether, without
disturbing the boiler itself. The fire is situated
under the front or higher end of the inclined
tubes, and the products of combustion are guided
by division plates and bridges so that after ris-
ing from the fire grate they pass between the
tubes to the combustion chamber under the
drum, then downward among the tubes again,
and finally upward and to the chimney. This
devious course, as well as the staggering of
the tubes, is intended to bring the hot gases
into intimate contact with the tubes at every
point. As the water in the boiler becomes heated,
it rises toward the higher end of the tubes,
becoming meanwhile partially converted into
steam. The column of mixed water and steam
ascends into the drum, where its constituents
separate, the steam remaining in the drum, while
the water flows to the rear, where it passes
down through the long, upright tubes, and so
completes the circulation.

Water-tube boilers are now used to some
•extent in marine work, and especially in the
naval service. Attention has been particularly
directed to this branch of the subject by the
recent elaborate investigations oi the Com-
Tnission appointed by the British Admiralty,
for the purpose of recommending a standard
type of boiler for use in the British navy. (See
< Engineering News,^ 4 Sept. 1902, page 176.)
The Belleville boiler, which has heretofore been
somewhat extensively used in that service, is
represented, diagrammatically, on plate. It con-
sists essentially of a series of water-tubes,
slightly inclined to the horizontal, and opening
at the bottom into malleable iron collector
boxes, and at the top into a drum to which
the main steam pipe is attached. The feed water
is introduced at the middle of the upper drum,
and is injected under a pressure in excess of
that which is carried upon the boiler itself.
To prevent the comparatively cool feed water
from entering any of the tubes in which steam
is generated, these tubes are caused to project
at least eight inches into the drum. The feed
passes down through return pipes at the sides
of the boiler, and enters the tubes below, after
its temperature has been raised by the heat of
the furnace sufficiently to prevent injury from
contraction strains. The proper regulation of
the feed-water supply is one of the difficult
practice:! points about the Belleville boiler; and
to overcome it as far as possible an ingenious
automatic feed device is provided. As will be
understood from an inspection of the engrav-
ing, there is little or no true circulation in
boilers of this type. The tube-groups discharge
a mixture of steam and water into the drum,
where the steam is supposed to be freed from
the water by the aid of a system of baffle plates
that are not shown. An economizer is placed in
the stack above the boiler in the most approved
modern installations, the construction of the

Vol. 2 — 50.

economizer being similar to that of the boiler
itself, except that the tubes composing the ele-
ments are smaller. The Commission already re-
ferred to reported somewhat unfavorably upon
the Belleville boiler, but did not suggest any
other special type of water-tube boiler for gen-
eral use aboard ship. It inclined rather toward
cylindrical boilers for ordinary purposes, with
auxiliary water-tube boilers for emergencies.

All boilers are supposed to be provided with
certain appliances intended to secure safety, and
uniformity of working. Noteworthy among
these are the safety valve, and the gauges
that indicate the pressure of the steam and the
position of the water level. These are described
under separate headings.

The "horse-power" of a boiler is often spoken
of; but the term is a loose one, without any
definite significance, because the horse-power
that can be realized from a boiler depends to
a very great extent upon the engine that is
used to develop the power, and upon how hard
the boiler is forced. The Centennial Commis-
sion adopted, as the definition of a horse-power
(when that expression is used in connection with
a boiler), the "evaporation of 30 pounds of
water per hour, when the temperature of the
feed water is 100° F., and the pressure of the
steam is 70 pounds per square inch, as read
from the gauge.*'

Steam boilers may explode from any one
of a great variety of causes. Of these three
are specially worthy of mention: (i) The boiler
may be poorly made or poorly designed, so
that even when it is new it is not capable of
safely withstanding the load that is put upon
it. All boilers, however well made, should have
a "factor of safety" of five; that is, they should
be able to sustain a pressure five times as great
as the regular working pressure, before bursting.
(2) A boiler, originally good, may be wasted
away, either locally or generally, by corrosion
or other form of deterioration, or it may develop
defects in service, which detract from its origi-
nal strength sufficiently to lead to explosive
failure. Competent periodical inspection will
materially lessen the liability to explosion from
causes of this sort. (3) The water in the boiler
may become low, through neglect or through the
failure of the feed-apparatus, so that the metal
laecomes overheated or burned, and loses its
strength. This is the cause almost invariably
assigned, by the general public and even by
minor "experts,'' when the boiler explosion oc-
curs, and the attendant is frequently censured
for his carelessness when the explosion was
really due to some totally different cause. When
an explosion is attended by great manifestations
of force and energy, it is safe to conclude that
a plentiful supply of water was present ; for
a boiler full of heated water contains vastly
more energy than one that is merely filled with
steam at the same temperature. (See Thurston,
^Steam Boiler Explosions.') Pound for pound,
steam contains more energy than water, when
the two are at the same temperature; but cubic
foot for cubic foot (and this is the way that
the comparison should be made in reasoning
about a boiler explosion), the_ water has_ an
enormous advantage, owing to its greater den-
sity.

For further details concerning boilers, con-
sult F. R. Hutton. <The Mechanical Engineer-
ing of Power Plants' ; J. G. A. Meyer, < Modern

BOILER SHOP TERMS

Locomotive Construction^ ; Peabody and Miller,
^Notes on Steam Boilers' ; R. H. Thurston, "^A
Manual of Steam Boilers,* an'd * Steam Boiler
Explosions'; William Kent, ^ Steam Boiler
Economy' ; W. H. Shock, 'Steam Boilers' ;
Leslie S. Robertson, 'Water Tube Boilers' ; and
W. H. Ford, 'Boiler Making. > See also the
1899 'Code' for boiler trials, in Vol. 20 of the
'Transactions of the American Society of Me-
chanical Engineers.'

A. p. RiSTEEN, Ph.D.,
Hartford Steam Boiler Insp. and Ins. Co.

Boiler Shop Terms. The following list
of terms includes the principal terms and phrases
commonly employed in connection with the
work of the design, constructon, and use of
steam boilers.

Specific information relative to boiler fittings
such as valves and cocks may be found under
the title Valves and Valve Terms.

Information relative to the design and con-
struction of locomotive engine boilers, and con-
cise descriptions of their various parts, fittings,
and accessory appliances and devices such as
pumps and injectors, and cocks, valves, and
feed-water heaters, will be found carefully
treated under the title Locomotive, Design and
Construction of the Modern.

Special information relative to the general
methods and operations of constructive work
such as the boring, drilling, and punching of
holes, and the joining of plates by riveting and
welding, will be found under the title Work-
Shop Terms; while the definitions of the various
terms and their abbreviations such H.P. — Horse-
power, and B. T. U. — British Thermal Units,
etc., may be found under the title Engineering
AND Structural Terms in this encyclopedia.

Acidulated Water. — Water in which acids have been
generated by the introduction of too much tallow into
the boiler to prevent incrustation. Its use tends to
produce boiler corrosion.

Air Casing. — The enclosed space which envelops the
uptake of marine boilers and prevents the loss of heat
therefrom by radiation.

Air Spaces. — The openings between the fire-bars of
engine boilers.

Anti-fouling Compositions. — See Incrustation.

Ash Pit. — ■ That part of the furnace of a stationary
boiler which lies below the fire-bars and immediately
in front of the fire-door. It is provided for the re-
ception of the ashes which fall through the bars, and
constitutes the main draught entrance of the furnace.

Baffle Plates or Bafflers. — The plates provided in
the fire-boxes and flues of steam boilers for throwing
the flames and hot gases against the best heating sur-
faces. Also to admit air above the fire, and to pre-
vent the burning and buckling of the door of the
furnace.

Ballooning. — The process which takes place within a
steam boiler when a sediment of fine mud and scale
is carried to the surface of the water by the ebulli-
tion of the bubbles of steam. Large boilers are pro-
vided with " scum-troughs " for collecting this sedi-
ment.

Banding or Bonding. — The securing of the lagging
around steam cylinders and boilers with broad encir-
cling bands of sheet-brass or hoop-iron.

Bar-stays. — Solid screwed stays as distinguished from
tube-stays or stay-tubes.

Bearing Ring. — The ring which form's the support of
the fire-bars in a vertical boiler.

Blast. — The volume of air forced artificially into the
furnaces of marine boilers to quicken the combustion.

Bleeding. — The red streaks of rust which soak through
the scale adhering to the inner surfaces of boilers
and serve to indicate the presence of corrosion in the
plates underneath.

Blisters. — Defects in boiler plates of poor quality,
caused by the retention of cinders or sand therein
during the rolling process.

Blow-off or Blow-off Cock. — The pipe and cock situ-

ated at the lower part of the boiler by which the
boiler is blown-off or emptied of its contents to pre-
vent incrustation. In horizontal boilers of the Lan-
cashire and Cornish type, a pipe called the blow-off
bend connects the cock with the blow-oif seating
through which the boiler is blown-off into the ash pit.

Bear or Boiler Bear. — See Punching Bear.

Bottle-tight. — The seams, rivets, fittings, and mount-
ings of a steam boiler are said to be bottle-tight
when the joints are so close and perfect that there
is not the slightest leakage through them under the
application of the water or the steam tests.

BoTTLiNG-uP. — The temporary confinement of steam in
the tubes of a sectional boiler caused by its being
generated too rapidly.

Bowling Hoop. — A ring of arch-shaped section, and
provided with flanges for the reception of rivets, em-
ployed for uniting the sections of furnace shells in
horizontal boilers.

Breaking Joint. — -The manner in which the longitudi-
nal seams of the plates of the boiler are arranged so
as to act as supports for each other.

Bridge. — The barrier of brickwork built upon a girder-
like casting which stretches across the fire-box of an
engine boiler at the farther end of the grate. It
serves to throw the flames upwards to the heating
surface, and also prevents a too rapid escape of the
heated gases.

Brine Pump. — A pump employed for periodically draw-
ing off a certain amount of water from a marine
boiler to prevent saturation.

Bunker Plate. — A sheet-iron plate which encloses the
bunker or space which holds the coal or coke used
in the furnace of an engine boiler.

Bursting. — The destruction of a boiler by an excess-
of internal pressure, as distinguished from collapsing,
or the failure of a boiler under the force of an ex-
ternal pressure.

Calorimeter. — The sectional area of a boiler flue, given
in square inches.

Capacity. — ■ See Heating Surface.

Carbonate of Lime. — The principal substance which
causes the incrustation of steam boilers and water-
pipes. It is held in solution in the water as a bi-
carbonate by the excess of carbonic acid. When the
boiler is heated the excess of acid is driven off, and
the carbonate is precipitated in the form of a muddy
deposit which hardens in the presence of heat into-
the form of an injurious scale.

Caulking. — The process of burring or driving up the
edges of boiler plates along the riveted seams to
make them steam and water tight. The caulking of
the joints between boiler shells and the flanges of
cast-iron man-holes, and safety and stop valve seat-
ings, is accomplished by means of caulking-strips or
strips of sheet metal interposed between the wrought-
iron of the shells and the cast-iron of the pieces
attached thereto. This is rendered necessary on ac-
count of the impossibility of caulking the cast-iron.

Chimney. — The tube or funnel through which the
waste steam and smoke escapes from an engine or
boiler into the open air. Its proportions bear a defi-
nite relation to the grate area, and vary in the
different types of engines.

Circulating Tubes. — The cross tubes of vertical boil-
ers, or the ordinary forms of tubes used in multi-
tubular boilers or surface condensers.

Circulation. — The circulation in a steam boiler is
caused by the bubbling up of the lighter boiling water
from the heating surfaces through the heavier cooler
water in the upper portions which descends and thus
comes in contact with the heating surfaces. Efficient
circulation is necessary to the rapid generation of
steam, and for the prevention of incrustation. It is
promoted by the use of properly arranged water
tubes.

Clinkering. — The removal of the clinkers or other
vitrified material from the fire in the boiler, period-
ically.

Clothing. — The felt and wood coverings placed around
boilers to prevent loss of heat by radiation.

Coating. — Non-conducting compositions of felt, silicate
cotton, asbestos, etc., which are smeared or placed
around steam boilers while the substances are in a
plastic state, and which become subsequently hard-
ened by the heat, and prevent the loss of heat from
the boiler by radiation.
Cold Water Test. — The hydraulic test, for pressures,
only, applied to steam boilers, as distinguished from
the hot water test.

Collapse. — The destruction of the tubes and fire-boxes,
of steam boilers by external pressures which cause
them to fail by bending or crumpling inwardly.
Collector. — A cylindrical vessel enclosed in a steam
boiler for the purpose of collecting the sedimentary
matter contained in the water, which if allowed to

BOILER SHOP TERMS

remain in the water would produce injurious scale
and incrustation. The material thus collected is re-
moved by being blown-out at intervals.

Combined Steam. — Dry and wet steam allowed to
mingle together before being used. Its use, at a tem-
perature not exceeding 310° Fahr., tends to diminish
the evils of corrosion and priming.

Combustion Chamber. — That portion of a boiler flue
in which the gases liberated by the action of the fire
are burned. It lies between the grate and the smoke-
flue.

Corrosion. — The rusting or oxidation of metals by con-
tact and chemical union with oxygen in the presence
of water. Boiler corrosion is either internal or ex-
ternal. Internal corrosion is due to the presence of
acidulated water, or to superheated steam in the
steam-chamber. E.xternal corrosion results from leak-
age and from contact with damp foundations and
seatings.

Corrugated Furnace Tubes. — Furnace tubes which are
ribbed in their longitudinal sections. They are ex-
tensively used both in land and marine boilers. The
elastic character of the corrugations absorbs the linear
expansion of the tubes under the influence of heat,
and thus prevents the strains which tend to bulge the
end-plates of the boiler.

Cross-tubes. — The heating tubes in a vertical or cross-
tube boiler. They pass through the fire-box, and
therefore, being surrounded by the fire, materially
assist in maintaining a rapid circulation of the water.
They are cleaned through a mud-door placed opposite
the end of each tube.

Crown. — The boiler crown proper, is the uppermost
plate in the shell of the boiler. It is formed either
in the shape of a hollow disc flanged around the
edges, and by which it is riveted to the outer shell-
plates, or it is made flat and secured in place by
means of stays. That portion of the crown which
lies over the top of the furnace or inner shell is
usually designated as the fire-box crown.

Damper. — -The plate, cover, or valve, employed for
regulating the amount of draught in a boiler or fur-
nace flue. The contrivance is usually balanced with
a weight called the damper-weight which assists in
its adjustment.

Dead-plate. — The cast-iron plate which lies immediately
within the furnace door of an engine boiler. It is
provided for the reception, and for the partial cok-
ing of the coal before it is passed forwards onto
the grate.

Dead-water. — The water which lies below the heating
surface of the boiler, and, therefore, is in compara-
tively slow circulation. In some forms of boilers the
flues are brought forwards under the bottom so as to
heat the dead water and thus induce a more rapid
circulation therein.

Dolly. — .\ riveting tool used by boilermakers for hold-
ing under the heads of rivets during the act of rivet-
ing.

Double-ended Boiler. — A marine boiler provided with
furnaces and flue doors at each end, and is therefore
fired fro.n each end. .

Dry Steam or Saturated Steam. — Steam which has
not been superheated, nor mixed with the water of
priming. It is the most suitable form of steam for
use in engine cylinders.

Economizer. — An arrangement of pipes by means of
which the feed-water for steam boilers is heated up
to, or higher than, the boiling point.

Evaporative Value. — • The relative capacities of the
various types of steam boilers to vaporize water, ex-
pressed in horse-powers, units of work, or in thermal
units.

Expanding. — The tightening of boiler tubes in the
tube plates by expanding or opening out their ends.

Expansion Hoop. — The metal ring which is used in
the forming of an expansion joint provided in long
boiler flues for the purpose of taking up the linear
expansion due to heat.

Feeder. — The agency by which the feed-water supply
of a boiler is maintained. Usually, it is some form
of force pump, or an injector.

Fire-bars. — The grate-bars of the furnaces of engine
and other boilers.

Fire-box. — A term which is specifically applied to the
furnaces of locomotive and vertical boilers.

Firing. — ■ Boilers are fired both internally and exter-
nally. Internally fired boilers are those in which the
fuel is consumed in a tube or arrangement of tubes
within the boiler itself. The Cornish with one flue,
the Lancashire with two flues, the locomotive boiler
and other forms of boilers with many internal tubes,
the vertical boilers with uptake and cross-tubes, and
the marine boilers with return flues are of the inter-
nally fired class. Externally fired boilers are those
which are not provided with internal fire-boxes or

furnace flues. The egg-end, the balloon, the hay-
stack, and the wagon boilers are of this class. They
are practically obsolete.

Fire Tube Boiler. — A multitubular boiler, as distin-
guished from a sectional boiler or a water tube
boiler.

Fittings. — The fittings of a boiler comprise the man-
hole and mudhole doors, the fire-bars and their rings
and bearers, the furnace doors, the dampers and
frames, etc.

Flame Plates. — The crown plates of a boiler flue or
fire-box.

Flanging. — The bending over of the edges of the
boiler plates so as to form narrow flanges by which
they are attached to each other either by riveting or
by welding.

Float. — A buoy employed to indicate the height of the
water in the boiler. It is usually made of stone or
of iron, and is rendered buoyant by means of a
counterpoise the proportion of which relatively to the
specific gravity of the float renders the float quite
as susceptible to the variations in the water level as
a float of wood. Its movements are observed by
means of the float gauge attached to the boiler.

Flash Boiler. — .\ steam boiler composed of a large
number of small tubes which are kept red-hot, and
unto which the water is fed in the form of a spray
which is instantly converted into steam. They are
principally used in connection with steam driven
automobiles.

Flues. — • The flues of a boiler are the arrangements or
parts which carry off the waste gases and smoke, and
produce the draught.

Flue Plates. — The ends of horizontal boilers to which
the flues are attached, or the fire-box crowns of ver-
tical boilers.

Flue Surface. — The area of the flues as distinguished
from the grate-area.

F"ollowing Joints. — The lap joints of the rings which
compose a cylindrical boiler. As all of the joints lap
in the same direction, they are called following joints.

Fullering. — A mode of caulking boiler plates. It
diff^ers from caulking proper in that the entire edge
of the plate is hammered over instead of only a por-
tion of the edge.

Grate. — • The area which contains the burning fuel in
the furnace of an engine boiler. The grate-area is
the number of square feet covered by the grate-bars
or fire-bars which compose the grate. It is equal to
the area over which full combustion can take place,
and is usually estimated in relation to the weight of
coal burned.

Grooving or Furrowing. — The cutting or corroding
which takes place in the seams of improperly stayed
boiler plates. It is partly due to the leverage to
which those parts are subjected, and partly to the
action of acids in the lines of strain.

Gross Section. — The total number of inches contained
in the circumference of a steam boiler.

Gusset or Gusset Stay. — A triangular piece of
wrought-iron or steel employed to support the flat
ends of boilers. Large boilers are provided with five
gusset stays at each end, which are secured to the
end-plates and the shell by angle-irons.

Holes. — • When the rivet holes in boiler plates are
punched or drilled so inaccurately that they do not
coincide within an amount equal to one-half their
diameters when the plates are brought together, they
are called half-lap or half-blind holes. When the
holes do not correspond within the extent of a whole
diameter they are called blind-holes. In riveting,
such holes are either pulled together with a drift, or
they are reamed out and larger rivets inserted.

Hand Holes. — Holes provided in the shells of steam
boilers in cases where a mudhole is impracticable,
through which the hand may be introduced for pur-
poses of cleaning and repair.

Hard Water. — Water which contains a large percent-
age of carbonate and sulphate of lime. Its tendency
to produce calcareous deposits makes it very objec-
tionable for use in steam boilers.

Heating Surface. — The entire surface of a steam
boiler, comprising the surfaces exposed to the heat
on one side and the surfaces in contact with the
water on the other side.

Hogging. — The distortion of the furnace tubes of
boilers caused by the expansion of the plates under
the influence of heat.
Honeycombing. — A form of boiler corrosion consisting
of numerous blank holes or pits. It is due to the
action of acids, to galvanic action, or to a lack of
uniformity in the quality of the plates.
Horizontal Boiler. — One in which the longitudinal
axis of the barrel is horizontal, such as the Cornish,
Galloway, and Lancashire boilers, and various forms
of marine boilers.

BOILER SHOP TERMS

Inclination. — Some forms of horizontal boilers are
inclined forwards about half an inch per ten feet
of length so as to drain properly through the blow-
cff cock. Fire-bars are inclined backwards about
one inch in ten inches to permit of the fuel being
moved rapidly away from the dead-plate.

Incrustation. — ■ Coatings of carbonate and sulphate of
lime and other solids formed on the internal portions
of engine boilers by deposition from the feed water.

Injection. — The process of drawing water into a steam
boiler by means of an injector.

Keelsons. — The wrought-iron or steel saddles which
support marine boilers.

Laminated Plates. — Wrought-iron or rolled steel plates
in which the several layers are imperfectly united.
They are very apt to blister when used for boiler
plates.

Leakage. — The loss of feed water due to the alternate
expansion and contraction of the plates under the
influence of sudden heatings and coolings, which tend
to start the rivets and open the seams.

Longitudinal Seams. — The plates which run length-
ways of the boiler. They are always arranged to
break-joint, and are never placed in-line.

Manhole. — An opening provided in the shell of the
boiler through which a man may gain access to the
interior for purposes of examination, cleaning, and
repair. It is ova! in form and is usually stayed
either with a wrought-iron ring, or with a casting.

Marine Boiler. — A horizontal boiler of the return
tubular type. They are of many different types, and
vary in their arrangement to suit different condi-
tions.

MuDHoLE. — An opening in the lower part of a boiler
through which the sediment deposited by the water is
removed. When the boiler is being used, the mud-
hole is closed by a door called the mud-lid whicli is
inserted within the hole and pulled up against its
inner face by means of a bolt. This bolt is attached
to the door and passes through a bridge which spans
the hole and rests against its outer face. The bolt
is tightened to the bridge by means of an ordinary
nut.

Multitubular Boiler. — A boiler composed of numer-
ous tubes of brass or of iron, through which the hot
gases pass from the fire-box to the chimney, and thus
heat the water which is in contact with the outer
surfaces of tlie tubes. The locomotive, horizontal,
and portable boilers are of this type.

Overheating. — The overheating of boiler parts are due
either to incrustation, or to an insufficient supply of
water. It tends to soften the plates so that they
bulge or fracture under the force of internal pres-
sures.

Overpressure. — The pressure developed in a steam
boiler exceeding that which it is designed to sustain.

Patch. — A strengthening plate of wrought-iron or
steel riveted or bolted to the boiler plates which have
been injured by accident, or have become weakened
by corrosion.

Pitting. — The corrosion of boiler plates in patches.
See Honeycombing.

Plate. — In the manufacture of steam boilers the use
of wrought-iron plates has been completely aban-
doned for those of steel. The steel plates are rolled
in larger sizes, thus reducing the number of riveted
seams, and as they possess a much greater tensile
strength, they permit of the development of the
higher pressures required by modern engines.

Plate Furnace. — A reverberatory furnace used by
boilermakers for heating plates preparatory to bend-
ing, flanging, and welding.

Pressure. — • The working pressures in steam boilers
vary with the type of the boiler, the material of the
boiler plates, and the method of construction. They
range from 45 to 60 pounds per square inch in those
of the Cornish and Lancashire type; from 100 to
180 pounds in the marine boilers; and from 120 to
235 pounds in the portable and locomotive boilers.

Punching Bear or Boiler Bear.— A portable punch-
ing machme. The punch is actuated either by a
screw, or by hydraulic pressure.

Return Flues. — The flues in horizontal boilers, which
are brought from the back of the furnace to the
front, and are then carried back again to the chim-
ney.

Return Tubular Boiler.— A marine boiler in which
the smoke tubes extend from the back of the boiler
forwards to the smoke-box. By this arrangement,
the products of combustion are carried first to the
back of the boiler through the fire-box, and then to
the front of the boiler through the tubes.

Ribbed Tubes. — ■ Tubes which are rolled so as to form
several deep radial ribs on their internal surfaces
and thus increase the area of the available heating

surface. They were invented by M. Serve. The
Purves tubes are ribbed or corrugated transversely.
The use of these tubes gives from 15 to 20 per cent.
better results relative to the economical consump-
tion of fuel and the increase in steam pressure than
may be obtained by the use of the ordinary tubes
with smooth surfaces.
Rings. — Metal rings used for uniting the shells and
fire-boxes, for the jointing and caulking of seams
and other similar purposes. They are either cast 01
welded.
Ring Seams. — The circumferential joints of a boiler

shell.
Salinometer. — An instrument employed for ascertain-
ing the amount of salt in the feed-water of a marine
boiler. It is either a hydrometer graduated for
degrees of saltness, and by which the specific gravity
of the water is measured, or a thermometer by which
the boiling point of the water is determined, and the
percentage of salt in solution deduced therefrom.
Salting. — -The deposits of salt which accumulate on
the plates of a marine boiler. It is not injurious to
the plates unless excessive in quantity. The density
of the feed-water should not exceed ten ounces of
salt per gallon.
Saturated Steam. — Steam which remains in contact
with the water from which it has been generated,
and therefore retains a quantity of water in suspen-
sion. Also called Dry Steam.
Scaling. — The process of removing the scale or de-
posits of carbonate of lime, etc., from the interior
of boiler plates. It is effected by a process of chip-
ping with a keen-edged hammer called a scaling-
hammer.
Sectional Boiler. — A boiler composed of a number
of small independent heating tubes. The advantages
of sectional boilers are the high pressures that may
be developed in them, the strength of the small
tubes, the prevention of explosions, the rapid trans-
mission of heat, and the facility with which local
injuries may be repaired. Their disadvantages con-
sist in the tendency to accumulate deposits in the
flues, the tendency to overheating, and the difficulty
exjierienced in clearing them out.
Scum Cock. — A cock inserted in the side of a marine
boiler for discharging the dirt and scum carried to
the surface of the water, and which if allowed to
remain in the water would deposit and form an in-
jurious scale. See Ballooning.
SooT Door. — A square iron door built into the front
ends of the brickwork flues of horizontal boilers,
through which the accumulations of soot are removed
periodically.
Stays. — Rods or tubes which connect and stay the
flat ends of the boiler. They are made either of
copper, wrought-iron, or steel. Bar stays and tube
staj'S, also called screwed stays, are first screwed
into the ends of the shells or fire-boxes, and then
secured either with nuts or by riveting. Gusset stays
are riveted.
Steam Room. — The area included between the highest
water level in, the boiler and the boiler crown. It is
the space occupied by the steam.
Testing. — The strength of steam boilers or their ca-
pacity to withstand the stresses due to internal
steam pressures are usually ascertained by the appli-
cation of a pressure of water produced by means of
a test pump. The pressure usually applied under test
is about twice the working pressure.
Through Tubes. — The flue tubes of horizontal boilers.
They pass from one end of the boiler to the other,
and are attached to the end plates.
Tie Bolts. — Long screw bolts employed for the pur-
pose of staying large, flat surfaces, which are in-
herently weak.
Transfer of Heat. — The transmission of heat from
the furnace of a boiler to the water in the boiler.
The rate of transmission or the number of heat units
transferred per hour, varies according to the amount
of heating surface, and is directly proportional to the
thickness of the plates. Furnace area is more efficient
than tube area.
Tube Plates. — The plates into which the tubes of
multitubular boilers or surface condensers are in-
serted and secured.
Tubular Boiler. — Various forms of locomotive, ma-
rine, portable, horizontal, vertical, and sectional
boilers.
Uptake. — In a vertical boiler, it is the internal flue
which leads from the furnace to the chimney. In a
marine boiler, it is the return flue.
Vent. — The value obtained by multiplying the calori-
meter of a boiler by its length.
Vertical Boiler. — A ste.nm boiler of circular hori-
zontal section. Vertical boilers are chiefly used in
con-i2ction with small steam engines, and are not

BOILING POINT— BOIS DE BOULOGNE

nearly as economical as those of the horizontal type,
as the products of combustion pass from the fire-box
directly into the chimney.

Water Bridge. — A form of bridge which is made of
iron and is continuous with the boiler itself. It is
hollow, and therefore assists the circulation of the
water which passes through the interior of the boiler.

Water Tube Boiler. — Various forms of sectional
boilers of the Yarrow, Thornycroft, Babcock and
^Vilcox, Belleville, and other classes.

William Morey, Jr., C. E.,
Consulting Civil and Mechanical Engineer,

Nczu York City.

Boiling Point, the temperature at which a
liquid boils, when e.xposed to a definite pres-
sure, which is understood to be the ordinary
atmosplieric pressure, in the absence of any spe-
cific statement to the contrary. When a hquid
is freely e.xposed to the air, evaporation goes on
constantly from its surface, the heat required
being absorbed from surrounding bodies. If
the liquid is warmed, the evaporation goes on
at an increased rate; but as its temperature is
increased by the application of heat, there comes
a time when mere superficial evaporation can-
not take care of all the heat supplied. Bubbles of
vapor then form within the body of the liquid,
and the liquid is said to have attained its "boil-
ing point." If the supply of heat be now in-
creased, it is found that the temperature of the
liquid remains stationary; bubbles merely form
more rapidly, so that the rate of loss of heat
through evaporation is still maintained equal to
the rate of supply. The temperature of boiling
depends upon the pressure ; for at an increased
pressure the bubbles are formed in the interior
of the liquid with greater difficulty, and therefore
not until a higher temperature is attained. The
variation from this cause is considerable. Thus
the boiling point of water, under a pressure of
one atmosphere, is 212° F., while under a pres-
sure of two atmospheres it is about 250° F. At
the reduced pressures prevailing on the tops
of mountains, the boiling point of water is lower
than 2X2° F., and advantage of this fact is taken
for determining the heights of mountains by
observations of the boiling point at their sum-
mits. (See Hypsometry.) When the liquid is
not open freely to the air, but confined in a
closed vessel, its temperature can be raised
indefinitely by the application of heat, but the
vapor in the space above it is denser, and has
a greater pressure, at higher temperatures. The
correspondence between pressure and tempera-
ture, under these circumstances, is very exact,
although no simple law connecting the two
is known. Rankine gave an empirical formula
for the relation between them, of which com-
puters of steam tables have made great use
('Miscellaneous Scientific Papers,^ page i); but
the physical significance of this formula is un-
known. The relation between the pressure and
boiling point of a liquid is commonly exhibited
by means of a table in which the temperatures
of ebullition are set down opposite the corre-
sponding pressures. (For a table of this sort
for water, see Ste.\m.) The phenomena de-
scribed above in connection with the free evapo-
ration from a liquid exposed to the air are in
general true, but certain qualifications must be
made, under certain special conditions. Thus,
it is difficult to induce water to boil when it has
been freed from dissolved air; and in the entire
absence of such air De Luc found that water
can be heated as high as 234° F., under ordinary

atmospheric pressure, before boiling, if the ex-
periment is performed with proper care. A
liquid thus heated to a temperature in excess
of the normal boiling point corresponding to the
pressure to which it is subjected is said to be
^^superheated." When boiling does finally oc-
cur in a superheated liquid, it takes place with
almost explosive suddenness, and the loss of
vapor is exceedingly rapid for a moment or two,
until the temperature of the liquid has been
reduced by this means to the normal tempera-
ture corresponding to the pressure prevailing at
the time. The temperature at which ebullition
takes place is also influenced to a certain extent
by the nature of the vessel in which the liquid
is heated. Thus Marcet found that in a glass
vessel which had been carefully washed out
with sulphuric acid, and then well rinsed, pure
water does not boil until a temperature of 223° F.
has been attained. All results of this kind
are of an indefinite character, however, since
they relate to the temperature at which boiling
first begins, rather than to the state in which
the liquid and its vapor are in a condition of
permanent thermal and mechanical equilibrium.
Superheated water is in an unstable state, and,
according to some authorities, not a few boiler
explosions have been due to the superheating
of the water present, from some cause, and the
subsequent explosive liberation of steam, as the
water returned to its normal condition ; but this
notion concerning the cause of boiler explosions
has never been substantiated by experiment or
otherwise, and must be regarded as a mere
speculation, without any foundation in fact. A
liquid has a higher boiling point, when it con-
tains some substance in solution, than it has
when pure. The effect of dissolving salt or any
other electrolyte is complicated by the occurrence
of dissociation (q.v.) ; but for dilute solutions
of non-electrolytes, like sugar, the following law,
first given by Raoult, holds true: If a series
of dilute solutions of such substances be pre-
pared, each solution containing, per unit weight
of the solvent, an amount of solid proportional
to the molecular weight of the solid, then the
solutions so prepared will all boil at the same
temperature. (See Solution.s.) For marking
the "boiling point" upon thermometers, it is the
universal practice to expose the thermometers
to the steam rising from the boiling water, rather
than to immerse them in the water itself; for the
temperature of the steam is independent of the
presence of traces of dissolved substances in
the water, and also of the action of such acci-
dental or irregular causes as the superheating of
the water. See Thermometry.

Boilly, Louis Leopold, loo-e la-6-p61d
bwa'ye, French painter: b. La Bassee. France;
d. 1845. To his prolific brush are attributed
about 5.000 paintings, chiefly historical. The
period represented on his canvases ranges from
the time of Louis XVI. to the end of the Resto-
ration. Among his w^orks are: 'Arrival of the
Diligence* (1803) ; and 'Isabey's Atelier.*

Bois d'Arc, bwa-dark, the osage orange
(q.v.).

Bois de Boulogne, bw^a-de boo-16-ny, oncc
a forest abounding with game near the gates
of Paris, now a beautiful park belonging to the
city: area, 2.250 acres. The greater part of the
old trees were destroyed during the revolution.
When Napoleon chose St Cloud for a summer

BOIS-LE-DUC — BOISSEREE

residence, he ordered young trees to be planted,
had the place enclosed with a wall, and stocked
with game. In 1815 the British troops under
the Duke of Wellington were stationed ni it, and
many of the trees were then cut down, but new
ones were planted by Louis XVIII. In 1852 it
came into the possession of the municipality,
and is now one of the gayest holiday prome-
nades. During the Franco-German war of
1870-1 a large number of the trees were cut
down by the French in preparing for the defense
of Paris. In the time of the disturbances of the
Commune in 1871 several sanguinary encounters
took place here. In the Bois are the noted
Auteuil and Longchamp race courses, and also
the Jardin d'Acclimatation.

Bois-le-Duc, bwa-le-diik (Dutch Herto-
genbosch), the capital of the province of North
Brabant, in Holland, 49 miles southeast of
Amsterdam, at the confluence of the Dommel
and the Aa, which form, by their junction, the
Diest. It was a strong fortress up to 1876, but
has ceased to be kept as such. It is intersected
by canals, and among its buildings the chief is
the cathedral, in late Gothic, built in 1458-98,
with an old tower of the nth century, and a
chapel of the 13th, the whole recently restored.
Other buildings are the town-hall, palace of jus-
tice or court-house, the episcopal palace, and the
government buildings. Among educational in-
stitutions are a gymnasium, a Latin school, and a
normal school for teachers. Bois-le-Duc has
many industrial establishments and an active
trade. Its chief manufactures are gold and sil-
ver wares, cigars, mirrors, boots, and shoes, etc.
The city suffered much in the religious wars
of the i6th century, and fell into the hands of
the Dutch in 1629. On 14 Sept. 1794, the French
defeated the English here, and on 9 October of
the same year it surrendered to Pichegru. In
January 1814, it was taken by the Prussians,
but the citadel held out. Pop. (1900) 44,034.

Bois-Guilbert, bw^a-gel-bar. Sir Brian, a
character in Scott's "^Ivanhoe.' He is a Knight
Templar whose passionate attachment to the
beautiful Jewess Rebecca, severe struggle with
his pride and tragical death in the lists, form
one of the most dramatic features of the ro-
mance.

Bois de Vincennes, bwa de van-sen, the
ancient hunting park of Louis IX. ; now a
pleasure-ground of 2,250 acres on the west of
Paris. A large portion of it is devoted to the
purposes of the Champ de Manoeuvres, drill-
ground, and polygene d'artillerie.

Boise, James Robinson, American edu-
cator: b. Blandford, Mass., 27 Jan. 1815: d. Chi-
cago. 9 Feb. 1895. He was graduated at Brown
in 1840. and received an appointment there as
tutor in ancient languages. In 1850 he went
abroad to study ; in 1852 became professor of
the Greek language and literature in the Um-
vprsity of Michigan ; in 1868 took the same chair
in the University of Chicago. Upon the es-
tablishment of the new University of Chicago, he
was appointed professor emeritus of New Testa-
ment Greek. The numerous classical text-books
edited bv him were widely used. Besides these,
he published: 'Notes on the Greek Text of
Paul's Epistles to the Ephesians. Colossians,
Philemon, and the Phih'ppians^ (1884) : < Notes
on the Greek Text of Galatians and Romans^
ri886).

Boise, Otis Bardwell, American composer
and music teacher : b. Oberlin, Ohio, 13 Aug.
1844. After studying music in Leipsic he set-
tled in New York as a teacher of composition
and for a time was organist of the Fifth Avenae
Presbyterian Church. During 1876-7 he was
again in Europe studying and had the benefit
of Franz Liszt's advice and criticism, after
which he resumed teaching in New York. Since
1888 he has been engaged in professional work
in Berlin. He has published: 'Harmony Made
Practical^ (1900); 'Music and Its Masters^
(1901), and many articles in journals devoted
to music.

Boise, Idaho, the capital of the State and
county-seat of Ada County ; on the Boise River
and the Union P. R.R. ; 45 miles southwest of
Idaho City. It occupies the site of a former
trading post of the Hudson Bay Company ; is in
an agricultural and a rich mining region ; and is
supplied with pure hot water from a flowing
boiling well. The city is said to be the only one
in the world having a natural supply of hot
water. It contains the State capitol, erected in
1885-7, penitentiary. United States assay ofhce,
State library, high and graded schools, and two
national banks. Its mayor is elected biennially.
Pop. (1900) 5,957.

Boisgobey, Fortune Abraham du, for-tu-
na ab-ra-ham dii bwa-go-ba, French novelist:
b. Granville, 11 Sept. 1821 ; d. February 1891.
In 1844-8 he was paymaster in the army at Al-
giers, and began to write in 1868, somewhat on
the lines of Emile Gaboriau. His novels were
popular, and include: 'The Scoundrels' (Paris
1873); 'Chevalier Casse-Con' (1873); 'The
Mysteries of Modern Paris' (1876) ; 'The
Demi-Monde Under the Terror' (1877) ; 'The
Old Age of M. Lecoq> (1878) ; 'The Cat's Eye>
(1888); and 'The Cold Hand' (1879).

Boisseree (bwa-sra) Collection, a number
of pictures exhibited in Munich, which were col-
lected by the brothers Sulpice (1783-1854) and
Melchior Boisseree (1786-1851), and John Ber-
tram, men who, animated by love of the arts,
began, at the time of the destruction of the
monasteries, during and after the French revo-
lution, to purchase old pictures, and afterward
completed their collection by the addition of
many valuable paintings of the old German
school. By this collection the brothers Bois-
seree and Bertram happily realized the idea of
a historical series of old German paintings. It
is to their endeavors that we owe the discovery
that Germany possessed, as early as the 13th
century, a school of painters of much merit,
which, like the Italian, proceeded from the old
Byzantine school, but became, in the sequel,
distinguished by excellences of its own. We
owe to these collectors, also, the restoration to
favor of the forgotten Low German masters, and
a just estimation of John van Eyck, as the crea-
tor of the genuine German style of painting.
The most distinguished connoisseurs and art-
ists, including Goethe, Canova, Dannecker, and
Thorwaldsen, have strongly expressed their ad-
miration of this collection. It was first brought
together and exhibited at Heidelberg, and after-
ward removed to Stuttgart, where the king of
Wurtemberg assigned it a suitable building.
The collection remained there till 1828, when
King Louis of Bavaria, having purchased it in
the previous year for 120,000 thalers, removed

BOISSIER — BOITO

it to Schleissheim, and in 1836 most of the paint-
ings were sent to Munich. A lithographic work
on this collection was published in 40 parts
between 1821 and 1840. See ^Sulpiz Boisseree/
a biography (1862).

Boissier, Marie Louis Gaston, ma-re loo-e
gas-ton bwa-sya, French archseologist and
historian : b. Nimes, 15 Aug. 1823. After study-
ing at the Ecole Normale he was an instructor
in rhetoric in his native city 1847-57 5 professor of
Latin eloquence and literature at the College
de France from 1861, was elected to the French
Academy in 1876 and to the Academy of In-
scriptions and Belles-lettres 1886. His literary
style has been much praised for its clearness and
beauty. His works comprise ^Le poete Attius^
(1857); ^Etude sur la ire et les ouvrages de
Terentius Varron^ (1861) ; ^La religion ro-
maine d'Auguste aux Antonins' (1883) ; * La-
fin du paganisme^ (1894) ; ^Ciceron et ses amis^
(1892) ; and 'Promenades archeologiques Rome
et Pompei' (1892) ; the two last named being
marvelously accurate and vivid reconstructions
of the antique spirit and atmosphere. Other
works are: 'Roman Africa,' and *The Country
of Horace and Vergil.'

Boissieu, Jean Jacques de, zhoii zhak bwa-
sye, French painter and engraver: b. Lyons,
1738; d. there in 1810. He was intended bj^ his
parents for the magistracy, but manifested such
a decided inclination for drawing that he was
allowed to follow it. After remaining for some
time at Lyons, and painting some excellent imi-
tations of the Flemish school, he visited Paris,
where his intimacy with the most celebrated
artists of the time enabled him greatly to im-
prove his style. On his return to Lyons he de-
voted his attention chiefly to engraving. He
afterward accompanied the Due de Rochefou-
cauld to Italy, and having studied the works of
the great masters with the greatest assiduity,
resumed painting; but as the use of oil injured
his health, he, shortly after his return to France,
abandoned it finally for engraving, in which
his reputation soon became European, and his
works were eagerly purchased by the most
wealthy and distinguished amateurs. His en-
gravings amount to 140 plates, among which that
of 'Le Charlatan,' after a picture by Karel Du-
jardin, is considered his masterpiece.

Boissonade, Jean Frangois, zhoii friin-swa
bwa-s6-nad, French classical scholar: b.
Paris, 12 Aug. 1774; d. Passy, 8 Sept. 1857. He
was educated at the College d'Harcourt, and at
the age of 18 was attached to the ministry of
foreign affairs. He subsequentlj' became a con-
tributor to periodical literature in the 'Magasin
Encyclopedique' of Millin and the 'Journal de
I'Empire,' the precursor of the 'Journal des
Debats.' Ancient and modern literature, both
French and foreign, grammatical criticism, bibli-
ography, and natural sciences occupied his pen.
In 1813 he was admitted a member of the Acad-
emy of Inscriptions and Belles-Lettres. He
afterward wrote about 150 articles for the 'Bi-
ographic Universelle.' He became, in 1809,
assistant of Larcher, as Greek professor of the
faculty of letters in Paris, and four years after-
ward he succeeded him both in the faculty and
in the institute. Finally, in 1828, he was called
to the chair of Greek literature in the College
of France. From this time he devoted himself
entirely to his duties as a professor, and his

labors as a classical editor. He has produced
no complete work in French, but is said to have
written Latin with natural grace and elegance,
and his editions of the classics are highly es-
teemed. His editorial labors were also extended
to a few French works, and he translated a
heroi-comic poem, the "Genpillen," from the Por-
tuguese.

Boissy d'Anglas, Fransois Antoine, friin-
swa an-twan bwa-se dan-glas (Comte de),
French statesman of the revolutionary period:
b. Saint Jean-la-Chambre, near Annonay, 1756;
d. Paris, 20 Oct. 1826. He studied at Annonay,
and was admitted as an advocate to the parlia-
ment of Paris. In 1789 he was elected to the
States-General where he was a moderate advocate
of revolutionary principles, in support of which
he wrote at this time various brochures. In
1792 he was returned as a deputy to the con-
vention. He voted against the death of Louis
XVI., and after the fall of Robespierre he was
appointed secretary of the convention, and a
member of the Committee of Public Safety. He
was created a peer by Louis XVIII. in 1814, but
supported Napoleon during the Hundred Days,
and was consequently expelled from the peerage
by a royal ordinance, but shortly afterward re-
instated. He was from 1803 a member of the
consistory of the Reformed Church, a member
of the Institute from its commencement, and
on its reconstruction in 1816 he became a mem-
ber of the Academy of Inscriptions. He wrote
an essay on the life and writings of Alale-
sherbes (1819-21) ; 'Etudes Litteraires et
Poetiques d'un Vieillard' (1825).

The fame of Boissy d'Anglas rests chiefly on
a scene in the convention in 1795, when the hall
was invaded by an angry mob demanding bread
and the Constitution of 1793. Called temporarily
to take the chair, in the absence of the president,
Boissy had presented to him the head of a
deputy, Feraud, which had been cut off by the
insurgents and placed on the end of a pike. He
saluted it, and continued calmly facing the mob,
and to his courage and firmness the safety of the
convention at this crisis is attributed. Such is
the popular version of a story of which the most
various and contradictory accounts are given.
It has been said that Boissy d'Anglas exhibited
no such courage as has been attributed to him,
and that he was merely kept in his place by the
pressure of the mob. His enemies, who accused
him of reactionary tendencies, even said the in-
surrection was started by the reactionary party to
discredit the revolution, and that Boissy was in
understanding with the leaders of the mob. For
this last accusation there appears to be no
foundation, but it is quite likely the scene may
have been represented in a more dramatic form
than as it actually occurred.

Boito, Arrigo, a-re'go b5-e'to, Italian com-
poser : b. Padua, 24 Feb. 1842. His great work,
the opera 'Mefistofele,' occupied him for nearly
20 years. The garden scene was written while
he was a student in the IMilan Conservatory in
1856, and the score was finished for the stage in
1868, the composer having done much literary
work in the interim and lived variously in
France. Germany, and Poland. On 5 March
1868, 'Mefistofele' was sung at La Scala. Milan,
the performance lasting six hours, much inter-
rupted by hissing and applause, and its failure
was evident. Boito then remodeled the opera.

BOIVIN — BOKHARA

and in 1875 it was produced at Bologna with
great success. It was sung in other cities with
equal success, but it has never been a popular
opera in the full sense of the word. In 1883
it was produced at the New York Metropolitan
Opera House with Campanini and Nilsson in
the cast and was revived in 1896 and again in
1901. The opera is considered one of the most
important of modern Italian operas, marking, as
it does, the precise point where the modern
school of Italian composition, illustrated by the
later works of Verdi, Mascagni, Puccini, etc.,
diverges from the work of the Bellini and Doni-
zetti school. Boito's other operas, ^Ero e
Leandro^ ; ^Nerone^ ; and *Orestiade^ have
never been sung.

Boivin, Marie Anne Victoire, ma-re an
vic-twar bwa-vah (Gillain), French midwife,
upon whom a diploma of M.D. was conferred
by the University of Marburg, noted for her
writings on obstetrics : b. Montreuil, 9 April
^712)\ d. 16 May 1841. She was educated in a
nunnery, where by her talents she attracted the
attention of the sister of Louis XVI., Madame
Elisabeth. When the nunnery where she was
placed was destroyed in the course of the revo-
lution, she spent three years in the study of
anatomy and midwifery. In 1797 she married
an employee at Versailles, of the name of Boivin,
but on being left after a short time a widow
with a child and without fortune, undertook
the office of midwife at the Hospital of the
Maternity, and, in 1801, was appointed chief
superintendent of the institution, to which, in
accordance with her suggestion, a special school
of accouchement was added by Chaptal. Her
< Memorial de I'art des accouchements,^ published
in 1824, passed through several editions. The
empress of Russia invited her to St. Petersburg,
but she declined.

Bojaca, bo-zha'ka. Battle of, so called
from having been fought near the bridge of the
small town of Bojaca, not far from the city of
Tunja, between the Spaniards under Barreyro,
and the united forces of Venezuela and New
Granada, commanded by Bolivar. It occurred
7 Aug. 1819, and was decisive of the independ-
ence of New Granada. Among the Republicans,
Gens. Anzuategui, Paez, and Santander distin-
guished themselves; and tiie Spaniards sustained
a total defeat, their general, most of their offi-
cers and men who survived the battle, together
with all their arms, ammunition, and equipments,
falling into the hands of Bolivar. So complete
was the destruction of the Spanish army, that
the viceroy instantly fled from Santa Fe, leav-
ing even the public treasure a prey to the
conquerors.

Bojador, bo-zha-dor'. Cape, a promontory
on the west coast of Africa; lat. 26° 7' 10" N. ;
Ion. 14° 29' W. It is one of the projecting
points of the great desert of Sahara, and forms
the west extremity of a rocky ridge called the
Jebel-khal or Black Mountain. The coast north'
of this cape is extremely dangerous, being shal-
low to a great distance out, and constantly en-
veloped in a haze. It has been, in consequence,
the scene of many a melancholy disaster. Cape
Bojador was long the limit of navigation
toward the south and was first passed by the
Portuguese in 1433.

Bojol', Philippines, an island north of
Mindanao, about 40 miles long by 30 miles wide.
It is woody and mountainous. Rice and gold
are its chief productions. Pop. 187,000.

Bok, Edward William, American editor:
b. Helder, Holland, 9 Oct. 1863. He came to the
United States in infancy, and was educated in
the public schools of Brooklyn. He has edited
the ^Ladies' Home Journal,^ and written ^The
Young Man in Business,^ and ^Successward.'

Boker, George Henry, American poet and
dramatist: b. Philadelphia, Pa., 6 Oct. 1823; d.
there, 2 Jan. i8qo. He graduated from Prince-
ton in 1842 ; studied law ; and was United States
minister to Turkey in 1871-5, and to Russia in
i875~9- His plays include: *Calaynos' (1848);
'Anne Boleyn^ (1850) ; 'Francesca da Rimini^ ;
'The Betrothed^ and 'All the World's a
Mask.^ He published also 'Poems of the War^
(1864) ; 'Konigsmark and other Poems' (1869) ;
'The Book of the Dead> (1882) ; and Sonnets'
(1886) ; 'Francesca' is his best play and has
been several times put upon the stage by Barrett
and other actors.

Bokelmann, Christian Ludwig, krist-yan
lood-vig bo'kel-man, German painter: b.
Saint Jixrgen, 1844; d. 1894. He was a pupil of
Wilhelm Sohn at Dtisseldorf and became dis-
tinguished as a genre and portrait painter.
Among his works are: 'House of Sorrow';
'Pawnbroker's Shop'; 'Opening of the Will':
^Portrait of Klaus Groths.'

Bokhara, bo-ka'ra, a khanate of Central
Asia, practically vassal to Russia, bounded on
the north by Russian Turkestan, west by Khiva
and the Russian Trans-Caspian territory, south
by Afghanistan, and east by Russian Turkestan.
It formerly occupied considerably more territory
than now, having been reduced by the conquests
and encroachments of Russia, which have been
only partially compensated by some additions.
The present area of the khanate is estimated at
about 92,000 square miles. The country is to a
great extent occupied by deserts and low and
naked ranges of mountains, and the cultivated
portions of it are confined to the valley of the
rivers, especially the Oxus or Amoo Daria, which
forms the southern boundary for a considerable
distance, and then flows from southeast to north-
west parallel to and not far from the frontier
of the country. Bokhara lies between lat. 2)1°
and 41° N., and in greater part is no more than
1,100 or 1,200 feet above the level of the sea,
but in the extreme east is mountainous. The
climate is subject to great extremes, being warm,
in summer and very cold in winter. There is
very little rain, on which account it is necessary
to resort to artificial irrigation. Besides cereals,
cotton, tobacco, and vegetables are cultivated,
and there is abundance of fruit. The total popu-
lation amounts to about 2,250,000, and consists
of the Uzbecks, who are the ruling race, and
to whom the emir belongs: the Tajiks, who
form the majority in the capital; the Kirghizes,
less numerous than the Tajiks; about 60,000
Arabians, descendants of the soldiers who were
brought into the country by the third caliph of
Bagdad on the occasion of the conquest of
Turkestan ; Persians who have chiefly been
brought as slaves to Bokhara ; Turcomans, Hin-
dus, and about 10,000 Jews who live in the towns
beyond the protection of the law. and accordingly
oppressed by the other inhabitants. Since the

BOKHARA

separation of Samarcand there are now only two
towns of importance in Bokhara, namely, the
chief town Bokhara, with a population of about
60,000 ; and Karshi, with about 25,000. Besides
these there are a few small towns and some hun-
dred villages in the country. The capital, ac-
cording to Vambery, the centre of Tartar civili-
zation, is ill built and has a gloomy aspect, and
in luxury of dress and mode of life is far be-
hind the towns of western Asia. Among the
people there reigns the utmost moral corruption
along with a rigorous adherence to outward
forms. The country is distinguished from the
other countries of Central Asia by its numer-
ous schools, and in the same proportion by the
amount of culture diffused among the people
generally ; but the women are even more de-
graded than in other Mohammedan countries.
The rule of the emir is absolute, though he
is to some extent under the influence of the
clergy. The manufactures are unimportant, but
there is a very considerable caravan trade, cot-
ton, rice, silk, and indigo being exported, and
woven goods, sugar, iron, etc., being imported.
There is also now a trade by railway, since the
making of the line from the Caspian to Samar-
cand. Bokhara is remarkable for its religious
fanaticism, and various European travelers have
been exposed to danger. After Alexander
Burnes had visited Bokhara on a commission
from the government of India in 1832, the
British ambassador in Teheran sent Col. Stod-
dart in 1838 to obtain from the Emir Nasrulla
the deliverance of the Russian prisoners that
he had taken on his predatory incursions into
Russian territory. Nasrulla, however, irritated
at the neglect to answer his letter to the queen
of England, ordered Col. Stoddart to be thrown
into prison, and after treating him with great
cruelty, compelled him to acknowledge the Mo-
hammedan creed. Capt. Conolly, who had been
with a similar object in Khiva and Khokand,
came in 1841 to Bokhara, and after having to
submit to the same treatment as Col. Stoddart,
was executed along with him in 1842. Infor-
mation of their fate was brought to Europe by
the missionary Wolff, who had been sent to
Bokhara in 1843 for this purpose.

In 1850 the Russians established themselves
at the mouth of the Sir (Jaxartes), where it
flows into the Sea of Aral, and in 1864 they
found it necessary to proceed farther up the
river. They made themselves masters of the
two towns Turkestan and Aulie-ata, and after
bringing them into communication with one
another, invested Chemkend, Niazbek, and
Chinab. The land thus occupied, which up to
that time had formed the northern half of the
khanate of Khokand, was, along with some
other districts that had previously been an-
nexed to Russia, erected into the Russian gov-
ernment of Turkestan, and incorporated with
the general government of Orenburg, by the
ukase of 14 Feb. (26) 1865. By a subsequent
ukase, dated 11 July (23) 1867, this territory
wac constituted a general government. Soon
after the khan of Khokand invaded the Russian
territory, in consequence of which the Russians
advanced still farther south and attacked Tash-
kend, which they took on 28 June 1865. They
did not, however, incorporate Tashkend with
the Russian territory, but declared it an inde-
pendent khanate under the protection of Russia.
This arrangement was opposed by Muzaffer-

Eddin, Emir of Bokhara, whereupon the Rus-
sian general Romanovski again assumed the
offensive, and marching into Bokhara took Kho-
jend by storm on 5 June 1866. In this way
Russia came into the possession of the whole
basin of the Sir. Not long after Tashkend
was incorporated with the Russian territory by
the desire of the inhabitants. Meanwhile the
war with Bokhara still went on, and peace was
not concluded till the beginning of 1867. This'
peace, however, did not last long. The war was
renewed in the spring of the following year,
and it was only in July 1868 that the terms
of peace between Russia and Bokhara were
finally agreed upon. Bokhara was to give up
Samarcand and Katti Kurghan, along with the
surrounding districts (constituting the tract of
land watered by the Zerafshan), and at the
same time promised to pay an indemnity to Rus-
sia and to protect her trade. Since then the
peace has not been broken, but the Emir of
Bokhara has sunk more and more into a posi-
tion of entire dependency on Russia. During
the autumn the Russians intervened against the
emir's son, who had risen in revolt against him,
and on 12 October in the following year the
emir sent an embassy with presents (tribute) to
the czar at St. Petersburg. In the meantime
Muzaffer-Eddin had fallen into a dispute
with Afghanistan. Shere Ali Khan, of Kabul,
had given a favorable reception to the rebellious
son of the emir, and Muzaffer-Eddin, probably
in consequence of encouragement from Russia,
now thought himself able to make good his for-
mer claim to Badakshan, and the territory lying
about the sources of the Oxus, especially since
the Khan of Kabul seemed to have but a slight
hold of these parts. He had accordingly already
sent out an army with the view of conquering
those parts, when, toward the end of 1869, pres-
sure being put upon him by Russia, he con-
cluded a treaty with Kabul by which the Oxus
was fixed as the boundary of the conterminous
states, and this boundary was afterward recog-
nized by Russia and England. After the Rus-
sian expedition to Khiva in 1873 an agreement
was made between Russia and Bokhara on
28 September of that year, according to which
Bokhara received a portion of the territory that
had been ceded by Khiva to Russia, while the
Russians received various privileges in return.
Muzaffer-Eddin died in 1885. and was succeeded
by his son Abd-ul-Ahad. Bokhara will prob-
ably be ultimately completely placed under Rus-
sian administration, for what little po\yer it had
lapsed in 1884 by the practical absorption of the
country, resulting from the annexation of Merv.
Since 1885 the troops, which were formerly ill
trained and badly armed, have been drilled by
Russian instructors and armed with rifles. See
Le Messuner, <From London to Bokhara*
(1899) ; O'Donovan, <The Merv Oasis' (1880) ;
Curzon, < Russia in Central Asia' (if"

Bokhara, the capital of the khanate of the
same name, in lat. 39° 48' N. ; lon._ 64° 26'
E. It is eight or nine miles in circuit, and is
surrounded by a mud-wall. It is poorly built,
consisting of extremely narrow streets and
paltry houses. The principal edifices are the
palace of the khan, crowning a height near
the centre of the town and surrounded by a
brick wall 70 feet high; _ and numerous
mosques, the largest of which is enameled

BOL — BOLESLAS

with tiles of azure blue, and has a tower 210
feet high. The trade was formerly large with
India, but has now been almost completely
absorbed by Russia. There are several man-
ufacturing establishments producing blades,
various metal articles, silks, and cloth. The
pop. (estimated) 60,000.

Bol, bol, Ferdinand, Dutch painter: b.
Dordrecht, 1610; d . Amsterdam, 1681. He
was the pupil of Rembrandt, and is best
known by his admirable portraits, in the style
of that master, though he likewise executed
several historical paintings of merit. Many
of his works are still to be seen at Amster-
dam. He also practised etching with success.
His best known portrait is that of Saskia, the
wife of Rembrandt, now in the Brussels
Museum.

Bolan (bo-lan') Pass, a celebrated defile
in the Hala Mountains, leading from Sind
into Beluchistan. It is about 60 miles long,
hemmed in on all sides by lofty precipices,
and in parts so narrow that a regiment could
defend it against an army. It is traversed
by the Bolan River. The crest of the pass
is 5,800 feet high. The English government
has recently built a railway through the pass
to connect Sind with Kandahar.

Bolas (that is, <<balls*), a form of missile
used by the Paraguay Indians, the Patago-
nians, and especially by the Gauchos of Ar-
gentine. It consists of a rope or line hav-
ing at either end a stone, ball of metal, or
lump of hardened clay. When used it is
swung round the head by one end, and then
hurled at an animal so as to entangle it.

Bolbec, bol-bek, a town in France, depart-
ment of Seine-Inferieure, 17 miles east-north-
east of Havre ; agreeably situated on the
side of a hill, washed by the Bolbec, which
supplies waterpower for its mills, and at the
junction of four valleys. It is a thriving and
industrious place, and well situated for com-
merce. Its printed cottons and handkerchiefs
have long been held in high estimation. Be-
sides these it produces linen and woolen
stufifs, lace, cotton, velvet, and thread, and
has several dyeworks and tanneries, with a
considerable trade in grain, horses, and cattle.
Pop. (1896) 12,239.

Boldini (bol-de'ne) Giovanni, Italian artist:
b. Ferrara, 1845. He studied for some time in
London, and many of his paintings are found
in American collections. His portraits have
been especially commended. Among his works
are 'Gossips^ ; *The Connoisseur' ; ^Kitchen
Garden' ; and ^Portrait of Menzel.'

Boldrewood, Rolf. See Browne, Thomas
Alexander.

Bole, a term applied to various clay-like
substances. They are chielly hydrous sili-
cates of aluminum and iron. It is of a
dull yellow, brownish, or red color, feels
greasy to the touch, and yields to the nail. It
has a conchoidal fracture ; its streak is shining,
and it is opaque or slightly translucent. Bole
is found in various localities, such as Armenia,
Saxony, Tuscany, and the isle of Skye in Scot-
land. In ancient times, under the name of
Lemnian bole or earth, it had a place in the ma-
teria medica, but is no longer used. At present

the only bole of commerce is a coarse pigment
sold under the name of Berlin and English
red.

Bolero, bo-la'ro, the name given by the
Spaniards to a number of their national dances
of the ballet class, which in Spain are regu-
larly performed in theatres between the different
pieces. They are danced both by men and
women, the male dancers who take part in
these performances being also called boleros,
while the females are called boleras. The dances
of this class which are best known and most in
vogue are known by such names as the Cachuca,
Iota aragonesa, Madrilena, Ole, laleo de Jerez,
etc. They are danced by one or more couples,
or, as in the case of the indecent Ole, by a
single fem.ale dancer. The dancers wear the
Andalusian costume, partly because of all the
national dresses of Spain this is the richest and
most elegant, and partly because the greater
number of the boleros are of Andalusian origin.
The music for these dances is always played by
the orchestra, and is generally marked by rapid
changes of time. The melodies are often very
beautiful, and are always based upon some of
the national airs. The dancers mostly beat time
to the music with the castanets (castanuelas).
These dances, when the performers are well
trained and handsome, have a very powerful
effect on the spectators, consisting as they do of
graceful attitudes and movements of the body,
and being strictly speaking not dances, but pan-
tomimes. The dancers endeavor to express by
their gestures all the different phases of the pas-
sion of love, and this often in a manner which
passes far beyond the bounds of modesty. The
dances of the common people, on which the
boleros are founded, are essentially distinguished
from the latter by the fact that the former are
accompanied by singing, — partly that of the
performers, partly that of the spectators, — while
the music is mostly supplied by the guitar, or
in some cases by the tambourine. They are very
simple, but at the same time very graceful.
The dancers beat time with the castanets, as in
the boleros properly so called.

Boleslas, the name of six kings of Poland
and three of Bohemia. The most celebrated of
them, Boleslas, surnamed the Great, and the
first Polish sovereign who had the title of king,
was son of Duke Mietchislaf, and succeeded him
in 999. He completed the work of introducing
Christianity which his father had begun, con-
tributed greatly to the progress of civilization,
and brought the army under regular discipline.
The Emperor Otho III. resolved to ascertain
his real character by visiting him in person, and
was so much pleased with the deference with
which he was received, that he crowned him
with his own hands in looi, and exempted
him from all homage and tribute. Boleslas as-
sumed all the splendor of his new dignity,
and became a powerful sovereign. He not only
repelled an aggression on his territories by the
Duke of Bohemia, but became in his turn the
aggressor, and conquered Moravia. Success
awakened a desire for new conquests, and the
Russians, who hitherto had always been the
aggressors, were attacked in their turn, and were
obliged to purchase peace by the cession of large
tracts of territory. He afterward turned his
arms to the north of Germany, and compelled
the greater part of the northern sovereigns to

BOLETUS — BOLINGBROKE

become his tributaries. In 1012 a formidable
league was formed against him by the emperor
of Germany and the dukes of Bohemia and Aus-
tria ; but the alHes were glad to conclude a
peace with him in 1018. His last campaign was
against the Russians, whom he signally defeated
in a great battle on the banks of the Bug.
After 20 years of continued warfare he was per-
mitted to enjoy peace, and effected numerous
internal improvements, promulgating excellent
laws, and even putting a check upon his own
power by the appointment of a council of 12
to act as mediators between the sovereign and
the people. This body was the germ of the
Polish senate. Boleslas died in 1025, after a
reign of 26 years, which is one of the most
glorious in the annals of Poland, and has handed
down his name as one of the greatest sovereigns
of his time.

Bole'tus, a genus of fungi of the order
Hymcnomycctcs (fungi provided with a cap and
a fructiferous membrane or hymenium which
covers the sporules contained in the tubes).
The greater number of the species are globulous,
from which the Italians called them ovoli. The
characters of the genus are, broad, hemispherical
cap, the lower surface formed of open tubes,
cylindrical in form, and adhering to one another.
The tubes can be separated from the cap, and
contain little cylindrical capsules, which are the
organs of reproduction. They differ from the
Polyporei by the absence of the membrane which
encloses the tubes. Boletus ediilis has the ped-
icle thick, especially at the base, and marked
with red and pale white. The cap is also thick,
smooth, and fawn-colored. The tubes are very
small, rounded, and pass from white to a green-
ish yellow. It grows on the ground abundantly
in woods during summer. The flesh is firm,
and has an agreeable nutty flavor. It is a
considerable article of commerce in France,
particularly around Bordeaux. It is also found
in England, but more rarely. The other species
of Boletus are numerous.

Boleyn, bul'en, Anne, queen of England,
one of the wives of Henry VIII. : b. probably
in 1500; d. 26 May 1536. The name is also
spelled Bullen and Bouleyne. Her father, Sir
Thomas Boleyn, had been several times sent by
Henry as ambassador to France, and her mother
was a daughter of the Duke of Norfolk. At the
age of 15 years Anne accompanied to France
as maid of honor the Princess Mary of England,
betrothed to Louis XII. ; but when that princess
three years later returned to England a widow,
Anne did not follow her, but remained at the
French court, the freedom and gaiety of which
suited her natural disposition, and where she
was admired for her beauty and wit. She
was attached to the household of Claudia, wife
of Francis I., after whose death she was
for a time in the service of the Duchess of
Alengon, sister of Francis I. Young, beautiful,
ga\^ and witty, she was an object of great
attraction in the gallant court of Francis I.
She returned to England about 1522, and be-
came lady of honor to Queen Catharine, whom
she soon supplanted. The king, passionately
enamored of her, found an imexpected opposi-
tion to his wishes, and Anne firmly declared
that she could be had on no terms but those
of marriage. She knew that the king already
meditated a divorce from his wife, Catharine of

Aragon; but she also knew what difficulties
the Catholic religion opposed to the execution of
this plan. Cranmer offered his services to bring
about the accomplishment of the king's wishes,
and thus gave the first occasion to the separation
of England from the Roman Church. But the
impetuous Henry did not wait for the ministers
of his new religion to confirm his divorce; on
the contrary, he married Anne in January 1533,
having previously created her Marchioness of
Pembroke. When her pregnancy revealed the
secret, Cranmer declared the first marriage void,
and the second valid, and Anne was crowned
queen at Westminster with unparalleled splen-
dor. In 1533 she became the mother of th-.
fanious Elizabeth. She could not, however, re-
tain the affections of the king, as inconstant as
he was tyrannical ; and as she had supplanted
her queen while lady of honor to Catharine, she
was now supplanted herself by Jane Seymour,
her own lady of honor. Suspicions of infidelity
were alleged, which appear to have had no
foundation in truth, but were doubtless eagerly
laid hold of by Henry as a color for his violent
proceedings. In 1535 she was accused, and
brought before a jury of peers. Smeaton, a mu-
sician, who was arrested with others, asserted
that he had enjoj'ed the queen's favors, and 17
May 1536 she was condemned to death by 26
judges. Anne in vain affirmed that she had
long before been contracted to the Duke of
Northumberland, and therefore had never been
the lawful wife of Henry. Cranmer in vain
declared the marriage void. The sentence of
death was executed by the command of the
inflexible Henry, who esteemed it a great exer-
cise of clemency to substitute the scaft'old for
the stake. The last day of the life of this
unhappy woman, 19 May 1536, presents many
interesting moments. She sent for the wife of
the lieutenant of the Tower, threw herself upon
her knees before her and said, "Go to the Prin-
cess Mary (daughter of Catharine) in my name,
and in this position beg her forgiveness for all
the sufferings I have drawn upon her and
her mother. ^^ "She sent her last message to the
king," says Hume, "and acknowledged the obli
g:ations which she owed him in uniformly con-
tinuing his endeavors for her advancement."
"From a private gentlewoman you have made
me first a marchioness, then a queen, and as
you can raise me no higher in this world, you
are now sending me to be a saint in heaven."

See Strickland, ^Queens of England' (Vol.
II., 1875-80) ; Dixon, <Two Queens^ (1873-4) '>
Friedmann, *Anne Boleyn' (1885).

Bolgrad, Russia, a town on the river
Yalpookh, in the Lower Budjak, colonial dis-
trict of Bessarabia, 162 miles from Odessa and
30 miles from Ismail. It is celebrated for the
frequent mention made of it in the discussions
relative to the territorial difficulties of Russia
with Turkey in the Treaty of Paris of 1856.
Pop. about 13,000.

Bolingbroke, Henry St. John (Viscount),
English statesman, b. Battersea in Surrey, 1678
(baptised 10 Oct.) ; d. Battersea^ 12 Dec. 1751.
He was the son of Sir Henry Ct. John, after-
wards Viscount St. John, of Battersea, and
Mary, daughter of Robert Rich, Earl of War-
wick, thus being (in Goldsmith's words) of a
fa.nilv "of the first rank, equally conspicuous
for its antiquity, dignity, and large possessions."

BOLIVAR

As a child he was brought up in the house
of his grandmother, a rigid Presbyterian, where
his early and enforced studies of Dr. Manton's
famous commentaries are supposed to have
"prepared him to become a High Churchman.^'
However, he went early to Eton, where he com-
pleted his education, although it w^as long as-
serted that he went to Oxford (Christ Church).
About 1698-9 he travelled abroad, and lived
generally for a time, with all the avidity of
youth and of high spirits, what is called a life
of pleasure. He dabbled a little in literature;
but his chief ambition seems to have been dis-
tinction in dissipation. In 1700 he married
Frances Winchescombe, daughter and co-
heiress of Sir Henry Winchescombe ; and en-
tered Parliament for the family borough of
Wootton Bassett in Wiltshire. His brilliant ora-
torical abilities speedily attracted attention ; and
he eventually cast in his lot with the then domi-
nant Tories, of whom Harley (the Speaker)
was the leader. In 1702 he received an hon-
orary doctor's degree at Oxford. Two years
later, when Harley became Secretary of State,
he was made Secretary of War, a post which
he retained until February, 1708, when upon the
accession of the rival Whig party under Marl-
borough and Godolphin, he and Harley went out
together.

For the next two years he led a retired life.
But in August, 1710, the political whirligig re-
'•tored the Tories to power with Harley again
at their head; and Bolingbroke sitting in the
new Parliament as member for Berkshire, be-
came Secretary of State for Foreign Affairs.
In 1712, he was created Viscount Bolingbroke
and Baron St. John of Lydiard Tregoze, and
he bore a chief part in the «vile Utrecht Treaty,*
as Prior calls it, cf March, 1713. By this time
his friendship for his temporising, sluggish co-
adjutor had greatly declined; and the last years
of their political alliance were years of wrang-
ling hostility, which Swift (the friend of both)
strove vainly 10 mitigate. Then when, at last,
Bolingbroke had compassed the downfall of
Harley ; and was intriguing for a Jacobite suc-
cession, Queen Anne died suddenly in August,
1714, and changed the aspect of affairs.

With the accession of George I., Bolingbroke's
power passed away. The new King dismissed
him, and after a short time he found it expedi-
ent to fly to France. His impeachment and at-
tainder speedily followed. In France, where he
remained seven years, he became Secretary of
State to the Pretender, by whom als^ he was
eventually dismissed for alleged neglect of
duty. In October, 1718, his hrst wife, with,
whom he had never got on ver}-- well, died ; and
in 1722 he was married to Marie-ClaireDes-
champs de Marcilly, widow of the Marquis de
Villette, by whose exertions, and interest with
King George's mistress, the Duchess of Kendal,
he was ultimately allowed to return to England.
In 1725 his property was restored, but he could
not recover his rights as a peer, and was thus
excluded from the House of Lords. At this
date he resided at Dawley, near Uxbridge,
w^here he occupied himself in the preparation of
philosophical treatises, and of political articles
in the 'Craftsman,^ 1727-34, in opposition to
Walpole. In 1735, finding it hopeless to re-enter
political life, he retired again to France, where

he lived at Chantelou in Touraine until his
father's death in the spring of 1742. This
brought him again to his paternal home at Bat-
tersea. Here for nine years longer he for the
most part resided until 12 December, 1751, when
he died of a cancer in the face, — the long tor-
ture of which he bore with exemplary fortitude.
His second wife, to whom he was tenderly at-
tached, had died in the previous year. Both
were buried at Battersea, where theie is a mon-
ument to them in the parish church, with
medallions by Roubillac.

Bolingbroke's biographers have dwelt effect-
ively upon his personal advantages, his hand-
some presence, his mingled dignity and sweet-
ness, his vivacity, his wit, his marvellous mem-
ory, and his quickness of apprehension. "His-
mind," said Swift, who loved him, "was adorned
with the choicest gifts that God has yet thought
fit to bestow upon the children of men,** and he
refers especially to his "clear judgment,* "his-
most agreeable elocution," and his "invincible
eloquence." Of his eloquence, whether in speech
or script, there is no doubt, and writer after
writer has spoken to its seductive charm. His
patriotism, upon which he himself insisted, has
also found sturdy advocates. But in the main,
he is now regarded rather as a brilliant and
meteoric intriguer than a really great states-
man with honest convictions ; while his boasted
philosophy and his learning are held to be
equally unsound and superficial. Pope, his pupil
in the ^Essay on Man,* is the accredited mouth-
piece of his religious opinions; and it is a cur-
rent criticism of Pope's cleverly executed
thesis that it is an exposition of undeveloped
doctrine by a disciple to whom it was unintel-
ligible.

Apart from Bolingbroke's political tracts, and
contributions to the <Craftsman,> the bulk of his
writings w^ere published posthumously. The
Letters on the < Spirit of Patriotism,* and the
<Idca of a Patriot King* appeared in 1752 and
1749; the "^Letters on the Study of History* in
1752; and the < Letter to Sir William Wind-
ham; a vindication of his conduct up to 1716,
general^ regarded as his best work, in 1753.
In 1754 his dependant, David Mallet, published
his ^Philosophical Writings* in 5 vols. It was
this publication which gave rise to the celebrated
utterance ascribed to Dr. Johnson about the
"beggarly Scotchman,** who was paid to let oft
Bolingbroke's blunderbuss against religion and
morality after his death. But Johnson told Bos-
well that he had "never read Bolingbroke's
impiety.**

Bibliography. — Bolingbroke's "^Life* has
been written by Mallet (see above) ; IMacknight
(1863); Harrop (1884); Hassall (1889); and
latterly (exhaustively and appreciatively) by
Waltcr Sichel (1901-2). Consult also <Boling-
broke. a Historical Study,* by Churton Collins
(^iSS*^)- Austin Dobson.

Author of '■Life of Goldsmith^ ; 'Life of Rich-
ardson,'^ etc.

Bolivar, Simon, se-mon' bo-le'var, South
American liberator : b. Caracas, 24 July 1783 ; d.
San Pedro Alejandrino, 10 Dec. 1830. He was
educated in Spain, and. when but 18 years
old, married in Madrid. His wife died

BOLIVAR — BOLIVIA

■soon afterward. The sources of the inspiration
•of his life's work were: (i) The spectacle of
the French Revolution ; (2) the example of
the United States, which country he visited in
1809; (3) the personality of Gen. Miranda, the
leader of the revolutionary movement in Vene-
zuela, who had openly and vigorously attacked
Spain's colonial government. Bolivar offered
his services to the revolutionary junta a year
before Venezuela declared its independence,
which was on 5 July 181 1.

The revolutionists being at first overwhelmed
by the Spanish forces, Bolivar fled to Curagao.
In September 1812 he was at Cartagena ; next,
we see him scoring against the Spaniards in
New Granada ; then marching back into Vene-
zuela with only 500 men. but winning so many
recruits among the inhabitants that he could
meet and defeat Gen. Monteverde at Lasto-
jjuanes. He entered Caracas in triumph, 4 Aug.

1813, but suffered defeat in July 1814, and Cara-
•cas was again a Spanish town. He then went
l)ack to New Granada, succeeding at Bogota;
failing at Santa Marta ; resigning his commis-
sion, and sailing for Kingston, Jamaica, in May

1814. Next, from Aux Cayes, Haiti, he set out
with a little force that President Petion equipped:
"but this expedition, landing in Venezuela
in May 1816 was a failure. Again reinforced at
Aux Cayes, he landed (December 1816) in Mar-
garita, and (16 Feb. .1817) at Barcelona, for a
three days' battle with Gen. Morillo. The latter
was defeated. Bolivar was made commander-
in-chief, with headquarters at Angostura. Offer-
ing to resign his command to a migratory Con-
gress (15 Feb. 1819), he was urged to continue
the war; reorganized the army; crossed the
Cordilleras; joined forces with Santander, re-

;publican leader in New Granada ; caught the
Spaniards unawares ; entered Tunja July 1819,
and on 7 August won the battle of Boyaca.
On 17 Dec. 1819 Venezuela and New Granada
"vvere merged in the new Republic of Colombia,
Avhich included both and absorbed Ecuador
after the victory in Bombona — the union con-
tinuing until the close of 1830. Spain made
another effort, sending Gen. Torre to take com-
mand of her forces ; but Torre was defeated
on the field of Carabobo, in the central part of
Venezuela, 25 June 1821. The constitution of
Colombia was adopted, 30 Aug. 1821, and its
government inaugurated with Bolivar as presi-
dent and Gen. Francisco de Paula Santander as
vice-president.

But in that great region lying south of Col-
ombia and north of Chile and Argentina Spain
was still strong. At the request of the Con-
gress of Peru, Bolivar sent reinforcements un-
der the command of Gen. Antonio Jose de
Sucre, and went in person to the scene of action.
Quito was occupied in June 1822; next, the
Liberator assumed the presidency at Lima ; on
6 Aug. 1824 he triumphed at junin. Before
the end of that year Sucre gave the coup de
grace to Spain's colonial system on the main-
land (though at widely separated points hope-
less resistance was offered a little longer), by
capturing Viceroy Laserna, General-in-Chief
Aymeric, and other Spanish commanders and
officers (see Ayacucho). In June 1825 Boli-
var visited Upper Peru, a region of vast extent,
which, in his honor, received the name Bolivia
(q.v.) when it was organized as a separate

republic. In December 1826, returning to Vene-
zuela (where Gen. Jose Antonio Paez and Ad-
miral Jose Padilla had destroyed the remnants
of Spanish power on the northern coast), he was
re-elected to the presidency, though manifesting
great reluctance to retain an office the powers
of which were wholly inadequate to the task of
holding together in a permanent union three
states such as Venezuela, New Granada, and
Ecuador. Then two important steps were taken :
(i) Leaders of the people assured him tiiat
he alone could avert disaster and disruption ;
(2) he himself assumed and attempted to exer-
cise such powers as, in his opinion, were neces-
sary to control the situation. At the height of
his fame and strength (for he was in his 47th
year), on the eve, however, of a great failure, —
for the tendency to disunion in the country
freed and consolidated by him had grown be-
yond control, — Bolivar resigned his command
^"d died. Marriox Wilcox,

Authority on Latin-America.

Bolivar, Colombia, a northern department
of that republic, bordering the Caribbean Sea ;
area 21,345 square miles. The surface of the
country is low and heavily wooded, agriculture
having made but little progress. The most im-
portant rivers are the Magdalena, the Cauca (a
tributary of the former), and the Sinu. Capital,
Cartagena. Pop. about 300,000.

Bolivia, bo-lev'ya, an inland republic of
South America, bounded on the north and east
by Brazil, northwest by Peru, southwest by
Chile, south by Argentina and Paraguay. It
extends from north to south between lat. 10°
20' S. (see Acre River) and 22° 50' S. and from
east to west between Ion. 57° 47' 40" W. (Com-
pare treaty with Brazil 17 Nov. 1903) and about
72° \V. Area, exclusive of Acre and Chaco
claims, estimated at 560,000 square miles.

The principal centres of population are now,
and apparently have always been, located in the
mountainous region of the western half of the
country, called the Sierra. The eastern districts,
stretching away from the slopes of the Cor-
dillera far into the torrid interior of the conti-
nent, where are the sources of the Amazon's
great tributary, the Madeira River, as well as
of the Paraguay, a part of the system of the
Rio de la Plata, are covered with tropical
forests, are but sparsely settled. Running south-
east through the departments of La Paz, Cocha-
bamba, and Potosi is the principal range of the
Andes Mountains, called the Cordillera Real.
Here are the rich mineral districts of Bolivia :
the Cerro Rico de Potosi alone has produced up
to the present time about $2,000,000,000 worth of
silver. Here are some of the highest mountains
of America and one of the greatest continuous
snow-ranges in the world, having an average
altitude of 20,000 feet, with the superb peaks of
Illimani, Huaina-Potosi, and Illampu lifted 5.000
or 6,000 feet still higher above their gigantic
associates. The western range of the Andes
continues in a line parallel with the Pacific
coast, rejoining the Cordillera Real near B""-
livia's southern boundary. Between these two
ranges are the high plains. 12,000 to 13,000 feet,
and Lake Titicaca, 12.488 feet, above the sea-
level. This great sheet of water, 120 miles
long, and from 30 to 50 miles wide, has an
average depth of 100 fathoms. Lying southeast

BOLIVIA

of Lake Titicaca are the two most famous cities
of the republic, La Paz and Sucre. A railway
from Mollendo on the Peruvian coast climbs
up to the plateau, but where it passes over the
western range of the Andes the track is 14,765
feet above the sea. On the Pacific side, then, the
problem of transportation is very difficult ; more-
over, as is shown below, the republic has been
deprived of the little strip of seacoast that was
formerly in its possession.

Turning now toward the east, we find some
of the best farming lands in the world, but here
also the means of transportation are inade-
quate, and the products must be carried a great
distance before reaching the Atlantic Ocean.
The agricultural methods are incredibly primi-
tive. Indian communities or wealthy towns-
people own the farms ; the Indians plow the
land in a fashion that has been thus described :

Oxen are j'oked by lashing a light crosspiece of wood
immediately behind the horns. To this rude yoke
is fastened the long beam of the wooden plow, which
is almost exactly like those used by the people of
Egypt thousands of years ago. It has but a single
handle, and a flat piece of iron is fastened with raw-
hide at the point of the crooked stick. This cuts the
soil to a depth of about six inches. Clods are broken
by hand, and the ground is further prepared by drag-
ging a heavy tree over it until the soil becomes smooth.

The roads are but narrow trails winding
along the mountain sides, and are for the use
of pack animals exclusively. Mules and llamas,
driven by Indians, carry loads of coffee, cacao,
cinchona bark, wool, and the precious metals.

Natural Wealth and Commerce. — The nat-
ural wealth of Bolivia may be shown by an
enumeration of the products of its chief geo-
graphical divisions, called departments. The
department of Potosi is exceedingly rich in sil-
ver, tin, and bismuth. Gold also is found in
Chilco de Chichas ; nitrate in San Cristobal de
Lipez, and red and white copper, topazes,
emeralds, opals, jasper, and marble in Lipez.
The department of Tarija has an abundance of
copper, silver, gold, asphalt, marble, etc. Sucre
contains silver, tin, coal, lead, copper, gold, and
mineral asphaltum. Cochabamba has gold mines
that were famous during the time of the Spanish
dominion ; also silver and marble. Santa Cruz
contains rich gold mines that are worked by
the natives only ; also large deposits of iron ore.
La Paz contains famous mines, such as Tipuani
and Yani (gold), and Chuquioguillo (silver).
Copper, bismuth, tin, marble, antimony, and coal
are also found. Oruro contains silver, tin, gold,
copper, iron, lead, bismuth, antimony, sulphur,
feldspar, borax, topaz, and amethysts.

Though ranking high in the production of
silver, Bolivia is essentially an agricultural and
grazing country. The province of Lipez has
great herds of alpacas, vicuiias, sheep, and lla-
mas. Alfalfa and barley grow in Chichas ; sugar-
cane, coffee, wool, potatoes, cereals, flour, and
fruits are produced in Charcas (Potosi). In
the valley of the Paraguay River, department of
Tarija, cacao, wines, maize, barley, and vege-
tables are the chief products. Cattle and horses
abound upon the pasture-lands of the province
of Azero. Rice, dairy products, and all varie-
ties of fruits, European as well as tropical, are
mentioned among the possibilities or actual
achievements in the comparatively small portion
of these eastern districts as yet brought under
cultivation. Immense areas are covered with

rubber-trees, and valuable cabinet- and dye-
woods, cedar, mahogany, etc., are among the
unexploited treasures of the forests. The ex-
ports of rubber from the territory of Acre were
4,471,374 pounds in 1901. Geographically, a
large part of northeastern Bolivia belongs to the
Amazon River system, the natural outlet for its
products being the waterways of Brazil ; and
until this opening to the commerce of the world
is secured it will remain buried alive. See
Acre River and South America.

The exports of the entire nation in iqor
amounted to $13,621,237.56. The value of im-
ports in the same year was $6,120,113; of which
amount Germany supplied merchandise of the
value of $1,170,755; England, $827,358; France,
$690,331; United States, $602,906; Chile,
$600,670; Peru, $557,107; Belgium, $471,451;
Italy, $245,252; Argentine Republic. $218,334;
Spain, $131,570.

Government Receipts and Expenditures. —
The budget for 1903 is even more surprising,
when we consider the size and natural re-
sources of Bolivia. The estimated receipts of
the government to 1903 amount to only $2,904,-
807.17; the expenditures for the same period,
$3-385,395.64; the deficit in the budget being
$480,588.47.

Population. — The population is classified
as, (i) whites, (2) Quichuas, (3) Aymaras,
(4) Chunchos. The first class is composed
chiefly of descendants of the Spaniards. The
second class is numerically the strongest in the
republic, the Quichua Indians being commonly
employed either as domestic servants or as
laborers in the mines. In the third class are
Indians of a distinct tribe, who are found in
the department of La Paz and the high plains
of the western portion of Bolivia, especially
in the neighborhood of Lake Titicaca, where
they are employed in pastoral and agricultural
pursuits. As for the members of the fourth
class, they are aborigines whose scattered
tribes, — now inhabiting the eastern departments
of Chuquisaca, Beni, and Santa Cruz, with a
few representatives also in La Paz and the
central department of Cochabamba, — have not
even the bond of a common language. There
are not sufficient data on which to base an
opinion as to their tribal relationships, nor has
it ever been possible to make a close estimate
of their numbers. It is probable, however, that
they are fragments of the original population
of this land, displaced by successive waves of
invasion, the Aymaras having been the next
tribe to gain possession of the great upland
plateau. The Quichuas came in at a much later
date, when the empire of the Incas was ex-
tended from Cuzco, Peru, through this region.
While Spanish is the language of the ruliiig
element, both Quichua and Aymara are also in
common use, even among the whites. Estimate
of total pop. 1,800,000.

The professions, and the best positions in
the army, the public service, and mercantile
business, are monopolized by persons of Euro-
pean descent. Below them are the Mestizos
(persons of blended Indian and European
blood), more commonly known as "Cholos^' —
the tradesmen, soldiers, small shopkeepers, etc.,
constituting a middle class. Lowest in the
social scale are the Indian farmers, day labor-
ers, miners, and servants. The lines between

BOLIVIA

these Classes being uncertain and disputable as
the national boundaries, the structure of Bo-
livian society forbids the full acceptance of free
political institutions.

History. — The country was formed in 1825
from the province of Upper Peru, and named in
henor of the South American Liberator, Simon
Bolivar. Partly within Peruvian and partly
within Bolivian territory are the waters of Lake
Titicaca, on the shores of which we find monu-
ments of a civilization antedating the Inca con-
quest by about 600 years. From the earliest
times, therefore, Peru and Bolivia must have
been united. The Incas of Cuzco overran this
district in the 14th century, and 200 years after-
ward Hernando Pizarro added it to the con-
quest his brother had made at the heart of the
Inca empire. Under the Spaniards, then, it was
known as the district or territory of the high
court of Charcas, and remained subject to the
viceroy of Peru until 1776, when it became a
province of the new viceroyalty of Buenos
Ayres. Before the coming of Pizarro the
Sierra supplied a large part of the gold used
for the decoration of the temples and palaces
of the Incas ; after the Spanish conquest the
natives were driven to work, to continue or in-
crease the output of precious metals for the
benefit of masters whose ruthless severity was
conspicuous even in that age. There is no
entirely trustworthy record of the numbers of
those who perished in the mines, but we know
that a large Indian population was reduced to
its present proportions in the course of two
centuries. Taxation was oppressive; provincial
governors became monopolists, from whom the
natives were obliged to purchase their supplies ;
here, as elsewhere in America, colonists were
forbidden to raise any crops or manufacture
any articles which could interfere with the in-
dustries of the mother country. Commerce was
so strictly limited to Spain that even neighbor-
ing colonies were forbidden to have commercial
dealings with one another. Toward the end of
the i8th century the resentment of the Indians
was expressed in several insurrections
(1780-82) ; early in the 19th the provinces of
Rio de la Plata and Peru aided the Bolivians in
their struggle for independence (July 1809 to
August 1825). Gen. Santa Cruz was in com-
mand of the expeditions from Lima which
failed to drive out the Spanish troops in 1823.
But in the following year Gen. Sucre, marching
from the same country at the head of an army
encouraged by the victory of Ayacucho, was
favored by a rising of patriots in all the prin-
cipal towns. By February 1825 La Paz was in
the power of the revolutionists, and in March
the Spaniards lost their only remaining strong-
hold, the province of Potosi.

Deputies from the various provinces assem-
bled _ at the capital to decide whether the
relation of dependence upon Argentina should
continue or not. In August they reached the
conclusion that they would undertake their own
government, and before the dissolution of this
Assembly (6 Oct. 1825) independence was de-
clared. The Constitution adopted then (subse-
quently modified in important respects) was pre-
pared by Gen. Bolivar, and in accordance with the
views entertained by the great Liberator at this
period in his career, when he was master of
Colombia and Peru as well, it vested the
supreme authority in a president chosen for life.

The first incumbent was Gen. Sucre, who ac-
cepted the presidency for the space of two years
only, and took the further precaution to retain
2,000 Colombian soldiers for his protection. In
1827 he and his Colombians were actually ex-
pelled from the country.

Since 1827 Bolivia has had seventeen presi-
dents or dictators, the average duration of their
terms being about four years. In 1828 Santa
Cruz came into power and was confronted with
a revolution the following year. In 1835, inter-
posing in a quarrel of political factions in Peru,
he defeated Gamarra, and named himself Pro-
tector of that country. Chile refusing to consent
to the proposed union of her neighbors, three
years of fighting ensued. Santa Cruz was de-
feated and exiled in 1839, but his party in
Bolivia kept up the agitation and finally conferred
the presidency upon Gen. Ballivian. Mean-
while Gamarra, who had become President of
Peru, tried to annex the department of La Paz.
He lost his life in this attempt, and then the
Bolivians in their turn would have invaded
Peru if Chile had not again intervened. Balli-
vian surrendered his thankless task in 1848.
The next President, Belzu, was borne into ofiice
on the crest of a wave of revolution ; by a revo-
lutionary storm his successor, Cordova, was
driven from ofiice and from the land. Linares
made himself Dictator in 1858, and was deposed
in 1861. President Acha, his successor, fell
from power when his forces were defeated in
battle by his political antagonist, Melgarejo
(February 1865). The latter may be character-
ized as a revolutionist until 1865 ; President from
that time until 1869; Dictator from 1869 to 1871.
Morales, elected in the year last mentioned, was
succeeded in 1873 by Ballivian, who died before
a twelvemonth had passed. Frias, next to take
ofiice, was deposed two years later by the
troops, who proclaimed Gen. Daza President.

In 1878 Bolivia and Peru were at war with
Chile, and the defeat of the allies after 18
months of hopeless struggling against a well-
prepared enemy stripped from the weakest of
the contestants her only possessions on the Pa-
cific. Bolivia became a landlocked country. The
national anger vented itself first upon the Presi-
dent whom the army had lifted up, and who
now fled to escape assassination. But Campero
whom Congress chose to carry on the war, and
who personally led the Bolivian troops in the
field, was wholly unable to oppose Chile's de-
mands alone, and Peru was an ally without
power to aid. Bolivia saw herself obliged to
acquiesce in an arrangement which some of her
leaders have not yet ceased to regard as pro-
visional and temporary. Her bit of coast line
and most of the coveted nitrate of soda deposits
in the districts of Cobija and Tarapaca, — terri-
tory aggregating 70,181 square miles, with about
6,000 inhabitants, — passed into Chile's keeping.
(For an account of the war on the Pacific, see
Chile; Peru.)

Coincidentally, the failure in 1879-80, after
j'ears of efi'ort, to secure the opening of a com-
mercial outlet for Bolivian products to the At-
lantic through the Amazon River and its great
tributary, the Madeira, was a severe blow. The
American contractors for the Madeira and
Mamore Railway of Bolivia and Brazil were de-
prived of the funds necessary to the prosecution
of the enterprise by the withdrawal of the loan
that had been placed in England in 1872 for the

BOLKHOV — BOLLAN

purpose of constructing this much-needed road.
The decision to abandon the undertaking was
reached after years of litigation, the final appeal
being heard in the British House of Lords.

The Constitution of 28 Oct. 1880 vested the
legislative power in a Senate and House of Rep-
resentatives, and the executive power in a presi-
dent elected for four years by direct universal
suffrage. But little or no improvement in the
political situation was observed. President
Campero was succeeded by Gregorio Pacheco,
and then came Aniceto Arce (i Aug. 1888). It
was necessary to declare a state of siege in all
parts of the republic in the summer of 1890.
Attempts were made to overthrow the govern-
ment, and a number of political leaders were
arrested. The election of a successor to Presi-
dent Arce took place 3 May 1892. Violent col-
lisions between the rival factions again com-
pelled the authorities to proclaim a state of
siege — which was continued even after the in-
auguration of the new president, Baptista, on
6 August. Indian revolts also occurred in this
year, originating in both the north and the
south, and spreading rapidly through the entire
country. The barbarous practices of the Indians
were, as is usual in this most repulsive species
of warfare, matched by the repressive measures
of the Bolivian troops.

Chile furnished arms and money to uphold
the Baptista government; and the dependence
of the country without sea coast upon the coun-
tiy all sea coast was recognized in the treaty of
1903. Bolivia had been placed in a position such
that any one of her three powerful neighbors, —
Chile, Argentina, or Brazil, — could win her
allegiance by conferring substantial favors, or
even by a display of international courtesy. Fol-
lowing Chile's diplomatic overtures, Argentina
undertook to open up a way to the sea by a new
railroad connecting the Sierra with her "river
system. Brazil's attitude remained in doubt, un-
til the treaty of 17 Nov. 1903 showed that Acre,
competing with Brazil in the production of rub-
ber, was demanded as the price of any conces-
sion of a right of way. Some of the neigh-
"boring states have, in times not long past, actu-
ally discussed the disposition to be made of
Bolivia, as though this interesting country were
a South American Poland.

It can hardly be said that Bolivia has given
evidence of greater political stability in recent
years. When Fernandez Alonzo was elected to
the presidency in 1896 his opponents protested
that the government had tampered with the re-
turns in such a way as to change the expression
of the people's will under the constitutional
guaranty of universal suffrage, and an uprising
was successful in April 1899. The revolution-
ists, under Col. Jose Manuel Pando, defeated
the government forces in a pitched battle ;
President Alonzo fled over the Andes into
Chile, and the government which has main-
tained itself until 1903 was organized, with
Seiior Pando at its head.

Bibliography. — Aramayo, ^Apuntes sobre el
Estado', (Sucre 1871) ; Aranz, <Nueva Via
FluviaP (Manaos 1868) ; Barra, <E1 Problema
de los Andes^ (Buenos Ayres 1895) ; Benites,
'Exposicion de los Derechos del Paraguay en la
Cuestion de Limites con Bolivia^ (Asuncion
1895) ; Bibra, ^Die Algodon-Bai in Bolivien'
(Vienna 1852) ; Bresson, ^Sept Annees d'Ex-
plorations^ (Paris 1886) ; Bureau of American
Keoublics, < Monthly Bulletin* (Washington

1902-3) passim; Conway, <The Bolivian
Andes* (New York 1901) ; < Colonization, Min-
isterio de Ter. del Acre* (La Paz 1902) ; ^Cues-
tion Chileno-Boliviano' (Valparaiso 1879) ;
^Documentos Oficiales Relativos a los Limites
entre Chile, Bolivia, etc.* (Santiago de Chile
1898) ; Egaiia, ^The Tacna and Arica Question*
(Santiago de Chile 1900) ; Flores, 'El Gran
Mariscal de Ayacucho* [Antonio Jose de Sucre]
(New York ^Las Novedades* 1883) ; <Fo-
mento e Instruccion Publica* (La Paz 1902) ;
Grandidier, ^Voyage dans I'Amerique du Sud*
(Paris 1861) ; Guzman, ^Fronteras de Bolivia*
(La Paz 1902) ; ^Inmigracion, Estadistica, etc.
Decreto* (La Paz 1897) ; Inwards, ^Temple of
the Andes* (London 1884) ; Keller, <Explora-
tion of River Madeira* (London 1873) ; Ken-
nedy, ^Settlement of Bolivia-Brazil Boundary
Lines,* "^Consular Representatives* (Washing-
ton 1902) ; Lacroix, ^Perou et Bolivie* (in
^Universal History* Paris 1843) ; ^Nueva
Cuestion de Chile con Bolivia* (Valparaiso
1879) ; ^Ordenanzas Militares* (Sucre 1895) ;
^Papers and Documents Relating to Bolivian
Loan,* etc. (London 1873) : San Roman
•^Estudios i Datos Practicos Sobre las Cues-
tioiies Internacionales de Limites,* etc. (San-
tiago de Chile 1895) ; * Treaty of 13 May 1858
with the United States, America,* (Washington
1863) ; L^nited States, ^Message from President,
Transmitting Papers Relating to War in South
America,* etc. (Washington 1882).

Marrion Wilcox,
Authority on Latin-America.

Bolkhov, bol-kof Russia, capital of a dis-
trict of the same name in the government of
Orel, on the Nugra. It is a very ancient place,
and is chiefly built of wood. It has manufac-
tures of leather, glue, soap, etc., and a consid-
erable trade in hemp, hemp-oil, and tallow,
amounting to more than $800,000 annually.
Pop. (1903) 26,265.

Boll (from the Saxon bolla, a bowl), an old
Scotch measure for corn, varying in different
districts and for different articles. A boll of
wheat or beans was equal to four bushels, a
boll of oats to six bushels. The boll is still
used in some parts of Scotland, but is no longer
legally recognized.

Bol'lan, 'William, lawyer: b. England; d.
Massachusetts, 1776. In 1740 he settled in Bos-
ton, Mass., married a daughter of Governor
Shirley in 1743, and became advocate-general.
In 1745 he was sent to London as the colony's
agent, a post of great responsibility and requir-
ing considerable ability in the holder. After
three years of negotiating he secured from the
English government the repayment of ii83,6.^q
advanced by Massachusetts for the Cape Breton
expedition. In 1769 he secured and sent over
to Massachusetts 33 letters of Gov. Bernard
and Gen. Gage, denouncing and calumniating
the colonists. He wrote a number of politi-
cal tracts and pamphlets favoring conciliation
with the colonists. Among them were: *The
Mutual Interests of Great Britain and the
American Colonies Considered* ; ^Continued
Corruption of Standing Armies* ; ^The Free
Briton's Memorial, in Defense of the Right of
Election* ; ^Importance of the Colonies of North
America and the Interests of Great Britain with
Regard to Them Considered* ; < Petition to the
King in Council, 26 Jan. 1774, with Illustra-

BOLLANDISTS — BOLOGNA

lions Intended to Promote the Harmony of
■Great Britain and Her Colonies* ; <The Impor-
tance of Cape Breton Illustrated' ; etc.

Bollandists, a society of Jesuits which
published, under the title <Acta Sanctorum,* the
well-known collection of the lives of the saints
of the Roman Catholic Church. They received
this name from John Bolland (died 1665), who
edited the first five volumes from materials
already accumulated by Heribert Rosweyd, a
Flemish Jesuit, whose collections were entrusted
to Bolland at his death in 1629. On the aboli-
tion of the society of Jesuits in 1773. it was
removed to the monastery of Candenberg, in
Brussels. The abolition of the monasteries by
Joseph II. brought about its dissolution. A
new association was formed in 1837 under the
patronage of the Belgian government, and iDy
it the publication of the great work was con-
tinued.

BoUes, Albert Sidney, writer on finance:
"b. Montville, Conn.. 8 March 1846. He prac-
tised law for a time ; then became editor of the
Norwich fConn.) Bulletin, and later of the
Banker's Bulletin. For more than four years
Tie was professor of mercantile law and bank-
ing in the University of Pennsylvania, and for
■eight years chief of the Pennsylvania Bureau
of Industrial Statistics. Publications: * Chap-
ters on Political Economy*; 'Conflict Between
Labor and Capital* : 'Industrial History of the
Jnited States* : 'Financial History of the
United States. 1774-1885.* his most important
work; 'Practical Banking*: 'The National
Bank Act and its Judicial Meaning* ; 'Pennsyl-
A'ania, Province and State, 1609-1790.*

Belles, Frank, author: b. Winchester,
Mass., 31 Oct. 1856 : d. Cambridge, Mass., 10
Jan. 1894. He graduated at Harvard Law
School in 1882. and while there founded and
became first president of what is now the Har-
vard Co-operative Association. He was an asso-
ciate editor of the Boston Advertiser until
chosen secretary of Harvard University in 1886.
That office he made thoroughly human to the
great gain of both students and faculty. He
was in the truest sense the students' friend, and
he endeared himself to hundreds, especially the
diffident ones and those of limited means, by
many acts of helpfulness. In a series of judi-
cious and clear pamphlets he set forth the actual
working of Harvard, its methods of instruction,
the scope of its departments, etc., and did much
to correct the impression that it was a rich man's
college. He wrote three works of exceptional
literary merit: 'Land of the Lingering Snow,*
sketches written on an abandoned farm in the
beart of the White Mountains; '^At the North
of Bearcamp Water* ; and 'From Blomidon to
Smoky, and Other Papers.* In his descriptions
of nature and scenery he is absolutely imper-
sonal, and impartial as a scientist ; he never
moralizes or indulges in sentiment.

Bellman, Eric, adventurer: b. Hoya, Han-
over. 1760; d. Jamaica. W. I.. 9 Dec. 1821. He
was a physician at Paris during the Revolution,
accompanied the refugee. Count Narbonne to
London in 1792, then established practice in
Vienna to discover Lafayette's place of impris-
onment. Finding it to be Olmiitz. he joined an
American named Francis K. Huger in rescuing
him, though he was recaptured. Bollman was
imprisoned nearly a year in Austria, then re-

leased on condition of leaving the country. He
came to America, was in Philadelphia for years,
then joined Burr's conspiracy in 1806 and was
his agent in New Orleans ; was apprehended and
committed for treason in 1807, but discharged
for lack of evidence (see below). In 1814 he
returned to Europe, finally settling in London.

Bellman's Case, in United States law.
Eric Bollman (above) was committed on prob-
able suspicion of ireason, 27 Jan. 1807, by the
circuit court of the District of Columbia ; the
supreme court was moved for a writ of habeas
corpus ad subjiciendum (the great writ against
illegal confinement) to the marshal to bring him
before the court. The questions were whether
the court had the initial power to grant such
writs, and if so, whether it could grant them
against committals by the circuit court. John
Marshall decided that it had such right both
by common law, as the right of any superior
court of record to guard the liberty of the citi-
zen, and by express grant from Congress ; and
that the allegation of treason was immaterial,
as the w-rit would be useless without the power
to go behind the lower court's action and decide
on the merits. William Johnson dissented. On
the rnarshal's return it was moved that Bollman
be discharged, because no place of commission
of the treasonable act was cited, and because the
evidence was insufficient and the crime even if
proved did not amount to treason. It was de-
cided that there must be an actual lev'j'ing of
war, not merely intent to do so to constitute
treason, that the evidence at best did not even
prove that, but only a culpable attempt against
a power with which the United States was at
peace.

Boll Weevil. See Cotton Insects.

Bollworm, a southern name for a cater-
pillar which bores into cotton balls. In the
north it is called "corn worm.*' See Cotton
Insects.

Be'le, the national weapon of the Filipi-
nos. The blade is about 18 inches in length by
nearly 3 inches in breadth at its broadest dimen-
sion. It tapers from the middle toward the haft
as well as toward the point, making it strongly
resemble the ancient short sword. It is not
double edged, however, but tapers from a thick
back to an extremely keen edge. The scabbard
of the bolo is made of a native wood with rough
outlined designs carved upon it. The whole
weapon is much more beautiful in outline and
more formidable than the Cuban machete.

Bologna, Giovanni di, j6-van'ne de bo-lo'-
n5-a, sculptor and architect: b. Douai, in
Flanders, about 1524; d. Florence, 1608. At an
early age he went to Rome, where he passed
two years in studying the masterpieces of art.
Going to Florence, he was attracted by the works
of Michael Angelo, and determined to pass the
rest of his life there. He rapidly rose to the
foremost rank among sculptors, and few artists
were charged with the execution of so many
and such important works. His surname of
Bologna seems to have been derived from the
celebrated fountain in that city, designed by
himself, of which the crowning colossal figure
of Neptune is one of the wonders of the mod-
ern city. His fine statue of Duke Ferdinand is
said to have inspired Browning's poem, 'The
Statue and the Bust.*

BOLOGNA — BOLOMETER

Bologna, bo-lo'nya, Italv 'anciently Bononia).
capital of the province of the same name. It lies
at the foot of the Apennines, between the rivers
Reno and Savena, 190 miles north-northwest of
Rome. Bologna is five or six miles in circum-
ference, and is surrounded by an unfortified
wall of brick. It is an archbishopric, and has
a tribunal of appeal in the first instance, and
of commerce. It has extensive manufactures
of silk goods, velvet, artificial flowers, etc. The
town consists of four quarters, the older poorly,
and the modern handsomely built. There are
colonnades along the sides of the streets afford-
ing shade and shelter to the foot-passengers.
Bologna was long renowned for its universit3%
founded, according to tradition, by Theodosius
the younger in 425, but more probably not till
1088, which, in the centuries of barbarism, spread
the light of knowledge over all Europe. It once
had 10,000 students, but the number is now
about 1,500 only. Here the famous Irnerius
taught the civil law in the iith century, and
students were attracted from every quarter. Sev-
eral learned ladies have at different times been
professors here, such as Laura Bassi, professor
of mathematics and natural philosophy, and
Matilda Tambroni, professor of Greek, and the
predecessor of the famous Cardinal Mezzofanti.
The university formerly possessed so much in-
fluence, that even the coins of the city bore its
motto — Bononia docct ("Bologna teaches")-
The law school enjoyed the greatest fame. Its
teachers had the reputation of inculcating prin-
ciples favorable to despotism, and were conse-
quently rewarded by the favor of the emperors,
and of the Italian sovereigns. Every new dis-
covery in science and the arts found a welcome,
and here Galvani discovered galvanism (1789).
The medical school is celebrated for having in-
troduced the public dissection of human bodies,
and the scientific journals prove that the love
of investigation is still awake in Bologna. The
university, indeed, still enjoys an excellent repu-
tation, and is well provided with scientific
collections, the anatomical collection being espe-
cially extensive. It possesses in all five facul-
ties. The university library numbers about
170,000 volumes, with 6,000 manuscripts. Since
1803 the university buildings have consisted of
what was formerly the Palazzo Cellesi. The
original university building now accommodates
the public library, of some 200,000 volumes. The
city has a picture-gallery (in the Accademia
delle Belle Arte) and a museum of archaeological
and other objects. In the i6th century the
famous painters and sculptors, Carracci, Guido
Reni, Domenichino, and Albani, founded a
school, to which their works have given great
reputation. There were, even as early as the
I2th and 13th centuries, great painters in
Bologna. Francesco Francia was famous in the
15th and early part of the i6th century. The
city picture-gallery is rich in the works of these
and other artists, the gem of the whole being
Raphael's St. Cecilia.

The chief square of the city. Piazza Vittorio
Emanuele, formerly the Piazza Maggiore, with
the Piazza del Nettuno at right angles, is
adorned by several venerable buildings ; among
them are the Palazzo Comunale (or Del
Gnverno'), which contains some magnificent
halls, adorned with statues and paintings ;
Palazzo del Podesta (dating from 1201"), now
\he town hall, chiefly remarkable as having been

the prison of Enzius, king of Sardinia, and son
of the Emperor Frederick II.. who was cap~
tured and kept here by the Bolognese for more
than 20 years, till his death ; and the church or
basilica of St. Petronio, with its unfinished front
and the meridian of Cassini drawn upon a cop-
per plate in the floor. Among the hundred other
churches, the following are distinguished : St.
Pietro (the cathedral), St. Salvatore, St.
Domenico (containing the tomb of the saint),
St. Giovanni in Monte, St. Giacomo Maggiore,
all possessed of rich treasures of art, and St.
Stephano, consisting of seven different churches,
and partly dating from the loth century. The
palaces are numerous, and were formerly en-
riched with numerous and valuable works of
art. Many of these have now disappeared,
though frescoes and other internal decorations
still remain. The admired fountain of the
Piazza del Nettuno is adorned with a Neptune
in bronze, by John of Bologna ; in the Piazza
Vittorio Emanuele is an equestrian statue of
Victor Emanuel II. The leaning towers, Degli
Asinelli, and Garisenda, dating from the 12th
century, are among the most remarkable objects
in Bologna. The former is square and of
massive brickwork, built in three portions, and
diminishing in diameter to the top. Its height
is 321 feet, and its inclination from the per-
pendicular 4 feet. The Garisenda is 163 feet
high, and inclines about 10 feet. Bologna is
famous for macaroni, sausage, liqueurs, and
preserved fruits. The pilgrimage to the Ma-
donna di S. Luca, whose church is situated at
the foot of the Apennines, three miles distant
from Bologna, and to which an arcade of 640
arches leads, annually attracts a great number of
people from all parts of Italy. This and other
places in the environs may be reached by steam
tramwaj'.

Bologna was founded by the Etruscans under
the name of Felsina, before the foundation of
Rome. In 189 B.C. it w-as made a Roman colony,
and called Bononia. On the fall of the Roman
empire, it was taken by the Longobards, then it
passed into the hands of the Franks, and was
made a free city by Charlemagne. In the 12th
and 13th centuries it was one of the most flour-
ishing of the Italian republics ; but the feuds
between the different parties of the nobles dis-
turbed the stable government of the city, and
led to its submission to the papal see, and incor-
poration in the states of the Church, in 1506.
Several attempts were made to throw off the
papal authority, one of which, in 1831, was for a
time successful. In 1849 the Austrians obtained
possession of Bologna, and made it the head-
quarters of their 2d Italian Corps. In i860
Bologna was by popular vote annexed to the
dominions of King Victor Emanuel. Pop.
(1899) 158,975-

Bologna Phial, a small flask of unan-
nealed glass, which flies into pieces when its
surface is scratched by a hard body or a sharp-
ened body dropped into it. It is prepared by the
glass-maker as a test of the condition of a pot
of metal before he fashions it into bottles or
glasses.

Bolo'gna Stone, or Bologna Phosphorus.
See Barium and Barite.

Bolom'eter (^^ray-measurer*), an instru-
ment invented by Prof. S. P. Langley. secre-
tary of the Smithsonian Institution, for detect-

BOLOR TAGH — BOLTON

ing- and measuring small quantities of radiant
heat. It consists essentially of a balanced
Wheatstone's bridge (see Resistance, Electri-
cal), one of whose arms is formed by a tliin
strip of platinum foil, blackened to facilitate the
absorption of heat. The bridge being in equilib-
rium, with no current passing through the gal-
vanometer, a ray of radiant heat falling upon the
platinum strip warms it slightly, thereby increas-
ing its electric resistance, destroi'ing the balance
of the bridge, and causing an electric current to
flow through the galvanometer. By comparing
the current so produced with that produced by
a source of heat, the intensity or the radiation of
which is known, an estimate may be formed of
the quantity of heat received from the body
under investigation. The instrument is so deli-
cate that it can detect a change of temperature,
in the platinum strip, amounting to the hundred-
thousandth part of a degree, Fahrenheit. Prof.
Langley considers that it is also capable of mea-
suring small quantities of radiant heat with an
error of not more than one per cent. The bolom-
eter was first devised for the purpose of studying
the distribution of heat in the solar spectrum,
and it has yielded much valuable infor-
mation on this subject, especiall}-^ in the infra-
red regions, where Fraunhofer lines exist,
although they are invisible to the eye and can
only be photographed with difficulty. For more
extended descriptions of the instrument, see
* Proceedings of the American Academy of Arts
and Sciences^ (1881, Vol. XVL p. 342) ; also
*Annals of the Astrophysical Observatory of
the Smithsonian Institution* (1900, Vol. I.).

Bolor Tagh, bo-lor' tag, also Bilaur, or
Belut Tagh, a mountain range formerly imag-
ined to exist in central Asia between eastern
and western Turkestan, as the axis of the conti-
nent. At that point, however, there is really a
lofty tableland called the Pamir.

Bolsas, a river of Mexico, which, after
flov.ing west, enters the Pacific Ocean, 225 miles
southwest of Mexico City.

Bolsec, Jerome Hermes, zha-rom her-maz
bol-sec, French writer: b. early in the i6th
century; d. 1585. He became first, it is said, a
monk, but subsequent!}' embraced the doctrines
of the Reformation and became a medical prac-
titioner. After retiring to Italy, and remaining
for some time at Ferrara, he repaired to Geneva,
and insinuated himself into the good graces of
Calvin. A quarrel afterward took place, occa-
sioned, it is said, by the opposition of Bolsec to
the doctrine of absolute election. It issued in
his imprisonment and ultimate banishment from
Geneva. He was driven later on also from Lau-
sanne through the influence of Beza. He lat-
terly returned to France, and having formally
abjured Protestantism, settled as a physician in
Lyons. He acquired considerable notoriety by
the violence of his philippics against Calvin and
Beza, in which, under the name of their Lives,
he has raked together and published all sorts
of scandal. This at least is the common view
of Protestant writers.

Bolsena, bol-sa'na, Italy, a town on the
lake of the same name ; 56 miles north-northwest
of Rome. In the immediate vicinity stood
the ancient Volsinium, one of the most power-
ful of the Etruscan cities. Some remains of its
temples, including several granite columns, are
still in existence. The lake of Bolsena, which is

supposed to fill an ancient crater, exhales a
deadly m.alaria during the summer season. It
is about 9 miles long, 7 miles broad, and 285
feet deep. The shores are formed by finely
wooded hills, presenting much beautiful scenery;
it has two small islands, called Martana and
Bisentina. believed once to have been floating,
and it discharges its surplus waters into the
^Mediterranean by the Marta River.

Bolsward, bol'svart, Holland, a town in
the province of Friesland, 15 miles southwest
of Leeuwarden, at the junction of several canals,
and intersected by canals crossed by numierous
bridges. The parish church is said to be the
largest and finest in Friesland. The trade of
Bolsward consists chiefly in cattle, cheese, and
butter. Pop. (1902) 6,500.

Bolswert, bol'svert, Boetius Adam, called
Bolswert after his native place in Friesland,
Dutch engraver: b. about 1580; d. 1634. He
was the author of many valuable engravings
after designs of Bloemaert and Rubens. His
younger brother, Scheltius Adam, rose to
higher fame in the same art. especially distin-
guishing himself by his prints after some of the
best works of Rubens and Vandyke. Both
brothers practised their art at Antwerp.

Bolt Court, a residential court in London,
oft' Fleet Street, near Saint Bride's Church, in
which Cobbett and Dr. Samuel Johnson lived
for some years.

Bolt-ropes, ropes used to strengthen the
sails of a ship, the edges of the sails being
sewn to them. Those on the sides are called
leech-ropes, the others head and foot ropes.

Bolti, or Bultee, an edible chichlid fish of
the Nile.

Bolting-cloth, a closely woven fabric, gen-
erally of silk, used for sifting flour. See Flour.

Bolton, Charles Edward, American lec-
turer and writer : b. South Hadley Falls, Mass.,
16 May 1841 : d. East Cleveland. C3hio, 1901. He
inaugurated the Cleveland Educational Bureau ;
lectured extensively in the United States and
Canada ; and was mayor of East Cleveland in
his latest years. He published: *A Few Civic
Problems^; <A Model Village' (1901).

Bolton, Charles Knowles, American poet
and miscellaneous writer, son of Mrs. Sarah
Knowles Bolton : b. Cleveland, Ohio, 14 Nov.
1867. He has been librarian of the Boston
Athenaeum Library from 1898. He has written :
^Gossiping Guide to Harvard' ; *Saskia. the
Wife of Rembrandt' ; <The Wooing of Martha
Pitkin' ; *Love Story of Ursula Wolcott' ; 'The
Private Soldier Under Washington' (1903).

Bolton, Henry Carrington, American
scientific writer: b. New York, 1843; d- Wash-
ington, D. C. 17 Nov. 1903. He graduated at
Columbia University and studied abroad ; became
professor of chemistry and natural science at
Trinity College, Hartford, Conn. In 1900 he
was elected president of the Chemical Society of
Washington, D. C. He wrote : 'The Counting-
Out Rhymes of Children, a Study in Folk-Lore'
(1888) ; 'Literature of Manganese' ; 'Students'
Guide in Quantitative Analysis' ; 'The Evolu-
tion of the Thermometer, 1592-1743' (1900).

Bolton, Sarah Knowles, American author:
b. Farmington, Conn., 15 Sept. 1841. She mar-
ried Charles E. Bolton (q.v.), lecturer and

BOLTON — BOMBARDIER

philanthropist, and resides in Cleveland, Ohio.
She is the author of a number of books, includ-
ing: ^Girls Who Became Famous' (1886);
'Famous American Authors* (1887) ; 'Famous
American Statesmen' (1888) ; 'Famous Types
of Womanhood' (i8q2) ; 'The Inevitable and
Other Poems' (1895); 'Our Devoted Friend,
the Dog' (1901) ; etc.

Bolton, Sarah Tittle, American poet: b.
Newport, Ky.. 18 Dec. 1815 ; d. Indianapolis, 4
Aug. 1893. She is known for her patriotic and
war poems, including 'Paddle Your Own
Canoe' ; 'Left on the Battlefield' ; etc. Her
collected 'Poems' appeared in 1865 and 1886.

Bolton, or Bolton-le-Moors, a manufac-
turing town of Lancashire, England, 10
miles northwest from Manchester. It consists
mainly of two divisions. Great Bolton and Little
Bolton, separated from each other by the river
Croal. The older portion of the two contains
many narrow and irregular streets, but by far
the larger portion of the town is modern.
About $2,500,000 has been recently expended
in street improvements. The finest of the public
edifices is the town-hall, in the Grecian style,
with a tower 220 feet high, fronting a spacious
square, and erected at an expense of about
$1,000,000. Among other public buildings are
one of the finest market-halls in England, cost-
ing, with its approaches, nearly $500,000 ; a
church institute ; a temperance-hall ; commodi-
ous baths ; savings-bank ; two theatres ; two
technical schools ; a post-office, gas offices,
county court, infirmary and children's hospital ;
orphanages : Chadwick and Mere Hall museums ;
board schools ; poor-law offices, etc. The religious
edifices are numerous, and some of them of fine
architectural appearance. Foremost among these
is St. Peter's parish church, a modern cruciform
building in the Decorated style, with a tower
at the western end 150 feet high. The schools
are numerous and well attended, and, under
the school board, education is rapidly improv-
ing. There is a free grammar-school, founded
in 1641. The Bolton Free Public libraries (six
in number) contain over 93.000 volumes.
There are now four parks and three recreation
grounds belonging to the town. In manufac-
turing industry Bolton is surpassed by few places
in the kingdom, the cotton manufacture being
its staple. It contains some of the largest and
finest cotton mills in the world. In the town
itself there are some 370 factories, of which
nearly 140 are cotton mills and establishments
for the weaving of cotton fabrics. The yarns
spun in Bolton are generally fine, and a great
variety of fanc}^ goods are produced, besides
plain calicoes. Bleaching is also carried on to
a great extent, there being over 20 bleaching
grounds, some of them very large. There are
also several large engineering works, employing
a great many hands. Besides these there are
collieries, paper mills, foundries, chemical works,
and various other works. Bolton is of consid-
erable antiquity, having been raised to the dig-
nity of a market-town in 1256. It returns two
members to Parliament. Pop. (1901) 168,205.

Bolton Abbey, a famous English Abbey
in Yorkshire; in a highly picturesque district on
the river Wharfe, six miles east of Skipton, and
21 miles northwest of Leeds. Founded for
Augustinian canons about 11 50. it has been cele-
brated bv Wordsworth in 'The White Doe of

Rylstone' and 'The Force of Prayer.* The
eastern end is a ruin, but the nave is utilized fc
the purposes of a parish church.

Bolyai, Farkas, Hungarian mathemati-
cian: b. Bolyai 1775; d. 1856. He obtained his
early education in Enged, Klausenburg, and
Jena, and for three years (1796-9) studied at
Gottingen. He later became professor of math-
ematics in the Reformed College of Maros-
Vosarhely, a position which he very efficiently
held for 47 years. He made several attempts to
prove Euclid's postulate of parallelism, but it
remained to his son to finally declare the science
absolute of space, assigning the Euclidean geom-
etry to a particular kind of space. His chief
work, however, was known as 'Teutamen,'
which later contained an appendix of 26 pages
to Vol. I., called 'Scientiam Spatii Absolute
Veram E.xhibens,' written by his son Janos, and
which has since become famous.

Bolzano, Bemhard, Bohemian Roman
Catholic theologian and philosopher: b. Prague,
5 Oct. 1781; d. 18 Dec. 1848. From 1805 to
1820 he was professor and chaplain at the Uni-
versity of Prague, but was accused of insidiously
instilling into the minds of the students the here-
sies of Schelling and Hegel, and was dismissed
from his office. He left many writings, of which
his 'Wissenschaftslehre' (1842) is the most im-
portant. Consult 'Autobiography' (1875).

Bomarsund, a narrow channel betw^een
the islands of Aland and Vardo, at the entrance
of the Gulf of Bothnia. The Russian fortifica-
tions to the harbor of Bomarsund were de-
stroyed by the British and French fleets during
the war of 1854. The channels leading up to
Bomarsund were blockaded at the end of July
by four British ships and a few small steamers.
Shortly afterward strong detachments of the
allied fleets arrived, with the admirals Napier
and Parseval-Deschenes, followed, 7 August, by
the line-of-battle ships with Gen. Baraguay d'Hil-
liers and 12,000 troops, mostly French. The
Russian commander. Gen. Bodisco, was com-
pelled to surrender on 16 August, the allies con-
tinuing to occupy the island until the end of the
month, when the whole of the fortification was
blown up. The trophies of the victors were 112
mounted guns, 79 not m.ounted, 3 mortars, 7 field
guns, and 2,235 prisoners. The principal mili-
tary interest ofi^ered by this siege is its setting
at rest the question of the employment of uncov-
ered masonry in fortifications with land-fronts.

Bomb, a hollow, cast-iron ball or shell,
filled with gunpowder, or other combustible, and
exploded by means of a time-fuse, being com-
monly thrown from a mortar. Instead of
spherical bombs, elongated shells fired from rifled
guns are now in general use. See also Am-
munition ; Projectiles.

Bomb Lance, a harpoon used in whale
fishing which carries a charge of explosive ma-
terial in its head. In one form of the weapon
the arrangement is that when the harpoon strikes
the fish, the bar, which is pivoted obliquely in
the head of the instrument, shall serve to release
a spring acting on the hammer, which then ex-
plodes the cap and bursts the charge chamber.
Bombard. See Bomb.'\rdment.
Bombardier, originally an artillery soldier
whose special duties are connected with the load-
ing and firing of shells, grenades, etc., from

BOMBARDIER-BEETLE — BOMBAY

bombards, mortars, or howitzers. Bombardier
is now the special title of a non-commissioned
officer in the British artillery ranking with a
corporal.

Bombardier-beetle, or Artillery-beetle, an

insect of the genus Brachinus, and family Cara-
bida: The head is narrow, the prothorax heart-
shaped. While certain other beetles have at the
end of the body two glands which secrete a malo-
dorous fluid which they eject as a means of de-
fense against their enemies, in the bombard'ier-
beetle this fluid or spray appears to be charged
with a gas, which, on coming in contact with
the air, looks like smoke, and is ejected with
an explosion like that of a miniature pop-gun.
This gas-like vapor and detonation baffles and
discomfits the pursuer (most often some other
predatory beetle) as if blinding it. When being
captured they will fire off this discharge several
times. Several of the species (B. fumans and
allies) are yellowish-red, with bluish and green-
ish elytra.

Bombardment, the act of throwing bombs
or shells into a towm or fortress for incen-
diary purposes. A bombardment is either
desultory, when ships, field batteries, or a
proportionately small number of siege bat-
teries, throw shells into a place in order to
intimidate the inhabitants and garrison into
a hasty surrender, or for some other purpose;
or it is regular, and then forms one of the
methods of conducting the attack of a forti-
fied place. The attack by regular bombard-
ment was first introduced by the Prussians
in their sieges in 1815, after Waterloo, of the
fortresses in the north of France. The army
and the Bonapartist party being then much
dispirited, and the remainder of the inhabi-
tants anxiously wishing for peace, it was
thought that the formalities of the old rne-
thodical attack in this case might be dis-
pensed with, and a short and heavy bombard-
ment substituted, which would create fires
and explosions of magazines, prevent every
soul in the place from getting a night's rest,
and thus in a short time compel a surrender,
either by the moral pressure of the inhabi-
tants on the commander, or by the actual
amount of devastation caused, and by out-
fatiguing the garrison. The regular attack
by direct fire against the defenses, though
proceeded with, became secondary to vertical
fire and shelling from heavy howitzers. In
some cases a desultorj^ bombardment was
sufficient, in others a regular bombardment
had to be resorted to; but in every instance
the plan was successful; and it is now a
maxim in the theory of sieges, that to de-
stroy the resources, and to render unsafe the
interior of a fortress by vertical fire, is as
important (if not more so) as the destruction
of its outer defenses by direct and ricochet
firing. A bombardment will be most effect-
ive against a fortress of middling size, with
numerous non-military inhabitants, the moral
effect upon them being one of the means
applied to force the commander into sur-
render. Before bombarding a town, it is
customary to give 24 hours' notice thereof,
to allow women, children, and non-combat-
ants to leave it. Modern bombardments have
not usually been particularly destructive.
During the siege of Paris, 1870-71, some 500

shells were thrown into the city by the Ger-
mans, but relatively little mischief was ac-
complished by them. A similar result was
shown at the bombardment of Santiago de
Cuba by the American forces in 1898, and
also in the long sieges of Ladysmith and
Kimberley in 1899-1900. See also Siege.

Bombardon, a large brass musical instru-
ment of the sax-horn kind, and the lowest of
these instruments. It is made in more than one
size, and the largest is generally of circular
form and big enough to go round the body of
the performer. It is not capable of very rapid
execution.

Bombastes Furioso, a burlesque opera by-
William Barnes Rhodes, produced in 1790 and
intended as a parody of 'Orlando Furioso.* Its
name is that of the principal personage, a brag-
gard who kills his king, Arta.xominous, for a
pair of jack-boots.

Bombax (Silk Cottox Tree), a genus of
10 or 12 tropical trees of the natural order Mal-
vacea with digitate leaves and large scarlet or
white axillary flowers. B. cciba, the five-leaved
silk cotton tree, attains a great height in tropical
America, where it is native and where its irn-
mense trunks are scooped out for canoes. This
species, B. miinguba, another South American
species, and B. malabaricum, the red silk cotton
tree, so named from the color of its "cotton,"
bear pods which furnish a fibre useful for stuf-
fing cushions ; hence the common name. All the
species yield useful bast employed in rope mak-
ing, and have been suggested as possibly val-
uable for paper making.

Bombay, a presidency of British India,
stretching along the west side of the penin-
sula, and bounded on the land side by Ba-
luchistan, the Punjab, Rajputana, native
states of the Central India .\gency, the Cen-
tral Provinces, Berar. Haidarabad, Madras,
and Mysore; and on the west by the Arabian
Sea. The divisions are: Sind, the least popu-
lous, Gujerat, the most populous, Deccan,
Konkan, and Karnatik. The presidency also
includes many feudatory states. The chief
towns are 'Bombay, Poona, Ahmedadad.
Surat, and Karachi. The chief spoken lan-
guages are Marathi, used by nearly half the
population: Gujrathi, used by the commercial
classes; Kanarese, and Sindhi. About three
fourths of the population profess Hindu-
ism, fully one sixth are Mohammedans, the
rest being Jains, Christians, Sikhs, Parsees,
aboriginals, etc.

The chief openings in the coast of Bombay
are the gulfs of Cambay and Cutch, sepa-
rated by the peninsula of Kathiawar. The
chief harbors are those of Bombay and Karachi.
The river Nerbudda which enters the Gulf of
Cambay, divides the province into two physi-
cally distinct parts. North of it are Gujerat
and' Sind, with the peninsulas of Cutch and
Kathiawar, mostly a fertile alluvial plain.
Much of Sind, however, is a desert, crossed
by low sand-hills. South of the Nerbudda, the
province presents a narrow flat strip of coast,
rising inland toward the upland country of
the "Western Ghats and the Deccan. The
chief mountain ranges are the Hala "Moun-
tains, west of the Indus, the Western Ghats,
running north and south, and the Satpura
range, separating the basins of the Nerbudda

BOMBAY — BOMBON

and the Taptee. The' most important rivers
are the Indus, Nerbudda, and Taptee, all
of which flow into the Arabian Sea; the
Godavari and Kistna rise on the eastern
slopes of the Ghats. Many short torrential
rivers traverse the Konkan coastal strip. The
forests of Sind consist chiefly of sisu, babul
(a kind of acacia), bhan (a species of pop-
lar), and tamarisk; while from the forests
of the western slopes of the Ghats are ob-
tained teak, blackwood, ebony, ironwood,
babul, sandalwood, and other valuable tim-
bers. The cocoanut and date palms, mango,
jack, betel-nut, and myrobalans are other im-
portant indigenous vegetable products. Among
the wild animals are the maneless lion of
Gujerat, the wild ass, leopard, tiger, black
bear, bison, antelopes, and venomous snakes.
The climate varies greatly from one dis-
trict to another, two extremes being rep-
resented by Upper Sind, with great heat and
little rain, and the Konkan, with excessive
rainfall, especially from June to October.
The chief agricultural productions are cot-
ton, rice, millet, wheat, barley, dates, the
cocoa-palm, oil-seeds, sugar, and indigo. The
area of the presidency under British adminis-
tration is 124,122 square miles. Pop. of
British portion of the presidency (1901)
18,584,496, and of the native states, 6,891,691.
See Drew, ^Bombay and Its Feudatories^
(1892) ; Douglas, 'Glimpses of Old Bombay
and Western India^ (1900). The growth of
cotton in Bombay received a great impetus
during the American Civil War ; and although
the great demand did not prove lasting,
cotton continues to be a highly important
crop, part of the produce being exported, and
a considerable portion of it worked up in
the cotton-mills of Bombay. The total num-
ber of pupils receiving education at primary
and other schools amounts to about 750,000,
of whom only about one eighth consist of
females. The annual revenue largely exceeds
the expenditure, and latterly has amounted to
about $75,000,000.

Bombay, a city and seaport on the west
coast of India, capital of the presidency of the
same name, situated at the southern extrem-
ity of the island of Bombay, and connected
with the mainland and the interior by exten-
sions of the Bombay and Baroda, and the
Great Indian and Peninsula Railways, the
terminus of the latter being a splendid edi-
fice which cost $15,000,000. Extensive water-
works have been constructed on the main-
land, including a dam two miles in length,
and were opened in 1892. The town com-
prises two main portions, one known as the
Fort, and formerly surrounded with fortifi-
cations, on a narrow point of land with the
harbor on the east side and Back Bay on
the west; the other known as the City, a
little to the northwest. The European popu-
lation live partly in the Fort quarter, but
mostly in villas surrounded with extensive
areas, called compounds. In various parts of
the island. Bombay has many handsome
buildings, both public and private, and a num-
ber of fine streets, the latter being in many
cases traversed by street railways. The cas-
tle, the government offices, and almost all
the merchants' warehouses and offices are in
the Fort. On the esplanade facing southwest

is a fine range of public buildings, including
the secretariat, the new high court, the offices
of the public works department, the post and
telegraph offices, etc. There are a cathedral
and several other churches in Bombay, which
is the see of an Anglican bishop. There are
also some fine hotels. In 1859 a university was
opened. Various industries, such as dyeing,
tanning, and metal working, are actively car-
ried on, and there are now nearly 100 cotton-
mills. The commerce of the port is very exten-
sive, by far the greater portion of the exports
and imports of the presidency passing through
Bombay. The chief article of export is raw
cotton, the chief import cotton piece goods,
the commerce being chiefly with Great Britain.
The harbor is one of the largest and safest in
India ; while its scenery and that of the neigh-
boring continent presents a rare combination
of grandeur and beauty. It is situated be-
tween the islands of Colabah, Bombay, and
Salsette on the one hand, and the mainland
and islands of Caranjah and Elephanta on
the other. There are large and commodious
docks, the ships and basins being calculated
for vessels of any size. There is a large
traffic with steam vessels between Bombay
and Great Britain, and regular steam com-
munication with China, Australia, Singapore,
Mauritius, etc. A railway between Bombay
and Tannah, on the island of Salsette, 20
miles distant, opened in 1853, was the first
Indian railway constructed. Pop. (1901)
770,800. The island of Bombay is about 11
miles long from north to south, and about
three miles broad, formed by two ranges of
rock running parallel to each other on oppo-
site sides of the island. The interior was for-
merly liable to be overflowed by the sea, to
prevent which substantial walls and embank-
ments were constructed.

Bombay was obtained bj^ the Portuguese
in 1530 from an Indian chief at Salsette; by
them it was ceded to Great Britain in 1661,
and in 1668 it was transferred to the East
India Company. Next to Madras it is the
oldest of the British possessions in the East,
and from the commencement of the last cen-
tury has gradually increased in importance.

Bombay Duck. See Bummaloti.

Bombazine, derived from bombyx. the Greek
term for silk and silkworm, is a mixed tissue
of silk and worsted, and was long woven both
plain and colored. The latter, however, has
gone into disuse, and the only color now used
is black, for which there is an extensive de-
mand in Spain and South America, where some
of the religious orders use it, and it generally
forms the material of the almost universally
worn Spanish mantilla. The manufacture was
originally introduced into England by a colony
of Dutch or Flemings, who settled in Norfolk,
and long continued to have its principal seat at
Norwich, the capital of that county, though it
is now chiefly confined to Halifax and Kid-
derminster.

Bombon, Philippines, a large, fresh water
lake in the island of Luzon, about 50 miles
south of Manila. It is 105 square miles in area.
There is a small island in the centre, from which
rises the volcano Taal, whose height is only
850 feet. The waters of the lake find an outlet
to the sea through the Pansipit River.

BOMBAY.

BOMBPROOF — BONALD

Bombproof, a structure intended to resist
or repel artillery shot and shell. When designed
for permanency they are either of masonry or
cut from solid rock, but temporary bombproofs
are constructed of earth and timber, or other
available material. See also Blindage.

Bombycidae, a group of genera compris-
ing some of the largest and most regal of moths.
Their thick, heavy bodies and small sunken
heads, the mouth parts often obsolete, the
tongue either wholly or partly atrophied ; the
broadly pectinated antenn?e ; the broad, often
falcate, wings; and their sluggish habits, afford
good characters for distinguishing them. The
larvze are silk-worms, or "spinners " They
are often thick, usually more hairy or spiny
than those of other groups of moths, or as
in the Chinese silk-worm, smooth ; while in the
large Attacus ablas, Telea polyphemus, Samia
cecropia and Tropaa luiia, the worms are short,
fat, fleshy, and sluggish. They spin a more or
less dense cocoon of silk to protect the enclosed
pupa from sudden changes in the weather. Al-
though the nam,e Bombycidcc is confined to the
small group represented by the silk-worm
{Bomhyx mori), all the typical spinners are re-
ferred to as bombycine moths. The most typi-
cal families are the Notodontidcc, Sphingicampi-
dce, Saturniida:, and Remileucida. Of these the
Sphingicampidce, however, like the Sphingidcr,
to which they may have given origin, spin no
cocoon and transform in the earth, the pupa
being subterranean (see also Silkworm).
Consult: Packard. * Monograph of the Bomby-
cine Moths' (']\Iemoirs of the National Acad-
emv of Sciences,' \'ol. VII., Washington,
1895).

Bomford, George, American soldier: b.
New York. 17S0; d. Boston. Mass., 25 March
1848. He graduated at West Point in 1805 and
was assigned to the Engineer corps. Between
1805 and 1812 he worked on the fortifications
of New York harbor, the defenses of Chesa-
peake Bay. and was superintending engineer of
the works on Governor's Island. During the
War of 1812 he was brevetted lieutenant-colonel
for distinguished service in the ordnance de-
partment. He introduced bomb cannons, made
on a pattern of his own invention, which were
called Columbiads, a kind of heavy gun com-
bining the qualities of gun, howitzer, and mor-
tar. On 30 May 1832 he was appointed chief of
ordnance, and on i Feb. 1842 became in-
spector of arsenals, ordnance, arms, and muni-
tions of war, in which duty he continued until
his death. See Cullum, 'Officers and Graduates
of the United States ]Militarv Academy^ (Vol. I.
1868).

Bon Marche, bon miir-sha, one of the
large department stores of Paris, situated on the
Rue de Bac and Rue de Sevres. It was founded
in 1853 by Aristide Boucicault as a small store
in the Rue de Bac and grew little by little to be
the great establishment it now is. The present
building was begun in 1869, was first used in
1872. and has been enlarged at various times
since then. The management is co-operative.
Pensions from $120 to $300 a year are given to
men after the age of 50, and women after 45,
and there is a regular system of promotion. It
is thought that this organization has contributed
largely to the success of the store.

Bona, Giovanni, Italian cardinal: b. Mon-
dovi. Piedmont, 10 Oct. 1609; d. Rome, 27 Oct.
1674. He was renowned for his piety and learn-
ing, a collaborator in the 'Acta Sanctorum,'
the author of 'Rerum Liturgicarum,' which is
an authority on the service of mass, and of 'De
principiis vitae Christianse,' — a book which has
frequently been compared to the 'Imitation of
Christ,' and of which a French translation has
appeared (1854-5;.

Bona Dea, the good goddess, a mysterious
divinit}' of the Roman mythology, the wife or
the daughter of Faunus. Her worship was se-
cret, performed only by women ; men were even
required to ignore her name. Her sanctuary
was in a cavern in the Avcntine Hill, but her
festival, which occurred i May, was celebrated
in a separate room in the dwelling of the consul
who then had the fasces. No man was allowed
to be present, and all male stafues in the house
were covered. The wine used at this festival
v.-as called milk, and the vessel in which it was
kept, mellarimn. After the sacrifices, bacchana-
lian dances were performed. According to
Juvenal, licentious abominations marked these
festivals. The snake was the symbol of the
goddess, and this would point to her being con-
sidered as possessing a curative, medical power,
and in her sanctuary various herbs were offered
for sale. By the Greeks the Bona Dea was iden-
tified with Hecate, Semele, or other divinities.

Bona Fide, a technical legal expression, to
which the law of Great Britain and this country
has annexed a certain idea. It is a term used
in statutes in England and in acts of the legis-
lature of all the United States, and signifies a
thing done really, with a good faith, without
fraud or deceit, or collusion or trust. The
words bona fide are restrictive, for a debt may
be for a valuable consideration and yet not
boua fide. A debt must be bona fide at the time
of its commencement or it can never become so
afterward. If a contract be made with good
faith, subsequent fraudulent acts will not vitiate
it, although such acts may raise a presumption of
antecedent fraud and thus become a means of
proving the want of good faith in making the
contract.

Bonacci-Brunamonti, Maria Alinda, ma-

•e'a a-len'da bo-na'che-broo-na-mon'te, Ital-
ian poet : b. Perugia, 1842. She was only 14
3'ears old when her first 'Collection of Poems'
appeared and attracted much attention. Her
'National Songs' (1859-78) were inspired by
Italy's struggle for freedom.

Bonald, Louis Gabriel Ambroise, loo-e
ga-bre-el aii-brwaz bo-niil (Vicomte de, ve-
cohtde), French philosopher: b. 1754; d. 1840.
During the Revolution he joined the Royalist
army under the Bourbon princes. He returned
to France under Napoleon ; became co-editor
of the Merciire with Chateaubriand and Fievee,
and in 1808 was appointed minister of public
instruction. After the Restoration, — as the
deputy for his department, — he voted with the
Ultramontane or Theocratic party in the Cham-
bre Introuvable, and in his political career, as
in his philosophical works, was the ardent ad-
vocate of absolutism, of the infallibility of the
Pope, and of the Jesuits. In 1830 he refused to
take the oath of allegiance to the new dynasty.

BONANNO — BONAPARTE

Bonanno, bo-nan'no, Italian architect and
sculptor. In 1174 he commenced, with Wilhelm
of Innsbruck, the famous Leaning Tower of
Pisa. He was also the designer of the celebrated
bronze doors of the cathedral of that city.

Bonanza, a rich body of ore. See Comstock
Lode.

Bonaparte, or Buonaparte, the name of a
Corsican family — a name now as well known as
any in history. It was spelt Buonaparte by the
Emperor Napoleon and his father till 1796,
though the more usual, modern form also occurs
in old Italian documents. Several families are
mentioned as early as the 12th century who bore
the name of Bonaparte, and who took a position
of some prominence in the history of Italy. In
1 122. for instance, a Bonaparte was banished
from Florence as a Ghibelline. Corrado Bona-
parte is mentioned in 1170 and Jacopo Bonaparte
in 1210 as knights of the Order of the Golden
Spur. The office of podesta was held by Nordio
Bonaparte in Parma in 1272. by Pietro Bona-
parte in Padua 1285, and by Giovanni Bonaparte
in Florence 1333. In 1250 a Bonaparte was syn-
dic of Ascoli, and in 1440 Cesare Bonaparte was
chosen as head of naval affairs at Sarzana. A

of Ajaccio in the senate of Genoa, and in 16141
Francesco was chosen captain of his native town.
In 1757 Joseph, the grandfather of Napoleon I.,,
received a formal patent of nobility from the
Grand Duke of Tuscany. About the middle of
the i8th century there remained three male rep-
resentatives of the family of Bonaparte at
Ajaccio, the archdeacon Lucien Bonaparte, his
brother Napoleon, and their nephew Charles,
who became father of the Emperor Napoleon I.
and of a numerous family of princes.

Bonaparte, Charles, father of the Em-
peror Napoleon I. b. Ajaccio, Corsica, 29 March
1746; d. Montpellier, 24 Feb. 1785. He was care-
fully educated, studied law at Pisa, and soon
after his return married without the consent of
his relatives Letitia Ramolino, a beautiful patri-
cian. He fought under Paoli for the independ-
ence of Corsica, but resistance to the French,
proving useless he went over to their side. In
1771, when Louis XV. caused 400 Corsican fami-
lies to be selected who alone were to be con-
sidered noble, the Bonaparte family, — and con-
sequently Charles, — was among the number..
By the influence of the French governor, Mar-
boeuf, who was very friendly toward the family,.

THE BONAPARTE FAMILY (Male Issue).

CHARLES BONAPARTE.

(1) Joseph,

King of

Spain,

died 1844.

(2) Napoleon I.
1804--1814;
died 1821.

Duke of

Reictistadt

(Napoleon II.),

died 1832.

_ (3) Lucien,

Prince of Canino,

died 1840.

Charles, Paul, Louis Pierre,
died 1827. died 1827. Lucien, died 1881.
I died 1891. i

(4) Louis,

Kin^ of Holland,

died 1846.

Napoleon
Charles,
died 1807

Lucien,
Cardinal,
died 1895

Charles,
died 1899

Roland Jeanne

Louis
Napoleon
(Napo-
leon III.),
18^0-1870;
died 1873.

Napoleon Louis
(Prince Imperial),
died 1879.

(5) Jerome, King

of Westphalia.

died i860

Prince Napoleon,

died 1891

Victor. Louis Marie
I
Prince
Humbert.

Giovanni Bonaparte is said to have married a
niece of Pope Nicholas V. in 1404, but this
seems doubtful for chronological reasons. It is
however certain that about 1454 Niccolo Bona-
parte was ambassador of this Pope to several
courts, and vicar of the Holy See in Ascoli.
Another Niccolo Bonaparte, professor at San
Miniato in the i6th century, is stated to have
been the author of the comedy ^La Vedova^
(Florence 1568) ; and a work on the Sack of
Rome in 1527 is attributed to the Tuscan Gia-
como or Jacopo Bonaparte, who was an eye-
witness of the event. The connection between
these different Bonapartes is by no means well
established ; yet in 1771 the relationship of the
Corsican Bonapartes with the Florentine Bona-
partes was judicially recognized. In Corsica
itself a Messire Bonaparte appears as witness to
an act executed by Berengar II. of Italy as early
as 947, and it is therefore not improbable that
the family originally emigrated from this island
to the mainland, and that a branch of the Genoese
line returned to their old home in the i6th cen-
tury. From the time of Gabriel Bonaparte, who
settled at Ajaccio in 1567, and took part in the
naval expeditions against the Moors, the Bona-
partes ranked as a patrician family of that town.
In 1576 Girolamo Bonaparte was elected deputy

he was (1773) named royal councilor and asses-
sor for the town and province of Ajaccio. As a-
member of the deputation of Corsican nobles
sent to the court of France in 1777 he resided
several years at Paris, and was fortunate enough
to secure a free admission for his eldest son,
Joseph, to the seminary at Autun, another for
his second son. Napoleon, to the military school
of Brienne, and a third for his daughter, Maria
Anna, to the educational institution at St. Cyr.
He returned to Corsica in 1779. and afterward
went to Montpellier for the benefit of his health,
but did not recover. By his marriage with
Letitia Ramolino he left eight children ; Joseph
(see Bonaparte, Joseph), king of Spain;
Napoleon I., emperor of the French (see Napo-
leon I.); Lucien (see Bonaparte, Lucien),
prince of Canino ; Maria Anna, afterward called
Elise, princess of Lucca and Piombino, and wife
of Prince Bacciocchi (see Bacciocchi, Felice
Pasquale) ; Louis (see Bonaparte, Louis),
king of Holland ; Carlotta, afterward named
Marie Pauline, Princess Borghese (q.v.) ;
Annunciata, afterward called Caroline, wife of'
Murat (see Murat), king of Naples; and Jer-
ome (see Bonaparte, Jerome), king of West-
phalia. See also Bonaparte, Letitia Ramo-
lino; Napoleon III.

BONAPARTE

Bonaparte, Jerome, youngest brother of
Napoleon: b. Ajaccio, Corsica, 15 Nov. 1784; d.
near Paris, 24 June i860. At an early age he
entered the French navy as a midshipman. In
1801 he was sent out on an expedition to the
West Indies, but the vessel being chased by
English cruisers, uas obliged to put in to New
York. During his sojourn in America, Jerome
Bonaparte became acquainted with Miss Eliza-
beth Patterson, the daughter of the president
of the Bank of Baltimore, and a descendant, as
is asserted, of *'01d Mortality,* immortalized by
Sir Walter Scott. His addresses to this young
lady having been accepted, they were married 24
Dec. 1803, according to the Roman Catholic
ritual, in the cathedral of Baltimore, and in 1805
embarked for Europe. This marriage of his
brother did not meet the approval of the Em-
peror Napoleon, whose ambitious views it
thwarted, and he accordingly, after an ineffec-
tual application to Pope Pius VII. to have it
dissolved, issued a decree declaring it to be
null and void. On 12 Aug. 1807, Jerome was
married to Catherine Sophia, Princess of Wiir-
temberg, and a few months afterward was
created king of Westphalia, and crowned with
great pomp at Cassel, i Jan. 1808. His govern-
ment was not marked by much judiciousness or
prudence ; little regard was paid to national feel-
ings, and the finances of the state, both from
mismanagement and the frequency of hostile in-
cursions, became ere long involved in hopeless
embarrassment. The battle of Leipsic put an
end to Jerome's reign, and he was obliged to
take flight to Paris. On the conclusion of the
Treaty of Paris he left France, and proceeded
first to Switzerland, thence to Gnitz, and in the
beginning of 1815 to Trieste. On his brother's
return from Elba he again proceeded to Paris,
and was nominated a peer of France. At the
battles of Ligny and Waterloo he was actively
engaged, and displayed considerable bravery, be-
sides receiving a wound in the arm. On Na-
poleon's overthrow he retired first to Switzer-
land, then to Wiirtemberg, and from this period
up to the fall of Louis Philippe, in 1848, resided
in different parts of Europe under the title of
the Comte de Montfort, and latterly chiefly in
Florence. On the outbreak of the revolution of
February 1848 he returned to Paris, and was
appointed (23 December) governor-general of
the hospital of the Invalids, and in 1850 a mar-
shal of France. In 1852 he was made president
of the Senate. Reference has already been
made to the two successive marriages contracted
by Jerome Bonaparte. From his union with
Miss Patterson only one son proceeded, Jerome
(see BoNAPARTES OF Baltimore). By his second
wife Jerome Bonaparte had three children. The
elder son, Jerome Bonaparte, b. 1814, d. 1847
Mathilde Bonaparte, Princess of Montfort (b.
Trieste, 27 May 1820), married the Russian
Count Anatol Demidoff, and lived at the court
of Louis Napoleon during his presidency. The
younger son, Napoleon Joseph Charles Paul
Bonaparte, commonly known as Prince Na-
poleon (b. Trieste, 9 Sept. 1822; d. 18 March
1891), passed his youth in Italy; entered the
military service of Wiirtemberg in 1837 ; after-
ward traveled in several countries of Europe ;
and was banished from France (184.S) on _ ac-
count of his intercourse with the Republican
party. After February 1848 he was elected to
the National Assembly. He commanded an in-

fantry division at the battles of Alma and Inker-
mann. In 1859 he married the Princess Clotilde.
daughter of Victor Emmanuel, by whom he had
two sons (see Bonaparte Pretenders), and a
daughter. After the fall of the empire he took
up his residence in England, but returned to
France in 1872. On the death of the Prince
Imperial, son of the Emperor Louis Napoleon, in
Zululand in 1879, the eldest son of Prince Napo-
leon became the heir of the Bonapartist
hopes. When, in 1886, the chiefs of the Bour-
bon family were, by a vote of both chambers, ex-
pelled from France, Prince Napoleon and his
eldest son were exiled also as pretenders to the
throne.

Bonaparte, Joseph, eldest brother of Napo-
leon I. : b. Corte, Corsica ; d. Florence, Italy, 28
July 1844. He was educated in France at the
college of Autun, returned to Corsica in 1785
on his father's death, studied law, and in 1792
became a member of the new administration of
Corsica under Paoli. In 1793, after Paoli had
called in English aid. he emigrated to Marseilles,
and became brother-in-law to Bernadotte, after-
ward king of Sweden, by marrying one of the
daughters of a wealthy banker named Clari. In
1796 he accompanied the army of Italy as com-
missary, in 1797 was elected a Corsican deputy
to the Council of Five Hundred, and shortly
after was sent by the Directory ambassador to
the Pope. He returned abruptly, and had not
long resumed his seat in the Council of Five
Hundred, when his brother having become First
Consul he was made councilor of state, and em-
ployed to negotiate a treaty with the United
States. Shortly after, in 1801, he negotiated the
peace of Luneville with the emperor of Ger-
many, and in 1802 that of Amiens with Great
Britain. Napoleon having now begun to deal
out kingdoms among his family, Joseph was
made king of Naples and Sicily in 1806, but
had reigned only two years when his brother
recalled him, and sent him to IMadrid to be king
of Spain and the Indies. His seat at Naples had
not been comfortable, and he now found himself
on a bed of thorns. His kingship lasted nom-
inally for five years, but he was chased once
and again from his capital, and the third time,
in 1813, fled not to return. In these appoint-
ments Joseph was merely a tool in his brother's
hands. In 1814. after the fatal expedition to
Russia. Napoleon on setting out for the army
made him lieutenant-general of the empire, and
head of the council of regency. This was his
last office of any consequence. After the battle
of Waterloo he sailed for the LTnited States and
lived for some years at Bordentown. N. J., where
he employed himself in agriculture, and was
highly esteemed by his neighbors. During his
exile he assumed the title of Count de Survil-
liers. In 1832 he went to England and after
residing there for some time repaired to Italy,
and spent his closing days in Florence. His
wife appears to have been prevented by ill health
from accompanying him to the United States.
She survived her husband but a few months.
There were two daughters. The eldest became
the wife of the eldest son of Lucien Bonaparte,
and the second was married to the second sun
of Louis Bonaparte.

Bonaparte, Letitia Ramolino, mother of
Napoleon, and hence known by the name of
Madame Mere: b. Ajaccio, Corsica, 24 Aug.

BONAPARTE

1750: d. Rome, 2 Feb. 1836. She was married
in 1767 to Charles Bonaparte (see Bonaparte,
Charles). Left a widow in 1785, she contin-
ued to reside in Corsica till 1793, when she re-
-noved to Marseilles. In this city she lived in
straitened circumstances. After her son becarne
First Consul, she fi.xed her residence at Paris,
had a separate establishment assigned to her,
and lived in considerable state, though some-
what retired. All things considered, she con-
ducted herself with great discretion, performing
her part becomingly in the station to which, she
had been so unexpectedly elevated, and yet never
allowing herself to forget that in the necessary
course of events the sudden rise of her family
might one day be terminated by an equally sud-
den fall. When the fall came she retired to
Rome, and collecting most of the surviving mem-
bers of her family around her, lived to the very
advanced age of 86.

Bonaparte, Louis (Count of St. Leu),
second younger brother of the Emperor Napo-
leon L, and father of Napoleon IIL: b. Ajaccio,
Corsica, 2 Sept. 1778; d. Leghorn, Italy, 25
July 1846. He was educated in the artillery
school at Chalons, accompanied Napoleon to
Italy, and afterward to Egypt, but without dis-
tinguishing himself in any special manner. He
subsequently rose to the rank of a brigadier-
general, and in 1802 married Hortense Eugenie
Beauharnais, Napoleon's step-daughter (see
Beauharnais, Hortense Eugenie). In 1806,
on Schimmelpenninck, grand pensionary of Hol-
land, demitting his office, Louis Bonaparte was
compelled by his brother, notwithstanding his
protestations, to accept the Dutch crown. The
difficult situation in which he was placed ren-
dered it impossible for him to be anything else
than a mere viceroy of Napoleon ; but to his
credit it must be recorded that he exerted him-
self to the utmost in promoting the welfare of
his new subjects, and resisted as far as in him
lay the tyrannical interference and arbitrary
procedure of France. With all his efforts, how-
ever, he found himself unable to restore the
finances of the country to a healthy condition : a
quarrel took place between him and his brother
relative to the continental system maintained by
the latter, which had proved most injurious to
Dutch commerce, and he ultimately, on i June
1810. abdicated the sovereignty, and retired to
Gratz under the title of the Count of St.
Leu. Holland was thereupon annexed to
France. In 1814 Louis paid a visit to Paris, and
strongly counseled his brother to make peace
with the allies. After the Restoration he took
up his abode at Rome, and separated himself
from his wife, Hortense, a disunion which con-
tinued throughout his life. In 1826 he removed
from Rome to Florence, and from thence, a
short time after his son's escape from the for-
tress of Ham, to Leghorn, where his literary
abilities were considerable, and he was the
author of a novel entitled ^ Marie, les Peines de
I'Amour ou les Hollandaises^ ; and ^Documents
historianes et Reflexions sur le Gouvernement
de la Hollande^ ; etc.

Bonaparte. Lucien (Prince of Canino),
rext younger brother of Napoleon I.: b. Ajaccio,
Corsica. 21 March 1775; d. Viterbo, Italy, 2g
June 1840. He emigrated to Marseilles in 1703.
?nd made himself conspicuous as a hot-headed
Republican by addressing clubs, and publishing

bombastic pamphlets. Shortly after, having beer,
appointed to a situation in the commissariat at
the small town of St. Maximin in Provence, he
married the innkeeper's daughter. He made a
narrow escape during the Reign of Terror, and
in 1796 was appointed commissary at war, and on
his election as a member of the Council of Five
Hundred, took up his residence in Paris. He
joined the opposition in the council, and sec-
onded Sieyes and his party, who wished to frame
a new constitution. He is said to have written
to his brother in Egypt complaining of the in-
capacity of the executive Directory, and urging
his return ; and in 1799, when the council wished
to outlaw Napoleon, Lucien, who was president,
after manfully resisting the motion, slipped
quietly out of the chair in the confusion, and
sent in the soldiers, who cleared the hall. The
revolution thus mainly accomplished by his de-
cisive procedure led to the establishment of the
consular government, and Lucien was a member
of the commission which framed its constitution.
Afterward appointed minister of the interior, he
was active in the encouragement of education,
art, and science, and organized the prefectures.
As ambassador to Madrid (1800) he contrived
to gain the confidence of King Charles IV. and
his favorite, Godoy, and to undermine the Brit-
ish influence, which had until then been exercised
at the court of Spain. On his return to Paris
in 1802 he was member of the tribunate, and
then a senator, and having lost his first wife,
married a stockbroker's widow. This marriage,
and other concurring causes, appear to have
given deep offense to Napoleon, and in the en-
actment fixing the succession to the crown, while
Joseph and Louis were named eventual heirs,
Lucien and Jerome were not mentioned. The
crowns of Italy and Spain were offered Lucien
on condition of his divorcing his wife, but he
refused them and chose a retired life, devoting
himself to art and science. He fixed his resi-
dence at Rome, where he appears to have gained
the good graces of Pius VII., who created him,
in 1814, Prince of Canino. During Napoleon's
haughty treatment of the Pope, Lucien had freely
expressed his displeasure, and apparently de-
spairing of a reconciliation with his brotheir,
or perhaps not caring to ask it, he embarked for
the United States in 1810, but had not proceeded
far when he was captured by a British cruiser
and carried to Malta. Ultimately he was
brought to England, and allowed to reside on
parole at a place in the vicinity of Ludlow Cas-
tle. Here he employed much of his time in writ-
ing a poem entitled "^Charlemagne ou I'figlise
Sauvee,^ which he afterward published with a
dedication to Pius VIL After the battle of
Waterloo his brother appointed him his extraor-
dinary commissioner to the chamber of deputies.
He showed no lack of zeal in endeavoring to
arouse a feeling of sympathy, but found the
attempt vain, and left matters to take their
course. He afterward returned to Italy. Be-
sides the poem ^Charlemagne.' which has been
translated into English, and published in 2
volumes 4to, he wrote another, called ^La
Cvrneide ou la Corse Sauvee,' and an auto-
biography, which, under the title of ^Memoires,>
was published during his lifetime.

By his first wife, Lucien had two daughters;
by his second, nine children. His eldest son,
Charles Lucien Jules Laurent Bonaparte,
Prince of Canino and Musignano : b. Paris, 24

BONAPARTE PRETENDERS — BONAPARTES OF BALTIMORE

May 1803 ; d. 29 July 1857, achieved a consider-
able reputation as a naturalist, chiefly in or-
nithology. He published a continuation of Wil-
son's 'Ornithology of America* (1825-33); the
*Iconografia della Fauna Italica* (1832-41);
his chef d'ocuvre; 'Catalogo Aletodico degli
Uccelli Europei* (1842) ; <Catalogo Metodico dei
Pesci Europei* (1845); 'Ornithologie Fossile*
(1858) : and a number of other valuable works
on zoology, and was a member of the leading
natural history societies in Europe and Amer-
ica. During the later years of his life he took a
prominent part in Italian affairs as a supporter
of the Liberal party. Paul Marie Bonaparte,
the second son. b. 1808, took a part in the
Greek war of liberation, and died by the acci-
dental discharge of a pistol in 1827. The
third son, Louis Lucien Boxaparte (b. Thorn-
grove, England, 1813 ; d. 1891), early devoted
himself with equal ardor to chemistry, min-
eralogy, and the study of languages, and be-
came an authority of the first rank in Basque,
Celtic, and comparative philologj^ generally.
His election for Corsica in 1848 was annulled,
but he was sent to the Constituent Assembl}' for
the Seine department next year, and was made
senator in 1852, with the title of highness in
addition to that of prince, which he already
possessed from his birth. The total number of
separate books written either by himself or at
his instigation and encouragement, amounted to
no less than 222. Among these are a translation
of St. Matthew's version of the parable of the
sower into ~2 languages and dialects of Europe
(1857) ; a linguistic map of the seven Basque
provinces, showing the delimitation of the "Eus-
cara,*^ and its division into dialects, sub-dialects,
and varieties (1863) ; a Basque version of the
Bible in the Labourdin dialect (1865) ; a treatise
on the Basque verb (1869) ; besides many papers
of profound learning in the philological journals.
A great work produced under his patronage
from 1858 to i860, was a version of the Song of
Solomon in 22 different English dialects, besides
four in Lowland Scotch, and one in Saxon. He
lived long in England, where a Civil List pen-
sion of $1,250 was granted to him in 1883. The
fourth son, Pierre Napoleon Bonaparte
(1815-83), passed through many changes of for-
tune in America, Italy, and Belgium, and re-
turned to France in 1848. In 1870 he shot a
journalist, Victor Noir, a deed which created
great excitement in Paris ; and, being tried, was
acquitted of the charge of murder, but con-
demned to pay $5,000 to Victor Noir's relatives.
He died in 1881. The youngest son. Antoine
Bonaparte (b. 1816), fled to the United
States after an affair with the papal troops in
1836, and returned to France in 1848, where he
was elected to the National Assembly in 1849.

Bonaparte Pretenders. Of the Emperor
Napoleon I. and his brothers, Joseph and Louis,
male issue is now extinct. The emperor's
brothers, Lucien and Jerome, are represented by
the following living descendants, and they con-
stitute the present imperialist house of France:

Prince Victor Napoleon fof the house of
Jerome) : b. 18 July 1862, is the son of the late
Prince Napoleon and the Princess Clotilde, sis-
ter of King Humbert of Italy. The Prince has
been recognized by his partj^ as the undisputed
head of the Bonaparte family. He lives in
Brussels and is unmarried. His only brother,

Prince Louis Napoleon, born in 1864, is
an officer in the Russian army. His sister,
born in 1866, is the widow of Prince Amadeus
of Italy, by whom she had a son. Prince Hum-
bert, born in 1889.

Prince Charles Napoleon, brother of the late
Cardinal Bonaparte, wtio died 12 Feb. 1899, was
the last representative of the eldest son of Na-
poleon's brother, Lucien, in the male line. He
was born in 1839; was married and had two
daughters ^ Marie, wife of Lieut. Giotti, of the
Italian army, and Eugenie, unmarried. He had
three sisters, married, respectively, to the Mar-
quis of Roccagivoine, Count Primoli, and Prince
Gabrelli.

Prince Roland Bonaparte is the only living
male cousin of Prince Charles Napoleon. He is
a son of the late Prince Pierre Napoleon Bona-
parte (1815-81) ; was born in 1858; married in
1880, the daughter of Blanc, the proprietor of
the Monte Carlo gambling establishment. His
wife died in 1882, leaving him a daughter and
a fortune. He has one sister, Jeanne, born in
1861, and married to the Marquis de Villeneuve.

Bonapartes of Baltimore, the branch of
the family residing in Baltimore, Md., and de-
rived from the marriage of Jerome Bonaparte,
brother of the Emperor Napoleon I., with Eliza-
beth Patterson, daughter of William Patterson,
an eminent merchant in the city of Baltimore.
Elizabeth was born 6 Feb. 1785, and was scarce
18 years of age, when Jerome Bonaparte in com-
mand of a French frigate landed in New York
in 1803. She, at that time, was distinguished by
uncommon personal beauty, and is said, more-
over, to have strikingly resembled the Bonaparte
family. The fame of Napoleon insured for his
brother Jerome a distinguished reception in
America, and wherever he went he was most
hospitably entertained. On visiting Baltimore he
saw Miss Patterson, and soon became much at-
tached to her, a partialitj' which she readily re-
turned, and being ambitious in her views of life,
she at once accepted his offer of marriage, and
was united to him 24 Dec. 1803. The marriage
ceremony was performed by the bishop of Bal-
timore, John Carroll, brother of Charles Carroll
of Carrollton, the signer of the Declaration of
Independence, and in accordance with the ritual
of the Roman Catholic Church. The marriage
contract, considered of importance, was drawn
up by Alexander J. Dallas, subsequently secre-
tary of the treasury, and witnessed by several
official personages, including the mayor of Bal-
timore. Jerome Bonaparte remained in America
for a full year, visiting, with his wife, various
parts of the country. They embarked for Eu-
rope in the spring of 1805, in the American ship
Erin, and arrived safely at Lisbon. The news of
the marriage proved very distasteful to the dicta-
tor of France, partly because Jerome had dared
to marry without his consent, and partly on ac-
count of his own wish to unite all his brothers
to European princesses. Before the newly
wedded pair could reach Europe, an order went
forth to every port under French authority, for-
bidding them to land. The hopes of the fair
American were now forever blighted, as Napo-
leon sternly refused to recognize her marriage.
Jerome left her at Lisbon, and hastened to Paris,
hoping by a personal interview to soften the
emperor, directing the vessel to proceed to Ams-
terdam, as the state of his wife's health would

BONAR — BONBRIGHT

not admit of her undergoing a long land journey,
even if a passport could be obtained for her,
which was very doubtful. On the Erin's arrival
at Texel roads, Madame Bonaparte found that
an order had been awaiting her coming, which
prohibited her from landing. She was obliged
to sail at once for England, where she estab-
lished her abode, and at Camberwell, near Lon-
don, gave birth to a son. She never saw her
husband again, except in a casual meeting many
years after their separation. Jerome, who was
originally much attached to his wife, in vain
petitioned the emperor to recognize her, and
was finally obliged to marry the Princess of
Wiirtemberg. After the downfall of Napoleon,
Madame Patterson (as she was styled for a
long period) visited Europe, and is said to have
encountered Jerome Bonaparte with his wife in
the gallery of the Pitti palace in Florence. On
meeting, Jerome started aside, and was overheard
to say to the princess : "That lady is my former
wife.'' He instantly left the gallery, and next
morning departed from Florence. Napoleon I.
never succeeded in inducing Pope Pius VII.
to declare Jerome's first marriage null and void.
Madame Bonaparte, after the birth of her son,
generally resided in Baltimore, in the possession
of abundant wealth. Notwithstanding her treat-
ment by Napoleon, she always expressed the
highest admiration for him, and prophesied that
her grandson would eventually succeed him as
emperor of the French. Jerome Napoleon, son
of the preceding : b. Camberwell. England, 7 July
1805; d. Baltimore, 17 June 1870. His mother
returned to the United States during his boy-
hood, and he was raised in Baltimore. He en-
tered Harvard College, and graduated from that
institution in 1826. He studied for the bar,
but never practised law. He was married to
Miss Susan Mary Williams, daughter of Ben-
jamin Williams, originally of RoxburJ^ Mass.
Miss Williams was a lady of very large fortune,
which, united with Bonaparte's own prop-
erty, made him one of the wealthiest citizens
of Baltimore. After his marriage he devoted
his time to the management of a large estate,
and partly to agricultural pursuits. For many
years, Bonaparte received a handsome allow-
ance from his father, with whom he was on
terms of intimacy in his several visits to
Europe. During the reign of Louis Philippe,
Bonaparte was permitted to sojourn in Paris,
but for a short period only, and under his
mother's name of Patterson. Although travel-
ing incognito, he attracted much attention from
his singular likeness to the great emperor. He
was thought to resemble him more than any of
the monarch's own brothers did. He was on
good terms with Napoleon III., and visited the
French court with his son, by the invitation
of the emperor. Bonaparte tested his legal
standing in the French courts by lodging a claim
to share with the offspring of the second mar-
riage, in the property of his father; but judg-
ment was given against him. Jerome Napoleon,
grandson of Jerome Bonaparte : b. Baltimore,
5 Nov. 1832; d. Pride's Crossing, Mass.,
4 Sept. 1893. He was educated at Harvard Col-
lege and West Point Military Academy, but re-
signed his commission in the United States army
to enter ihe French service in 1854. He served
with distinction in the Crimean war and in the
Italian campaign. Charles Joseph, grandson of
Jerome Bonaparte: b. Baltimore, 9 June 1851.

He was graduated from Harvard University in
1871 and the Harvard law school in 1874. In
1904 he was appointed a member of the Board of
Indian Commissioners. In 1905 he was appointed
Secretary of the Navy by President Roosevelt
and on 17 Dec. 1906 became Attorney-General.
Bonar, Horatius, Scotch hymnist: b. Edin-
burgh, 19 Dec. 1808; d. 31 July 1889. He wrote
< Hymns of Faith and Hope,' many of which
have been taken into the hymnals of most of the
Protestant churches. He also wrote more than
20 volumes on theological and religious subjects.

Bonasone, Giulio, jool'e-o bo-na-so'na,
Italian painter: b. Bologna, 1510; d. 1574. He
studied under Marcantonio Raimondi, but did
not equal his master in execution. Although
best known by his engravings, which reproduce
the works of Raphael, Michael Angelo, and .
Guilio Romano, specimens of his paintings are to
be found in the churches of his native city.

Bonasus, a species of wild ox, the aurochs
(q.v.).

Bonaven'ture, Saint (properly John of Fi-
danza), Italian philosopher: b. Tuscany, 1221 ;
d. 1274. In 1243 (or 1248) he became a Francis-
can monk; in 1253 teacher of theolog}' at Paris,
where he had studied ; in 1256, general of his
order, which he ruled with a prudent mixture
of gentleness and firmness. At the time of his
death he was a cardinal and papal legate at the
Council of Lyons. His death was hastened by
his ascetic severities. On account of his blame-
less conduct from his earliest youth, and of some
miracles ascribed to him. he enjoyed during his
life the greatest veneration, and was canonized
by Pope Sixtus IV. The elevation of thought in
his writings procured him the name of "The
Seraphic Doctor." The Franciscans oppose him
as their hero to the Dominican scholastic Thomas
Aquinas. He wrote for the honor and improve-
ment of his order, for the promotion of the wor-
ship of the Virgin, on celibacy, transubstantia-
tion, and other doctrines. He is, on the whole,
distinguished from other scholastics by per-
spicuity, avoidance of useless subtleties, and
greater warmth of religious feeling. Among his
writings are 'Itinerarium IMentis in Deum' ;
^Reductio Artium in Theologiam' ; ^Centilo-
quium' ; and ^Breviloquium.' His whole works
were published 1588-96, at Rome, in 7 folio vol-
umes, and there are several modern editions.
Many pieces attributed to him are not genuine.

Bonavis'ta, Newfoundland, the name of a
bay, cape, district, and town on the east coast of
the island. The greatest width of the bay is
39 miles. Its navigation is rendered dangerous
by the rocky islands with which it is studded.
There is a lighthouse at the entrance of the
harbor. The town stands near the cape, about 70
miles north by west of St. John's, and is a port
of entry and fishing station. Pop. 3,5.Si.

Bon'bright, Daniel, American educator: b.
Youngstown, Pa., 1831. He graduated at Yale
(1850). and was tutor there (1854-6). Between
1856 and 1858 he studied at the universities of
Berlin, Bonn, and Gottingen. and upon his re-
turn to America became professor of the Latin
language and literature in Northwestern L^niver-
sity, Evanston, 111. From 1899-92 he was dean
of the faculty of liberal arts. During 1900-2
he was acting president of the university.

BONCHAMP — BOND

Bonchamp, Charles Melchoir Artus, shiirl
mel-ke-or ar-tii bon-shan (Makquis de, mar-
kede), Vendean leader: b. Anion, lo May 1760;
•d. 17 Oct. 1793. He served as a volunteer in
the American Revolutionary War, and was a
■captain in the French army at the outbreak of
the French Revolution. A strong Royalist, he
naturally disliked the Revolution, and conse-
quently lived in retirement until chosen leader of
the Anjou insurgents. In conjunction with La
Rochejacquelein and Cathelineau he fought with
great bravery and frequent success, but his su-
perior knowledge of military tactics was not suf-
ficiently made use of by the insurgent army. In
the encounter at Ch'olet, 17 Oct. 1793, Bonchamp
received a fatal shot in the breast, and when
his followers vowed to revenge his death on
5,000 Republican prisoners, the dying hero ex-
claimed : "Spare your prisoners. I command
it !" This last command was obeyed.

Bond, (Sir) Edward Augustus, English
scholar: b. Hanwell, 1815. In 1867 he was
placed over one of the departments of the Brit-
ish Museum, and in 1878 became head librarian,
retaining the post for 10 years. He was one
■of the founders and for many years the presi-
dent of the Palseological Society, editing in this
•connection 'Facsimiles of Ancient Manuscripts.'
Among other works edited by him are 'Statutes
■of the Colleges of Oxford,' and "^Travels of
Jerome Horsey.'

Bond, George Phillips, American astrono-
mer (son of William Cranch Bond (q.v.) : b.
Dorchester, Mass., 20 May 1825 ; d. 17 Feb. 1865.
He assisted his father in the Harvard College
Observatory, and at the time of the latter's death
was appointed director. He discovered inde-
pendently II new comets, and was the author of
an elaborate memoir on the appearance of Do-
iiati's comet in 1858, and of important investiga-
tions on the subject of perturbations of comet-
SlTv orbits, as well as an investigation into the
theory of the constitution of Saturn's rings. His
■drawing of the nebula in Orion, of which a fine
steel-plate engraving was made, was also re-
markable work, and astronomical photography
received its first impulse at his hands.

Bond, William Cranch, American astrono-
mer: b. Portland, Me., 9 Sept. 1789; d. 29 Jan.
1859. He began life as a watchmaker, and con-
structed the first ship's chronometer made in the
United States. He established a private obser-
vatory at Dorchester, Mass., which was at the
time "the finest in the country. Invited to move
his observatory to Cambridge, he accepted the
invitation of the Harvard College authorities,
and in 1840 was appointed astronomical observer
to the college, and later to the directorship of
the observatory erected there in 1843-4. He was
the inventor of the method of registering the
beats of a clock by galvanic circuit, together
with the observed transits of stars over the wires
■of a transit instrument, upon a chronograph, and
he invented the spring governor, in which part of
a train of clockwork is regulated by a pendu-
lum with a dead-beat escapement, and the other,
receiving its motion through an elastic axis, is
made to run uniformly by a balance- or fly-
wheel, and thus time is visibly measured to a
small fraction of a second. The plan of record-
ing observations by electro-magnetism, known in
Europe as the American method was first

brought into practical working by Sears C.
Walker, through Bond's assistance.

Bond. See Building; Masonry.

Bond, a written acknowledgment or bind-
ing of a debt under seal. The person who
gives the bond is called the obligor, and he to
whom it is given the obligee. A bond may be
single, as where the obligor obliges himself,
his heirs, executors, and administrators, to pay
a certain sum of money to another at a day
named, or it may be conditional (which is
the kind more generally used) that if the
obligor does some particular act, the obligation
shall be void, or else shall remain in full force,
as payment of rent, performance of covenants
in a deed, or repayment of a principal sum
of money borrowed of the obligee with in-
terest, which principal suin is usually half of
the penal sum specified in the bond. There
must be proper parties, and no person can
take the benefit of a bond, except the parties
named therein, except, perhaps, in some cases
of bonds given for the performance of their
duties by certain classes of public officers. A
man cannot be bound to himself even in connec-
tion with others. The bond must be in writing
and sealed, but a sealing sufficient where the
bond is made is held sufficient though it might
be an insufficient sealing if it had been made
where it is sued on. It must be delivered by
the party whose bond it is to the other. But
the delivery and acceptance may be by attor-
ney. The date is not considered of the sub-
stance of a bond, and therefore a bond which
has either no date or an impossible date is
still valid, provided the real day of its being
dated or given can be proven. The condition
is a vital part of a conditional bond, and usu-
ally limits and determines the amount to be
paid in case of a breach, but interest and costs
may be added (12 Johns. 350). The recovery
against a surety in a bond for the payment of
money is not limited to the penalty, but may
exceed so far as necessary to include interest
from the time of the breach. So far as interest
is payable by the terms of the contract, and
until 'default made, it is limited by the penalty,
but after breach it is recoverable, not on the
ground of contract, but as damages, which the
law gives for its violation. On the forfeiture
of the bond, or its becoming single, the whole
penalty was formerly recoverable at law, but
here the courts of equity interfered, and would
not permit a man to take more than in con-
science he ought, that is. his principal, interest
and expenses in case the forfeiture accrued by
non-payment of money borrowed, the damages
sustained upon non-performance of _ covenants,
etc. And the similar practice having gained
some footing in the courts of law, the stat-
ute of 4 and 5 Anne, C. 16, at length en-
acted, in the same spirit of equity, that in case
of a bond conditioned for the payment of
money, the payment or tender of the principal
sum due with interest and costs, even though
the bond were forfeited and a suit commenced
thereon, should be a full satisfaction and dis-
charge. (2 Bl. Com. 340.) If in a bond the
obligor binds himself without adding his heirs,
executors, and administrators, the executors
and administrators are bound, but not the heir
(Sheppard's Touchstone, 369) for the law will
not imply the obligation upon the heir. CCoke,

BONDAGE — BONE

Litt. 209a.) If a bond lie dormant for 20
years it cannot afterward be recovered ; for the
law raises a presumption of its having been
paid, and the defendant may plead solvit ad
diem to an action upon it. (l Burr. 434; 4
Burr. 1963.)

Bondage. See Villenage.

Bonded Warehouse, a place vi^here taxable
imports of manufactures may be left in gov-
ernment custody, under bond for payment of
the duty, till the importer or manufacturer is
prepared to make full payment of duty. The
system was designed to promote commerce and
certain manufactures by lessening the pressure
on the importer or manufacturer by means of
instalnient payments of duty.

Bonders, a class of independent land-
holders in Norway and Sweden. They are at
once peasants and aristocrats, being descended
from the old leaders, and sometimes from the
princes, of the nation, yet being also cultivators
of the soil, and more rude than the farmers of
America or the yeomen of England. They
number seven ninths of the whole population,
and are the principal electors of representatives
to the National Assembly, in which their power
predominates over that of the nobles and
clergy.

Bondi, bon'de, Clement, Italian poet: b.
Mizzano, Parma, 27 June 1742; d. Vienna, 20
June 1821. Joining the Jesuits shortly before
the suppression of the order in Italy, he was ap-
pointed professor of eloquence in the University
of Parma. He afterward provoked the hos-
tility of the order by publishing an ode in
praise of their suppression, and was obliged
to seek an asylum in the Tyrol, where the
Archduke i^erdinand took him under his pro-
tection, appointed him his librarian at Briinn,
and entrusted him with the education of his
sons, one of whom afterward succeeded to the
duchy of Modena. In 1816 Bondi was appointed
professor of history and literature at Vienna,
and died there. He was an easy and elegant
versifier, and cultivated with success almost
all the varieties of poetry — lyric, didactic, satir-
ical, and elegiac. Among the most important
are ^La Giornata Villereccia,' ^La Conversa-
zione,' and *La Felicita.' He also executed a
metrical version of the ^neid, which some con-
sider his best work.

Bondman, The, one of Hall Caine's best-
known romances, abounding in action and va-
riety. The action turns upon the blind attempts
of a young man at doing new wrongs to re-
venge old ones, which are overruled by Provi-
dence for good ; and at the last, no longer
against his will but by the development of his
own nature, he fulfills his destiny of blessing
those he has sworn to undo.

Bondu, bon-doo. a country of West Africa,
belonging to the French territory of Senegal,
on the west of the Faleme, a tributary of that
river. Its length is about 115 miles, its breadth
about 100. Its surface is but little diversified,
and the land as a whole is not very fertile, nor is
the climate good. The ordinary African ani-
mals occur, but the lion is becoming scarce.
The ass is the chief domestic animal. The
population, which consists of Fulahs and other
tribes, is rather sparse, having been reduced by

frequent wars, but under French rule is be-
ginning to increase. Agriculture, manufactures,
and commerce are alike unimportant.

Bone, or Bona (the Aphrodisium of
Ptolemy), a seaport of Algeria, province of and
86 miles north-northeast of Constantine. Pop.
(1896) 34,498, among whom there are about
12,000 French and 10,000 Italians. It is built
at the foot of a hill, and is surrounded by a
wall nearly two miles in circumference. It is
the seat of French judicial courts. The streets
are narrow and crooked, but many of the
houses are substantial and well built, and the
town has been greatly improved since it came
into the hands of the French in 1832. It pos-
sesses a college, schools, Roman Catholic ca-
thedral, a convent of the Sisters of Mercy, hos-
pital, etc. There is a good market, and also
reading-rooms, coffee-houses, and a theatre.
The chief manufactures are burnooses, tapestry,
and saddles. It exports corn, iron ore, alfa,
wine, wool, hides, wax, oil, honey, etc. ; and
its trade is considerable. There is regular
steamboat communication between Bona and
Marseilles. About one mile south of the town
are the remains of Hippo Regius.

Bone, the compact hard material making
up the skeleton of mammals, most of the
birds, reptiles, and amphibians, and the bony
fishes. It is also found in some lower forms.
Chemically bone is complex. It is essentially
organic substances, 30 to 35 per cent infiltrated
with inorganic mineral salts, 65 to 70 per cent ;
to the former its toughness is due and to the
latter its hardness. The organic substances of
bone are ossein (collagen, gelatin), small
quantities of elastin, proteids and nuclein from
the cells and small quantities of fat. The inor-
ganic salts are calcium carbonate, calcium phos-
phate, calcium fluoride, magnesium phosphate,
calcium chloride, and small quantities of sul-
phates and other chlorides. The percentages of
both inorganic and organic constituents vary
widely in the bones of different animals, and
also in the different bones of the same animal.
These differences varj^ widely if the age varies,
but are fairly constant for the same animal of
the same age. Thus the amount of water may
vary from 13 to 45 per cent in the different
bones of the human body, being greater in
amount in the spongy bones and less in the
compact bones, and as the bones grow older the
percentage of water diminishes. In the living
body many of the bones, particularly the ribs,
and the heads of all the long bones, contain a
substance termed marrow. This is an impor-
tant substance in the human economy, being the
source of much of the blood-building material.
In soups this marrow makes one of the most
important factors. This bone marrow is per-
vaded by a network of white fibrous connective
tissue and in the meshes are contained the cells,
myeloplaxes. that make many of the blood cor-
puscles, particularly the polymorph neutrophiles,
and the eosinophiles. In the red marrow the
red corpuscles are developed. The bone mar-
row is very rich in proteids, nucleo-proteids,
extractives, globulins, fats, and compounds of
iron. Prepared bone marrows are therefore
highly nutritious, and the modern <^grilled
bone,^* which is usually rich in marrow, is a
toothsome and valuable dietary addition. The
histological structure of bone is very intricate;

BONE BLACK

in the young developing animal, cartilage first
makes its appearance from modified connective
tissue cells. In this cartilage certain points of
ossification appear, which subsequently develop
bone and the bone from several points coalesces
to make the completed bone structure. The bone
cells in the cartilage, the osteoblasts, thicken and
form a distinct cell wall in which the inorganic
salts are deposited and osteoblast by osteoblast
the structure of bone is made up. Bone is also
formed by the periosteum, which is a covering,
first of the cartilage and then of the developing
bone. Bony tissue contains arteries, veins,
nerves, and lymphatics, and is a distinct tissue,
largely modified by the deposition of mineral
salts. In a section across a long bone, at its
centre, say the thigh bone, femur, there is on
the outside the thin tough layer, the periosteum
with its vessels and nerves and lymphatics ;
within this is the compact bone and in the
centre the cavity usually filled with marrow
at the ends. A very thin section of the compact
bone viewed under the microscope shows a
number of cavities, the Haversian canals ; these
contain blood vessels or were the sites of for-
mer blood vessels in the developmental stage.
Around these Haversian canals, one sees regu-
lar lamellae, not unlike the rings about a tree
trunk; these are the Haversian lamellae and in-
dicate the regular growth of bone cells from
the centre. Scattered between the lamellae are
numerous small spaces, containing living bone
cells, the lacunae, all of which are probably in
communication with one another by minute
canals, or canaliculi. Thus the entire bony sys-
tem is pierced throughout by an extremely fine
and exceedingly rich network of canals. As
these are filled with lymph the bone substance is
constantly bathed in this living life-giving fluid.
The different bones of the body show minor
variations in structure. The bones of the hu-
man body are grouped according to their shape,
as long bones, flat bones, short, and irregular
bones. They approach one another at the
joints, where they are protected by cartilages,
smooth synovial membrane, and bathed in a
synovial fluid. The long bones consist of a
shaft and two expanded ends or epiphyses, and
are found in the limbs. They give support and
leverage for motion and are usually slightly
curved in one or two directions to give greater
elasticity. Flat bones are found in the skull,
pelvis, scapula, and are usually so disposed as
to afford protection to the internal viscera ;
they also offer considerable surface for muscu-
lar attachment and hence give a good leverage
for the long bones. Short bones are found in
the wrist and ankle. Strength' and freedom of
motion are their attributes. Irregular and
mixed bones, are the vertebrae and some of the
bones of the skull. They each have varied and
specially adaptive functions. Many bones, espe-
cially those of the skull, are composite. They
develop separately, and finally unite. Thus the
bones of the skull are separated until late in
life, and in some individuals, some of the bones
never develop thoroughly. This is frequently
the case in the growth of the lower jaw, where
failure to unite produces the well-known de-
formity of cleft palate or hare lip.

Bone is slightly heavier than water, its spe-
cific gravity varying from 1.80 to 1.90. The
6pong>' bones, because of the large amount of

air contained, float in water. The bones ot
birds are remarkable for their strength and
lightness. The twofold nature of bones is read-
ily demonstrated by two simple experiments.
If one bone is placed in acid, 20 per cent hydro-
chloric, the acid will attack and dissolve out
the mineral salts, after which the bone may be
bent and its shape altered at pleasure, nothing
but the organic material remains; another simi-
lar bone ma}' be placed in a furnace and the
heat will burn out the organic matter entirely;
that which remains will be the mineral mat-
ter. It will retain the shape of the original
bone, will be white, but will break down into
powder at the least pressure.

Uses of the Bones. — In dietetics bones make
a substratum for soups. These are important
carriers of salts to the body. As for the gela-
tine alone, it is a tissue sparer, the body can
not use it for purposes of anabolism, but it
spares katabolism of proteids. It is a useful
menstruum for foodstuffs. Bone marrow is
highly nutritious, contains iron, and is a super-
lative food, and thought to be particularly val-
uable as a blood maker. TV>e uses of bone in
the arts are numerous. (See Fertilizers.) Con-
sult Sj'minowitch, * Histology^ ; Gray, ^ Anat-
omy.^ See Ax.-\TOMY ; Kixetogexesis ; Osteology.

Bone Black, Ivory Black, or Animal Char-
coal, the black carbonaceous substance into
which bones are converted by calcination or de-
structive distillation in close vessels, and which
is extensively used in the process of sugar-
refining. This application of it is due to the prop-
erty which it possesses in common with other
kinds of charcoal, but in a superior degree, of
depriving various kinds of solutions, syrups,
etc., of their coloring matters, and thus blanch-
ing or purifying them. Animal charcoal is pre-
pared either by heating the bones in a retort
similar to that in which the coal is decom-
posed in gas-works, or, which is the better plan,
in small cast-iron pots piled up in a kiln. The
pots are placed above each other with their
mouths in contact, the mouths being luted to-
gether with loam. Two of the pots together
hold about 50 pounds of bones, which should
previously be freed of all fatty, fleshy, and ten-
dinous matters, as the quality of the charcoal
is in this case improved. The bones lose, on
the average, about half their weight in the
process of calcination. The charcoal is ground
between grooved rollers in order to prevent the
formation of dust, and by this means it is re-
duced to the condition of coarse grains varying
from the size of turnip-seed to that of peas.
Liquids are decolorized by passing them
through a filter or bed of thin granular char-
coal, which absorbs by mechanical action the
coloring matters held in solution. The filteriner
beds used in sugar-refininar are sometimes of
the depth of 50 feet. .'Kfter the liquor has
flowed for a certain time the charcoal becomes
completely saturated, and its purifying action
ceases. It has then to be restored so that it
may be used again, and this is effected by vari-
ous means, such as washing with water or with
weak hydrochloric acid, long exposure to air
and moisture, or heating to redness. The last is
the best method, and is the one almost invari-
ably adopted, the charcoal being heated in iron
pipes, fire-clay chambers, or in rotating cylin-
ders. See Charco.\l, Animal.

BONE-CAVES — BONHAM

Bone-caves, caverns containing deposits in

uhicli are embedded large quantities of tlie
bones of animals (many of tliem extinct), dating
from the fleiocene or later geologic periods.
See Cave.

Bone Diseases. See Osteomyelitis; Peri-
ostitis; Osteitis.

Bone-dog. See Bone-shark; Dogfish.

Bone-dust, bones ground to dust to be
used as manure. See Fertilizers.

Bone-fish. See Lady-fish.

Bone-shark, or Basking-shark, a compara-
tively rare species of pelagic shark, found in the
Arctic seas, and soutnward as far as Portugal
and New York. It obtains the name ^^bone-
shark" from the resemblance of its slender, long
and close-set gill-rakers to whale-bone. It is
also known as "basking-shark," because of its
habit of remaining quiet for hours in one place.
It reaches a length of 40 feet, and its skin is
rough and covered with small spikes. It is
usually seen in the brooding season, sluggishly
swimming in groups, on the surface of the
water, and undisturbed by the approach of
boats.

Bonebreaker, the great fulmar-petrel (Ossi-
fraga giga)itca) of the islands and coasts of
the South Pacific and Atlantic oceans. It
is as large as an albatross, and feeds mainly
upon the carcasses of dead seals and cetaceans,
whose bones it is capable of breaking with its
A'ulture-like beak.

Boner, John Henry, American poet and
literary worker: b. Salem, N. C, 31 Jan. 1845.
A contributor to the magazines, he was on the
editorial staff of the "^Century Dictionary' and
the ^Standard Dictionary,' and was at one
period literary editor of the New York World.
He has written *^ Whispering Pines' (1883),
a volume of verse.

Boner, Ulrich, ool'riH bo'ner, the most
ancient German fabulist, a Dominican friar at
Bern, in the first half of the 14th century. His
collection of fables under the title *Der Edel-
stein' (the Gem), is distinguished by purity of
language and picturesque simplicity of descrip-
tion. The first editions of these fables were
by Bodmer and Eschenburg. Benecke published
a very good edition with explanatory notes and
an excellent vocabulary (1816) ; that of
Pfeiffer appeared in 1844. and a recent imprint
is found in Reclam's ^Universal Bibliothek'
(1895).

Boneset, or Thoroughwort ( Eupatorlum
perfoliatuin), a stout, ill-smelling perennial herb
of the natural order Compositce, native of
America, common in moist soil. The plants,
which attain a height of sometimes eight feet,
are often planted as ornamentals in low ground.
In midsummer when the profusion of purplish
or white flowers are in full blow they are strik-
ing objects. The foliage and flowers have been
used as a tonic in domestic medicine, their in-
tensely bitter taste being supoosed to commend
them for this purpose. See Eupatorium.

Bonet, Juan Pablo, hoo-an' pab'lo bo-net',
Soanish teacher of the deaf and dumb of the
17th century, distinguished as one of the first
teachers of this class, and the author of a re-
markable work ^Reduccion de las letras y artes
para ensenar a hablar a los mudos,' published

in IVIadrid, 1620. It explained his method o!
instruction, cdntaining the first alphabet for the
deaf and dumb, and was of good service to
Dalgarno, Wallis, and, a century later, to the
Abbe de I'Epee, who acknowledged his indebt-
edness to Bonet's labors.

Bonfiglio, or Buonfiglio, Benedetto, ba-na-

det'to bdn-fe'lyo, Italian painter: b. 1425 (?) ; d.
1490 ( ?). His chief work was the frescoes of the
Palazzo Connmale at Perugia, where he lived.
These frescoes placed him in the first rank of
the painters of the Umbrian school. It is be-
lieved that he also assisted Pinturicchio in dec-
orating the Vatican.

Bong'abong, Philippines, a town in the
southeast part of Luzon, with an estimated pop-
ulation of 20,000. It lies in a mountainous dis-
trict, and attained military importance as the
headquarters of a regiment of United States
troops. The town has a municipal government
based upon popular election.

Bongar, bon'gar. a serpent of the genus
Bungarus. See Krait.

Bonghi, Ruggero, rood-ja'ro bon'ge, Ital-
ian scholar and publicist : b. Naples, 21 March
1826; d. near Naples, 22 Oct. 1895. The com-
mencement of his brilliant career indicated
scholarly activities only, for he made fine stud-
ies and versions of Aristotle and Plato ; but
latterly he took up such subjects as *The Finan-
cial History of Italy, 1864-8' (1868); *The
Life and Times of Valentino Pasini' (1867),
and 'The Life of Jesus' (1890); ^The Roman
Festivals' (1891) ; the popularity and value of
these and other works giving him great promi-
nence. He held professorships in several Italian
universities ; was minister of public instruc-
tion in 1874-6; was a member of the Chamber
of Deputies nearly continuously from i860;
founded the Stampa, the leading Turin journal,
and the magazine *Cutura,' of which he was
editor at the time of his death ; and presided
over the International Peace Congress held in
Rome in 1891.

Bon'go, or Obongo, the name of a negroid
people in the basin of the Ogowe River, in the
French Congo. They live by the chase, grazing,
and agriculture, and are skilful workers in
iron.

Bongo, a large west African bushbuck
(q.v.).

Bonham, Milledge L.. American lawyer
and soldier: b. Edgefield, S. C, 25 Dec. 1813;
d. White Sulphur Springs, N. C, 27 Aug. 1890.
He graduated at South Carolina College. 1834,
was admitted to the bar. 1837, and served as a
representative in Congress 1840-4. In 1836 he
was major and adjutant-general of the South
Carolina Brigade in the Seminole war in Flor-
ida: and colonel of the I2tli U. S. Infantry
during the Mexican war. In 1856 he was
elected to Congress as a State Rights Demo-
crat, and re-elected in 1858. but left Congress
21 Dec. i860, when the South Carolina delega-
tion withdrew. Commissioned a brigadier in
the Confederate army, 19 April 1861 ; he com-
manded Beauregard's centre at the first battle
of Manassas, but gave up his commission to
enter the Confederate Congress. 27 Jan. 1862.
He was governor of South Carolina 1862-4,
when he was again commissioned a brigadier-
general, and was serving with Gen. Johnston

BONHAM — BONHOMME RICHARD

at the time of the latter's surrender. In 1868 he
was a delegate to the National Democratic con-
vention in New York.

Bonham, Texas, a town and county-seat
of Trannin County, situated on the Texas & P.
and the Denison, B. & N. O. R.R.'s. It is the
seat of Carlton College, and the Masonic
Female Institute. As the centre of an agricul-
tural region it has a large export trade,
especially in cotton. Its chief manufacturing in-
dustries are flour mills, cotton-gins, machine-
shops, carriage and wagon factories, tobacco
factories, etc. Pop. (1900) 5.042.

Bonheur, Frangois Augusta, frah-swa
a-gust b5-ner, French painter, brother of
Rosa Bonheur: b. Bordeaux, 4 Nov. 1824; d.
2,3 Feb. 1884. The beauty of his landscapes
has been much praised. He was made Cheva-
lier of the Legion of Honor in 1867 and received
numerous medals.

Bonheur, Jules Isadore, zhiil ez-a-dor bo-
ner, French painter and sculptor, brother of
Rosa Bonheur (q.v.) : b. Bordeaux, 15 May 1827.
In the Salon of 1848 he exhibited both paint-
ings and sculpture but in later years confined
himself to sculpture. Medals were awarded him
in 1865 and 1867. Among noted works of his
are <The Zebra and Panther' ; and 'The Tiger
Hunter.'

Bonheur, Marie-Rosa, ma-re rd'za bo-ner,
French artist of distinction, widely known as a
painter of animals: b. Bordeaux, 22 March 1822;
d. Fontainebleau, 25 May 1899. She received
her earliest instruction in art from her father,
and when only 18 years old exhibited two pic-
tures, 'Goats and Sheep,' and 'Two Rabbits,'
which gave clear indications of talent. In 1849
a fine work, 'Labourages Nivernais,' by her, was
purchased by the French government for 3,000
francs and placed in the Luxembourg collection.
In 1855 'The Haymaking Season in Auvergne'
was hung at the Universal Exposition in Paris,
and in the same year she sent the 'Horse Fair'
to the French Exhibition in London, where it
was the centre of attraction for the season. It
was offered by her to Bordeaux for $6,000, but
the offer being declined it was sold in England
for $20,000. It was subsequently purchased by
Cornelius Vanderbilt for the Metropolitan
Museum in New York. She made a quarter size
replica which is now in the National Gallery
in London. After this work she stood at the
very head of delineators of animal life, showing
a wonderful power of representing spirited ac-
tion. Near her studio she had an ante-chamber
as a stable for the convenient study of animals,
of which she collected some noble specimens.
She also attended horse markets and fairs ;
generally wearing masculine dress, which was
not unbecoming to her strong and marked fea-
tures. After 1849 she directed the Free School
of Design for Young Girls in Paris. During
the siege of Paris the crown prince of Prussia
especially ordered that her studio and resi-
dence at Fontainebleau should be spared and
respected. She received a first-class medal at
the French Salon in 1849, and another in 1855 ;
and the decoration of the Legion of Honor in
1865 ; was made a member of the Institute of
Antwerp in 1868; received the Leopold cross
from the king of Belgium in 1880, and the same
year received from the king of Spain the Com-
Vol. 2—52.

mander's Cross of the Royal Order of Isabella
the Catholic. In 1892 a celebrated painting by
her, entitled 'Horses Threshing Corn,' was sold
for $60,000. It is the largest animal picture
ever painted, showing 10 horses large as life. In
1896, on her 74th birthday, she furnished a
painting representing the historical combat be-
tween two stallions to which Lord Godolphin
invited his friends in 1734. See Larnelle, * Rosa
Bonheur, sa vie et ses oeuvres' (1885) ; Peyrol,
'Rosa Bonheur: Her Life and Works' ; Strana-
han. 'A History of French Painting' (1899).

Bonhomme, Jacques, zhak bo-nom, a term
of contempt used by the French nobility to des-
ignate the common people, especially the peas-
ants.

Bonhomme Richard, the flagship of John
Paul Jones (q.v.), in the most remarkable naval
victory on record, 23 Sept, 1779; originally the
Duras, a worn-out unseaworthy merchant India-
man assigned to him by the French government
because none of their own naval officers would
serve under a foreigner, and renamed by Jones
from Franklin's 'Poor Richard,' because he
obtained her by following one of its maxims.
She had 21 guns on a side, mainly 12-pounders,
with three i8-pounders aft near the water line ;
and a mongrel crew of Americans, British, Por-
tuguese, and other classes. With three other
vessels in the squadron Jones intercepted, off
Flamborough Head, on the east coast of Eng-
land, a British fleet of naval stores from the
Baltic, convoyed by the Serapis (Capt. Richard
Pearson) and the Countess of Scarborough.
The latter was captured by one of Jones' squad-
ron ; the former about 7 o'clock on a moonlight
night joined battle with the Richard, having
25 guns on a side, 10 i8-pounders — a much
greater weight of metal than its foe, and with
far more penetrating power than the 12-pound-
ers of the American ship. To neutralize this ad-
vantage Jones' policy was to fight at close
range ; and in the attempt to rake the Serapis
the two vessels swung broadside to and were
lashed together by Jones, and fought the rest
of the battle so close that the guns could not
be run out full length, their muzzles touched,
and the rammers of each had to be thrust into
the port-holes of the other to load. Only those
of the starboard side of each could be used.
Two of Jones' i8-pounders burst at the first
fire; his lighter guns were gradually silenced
by the Serapis ; the entire sides of his vessel
were shot away, so that the Serapis' shot
passed through without touching anything; she
caught fire in several places ; she had been
leaking at the outset, and now had several feet
of water in the hold ; and an under-ofiicer
in affright let the 200 or 300 British prisoners
loose and ran to tear down the colors, but
finding the flag-pole gone began to shriek for
quarter. Lieut. Dale with immense presence of
mind set the prisoners at the pumps, not only
saving a guard but releasing the pumpmen to
fight; Jones broke the officer's head with a pistol-
butt, and in answer to Pearson's inquiry if he
was ready to surrender, replied, "I have not
begun to fight yet." though the Serapis was fir-
ing heavily and his own guns were nearly still.
Meantime, however, the deadly musket fire from
the Richard's top gear had made the service of
the upper guns of the Serapis almost sure death,
and they too were silenced; a cannon-shot

BONI — BONIFACE

brought down her mainmast; the combustibles
thrown from the Richard wrapped her upper
deck in fire; at last a bucket of hand-grenades
tiung down her hatchwaj^s set off a mass of
cartridges strewn along the decks, killing or
wounding nearly all those around, and wrecking
five guris; and just then Jones' ship, the Alli-
ance — whose timid, half-insane French captain
had been tacking about, occasionally firing grape-
shot at random into both vessels, came near,
and Pearson struck his colors, though four of
his guns were still firing and his ship was
sound. Jones put Dale aboard the Serapis,
and tried to navigate the Richard to a friendly
port ; but at 9 o'clock of the 25th she had to
be abandoned, and she sank about an hour
later.

Boni, bd'ne, a district in the island of
Celebes, and one of the principal states of the
Bugis nation, with an estimated area of about
1,000 square miles. This territory is mountain-
ous, but, though contiguous to the great volcanic
belt of the archipelago, exhibits no traces of
volcanic action. Lompoo-Batang (great pillar),
its highest peak, and the loftiest in Celebes,
attains an elevation of 8.200 feet above the level
of the sea. Lake Laba3'a, or, as called by the
natives, Taparang-Danau, in the northwest cor-
ner of this territory, is a beautiful sheet of
water, 24 miles long and 13 broad, with an aver-
age depth of six fathoms, and abounds in fish.
It is bordered on all sides by a luxuriant and
richly diversified tropical growth, except at the
mouths of the numerous little streams that
empty into it, where clearings, and beautiful,
picturesque little villages, attest the industry,
skill, and civilized tastes of the Bugis people.
Boni was formed}^ the most powerful state in
Celebes, but since 1859 has been practically a
Dutch dependency. In the north the scenery is
fine, and the soil fertile — rice, sago, and cassia
being produced. The inhabitants have an allied
language to the Macassars, with a literature of
their own. Their towns and villages dot the
coast, and as enterprising merchants and sailors
the Bugis are found in everj' port of the East
Indian Archipelago ; they also engage in agri-
culture and in the manufacture of cotton and
articles of gold and iron, in which they have
a large trade. They are well built, active, and
brave, and are lighter skinned, as well as supe-
rior in honesty and morality to other JNIalay
races. Their institutions, said to be very ancient,
partake of the character of a constitutional
monarchy. The British have twice attacl ed
the Bonese for injuring their cornmerce, and
selling the crews of British ships into slavery.
In the second attack, in 1814, the Bonese king
was killed. The number of the population is
imknown, being variously estimated from 200,000
to 300,000. The capital, called Boni, stands on
the coast of the southwest peninsula. The Gulf
of Boni separates the southeast and southwest
peninsulas of Celebes. It is 200 miles long,
and 40 to 80 miles broad.

Bon'iface, Saint, the apostle of Germany,
who first preached Christianity and spread civi-
lization among the Germans : b. Crediton, Eng-
land, 680 ; d. Dokkum, West Friesland, S June
755. His original name was Winfrid. In his
30th year he was consecrated a priest. A great
part of Europe at this period was inhabited by
heathen peoples, and several missionaries set

out from England and Ireland to convert them.
Among these was Boniface, who in 718 went
to Rome, where Gregory II. authorized him to
preach the gospel to the nations of Germany.
He commenced his labors in Thuringia and
Bavaria, passed three years in Friesland, and
journeyed through Hesse in Saxony, baptizing
everywhere, and converting the pagan temples
to Christian churches. In '/22) he was invited
to Rome, made a bishop by Gregory II., and
recommended to Charles Martel and all princes
and bishops. His name Winfrid he changed to
Boniface. He destroyed the oak sacred to Thor,
near Geismar, in Hesse, founded churches and
monasteries, invited from England priests,
monks, and nuns, and sent them to Saxony,
Friesland, and Bavaria. In 732 Gregory III.
made him archbishop and primate of all Ger-
many, and authorized him to establish bishoprics,
the only existing bishopric being the one at
Passau. He founded those of Freising, Ratis-
bon, Erfurt, Baraburg (transferred afterward
to Paderborn), Wiirzburg, and Eichstadt! In
739 he restored the episcopal see of St. Rupert,
at Salzburg. After the death of Charles Martel
he consecrated Pepin the Short, king of the
Franks, in Soissons, by whom he was named
Archbishop of Mainz. He held eight ecclesiasti-
cal councils in Germany, founded the famous
abbey of Fulda, and undertook in 754 new jour-
neys for the conversion of the infidels. In Fulda
a copy of the gospels, in his own handwriting,
is to be seen, and there is a statue to him also.
At the place where Boniface built, in 724, the
first Christian church in North Germany, near
the village of Altenburg, in the Thuringian
forest, a monument has been erected to his
memory. The most complete collection of the
letters of Boniface was published at Mainz,
1789, folio; and of his entire works. 2 volumes,
Oxford, 1845. See Lives by Cox (i8S3) : Wer-
ner (1875); Fischer (1880) ; Ebrard (1882).

Boniface, the name of several Popes.
BoNiF.\CE I., elected 418 by a party of the clerg>',
and confirmed by the Emperor Honorius, who
declared the anti-pope Eulalius a usurper. Boni-
face condemned Pelagianism, and extended his
authority by prudent measures. In a contest
with the Emperor Theodosius, who endeavored
to take from the bishops of Thessalonica their
canonical jurisdiction over Illyria, he success-
fully vindicated the primacy of the Roman See.
Boniface II., elected 530; d. 532. The death
of his rival, the anti-pope Dioscorus, a few days
after his election, left him in quiet possession
of the papal chair. During his pontificate St.
Benedict laid the foundations of monasticism in
the West. Boniface III., chosen 607, died
nine months after his election. Boniface
IV. reigned 608-615. He consecrated the
Pantheon to the Virgin and all the saints.
Boniface V., a Neapolitan, was Pope 619-625.
He confirmed the inviolability of the asylums,
and endeavored to diffuse Christianity among
the English. Boniface VI., a Roman, elected
896, died a fortnight after. Boniface VII., anti-
pope,, elected 974 during the lifetime of Benedict
VI., whose death he was suspected of having
caused. Expelled from Rome he returned on
the death of Benedict VII., and found the chair
occupied by John XIV., whom he deposed and
threw into prison, where he died. Boniface died
II months after his return. Boniface VIII.,

BONIFACIO — BONITO

Benedict Gaetano : b. Anagni of an ancient Cata-
lonian family; elected Pope 24 Dec. 1294. He
studied jurisprudence, was a canon at Paris and
Lyons, advocate of the consistory, and prothono-
tary of the Pope at Rome. After Martin IV.
had elevated him to the dignity of a cardinal
(1281) he went as legate to Sicily and Portu-
gal, and was intrusted with the charge of recon-
ciling the king of Sicily with Alphonso of
Aragon, and Philip the Fair with Edward I.
of England. After Coelestine V. had resigned
the papal dignity at Naples, in 1294, at the insti-
gation of Boniface, the latter was chosen Pope.
He met with opposition from the cardinals of
the family Colonna, whose antagonism followed
him throughout his entire pontificate. His in-
duction was magnificent. The kings of Hungary
and Sicily held his bridle on his way to the Lat-
eran, and served him at table with their crowns
on their heads. Boniface, however, was not
successful in his first efforts for the increase
of his power. He first opposed Albert of Aus-
tria in his contest for the imperial title, but
finally yielded and crowned him emperor. He
was equally unsuccessful in his attempt to arbi-
trate between England and France. The bulls
which he issued at this time against King Philip
the Fair of France obtained no consideration.
This was also the case with the interdict which
he pronounced against him at the Council of
Rome in 1302. Intimidating the clergy in
France, Philip refused to yield to the Pope's de-
crees. The Pope was accused of duplicity, of
simony, of usurpation, of heresy, of unchastity ;
and it was resolved to condemn and depose him
at a general council at Lyons. Philip went still
further ; he sent Nogaret to Italy in order to
seize his person and bring him to Lyons. No-
garet united himself for this purpose with Sciarra
Colonna. who with his whole familj' were bit-
terly inimical to Boniface. Boniface fled to
Anagni, where Nogaret and Colonna surprised
him. Boniface acted with spirit. "Since I
am betrayed,* said he, "as Jesus Christ was
betrayed, I will die at least as a Pope.'^ He
assumed the pontifical robes and the tiara, took
the keys and the cross in his hand, and seated
himself in the papal chair. But the insignia
of his holy office did not save him from seizure.
Nay, Colonna went so far as to use personal
violence. Boniface remained in imprisonment
for two days, when the Anagnese took up arms
and delivered him. After this he departed to
Rome, where he died, a month later, in 1303.
Boniface IX., Pietro Tomacelli of Naples, suc-
ceeded Urban VI. at Rome during the schism
in the Church, while Clement VII. resided in
Avignon. He was distinguished for the beauty
of his person and the elegance of his manners,
rather than for a profound knowledge of the-
ology and canon law. Even the counsel of his
experienced cardinals could not save him from
the commission of gross blunders. He made the
annates a regular tax in 1392. Many abuses in
the sale of benefices were indulged during his
pontificate. A notable event in his reign was
the suppression of the rebellion in Rome in
favor of a Republic. He supported the pre-
tensions of Ladislaus to the throne of Naples,
and during the greatest part of his pontificate
was engaged in negotiations at Avignon with
his rivals, Clement VII. and Benedict XIII. He
died 1404.

Bonifacio, Veneziano, va-nad-ze-a'no b(5'
ne-fa'cho, Italian painter: b. Venice, abqut
1525; d. about 1579. He belonged to the Vene-
tian school and his 'Saint Jerome and Saint
Margaret' ; 'Saint Barnabas and Saint Sylves-
ter' ; 'Saint Anthony and Saint Mark' are still
in the Venice Academy.

Bonifacio, bo-ne-fa'cho. Strait of, the Fre-
tum Gallicuni of the Romans, lies between Cor-
sica and Sardinia, and at the narrowest part is
only seven miles wide. The navigation is diffi-
cult owing to the rapid current and the great
number of rocks, which, however, are favorable
to the production of coral.

Bonifazio Veronese, bo-ne-fa'tse-o va-ro-
na'sa (the Elder), Italian painter: b. Verona,
1490 ; d. 1540. He was a notable colorist of the
Venetian school and many of his works have
been attributed to Titian and to Giorgione, whose
styles he imitated. Among known works of his
are 'The Finding of Moses' in the Dresden
Gallerj', and 'Dives and Lazarus' in the Venice
Academj'.

Bonin (bo-nen') Islands, several groups
of islands. North Pacific Ocean, extending from
lat. 27° 44' 30" to 26° 30' N., south of and belong-
ing to Japan. The northwest island of the
most northern cluster, called Parry Group, is in
lat. 27° 43' 30" N. ; Ion. 142° 8' E.; the cluster
consists of small isles. The largest of the chain
is Peel Island, on the west side of which is a
good harbor called Port Lloyd, in lat. 27° 5' 30"
N. ; Ion. 142° 11' 30" E., nearly surrounded by
hills crowned with palm trees. Almost every
valley has a stream of water. Green turtle
abound in the sandy bays. Sharks are numer-
ous, and fish of several kinds plentiful. Peel
Island is inhabited by some English, Americans,
and Hawaiians, who cultivate maize, vegetables,
tobacco, and the sugar-cane. It is frequently
visited by vessels in want of water and fresh
provisions. The islands were discovered by
the Japanese in 1593 and since 1876 have been
in the possession of Japan. Pop. about 1,400.

Bon'ington, or Bennington, Richard
Parkes, English painter: b. 25 Oct. 1801, at
Arnold, a village near N^oltingham, where his
father was a painter and lace manufacturer; d.
London, 23 Sept. 1828. When Richard was in
his boyhood the family removed to Calais and
afterward to Paris. He early displayed a de-
cided predilection for art, and entered as a
student at the Louvre, and was also for a time
in the studio of Baron Gros. His genius dis-
played itself in landscape-painting, and he rap-
idly rose to great eminence in this department,
first in Paris and afterward in England, to
whose Royal Academy Exhibition he contributed
several pictures which created a great sensa-
tion. He worked at first entirely in water-color,
but from about 1825 he also used oil. A bril-
liant career was in prospect for him, when he
was cut off by pulmonary consumption. See
Muther, 'History of Modern Painting' (1896).
Bonito, bo-ne'to, a fish of the mackerel
family {Scoinbridcr) nearly related to the gigan-
tic tunny, but smaller, longer in body, and with-
out teeth on the vomer. There are two Ameri-
can species. One (Sarda sarda) lives in the
open seas, except at spawning time, from Cape
Cod to Cape Sable, and occasionally in the
Gulf of Mexico, where it weighs 10 to 12
pounds. In color it is dark steel blue above,

BONITZ — BONNEMERE

with numerous dark narrow strips obliquely
downward and forward from the back, and the
under parts, silvery. The California bonito or
skipjack (Sarda chiliensis), is heavier and is
found from San Francisco northward to
Japan. In the tropics, the bonito is known
as the worst foe of the flying-fish. On
the Rhode Island coast the fish is called
abbicore.

Bonitz, Hermann, her'man bo-nits, Ger-
man classical scholar: b. Langensalza, 29 July
1814 ; d. Berlin, 25 July 1888. He was professor
in the University of Vienna, 1849-67, director of
a gymnasium at Vienna from 1867, and a mem-
ber of the Academy of Sciences. He was a
profound student of Plato and Aristotle and
was the author of ^Ueber die Kategorien des
Aristoteles^ (1853); ^Platorische Studien^
(1858-60) ; ^Aristotelische Studien^ (1862-7).

Bonn, a city of the Prussian province of
the Rhine, formerly the residence of the Elect-
ors of Cologne, on the left bank of the Rhine,
over which there is a magnificent new bridge,
erected at a cost of |i, 000,000, with a central
span of 600 feet. It is a flourishing place, and
has been greatly extended and improved in re-
cent years, though it still has many narrow ir-
regular streets. The town hall, completed 1782,
is one of the handsomest of its edifices. An-
other important building is the cathedral, cruci-
form in plan, and forming an imposing and
picturesque example of the late Romanesque
style of architecture. The greater part of it
dates from the 13th century. But all other
buildings and institutions are eclipsed by the
celebrity of the university, the charter of which
w^as given 18 Oct. 1818, at Aix-la-Chapelle, by
the king of Prussia, who at the same time
endowed it with an annual income of about
$60,000. The former residence of the Elector
of Cologne was bestowed on the university,
and was fitted up at great expense, being sur-
passed in extent and beauty probably by no
university building in Europe. The university
possesses a library of more than 275,000 volumes,
1,235 incunabula and 1,376 MSS. ; a museum of
antiquities, a collection of casts of the principal
ancient statues, a collection of coins, observa-
tory, botanic garden, etc. The paintings in
the Academical Hall (among others, the great
allegorical picture, the * Christian Church^) were
executed by some pupils of Cornelius. In the
front of the university is an extensive garden,
with fine old avenues of trees, while from
this quarter runs westward a broad straight
avenue, half a mile long, planted with horse-
chestnuts, passing the observatory, and leading
to the botanic garden and natural history collec-
tions of the university, and to the chemical
laboratory, the anatomy building, etc. In this
quarter also are grounds and buildings for
the use of the agricultural institute. Particular
advantages are afforded for the education of
young men intended for instructors. Many men
distinguished in various branches of science
have been connected with the university, includ-
ing Arndt, A. W. Schlegel, and the historian
Niebuhr. The exertions of the government to
collect in Bonn all the means of instruction,
united with the charms of the place and the
beauties of the scenery, have made the place
famous. In igoi the students numbered over
2,400. The manufactures, which are not very

important, comprise carpets, machinery, soap;
chemicals, stoneware, etc. The means of com-
munication are ample, both by the steamers
which ply upon the Rhine and by the railways.
Prince Albert studied at Bonn and Beethoven
was born there, the house of his birth being
now a museum. There are statues of Beetho-
ven and Arndt, a monument commemorative of
the war of 1870-1, a monumental fountain, etc.
The antiquity of Bonn is considerable, and, as
the residence of the electors of Cologne, it
is of historical importance. Pop. (1900)
50,737.

Bonn, University of. See Bonn.

Bonnassieux, Jean, zhoh bo-na-sye, French
sculptor: b. Paunissieres, 1810; d. 1892. He
studied in Paris and in 1836 received the Prix de
Rome. He gained the favor of the French
clergy by refusing to model a statue of Voltaire
for the fagade of the Louvre and thereafter did
much work for churches. He was commissioned
in 1857 to model a colossal statue of Notre
Dame de France for the valley of Puy from
the bronze cannon taken at Sebastopol. Other
important works of his are ^ Amour se conpant
les ailes' ; ^ David Berger, 1814' ; and ^Medita-
tion,' for which last he received the cross
of the Legion of Honor.

Bonnat, Leon Joseph Florentin, la-6n zho-
sef fld-roh-tah bo-na, French painter: b. Bay-
onne, 20 June 1833. When a young man he
spent several years in Spain and Italy. He
studied under Madrazo at Madrid, and under
Leon Cogniet at Paris, first gaining recognition
at the Paris Salon in 1861, when he received a
second-class medal. The list of his honors is a
large one, including the medal of honor at the
Salon of 1869. In the Legion of Honor he was
made chevalier in 1867, officer in 1874, and
commander in 1882. He paints portraits and
genre subjects; many of these are reminiscences
of his visits to Italy and Egypt. He became a
member of the Institute in 1874, and was cho-
sen chief professor of painting in the Ecole
des Beaux Arts in 1888. His work shows the
influence of Velasquez and Ribera, and his por-
traits, such as those of Thiers, Victor Hugo,
and Don Carlos, are remarkable for their real-
ism. He has painted the portraits of many
Americans and his portrait work is well known
in this country.

Bonnechose, Frangois Paul Emile Bois-
normand de, fran-swa pol a-mel bwa-nor-
man bon-shoz, French poet and historian : b.
Leyerdorp, Holland, 1801 ; d. 1875. He was
librarian of the palace of Saint Cloud for
some years and subsequently held similar posts.
His one notable poetical composition is ^The
Death of Bailly' (1833). Besides a ^History
of France' he was author of 'Reformers Before
the i6th Century Reformation' (1844) ; *^The
Four Conquests of England' (1851) ; 'History
of England' (1859) ; 'Bertrand du Guesclen'
(1866).

Bonnemere, Joseph Eugene, zho-sef e-zhan
bon-mar, French historian: b. Saumur, 21
Feb. 1 81 3. In early life he wrote a number of
plays ; but owes his reputation to a series of
historical publications, 'History of the Peasants'
(1856) ; 'Vendee, in 1793' (1866) ; 'Popular
History of France' (1874-9) ; 'History of the
Religious Wars in the Sixteenth Century'
(1886); etc.

BONNER — BONNET-ROUGE

Bonner, Edmund, English prelate: b. about
1495 ; d. London, 5 Sept. 1569. For his skill in
canon law he was patronized by Cardinal Wol-
sey, on whose death he acquired the favor of
Henry VIII., who made him one of his chap-
lains, and sent him to Rome on business con-
nected with his divorce from Queen Catharine.
In 1535 he was made archdeacon of Leicester.
In 1538 he was nominated bishop of Hereford,
being then ambassador at Paris ; but before his
consecration he was translated to the see of
London. In 1542-3 he was ambassador to the
Emperor Charles V. After Edward VI. 's
accession in 1547 he was deprived of his
bishopric for non-obedience in connection with
the injunctions and the ^Book of Homilies.^
He was shortly afterward restored, but still
continuing to act with contumacy, he was, after
a long trial, once more deprived of his see, and
committed to the Marshal sea (1549) ; from
which prison, on the accession of Mary, he was
released, and once more restored in 1553. Dur-
ing this reign a most sanguinary persecution of
the Protestants took place, many of whom Bon-
ner was instrumental in bringing to the stake,
though it appears he was hardly severe enough
to meet the wishes of the king and queen. When
Elizabeth succeeded he went with the rest of
the bishops to meet her at Highgate, but was
coldly received. He remained, however, un-
molested, until his refusal to take the oath of
supremacy ; on which he was committed to the
Marshalsea (1560), where he remained a pris-
oner for nearly 10 years, until his death. He
was buried at midnight, to avoid any disturb-
ance on the part of the populace, to whom he
was extremely obnoxious.

Bonner, Robert, American publisher: b.
near Londonderry, Ireland. 28 April 1824 ; d.
New York, 6 July 1899. Coming to the United
States in 1839 he learned the printer's trade on
the Hartford Cotirant, and gained the reputation
of being the most rapid compositor in Con-
necticut. In 1844 he removed to New York,
and seven years later had saved enough money
to buy the plant of the "^ Merchants' Ledger,^ a
small business periodical. Changing its name
to the ^New York Ledger,^ he turned it into a
literary publication, printing the most popular
kind of stories. This, combined with sensa-
tional advertising methods, and the unprece-
dented prices paid to famous contributors, soon
gave the * Ledger' an enormous circulation.
Henry Ward Beecher was paid $30,000 for his
^^Norwood'^ ; Tennyson received $5,000 for a
short poem, and Dickens the same amount for
a short story. At times $25,000 a week was
spent in advertising the paper. Retiring in
1887, the rest of his life was spent in indulging
his taste for fast horses. It was his ambition
to own the fastest trotters in existence, and
whenever he purchased a record breaker, the
animal was immediately withdrawn from public
racing. His expenditures for fast horses ex-
ceeded $600,000. Some of them and their cost
were : Dexter. $35.000 ; Rarus, $36,000 ; Maud
S., $40,000; Sunof, $41,000. He was a generous
giver to many charitable institutions and causes,
to Princeton University and the Fifth Avenue
Presbyterian Church. He had a genuine dis-
like for publicity, and many of his benefactions
were never made public till after his death.

Bonnet, Charles, Swiss naturalist and
metaphysician: b. Geneva, 13 March 1720; d.
Genthod, 20 May 1793. His essay *0n Aphides,*
in which he proved that they propagated with-
out coition, procured him in his 20th year the
place of a corresponding member of the Acad-
emy of Sciences at Paris. Soon afterward he
partook in the discoveries of Trembley respect-
ing the polypus, and made interesting observa-
tions on the respiration of caterpillars and but-
terflies, and on the structure of the tapeworm.
Bonnet was a close and exact observer. He
carried religious contemplations into the study
of nature. In his views of the human soul
many traces of materialism are to be found ; for
instance, the derivation of all ideas from the
movements of the nerve fibres. Of his works
on natural history and metaphysics there
are two collections; one in 9 volumes 4tc,
the other in 18 volumes 8vo (Neufchatel,
1779)- The most celebrated are' ^Traite d"In-
sectologie* ; *Recherches sur I'Usage des
Feuilles dans les Plantes* ; ^Considerations sur
les Corps organises* ; ^Contemplation de la
Nature* ; ^Essai analytique sur les Facultes de
I'Ame* ; ^Palingenesie Philosophique* ; and
^Essai de Psychologie.*

Bonnet, in fortification, an elevation of
the parapet at a salient angle, designed to pre-
vent the enfilading of the adjoining front of
the work, where it is situated. The bonnet
accomplishes, however, only part of this object,
and is subject, at least in field-works, to the dis-
advantage, that the men destined for its defense
are too much exposed to be taken in flank by
the fire of the enemy, on account of the neces-
sary elevation of the banquette, a fault which
cannot occur in the works of a fortress which
are well laid out. The term also denotes a
covering for the head, now especially applied
to one worn by females. In England the bon-
net was superseded by the hat as a head-dress
two or three centuries ago, but continued to be
distinctive of Scotland to a later period.

Bonnet-head, a small shark of the genus
Reniceps, frequenting warm seas and related
to the shovel-heads (q.v.).

Bonnet Monkey. See Macaque.

Bonnet-piece, a Scotch coin, so called from
the king's head on it being decorated with a
bonnet instead of a crown. It was struck by
James V., and is dated 1539. Bonnet-pieces are
very rare and in high estimation among anti-
quaries.

Bonnet-rouge, bo-na-roozh, an emblem of
liberty during the French Revolution, and worn
as a head-dress by all who wished to show
themselves sufficiently advanced in democratical
principles. It is said by some to have been
adopted in imitation of the Phrygian cap of the
same color which was worn by those who had
obtained emancipation from slavery, while others
maintain that it had a much more lowly origin,
and was borrowed either from the Marsellais
bands that flocked to Paris, or from a few
Swiss soldiers who, having been sentenced to
the galleys for insubordination to their officers,
obtained their liberty on the acceptance of the
constitution in 1790. Having returned in a kind
of triumphal procession, wearing the red cap,
which had formed part of their galley dress,
the fancy of the people was struck, and the

BONNEVAL — BONNIERES

bonnet-rouge was considered indispensable to
every true patriot. Even the unfortunate Louis
XVI. wore it when paraded through the streets,
after narrowly escaping with his life from the
mob which had burst into his palace. After it
had ceased to be generally worn, it became the
•distinctive badge of the men of the Mountain.
During the storms of more recent periods at-
tempts have repeatedly been made to bring it
again into fashion. These have not been suc-
cessful, but the revolutionary cap rejected by
France has met with a more favorable reception
abroad, particularly among the newly formed
republics of America, where it is often stamped
upon coins, or used as an emblem upon seals.
Under the restoration of the Bourbons the sou-
briquet of bonnets-rouges was applied to indi-
viduals who either had figured in the revolution
or were supposed to hold revolutionary prin-
ciples.

Bonneval, bon-val, Claude Alexander

(Count de or Achmet Pasha), French ad-
venturer : b. Coussac, 1675 ; d. Constantinople,
1747. In the war of the Spanish Succession
lie obtained a regiment and distinguished him-
self by his valor as well as by his excesses. He
was, in 1706. appointed major-general by Prince
Eugene, and fought against his native country.
At the Peace of Rastadt in 1714, by the inter-
ference of Prince Eugene, the process against
him for high treason was withdrawn, and he
was allowed to return to his estates. In 1716
he was lieutenant field-marshal of the Austrian
infantry, and distinguished himself by his valor
against the Turks at Peterwardein (1716). In
1 718 Bonneval was made a member of the
imperial council of war, but his licentiousness
and indiscretion induced Prince Eugene to get
rid of him by appointing hmi in 1723 master-
general of the ordnance in the Netherlands.
To revenge himself on Eugene, he sent com-
plaints to Vienna against the governor, the
Marquis de Prie ; but the latter received an
order to arrest Bonneval, and to imprison him
in the citadel of Antwerp. Bonneval being
afterward ordered to appear at Vienna and give
an explanation of his conduct, spent a month at
The Hague before he chose to comply with the
summons. He was therefore confined in the
castle of Spielberg, near Briinn, and condemned
to death by the imperial council of war ; but the
sentence was changed by the emperor into one
year's imprisonment and exile. Bonneval now
went to Constantinople, where the fame of his
deeds and his humanity toward the Turkish
prisoners of war procured him a kind re-
ception. He consented to change his religion,
received instructions in Mohammedanism from
the mufti, and received the name of Achmet,
with a large salary. He was made a pasha of
three tails, commanded a large army, defeated
the Austrians on the Danube, and quelled an
insurrection in Arabia Petrsea. His exertions,
as commander of the bombardiers, to improve
the Turkish artillery, were opposed by the jeal-
ousy of powerful pashas, the irresolution of
Mohammed V., and the dislike of the Turkish
troops to all European institutions. He enjoyed,
howev.er, the pleasures of his situation. The
memoirs of his life under his name are not
genuine.

Bonneville, bon-vTl, Benjamin L. E., Amer-
ican soldier and explorer: b. France about 1795;

d. Fort Smith, Ark., 12 June 1878. He gradu-
ated from West Point 1815, became a captain
of infantry 1825 ; and in 1831-6 engaged in an
exploring expedition to the far West, across and
beyond the Rocky Mountains. His journal and
other manuscripts were edited and enlarged by
Washington Irving, who published them under
the title of 'Adventures of Captain Bonneville,
U. S. A.^ (1837). He fought with gallantry
in the Mexican war, taking part in the siege
of Vera Cruz, the battle of Cerro Gordo, the
capture of San Antonio, battle of Churubusco,
where he was wounded, the battle of Molino del
Rev, the storming of Chapultepec, and the en-
suing assault and capture of the city of Mexico.
In 1857 he commanded the Gila expedition, and
in 1861 was retired from active service, "for dis-
ability resulting from long and faithful service,
and from sickness and exposure in the line of
duty.* In 1865 he was brevetted brigadier-
general in the regular army '*for long and faith-
ful services.* See Cullum, <^ Officers and Grad-
uates of the U. S. Military Academy,' Vol. I.
(1868).

Bonneville, Lake, a lake of the Pleistocene
epoch that twice filled a now desert basin of
Utah. At its greatest dimensions it had an
area of 20,000 square miles, and was 1,000 feet
deep.

Bonney, Charles Carroll, American lawyer:
b. Hamilton, N. Y., 4 Sept. 1831 ; d. Chicago,
111., 1903. In 1850 he removed to Peoria, 111.,
took an active part in establishing the present
educational system of that State; was admitted
to the bar 1852, settled in Chicago in i860, and
acquired a large and successful practice. He
was one of the originators of the law and order
movement and was president of the National
Law and Order League 1885-93. .In i893 he
was the organizer and general president of the
World's Congresses held at the Columbian Ex-
position ; there were over two hundred of them,
and they proved a marked feature of the World's
Fair. Besides numerous pamphlets, addresses
and essays on public questions he has written
^Rules of Law for the Carriage and Delivery of
Persons and Property by Railway' (1864) ;
'Summary of the Law of Marine, Fire, and Life
Insurance' (1865) ; 'Our Remedy in the Laws'
(1887) ; and edited A. W. Arrington's 'Poems'
(1869).

Bonney, Thomas George, English geolo-
gist : b. Rugeley, 27 July 1833. He was president
of the Geological Society of London 1884-6,
and in 1899 became vice-president of the Royal
Society. He has written 'Outline Sketches in
the High Alps of Dauphine' (1865) ; 'The Al-
pine Regions' (1868) ; 'The Story of Our
Planet' (1893) ; 'Charles Lyell and Modern
Geology' (1895); 'Ice Work' (1896); 'Vol-
canoes' (1898), and four volumes of Sermons.

Bonnie Blue Flag, a popular Confederate
ballad first sung in public at the Varieties Thea-
tre in New Orleans in 1861.

Bonnieres, Robert de, ro-bar de bon-ni-ar,

French journalist and novelist: b. Paris, 7 April
1850. He began his literary career as contribu-
tor to Paris journals of spirited but waspish bi-
ographies of contemporary men ; these were
collected and published in three successive vol-
umes of 'Memoirs of To-Day.' His novels are
full of transparent allusions to noted persons,

BONNIVARD — BONSTETTEN

and have had a very great vogue. In one of
them, *The Monarch, > he portrays high Jewish
society in Paris.

Bonnivard, Frangois de, frah-swa de bo-
ne-var, Swiss patriot, a younger son of a '
family which held large possessions under the
House of Savoy: b. Syssel about 1496; d. Ge-
neva, 1570. In 1513 he became prior of St.
Victor at Geneva, but falling under the suspi-
cion of the Duke of Savoy, was taken prisoner
by him in 1519. After 20 months' imprisonment
he was set free, but^in 1530 he was agam seized
and taken to the castle of Chillon at the east
end of the Lake of Geneva, where he was im-
prisoned for six years, the last four in that
subterranean vault which Byron has made
famous by his poem on the sufferings of *The
Prisoner of Chillon.^ He left the town his
books, which were the nucleus of the Geneva
library. His chief works are his *Chroniques
de Geneve' (1551; new ed. 2 vols. 1831), and
*De I'Ancienne et Nouvelle Police de Geneve'
(1555)- See Gribble. 'Lake Geneva and Its Lit-
erary Landmarks' (igoi).

Bonny, a river of west Africa, one of the
mouths of the Niger. The town of the same
name is situated on the eastern bank of the river
near its mouth. It has a good harbor and does
a considerable trade in palm-oil, but the climate
is unsuitable for Europeans. Pop. about 8,000.

Bonnycastle, Charles, English mathema-
tician: b. Woolwich, 1792; d. Charlottesville,
Va., October 1840. He was professor of math-
ematics at Woolwich Military Academy, pro-
fessor of natural philosophy in the University
of Virginia (1825-7), and of mathematics there
from 1827. His publications included 'Ele-
ments of Geometry' ; 'Elements of Algebra' ;
'Mensuration,' etc.

Bonnycastle, Sir Richard Henry, English
military engineer : b. 1791 ; d. 1848. He was a
brother of Charles Bonnjxastle (q.v. ) and spent
the greater part of his life in British North
America. He was author of 'Spanish America'
(1818) : 'The Canadas in 1842' (1842) ; 'Canada
and the Canadians in 1846' (1846) ; and 'Canada
as It Was. Is, and May Be' (1846).

Bonomi, Giuseppe, joo-sep'pe bo-no'me,
Italian artist: b. Rome, 9 Oct. 1796; d. 3 March
1878. He was a .son of Giuseppe Bonomi, the
architect. He studied art in London, and be-
came famous as a draftsman, especially of Egyp-
tian remains. He repeatedly visited Egypt and
the Holy Land, and illustrated important works
by Wilkinson, Birch, Sharpe, Lepsius, and other
Eg3'ptologists. He also published a work of his
own on Nineveh, and at his death was curator
of Soane's Museum.

Bononcini, or Buononcini, Giovanni Bat-

tista, jo-van'ne bo-non-che'ne, Italian com-
poser: b. Modena about 1660; d. about 1750.
His proficiency on the violoncello gained him
admittance into the band of the Emperor Leo-
pold at Vienna, where, at the age of 18, in
emulation of Scarlatti, he wrote an opera called
'Camilla,' which was favorably received. In
England for several years scarcely any opera
was tolerated which did not contain some of
Bononcini's airs, and upon the almost simul-
taneous arrival of himself and Handel in Lon-
don, notwithstanding the superiority of the lat-
ter, two parties, the one for Bononcini and the

other for Handel, were formed, betv/een whom
an exciting contest was waged for several years.
Gradually, however, Bononcini's popularity
waned, and having been detected in an act of
musical plagiarism, he left England in 1733,
found his way to Paris and Vienna, and fmally
went to Venice, where all traces of him are
lost.

Bononcini, Giovanni Maria, Italian musi-
cian: b. Modena, 1640; d. 19 Nov. 1678. He
was educated at Bologna, was in the service of
the Duke of Modena, Francis II., and also
maestro di capella of San Giovanni in Monti.
He was considered an authority on the theory of
music on account of his work 'Musico prat-
tico' ; he also wrote numerous musical compo-
sitions, both vocal and instrumental.

Bonone, bo-no'na. Carlo, Italian painter:
b. Ferrara, 1569; d. 1632. He studied the works
of the Caracci and Veronese, and shows the influ-
ence of both styles in his own work. He taught
painting in Ferrara, having many prominent
painters of the town under his instruction.
Among his paintings are 'The Arisen Christ'
and 'Patriarchs and Prophets.'

Bonpland, Aime, a-ma boh-plaii, Jacques
Alexandre, French naturalist, noted as the
friend of Humboldt, and the companion of his
wanderings: b. Rochelle, 22 Aug. 1773; d. Cor-
rientes, Argentina, May 1858. He studied medi-
cine, and served for a while in the French navy
as surgeon. Having returned to Paris to con-
tinue his studies, he there made the acquaintance
of Humboldt, then a young man actively en-
gaged in the pursuit of scientific knowledge at
the French capital. On the latter projecting
his journey to the New World, Bonpland read-
ily agreed to accompany him, and shared in all
the adventures and toils of that celebrated ex-
pedition. In the course of it he collected up-
ward of 6,000 plants, previously unknown, and
on his return to France in 1804 presented his
herbarium to the Museum of Natural History,
and had a pension granted him by the Emperor
Napoleon. A great friendship subsisted between
him and the Empress Josephine, who frequently
endeavored to cultivate in her garden at j\j"^al-
maison the flowers whose seeds he had brought
from the tropics. On the Restoration he pro-
ceeded to South America, and became professor
of natural history at Buenos Ayres. He sub-
sequently made an extensive journey across the
Pampas to the foot of the Andes, and ascended
the river Parana into Paraguay, but was ar-
rested by Dr. Francia. the governor of Para-
guay, as a spy, and detained a prisoner for eight
years, till 1829. He afterward settled at San
Borja, near Monte Video, and after 1850 lived
at Corrientes.

Bonsai, Stephen, American journalist: b.
Virginia, 1863. He was educated at Concord
and Heidelberg. In the Bulgarian-Servian war
he was special correspondent of the New York
Herald, serving in the same capacity in Mace-
donia and Cuba. He has been secretary of
Legation of the United States in Pekin. Madrid,
Tokio. and Corea. He has written 'The Real
Condition of Cuba' ; 'The Fight for Santiago' ;
'Morocco as It Is' ; ^Across the Pacific'

Bonstetten, bon-stet'en, Karl Victor von,
Swiss publicist: b. Bern, 3 Sept. 1745; d. Ge-
neva, 3 Feb. 1832. He studied at Leyden, Cam-

BONTEBOK — BOOK

bridge, and Paris; entered the council of Bern,
and became district governor, and, in 1795, a
judge in Lugano. He lived in Italy and at
Copenhagen from 1796 to 1801, and after his
return settled at Geneva. Among his larger
works are *Recherches sur la Nature et les Lois
de rimagination-* (Geneva 1807) ; "^Pensees Di-
verses' (1815); ^Etudes de L'Homme* (1821),
and *L'Homme du Midi et L'Homme du Nord^
(1824), an examination of the influence of cli-
mate. Several volumes of his correspondence
have been published.

Bontebok, bon'te-bok, a small South
American antelope (Bubalis pygargtts) closely
allied to the blessbok (q.v.), but a slightly larger
size, and having the continued white blaze on
the face to the root of the lyrate horns. See
Hartbeest.

Bonus Bill, an act reported to the United
States House of Representatives by John C.
Calhoun, 23 Dec. 1816, appropriating ^*as a fund
for constructing roads and canals" the $1,500,000
paid by the United States bank as a bonus for
its charter privileges, and all future dividends
from its stock. The real object was to build the
Erie Canal, which New York did not feel able
to do alone. Its managers, — De Witt Clinton,
Gouverneur Morris, etc., — relying i>n the ad-
ministration holding the same ideas which Jef-
ferson and Gallatin had formerl}' voiced, formed
a "log-roll" in Congress with various local in-
terests, and carried the bill by 86 to 84 in the
House, and 20 to 15 in the Senate, the opposi-
tion being scatteringly local rather than sec-
tional, or constitutional ; but Madison vetoed
it on strict-construction grounds. The apparent
injury was to New York: the real injury was
to the South. New York went on and built
the canal herself, giving her an irresistible ad-
vantage over her rivals, while the South was
not rich enough to build the canals from the
Chesapeake to the Ohio, enriching Maryland
and Virginia, nor from the Santee to the Ten-
nessee, enriching the Carolinas and Tennessee,
and if the general government had helped the
Erie it must have helped the others also.

Bonvalot, Pierre Gabriel, pe-ar ga-bre-el
bon-va-lo, French explorer: b. Espagne,
Aube, 1853. He traveled in central Asia,
1880-2; Persia, Turkestan, and the Pamirs,
1885-7 ; and in Siberia and Tonkin, 1889-90.
He has written <En Asie Centrale* ; ^Du Moscou
en Bactriane' (1884) ; 'Du Kohistane a la mer
Caspienne' (1855) ; 'Du Caucase aux Indes a
travers le Pamir* (1888).

Bonvin, Frangois Saint, fran-swa san boii-
vaii, French genre painter: b. Vaugirard, 22
Sept. 1817; d. Saint Germain-en-Laye, 18 Dec.
1887. He was self-taught, exhibited often at the
Paris Salon and received the medal of the
Legion of Honor in 1870. For a long period his
work was not popular, but his paintings are
now much prized by collectors on account of
their rich coloring and sober tone. Among
them are 'Charity' (1852) ; 'Regimental SchooP
(1853) ; 'Corner in a Church' (1880).

Bony-fish. See Menhaden ; Ten-pounder.

Bony, or Gar Pike. See Gar.

Bonzes, bon'zes, a name given bj'- Euro-
peans to the priests of the religion of Fo, or
Buddha, in ea.stern Asia, particularly in China,
Burma, Tonquin, Cochin-China, and Japan.

As these priests live together in monasteries,
unmarried, they have some resemblance to the
monks of the Christian Church. They do pen-
ance, and pray for the sins of the laity, who
secure them from want by endowments and alms.
The female bonzes may be compared to the
Christian nuns, as the religion of Fo suffers no
priestesses, but admits the social union of pious
virgins and widows, under monastic vows, for
the performance of religious exercises. The
bonzes are commonly acquainted only with the
external forms of worship and the idols, without
understanding the meaning of their religious
symbols.

Booby, a name given long ago by British
sailors to several of the smaller tropical species
of gannet (q.v.), because of their "stupidity,"
which consisted simply in their fearlessness when
visited upon their island breeding places. Hav-
ing had no acquaintance with mankind they had
no reason to fear him. Most of the species are
widespread, and, in their haunts abundant. One
species {Sula variegata) is, however, confined to
the coasts of Peru, where it contributes largely
to the valuable guano deposits on the islands
there.

Book. Used without qualification, the
term currently implies a printed literary com-
position in many sheets ; but in law and cus-
tom it has received three extensions, one of form
and two of matter. The form includes any-
thing bound like a book — volumes of accounts,
or of blank leaves for keeping them or for
indexing, etc., and even "books" of gold-leaf, 25
thin strips in a cover. The matter includes — by
English statute law, "every volume, part or
division of a volume, pamphlet, sheet of letter-
press, sheet of music, map, chart, or plan sepa-
rately published" ; in literary usage, the written
compositions of ancient times on whatever
material, if of some volume.

Historically, it is curious that primitive at-
tention has invariably seized first on, and named
the writing after, neither form nor matter, nor
even the method of writing, but the material
on which the writing was executed : every name
in common use, present or past, refers to this.
"Book," A.-S. hoc, is from an old Teutonic
boks, that is, "the beeches," tablets of beech-
bark on which runes were cut or painted ;
Latin liber, whence French Uvre and our "li-
brary," was the same thing, the inner bark of
a tree, and the name was later given to the
papyrus tissue from its bark-like appearance ;
codex or caudex, our "code," and still used in
its Latin form for old texts, meant the trunk
of a tree, then wooden tablets, then square vol-
umes like wooden blocks instead of those in
scrolls ; the Greek hyblos, our "Bible," was an-
other name for the papyrus ; and modern usage
clings to the same connection of ideas — we
speak of reading "a paper" before an audience.
On the other hand, the words "write," "in-
scribe,* and "scripture,'' and the various
"-graphs." all from words meaning to cut, com-
memorate a time when all writing was by scor-
ing lines on some hard stibstance. Of course
special terms refer to various aspects of the
book: "volume" (Latin volumen, from volvo, to
roll) was the wooden roller around which a
convenient section of a long_ composition was
twisted; "tome" means a cutting — of the book
into parts, exactly the same as "section."

BOOK

It is difficult to say at just wlj^t point the
ancient writings may properly be called
"books.* It is evident that mere scorings or
paintings of short compositions on a single sur-
face — runes, hymns, poems, epistles, proclama-
tions, business documents, or what not — can-
not be called books, even if the surface is large;
though Lord Macaulay facetiously speaks of a
rising young Assyrian architect who "published
a bridge and four walls in honor of the reigning
emperor." On the other hand, long composi-
tions carried over many tablets, grouped in
numbered or lettered pages and divided into
"volumes'* or shelves, and even sometimes with
the owner's book-plate (q.v.) attached, cannot
be denied the name ; nor can extensive composi-
tions on papyrus like the ^Book of the Dead,*
dating back well toward 2 000 b.c. if not earlier,
nor the famous ^Papyrus Prisse,-* the oldest
volume known to exist. The Babylonian and
Assyrian books were drawn on clay tablets or
polygonal cylinders (afterward hardened) with
an iron stylus, producing the wedge-shaped
or ^'cuneiform*' characters, some of them so
small and skilfully executed that they suggest
the use of a magnifying glass — quite likely a
ball of crystal. These about the 7th century
B.C. had begun to be gathered into royal or
temple libraries, to the inestimable service of
modern historical research: the vast majority
of our knowledge of old Babylonia and Assyria
comes from two great libraries, that of Ashur-
banipal (Sardanapalus : 668-626 B.C.) at Nine-
veh, and that of the Temple of Bel at Nippur.
Yet, oddly, while our civilization as a whole
is a direct heir of the Babylonian, and its details
owe to that, through the Greek and Latin, a
score of items to one of the Egyptian, our books
have no connection with the Babylonian and are
the immediate progeny of the Egyptian ; an
unbroken sequence can be maintained from the
volume in the reader's hand to the * Papyrus
Prisse,* perhaps more than 2,000 years before
Christ, and containing the still older composi-
tion, regarded as the oldest extant book in
the world, the ^IMaxims of Ptah-Hotep,* dating
probably from 2500 b.c.

Owing to the cheap and easy preparation of
the papyrus tissue, by pulping the pith and
spreading it out to dry, essentially like our
paper, and its wonderful adaptability to literary
use beyond anything discovered for many ages, —
its thinness and lightness, yet hard, smooth,
glossy surface showing off inks and pigments
so beautifully — its use spread to Greece before
the time of Herodotus at least, and to Rome,
and maintained its position as a book material
down to the lOth century a.d. Ali ibn el Azhad
in 920 describes the different kinds of pens
required for writing on paper, parchment, and
papyrus (see Karabacek's ^Das Arabische Pa-
pier,* 1887). Unhappily, however, it had one
insuperable defect for laws, records, or what-
ever else needed perpetuity : it was very sensitive
to dampness, and dissolved and crumbled away
in a few generations. Hence it is not merely
probable but certain that the great mass of
classical literature is lost forever, disintegrated
and gone with its material record. The only
place where any considerable finds are still pos-
sible is Egypt, whose dry climate can preserve
such things for countless ages, and whose libra-
ries had vast quantities of the best Greek and
Roman works •. =ome remarkable discoveries

have already been made there, and more may
be hoped for. But for this reason, papyrus was
largely supplanted for public uses, and with the
wealthier collectors or authors, or for very pop-
ular books, by parchment, fine dressed skin, the
material used by the Jews, Persians, and other
Oriental nations. When the book had outlived
its popularity or a more exigent use was found
for the parchment, which was costly, the former
writing was rubbed off or in, and a new book
copied on, and this process was repeated some-
times six or seven times. Thanks to the fact
that the erasure always left the outline of the old
characters possible to revive by certain chemi-
cals, and that for clearness the new book was
written crosswise to the old, so that the imper-
fectly erased words should not show up through
and cause confusion, these palimpsests have
yielded us many treasures supposed to have been
extinguished.

As the very name "book** shows, however,
paper-pulp and skin and clay were not the only
materials used for books by the ancients ; in
fact, it would be hard to cite any common
smooth-surfaced article not so used. Animal,
vegetable, and mineral substances have all. been
drawn on ; metals, wood, wax, ivory, leaves, bark,
etc. Wooden books were common among both
Greeks and Romans ; part of one containing
Solon's laws was preserved at Athens till the ist
century. For the more important purposes,
laws and edicts, they employed (before the gen-
eral accession of parchment) ivory, bronze,
etc. ; Hannibal engraved an account of his cam-
paigns on bronze plates, which if they could be
supposed existent, would be worth excavating
all South Italy for, especially as the writing
must have been in Carthaginian. The antiquary
Montfaucon in 1699 bought at Rome a book
of six thin leaden leaves, about 4x3 inches, with
covers and hinges of lead ; it contained Egj^ptian
hieroglyphics, etc. For the common needs of
business and social life, however, — contracts and
wills, letters either of love or friendship, memo-
randa, etc., — the Romans used diptyclia and
tabula or pttgillaria — sheets covered with wax,
to be written on with a stylus, and protected
from contact by a raised margin, or opposite
projections in the centres. Two of these, of
date 169 A.D., were discovered early in the 19th
century in Transylvania, and one of 1301 is
preserved in the Florentine Museum. In the
University of Gottingen is a Bible of palm-
leaves, containing 5,376 leaves. Among the Kal-
muck Tartars was found a collection of books
made of long narrow leaves of varnished bark,
the ink black on a white ground.

The shape of wooden and metal books,
waxen and ivory tablets, and those of other
hard substances, was square ; but the thin flexi-
ble papyrus was too liable to dog's-ear and tear
from handling in such form, and a method
was adopted which has left deep traces on our
book terminology — of rolling the sheets on
wooden cylinders, very much in the fashion of
a modern mounted map. They were written on
one side only, fastened together at the edges,
and glued or otherwise attached to the roller,
which was called in Egyptian a tama, in Greek a
kulitidros (cylinder), in Latin a volumen
(roller), our "volume.** We still speak of a
piece of writing poetically as a "scroll.** Some of
these were of huge size : specimens of Egyptian
book-rolls still exist extending to 20 and even 4c

BOOK

yards (see Birt's ^Das Antike Buchwesen,^ p.
439) ; but the great inconvenience of consulting
such enormous sheets, and the injury to them-
selves in the process, caused the breaking up
of lengthy literary productions into sections,
each on a separate roll. Certain handy sizes be-
came normal, like the ordinary novel or essay
volume of to-day ; and this conventional length
of roll exercised great influence on the length
of what are still called the "books'-' — that is,
chapters — of the classical authors, one of these
"being about enough to make a roll or volume of.
At each end of the roller was the umbilicus
(navel) or cornus (knob), a boss to turn it
b3% and the volume was read by unrolling the
scroll to expose successively the sheets or
pagince (things "fastened'^ together). The title
was generally written in red, on fine vellum,
and pasted on the outside, which was dyed
with cedrus or saffron. Much labor and ex-
pense was often involved in the ornamentation
of tooks, and pleasant conceits were sometimes
•conveyed by their color. The practice of per-
fuming the pages to which Martial alludes,
*'When the page smells of cedar and mantles
-with royal purple,* was not abandoned till very
modern times. Lord Burghley, instructing the
vice-chancellor of Cambridge concerning the
proper presentation of some volutnes to Queen
Elizabeth, cautions him to "regard that the book
had no savor of spike" (spikenard), "which
commonly bookbinders did seek to add to make
their books savor well." It seems an odd lure
to book-buyers ; but in this age we can hardly
realize the important part played by perfumes
in ages when pretty much everything and every-
body smelt ill, when filth and the lack of wash-
ing or changing of clothes assailed all noses
with evil stenches, and an agreeable scent was
one of the greatest and rarest luxuries of life.
In Egypt the rolls were kept in jars holding nine
•or ten each ; in Rome they were kept in wooden
boxes or canisters, often of costly workman-
ship, or in parchment cases. The change from
scrolls to codices, or square books, seems to have
taken place generally in the ancient world after
the adoption of parchment or vellum ; they ap-
pear to have been coming into general use in
Martial's time (last half of the ist century a.d.),
as he alludes to their advantages. The name
codex is still, used for the more important
•ancient MSS., as the "Codex Alexandrinus.'*
Not all the parchments were folded or arranged
in small square sheets as now, however : M.
Santander owned a beautiful Hebrew Pentateuch
written on 57 skins of Oriental leather, sewed
together with threads or strips of the same
■material; it formed a roll of 113 French feet
(120.45 English) long. And practically the
same arrangement of successive surfaces had
been enforced in the use of the clay or wooden
tablets, from the nature of the articles. The
form remained substantially unaltered through-
out the Middle Ages, and being even more suit-
able for paper than for vellum, was ready on
the invention of printing to facilitate its full
development; though important differences in
bulk, arising as well from the condition of the
art and its materials as the fashion of the times,
distinguish books of the earlier periods of print-
ing from those of to-day.

Production and Prices (see also Ameri-
can Publishing). — It is assumed that until
the invention of printing, books were of

excessive rarity and costliness. This is mostly
true of the Middle Ages, when the only trained
chirographers were in the monasteries — work-
ing at free will and leisure and caring solely for
quality, and with the express object of making
the books costly. It was not so, however, in
classic times, owing to that society being based
on skilled slave labor. From this cause, the
greatest extremes of price prevailed side by
side, extreme cheapness and almost incredible
dearness. When but few copies of a book were
made, either by an author of slender means
or by a wealthy amateur to give to friends,
they were either given away, or if sold
might command any price an unexpected favor
of a rich man's fancy dictated ; and from the
same cause "unique copies" — most likely such
were the three books of Philolaus the Pythago-
rean, for which the not rich Plato paid about
$1,600, and the few books of the philosopher
Speusippus for which Aristotle paid three Attic
talents or some $3,500 — were much commoner
than now. On the other hand, Anaxagoras'
works could be had for a drachma (about 18
cents) even when dear — a thing the more
strange that two pieces of papyrus for copy-
ing an account cost in 407 B.C. 2 drachmte 4
oboli, or about 45 cents. Perhaps there was a
difference in the paper. In this same year a
diptychon, or pair of wooden account tablets
(pass-book), cost a drachma; but in Demos-
thenes' time, three quarters of a century later,
one (probably smaller) cost only two chalci
("coppers"), less than a cent. All these con-
tradictions are probably due to the lack of
any regular publishing market.

The long agonies of dissolution of the
Roman empire annihilated the book trade; and
for centuries the only makers of books were
the monk scribes, in whom the important con-
ditions of skill, leisure, love, and patience were
all fulfilled. Learning had become the exclu-
sive privilege of a class, a privilege of which
they were at once proud and jealous; and they
surrounded the means of its acquisition with
a pomp and circumstance that precluded the
multitude from familiarity with it. In the ear-
liest times books had received the adorning
aid of ornamental art ; but in the Middle Ages
they reached the acme, if not of beauty and con-
venience, at least of cost. The favored works
of the time, principally of the Christian writers,
were laboriously transcribed by patient penmen,
in scriptoria liberally maintained in -the monas-
teries, and specially devoted to that purpose.
In the process of preparation their books received
the most careful attention in regard to accuracy,
elegance, and solidity. In the monasteries also
the work was completed ; for not only were the
monks transcribers, illuminators, and binders,
but the same individual frequently combined the
triple function in his own person. From the
hands of the scribe, whosf solemn adjuration at
the conclusion of his task was evidence not only
of his own care but of his desire that others
should imitate his example, the book passed to
the illuminator, whose gorgeous colors still de-
light the bibliophile ; and from him to the binder,
by whom its ponderous proportions were en-
cased in massive covers of wood and leather,
studded with knobs and bands, often of gold
and silver, and closed with broad clasps — to
unfasten which, letting the covers swing open
on their stout hinges, was a privilege to which

BOOK

not every one was permitted to aspire. For, as
said Richard De Bury, "laymen, to whom it
matters not whether they look at a book turned
wrong side upward or spread before them in its
natural order, are altogether unworthy of any
communion with books." Precious metals and
the less crude but equally costly productions of
art contributed to swell their value, in respect
of which they stood at times on an equality
with houses and lands. When publicly exposed,
they were frequently secured by chains ; they
were protected by special statutes; were subjects
of grave negotiation ; solemnly bequeathed by
will, and lent only to the higher orders, who
were compelled to deposit ample pledges for
their return. Even so late as 1471, Louis XL
was compelled by the faculty of medicine at
Paris to deposit a valuable security, and give a
responsible endorser, in order to obtain the loan
of the works of Rhasis, an Arabian physician.
Instances of the immense prices of special books
are familiar, as of King Alfred's giving eight
hides (perhaps 500 acres) of land for one book,
but England was well-nigh bookless then ; of
the countess of Anjou giving 200 sheep and
other articles for a book of homilies of a bishop
— an enthusiastic lady might do so if she liked
the bishop ; and of other fancy prices for very
fine books, not however more than modern col-
lectors might for superb copies. The form in
these cases often counted for more than the
matter, just as now. On the other hand, in
143 1, shortly before the invention of printing,
Peter Lombard's works sold at Caen for 7
francs, or $1.30, probably equal to about $10
now ; but he was the inost popular and widely
circulated author in the Christian world before
Thomas a Kempis, and it was to the interest of
the Church to multiply his works. Making
all allowances, books were very scarce and
costly.

Arrangement of a Book. — The first page or
recto of the first leaf or "folio* is technically
known as a bastard or' half-title page; the next
page or verso of the first folio is left blank.
(The term "folio," however, as usually employed
by printers, means simply page number.)
Then follows the title-page proper, usually with
a blank page at the back. In many books there
intervenes a preface or introduction, a dedica-
tion, and a table of contents, before the main
body of the book begins ; the table of contents
is sometimes before and sometimes after the
introduction and preface. If any portion of the
book is out of place, there are two ways by
which the true order may be discovered. At
the outer corner, or in the centre above the
reading matter, or in pages with a chapter head-
ing usually in the centre at the bottom of the
page, is a numeral either Arabic or Roman —
I, 2, 3, or i, ii, iii ; the almost universal custom
now is to use the Roman numerals for prefaces
and introductions, and the Arabic for the body
of the text, and in catalogues these are indicated
thus: pp. xxxvii, 325 — that is 37 pages intro-
duction paged with Roman letters, and 325 of
text paged with Arabic. As a guide to the bind-
ers in gathering the sheets, also, each "form"
as printed on the press — the number of pages
printed on one sheet, to be folded and cut later
into the proper order of reading — has at the
bottom of its first page a number or letter in
sequence through the book ; that is, if each
sheet as printed has eight pages on it, then

pages I, 9, 17, etc., — the outside sheet of each
form, which lies on top and visible when the
sheet is folded, — will have the numbers i, 2, 3,
etc., or the letters A, B, C, etc., called "signa-
tures," to show the binder in what order the
folded sheets are to be as.sembled. If the forms
outnumber the letters of the alpliabet when
these are used, the signature series continues
either as AA or 2A, etc. When two sections of
a book begin printing simultaneously for expe-
dition, and as it is uncertain where the first will
end, the second has its page folios begun by
guesswork — if the first runs over it is necessary
to duplicate a certain number of the closing
pages of the first section, as 480A, 481A, etc.,
or else to continue the closing number, as 496A,
496B, etc., or if only one or two, 496^/2, 40^.

Sizes of Books. — The copyists made up
their paper or vellum books by folding four,
five, or six sheets and placing one within the
other, making quires or gatherings of 8, 10, or
12 leaves, known respectively as quaternions,
quinterns or quinternions, and sexterns, or
in Greek tetradia, pentadia, and hexadia.
The first printers adopted the same method,
printing one page at a time and only on
one side of the sheet; the register or colla-
tion of the quires for guide to the binder was
given in the colophon (q.v. below), and only
later supplanted by a signature on each quire, at
first inserted by hand, and first printed at Co-
logne in 1472. When more than one page was
printed at once, the number of times the paper
had to be folded was a fair guide to the dimen-
sions of the page, at a time when (and for ages
later) the paper was made by hand, on frames
whose size was held closely alike by the exi-
gencies of human arms ; and folio, quarto, oc-
tavo, duodecimo, etc., expressed not only the
absolute fact of folding, but the constructive
fact of size. These names were conveniently
abbreviated, except the first, to 4to, 8vo, i2mo ;
and when improved machinery and larger sheets
of paper enabled still more sheets to be printed
at once, the Latin names to correspond were not
used at all, the terms i6mo, 24mo, 32mo, being
emploj'ed at once. All these names still survive,
though — with the advent of great paper-mills
and machinery which make any size desired for
an edition, so long as it is an "engine run,"
the actual printing on large editions of 64 pages
at a time, and minute calculations which figure
to an eighth of an inch margin — they have
ceased to express any fact worth knowing ; and
in the United States it is now more usual to
give on catalogues the height and breadth of
pages. But in Europe the old fashion still pre-
vails. So far as the names now mean any-
thing, a i6mo indicates the usual size of a popu-
lar volume or essay volume, and an octavo the
stately and dignified memoir or volume of
travel or "complete works" or cyclopaedia ; but
in fact even these are rarely printed in less than
i6s. A sheet folded in the middle forms two
leaves or four pages ; and a book composed of
such sheets is styled a folio, whether it meas-
ure a foot and a half or four feet high. When
the sheet is again folded it makes a quarto. In
hand-made paper (that used in nearly all the
small special editions and those of bibliographi-
cal interest) the water line runs either across
or down the page, according to the number of
foldings. The following scheme is serviceable :
Folio, folded once, 4 pages, water line perpen-

BOOK

dicular; quarto, twice, horizontal; octavo, four
times, perpendicular ; duodecimo, six tirnes,
horizontal ; i6mo, horizontal ; i8mo, perpendicu-
lar ; 32nio, perpendicular ; 36mo, 48mo, 64mo,
horizontal ; 72mo, 96mo, perpendicular. .In
Great Britain for a long period printing paper
was chiefly of three sizes — royal, demy, and
crown ; and the book was large or small accord-
ing to which was used. Demy was the com-
monest, and the demy octavo was the estab-
lished form of standard editions. Among books
as among men there are giants and dwarfs. The
British Museum has the largest and the smallest
in the world. The former is an atlas seven
feet high, of the 15th century, completely con-
cealing a tall man between the pages, with a
binding and clasp which make it look as solid
as the walls of a room ; the latter is a tiny
*bijou'^ almanac less than an inch square, bound
in red morocco, easily to be carried in the
finger of a lady's glove. Certain church books
in the Escurial are described as six by four feet ;
and the "Antiquity'^ volumes of the Napoleonic
< Description de I'Egypte^ are ziVi- inches high.
The Thumb Bible or Toy Bible, on the other
hand, was one by one and a half inches ; it was
not really a Bible, but an abstract, printed in
1693 and dedicated to the Duke of Gloucester,
and repeatedly reprinted. Hoepli's ^Divina
Commedia^ (1878) is less than 2^ by 2^2
inches ; and Pickering's diamond edition of
Tasso measures 3H inches high by i^ wide.

Colophons. — These originated w"ith the As-
syrian scribes in the 7th century B.C. at latest:
Ashurbanipal's in the Nineveh library put at
the end of the last column of their cylinders a
register of the documents composing the
"book.* The early printers followed the same
style, using the last paragraph of the last page
— now called by English bookmen the colophon
(Greek, apex or terminus), by French the sou-
scription, by Germans the schlussschrift — to
give details about the book, which we should
now assign to the title page, or merely for a
sort of envoi or "send-off.* The usual termi-
nus of books was "Explicit,* "Hie Finis,*
"Finis,* "Here Endeth,* or something of the
sort ; but some printers expanded it into elabo-
rate epilogues or postfaces. Caxton is notable
for this; see examples in Blade's *^ Caxton,^ and
for others see Legrand's "^ Bibliographic Helle-
nique^ (1885). With development of the title-
page, the colophon disappeared, though instances
are found well into the i6th century.

Title-Pages. — It is curious that while the
early development of printing ran to enormous
and elaborate title-pages, Caxton has none at
all, except one to a work not certainly his, <The
Chastising of God's Children^ ( ?i49i ) ; and even
that contains only three lines of ordinary print.
But in Venice as early as 1474 a "^Calendario'
by John de Monteregio was issued by Pictor,
Loslein, and Ratdolt, with a quaint rhyming
title-page, with place, date, and names at the
foot. A facsimile is given in Bouchot's ^The
Printed Book.^ The treatment of the title-page
has varied enormously with different periods.
In the i6th and 17th centuries it was at its
worst: the object apparently being to make it a
digest of the entire contents of the book,
(Nares' ^Life of Burleigh,^ of which Macaulay
says that "the title is as long as an ordinary
preface,* is a mild example in the 19th), and
half destroying the very object of the title by

making it difficult to wade through and come at
the real theme. Frequently it gave a laudatory
description of the book, a plan which if adopted
to-day would save the reviewers the trouble of
reading the preface : "A Book Right Rare and
Strange,* "Very Necessary to be Known,*
"Very Pleasant and Beneficial,* etc., are familiar
to the student of early printing. Modern titles
are thought to violate both good taste and good
business judgment in going beyond a short
plain sentence or name ; but they sometimes do
worse by misleading the cataloguer, as when
Ruskin's *^ Notes on the Construction of Sheep-
folds^ is classed among works on live stock.
Double titles, as where a sub-title is given of a
seemingly different purport from the main one,
are also perilous. As to the frequent practice
of reissuing an old book under a new title, it
is pure fraud, wasting the money of libraries
and private buyers on what they have already
or do not want, throwing catalogues out, and
making confusion all around. The pvmishment
of using a title already appropriated, even un-
knowingly, is direct and by law, for the title of
a book is protected by law as much as any other
part of the contents. For the lore and fac-
similes of title-pages, see Andrew Lang's "Old
French Title-Pages* in ^ Books and Bookmen^ ;
Le Petit's *^Principales Editions originales
d'Ecrivains frangais^ (1888) ; and Konnecke's
<Bilderatlas^ (1887).

Dating of Books. — One of the most ex'
asperating traits of the early printers, like the
monkish scribes, was its rarely occurring to
them to put dates to their books. Only five out
of 21 of the known works of Colard Mansiori,
Caxton's master, are dated, and more than two
thirds of Caxton's own are dateless. On the
other hand, in the colophon to the ^ Moral
Proverbs-* and in the ^Book of the Knight of
the Tower,^ the dates are set down with ex-
cessive minuteness, even to the month and day.
Modern publishers only fail to date a work when
it is out of date and the fact is to be con-
cealed from the buyer ; a common deception of
the trade is to reissue an old work with a new
title-page and usually a new copyright date,
sometimes shifting the introductory matter so
as to change the pagination or "folioing.* The
usual and now universal date is either by Ro-
man numerals (an antiquated annoyance it
would be better to abolish), or by Arabic
numerals, which for some inscrutable reason
are held a trifle underbred. In the earlier
books some queer freaks are indulged in. One
is to put Roman lower-case numerals before
some of the capitals as multipliers ; unfortu-
nately, others use exactly the same as signs of
subtraction, and others still use capital letters
as subtractors, so that the reader's guess needs
confirming from outside. For example :
M CCCC iiijXX VIII (1498: ioooJ-400 +^^^ + 8).
M iiiiC iiiiXX Viij (1488: 1000 4-4 X 100 -^ 4 X 20 + 8).
M iiijD (1496: 1000 -f- 500 — 4).
M IIip (1497: 1500 — 3).

Sometimes the early printer used odd chrono-
grams, or titles in which a date is expressed by
the numeral value of the letters contained in or
marked in it ; in some cases repeating in this a
date already given on the title-page. For in-
stance, ^De spIrltaLI IMItatlone ChrlstI
saCrje et VtlLes plls In LVCeM Datse a R.
P. Antonio Van den Stock Societatis Jesu,
Rursemundje, Apud Gasparem du Pres^ — a

BOOK

book with two chronograms on 1658 in the title,
but a superfluity in the centre, and containing
in the text over 1,500 on the same date. Two
modern vohnnes of chronograms are Hilson's
(1882 and 1885).

The date is often determined approximately
by the water-marks on the paper; but this is one
of the most persistently forged of all things,
and demands the greatest knowledge and judg-
ment.

Place of Publication. — This is not always
instantly apparent even when printed, as the
various local forms and their varied Latiniza-
tions or the use of obsolete terms often make
a bewildering complexity for a single place ; or
a punning or pseudo-classical translation may
be used, not a true ancient form ; or the same
Latin or Greek form may mean one of two or
three places ; or it may be used expressly to
throw the inquirer off the track. The latter is
of course undiscoverable except by outside evi-
dence, which however is forthcoming in a sur-
prising number of cases. The motive may be
anything from sincere religious or patriotic zeal
to the most bestial criminality ; most "shady*^
modern literature has either no assigned place
of publication or a false one, and some are
^'published" an immense distance from where
they are printed — a common enough thing in
legitimate publication in modern times, though
practically unknown in early ones, printer and
publisher being the same. Hundreds of Euro-
pean books are nominally published at Pekin,
or Tokio, or Calcutta ; the unsavory products
of Parisian presses are usually fathered on
some Dutch or Belgian city ; and Sir Richard
Burton's unexpurgated ^Arabian Nights* was
accredited to Benares, India.

The following list of un-English forms of
the chief centres of past publication will be use-
ful (for a full one, see *Dictionnaire de Geo-
graphic Ancienne* (Paris 1870) :
Argentoratum : Stras- Gippesvicum : Ipswich.

burg. Gratianopolis : G r e -

Augusta, Augusta Vin- noble.

delicorum : A u g s - Hafnia : Copenhagen.

burg. Hala : Halle.

Basilea : Basle. Herbipolis (^^plant-

Bipontum : Deux- town"): Wiirzburg.

Ponts, Zweibriicken. Enetiai (Greek) : Ven-
Bnezieh : Venice. ice.

Bononia : Bologna or Holmia : Stockholm.

Boulogne. Insula or Insulse ("the

Cadomum : Caen. Isle,'* ITsle) : Lille.

Csesaraugusta.: Sara- Irenopolis ("City of

gossa. Peace*): Bercea,

Cantabriga : Cam- properly, but used as

bridge. a disguise name.

Ceulen : Cologne. Ispalis : Seville.

C i V i t a s Tricassina : Keulen, Kuelen : Co-

Troyes. logne.

Colonia, Colonia Agrip- Leodicum : Liege.

pina, in civitate Co- Leucopetra ("White-

loniensi : Cologne. stone'*) : Weissenfels.

Corona : Cronstadt. Lipsise : Leipsic.

Cuelen : Cologne. Lugdunum : Lyons.

Dordrechum or Dor- Lugdunum B a t a v o -

tracum : Dort. rum : Leyden.

Eboracum : York. Lutetia : Paris.

Eleutheropolis ("Free- Massilia : Marseilles.

town"): Freistadt, Matisco: Macon.

Francavilla, Franche- Mediolanum : Milan.

ville, etc. Also a Mleczi, Mljetka, Mne-

disguise name. zik: (Slav.) Venice.

Moguntiacum : Mainz.

Mons Regalis : Mon-
dovi.

Mussipons : Pont-a-
Musson.

Neapolis: Naples.

Neapolis ("Newtown")
Casimiriani: Neu-
stadt on the Hardt.

CEnipons : Innsbriick.

Olisipo : Lisbon.

Oxonia : Oxford.

Petropolis : St. Peters-
burg.

Probatopolis ("Sheep
town")
ha u sen.

Pontimussum : Pont-a
Musson.

Regiomontium

("Kingsmount") :
Konigsberg.

Rotomagus : Rouen.

Sarum (i. e. Saris-
bariae) : Salisbury.

Tarvisium : Treviso.

Tornacum : Tournay.

Trajectum : Utrecht.

Trecas : Troyes.

Tridentum : Trent.

Turoni : Tours.

Ulisipo, U ly s s i p o,
Ulyssopolis: Lisbon.

Ultrajectum: Utrecht.
S c h a fif - Venetia, Venetiae, Ven-
ezia, Venedig, Wenez
(local dialect) : Ven-
ice.

Pagination. — Books were printed at first ex-
actly like manuscripts, without numbering the
pages. Soon the unhandiness of this method,
and the difficulty of making references, forced
a numliering of the leaves ; which was shortly
succeeded by numbering the pages, and in some
cases — of very large, closely printed books — by
numbering the columns, which is occasionally
done for like reasons in modern times. Books
of more than one volume are usually paged
separately, but in many large sets the paging is
carried consecutively from beginning to end,
especially where it is likely to be issued in more
than one edition and divided into differing num-
bers of volumes ; since in that case one index
will answer for all, instead of having to be
made over for each. In the old folios and quar-
tos, letters were often inserted on the margin,
to break the page or column into separate por-
tions without interfering with the continuity of
the text ; these marginal references from the
first editions of classics are often left in the
modern editions, forming a convenient method
of reference from one to the other. Essentially
the same method is followed in some modern
books, but usually by numbers instead of letters,
dividing off the text into tens and fives of lines,
for convenient citation and reference ; in some
editions of the Bible the chapters and conven-
tional verses are marked off in the same way,
to keep the original paragraphing and continu-
ous narrative and yet be easy of comparison with
the common Bibles.

Prefaces, Dedications, etc. — An introduction
is properly a part of the body of the text, out-
lining its theme and the main divisions of the
argument or narrative, or setting forth the gen-
eral conditions from which the special theme is
isolated and enlarged for study; the preface
(for which among certain ultra-Teutonists the
disagreeable affectation "foreword." German
Vonvort, is substituted) is properly the author's
introduction of himself or his work to the
reader, explaining his general purpose, the need
or place of his book, personal thanks, or com-
ments, etc., and all such matter as needs to be
stated yet is not pertinent to the exact subject.
In old times it was like the prologue or epi-
logue to a play, a method of ingratiating one's
self with the reader, bespeaking his indulgence
or removing any unfavorable impressions with
which he might begin the book ; and was ad-
dressed to the "courteous reader" or the "gentle
reader" (which properly meant an assumed
feminine reader), etc. The dedication, in times

BOOK CLUB

when there was no general book-market and an
author must depend on the patronage of some
person of rank (that is, down to the iSth cen-
tury, and well into that), was an integral and
indispensable part of the book: it meant that
the author asked the patron to give him money
and place in return for being celebrated, just
as the old chiefs did their bards. He must
have his Maecenas ; without him he would
starve, with him he could disregard the masses.
Sometimes, with men of hard, bold natures and
a keen scent for the worst side of human life,
like Martial or Aretino, they used disguised
(very little disguised) threats and virtual black-
mail as a supplement to appeal, and fawned and
snarled alternately. In those times it was often
nauseous with fulsome laudation ; it is now of
the simplest form, a mere survival used to ex-
press the author's liking or gratitude for some
one, or acknowledgment of inspiration or en-
couragement, or in humorous books often a joke
like the text.

Printers' Emhlems. — These are the ^'book-
plates" of the publishers, used not to imply
ownership of the copies, but the credit of the
work. They have been treated by Berjeu in
<Early Printers^ (1866), by Silvestre in
^Marques Typographiques^ (2 vols. 1867), and
there was an old work of Roth-Scholtz (Nurem-
berg 1730) ; it has also been touched on by John
Hill Burton in his 'Book-Hunter.' Among
them may be cited the three-masted ship of
Mathis van der Goes of Antwerp, 1472-94 ; the
windmill of Andrew Myllar, Edinburgh, 1508
and later ; the curious wild men and fruit-laden
tree of Thomas Davidson of Edinburgh, in
1541 ; the Stephenses' olive-tree, and the Elze-
virs' sphere. Often there is a punning allusion
to the publisher's name: Froschover (frosch in
German is frog) has frogs; Le Chandelier, a
seven-branched candlestick ; and Nicholas Eve
has a picture of Eve giving Adam the forbidden
fruit. Others use instead the armorial bearings
of their cities ; Leeu, the castle of Antwerp ; R.
Hall,' Geneva's half-eagle and key on a shield ;
Stadelberger, the lion rampant of Heidelberg,
and the diapered shield of Zurich. Ascensius,
1462-1532, has a most vividly accurate represen-
tation of his great printing press, with a press-
man pulling a proof. His device bore the in-
scription, "Prelum Ascensianum'^ ; and it was
adopted by Josse Bade of Paris, 1501-35, who
added his initials at the foot ; by De Gourmont,
I507~I5; Le Preux, 1561-87; and in a modified
form by De Marnef, 1567, and De Roigny, 1565.
The Aldi had an anchor and a dolphin, which
was emploj^ed by Turrisan, De Chenney, Bril-
lard, Tardif, and Coulombel — sometimes, as in
Coulombel's case, with the divided Aldus.

Decoration. — Besides the illustration of the
text by pictures, either as frontispiece or inter-
leaved, there are certain artistic forms which
are merely decorative accessories to the book as
such. The title-page may have some of its
lines or letters printed with colored inks ; the
printer's emblem or some suitable vignette may
be inserted ; or even the whole title may be
engraved, as often in the i6th and 17th centuries,
when it was frequently an exceedingly elaborate
and costly affair, and in some modern editions
de luxe these engraved title-pages are works of
extraordinary beauty. There are also orna-
mental initials, as with the illuminated manu-

scripts ; head and tail pieces, in the blank at the
head of a chapter or the space left at the end.
The first printers often left the initial letters
off altogether, or put in a small one as a guide
to the artist, who inserted them by hand, using
red ink, from which he was called a riibrisher;
he also used his taste in other decorative details,
being in fact the illustrative artist of the time.

Technical Terms. — The sale and collection of
books are too large subjects to be treated here,
but a few of the names used in the second-hand
book trade may be mentioned. "Unique,^' '<rare,'*
and "very rare,* are intelligible as names, but
need judgment in their acceptance. A book may
be unique because it was not worth keeping, like
disused text-books ; the term does not imply
any special value. Or it may be so because the
original edition was limited to enhance its value,
a very common device. In all such cases there
must be knowledge and sense to estimate prop-
erly the intrinsic or factitious worth of the
book. ''Edition'^ means nothing whatever ;
properly it should mean all the issue of a book
that the publisher thinks the market will bear
at one time, and once it did mean that, but it
has long ceased to have any definite connota-
tion. ■ As above, the "edition'* may be artificially
limited to a small number of copies with a
promise to destroy the plate ; on the other hand,
a popular novel m.ay sell many thousands and
each thousand be called an "edition,*^ so that it
may be said to have passed through 50 "edi-
tions. *' "Thousand" is the honester word, and
is now more used by the large houses. "Curi-
ous'^ is a euphemism for a much less dainty
word. "Foxed" means damaged by brown or
yellow spots. "Uncut" does not mean that the
leaves have not been opened with a paper-knife,
but that the original size of the leaves has not
been cropped by the binder. The French use
nan coupe for the former, and non rogne for the
latter.

Book Club, a private association printing
books for a limited number of subscribers. The
members are usually learned men, and in this
way render accessible rare books and manu-
scripts. The earliest of these clubs was the
Roxburgh Club, whose work was not important.
Other English clubs of this sort have done ex-
cellent and valuable work, among them the
Camden Society, whose publications relate to
English history, the Percy Society, the Hakluyt
Society, and the Early English Text Societj'.

In America there were in Colonial and Rev-
olutionary times a number of literary societies
which published the writings of their own mem-
bers ; such was the Junto founded by Franklin.
The first association established for the purpose
of publishing was the 'Sevent3^-six Society
formed in 1854, whose publications relate to the
American Revolution. This society existed for
three years only, and was followed by "The
Club" in New York, and by the Bradford Club.
In 1858 The Prince Society of Boston was es-
tablished, and it still continues its work of pub-
lication. From 1858 to 1876 a large number of
clubs were formed whose work was neither im-
portant nor valuable. In 1876 the Brooklyn
Historical Printing Club was established. It
has done most excellent work on historical lines.
The foremost of all American clubs of this sort
is the Grolier Club of New York, formed in
1884 with 50 members, now numbering about

BOOK-LICE — BOOK OF DAYS

400. Its publications are of a literary and bibli-
ographical character and are noted for their
elaborate and artistic make-up.

Book-lice, wingless members of the family
Psocidcc, order Platyptera. These minute in-
sects would be easily mistaken for aphides,
both the wingless as well as the winged indi-
viduals. Their bodies are oval, the head free
from the prothorax, which is small and par-
tially concealed by the unequal wings. The eggs
are laid in patches on leaves, bar, or other ob-
jects, and are covered with' a web. Atropos
diz'hiatoritts is a small pale, louse-like insect,
seen nmning over books and in insect cases,
where it does considerable injury. It is one of
the worst museum pests, especially injurious to
the smaller lepidoptera. The same habit is also
possessed by the well-known Psocus domesticns.
Another species of atropos, probably piilicarius,
has been found in Missouri, infesting the egg-
mass of the cottony maple scale (Pulvinaria in-
numerabilis). See Death-tick; Death-watch.

Book-scorpion, or False-scorpion, an
arachnid animal of the family Chernctidcc;
known by its large maxillary palpi, like the scor-
pion's claw. The abdomen is ii-jointed, flat-
tened, without any appendage, and the living
forms are minute ; they breathe by trachens.
They are found running about dusty books and
in dark places and feed on mites and Psoci.
They are often found attached to the leg of
some fly or other insect by which they are
transported about. The female chelifer bears
the eggs, 17 in number, in a little bunch under
her abdomen. Meuge has observed a pseudo-
scorpion cast its skin in a light web made for
that purpose, where it remained five days in
the web after its metamorphosis, and did not
assume its dark colors for four weeks ; three
months after it returned to the same web for
hibernation. Meuge describes eight species from
the Prussian amber, belonging to genera still
living, and Corda one (Microlabris sternbergi)
from the coal formation in Bohemia, an inch
long. Schiodte has found a curious blind spe-
cies in the caves of Adelsburg, and several
kinds occur in American caves. In chelifer
there are no eyes. C. cancroidcs is dark brown,
with many short spines on the thorax.

Book-selling. The earliest history of book-
selling is extremely obscure. The tablets and
cylinders of Assyria and Babjdonia will be found
treated under Book, and the article Book of the
De.\d should also be consulted. About the
middle of the 6th century B.C., is found in ancient
Athens an approximation to a systematized
hook-trade as it has been understood in modern
times. Pisistratus, with funds from the munic-
ipal treasury, paid scholars for preparing a
standard text of Homer and Hesiod for copy-
ists' use. The books then made were very costly.
Diogenes Laertius states that for three books of
Philolaus (q.v.) Plato paid three Attic talents
($3,240), money being then, of course, worth far
more than it now is. The first book-sellers pre-
pared by their personal labor the scrolls they
sold ; then capitalists came to employ and organ-
ise staflfs of copyists. About 250 B.C. Alexandria
became one of the great book-centres of the
world. In this it was favored by having at its
disposal the scholars of the university and the
facilities for distribution which the commerce of
Alexandria afforded. Skilled scribes were also

carefully trained there. The book-trade of Rome
commenced about the 2d century B.C. Slaves
who could write Greek were rated highly. The
great publisher of Cicero's time, Atticus, is well
known. His editions were famed for their ac-
curacy under the name 'A->.X;ia.>d. In addi-
tion to his central publishing house he had dis-
tributed in various portions of Rome and in-
provincial centres, tabernarii, or retail dealers.
Horace's publishers were the Sosii in the Vicus
Tuscus. Argiletum, Martial says, was the street
of the book-sellers, as it was, likewise, of the
tailoring shops of fas.iion. By the close of the
1st century a.d.. the Roman book-trade was ex-
tensive and well organized. Papyrus was im-
ported in great quantities from Egypt, and large
staffs of copyists were kept busy preparing edi-
tions of various works, the average edition for
the general public running from 300 to i.oco
copies. Very considerable shipments were made
to the provinces.

During the Middle Ages book-making and
sellmg belonged to the monasteries. The dif-
ferent nionasteries transcribed the particular
manuscripts treasured in their libraries, and
their editions came to have a peculiar value,
depending upon the character of the original
text and the accuracy of the copy. At the be-
ginning of the new learning, the manufacture
and sale of books passed to the universities,
within which the manifolding of MSS. was done
by an organized guild. Outside the universities,
however, there was a considerable trade in MSS.,
beginning with the end of the 14th century.
The invention of printing naturally revolution-
ized the book-trade. The publications of Guten-
berg, Fust, Froben of Basel.. Aldus Manutius of
Venice, Estiennes (Stephani) of Paris, Caxton
of Westminster, Plantin of Antwerp, and the
Elzevirs of Leyden and Amsterdam, are well
known. For further information, see the article
Book, above referred to ; and American Pub- "

LISHING.

Book-worm, the ''book-worm" of librarians
is probably the larva of a boring beetle (Ano-
bium paniceum) one of the family Ptinid(P.
These worms are small white grubs like those
of weevils, which live in various drugs, dried
meat, etc. It also burrows in hard biscuits, re-
sulting in the weevily biscuits complained of on
ship-board. It more commonly bores in old
furniture, causing it to te "worm-eaten.*
These grubs become the beetles known as
''death-ticks" or "death-watches" (q.v.). See
the various works on entomology and Blade's
'Enemies of Books.'

Book of Days, The, a noted work edited
by Robert Chambers, 1863. It has for its sub-
title 'A Miscellany of Popular Antiquities in
Connection with the Calendar.* In bringing it
out the editor expressed a desire to preserve
interest in what is "poetical, elevated, honest,
and of good report, in the old national life" —
recognizing the historical, and even the ethi-
cal, importance of keeping this active and pro-
gressive age in touch with obsolescent customs,
manners, and traditions. Beginning with i Jan-
uary each day of the year has its own curious
or appropriate selection, and its allowance of
matters connected with the Church Calendar,
— including the popular festivals, saints' days,
and holidays, — with illustrations of Christian
antiquities in general.

BOOK OF THE DEAD

Book of the Dead, The. — The literal trans-
lation of the hieroglyphic title is : **Coming

PERT

EM HR— U

Forth by Day.'* Modern Egyptologists have
adopted the name given by Lepsius : Das
Aegyptische Todtenbiich, "The Egyptian Book
of the Dead.'' That title, however, is considered
unsatisfactory, for the simple reason that it is
not one single book dealing exclusively with
funereal ritual, but is a collection of books and
chapters treating of psychostasia in the '^Double
Hall" before Osiris ; the peregrinations of the
Ka in the "valley of the shadow of death ;" the
Osirian doctrine of resurrection, etc.

No better laconic definition of the Book of
the Dead can be given than that of the late Sir
Peter le Page Renouf. He says : "It is not a
book in the usual sense of the word ; it is not a
literary whole, with a beginning, middle and
end; it is a mere unmethodical collection of
religious compositions (chapters) as independ-
ent of each other as the Hebrew Psalms."

Part of the Book of the Dead is of remote
antiquity, dating back to the pre-dynastic period.
There are numerous late copies of it in the
museums of Europe and of this country, but the
best and most complete copy is the Papyrus
Ani, in the British Museum. It contains one
hundred and eighty-six chapters, and is beauti-
fully illuminated ; and, although about 3,400 years
old (belonging to the XVIII Dynasty), it is well
preserved. A fac-simile of that Papyrus was
published by order of the trustees of the British
Museum, and translated (1895) by the eminent
Egyptologist, Dr. E. A. Wallis Budge. Several
excellent translations have been made into
French, German, and English of various papyri
of the Book of the Dead. There are several
versions of the book extant. That of Heliopolis,
which was subjected to numerous modifications
and recensions, is considered the most ancient;
then the Theban version of which the Papyrus
Ani is an example — dating from the middle of
the XVIII Dynasty. These two versions are
written in hieroglyphics, in vertical columns
and in cursive linear style. Two other ver-
sions of a later period are written in hieratic
as well as in hieroglyphic characters. Com-
plete translations of the Book of the Dead were
made by Birch, Brugsch, Pierret, Pleyte, Massy
• Davis, from the French translation by Pierret),
Le Page Renouf, and Budge.

The style of writing and the vignettes, repre-
senting embalming, funeral processions, weigh-
ing of the heart, etc., have undergone great
changes in the course of time, and the texts of
some of the Theban school in the XVIIT
Dynasty differ materially from later produc-
tions; i. e., the Papyrus Ani (Theban recension),
contains one hundred and eighty-six chapters,
and the Turin papyrus, of a later period, con-
tains only one hundred and sixty-five chapters.
The late Sir Peter le Page Renouf, for
many years keeper of the Egyptian antiquities
in the British Museum, says : "Out of many
manuscripts which are extant, no two contain

exactly the same chapters or follow exactly the
same arrangement."

The earliest texts, before the XVIII Dynasty,
are fragmentary, inscribed on the walls of
tombs, monuments, sarcophagi, mummy carton-
ages, etc. The plate is one of the numerous
presentations upon the walls of the Egyptian
tombs of that period, many of which have been
faithfully reproduced in the magnificent volumes
of the Description de TEgypt, and in Lepsius,
etc. It represents part a of tomb XXIV, now
in the Sepulchral Chamber of the Royal Mu-
seum, Berlin, showing Prince Merab, son of
Khufu, the builder of the great Pyramid of
Gizeh (about 4000 years b.c.) enjoying himself
after his beatification with the same good
things he was accustomed to have in his former
life.

The sum and substance of the Book of the
Dead is chapter CXXV, generally considered
the most ancient. It is always connected with
a vignette, which depicts the beatification of
"The Osiris," in the presence of the presiding
deities in Amenti, when the "Negative Confes-
sion" and the weighing of the heart of the dead
before the supreme deity in the netherworld
takes place.

Before proceeding with the description of
psyclwstasia, it is necessary to say a few words
concerning the deities taking part in the weigh-
ing of the heart in the supreme tribunal of
Osiris, called "The Double Hall," represented*
in this plate.

The name which every dead Egyptian as-
sumed was that of the chief deity of Amenti,
called "Osiris." As Osiris was considered the
type of life after death, it was only natural that
in the development of their mythology he
should become the chief god of Amenti — the
Justifier of the dead.

Osiris, according to Egyptian legend, was a
prehistoric king, the embodiment of goodness.
His brother, the wicked Set, becoming envious,
treacherously killed him, cut the corpse in
pieces and hid them in different parts of the
land. Osiris' sister-wife, Isis, accompanied b}'^ her
sister Nephthys, collected the scattered parts,
which were then embalmed by the god Anubis.
By means of magic, which Thoth, the god of
letters and science, taught Isis, she resuscitated
the body. Finally, Horus, son of Osiris and
Isis, avenged the death of his father, by engag-
ing Set, or Typhon, in combat and killing him.
In the course of time Isis, Horus, etc., came to
be considered as gods, and Osiris became identi-
fied with Turn, the setting sun, symbolizing
death; and Horus on the horizon (Her-em-
khu, sometimes called Her-em-Khuti), the type
of birth and resurrection.

Thus the Ka, whilst wandering through the
regions of darkness and molested by demons, is
the dead Osiris. After the weighing of his
heart and if found not wanting, he is beatified
and obtains new life. He is no more Osiris
the dead, but Osiris Horus, the resurrected.

Plate b represents the weighing of the heart
in the tribunal of the netherworld, Amenti;
presided over by the supreme deitj' Osiris
(Ausar). On the extreme right and left of the
hall are two massive pillars, carved to imitate
bundles of lotus stalks, fastened together near
the top of the column. The deceased at the
entrance to the hall is in an adoring attitude;
his uplifted arms are supported by Maat. the
goddess of truth and justice. She is always

MERCHANT KENNA WEIGHED IN THE BALANCE IN THE
DOUBLE HALL OF JUSTICE

MERCHANT KENNA JUSTIFIED

BOOK OF MORMON

present in the Judgment Hall and is represented
headless, with an ostrich feather in place of the
head. Her figure, sometimes only the feather
of her headgear, is placed in the scale-pan,
opposite the one containing the vase with the
heart.* The jackal-headed Anubis and the
hawk-headed Horus superintend the weighing.
In the scale-pan to the right is the weight in
the shape of the goddess Maat. This scale is
adjusted by another divinity un-named in the
hieroglyphic text. In the scaie-pan to the left
is a jar containing the heart of the departed.
Upon the beam of the balance sits the dog-
headed ape deity called Hapi. The little figure
seated on the crook to the left represents the
new birth after the justification of the "Osiris.**
Close to the balance stands the ibis-headed
scribe Tlwtli, with his tablets, recording the re-
sult of the weighing. Close in front of him,
upon a shrine, sits the adversary (the Egyptian
Cerberus), called in hieroglyphics Amemit, the
devourer of the dead, in the shape of a strange
being composed of three beasts : hippopotamus,
lion and crocodile, ready to destroy the Ka in
case he should, after weighing, be found wanting.
Immediately facing the throne is an altar full
of sacrifices, consisting of bread, geese, onions,
lotus flowers, buds, and burning incense. Be-
neath the altars are jars containing wine and
other liquids for oblations. At the head of the
hall is Osiris himself, sitting upon a throne
which is richly decorated wuth ankhs, emblems
of life, and uas, emblems- of purity. He is
closely shrouded, and wears the white crown of
Upper Egypt, called Aief, ornamented with two
ostrich feathers, the symbols of truth and jus-
tice; his hands crossed upon his breast, on his
wrists are bracelets. He holds in his right hand
the Nekhekh, scourge; and in his left, Hek,\.\\Q
crooked staff, symbolical of justice. Above are
the forty-two divine assessors, seated in two
rows of twenty-one each, with different type of
head, such as the heads of apes, serpents,
crocodiles, etc., adorned with the feather repre-
senting truth and justice, and each holding in
his hand a sharp-pointed knife. The Ka of the
deceased stands, in beseeching posture, with
hands raised, in front of each row of the judges.
The same chapter (125) contains the con-
fessions of the deceased. Every one of the
forty-two judges whom the deceased called by
their proper names had to pronounce him inno-
cent, he emphatically affirming before each of
them in turn that he did not commit any of
the forty-two sins. The negative confession is
very interesting but space forbids the mention-
ing of more than a few of them. The judge
having to consider the crime of theft was id-
dressed by the deceased as follows : "O De-
vourer of Shades, coming out of the orbits . .
I have not stolen;'* another was addressed:
"O Eyes of Flames, coming out of the shrine
I have not played the hypocrite;" "O
Cracker of Bones, coming out of Suten Khcnt
(Bubastis) . . I have not told falsehoods;*'
"O Swallower, coming out of Khnem . . I
have not blasphemed ;** <'0 Eater of Hearts,
coming out of the thirty . . I have not made
conspiracies;** «0 Eye in the Heart, coming out
of the land of Salui . , I have not defiled the
river,** etc.

* Many of the Pharaohs adopted her name in their royal
titles. /. ^•..Ramesis II styled himself Se Ra. Usur Ma, " Son
of the Sun, the Keeper of Truth."

Among Other sins denied are : "I am not
sluggish ; I have not made to weep ; I am not
a landgrabber ; I committed not adultery ; I ana
not a slayer of man ; I tamper not with the
balance ; I do not cheat,** etc.

Howsoever absurd the Egyptian Pantheon
may appear to our eyes, we must acknowledge
from the evidence of these forty-two confessions,
that they possessed a superior code of morality,
a code which included not only our decalogue,
but much of the ethical teachings and humanity
of modern civilization.

The vignettes of this chapter, as we have
already remarked, vary. The finer illuminated
papyri made for royal personages or high priests
and priestesses are exquisitely illuminated and
the texts are unabridged. For instance, the
Papyrus of Kii is more than sixty-five feet long.
The Papyrus of Ani is seventy-eight feet long
by one foot and three inches wide.

Most copies of the Books of the Dead are
defective, others betray gross ignorance on the
part of the scribe or copyist. The common
people who were unable to purchase a well-
written and illuminated text for their dead had
to be satisfied with a cheaply, badly written,
abridged copy. The scribes must have possessed
a large stock of blanks on hand, containing
spaces to be filled with the deceased (Osiris')
name. Some of the Egyptian scribes were as
dishonest as most of the embalmers. As the
papyrus was to be placed witn the mummy, the
mercenary scribe or embalmer substituted a
spurious for a good one.

Samuel A. Binion,
Author of '■Ancient Egypt or Misraim.'

Book of Mormon, a collection of 16 dis-
tinct books professing to be written at different
periods by successive prophets. Its style is an
exceedingly clumsy and verbose imitation of
that of the common English translation of the
Bible, portions of which, to the number in all
of 300 passages, are incorporated without
acknowledgment. It constitutes the scriptures
of the members of the Church of Jesus Christ
of Latter-Day Saints. Joseph Smith, an Ameri-
can, of Manchester. N. Y.. professed to have
heard in 1823 the Angel Moroni reveal to him
in visions that the Bible of the Western Con-
tinent was buried in a box near his residence.
This, according to his own account, he at length
found — a volume six inches thick, with leaves
of thin gold plate, eight inches long by seven
broad, bound together with three gold rings ; on
which leaves was a mystic writing that he char-
acterized as reformed Eg^'ptian. With the book
he professed to have found a pair of magic spec-
tacles, bv means of which he was able to read
the contents, which he dictated to an amanuen-
sis. This book consists of an alleged history of
America from 600 B.C., when Lehi and his fam-
ily (descended from the dispersion after the
building of the Babel tower) landed in Chile.
Between the descendants of Nephi, Lchi's
youngest son, and the offspring of his older
brothers, who are the North American Indians,
long conflicts waged : the Nephites finally being
almost annihilated. There remained a fragment,
among whom were Mormon and his son,
Moroni. They collected the records of their
people, and buried them in the hill of Cumorah,
on the Divine assrirance that they would be
found by the Lord's prophet. Besides this his-
tory, the book, as it finally was received, has
various moral and religious teachings. The real

Vol.

-53-

BOOK OF NONSENSE — BOOKBINDING

history of it is as follows: Solomon Spalding,
an eccentric Presbyterian preacher, wrote a
historical romance in 1809, which a compositor,
into whose hands it fell, sold to Smith. This
was, in substance, the ^Book of Mormon, >
which Smith issued, and to which various addi-
tions have since been made. See Mormon.

Book of Nonsense, A, a nursery classic by
Edward Lear. It is made up from four minor
collections published at intervals during a long
life. The author began as an artist; colored
drawings for serious purposes were supplemented
by others for the amusement of the groups of
little ones he loved to gather around him ; and
the text added to them has proved able to
endure the test of time without the aid of draw-
ing, and much of it has become part of the rec-
ognized humorous literature of the language.

Book of Snobs, The, a series of sketches
by William Makepiece Thackeray. It appeared
first in * Punch,' and was published in book form
in 1848. The idea of the work may have been
suggested to Thackeray when, as an undergrad-
uate at Cambridge in 1829, he contributed to a
little weekly periodical called the *Snob.'

Bookbinding, the art of arranging, fasten-
ing together, and covering sheets of paper com-
posing a book, including the ornamentation or
decoration of the covers. Following the use of
rolls of papyrus or wax-covered tablets, leaves
of parchment were introduced, and it became
necessary to fasten or bind them together. This
improvement in fonn is, on somewhat doubtful
authority, attributed to Attains II., king of Per-
gamus, about 150 B.C.

The monks were the early bookbinders, up
to the time of the invention of printing, and
examples in the British Museum dating as far
back as 700 a.d. illustrate the great labor be-
stowed on their most precious manuscripts.

All the early specimens were bound in heavy
boards, strong metal clasps, and bands, and the
material used in covering varied from the parch-
ment and iron to ivory, enamels, and jeweled
silver and gold.

The invention of printing made a great change
in the art of bookbinding, the delicate, beautiful
specimens, the workmanship of Jean Grolier and
many nameless Italian and French binders em-
ployed by Grolier, Macoli, and others contrasted
strikingly with the rather clumsy, inartistic work
of the monks.

It was not until 1820 that cloth was introduced
as a covering, invented, it is said, by Archibald
Leighton, one of the most enterprising and suc-
cessful of London binders. In the < Bookseller'
of 4 July 1881 there is an interesting account by
Robert Leighton of the invention of cloth by
his father. The embossing of bookbinding cloth
was suggested to the late Mr. de la Rue, and
was carried out so admirably by him, with the
appliances he possessed for embossing paper,
that his process remains comparatively un-
altered. The desired pattern was engraved on
a gun-metal cylinder, and transferred in reverse
to one made of compressed paper, strung upon
an iron spindle, and turned in the lathe the ex-
act circumference of the gun-metal one, and
these two being worked together in a machine,
and the pattern transferred from one to the
other, the cloth was passed between them and
received the impress of the pattern.

Extra work and edition work are the two
classes into which bindings may be divided.
Extra work bound with greater care, and
largely by hand methods, forming a small por-
tion of all books bound. Edition work being the
binding of quantities, principally by machinery.

The following description will apply to extra
work, and methods in vogue do not differ greatly
from the process of hundreds of years ago, al-
though the use of the press and plow, hammer
and backing boards is giving way to the trim-
ming, smashing and backing machines. The
first process takes the sheets from the printing
press, folds them in sections of 8, 16 or 22 pagos,
done generally by a girl pressing each fold down
with a bone folder in such a manner that the
pages come in consecutive order. If a book con-
tains 320 pages it will be seen that 20 sections
or signatures are required to complete it. When
all the sections are folded, they are gathered up
in order and collated, that is, examined to see
that each signature follows in proper sequence.
Smashed or hammered, the book is then ready to
sew.

Throughout the world in binderies given up
to extra work will be found a frame of peculiar
make called a sewing-bench. On this is
stretched bands or cords of soft twine in a ver-
tical position, and to these the signatures are at-
tached by passing the needle and thread through
the middle of the signature and around each
band or cord, and the raised bands showing on
back of book inform how many cords the book
has been sewn on, although in many cases
grooves are sawed in the back of the book into
which the cords fit, and false bands are pasted on
back to show the raised band effect.

The book is taken down from the sewing
bench and an inch or more of twine is left on
each side to be later laced through holes
punched in the boards. Before this is done the
marble or colored linings are pasted on the
front and back of book inside the first fly leaf.
Leather or cloth joints in some cases are added.

The book is then trimmed in a cutting or
trimming machine ; formerly the edges were
trimmed by a knife called a plow while the
book was clamped firmly in a press. Before
cutting the back is struck forcibly against an
iron plate, to square up the signature, then
placed against gauge, set to position desired and
clamped, knife descending and cutting book
while under pressure. After trimming the three
sides the book is again carefully knocked up
and a thin coating of glue, sometimes flexible in
character, is well rubbed in between signatures,
for unless this is done the signatures will show
a tendency to split open, where one signature
joins another. The book is then rounded by
drawing or shaping the curve, at same time beat-
ing in a peculiar manner with a flat-faced ham-
mer, then clamped in pair of jaws, and the joints
drawn over by repeated taps of hammer, or in
some shops by a heavy roller set in a machine
called a backing machine, which clamps the back
under treadle movement. Many extra forward-
ers round the book before trimming, then knock
the round out. After cutting, the book will
spring back to its former round, leaving the
front concave. In most particular classes of
work the boards are laced to book before it is
cut. The book is now laced to boards forming
the cover and the ends of cords glued down on

BOOK OF THE DEAD.

BOOKBINDING

the inside of the cover. If the edges are to be
marbled, gilt or colored, they must go through
that process before books are rounded.

Marbling. — Prepared colors are thrown in a
shallow trough containing gum tragacanth, on
which the colors float and spread as desired.
The pattern is formed by various combs that
mingle the colors. The edges of the book are
dipped into the liquid just deep enough for
the colors to adhere, and when removed from
trough, a sizing is drained over the edges, re-
moving the surplus gum and fastening the col-
ors more securely to edge. After edges are
thoroughly dry they may be burnished with an
agate or stone burnisher. Gilding is done by
laying thin sheets of gold leaf on the edges of
books previously scraped and smoothed with
steel scraper and fine sandpaper, and sized
heavily with a preparation of white of e^g.
When dry it is then burnished with bloodstone,
flint and agate burnishers.

Colored Edges. — Mix aniline colors with
alcohol, adding a little ammonia to drive
color in, spread over surface of edges with
a fine sponge. If desired, then clamp in
press and burnish. The book is then ready
for the headbands, linings and cover. The
headbands are merely ornamental, and are
woven with a colored silk, by machine or made
over cords with muslin. The older process was
to work over a piece of parchment with col-
ored silks and partially fasten to back of book in
the weaving or sewing. The back is then lined
with strong paper glued on, the amount of stiff-
ening varying with the size of book and style
of binding, most books being made with loose
backs on which false bands are glued.

Coverings. — The leather cover is dampened
and covered with paste, then drawn smoothly
over and turned in, over boards which have
previously been laced to the book. After leather
has dried, clean out joints and paste against
covers the lining papers.

Finishing. — Artistic taste of the highest order
finds employment in this branch of bookbinding,
and an expert finisher must be at once artist and
craftsman of much ability. The ornamentation
and lettering of fine bindings all are done by
hand, the finisher bringing into use many tools
and ornaments, cut on brass and fastened into
small wooden handles, much depending on the
manner of cutting and shaping the tools. The
leather must first be prepared with paste wash
and a glair or sizing generally made from the
white of an egg, over which the gold leaf is
laid, and the tools which are heated over a gas
burner are then impressed on the gold leaf, the
surplus gold being brushed off with a piece of
crude rubber. Upon the most careful prepara-
tion of leather, the proper heat of tools, and the
tooling of book before sizing is too dry, depend
the brilliancy or gloss of the impression.

Ornamentation without gold is called <^ blind
tooling'' and is produced by rubbing or stamp-
ing the hot tool on the dampened leather. Few
books bound now have such a wealth of orna-
mentation and so great an amount of time given
to the finishing as was common in Groliers
time, although there are still many novel effects
produced by the use of inlaid colored leathers,
incised leather, etc.

After the period of Grolier, the taste for
magnificent binding in France ran riot and

many indulged in most sumptuous bindings, and
designs were prepared under the superintendence
of the most celebrated artists.

During the i6th and 17th centuries bindings
were produced in England which compared fa-
vorably with the contemporary masterpieces of
French, Italian, and German bibliography, but in
the i8th century England took the leading place
in the workmanlike forwarding and artistic fin-
ishing of books.

EDITION WORK.

So slow was the process of hand folding,
2,500 signatures of three folds being a fair day's
work, a single sixteen folding machine was
built with steel points set about fifteen inches
apart, over which the sheet is placed, registered
exactly on the points, or holes punched into the
sheet as it was being printed, a knife descend-
ing makes first fold, carrying through rollers ta
gauges, when the second knife drops, forcing
sheet through second roller, and third knife
likewise, making three complete folds, and drop-
ping them in a trough at the rate of ten
thousand a da}% or in other words, one machine
doing the work of four hand folders.

It was soon found possible to build double
i6-folding machines doing nearly 20,000 sheets
daily, and at present in some of the larger
edition binderies, special machines have been
built which will take a sheet nearly 40 x 60
inches in size, and will turn out 40,000 signa-
tures of t6 pages each, equivalent to the work
of 16 girls folding by hand.

When the books are found complete, they are
put through a powerful machine called a smash-
ing machine, which compresses and makes solid
the book, then to the sewing machine, where
each signature in turn is laid over the arms, is
carried to a position under a row of curved
needles, punches concealed within the arms first
make an incision through which the curved
needle carries a thread meeting a looper which
fastens each stitch. The first and last sheet is.
pa.sted before they are placed over the arms,
and when finished the book is cut apart from the
following book, and the thread is held by the
pasting of signature, from unraveling.

Following the sewing, books are re-smashed,,
the linings and cloth joint pasted in and books
are ready for trimming. If it is to be marbled
or gilt, the back is tipped with glue to keep the
signatures from getting out of square or becom-
ing irregular.

Trimming. — To remove the rough and un-
even edges of the signatures, the book should be
cut or trimmed. This may be accomplished in
the straight cutter, a machine using one knife
which, making a clean, smooth cut, descends
while book is clamped, in some machines with
a hand clamp, in others, automatically. This
machine, while very satisfactory in its results,
has given way for the trimming of editions of
books to automatic trimmers of various makes,
which, unlike the process of trimming in the
straight cutter, trims the edges of the top, front
and bottom of book without removing from ma-
chine. An improvement on the automatic trim-
mer is a machine using two knives with each cut
of machine, and while the output of this ma-
chine is very large, there has just been installed
in one of our large school-book binderies, a
continuous cutter which permits the books to be

BOOKKEEPING

constantly fed into the machine, and the output
is so large, the machine is in a class by itself.

After trimming and gilding, marbling or col-
oring, it is glued over back with thin coating of
glue well rubbed in between the signatures to
prevent the breaking between signatures, which,
while not taking from the strength of binding,
looks as if poorly bound; just before glue is
dried too thoroughly, book is fed against the
gauges of the rounding and backing machine,
the front rolls of machine drawing or rolling the
round under pressure, then carried to back part
of machine where a backing plate rotates against
the back and forms the joints. This machine
will do the work of six to eight men.

After the process of rounding and backing,
headbands are prepared by forming muslin over
a cord or twine ; the backs of books are thor-
oughly glued, headbands affixed at top and bot-
tom of back, crash lining cut to extend about one
inch or more over the joints, is rubbed on with
a bone folder, heavy manila paper is then glued
against the book and well rubbed in, after which
books, when thoroughly dried, are ready to case
in, or in other words, put in the covers which
have previously been prepared.

Boards called binder's boards are cut in
rotary cutters to proper size for books ; cloth
is cut sufficiently large to overlap about one
half to three quarters of an inch, and fed
over a cylinder which, revolving, carries it
against glue rollers, which place a thin
coating of glue thereon. This glued piece
of cloth is carried to a certain part of ma-
chine and awaits the laying thereon of boards
and strip of back lining paper which has been
forwarded by a clever device from the rear part
of machine. Grippers then carry it through
rollers after end and side slides have turned in
the cloth over the board, and a rubber belt de-
livers it on stand completely finished.

Stamping. — The ornamentation of both cloth
and leather covers for most bindings other than
single books or single sets is rapidly and neatly
accomplished by a process called stamping.
.Stamping was introduced to overcome the dif-
ficulty in hand tooling the cotton cloth and prin-
cipally for reason of the need of a much cheaper
and quicker method for lettering and ornament-
ing the increased quantities of books sold when
the muslin or cloth was introduced as a binding
for books.

The process of casing, as it is called, con-
sists in pasting the outer end leaves of a book,
placing in proper position on cover, and cover
then is drawn over and book shifted to secure
evenness of squares or margins, then built up on
press boards with brass rims which press into
the joints, and after several hours' pressure, suf-
ficient time being given to thoroughly dry, the
books are removed from press, opened up and
examined, wrapped and boxed for delivery.

Edwin S. Ives,
Of Edzvin Ives & Sons, Neiv York.

Bookkeeping is the recording of the trans-
actions of a business so that the resources and
liabilities may be readily exhibited. Transac-
tions are recorded in the order of their occur-
rence in such books of original entry as may be
imposed by the nature of each business or which
conform to the requirements of the accounting
system in use. If but a single book is used for
this purpose, its form is usually that of the

day-book, which contains a narrative of all the
transactions as they occur. Formerly this was
the general procedure, but it is found that busi-
ness can be expedited by classifying the transac-
tions in separate books, consequently the cash-
book, purchase-book, and sales-book are now
commonly used concurrently. Whatever may be
the character and extent of the original records,
the transactions are ultimately transferred in
classified form to the ledger, which is the princi-
pal book of accounts. There are two systems
of bookkeeping in use, namely, single and double
entry. The primary element in each of the two
systems is the Account. In bookkeeping by single
entry only accounts with persons are kept in the
ledger, and the profits and losses are ascer-
tained solely by comparison of past with pres-
ent conditions ; in other words, by taking the
difference between the net worth at the begin-
ning and the net worth at the close of a stated
period. The principal books used in single entry
are the day-book, cash-book, and ledger. Being
a simple though necessarily imperfect method,
single entry is used chiefly by retail traders.
Bookkeeping by double entry, as the term im-
plies, is that mode in which every transaction
is entered twice, first on the debtor side of one
or more accounts, and next on the creditor
side, thereby keeping the ledger perpetually in
balance. The chief objects of keeping accounts,
it may be stated, are to determine (i) the
amount of profit or loss during a definite period,
and (2) the amount of net capital or net insol-
vency at the end of such period. The system of
double entry gives the net capital or net insol-
vency in two different ways, from two different
sources, the one corroborating the other, and
constituting what is called the balance of the
books. Upon the classification resulting from
this arrangement rests the claim of double entry
bookkeeping to be considered as a science.

Bookkeeping,- like most other sciences, has
adopted a terminology of its own to avoid
circumlocution. For example, the terms debtor
and creditor, usually abbreviated Dr. and Cr.,
are used arbitrarily to designate the right-hand
and left-hand side, respectively, of an account.
An account is a collection of items, under an
appropriate title, so arranged as to give a result
by comparison.

Journalizing is the mental process of decid-
ing how every transaction is to be disposed of
in the ledger ; that is, what accounts are to be
debited and credited in each case. Posting is
the transferring of debit and credit items to
their proper accounts in the ledger. A trial bal-
ance is a list of the open accounts in a ledger
together with' the debit and credit footing of
each account. A business statement is a sum-
marized exhibit of those accounts which com-
prise all items of revenue, otherwise de-
nominated a profit and loss account. A financial
statement is a compilation of those accounts
having to do with capital, in other words,
a balance sheet. A balance sheet is a
condensed statement of the resources and
liabilities of a business. It is usually com-
piled from the trial balance and inventory sched-
ules at the end of a fiscal period and it is
frequently accompanied with a profit and loss
statement which confirms the increase or diminu-
tion of finance as displayed in the balance sheet
proper. The function of a balance sheet is.

BOOKKEEPING

therefore, to present a scientific statement of
the financial condition of a business at a speci-
fied date.

The problem presented in bookkeeping, as
may be inferred from the foregoing, is that of
exhibiting financial transactions as they occur
in the most minute detail, and ultimately in the
most condensed form. The best solution of this
problem in any given instance, depends largely
upon the nature of the individual business the
operations of which are to be recorded.

The advantages of the double entry system
over the single entry system may be summar-
ized briefly as follows: (i) The susceptibility
of infinite modification in its minor features
without disturbing the general results as shown
in the balance sheet ; (2) the constant equilibrium
of debits and credits, the mathematical proof
of which is afforded in the trial balance; (3) the
separate classification of capital and revenue
accounts, the resultant statement of each class
being confirmatory of the accuracy of the other ;
(4) the displaying of the channels through
which profit and loss items have accrued, thus
revealing the methods by which the movements
of the business have been financed; (5) the
provision for the ascertainment of gross profit
on the different departments of a business by
means of the trading accounts ; (6) the working
economy resulting from the introduction of
special columns in the books of original entry ;
and (7) the ease with which a thorough audit
can be conducted at any time, this circumstance
serving as a check upon erroneous entries.

A double-entry ledger, as before stated, is the
book of accounts. As such it is a concrete ex-
pression of the principle of classification, and
the philosophic basis of the "science of accounts*
is displayed therein with mathematical preci-
sion. Each separate account contained in the
ledger is built up on the theory of comparison.
Thus, the items of one side denote increase or
plus of financial ability, those of the other side
denote its decrease or minus. Hence, to know
the proper place in the ledger in w-hich to assign
each item in a transaction, is to know the laws,
principles, and objects of each account in the
ledger ; and a false entry can only be proved
false by showing its want of conformity to
some principle of the ledger. Take the cash
account for illustration : The left-hand or debit
side contains the items of cash received ; and the
right-hand or credit side the items of cash dis-
bursed ; the difference between the receipts and
payments will, -necessarily, be the balance or
amount of cash on hand, which, in this case, can
be confirmed by actual count. Again, the mer-
chandise account shows on the debit side the
value- of the goods on hand at the beginning
and the cost of all subsequent purchases ; the
credit side shows all returns or sales of such
goods, to which is added the value of the goods
on hand at the end; the difference or balance,
being the excess of production over cost, or of
cost over production, as the case may be — in
other words, the gain or loss. Each separate
account, therefore, is constructed in accordance
with a fixed and unalterable plan and each con-
tributes a definite result which must be con-
sidered in the final showing. Being based upon
the theory of the equation, there follows a double
lecord of each item in every account with the
result that the total debits always equal the total
credits when the several accounts are taken

together. It should be noted in this connection
that finance, only, is the essential object of ac-
counts, namely, cash, notes, book debts, or their
equivalents ; any other property is only intro-
duced into the books to show how far it con-
tributed to the increase, or occasioned the dimi-
nution of finance, and so to corroborate the
actual amount of financial ability found to exist.
The great and almost the only source of con-
fusion in double entry is that of confounding
an account kept to show financial ability with
an account to ascertain how much the profit on
some property dealt in has contributed to what-
ever augmentation may be found in the state
of the finances after a certain period of busi-
ness.

It will be apparent that two distinct ideas are
concurrently promulgated through all movements
of the business directed toward an increase of
wealth. These two ideas are concentrated in
the cash and merchandise accounts, respectively,
as types of the two classes of accounts. These
two classes of accounts have been denominated,
business and financial : the former revealing the
moveinents of the business, the latter its finan-
cial results. In other words, business accounts
show the losses and gains, and financial ac-
counts show the resources and liabilities. Thus
it will appear that the debits of the financial ac-
counts show an increase of wealth and the
credits decrease, and that the business accounts
simply show the same thing reversed. Accord-
ingly, the sum of all the resources of a concern
less the sum of all its liabilities is its net capital.
All increase or diminution of net capital comes
from the receiving of more or less for property
than its cost or the appreciation or depreciation
of property while in possession, or from
rent, interest, taxes, and service. The net gain
or net loss of a concern, therefore, during any
specified period must be exactly equal to the
increase or decrease of net capital during the
same period. In a manufacturing concern, for
example, it is important that the progress of the
business be shown at frequent intervals. It
should be possible at any time to ascertain the
cost of production of each article manufactured
and to verify this cost by a statistical compari-
son with previous costs. This implies (i) that
such a system of stock-keeping be inaugurated
as shall -show the amount of material con-
sumed in the process of manufacture; (2) that
the expenditures for labor be shown for each of
the successive steps essential to bringing the
article to a completed condition; (3) that costs
of superintendence and incidental shop charges
be pro-rated; (4) that the general expenses be
distributed among the goods manufactured ;
(5) that adequate provision be made for
depreciation ; (6) that specific reserves be set
aside for bad debts, taxes, contingencies, etc., and
(7) that final profit shall be based on the total
inclusive cost of production. The application of
scientific principles to the accounting system
should enable the management to have placed
periodically before it, such facts relating to the
cost of production as are essential to the shaping
of a successful policy in these times of intense
industrial competition.

The manner of recording transactions before
they are arranged in the ledger, varies in almost
every business, but this variation presents no
confusion whatever when the different accounts
embodied in the ledger are thoroughly under-

BOOKKEEPING

£tood. Double-entry accounting, in fact, ad-
mits of a great variety of modifications, erro-
neously, in many cases, called systems. The
so-called voucher system, for instance, now ex-
tensively used in railway and manufacturing cor-
porations, is an expedient for eliminating from
the ledger individual accounts with creditors.
At the same time, by the device of special col-
umns in a voucher register, it facilitates the
most minute subdivision of revenue expenditures
and renders periodic comparison of such items
possible to any degree desired. In most lines
of business special columns may also be intro-
duced in the cash-book, sales-book, and journal
for the purpose of minimizing the mechanical
labor of posting, the aggregate of each column
being transferred to the corresponding ledger
accounts instead of the separate items. The
principle of consolidated postings is applied in
dividing the accounts of the general ledger
among a series of subordinate ledgers, a com-

Loose leaf and card ledgers, impression sales-
books, duplicate order blanks, and the many me-
chanical devices for the curtailing of labor or
the securing of expediency or directness in re-
cording, do not come within the limits of this
discussion which is intended rather to give a
general view of the subject and its underlying
principles.

Auditing. — Broadly stated, it is the province
of the accountant to devise the accounting sys-
tem and to specify the nature and character of
the records that shall be kept ; it is the duty
of the bookkeeper to perform the routine work of
recording the transactions of the business in
accordance with the plan outlined by the ac-
countant ; it is the function of the auditor to
examine critically the completed records of the
bookkeeper, to compare the entries with the
documents, to ascertain if the plans of the ac-
countant have been strictly followed, and. finally,
to prepare the profit and loss account and certify

FORM OF DAY BOOK.

New York, July i, 1903.

Joseph Hardcastle began business this day with the
following resources and liabilities:
Cash on hand.

Bills receivable, note signed by B. F. Williams,
Elston E. Gaylord owes him on account,
Stock of goods on hand at present value,

Total resources,
Bills payable, for note favor Charles W. Haskins,
Leonard H. Conant for amount owed him on account,

Total liabilities,

Joseph Hardcastle's net capital,

Bought of Henry R. M. Cook on account
200 bush, potatoes @ $1.10,

Received cash for B. F. Williams' note now due,

Sold Edgar M. Barber on account at 30 days,
60 bbls. apples @ $3.50,
400 bush, corn @ 8oc.,

Received from Elston E. Gaylord, cash in full of account,
6

Lent O. P. Kinsey, cash, receiving his note at 90 days
with interest at five per cent.

6000
4000
2500
5000

8400
2850

210
320

17500
11250

6250

530
2500

mon division being: general, sales, and pur-
chase ledgers. Each of these ledgers can be
made self-balancing, if desired, by means of
special columns in the books of original entry, a
controlling account being kept in the general
ledger, representing the aggregate sums in each
of the subordinate ledgers. A separate ledger
can thus be appropriated, if the magnitude of
the business demands it, to the names beginning
with each letter of the alphabet, or any number
of letters may be included in one, as A to K,
A to G, etc. By this means separate duties
may be assigned by the accountant to a large
number of subordinates, the general ledger con-
sisting of but few accounts, from which, how-
ever, he is enabled to show promptly the con-
dition of the entire business. A private ledger
is kept by some proprietors for the purpose of
withholding from subordinates certain informa-
tion. The difference between the total debits
and credits of the private ledger accounts should
complete and confirm the general trial balance.
Capital, profit and loss, investments, and other
accounts can be kept in this manner with per-
fect security.

to the correctness of the balance sheet. It is
incumbent upon the auditor to exercise every
faculty and means in his power to determine
(i) that the liabilities are all stated; (2) that
the resources are not overstated; (3) that the
profit and loss account contains all expenses
chargeable to the period under review; (4) that
the profits earned are all included; (5) that
proper charges against revenue have not been
capitalized ; and (6) that intentional errors, ir-
regularities, and fraudulent entries have not
been permitted. The professional duties of the
competent public accountant and auditor, there-
fore, cover a wide range of technical knowledge
and commercial experience. A large number of
text-books on elementary bookkeeping have been
published, principally for schoolroom instruc-
tion. For a broader treatment of the subject
application for special reference books may be
made to members of the State Societies of Certi-
fied Public Accountants and the American Asso-
ciation of Public Accountants, or the following
works may be consulted: Lisle, ^Accounting in
Theory and Practice^ ; Dicksee, *^ Auditing^ ;
Broaker, 'American Accountants' ManuaP ;

BOOKKEEPING

this
to the

ner, Cost Accounts/; Keister, ^Corporation is proper to state that in the preparation of

Accounting and Auditmg> ; Metcalf, 'Cost of article the undersigned is also indebted to tw.

Manufactures^ ; Lewis, 'Commercial Organiza- writings of Mr. Thomas Jones and to sugges

tion of Factories); Matheson, 'Depreciation of tions from Prof. Joseph Hardcastle, two of the

Factories'; Whmney, 'Executorship Accounts> ; ablest writers on accounting that America has

Garcke & Fells, 'Factory Accounts' ; Norton produced. - - -

FORM OF JOURNAL.
New York, July i, 1903.

Edgar M. Barber.
CcrliUcd Public Accountant.

L.F.
2

Cash,

Bills receivable,

Elston E. Gaylord,

Merchandise,

Bills payable,
Leonard H. Conant,
Joseph Hardcastle,

Merchandise,

Cash,

Henry R. M. Cook,
3

Edgar M. Barber,

Bills receivable,
4

Merchandise,
5

Cash,

Elston E. Gaylord,
6

Bills receivable,

Cash,

6000
4000
2500
5000

4000

530

2500

1000

8400
2850
6250

530

2500

FORM OF CASH BOOK (Debit Side).

1903

July

Balance on hand,

16428

Merchandise, cash sales.

450

Bills receivable, A. C. Lobeck's note,

3500

Herbert H. Swasey, on account,

4000

Bills receivable, M. A. Bigelow's note,

692

Interest on above

James G. Cannon, on account.

1200

Merchandise, cash sales.

1570

Lyman J. Gage, on account,

Cash Dr.,

lb
2

230

1 165 1

28079

FORM OF CASH BOOK (Credit Side).

1903

July

4
7
8
10
16
16

Merchandise, Invoice No. 43, Garner & Co.,

Bills payable, note favor W. F. Wakeman,

John L. N. Hunt, on account

Expense, cartage.

Bills payable, acceptance Charles E. Sprague,

Interest on above, 30 days,

Cash Cr.,
Balance,

15
12

4
15

12000
1740
1235

14
2000

75
50

• 17000
1 1079

25
42

28079

FORM OF LEDGER ACCOUNT.
Merchandise.

Dr.

1903
July

12
31

On hand.
Chas.H.Parkhurst.
Profit and Loss

31
10

<;ooo
8471

974

1903
July

4
16
31

W.J.Kinsley,
Note at 30 days,
Inventory.

18
24

2764
6041

5640

25
90

14446

BOOK-PLATE

FORM OF BALANCE SHEET.

COMPANY JULY I, I9O3.

Resources.

Cash on hand,

Cash in bank,

Stocks and bonds, as per Schedule A,

Properties as under:

Land, per Ledger valuations.

Buildings, per Ledger valuations,

Plant ana machinery, less deprecia-
tion,

Inventory of stock, valued by Mr.

as under:

Raw material,

Goods unfinished,

Goods manufactured.
Sundry trade debtors as under:

Bills receivable as per Schedule B,

Accounts receivable,

as per Schedule C,
Less reserve for discounts.
Prepaid charges as under:

Insurance premiums.

Rent for July, 1903,

Liabilities.

Mortgages payable.
Interest due and accrued.
Sundry trade creditors as

Bills payable

as per Schedule D,

Accounts payable

as per Schedule
Capital stock,
Reserve for ■

Surplus,

under:

Book-plate, a printed or engraved label,
usually decorative, placed on the inside cover
of a book as the owner's symbol. In a certain
sense, any individualized label is entitled to the
name; but as usually understood, the term is
restricted to those with some special artistic
design, which, however, may range from the
simplest to the most elaborate and ornate com-
position. The elements are — the owner's name;
his coat of arms if he has one, usually,
but not invariably; allegorical emblems or com-
positions ; landscape designs ; mottoes ; quota-
tions, etc. In purpose they are probablj^ very
ancient : some of the small tablets found in
Assyrian libraries are intelligible only as book-
plates, and they are accredited to Japan in the
loth century. Indeed, something of the sort
may almost be predicated of any society where
books circulate much. But our modern book-
plates are of German descent, and seem to have
been nearly contemporaneous with printing, one
being mentioned as of the mid-i5th century;
the earliest actually known, however, is a hand-
colored heraldic wood-cut of about 1480, in some
books and luanuscripts presented to the monas-
tery of Buxheim, Swabia. The earlier ones
were all mere indices of ownership, rough wood-
cuts with no artistic design ; they were perma-
nently raised into the domain of an art by the
great Albrecht Durer (1471-1528), the "father
of the book-plate.® He made two for Bilibald
Pirckheimer, probably before 1503 — one a mix-
ture of armorial and allegorical elements, and
the other a large bold portrait of the famous
Nuremberg senator ; but his earliest dated one
is for Hieronymus Ebner of the same city, in
1516. Several of the great German artists of
that age —Holbein, Cranach, Amman, and
others — designed book-plates ; indeed, since
Diirer's time the best have not disdained this
branch of art, and wealthy collectors have vied
with each other in costly designs.

The idea was soon adopted in other Euro-
pean countries. The French wrought with
great delicacy and beauty, but Avith too elaborate
and profuse decoration. The English were very
late in adopting the fashion : the number of
examples which have come down from before
the Restoration is singularly few, and the first
engraved one we possess is that of Sir Nicholas
Bacon, father of the Chancellor, dated 1574;
though an old folio volume from Henry VIII.'s
library, now in the British Museum, contains

an elaborately emblazoned drawing which formed
the book-plate of Cardinal Wolsey, with his
arms, supporters, and cardinal's hat. But after
the Restoration they multiply so rapidly that
owing to the great number of wealthy English
collectors, they far outnumber all the rest of
the world, and some of them have considerable
historical interest. Pepys had several, one with
initials and crossed anchors probably as early
as 1668, one with his portrait not earlier than
1685. Among other English names highly
prized by book-plate collectors may be men-
tioned Bishop Burnet, William Penn, Robert
Harley, Matthew Prior, Lawrence Sterne, David
Garrick, Horace Walpole, John Wilkes, and
Charles James Fox. Among the artists who
have engraved them are those of William Mar-
shall and Robert White, Hogarth, Bartolozzi,
Bewick, and Vertue. Bewick at one time was
regularly employed in their production. One
of the prettiest of book-plates is that designed
in 1793 by Agnes Berry for the Hon. Mrs.
Darner, and engraved by l^rancis Legat.

The style of design, naturally, has varied
with the taste of the age, and is no mean index
of its characteristics. The chief English styles
have been classified by Lord de Tabley, the
leading modern authority, as follows : Early
English, entirely armorial, with profuse man-
tling, and large fuII-rounded curves surround-
ing three and often four sides of the shield.
Jacobean, from about the time of James II. to
174s, with a heavy carved appearance, an even
balance of proportions, always a regular out-
line, and often a carved molding around it
which makes a massive rectangular frame — a
dignified and reposeful if rather formal st}de.
The Chippendale succeeded, lighter and more
graceful, with rich curves and airy scrolls, the
helmet gone, no set form of shield, and a pro-
fusion of careless sprays and garlands, etc.
This degenerated with poor artists into an in-
congruous mass of overdone and rococo orna-
mentation, a heap of all the unrelated objects
of nature and art and the most artificial frivoli-
ties of design, portraits, and castles, and ruined
abbeys, Watteau shepherdesses and shepherds,
lambs and dragons, dogs and ships, etc. About
1770 came in the Ribbon and Wreath, with a
shield decorated as the name implies, much sim-
pler and more tasteful.

The American settlers for more than a cen-
tury made no attempt at book-plates of their

BOOKS

own manufacture: the richer colonists looked
to England for everything, especially luxuries
and articles of culture, and the others had no
time or taste for superfluities. Naturally
enough, most of these early plates belong in the
southern colonies, where there was more of
leisure and cultivation of the decorative side
of life; but for the same reason, their more in-
timate connection with England and preference
for its ways, as well as superior taste, they con-
tinued to use its book-plates almost exclusively
long after American engravers were actively
employed upon this branch of work. Very few
of the old southern plates are of American de-
sign, and consequently they are much less valued
by collectors (except for the owner's sake, as
with Washington's) than the northern; though
the latter are much cruder in heraldry, design,
and execution. The earliest dated and signed
American plate by a native engraver is that of
Thomas Dering, engraved in 1740 by Nathaniel
Hurd of Boston ; the next is of John Burnet
(1754), by Henry Dawkins, who settled in
1730-77, the best of our early engravers,
though there is no doubt that an earlier
one of Kurd's was that of Edward Augus-
tus Holyoke; Philadelphia and later in New
York; then comes that of Benjamin Greene
(1757), by Hurd; then of the Albany Society
Library (1759). Paul Revere also engraved
book-plates ; as did Amos Doolittle of New
Haven, Peter Maverick of New York, Alex-
ander Anderson of New York (the first Amer-
ican wood engraver, sometimes called the
*^ American Bewick"), and others, in the north-
ern States, especially around the great centres
like Boston, New Haven, Philadelphia, and
Baltimore. They worked mainly in the Chippen-
dale style till it gave place to the Ribbon and
Wreath, and originated no new style.

The earliest book-plates were of large size,
as if made specially for folios ; but a smaller
size soon became general, and was used for
books of all sizes. Some owners, however,
have used different plates for different sizes;
some of Sir William Stirling-Maxwell's were
of gigantic proportions.

The collection of book-plates is a very mod-
ern amusement, but has risen to enormous
proportions. The first collector known was Dr.
Joseph Jackson Howard, and his collection
numbered over 100.000. Sir Augustus Wollas-
ton Franks of London had one of some 200.000,
which he left to the British Museum. A Ger-
man nobleman, Count Karl Emich zu Leinin-
gen-Westerburg, had also an exceedingly fine
one. A number of large and valuable ones
exist in the United States, including that of
the Grolier Club, which gave in 1894 the fir.st
American public exhibition of them. There is
a cosmopolite association of collectors and con-
noisseurs, the Ex Libris Society of London
(1890), issuing a monthly journal, and there
are also periodicals devoted to it in France and
Germany. There are regular «prices current"
of book-plates among dealers, and auction sales
as of books. The intelligent study of them is
based on the work of the English poet John
Byrne Leicester Warren, afterward Lord de
Tabley, who published, in 1880, his <Guide to
the Study of Book-Plates,* which has no rival,
and whose classifications are universally^ ac-
cepted. Special works on particular divisions,
besides works in foreign languages, are, among

others. Castle's < English Book- Plates' (1892) ;
Hamilton's 'French Book-Plates^ (1892);
Hardy's <Book-Plates> (1893) ; C. D. Allen's
•^American Book-Plates' (1894), Labouchere's
'Ladies' Book-Plates' (1895); Hamilton's
'Dated Book-Plates' (1896) ; etc.

Books, Censorship of. Unless we con-
sider the burning of condemned books under the
Roman emperors as a censorship, the establish-
ment of this institution must be attributed to the
popes ; but it cannot be denied that it would
have sprung up in a thousand other places even
if it had not existed in their dominions. Soon
after the invention of printing, the popes per-
ceived the influence which this art exerted over
the diffusion of knowledge. It was besides
doubly dangerous at a time when the authority
of the Church had been assailed, and was shak-
ing under the load of its abuses. They en-
deavored therefore to prohibit first the reading,
and secondly the printing, of certain literary
works. They enforced the ancient decrees of
the Church against the reading of heretical
books, and introduced an ecclesiastical super-
intendency of the press in 1479 and 1496, more
completely established by a bull of Leo X. in
1515. In this the bishops and inquisitors were
required to examine all works before they were
printed, and thus to prevent the publication of
heretical opinions. They went still farther:
as this papal decree could not be carried into
execution in all countries on account of the
Reformation, they prepared an index of books
which nobody was allowed to read under pen-
alty of the censure of the Church. This index
was commenced by the Council of Trent, in the
fourth session of which (1546) the decree of
the censorship was renewed ; but it was not
executed, and was finally left to the popes (25th
session of 1563), by whom several such 'Indices
Librorum Prohibitorum' have been published.
Works of an established character, which could
not well be prohibited, it was determined to
expurgate. The Duke of Alva caused such an
'Index Expurgatorius' to be prepared in the
Netherlands ; another was drawn up at Rome
in 1607 ; but there are serious difficulties in ex-
purgating books. The papal government still
continues the policy of prohibiting to the faith-
ful the reading of works deemed dangerous,
and the Congregation of the Index has still
its place and functions at Rome.

In Germany the politico-theological contro-
versies gave the first occasion for the introduc-
tion of this institution, as they were carried
on with the greatest violence on both sides.
The decree of the German diet in 1524 prohibited
them. By the diet of 1530 a more severe super-
intendence of the press was established ; and
this was confirmed by later laws of the empire
in 1541, 1548, 1567, and 1577, etc. It was also
provided at the Peace of Westphalia, 1648
(Osnabr. Instr., cap. v. sec. 50), that the states
should not suffer attacks on religious parties.
From that time the emperors have premised, in
their elective capitulations, to watch strictly
over the fulfilment of this article. In the capitu-
lations of the Emperor Leopold II., 1790, and of
the Emperor Francis IL, it was further added
(art. vi. sec. 8), "that no work should he
printed which could not be reconciled with
the symbolical books of both Catholics and
Protestant?, and with good morals, or which

BOOLAK — BOOLE

might produce the ruin of the existing consti-
tution, or the disturbance of public peace.^* It
was, however, not difficult in most Protestant
•countries for individual authors or literary jour-
nals to obtain an exemption from the censor-
ship ; and many institutions, academies, univer-
sities, etc., were privileged in this way as far
as concerned their regular professors. The gov-
ernments sometimes protected their subjects
with great energy; as, for instance, that of
Hanover, in the case of Putter and Schloezer.
■Censorship Avas first abolished in England. It
was formerly exercised by the well-known Star-
chamber, and, after the abolition of this court
in 1641, by the Parliament. In 1662 it was regu-
lated by a particular statute, but only for a
certain number of years. This statute was re-
newed in 1679, and again in 1692 for two
years more. In 1694 the right of the crown to
render the printing of writings, journals, etc.,
■dependent on its permission, — that is, the cen-
sorship, — ceased entireh'. In Holland, and even
in the Austrian Netherlands, a great liberty, if
not an entire freedom of the press, prevailed.
All that was not permitted to be printed in
France appeared in the Netherlands or in Swit-
zerland, at Lausanne and Geneva, to the great
advantage of the Dutch and Swiss book-trade.

In Sweden, by an edict of 1766, and accord-
ingly under the aristocratical constitution, the
abolition of the censorship was ordered ; yet
Gust-avus III., personally a friend to the liberty
of the press, was obliged to retain the censor-
ship, and even to execute it with severity, during
the aristocratical machinations which disturbed
"his reign, and which were but imperfectly coun-
teracted in the Revolution of 1771. Gustavus
IV. issued an edict soon after he ascended the
throne, by which the censorship was retained
■only in matters of religion, and was admin-
istered by the consistories. This, however, was
not permanent ; at first penalties were enacted,
and in 1802 the censorship was entirely re-estab-
lished, committed to the chancellor of the court,
and executed with severity. French and Ger-
man books were prohibited. King Charles
XIII., immediately after his ascension to the
throne, abolished it entirely by a provisional
order of 12 April 1809, which was confirmed as
an article of the constitution (sec. 86), 6 June
1809. In Denmark, by a royal rescript of 14
Sept. 1770 (under the minister Struensee), the
censorship was wholly abolished; neither has
it been restored, though the laws by which the
liberty of the press has been regulated have
been changing, and have sometimes been very
oppressive. In France the censorship, which
had belonged to the department of the chan-
cellor and been administered by royal censors,
was annihilated by the revolution. All the con-
stitutions, from 1791 to the Charte Constitution-
elle in 1814, declare the liberty of the press
one of the fundamental laws. During the re-
public there was no censorship, but the revolu-
tionary tribunals took its place. Napoleon re-
stored it in another form by the decree of 5 Feb.
1810 (Direction de ITmprimerie). Since the
Restoration it has also undergone various
changes. Books of more than 20 sheets have
always remained free, but the censorship has
been exercised over pamphlets and journals
at different periods. Under the government of
the Em.Deror Napoleon III. the censorship was

re-established with new penalties, and is still
maintained.

In the kingdom of the Netherlands the cen-
sorship was abolished by a fundamental statute
of 24 Aug. 1815 (art. ccxxvi.), and this statute
is still in force in the kingdom of Holland. By
art. xviii. of the constitution of Belgium, 1831,
it is declared that the press is free, and that
no censorship can ever be established. In the
German states the liberty of the press was
much restrained till 1806, the state-attorney
having till then had control over it. After 1814
several states abolished the censorship, though
with very different provisions as to the respon-
sibility of authors, printers, and booksellers.
In accordance with the unhappy decrees of Carls-
bad, 1819, and the resolutions of the German
diet of 20 Sept. 1819, the censorship in all the
states of the German confederation became one
of the conditions of union, but only with re-
gard to books of less than 20 sheets, and jour-
nals. These laws were repealed in 1S49, but
in the course of a few years they were gradually
introduced, although in a modified form, and in
this form they still exist in inost of the separate
German states as well as in the empire. In
Russia and Austria there is naturally a despotic
censorship. In the United States of America
a censorship has never existed.

Besides the different degrees of severity with
which the censorship is exercised in different
countries, it inay be divided into different kinds,
according to the field which it embraces, (i) A
general censorship of the book-trade and of
the press, under which even foreign books can-
not be sold without the consent of the censors,
exists in Russia, Austria, Spain, etc. (Austria
has, in the censorshiD of foreign books, four
formulas: (a) admittitur, entirely free; (b)
transeat, free, but without public advertisements
for sale; (c) erga schedam, to be sold only to
public officers and literary men on the delivery
of a receipt; (d) datnuatur, entirely forbidden)

(2) A general censorship of the press, extending
only to books printed in the country, exists in
Prussia (edict of 19 Sept. 1788; order of the
cabinet of 28 Dec. 1824; law of 12 May 1851).

(3) A limited censorship, only over works of
less than 20 sheets, and journals, is at present
the law in the states of the German empire. See
Press, Liberty of the.

Boolak, boo-lak', Boulak, or Bulak, an
Egyptian town on the Nile, and the port of
Cairo. Its site was once an island, but that
part of the river which separated it from Cairo
has been filled up. In 1799 Boolak was burned
by the French. Mehemet Ali rebuilt it, and es-
tablished extensive cotton-spinning, weaving,
and printing works, a school of engineering,
and a printing establishment, from which is
issued a weekly new^spaper in Arabic. The town
contains a mosque, a naval arsenal, a dockyard,
and a custom-house, and is surrounded by the
country residences of numerous Egyptian gran-
dees. An electric railway connects it with Cairo.
Pop. about 13,000.

Boole, George, English mathematician and
logician; b. Lincoln, 2 Nov. 1815; d. Cork, 8
Dec. 1864. Educated in his native place, he
opened a school in his 20th year, and by private
study gained such proficiency in mathematics
that in 1849 he was appointed to the mathemat-
ical chair in Queen's College, Cork, where till

BOOM — BOONE

rest of his life was spent. In mathematics he
wrote on ^Differential Equations' ; 'General
Method in Analysis' ; <The Comparison of Tran-
scendents,' etc. In logic he wrote <An Investi-
gation of the Laws of Thought' (1854), an
amplified edition of his earlier < Mathematical
Analysis of Logic' (1847), a profound and origi-
nal work, in which a symbolic language and
notation were employed in regard to logical
processes.

Boom, in fortification, and in marine de-
fenses, a strong chain or cable stretched across
the mouth of a river or harbor, to prevent the
enemy's ships from entering, and having a
number of poles, bars, etc., fastened to it ;
whence the name ; as, to cut or burst the boom.
It often denotes a long pole employed to extend
the sails of a ship, as the main boom, jib boom,
etc. The term may also be applied to a pole
set up as a sea mark to point out the channel
to seamen, when navigating in shallows. The
word also designates a hollow, roaring sound ;
as, the boom of a cannon ; the reverberating
cry of the bittern. In recent years it is often
used to denote a sudden rise in the market value
of real estate, stocks, or commodities ; an enthu-
siastic popular movement in favor of any per-
son, cause, or thing; as, a real estate boom,
a political boom, a boom in sugar.

Boomerang, a missile or weapon of a
peculiar nature used by the natives of Australia.
It is from 30 to 40 inches in length, and is
made of hard wood. In shape it is curved some-
what like a scimitar or a parabola, or it may
have a decided bend in the middle nearly ap-
proaching a right angle, the bend being a natural
one. The breadth is usually about three inches,
and while one surface is flat the other is some-
what rounded. Boomerangs are of different
kinds, some being used in war, others in the
chase, others for amusement. One variety can
be hurled so as to turn while in the air and
come back almost to the place whence it was
thrown. It is this peculiarity that has made
the boomerang so famous, though the returning
boomerang, if not used merely for amusement,
is only used to bring down birds. In throwing,
the weapon is grasped by one end, and after
a short run hurled straight in front. It then
takes a horizontal position and revolves rapidly
as it moves obliquely upward into the air. After
a time it curves round, and if he so intends,
comes back close to the thrower. It may move
for a considerable distance horizontally at only
a few feet above the ground, and then sud-
denly rise vertically upward with great velocity.
The peculiarly irregular character of its path
through the air, and the rapid change in its
direction of movement, render it a very efficient
weapon for killing birds. There is also a spe-
cial boomerang for killing birds capable of being
thrown in a straight course of 200 yards. The
Australian natives often throw the boomerang
in such a way as to cause it to strike the ground
about 30 feet off; this is said to impart in-
creased velocity, and the weapon may even hit
the ground a second time and rebound into the
air. The war boomerang is larger and heavier
than that used in hunting. Weapons similar to
the boomerang, or kiley, as the Australians also
call it, but lacking the property of returnmg,
have been, and still are, used by other races,
notably the ancient Egyptians and the modem

Abyssinians. Sir Samuel Baker Jescribes the
latter as about two feet long, and made of a
piece of fiat hard wood, whose end turns at an
angle of 30°. Various derivations of the word
have been suggested, one connecting it with a
root meaning strike or kill, and another with
the native word for wind.

Boondee, boon-de', or Bundi, a native
state of Hindustan, in Rajputana, under Brit-
ish protection ; area 2,300 square miles. A range
of hills running from southwest to northeast,
penetrated by few passes and rising to the height
of 1,793 feet, divides the state into two almost
equal portions, that on the south being the more
fertile. Much of the state is underwood. The
chief river is the Mej, which penetrates the cen-
tral range, and joins the Chambal near the north-
east extremity of the state. It was much
more extensive before Kotah and its territory
were separated from it. The inhabitants are of
the Hara tribe, which has given birth to many
famous men, and, among others, to Ram Singh
Hara, one of Aurungzebe's most renowned gen-
erals. The ruler is practically absolute in his
own territory. Pop. (1901) 171,227. Bondee,
the capital, is picturesquely situated on a steep
slope in a gorge in the centre of the hills above
mentioned, and its antiquity, numerous temples,
and magnificent fountains, give it a very inter-
esting appearance. It is crowned by a fort and
surrounded by fortified walls. For picturesque
effect its main street is almost unequaled. At
its upper extremity stands the palace, built of
stone, with turreted windows and battlements,
supported partly by the perpendicular rock, and
partly by solid piers of masonry 400 feet high.
At its lower extremity is the great temple
dedicated to Krishna. Pop. 31,000.

Boone, Daniel, American pioneer: b. Bucks
County, Pa., 11 Feb. 1735; d. 26 Sept. 1822. He
was one of 11 children. His father emigrated
from England, and when Daniel was very young
removed with his family from Bucks into Berks
County, not far from Reading, then a frontier
settlement, exposed to Indian assaults. It
abounded with game, and thus, Daniel became
accustomed to a life in the woods, and formed
an intense love for uncultivated nature. His
education was confined to a knowledge of read-
ing, writing, and arithmetic. When he was
about 18 his father removed to North Carolina
and settled on the Yadkin. Here, in 1755,' Daniel
married Rebecca Bryan, and for some years
followed the occupation of a farmer, but about
1761 his passion for hunting led him, with a
company of explorers, along the wilderness at
the head waters of the Tennessee River. In
1764 he joined another company of hunters on
the Rock Castle, a branch of the Cumberland
River. He had become dissatisfied with life in
North Carolina. The customs of the colony
were becoming luxurious ; the rich were ex-
empt from the necessity of labor, and the people
were much oppressed by taxes. Boone imbibed
a chronic hatred of law forms which lasted
through life, and his neglect of these, in securing
his tides to land, reduced him to poverty on
more than one occasion.

In 1767 a backwoodsman named John Finley
made an excursion farther west than had before
been attempted, and returned with glowing
accounts of the border region of Kentucky, which
he represented as a hunter's paradise. Boone

BOONE

headed a party of six for its exploration, leav-
ing his Yadkin home i May 1769. On 7 June,
in the same year, they reached an elevation from
which they beheld the whole region watered by
the Kentucky River and its tributaries. At
this point on the waters of the Red River, a
branch of the Kentucky, and supposed to be
within the present limits of Morgan County,
they halted and hunted until December without
seeing a single Indian, although they were con-
tinually on the alert for them. They then sepa-
rated into parties, Boone and a man named
Stewart keeping company, and on 22 December
these two were surprised and captured by In-
dians, who robbed them and kept them prisoners
for seven days, when they managed to make
good their escape. Early next month Boone
and Stewart were gratified by the arrival in
the wilderness of Daniel's younger brother Squire
and another hunter from North Carolina, bring-
ing tidings of the family at home and a much-
needed supply of powder and lead. Soon after
this event Stewart and Boone were again at-
tacked by Indians. Boone escaped, but his com-
panion was shot and scalped, and the man who
came with Squire having perished in the woods
the two brothers were left alone together. On
I May it was decided that Squire should return
for supplies, while Daniel remained to take
care of and increase the store of peltry. They
parted, and until 27 July, when Squire returned,
Daniel remained in utter solitude, without bread,
salt, or sugar. The brothers then continued
their explorations over other parts of Ken-
tucky until March 1771, when, taking as much
peltry as their horses could carry, they returned
to their families on the Yadkin, Daniel having
been absent about two years, during which time
he had seen no human beings but his hunting
companions and the hostile Indians. He was
now anxious to remove to Kentucky, and al-
though his wife and children were easily per-
suaded to do so, two years elap.sed before he
could make the necessary arrangements. He
sold his farm, and on 25 Sept. 1773, the two
brothers, with their families, set out for Ken-
tucky. At Powell's Valley, through which their
route lay, they were joined by five families and
40 men well armed, but on approaching Cum-
berland Gap, near the junction of Virginia, Ken-
tucky, and Tennessee, they were attacked by
Indians and were forced to retreat 40 miles to
Clinch River, leaving six of their party slain,
among whom was Boone's eldest son, James.
The emigrants were much disheartened, and
Boone remained at Clinch River until June
i774j when Gov. Dunmore sent him a message
to proceed to the wilderness of Kentucky and
conduct thence a party of surveyors who were
believed to be in danger from the Indians.
This undertaking was successful, but no inci-
dents of it have been preserved excepting that
Boone was absent 62 days, in which he traveled
on foot 800 miles. While he was gone to Ken-
tucky the Shawnees and other Indians northwest
of the Ohio River became hostile. Boone was
appointed to the command of three contiguous
garrisons, with the commission of captain, and,
having fought several battles and defeated the
Indians, he returned to his family on Clinch
River and spent the next winter in hunting.
He was shortly after employed by the Transyl-
vania Company, established to purchase lands
in Kentucky, to explore, mark, and open a road

from settlements on the Holston to the Kentucky
River. In the face of great dangers this was
accomplished, and on i April 1775, a site hav-
ing been selected on the bank of the Kentucky
River, the party erected a stockade fort and
called it Boonesborough. Boone soon removed
his family to the new settlements, his wife and
daughters being the first white women that ever
stood on the banks of the Kentucky. The win-
ter and spring of 1776 wore away without any
particular incident, as the Indians, though by
no means friendly, made no direct attack. On
14 July a daughter of Boone and two female
companions were captured by a party of Indians,
but next morning Boone and his companions
followed the trail and surprised the Indians so
suddenly that they had not time to murder
their captives, and the three girls were restored
to their families. During the whole of 1777
Boone was employed with his command in re-
pelling the attacks of the Indians, who were
incited to the most savage deeds of cruelty by
the British during the Revolutionary War. His
services were of incalculable advantage to the
new settlements. On I Jan. 1778, the people
suffering greatly for want of salt, he headed
a party for the lower Blue Licks to manufacture
it, and on 7 February, while at some distance
from the camp, he was surprised and made pris-
oner by a party of 100 Indians. Again in this
instance his consummate knowledge of the red
man's character saved him and his friends. He
ingratiated himself in their regard, and obtained
favorable terms for his party at the Licks, who
became prisoners of war under the promise of
good treatment. He knew that the Indians
would march to attack Boonesborough, and that
if he and his party resisted they would all be
murdered and those at the fort massacred, as no
warning could reach them. He was conducted
to old Chillicothe, and thence to Detroit, where
he was kindly received by the English com-
mander. Gov. Hamilton. In order to bafifle his
captors he pretended to be very much pleased
with his mode of life among the Indians, went
through the form of adoption by them, having
his hair pulled out excepting the scalp-lock,
^'his white blood washed out*' in the river, and
his face painted. On 16 June he went out to
hunt, and when out of view, started direct
for Boonesborough, more than 160 miles
distant, which he traveled in less than five
days. He reached Boonesborough m time
to warn the garrison. All supposed him dead,
and his wife, under that impression, had
returned with her children to North Carolina.
The fort was at once put in complete order for
defense, and on 8 August it was besieged by
444 Indians, led by Capt. Duquesne and 11 other
Canadians, having French and British colors.
Summoned to surrender, Boone replied with
defiance, and after a savage attack upon the fort
the assailants, six times greater in number than
the garrison, raised the siege, leaving 37 of
their party killed and many more wounded.
Boone was now promoted to the rank of major.
In 1778 he went to North Carolina to see his
family. The next year, having invested nearly
all his little property in paper money to buy
land warrants, and having, besides his own,
large sums of money to invest for other people,
he was robbed of the whole, about $20,000, on
his way from Kentucky to Richmond, where the
court of commissioners was held to decide on

BOONE — BOORDE

Kentucky land claims. In 1780 he returned
with his family to Boonesborough, and in Octo-
ber of that year his brother, on a hunting ex-
cursion with him, was killed and scalped by
the Indians, and Boone himself narrowly es-
caped. The Indians being exceedingly trouble-
some, a large party of militia was formed to
follow and punish them, who, against Boone's
counsel, suffered themselves to be drawn into
an ambuscade, and the disastrous battle of the
Blue I.icks followed, in which Boone lost an-
other son and had a brother wounded. At the
close of the Revolutionary War Col. Boone re-
turned to the quiet life of his farm and to his
passion for hunting. In 1792 Kentucky was ad-
mitted into the Union as a sovereign State, and
as courts of justice were established, litigation
in regard to land titles commenced, and was
finally carried to great lengths. From defective
titles, Boone, with hundreds of others, lost the
lands he possessed, with their valuable improve-
ments, and thus after the vigor of his life was
spent, he found himself without a single acre of
the vast domain he had explored and fought to
defend from savage invaders. Disgusted with
his treatment he resolved to abandon Kentucky
and move to the far West, which he did in
1795. He settled first on the Femme Osage,
about 45 miles west of St. Louis, where he re-
mained until 1804; he then removed to the home
of his youngest son until 1810, and finally went
to live with his son-in-law, Flanders Callaway.
As the country, at the time of his removal, was
under the dominion of Spain, on 11 July 1800,
he was appointed commandant of the Femme
Osnge district; and as his fame had preceded
him, 10.000 arpents, or about 8,500 acres, of
choice land were marked out on the north side
of the Missouri River, and given to him for his
official services. This princely estate he also
subsequently lost, because he would not take
the trouble to go to New Orleans to complete
his title before the immediate representative of
the Spanish crown. Having left Kentucky in
debt, he was much troubled for a while by ill
success in hunting, but at length he obtained
a valuable store of peltry, turned it into cash,
went to Kentucky, without book account, paid
every one whatever was demanded, and on his
return to upper Louisiana with but half a dollar
left, said that he was ready to die content. In
1812 he petitioned Congress to confirm the title
to his claim of i.ooo arpents of land, which he
had neglected to have done in proper form, and
was in danger of losing, as he had everything
else. He sought the aid of the legislature of
Kentucky, and his petition was successfully
urged in Congress, in requital for his eminent
services. He continued to hunt occasionally as
long as his strength remained, but wa.".
obliged to give up his rifle several years be-
fore his death. Chester Harding, who in 1820
painted the only portrait of him ever taken,
informs us that his first sight of the old pio-
neer found him lying in his bunk in the cabin,
engaged in cooking a venison steak on a ram-
rod. His memory of immediate events was
very defective, but of past years as keen as
ever. He was quite feeble, but able to walk
out with Harding every day. This portrait
now hangs in the State House at Frankfort,
Ky. He died surrounded by his children and
descendants, some of the fiftli generation, in the
88th year of his age. On 20 Aug. 1845 the re-

mains were deposited with appropriate ceremo-
nies in the cemetery at Frankfort. In all the
relations of private life Boone was a model
for imitation. In spite of his many Indian en-
counters he w-as a lover of peace, modest in
disposition, of incorruptible integrity, moral
and temperate.

Boone, William Jones, American bishop:
b. Walterborough, S. C, I July 181 1; d. Shang-'
hai, China, 17 July, 1864. He graduated from
South Carolina College in 1829, was admitted
to the bar, but, deciding to devote himself to
a missionary life, he prepared for orders at the
Virginia Theological Seminary, and was or-
dained priest in 1837. In order to equip himself
thoroughly for his work, he took a course of
medical study and received the degree of M.D.
from the South Carolina Medical College. He
sailed for China in July 1837; in 1844 he was
chosen the first American Protestant Episcopal
missionary bishop to China, and was conse-
crated at Philadelphia 25 Oct. 1844. The re-
mainder of his life, save for an occasional
visit to the United States for rest or health,
was spent in the work of his diocese, l^e came
to be well known for his knowledge of the Chi-
nese language. He began his transJation of
the Prayer Book into that tongue in 1846, and
later was one of a committee appointed to
secure an accurate translation of the Bible into
Chinese.

Boone, Iowa, a city and county-seat of
Boone County, on the Chicago & N. W. and
the Chicago, M. & St. Paul R.R.'s, 36 miles
northeast of Des Moines. It is an important
milling, manufacturing, and coal-mining centre,
and in the vicinity are large deposits of fire
and pottery clays. The chief industries are the
manufacture of flour, brick, tiles, and pottery,
and the mining and shipping of coal. The city
has five banks, a Federal building, public library,
and hospital. It was settled in 1848 and incor
porated in 1866. Pop. (1900) 8,880.

Boonton, N. J., a town of Morris County,
situated 30 miles from New York, on the Dela-
ware, L. & W. R.R., the Morris and Essex
Canal, and the Rockaway River. It has very
extensive ironworks, to the early establishment
of which (1700) the town owes its foundation.
There are also manufactories of agricultural
implements, paints, paper, rubber, etc. Pop.
(1901) 3,901.

Boonville, or Booneville, Mo., a city and
river port, capital of Cooper County, on the
right bank of the Missouri River, here crossed
by a fine railway bridge, 43 miles northwest of
Jefferson City. It is built on a healthful site
about 100 feet above the river. Its manufactures
are of but little importance, but some trade is
carried on. On 16 June i86r, a Confederate
force under Marmaduke was put to flight here
by Federal troops under Lyon. Pop. (1900)
4,377- ;•

Boorde, or Borde, bord, Andrew, English '
traveler and physician : b. near Cuckfield. Sus-
sex, about 1490; d. 1549- He entered tht Car-
thusian order at the Charterhouse. London, and
in 1521 was appointed suffragan bishop of Chi-
chester. The rigor of the Carthusian discipline
was too much for him. and about 1528 he ob-
tained a dispensation relieving him from hia

BOORHANPOOR — BOOTH

vow. He then studied medicine on the Conti-
nent, returning to England in 1530, but soon
afterward again visited the Continent, where
he studied at the chief medical schools, includ-
ing those of Orleans, Poitiers, Toulouse, Mont-
pellier, and Wittenberg. His journey extended
to Rome and Compostella, and in 1534 he was
again in England. His next journey was under-
taken at the instance of Thomas Cromwell, in
order to ascertain continental opinion about
Henry VHI. In 1536 he was in Scotland, study-
ing and practising "in a lytle vnyuersyte or
study named Glasco,^^ and he speaks of Scotch-
men as deceitful, and inveterate haters of the
English. During the years 1538-42 he was again
on the Continent, and this time he went as far
as Jerusalem. While staying in Winchester his
open immorality got him into trouble, and he
was afterward lodged in the Fleet Prison, Lon-
don. Boorde, who jocularly calls himself
Andreas Perforatus, was the author of several
works, among which are the following: *Fyrst
Boke of the Introduction of Knowledge^ (about
1547) ; a ^Handbook of Europe,-* the first of
its kind; a ^Dyetary^ (1542); a medical trea-
tise entitled ^Breuyary of Health^ (i547) ;
*Boke of Berdes,' a condemnation of the beard,
known only through an extant portion of a
reply by another writer; a book on *^Astrona-
mye^ ; an ^Itinerary of England^ ; an ^Itinerary
of Europe-* ; ^Boke of Sermons^ ; etc. His
^Fyrst Boke^ contains the first printed specimen
of the Gypsy language. Many other works, such
as ^The Merry Tales of the Mad Men of
Gotham,^ have been ascribed to Dr. Boorde. Dr.
Furnivall edited his ^Introduction^ and his
*Dyetary' for the Early English Text Society
in 1870.

Boorhanpoor, boo-run-poor', India, a town
of the Deccan, in the division of Nerbudda and
the district of Nimar, formerly capital of the
province of Candeish, on the north side of the
Taptee. When viewed from the opposite side
of the river it presents rather an imposing
appearance. Many of the streets are wide, regu-
lar, and paved with stone; as are also the Raj
Bazaar and the market-place, an extensive
square, the two handsomest places in the town.
The most remarkable public edifices are the
Lai Kilah, or Red Fort, a palace built by Akbar,
and though much dilapidated, exhibiting still
many remains of imperial magnificence ; and the
Jumma Musjeed, or great mosque, built by
Aurungzebe. A singular sect of Mohammedans,
named Bohrah, have their headquarters here.
They are the chief merchants in this part of
India, have Arab features, wear the Arab cos-
tume, and derive their origin from a disciple
of their great prophet. Boorhanpoor was
formerly famous for its muslin and flowered
silk manufactures, which are still carried on to
a considerable extent. Pop. (1891) 32,252.

Booro, boo'ro, one of the Molucca Islands,
in the Indian Archipelago, west of Amboyna,
belonging to the Dutch. It is oval in shape, 92
miles long, and 70 broad. It has several bays,
of which Cajeli is the largest, and contains a
safe harbor sheltered from the monsoons.
Viewed from this bay the island has a very fine
appearance. In the foreground the minarets
and native houses are seen through the open-
ings of the rich tropical vegetation ; while lofty
mountains, wooded to their summits, shut in the

view. The island is watered by 125 streams,
large and small. On the northwest side there
are vast swamps swarming with crocodiles. The
island contains some high mountains — Mount
Tumahu having an altitude of 8,530 feet. Booro
produces a variety of valuable woods, balsams,
resins, and odoriferous flowers. The chief arti-
cle of export is cajeput oil, of which about
$50,000 worth is exported yearly ; most being
sent to Java. The tree from which it is ob-
tained (Melaleuca cajeputi) grows also upon
the islands of Amboyna, Ceram, Celebes, and
Sumatra; but the best oil is procured in Booro.
The population (about 60,000) consists of
Alfoories in the interior, and Malays on the
coast.

Booroojird, Burujird, or Boorojerd, boo-
roo-jerd, Persia, a town in the province of
Luristan, capital of a district of same name, 190
miles northwest from Ispahan, with a castle and
several mosques. It lies in a fertile and well-
cultivated valley, yielding saffron, belonging to
the Lack tribe. Pop. 20,000.

Boot, an article of dress, generally of
leather, covering the foot and extending to a
greater or less distance up the leg. The sandal
formed the chief foot-covering among the Greeks
and Romans, and it is still in common use among
Eastern nations. The boot, properly so called,
came into use as part of the warrior's equipment
about the 14th or 15th century, and since then
it has assumed many different forms. The jack-
boot, a kind of top-boot not yet altogether dis-
carded, was in common use during the latter
half of the 17th century, but was to a great ex-
tent displaced by the Hessian, which in its turn
has given way to more recent forms. The name
was given to an instrument of torture made
of iron, or of iron and wood, fastened on to
the leg, between which and the boot wedges were
introduced and driven in by repeated blows of
a mallet, with such violence as to crush both
muscles and bones. The special object of this
form of torture was to extort a confession of
guilt from an accused person.

Bootan. See Bhutan.

Bootes, bo-o'tez (^^ox-driver,^^ from Gr.
boiis, an ox), a northern constellation; called
also by the Greeks, Arctophylax. Arcturus was
placed by the ancients on his breast ; by the
moderns, on the skirt of his coat. Fable relates
that Philomelus, son of Ceres and Jason, hav-
ing been robbed by his brother, Plutus, invented
the plough, yoked two bulls to it, and thus sup-
ported himself by cultivating the ground. Ceres,
to reward his ingenuity, transferred him, with
his cattle, under the name of Bootes, to the
heavens.

Booth, Agnes (Mrs. John B. Shoeffel),
American actress : Id. Sydney, Australia, 1846.
She made her first American appearance in New
York in 1865, becoming later Edwin Forrest's
leading lady. She has assumed numerous
famous roles with success. She has been three
times married.

Booth, Ballington, general of the Volun-
teers of America : b. Brighouse, England, 28
July 1859. He is a son of William Booth
(q.v.), founder of the Salvation Army, with
which body he was officially connected until
1896, when he seceded and founded the Volun-

BOOTH

teers, a religious body under the form of a
military organization, organized in the interest
of the unchurched masses.

Booth, Barton, English actor: b. 1681; d.
May 1733. He was educated under Dr. Busby,
at Westminster School. An early attachment
for the drama was fostered by the applause he
met with while performing a part in one of
lerence's plays at the annual exhibition in that
seminary. He ran away from school at the age
of 17, and joined Ashbury's company of stroll-
ing players, with whom he went to Dublin.
After performing three years in the Irish cap-
ital with great applause, he returned in 1701
to London, and, engaging with Betterton, met
with similar success. On the death of that
manager he joined the Drury Lane Company,
and on the production of ^Cato^ in 1712, raised
his reputation as a tragedian to the highest
pitch by his performance of the principal cha-
racter. It was on this occasion that Lord Boling-
broke presented him from the stage box with
50 guineas — an example which was immediately
followed by that nobleman's political opponents.
Declamation, rather than passion, appears to
have been his forte, though Cibber speaks of
his Othello as his finest character. He became
a patentee and manager of the theatre in 1713,
in conjunction with Wilks, Cibber, and Doggett.
He was buried in Westminster Abbey, where
there is a monument to his memory. He was
the author of Dido and yEneas, a mask, various
songs, etc., and the translator of several odes
of Horace.

Booth, Edwin Thomas, American actor
(fourth son of Junius Brutus Booth, q.v.) : b.
near Belair, Md., 13 Nov. 1833 ; d. 7 June 1893.
When 16 years of age he made his first appear-
ance on the stage, in the part of Tressel, his
father acting as Richard III. Two years later
he himself successfully assumed the part of
Richard in place of his father, who unexpectedly
refused to fulfill an evening's engagement. The
following year the two went to California, where
the son remained for several years, visiting Aus-
tralia meanwhile. Meeting with little pecuniary
success, in 1856 he returned to the Atlantic
States, and from that time forward was recog-
nized as a leading member of his profession. He
visited England (1861-2), and in 1864 produced
< Hamlet' at New York for 100 nights consecu-
tively. In 1869 he opened a splendid theatre
in New York, whose building cost over
$1,000,000, but which involved him in pecuniary
ruin. He revisited California in 1876, and in
the spring of 1877 was able to settle with his
creditors, having earned during the season over
$600,000. Booth visited Great Britain and Ger-
many in 1880-2, and was everywhere received
•with enthusiasm. He was founder and first
president of the Players' Club, New York.

Booth, James Curtis, American chemist:
b. Philadelphia. 28 Julv 1810: d. West Haver-
ford, Pa., 21 March 1888. He graduated at the
University of Pennsylvania in 1829. and m
December 1832 went to Germany and entered
the private ^ laboratory of Prof. Friednch
Wcihler in Cassel, being, it is thought, the first
American student of analytical chemistry to
strdy in Germanv. Later he studied m Berlm
and made a practical study of applied cheniis-
try in Euronean manufacturing centres. Re-
turning to Philadelphia in 1836 he opened a

laboratory for instruction in chemical analysis
and applied chemistry. This soon became widely
known and attracted students from all parts of
the country. In 1836 he was made professor of
chemistry applied to the arts in the Franklin
Institute ; during 1837-8 he had charge of the
geological survey of Delaware, and assisted in
that of Pennsylvania; in 1849 he was appointed
melter and refiner at the United States mint in
Philadelphia, an office he held until his resig-
nation, 7 Jan. 1888. His studies of the nickel
ores of Pennsylvania led, in 1856, to the adop-
tion of nickel as one of the components of
the alloys used in the coinage of the 1857 cent.
Publications: * Annual Report of the Delaware
Geological Survey' (1839) ; ^Memoirs of the
Geological Survey of Delaware' (1841) ; 'En-
cyclopaedia of Chemistry, Practical and Applied'
(1850) ; 'Recent Improvements in the Chemical
Arts' (Wash. 1851) ; and he edited, with notes,
a translation of Regnault's 'Elements of Chem-
istry' (2 vols. Phila. 1853).

Booth, John Wilkes, American actor (son
of Junius Brutus Booth, q.v.) : b. Hartford
County, Md., 1839 ; d. 1865. He sided with the
Confederates in the Civil War, and to avenge
the defeat of their cause he formed a con-
spiracy against the life of President Lincoln.
He mortally wounded the President while the
latter was attending a performance in Ford's
Theatre, Washington, 14 April 1865; in escaping
from the building he broke his leg, and con-
cealed himself in Virginia till the 26th, when,
on being discovered, and refusing to surrender,
he was shot.

Booth, Junius Brutus, English tragedian:
b. London, i May 1796; d. Dec. 1852. After ful-
filling engagements at Deptford, near London,
and other places, and even performing: at Brus-
sels, in 1814 he made his debut at Covent Gar-
den Theatre, London, as Richard HI. His per-
sonal resemblance to the crookbacked tyrant con-
formed exactly to the traditions of the stage,
and his personification of the character was in
other respects so striking that he competed suc-
cessfully with Edmund Kean, then just rising
into fame. In 1821 he made his first appearance
in the United States, at Petersburg, Va., and
in New York, at the Park Theatre, in the suc-
ceeding year, on both of which occasions he
assumed his favorite character of Richard III.
From that time until the close of his life he
acted repeatedly in every theatre in the United
States, and in spite of certain irregular habits,
which sometimes interfered with the perform-
ance of his engagements, enjoyed a popularity
which a less gifted actor would have forfeited.
During the latter part of his life he resided
with his family at Baltimore, making occa-
sional professional excursions to other cities.
He had just returned from a lucrative tour to
California when he died. The range of charac-
ters which Booth assumed was limited, and was
confined almost exclusively to those which he
had studied in the beginning of his career. He
is most closely identified with that of Richard,
in which, after the death of Edmund Kean. he
had no rival. Among his other most familiar
personations were lago. Shylock, Hamlet. Sir
Giles Overreach, and Sir Edmund Mortimer
In his peculiar sphere, — the sudden and ner-
vous expression of concentrated passion. — as
also in the more quiet and subtle passages of hia

BOOTH — BOOTON

delineations, he exercised a wonderful sway
over his audience, and his appearance upon the
stage has been known to awe a crowded and
tumultuous house into instant silence. His pres-
ence and action, notwithstanding his short
stature, were imposing, and his face, originally
molded after the antique type, was capable of
wonderful expression under the influence of ex-
citement. Several of his children inherited
a portion of his dramatic talent, and became
prominent actors on the American stage.

Booth, Mary Louise, American journalist
and author: b. Yaphank, Long Island, N. Y., 19
Apcil 1831 ; d. New York, 5 March 1889. She
was widely known as the editor of * Harper's
Bazaar,^ which place she held from 1867 till her
death. Her 'History of the City of New York'
was the first complete work upon the subject
and is still probably the best. It was published
in 1859, a second edition in 1867 ; a third,
thoroughly revised, in 1880. No book has been
a greater favorite of local collectors. One copy
was extended to nine large volumes and en-
larged by many thousand illustrations ; another,
owned by the author, had 2,000 illustrations in-
serted ; and a third was extended to 22 volumes.
Miss Booth's translations number over 30 vol-
umes. They are chiefly from the French of
About, Victor Cousin, Mery, Gasparin, and
Laboulaye. The most pretentious is Henri
Martin's 'History of France,* six volumes of
which she finished.

Booth, Maud Ballington, a leader of the
Volunteers of America : b. near London, 1865.
She was active in the work of the Salvation
Army in England, and established a corps of the
Salvation Army in Switzerland. In 1887 she
married Ballington Booth, and in 1896 joined
him in seceding from the Salvation Army and
organizing the Volunteers of America. She
has been active in work for prisoners, both dur-
ing their imprisonment and after their release.
She is author of 'Branded* and 'Look Up and
Hope.*

Booth, William, founder of the Salvation
Army: b. Nottingham, England, 10 April 1829.
He was educated in his native town, and from
1850 to 1861 acted as minister of the Methodist
New Connection. From the first he was zealous
in holding evangelistic services, but the new de-
parture which led to the creation of the Salva-
tion Army on military lines began in 1865 with
mission work among the lower classes in the
East End of London. Since 1878 Booth's move-
ment has been known as the Salvation Army,
of which he has continued to be the mainspring
and controlling power, directing its movements
at home and abroad from his headquarters in
London. His' enthusiasm and wonderful organ-
izing power have given life to the religious mili-
tary system, of which he is "general.** The
property of the Salvation Army is held for its
exclusive use by Booth. His wife was asso-
ciated with him in the publication of several
hymns and religious works dealing with the
movement, till her death in 1890.

Booth-Tucker, Emma Moss, a leader in
the ociivatiun Army: b. Gateshead,' Eng., 8 Jan.
i860; d. 1903. She was a daughter of William
Booth, the organizer of the "Army'* ; in 1880-8,
.«:he hnd charge of international training homes;
in 1888 she married Commander Booth-Tucker,
went with him to India, and in i8g6 came to the

United States. She held the ramk of consul
in the Salvation Army, and had joint authority
with her husband in the United States.

Booth-Tucker, Frederick St. George de
Latour, American evangelist: b. India, 1853.
He held important official posts in India, but re-
signed them in 1881 to join the Salvation Army.
Upon his marriage with Emma Moss Booth,
daughter of <'Gen. >* William Booth of the Salva-
tion Army, he prefixed Booth to his own name
of Tucker. From 1896-1904 he was commander
of the Salvation Army in the United States, but
resigned to become secretary of all the branches
of the Army outside of Great Britain.

Boothby, Guy Newell, English novelist: b.
Adelaide, South Australia, 13 Oct. 1867; d. Lon-
don, England, 27 Feb. 1905. In 1891 he crossed
Australia from north to south, and also traveled
in the East. His novels include : 'On the Wal-
laby' ; <A Bid for Fortune'; 'Beautiful White
Devil'; < Dr. Nikola'; < Fascination of the King';
< Billy Binks, Hero, and Other Stories'; 'Across
the VVorld for a Wife'; 'Pharos, the Egyptian';
<Love Made Manifest'; <Dr. Nikola's Experi-
ment'; 'A Sailor's Bride'; 'A Maker of Nations';
<My Indian Queen'; 'Farewell Nicola' (1901);
and 'The Viceroy's Protege.'

Boothia Felix, a peninsula on the north coast
of North America, in which is the most northern
part of the continent, Murchison Point, lat. 'jT)°
54' N. It is joined to the mainland by Boothia
Isthmus, is bounded on the north by Bellot Strait,
and to the east is separated from Cockburn Island
by Boothia Gulf (q.v.) It was discovered by Sir
John Ross (1829-33), and named after Sir Felix
Booth, who had furnished $85,000 for the expe-
dition. Here, near Cape Adelaide, Ross dis-
covered the magnetic pole, lat. 70° 5' 17" N. ;
Ion. 96° 46' 45" W.

Boothia, Gulf of, a southward continua-
tion of Prince Regent Inlet in the northern part
of Canada, lying between Boothia Felix (q.v.)
on the west and Cockburn Island on the east.

Bootle, England, a municipal and county
borough in Lancashire, near the mouth of the
Mersey, and adjoining Liverpool, the docks of
which great seaport extend into the borough,
covering 370 acres and constructed at a cost of
£2,500,000. The principal buildings are the town
hall and municipal buildings, school-board
offices, and hospital. Many churches provide
for the public worship of the inhabitants. The
trade of the town is almost exclusively connected
with shipping, timber being the chief import ;
most of the American steamers have their load-
ing berths here. There are large jute-mills, corn-
mdls, foundries, etc. Bootle has ample railway
facilities and tramway cars. The Leeds and
Liverpool Canal passes through it. There is a
municipal electrical station. The history of the
place is included in that of Liverpool. It was
incorporated in 1868. Pop. (1901) 58,558.

Boot'on, or Bou'ton, an island of the
Malay Archipelago, separated by a narrow strait
from the southeast ray of Celebes, and from the
island of Muna. Area, 1,700 miles. It is high,
but not mountainous, and thickly wooded; pro-
duces fine timber, rice, maize, sago, etc._ The
people are Malays. The sultan, who resides at
Bolio. is in allegiance to the Dutch, an under-
resident being stationed on the island. Pop.
17,000.

BOOTS AND SADDLES — BOOTS AND SHOES

Boots and Saddles, or Life in Dakota with
General Custer, by Elizabeth B. Custer <i885).
The author says that her object in writing this
book, which records her experiences in garrison
.and camp with her husband, was to give civil-
ians a glimpse of the real existence of soldiers
in the field. Her married life was not serene;
she was left in 1864 in a lonely Virginia farm-
house to finish her honeymoon alone, her hus-
band being summoned to the front: and at
scarcely any time during the next 12 years was
she free from fear of immediate or threatened
peril. Gen. Custer was ordered to Dakota in
the spring of 1873. Mrs. Custer's book gives a
lively and detailed account of their life there
from 1873 to 1876, the time of the general's
death. There is an interesting chapter on Gen.
Custer's literary habits, and an appendix con-
taining extracts from his letters.

Boots and Shoes. The sandal is the most
ancient foot covering of which there is any rec-
ord. The shoe frequently referred to in the
Old Testament, and which played an important
■part in buying and selling, and in other social
usages, was a sandal. The common sandal of
the ancient Egyptians consisted of strips of
■papyrus plaited into a kind of mat, and that
•form remains the type of sandal of plaited grass
■or straw worn to this day by multitudes in Cen-
tral Asia, India, China, and Japan. The sandal
Avas the ordinary shoe of the ancient Greeks.
In Greece shoes were used only in exceptional
•circumstances. Sandals were the everyday wear
of the Roman populace ; the patricians wore
shoes of black leather ; red leather shoes were
reserved for the senators; and the long buskin,
reaching, sometimes, to near the knee, and fre-
quently supplied with a thick sole to add to the
apparent stature of its wearer, was appropriated
to tragedians and hunters. Boots are said to
have been invented by the Carians. They were
at first made of leather, afterwards of brass or
iron, and were proofs against both cuts and
thrusts. It was from this that Homer called
the Greeks brazen-booted. The boot only cov-
ered half the leg ; some say the right boot, which
was more advanced than the left, it being ad-
vanced in an attack with the sword ; but
■in reality it appears to have been used on
either leg. and sometimes on both. Those who
fought with darts or other missile weapons ad-
vanced the left leg foremost; so that in such
cases this only was booted. Boots were much^
used by the ancients, either for riding on horse-
hack, or walking. The boot was called by the
ancient Romans, ocrea. The Chinese had a kind
of boots made of silk, or fine stufif, lined with
cotton, a full inch thick, which they always wore
at home. These people are always booted ; and
when a visit is made to them, if they happen to
be without their boots, their guest must wait
till thev put them on.

The Middle Ages.— Different kinds of half-
boots were worn lay the Anglo-Saxons and An-
glo-Normans ; and in the reign of Edward IV..
if not earlier, the boot proper, with tops and
spurs, was established as an article of knightly
dress. In the reign of Charles I., a species of
hoot, exceedingly wide at the top. niade of Span-
ish leather, came into use; and with Charles II.
the highly decorated French boot was intro-
duced as an article of gay courtly attire. Mean-
while the jack-boot had become indispen.sable
in the costume of cavalry soldiers and horsemen

generally; and by William III. and his follow
ers it was regularly naturalized in England.
This huge species of boot remained in use in
British cavalry regiments until comparatively
recent times, and, in a somewhat polished and
improved form, it is still worn by the Horse
Guards. The jack-boot is almost entitled to be
called the parent of the top and some other va-
rieties. Boots with tops of a yellow color were
commonly worn by gentlemen in the i8th cen-
tury. Formerly in France, a great foot was
much esteemed, and the length of the shoe, in
the 14th century, was a mark of distinction.
The shoes of a prince were two feet and a half
long; those of a baron two feet; those of a
knight 18 inches long.

In America. — The introduction of the boot
and shoe industry in America is almost coinci-
dent with the first settlement of New England,
for it is a matter of history that in the year
1629 a shoemaker named Thomas Beard, with
a supply of hides, arrived on board the May-
Aower. The pioneer of the American boot and
shoe trade was accredited to the governor of the
colony, by the company in London, at a salary
of $50 per annum and a grant of 50 acres of
land, upon which he should settle. Seven years
after the arrival of Beard, the city of Lynn
saw the inception of the industry which has
given it a world-wide fame, for there, in 1636,
Philip Kertland, a native of Buckinghamshire,
began the manufacture of shoes, and 15 years
later the shoemakers of Lynn were supplying
the trade of Boston. As early as 1648. tanning
and shoemaking was an industry in the colony
of Virginia, and history records that a planter
named Matthews employed eight shoemakers
upon his own premises. Legal restraint was
placed upon the business of the cordwainer in
Connecticut in 1656, and in Rhode Island in
1706, while in New York the business of tan-
ning and shoemaking is known to have been
firmly established previous to the capitulation of
the province to the English, in 1664. In 1698
the industry was carried on profitably in Phila-
delphia, and in 1721 the colonial legislature of
Pennsylvania passed an act regulating the mate-
rials and the prices of the boot and shoe indus-
try. During the Revolution most of the shoes
worn by the Continental Army, as well as nearly
all ready-made shoes, sold throughout the col-
onies, were produced in Massachusetts, and we
find it recorded that "for quality and service
,they were quite as good as those imported from
'England." Immediately after the Revolution, in
consequence of large importations, the business
languished somewhat. It soon recovered, how-
ever, and was pursued with such vigor that in
1795 there were in Lynn 2C0 master workmen
and 600 journeymen, who produced in the ag-
gregate 300,000 pairs of ladies' shoes. One
manufacturer in seven months of the year 1795
made 20,000 pairs. In 1778 men's shoes were
made in Reading, Braintree. and other towns
in the Old Colony for the wholesale trade ; they
were sold to dealers in Boston, Philadelpliia,
Savannah, and Charleston, a considerable por-
tion being exported to Cuba and other ^^'est
India islands. About the year 1795 the business
was established in Milford and other Worcester
county towns, where brogans were made, and
sold to the planters in the Southern States for
negro wear. The custom at this time was for
the manufacturer to make weekly trips to Bos-
ton with his horse and wagon, taking his goods

BOOTS AND SHOES

in baskets and barrels, and selling them to the
wholesale trade.

Early Methods. — Prior to 1815 most of the
shoes were hand-sewed, a few having been cop-
per nailed; the heavier shoes were welted and
the lighter ones turned. This method of manu-
facture was changed, about the year 181 5, by
the adoption of the wooden shoe peg, which
was invented in 181 1 and soon came into general
use. Up to this time little or no progress had
been made in the methods of manufacture.
The shoemaker sat on his bench, and with
scarcely any tools other than a hammer, knife,
and wooden shoulder stick, cut, stitched, ham-
mered, and sewed, until the shoe was com-
pleted. Previous to the year 1845, which marked
the first successful application of machinery to
American shoeniaking, this industry was in the
strictest sense a hand process, and the young
man who chose it for his vocation was appren-
ticed for seven years, and in that time \vas
taught every detail of the art. He was in-
structed in the preparation of the insole and
outsole, depending almost entirely upon his eye
for the proper proportions ; taught to prepare
pegs and drive them, for the pegged shoe was
the most common type of foot-wear in the first
half of the iQth century; and familiarizing him-
self with the making of turned and welt shoes,
which have always been considered the highest
type of shoemaking, requiring exceptional skill
of the artisan in channeling the insole and out-
sole by hand, rounding the sole, sewing the
welt, and stitching the outsole. The change
from which has been evolved our present fac-
tory system began in the latter part of 1700.
when a system of sizes had been drafted, and
shoemakers more enterprising than their fellows
gathered about them groups of workmen, and
took upon themselves the dignity of manufac-
turers. The entire shoe was then made under
one roof, and generally from leather that was
tanned on the premises ; one workman cut the
leather, others sewed the uppers, and still others
fastened uppers to soles, each workman handling
only one part in the process of manufacture.
This division of labor was successful from the
very start, and soon the method was adopted of
sending out the uppers to be sewed by the wo-
men and children at their homes. Small shops
were numerous throughout certain parts of
Massachusetts, where the shoemaker, with
members of his family or sometimes a neigh-
bor, received the uppers and under-stock from
the factories near by, bottomed the boots and
shoes, and returned them to the factories, where
they were finished and sent to the market
packed in wooden boxes. Thus the industry
developed and prospered and was carried on
without any further improvement in methods
until the introduction of machinery.

Machinery. — The first machine which proved
itself of any practical value was the leather
rolling machine, which came into use about
1845, and with which it was said "a man could
do in a minute what would require half an
hour's hard work with a lapstone and ham-
mer.'^ This was closely followed by the wax-
thread sewing machine, which greatly reduced
the time required for sewing together the differ-
ent parts that formed the upper, and the buffing
machine, for removing the grain from sole
leather. Then came a machine which made
pegs very cheaply and with great rapidity, and
this in turn was followed by a hand-power ma-

chine for driving pegs. In 1855 there was intro-
duced the splitting machine, for reducing sole
leather to a uniform thickness. Peg-making
and power-pegging machines were soon per-
fected, and there had appeared a dieing-out ma-
chine, which was used for cutting soles, taps,
and heels by the use of different size dies. The
year i860 saw the introduction of the McKay
sewing machine, which has done more to revo-
lutionize the manufacture of shoes, perhaps,
than any other single machine. The shoe to be
sewed was placed over a horn and the sewing
was done from the channel in the outsole
through the sole and insole. The machine made
a loop stitch and left a ridge of thread on the
inside of the shoe, but it filled the great demand
that existed for sewed shoes, and many hun-
dreds of millions of pairs have been made by
its use. At the time of the introduction of the
McKay machine inventors were busy in other
directions, and, as a result, came the introduc-
tion of the cable nailing machine, which was
provided with a cable of nails, the head of one
being joined to the point of another; these the
machine cut into separate nails and drove auto
matically. At about this time was introduced
the screw machine which formed a screw from
brass wire, forcing it into the leather and cut-
ting it off automatically. This was the proto-
type of the "rapid standard screw machine,'*
which is a comparative recent invention and is
very widely used as a sole fastener at the pres-
ent time on the heavier class of boots and shoes.
Verj' soon thereafter the attention of the trade
was attracted to the invention of a New York
mechanic for the sewing of soles. This device
was particularly intended for the making of
turn shoes, and afterwards became famous as
the Goodyear '^turn shoe machine." It was
many years before this machine became a com-
mercial success, and mention of its progress is
made later. Closely following the Goodyear
invention came the introduction of the first ma-
chine used in connection with heeling — a ma-
chine which compressed the heel and pricked
holes for the nails — and this was soon fol-
lowed by a machine which automatically drove
the nails, the heel having previously been put
into place and held by guides on the machine.
Other improvements in heeling machines fol-
lowed with considerable rapidity, and a machine
came into use shortly afterwards which not only
nailed the heel but was also provided with a
hand trimmer, which the operator swung round
the heel immediately after nailing. From these
have been evolved the heeling machines in use
at the present time. Notable improvements had
during this time been made in the Goodyear
system, and a machine was made for the sewing
of welts which was the foundation of the Good-
year machine now so universally used. This
machine sewed from the channel of the insole
through upper and welt, uniting all three, and
was a machine of the chain-stitch type, which
left the loop on the outside of the welt. This
machine was closely followed by the introduc-
tion of one which stitched the outsole. uniting
it to the welt by a stitch made from the chan-
nel in the outsole, through outsole and welt.
This machine afterwards became famous as the
Goodyear ''rapid outsole lock-stitch machine.'*
The great demand that existed for shoes of this
type made it necessary that accessory machines
should be invented, and those which prepared
the insole, skived the welt, trimmed the insole,

BOOTS AND SHOES

rounded and channeled the outsole, as well as
a machine which automatically rolled or leveled
the shoe, and the stitch separating machine were
soon produced. These formed the Goodyear
welt system which has heen the subject of con-
stant improvement up to the present time. Fac-
tory-made boots and shoes are now entirely cut
out by machinery, the upper are sewn by strong
sewing machines, and soles and uppers are fas-
tened together either by (i) sewing, (2) peg-
ging with wooden pegs, (3) riveting with metal
pins, or (4) screwing by means of the Stand-
ard screw machine. The latter most ingenious
apparatus uncoils a reel of screwed brass wire,
inserts it into the sole, and cuts off the wire
flush with the outsole with remarkable rapid-
ity; and for solidity and durability the work
leaves nothing to be desired.

Manufacturing Methods. — The following
gives a fair idea of how a pair of shoes is
turned out under modern methods in the fac-
tory of to-day : First, the cutters are given
tickets describing the style of shoe required ;
the thickness of sole, and whatever other de-
tails are necessary. From this ticket the vamp
cutter blocks out the vamps and gives them
with the ticket to the upper cutter, who shapes
the vamps to the pattern and cuts the tops or
quarters which accompany them. The trim-
ming cutter then gets out the side linings, stays,
facings, or whatever trimmings are needed. The
whole is then made into a bundle and sent to
the fitting department. Here they are arranged
in classes by themselves. Pieces which are too
lieavy are run through a splitting machine, and
the edges are beveled by means of a skiving ma-
chine. Next they are pasted together, care be-
ing taken to join them at the marks made for
that purpose. After being dried thev go into
the hands of the machine operators. The differ-
ent parts go to different machines, each of which
is adjusted for its particular work. The com-
pleted upper next goes to the sole-leather room,
in which department machinery also performs
the major part of the work. By the use of the
cutting machine the sides of leather are re-
duced into strips corresponding to the length of
the sole required. These strips are passed
through a powerful rolling machine, which
hardens tlie leather and removes from its sur-
face all irregularities. They are then shaved
down to a uniform thickness, also by machinery,
and placed under dies which cut them out in
proper form. The smaller pieces are died out in
the form of lifts or heel pieces, which are joined
together to the proper thickness and cemented,
after which they are put into presses which
give them the greatest amount of solidity. The
top lift is not added to the heel until after it
has been nailed to the shoe. The remaining
sole leather is used for shank pieces, rands,
and bottom leveling. For the insole, a lighter
grade of leather is used, which, being cut
into strips and rolled, is cut by dies to the
correct shape, shaved uniformly, and channeled
around the under edge for receiving the upper.
The counters are died out and skived, by ma-
chine, and the welts cut in strips. The uppers
and soles are then sent to the bottoming depart-
ment, where the first operation is that of last-
ing, the uppers being tacked to the insoles.
From the laster they go to the machine operator,
where the upper, sole, and welt are firmly sewed
together by the machine. The bottom is filled
and leveled off and the steel shank inserted.

Next, the bottom is coated with cement, and
the outsole pressed on it by a machine. Thence
it is sent through the rounding machine, which
trims it and channels the sole for stitching.
From there it goes again to the sewing ma-
chine, which stitches through the welt outside
of the upper. The next step is that of leveling,
then heeling, both of which processes are ac-
complished by machinery. The heels are nailed
on in the rough and afterwards trimmed into
shape by a machine operating revolving knives;
a breasting machine shaping the front of the
heel. Still another machine drives in the brass
nails and cuts them off flush with the top pieces.
The edging machine is next used, which trims
the edges of both sole and heel. The sole bot-
tom is then sandpapered, blacked, and burnished
by machinery, after which the shoe is cleaned,
treed, and packed.

Factory Centres. — Prior to 1800 little at-
tempt to establish the shoe industry outside
eastern Massachusetts was made. Yet it was
not to be expected that other enterprising sec-
tions would be content always to depend entirely
on is°vv England for so important an article of
merchandise as shoes. In New York City and
other cities of New York State, especially in
Rochester, the industry has attained large pro-
portions, and has reached a perfection not ex-
celled anywhere. In Newark. N. J., where the
business was early established, are made many
of the finest shoes for men's wear. Philadel-
phia has made the shoe industry a leader among
the many manufacturing industries for which
she is celebrated. At Cincinnati and St. Louis
ladies' shoes are produced in great quantities,
and of a style and finish that have won a repu-
tation. Chicago has taken up the business with
an energy that has already placed her in the
front rank. Throughout the West, including
the Pacific Coast, there are many thoroughly
equipped, financially successful shoe factories.
Notwithstanding the enterprise of other parts
of the country, New England still maintains the
lead as the home of this industry. Boston is
the center from which are sold nearly all the
goods made in New England, amounting to
about two-thirds of the entire production of the
country. The flourishing New England cities
and tov.ns of Lvnn, Brockton, Haverhill. Marl-
boro, Milford. Whitman, and Weymouths, and
many others, are built up and maintained solely
by the boot and shoe and allied interests. The
force which this industry has exerted on the
community at large becomes apparent.

Convict Labor. — No account of the manufac-
ture of boots and shoes would be complete with-
out reference to the employment of convict
labor. The business offers many advantages to
the authorities of prisons who are seeking re-
munerative work for the men and women in
their charge. The great number of operations
in producing a shoe makes it possible to use
all classes of convicts, from the strong to the
weak; and as far back as 1850. even before ma-
chinery was introduced, it was not an uncom-
mon tiling for houses of correction and prisons
to produce footwear not only for their own con-
victs, but to be sold in the market. After the
introduction of machinery, and during the de-
mand for cheap shoes, which followed the close
of the Civil War, many of the states leased the
labor of their convicts to shoe manufacturers.
In the year 1870 there were employed in this in-
dustry in 26 different States, 6,581 convicts,

BORA

ii\-hile tliere were only 129,989 employed in the
industry in the same States outside the prisons.
In the year 1900 there were made by 7,609 con-
victs, 6^634,960 pairs of shoes, valued at $10,990,-
173, and it is probable that the number em-
ployed and the annual production are steadily
increasing. In States where the system was be-
lieved to have a harmful influence on the wages
of the workman outside the prisons, the busi-
ness has been conducted on the States' account,
and in some instances, at least, the result has
been disastrous.

Export Trade. — Early manufacturers shipped
goods to the West Indies, more especially to
Cuba, and up to the time of the Civil War
the export business was prosecuted with con-
siderable vigor and profit. In 1810, 10 per cent
of all the boots and shoes sold in Boston were
for export. In the year 1865 shoes to the value
of more than $2,000,000 were exported. From
that time the trade fell off sharply. This may
be accounted for by the great advance in 1866,
when values rose at least 50 per cent. Since
1895 interest has been renewed in the export
trade. Manufacturers have become convinced
that there is nothing in the conditions which
will prevent competition with foreign countries.
The raw materials are available, and, while many
hides and skins are imported, the supply of the
domestic product is constantly increasing and
leather manufacturers have been able to pro-
duce materials for making boots and shoes as
advantageously, both in regard to quality and
price, as any other country. Styles have been
adapted to the wants of such countries as im-
port their footwear. Many of the leading man-
ufacturers are alive to the situation and are
endeavoring to secure a greater share of the
world's trade. The following tabular statement
shows the value of the exports of leather boots
and shoes from 1870 to 1901 :

TiEARS. V.\LUES.

I901 $3,526,290

1900 4,276.''56

1899 2,711,385

1898 1,816,538

1897 1,708,224

1896 1,436,686

1895 : 1,010,228

1894 777,354

1893 590,754

1892 914,974

189J 651,343

1890 662,974

1885 598-151

1880 441-069

1875 42Q,3'53

1870 419,612

The exports, with the exception of the year
1865. appear to have been unimportant until
1895, when the first decided gain was made, the
txports for that year being valued at $1,010,228.
Since that date there has been a steady increase
until, in 1901, these exports amounted to $5,526.-
290. The maximum yearly capacity of the
combined factories of the United States, on
a basis of 306 working days, is slightly under
400,000.000 pairs, showing that all the factories
running at full capacity would require not ex-
ceeding seven months to produce all shoes con-
sumed in the United States, and those exported
for the year ending 30 June, 1900.

Statistics of Manufacture. — In 1901 a capital
of $101,795,233 was invested in the manufacture
of boots and shoes. This sum represents the
value of the land, buildings, machinery, tools,
and implements, but does not include the capi-

tal stock of any of the manufacturing corpora-
tions of the State. The value of the products
was $261,028,580, to produce which involved an
outlay of $7,757,749 for salaries of officials,
clerks, etc., $59,175,883 for wages, $10,766,402
for miscellaneous expenses, including rent,
taxes, etc., and $169,604,054 for materials used,
mill supplies, freight, and fuel.

The following table gives the leading sta-
tistics of the boot and shoe industry in the
United States from 1880 to 1900:

Kumber of estab-
lishments

Capital

Wage-earners

Total wages

Miscellaneous e.x-

penses

Cost of material

used

Value of products.

iiioi,795,233

142,922

59,175,883

10,766,402

169,604,034
261,028,580

S>95,282,3ii

133,690

60,667,145

118,785,831
210,649,353

$42,994,028

111,152

43,001,438

102,442,442
166,050,354

The output of 12 leading manufacturing
cities for 1890 and 1900 was as follows :

Cities.

1900

1890

Value of
Product.

Brockton, Mass

I
2
3
4

7
8

9
10
II
12

$19,844,397
16,830,733
15,231,440
8,788,424
8,286,156
6,933-111
5-931,045
5-733-432
5,723,126
4,176,826
4,052,204
3-882,655

3
7
9
6

5
12
4

$16,171,624
80,190,695
s6,i37,35^
6,024,454
'85250,960
6,489,382
6,851,834
2,489,885
7,257,034

39,024
1,508,697

Haverhill, Mass

Cincinnati, Ohio

Rochester, N. Y

Philadelphia, Pa

Brooklyn, N. Y

Auburn, Me

Manchester, N. H

The total quantity of boots and shoes m.^n«-
factured in 1900 was 219,235,419 pairs, an in-
crease over 1890 of 45,372,479 pairs. This is
about the same as the percentage of increase in
population for the United States. In 1900
89,123,31;" pairs of men's, youth's, and boys'
boots and shoes were manufactured, valued at
$129,505,235. Women's, misses', and children's
shoes were made to the number of 107,415,855
pairs, valued at $112,823,914. Slippers were
produced for men, youths, and boys to the num-
ber of 4,456,965 pairs, valued at $2,812,213. An-
other item "slippers, oxfords, and low cuts for
women, misses, and children," is represented
by 12,655,876 pairs, valued at $10,146,393. In
1900 capital to the amount of $33-667,533 was
invested in the manufacture of rubber boots
and shoes, with a total product valued at
$41,089,819. Frederick D. Hull,

Vice-President '-The Shoe Retailer,^ New
York and Boston.

Bora, Katharina von, wife of Luther: b.
29 Jan. 1499; d. 20 Dec. 1552. She took the
veil very early in the nunnery of Nimptschen,
near Grimma; but feeling very unhappy in her
situation, applied, with eight other nuns, to
Luther, whose fame had reached them. Luther
gained over a citizen of Torgau, by the name of

BORACIC ACID — BORASSUS PALM

Leonard Koppe. who, in union with some other
citizens, undertook to dehver the nine nuns from
their convent. This was done the night after Good
Friday, 4 April 1523. Luther brought them
to Torgau, and from thence to Wittenberg. At
the same time, to anticipate the charges of his
enemies, he published a letter to Koppe, in which
he frankly confessed that he was the author of
this enterprise, and had persuaded Koppe to its
execution ; and he also exhorted the parents and
relations of the virgins to admit them again into
their houses. Some of them were received by
citizens of Wittenberg ; others who were not yet
too old Luther advised to marry. Among the
latter was Katharina, whom Philip Reichenbach,
at that time mayor of the city, had taken into
his house. Luther proposed to her several
of his friends. She declined these proposals,
but declared her willingness to bestow her hand
on Nicholas von Amsdorf, or on Luther him-
self. Luther, who in 1524 had laid aside the
cowl, was not averse to matrimony, yet appears
to have been led to the resolution of marrying
by reason rather than by passion. This step
gave rise to many disadvantageous rumors, some
of them as shameful as they were unfounded.
After Luther's death Katharina removed from
Wittenberg to Leipsic, where she was compelled
to take boarders for her support. She after-
ward returned to Wittenberg and finally re-
moved to Torgau, where she died. In the
Church of Torgau her tombstone is still to be
seen, on which is a life-size image of her.

Borac'ic (-ras'-) Acid, or Bo'ric Acid (from
"borax"), a compound of boron with oxy-
gen and hydrogen, having the formula H3BO3,
and possessing feebly acid properties. It occurs
:n an impure state in the crater of Vulcano, one
of the Lipari islands. It is also found plenti-
fully in Tuscany, where it issues from fissures in
the soil, together with sulphurous exhalations,
ammonia, and other substances. On account of
its having been obtained at Sasso, the acid is
called by mineralogists Sassolite. The principal
supply of boracic acid is obtained from Tuscany,
the exhalations above referred to being passed
through water which absorbs the acid. The
preparation of boracic acid from these aqueous
solutions is an interesting process on account
of the natural obstacles which have to be sur-
mounted. The apparentlj' simple operation of
concentrating the solution, so as to obtain the
acid by crystallization, in reality involves great
practical difficulties, because in Tuscany the fuel
supply is limited. This drawback has been
overcome by utilizing the volcanic heat of the
district to concentrate the solution. Around the
cracks in the soil (called "fumaroles*^ or
"soffioni"), from which the steam containing
the acid issues, and enclosing the small lakes
or lagoons in which it condenses, brick tanks
are built on different levels, but communicating
with each other. These are supplied with cold
water, in which the steam is further condensed.
When the water in the tanks is sufficiently salu-
lated, it is run off into a deep vessel, where it
is allowed to stand until the black mud mechan-
ically suspended in it falls to the bottom, and
then the cl(;ar fluid is run into a series of shallow
evaporating pans of lead. These pans are heated
by steam from the soffioni, the steam bemg
made to pass under them by a system of flues.
As the evaporation proceeds the fluid becomes
richer in boracic acid, and when it attains a cer-

tain specific gravity, it is passed into a deep
vat, where it is allowed to cool. Boracic acid
then crystallizes out. The first crop of crystals
is quite impure, but it is improved by re-crystal-
lization, and the second crop as thus obtained is
packed in casks and exported. Commercial
boracic acid sometimes contains as much as 25
per cent of foreign matter, consisting largely
of clay, salts of calcium and magnesium, and
sulphates and other salts of the alkalis. About
2,000 tons of crude boracic acid are exported
from Tuscany per annum. Boracic acid is also
prepared artificially by decomposing a hot solu-
tion of borax with sulphuric acid. The boracic
acid separates out upon cooling. Boracic acid
is a white, glassy substance, slightly soluble in
cold water, and considerably more soluble in
hot water. It possesses strong antiseptic prop-
erties, and is used as a preservative for meat.
It is also used for glazing porcelain, and in the
manufacture of certain kinds of glass. Boracic
acid forms salts called "borates" with various
metallic bases, of which borax (q.v.) is the
most important. See Borox.

In medicine, boracic acid is used very widely.
It is a mild antiseptic, and its solutions are use-
ful for cleansing the ej'es, nose, mouth, bladder,
etc. It forms with aromatic oils the basis of most
mouth washes and nasal sprays. Boracic acid is
also very useful in the nursery for keeping nip-
ples free from bacteria, and it is of great ser-
vice in washing out nursing-bottles, babies'
mouths and eyes, and the mother's nipples while
nursing. Large doses may prove poisonous.

Bo'racite (from "borax*'), a mineral,
tetrahedral and isometric in external form, but
orthorhombic in molecular structure, and be-
coming isotropic only when heated to 510° F.
It has the composition 6MgO.MgCl2.8B:03, and
a little iron is also occasionally present, probably
as an impurity. It occurs in beds of anhydrite,
gypsum, and salt, notably at Stassfurt, Prussia.
also in crystals at Liineberg, Hanover and
Westeregeln, Saxony. The mineral has been pre-
pared artifically by melting together 10 parts of
boracic acid. 100 of sodium chloride, and 5 of
magnesium borate. Boracite is strongly pyro-
electric. Its molecular structure has been the sub-
ject of much study, on account of its exhibiting
double refraction, although the mineral is ap-
parently isometric in crystalline form.

Borage, the small genus, typical of the
natural order Boragiiiacccc, the species of which
are most numerous in the Mediterranean region.
Common borage (Borago oiHcinalis), a coarse
growing annual herb frequent in waste places,
is about two feet tall with erect stem, rough,
hairy leaves, and blue flowers arranged in
racemes. Like many other innocuous plants,
borage was highly valued medicinally, but is
now not so emploj-ed. It is occasionally raised
as a pot herb or salad plant, its young leaves
being palatable. The flowers are still used to
make the beverage known as cool tankard, a
mixture of wine, lemon, sugar, and water. The
plant's chief use, however, is as bee pasturage,
its flowers being rich in nectar.

Boras, Sweden, a tow^n in the province of
Elfsborg, 36 miles east of Gothenburg. It was
founded by Gustavus Adolphus in 1632. I'here
are some cotton and linen manufactures, and
also some dyeworks. Pop. (1903) 15,837.

Borassus Palm. See Palmyra Palm.

BORAX — BORDEAUX

Bo'rax, a compound of the metal sodium
with boracic acid (q.v.). The formula of boracic
acid maj^ be written HBO2 + H2O ; and if the
hydrogen of the HBO2 is replaced by sodium, a
compound known as sodium borate is formed,
which crystallizes as NaBOs + 4H2O. Fused
borax is this salt deprived of its water of crys-
tallization, and combined with boron trioxide in
the form 2NaB02 + B2O3, or NajBiOr. Com-
mon borax, when crystallizing from aqueous
solution, however, contains 10 molecules of
water. Other forms of borax are easily ob-
tained, crystallizing wuth different quantities of
water. Borax occurs native, both as a saline
efflorescence on the soil, and as monoclinic crys-
tals. Until recent times the principal borax
supply of the world was obtained from the salt
lakes of Tibet. It was brought to Europe in
the crude state, under the name of Tincal.
Enormous quantities of borax are now obtained
from California and Nevada. Borax Lake, some
80 miles north of San Francisco, was discovered
in 1856. It contains borax in solution, and crys-
tals of the mineral also occur in the surround-
ing mud and marshes. The crystals are occa-
sionally quite large, weighing as much as a
pound each. It is also found in large quantities
at Borax Lake in San Bernardino County, Cal.,
and it occurs abundantly as an efflorescence in
Death Valley, Inyo County, Cal. Borax is ex-
tensively used in the household, and it is used
also as an antiseptic and preservative. Like
boracic acid, it is employed in glazing porcelain.
Its property of dissolving metallic oxides makes
it of great value in blowpipe anah^sis (q.v.) and
as a flux in the soldering of metals. In the
United States commercial borax is chiefly de-
rived from the colemanite deposits of California.

Borax is of toxicological interest because it
is widely used as an antiseptic, a preservative
for meats and other foodstuffs, and also as an
abortifacient. In large doses there is marked
gastro-enteritis, in addition to which there are
symptoms of collapse, coldness of the skin, bad
pulse, psychical depression, and diminution in
the quantity of urine eliminated. Similar symp-
toms may occur from the use of borax in wash-
ing out large abscess cavities. Singultus and
general motor paralysis are the symptoms in
fatal cases. Borax certainly has atoxic action
on the kidneys when taken in large amounts.
There is albumen in the urine, casts, pain in
urination, and even bloody urine. While the
kidneys are markedly affected by large doses it
is questionable whether borax, in the small
amounts used in food preservation, causes any
grave symptoms of kidney irritation, even when
taken for a considerable length of time. It may
well be that certain individuals have an idiosyn-
crasy to boron salts, in which case their use
would prove detrimental. See Boron.

Borchgrevink, Carsten Egeberg, Norwe-
gian explorer and lecturer : b. Christiania, 1864,
his mother being English and his father a
Scandinavian. He went to sea at an early age,
but returned to go to college. In 1808 he went
to Australia, joined the survey department, and
scaled Mount Lindsay. In 1894-5 he was in
Antarctic waters, a region more fully explored
by him in 1897, when he attempted to reach the
South Pole without success. In 1899 (17 Febru-
ary) he had, however, reached Robertson Bay.
Returning to London in 1900 he reported hav-

ing reached lat. 78.50 S. ; Ion. 195.50 E., the
farthest point south ever reached by man. Con-
sult his work, 'First on the Antarctic Conti-
nent.^

Borda, Jean Charles, French engineer, and
afterward a captain in the French marine,
famous for his mathematical talents: b. Dax, de-
partment of Landes, 4 May 1733; d. 20 Feb.
1799. In 1756 he was chosen a member of the
Academy of Sciences, and occupied himself in
making experiments on the resistance of fluids,
the velocity of motion, and other topics relating
to dynamical science. In 1767 he published a
dissertation on hydraulic wheels, and afterward
one on the construction of hydraulic machinery.
In 1771, with Verdun de la Crenne and Pingre,
he made a voyage to America, to determine the
longitude and latitude of several coasts, isles,
and shoals, and to try the utilitj'' of several
astronomical instruments. In 1774 he visited the
Azores, the Cape Verde Islands, and the coast
of Africa for the same purpose. In the Ameri-
can war he was very useful to the Count
d'Estaing by his knowledge of navigation.
Borda was the founder of the schools of naval
architecture in France. He invented an instru-
ment, of a very small diameter, which measures
angles with the greatest accuracy, and which has
been used in measuring the meridian ; the re-
flecting circle, which has made his name immor-
tal ; besides an instrument for measuring the
inclination of the compass-needle, and many
others. On the establishment of the National
Institute, he became one of its members, and
was occupied with other men of science in fram-
ing the new system of weights and measures
adopted in France under the republican govern-
ment. Among the latest of his labors was a
series of experiments to discover the length of
a pendulum which should vibrate seconds in the
latitude of Paris. The principal of his writings
are: 'His Voyage^ and his 'Tables Trigonome-
triques Decimales.^

Bordeaux, France, capital of the depart-
ment of Gironde, is situated on the left bank of
the Garonne, about 70 miles from the sea, and
284 southwest of Paris. It is built in a crescent
form round a bend of the river, which is lined
with fine quays for more than three miles, and
is crossed by a magnificent stone bridge of 17
arches, finished in 1821 at a cost of $1,200,000.
There is another bridge, a fine iron structure,
for the railway from Paris. Bordeaux consists
of an old and a new town, the boundary be-
tween them being formed by a wide and hand-
some street which, commencing at the quay
near the centre of the crescent, stretches across
the city from east to w^est. The objects chiefly
deserving of notice in the old town are the arch
called the Porte de Bourgogne at the extrem-
ity of the bridge, forming the principal entrance
to the town ; the cathedral, a fine Gothic edifice
built at different periods ; St. Michael's Church,
■with a lofty detached tower, and a superb front
of florid Gothic ; the Church of St. Croix, a
specimen of gorgeous Romanesque ; the bourse
or exchange, the custom-house, the Hotel de
Ville, once the residence of the archbishops of
Bordeaux, and the Palais de Justice. The new
town is not so rich in public buildings. The
most conspicuous are the library (200,000 vol-
umes) , the museum, and the theatre, a Grecian
structure, regarded as the handsomest edifice

BORDEAUX MIXTURE— BORDEAUX WINES

in Bordeaux. Among the beneficent establish-
ments the first place is due to the grand hospital
or infirmary, which occupies the highest site in
the town and is admirably arranged. Few cities
are so well supplied with extensive and finely
planted promenades. Bordeaux is the seat of
a court of appeal, of courts of the first instance
and of coPimerce ; and has an academy of sci-
ence, literature, and art ; a preparatory school of
medicine and pharmacy ; a lyceum ; a normal
school for female teachers ; a school of hydrog-
raphy and navigation ; a school of painting and
design ; a botanic garden, an observatory, vari-
ous literary and scientific associations and a
branch of the Bank of France. There are con-
suls resident here from all the states of Europe
and America. The position of Bordeaux gives
it admirable facilities for trade, and enables it
to rank next after Marseilles and Havre in re-
spect of the tonnage employed. Large vessels
can sail up to the town, which by railway, river,
and canal communicates with the Mediterranean,
with Spain, and with the manufacturing centres
of France. The chief exports are wine and
brandy : drugs, dj-es, and fruits are also largely
exported. Sugar and other colonial produce and
wood are the chief imports. Ship-building is
the chief branch of industry, and there are also
sugar-refineries, woolen and cotton mills, pot-
teries, soap-works, distilleries, etc.

Bordeaux is the Burdigala of the Romans.
In the 5th century it was in possession of the
Goths, and it was pillaged and burned by the
Normans. By the marriage of Eleonor, daugh-
ter of the last Duke of Aquitaine, to Louis VIL,
it fell into the hands of France. But in 1152
the princess was repudiated by her husband, and
married to Henry of Anjou, who ascended the
throne of England in 11 54, as Henry II., and
transferred Bordeaux to that crown. After the
battle of Poitiers, Edward the Black Prince
carried John, king of France, prisoner to Bor-
deaux, where he resided 11 years. L'nder
Charles VIL, in 1451, it was restored again to
France. In 1548 the citizens rebelled on account
of a tax on salt, and the governor, De ]\Iorems,
was put to death, for which the constable of
Montmorency inflicted a severe punishment on
the city. During the revolution it was devas-
tated as the rendezvous of the Girondists, by the
Terrorists, almost as completely as Lyons and
Marseilles. The oppressiveness of the conti-
nental system to the trade of Bordeaux made the
inhabitants disaffected to the government of
Napoleon, so that they were the first to declare
for the house of Bourbon, 12 March 181 4. The
Roman poet, Ausonius, was a native of Bor-
deaux. Montaigne and Montesquieu were born
in the neighboring country, and t!ie latter lies
buried there in the Church of Saint Bernard.
Pop. U903; 268,330.

Bordeaux Mixture. See Fungicides.

Bordeaux Wines. The finer red wines of
the country around Bordeaux are the best which
France produces. They contain but little alco-
hol, keep well, and even improve by removal.
As the original fermentation is complete, they
are, if judiciously managed, less subject to dis-
order and acidity than the Burgundy wines.
None of the very best quality, however, is ex-
ported pure: a bottle of the best Chateau-Mar-
gaux, or Haut-Brion, is a rarity hardly to be
procured in Bordeaux itself, at the rate of six

or seven francs a bottle. For export, the sec-
ondary growths of Medoc are mingled with the
rough Palus. The red wines of Bordeaux are
known in America under the name of claret.
They have less aroma and spirit, but more
astringency than the Burgundy wines. They
are the safest wines for daily use, as they are
among the most perfect of the light wines, and
do not easily excite intoxication. In this re-
spect they contrast with the Burgundy wines,
which have more generous qualities than those
of Bordeaux, although these wines have some-
times been accused of producing the gout, but
this disparagement is without reason. Persons
who habitually drink madeira, port, etc., and
/ndulge in an excess of claret, may indeed be
visited in that way; because a transition from
the strong, brandied wines to the lighter is
always followed by a derangement of the
digestive organs.

The principal vineyards are those of Medoc,
Graves, Palus, and Vigncs Blanches ; after
these, those of Entre-deux-Mers, Saint Emilion,
and the Bourgeais are the most important. The
first growth of Medoc are the famous wines of
Chateau-Margaux, Lafitte, and Latour. The
Lafitte is characterized by its silky softness on
the palate, and a perfume partaking of violet
and raspberrj'. The Latour is fuller, has more
aroma but less softness. The Chateau-Margaux
is lighter than the Latour, and delicate like the
Lafitte, but has not so high a flavor. Of the
second growth, we may mention the Rauran and
the Leoville. The average produce of the first
growth is 217,000 gallons. The soil of Medoc is
a sandy and calcareous loam. The gravelly lands
(Ics Graves) to the south and west cf Bordeaux
produce the Graves. The first growth of the red
Graves is the Haut-Brion, which rivals the first
growth of Medoc; it has more color and body,
but is inferior in aroma and taste. The prin-
cipal white Graves are Saint Bris and Carbon-
ieux. The best Medoc ought to be kept three
or four years before removal : the Graves five or
six. The wines of Palus, which is a bed of rich
alluvial deposits, are inferior to the preceding ;
they are stronger and more deeply colored than
those of Medoc. Being hard and rough, they
are improved by a voyage, and are principally
sent to the East Indies and America as vins de
cargaison, or are mixed with Medoc which is
intended for exportation. By the voyage they
become more light and delicate, but are not to
be compared with the growths of Medoc and
the Graves. The best are Queyries and Mont
Ferrand. The former are deeply colored, and
have much body. Age gives them an agreeable
aroma, resembling that of a raspberry.

Among the white Bordeaux wines, besides
those already mentioned, the finest growths are
Sautemes, Preignac, Barsac, and Bommes. Mar-
tillac and Saint Medard are of a good quality,
and have lightness and body. Dariste, formerly
Dulamon, is equal to Saint Bris and Carbonieux.
Among other red wines are the Bourgeais,
which are of a fine color, and acquire by age
lightness and an agreeable almond aroma ; of
all the Bordelais wines they most resemble tlie
Burgundy wines. The first growths are De-
bosquet, Chateau-Rousset. Tajac, and Falfax.
The Bourgeais wines were formerly preferred
to Medoc. The wines of Saint Emilion h.ive
been much esteemed. The Fronsac and Caron
are the best. Those of Entredeux-Mers beco.tne

BORDEN — BORE

agreeable with age. The vius dcs Cotes are good
vins ordinaires ; they are generally fermes and
hard, and improve by age. The best are those
of Bassens and Cenon. Consult Henderson's
^History of Ancient and Modern Wines. ^

Borden, Simeon, American inventor and
surveyor : b. Fall River, Mass., 29 Jan. 1798 ; d.
28 Oct. 1856. He instructed himself in mathe-
matics and devised successful surveying instru-
ments. The first American geodetic survey was
his work. In 1846 he began the construction of
railroads.

Bordentown, N. J., a city on the Delaware
River, the Delaware and Raritan Canal, and
the Pennsylvania R.R. ; 57 miles southwest of
New York. It is noted as being a former resi-
dence of Joseph Bonaparte (q.v.), brother of
Napoleon I., and for many 3'ears the house and
grounds belonging to the estate possessed much
interest for the tourist. The city is the seat
of the Bordentown Military Institute, the St.
Joseph's Academy for girls (Roman Catholic),
and the Bordentown Female College. Tiiere are
steam forge and iron works, foundry and ma-
chine shops, worsted mills, shirt factory, canning
factories, a shipyard and other industries. The
city was incorporated in 1866. Pop. '1900) 4,110.

Border Ruffians, a name given, after the
Kansas-Nebraska Bill of 1854, to the pro-slavery
Missourians who acted as the allies of the slave
element in Kansas, crossing the boundary to
vote, by which means they organized the first
government against the bona-fide free-labor resi-
dents by a vote of nearly double the inhabitants
of the Territory. They kept the State in an-
archy for three years, terrorizing the inhabitants
by murder, arson, the sack of towns, and other
outrages. The most graphic comment is the
fact that they adopted this term of their enemies
and prided themselves on it as an excellent joke.
See Kansas-Nebraska Bill.

Border States, before the War, the line of
slave States lying next the free States : Dela-
ware, Maryland, Virginia, Kentucky, and Mis-
souri. The term was sometimes improperly
made to include North Carolina and Tennessee,
probably because their mountain districts held
so large a proportion of loyalists ; and Arkansas,
for no special reason. Their political position
was dictated by the facts that : ( i ) After the
prohibition of the slave trade one of their chief
industries was breeding slaves for exportation to
the cotton, rice, and sugar plantations of the
southernmost States. _ In the Virginia conven-
tion of 1832 it was said to be the most profitalile
in the State. (2) From their position they were
the chief sufferers from the escape of fugitive
slaves ; in 1850 this was estimated at a loss of
$3,000,000 a year, and these States were the most
insistent advocates of the Fugitive Slave Law
and its enforcement ; and in i860 a Missouri sen-
ator urged the creation of a Federal police to
patrol the border line for this purpose. (3) In
case of war they would be the chief battlelield.
They therefore furnished the backbone, if not
the genesis of every political movement to stop
the slavery agitation or conciliate the sections.
The strength of the Know-Nothing party of 1856
and the Constitutional Union party of i860
(Bell-Everett) was almost exclusively in the
border States ; the Peace Conference of 1861 and
the proposed Crittenden Compromise were the
work of these States. They tried to prevent the

outbreak of hostilities, and when the war be-
gan the governor of Kentucky went so far as to.
attempt making his State a neutral power out-
side both governments, and forbade either of
themoccupymg it without the consent of the State
authorities. Finally, however, they split up ac-
cording to their natural affinities ; the three not
border States at all — North Carolina, Tennessee,
and Arkansas — seceded, with Virginia ; while in
Kentucky, Maryland, Delaware, and Missouri,
the loyal element, with government help, pre-
vented the State from going out. They never
gave up hope through the war, however, of
reconciling differences by a convention of all the
old States, North and South.

Border War, a name given during the
struggle for Kansas to the intermittent civil war
in that Territory, about 1854-8, between the
free-soil and the slavery parties. It was begun
by the attempt of the Missouri slaveholding
party ("Border Ruffians,^' q.v.) to reclaim by
violence what the actual settlers had won by
colonization ; many of the worst atrocities were-
perpetrated, and all the temporary success of the
slavery side won, by bodies of men who were
not residents of Kansas at all. This caused
up John Brown (q.v.) to move there from
northern Ohio with his sons, and fight against
them. Of the other partisan leaders on that
side, the most notable was James Mont-
gomery, who, however, was a bona fide settler.
The most efficient leaders among the Mis-
sourians, or border ruffians, were James
R. Atchison of Missouri :'>nd the Federal
courts.

Bordighera, Italy, a town on the Mediter-
ranean coast, in the district of San Remo and
province of Porto Maurizio, a favorite winter
residence for invalids, having been made fash-
ionable by the visits of the members of the Eng-
lish royal family. Few places on the Riviera
are better fitted for the accommodation of in-
valids and tourists. In addition to the usual
facilities for the entertainment of strangers, the
town has a library, museum, and a theatre.
Pop. (1903) about 6,000.

Bordone, Paris, Italian painter of the
Venetian school: b. Treviso, 1500; d. 1570.
Under Titian he made rapid progress in painting.
The execution of many works for his native
city and for Venice spread his fame as far as
Prance, whither he was invited by the king.
The galleries of Dresden and Vienna possess
several of his pieces. His most famous picture
is the ^Old Gondolier Presenting a Ring to the
Doge^ ; it is considered one of the masterpieces
of the Venetian school. Other examples of his
work are: ^Prophecy of the Tiburtine Sibyl, ^
in Florence; ^Combat of the Gladiators,' in^
Vienna, and ^The Chess Players,* in Berlin.

Bore, a word probably of Icelandic origin,
and used to designate a very remarkable phe-
nomenon which occurs in some rivers in spring-
tides. At such times as the tide advances the
water is suddenly thrown in as if in a mass, and
then pursues its course up the river, and in
opposition to the current, presenting a volume
of water moving with great rapidity and resist-
less force, and with a height varying from two
or three feet, as in the Severn, Trent, Solway,.
and Dee, to more than 12 feet in the Brahma-
pootra, and Tsien-Tangkiang. The last is said.

BORE — BORGHESE

to have a rise of 20 feet, and advances with a
loud roar, at the rate of 10 miles an hour. The
tide in the Bay of Fundy rises with great rapid-
ity, and is sometimes spoken of as the bore of
Fundy. The circumstances in which the bore
occurs afford an easy explanation of its cause,
and show that it is produced by the disproportion
between the volume of the tidal wave and the
receiving power of the rivers into which it is
thrown.

Bore, the cavity of a steam engine cylin-
der, pump barrel, pipe, cannon, barrel of a fire-
arm, etc. In mechanics it is expressed in inches
of diameter ; in cannon formerly in the weight
in pounds of solid round shot adapted thereto,
but since the introduction of modern rifled ord-
nance of the breech loading pattern, the bore
of cannon is always expressed in inches of
diameter or in the equivalent of inches.

Boreas, the north wind, worshipped by the
Greeks as a deity ; residing in Thrace, and rep-
resented with wings, which, as well as his hair
and beard, were full of flakes of snow ; instead
of feet he had the tails of serpents, and with
the train of his garment he stirred up clouds of
dust. Boreas was the son of Astraeus and of
Eos. When Apollo and his favorite Hyacinthus
were once playing at quoits, he blew the quoit
of the former, of whom he was jealous, upon
the head of the youth, who was killed by the
blow. By Oreithyia, daughter of Erechtheus of
Athens, he was father of Cleopatra, Chione,
Calais, and Zetes. The last two took part in
the Argonautic expedition.

Borecole, a pot-herb. See Kale.

Boregat. See Rock Trout.

Borelli, Giovanni Alfonso, Italian physi-
cian and scientist: b. Naples, 1608; d. Rome,
31 Dec. 1679. After studying medicine he both
practised and professed it at various places, but
particularly at Pisa and Florence, and distin-
guished himself as the leader of those who have
been called mathematical physicians, from
regarding the human body as a kind of hydrau-
lic machine, and then attempting to explain all
its motions and functions in accordance with
the principles of mathematics. He appears to
have possessed very original and inventive
powers, and made various discoveries, among
which may be mentioned that of an apparatus
apparently of the nature of a diving-bell, by
which persons could descend into the water,
remain in it and move about or rise and sink
at pleasure, and of a boat by which two or more
persons might row themselves beneath the water
in any direction. His works discuss many
important subjects in medicine, mathematics, and
philosophy; but the great work on which his
fame rests, though not published till after his
death, is entitled <De Motu Animalium,^ and in
so far as it relates to mere animal mechanics
is full of interest and instruction; but when
he attempts to apply his mathematical prin-
ciples he falls into egregious blunders, and
stumbles at every step.

Borelli's Comet. See Comet.

Borer, Round-headed and Flat-headed,

insect enemies of several trees. See Apple.

Borghese, the name of a patrician family
of Sienna. Italy, which has been more or less
distinguished since the middle of the 15th cen-

tury. A jurisconsult, of the name of Marco
Antonio Borghese, who was employed by the
papal court in the early part of the i6th century,
appears to have laid the foundation of its for-
tunes at Rome. His third son, Camillo, became
Pope Paul V. (q.v.), in 1605, and he lavished
the honors and riches which his place enabled
him to command on his relatives. For a son of
his elder brother, named Marco Antonio Bor-
ghese, he procured the princedom of Sulmona
and a grandeeship in Spain. His brother,
Francesco, he made the leader of the troops
sent against Venice in 1607, to maintain the
papal cause against the opposition of that re-
public. Scipione Caffarelli, a nephew, he created
cardinal. Paolo, the son of Marco Antonio,
married Olympia Aldobrandini, the only child
of the prince of Rossano, and grandniece of
Clement»Vni., and thus introduced the v^ealth
of the Aldobrandini into the Borghese family.
The son of Paolo, named Giovanni Battista, was-
the ambassador of Philip V. to the court of
Rome, where he died in 1717. His son, Marco
Antonio, was viceroy of Naples in 1721, and
another of the same name, descended from him,
became a noted collector of works of art, with
which he adorned his sumptuous villa on the
Pincian hill. See Borghese, C.\millo Philip.

Borghese, Camillo Philip Louis, formerly
Duke of Guastalla, Prince of France, etc. : b.
1775; d. Florence, 10 April 1832. When the
French invaded Italy he entered their service,
and showed great attachment to the cause of
France, in particular to Gen. Bonaparte, whose
sister, Marie Pauline (q.v.), he married. In
1804 he became a French prince, and grand cross,
of the Legion of Honor, and at the breaking out
of the war against Austria in 1805. commander
of a squadron of the imperial guard. After its
termination his wife received the duchy of Guas-
talla, and he was created Duke of Guastalla.
After having served in 1806 in the campaign
against the Prussians and Russians, and after
having been sent to Warsaw to prepare the Poles
for a revolt, the emperor appointed him
governor-general of the provinces beyond the
Alps. He fixed his court at Turin, and became
very popular among the Piedmontese. After the
abdication of Napoleon he broke up all connec-
tion with the Bonaparte family, and separated
from his wife. The prince sold to the French
government for the sum of 8.000.000 francs 322
works of art which ornamented the palace of his
ancestors, known undci the name of the Villa
Borghese. Among them were several master-
pieces: for example, the ^Borghese Gladiator,^
the 'Hermaphrodite,' the <Silenus,> the 'Dying
Seneca,' 'Amor and Psyche.' Bonaparte pro-
vided for the payment out of the national
domains in Piedmont, which the king of Sar-
dinia confiscated in 1815; at the same time, in
consequence of the second invasion of France,
the prince received back part of these treasures
of art. In 1818 he sold Lucedio, in Savoy, for
3,000,000 livres. In the kingdom of Naples he
possessed the principalities Sulmone and Rosano.
He was one of the richest Italian princes.

Borghese, Marie Pauline (Princess), sis-
ter of Napoleon: b. Ajaccio, 20 Oct. 1780; d.
9 June 1825. When the English occupied Cor-
sica in 1793 she went to Marseilles, where she
was on the point of marrying Freron. a member
of the Convention, and son of that critic whom.

BORGHESI — BORGIA

Voltaire made famous, when another lad}' laid
claim to his hand. The beautiful Pauline was
then intended for Gen. Duphot, who was after-
ward murdered at Rome in December 1797; but
she bestowed her hand from choice on Gen.
Leclerc. then at Milan, who had been in 1795
chief of the general staff of a division at Mar-
seilles, and had there fallen in love with her.
When Leclerc was sent to St. Domingo with
the rank of captain-general, Napoleon ordered
her to accompany her husband with her son.
She embarked in December 1801, at Brest, and
was called bj' the poets of the fleet, the Galatea
of the Greeks, the Venus Marina. Her statue,
in marble, as A'enus, was made by Canova at
Rome — a successful image of the goddess of
beauty. She was no less courageous than beau-
tiful, for when the negroes under Christophe
stormed Cape Frangois, where she resided, and
Leclerc, who could no longer resist the assail-
ants, ordered his lady and child to be carried
on shipboard, she yielded only to force. After
the death of her husband she married at Morfon-
taine, in 1803, the Prince Camillo Borghese
(q.v.). Her son died at Rome soon after.
With Napoleon, who loved her tenderly, she
had many disputes and as many reconciliations,
for she would not always follow the caprices of
his policy. Yet even the proud style in which
she demanded what her brothers begged made
her the more attractive to her brother. Once,
however, when she forgot herself toward
the empress, whom she never liked, she was
obliged to leave the court. She was yet in dis-
grace at Nice when Napoleon resigned his
crown in 1814, upon which occasion she imme-
diately acted as a tender sister. Instead of
remaining at her palace in Rome, she set out
for Elba to join her brother, and acted the part
of mediatrix between him and the other mem-
bers of his familJ^ When Napoleon landed in
France she went to Naples to see her sister Caro-
line, and afterward returned to Rome. Before
the battle of Waterloo she placed all her dia-
monds, which were of great value, at the dis-
posal of her brother. They were in his carriage,
which was taken in that battle, and was
shown publicly at London. He intended to have
returned them to her. She lived afterward sepa-
rated from her husband at Rome, where she
occupied part of the palace Borghese, and where
she possessed, from 1816, the Villa Sciarra. Her
house, in which taste and love of the fine arts
prevailed, was the centre of the most splendid
society at Rome. She often saw her mother,
her brothers Lucien and Louis, and her uncle
Fesch. When she heard of the sickness of her
brother Napoleon, she repeatedly requested per-
mission to go to him at St. Helena. She finally
obtained her request, but the news of his death
arrived imrnediately after. At her death she left
many legacies, and a donation, the interest of
which was to enable two young men of Ajaccio
to study medicine and surgery. The rest of her
property she left to her brothers, the Count of
St. Leu and the Prince of Montfort. Her whole
property amounted to about $500,000.

Borghesi, Bartolommeo (Count). Italian
numismatist: b. Savignano. 11 July 1781 ; d. 16
April 1866. His attention was devoted to
elucidating, through the study of inscriptions,
several obscure points in Roman history; and
the books he published secured for him a great

reputation among the learned. He completed,
after more than 30 years' labor, a full chrono-
logical list of the Roman consuls, embracing
all the modern discoveries on the subject, with
disquisitions on the most important questions
connected with Roman antiquities. After his
death a complete collection of his writings was
ordered by the Emperor Napoleon, but it was
not until 1S97 that the work was finished.

Borgi, Giovanni, j6-van'ne bor-je, the orig-
inator of ragged schools: b. Rome, about 1736;
d. about 1S02. He was a mason by trade, and
after his daily toil was completed, he was in
the habit of attending the sick in the hospital of
Santo Spirito, spending entire nights in his labor
of love, and frequently falling asleep at his work
during the da}^ In his daily walks he had
noticed troops of vagrant children in the streets,
fast ripening into vice and crime. He took them
home to his humble lodgings, and, having clad
them with the aid of alms which he collected,
he apprenticed them to useful trades. This
noble work was observed and admired by others,
who freely lent their aid, and in due time a
society was formed, which was further devel-
oped in 1784. Although Giovanni was himself
entirely uneducated, he perceived the advantages
of instruction, and caused the children to be
taught reading, writing, and arithmetic by one
Francesco Cervetti, who afterward left him and
founded another refuge for orphans called the
^Assumption of the Virgin,^' which was consoli-
dated with that of Giovanni in 1812. Pius VI.
purchased for the institution the Palazzo Ruggi,
and became the society's principal protector.
Subsequently the charity was removed to dif-
ferent convents, and finally to the church of St.
Anne of the Carpenters.

Borgia, Cesare, cha-za're bor'ja, Italian
ecclesiastic and soldier: b. 1476; d. 12 March
1507. He was the natural son of Rodrigo Bor-
gia, and a Roman lady named Vanozza. His
father, who in 1492 became Pope, with the title
of Alexander VI., made him a cardinal. When
Charles VIII. of France made his entry into
Rome, Alexander was obliged to treat with him,
and delivered Cesare Borgia into his hands as
a hostage, though he escaped a few days after
from the camp of the king. In 1497 Alexander
bestowed the duchy of Benevento, together with
the counties of Terracina and Pontecorvo, on his
eldest son, Giovanni, who had already received
from the king of Spain the duchy of Gandia.
Giovanni died shortly after his investiture, and
Cesare has been accused of murdering his
brother out of jealousy, but historical proof of
this charge is utterly lacking. His father per-
mitted him to abandon his ecclesiastical office
and devote himself to the profession of arms,
and sent him to France to carry to Louis XII.
the bull for divorce and dispensation for mar-
riage which he had long desired to obtain.
Louis rewarded Borgia with the duchy of
Valentinois, a body-guard of 100 men, and
20,000 livres a year, and promised to aid
him in his projects of conquest. In 1490 Cesare
married a daughter of King John of Navarre,
and accompanied Louis XII. to Italy. He first
undertook the conquest of Romagna, expelled
the lawful possessors of the land, caused them
to be treacherously murdered, and himself, in
1501, to be appointed by his father Duke of
Romagna. In the same year he wrested the

BORGIA — BORGOGNONE

principality of Piombino from Jacopo d'Apiano.
He also endeavored, though in vain, to make
himself Duke of Bologna and Florence. In 1502
he announced that he was about to attack Cam-
•erino, and demanded for that purpose soldiers
and artillery from Guidobaldo of Montefeltro,
Duke of Urbino. Camerino was taken by storm,
and Giulio di Barona, the lord of the city, with
both his sons, was strangled at the command of
Borgia. Meanwhile all the petty princes had
tmited and collected soldiery for their defense ;
but Cesare Borgia terrified some by means of
3,000 Swiss whom he called to Italy, and gained
over others by advantageous offers. Thus he
dissolved their alliance, seized their lands, and
saw no further obstacle to his being made, by
his father, king of Romagna, of the March,
and of Umbria, when Alexander VI. died,
17 Aug. 1503. At the same time Cesare
Borgia was attacked by a severe disease
at a moment when his whole activity and
presence of mind were needed. He found
means, indeed, to get the treasures of his father
into his possession, assembled his troops in
Rome, and formed a closer alliance with France ;
but enemies rose against him on all sides, one
of the most bitter of whom was the new Pope,
Julius II. Borgia was arrested and carried to
Spain, where he remained for two years in
prison. He at length made his escape to his
brother-in-law, the king of Navarre, went with
him to war against Castile, and was killed by a
shot before the castle of Viana.

Borgia, Francisco, fran-thes'ko, or St.
Francis (Duke of Gandia), Spanish ecclesias-
tic: b. Janda, Spain, 1510; d. Rome, October
1572. He was eminent as a soldier and states-
man, and enjoyed the confidence and friendship
of Charles V.. who appointed him viceroy of
Catalonia. While very young he married a noble
Portuguese lady. Eleonora de Castro, by whom
he had a large family. He was always very
strict in his morality, and exact in his religious
duties. After the death of his wife he entered
the Society of Jesus, and was ordained priest in
the 40th year of his age. At the death of Laynez,
in 1565, he was elected General of the society,
and remained in office until his death. Several
bishoprics, and the dignity of cardinal, were
repeatedl}'' pressed upon him, but he refused
them all. He was canonized by Clement X. in
1671.

Borgia, Lucrezia, loo-krad'ze-a, daughter
of Pope Alexander VI., and sister of Cesare
Borgia (q.v.) : b. 1480; d. Ferrara. 24 June 1519-
When a mere child she was betrothed to a gen-
tleman of Aragnn. but her father, on attaining
the popedom, thought the match beneath her,
?nd broke the engagement, marrying her to
Giovanni Sforza. lord of Pesaro. After she
bad lived with him for four years, Alexander
dissolved the marriage on the ground of the
busband's impotency. and gave her to Alphonso,
Duke of Bisceglia, natural son of Alphonso II.
of Aragon. Two years after her husband was
assassinated in a quarrel with Cesare Bor-
gia. Within the course of a year she married
Alphonso d'Este, son of Ercole. Duke of Fer-
rara. Here she became a liberal patroness of
poets, who endeavored to repay her benefactions
by lauding her as the pattern of every virtue.
The character of Lucrezia Borgia has been the
subiect of much controversy, but recent historical

researches have placed her in a much fairer
light and it has been shown beyond dispute,
that after her marriage to Alphonso d'Este her
life was a model of virtue and beneficence.

Borgia, Rodrigo. See Ale.xander VI.

Borgia, Stefano, ste-fa'no, Italian ecclesias-
tic : b. Vclletri. 3 Dec. 1731 ; d. Lyon, 23 Nov.'
1804. He was brought up by his uncle, Alex-
ander Borgia, Archbishop of Fermo, and in 1750,
on becoming a member of the Etruscan Academy
of Cortona, commenced at Velletri to form a
museum which has since become one of the
richest private collections in existence. In 1759
he was appointed by Benedict XIV. governor
of Benevento, and in 1770 he became secretary
to the College of Propaganda, which brought
him into immediate relation with missionaries
to all parts of the world, and enabled him, at
comparatively little expense, to enrich his
museum with manuscripts, coins, statues, idols,
and all the other rarities v,'hich each country
possessed. In 1789 Pius VI. made him a car-
dinal, and at the same time appointed him
inspector-general of the foundling hospital, into
which he introduced extensive reforms. In 1797
the revolutionary spirit which had broken out
in France extended itself to Rome, and the
Pope, as the best means of counteracting it, gave
all his confidence to Borgia and installed him
as dictator. The situation was extremely dif-
ficult, but he showed himself worthy of the
trust, and gained such ascendency over the pub-
lic mind that tranquillity and good order
remained uninterrupted till 1798. By this time
the French were at the gates, and the popular
party, becoming dominant, established a repub-
lic. The Pope was compelled to depart, and
Cardinal Borgia, at first arrested, was ordered,
on obtaining his liberty, to quit the papal states.
After disembarking at Leghorn he repaired to
Venice and Padua, and continued regularly to
discharge his functions in connection with the
Propaganda as if nothing had occurred to inter-
rupt them. He returned to Rome with the new
Pope. Pius VII., who treated him with the same
confidence as his predecessor. Afterward, when
Pius VII. was carried off to France, Borgia was
ordered to accompany him. and he accordingly
set out, but had only reached Lyons when he
was seized with a serious illness, and died. He
was the author of several antiquarian and his-
torical works, and deserves honorable mention
for his liberal patronage of arts and artists.

Borgne, bor-ne. Lake, Louisiana, a body
of water situated in the southeastern part of the
State. Though termed a lake, it is strictly the
termination of that large arm of the Mexican
Gulf known as Pascagoula Sound, being united
to that by a pass or strait crossed by a line of
small islands and faced on the east by Grand
Island. Lake Borgne is also connected with
Lake Pontchartrain by the Rigolet Pass. It is
about the average depth of Lake Pontchartram,
and approaches within 15 miles of New Orleans.
Its greatest extent is in a northeast and south-
west" direction, in which its length is about 30
miles. Lake Borgne forms a part of the west-
ern boundary of the Mississippi Delta.

Borgognone. Jacopo Cortesi, ya-ko-po
kor-ta-ze bor-go-nyo-ne. French pamter: b.
St. Hippolite, Burgundy, 1621 ; d- 1676. He

BORGU — BORING

studied painting under his father, but enlisted
in the army and remained in it for three years.
On his return he resumed his art, and went to
Bologna where he attracted the notice of Guido
and became an inmate in his house, where he
made good use of the valuable opportunities of
improvement thus afforded him. After realiz-
ing an independence he visited his native place.
Returning again to Italy, where he painted with
much success, he resolved to become a Jesuit.
He was accordingly admitted into the order at
Rome in 1655, but he appears to have painted
as diligently as ever. He is remarkable for free-
dom of design, and the vividness with which his
pictures bring the subjects which they represent
before the mind.

Borgu, bor-goo', Africa, a district in the
Western Sudan, lying about lat. 10° N., and
stretching from the meridian of Greenwich east
to the Niger. It is hilly in parts, but much of
it is well watered and extremely fertile. Among
its numerous productions are rice, grain, indigo,
cotton, bananas, and citrons. The inhabitants
are Mohammedan. Kiama and Wawa are chief
towns.

Bo'ric Acid. See Boracic Acid.

Boring, a species of circular cutting in
which a cylindrical portion of a substance is
gradually removed. When tubes of metal are
to be formed, a cast is, in some cases, made
in solid metal, and the whole of the bore is pro-
duced by the boring-machine: in others the cast
is made hollow at first, and the borer is only
used to give uniformity and finish to the inside
of the tube. In boring cannon sometimes the
tool is made to revolve while the cannon is at
rest, and sometimes the cannon is made to
revolve while the tool is at rest. By the latter
arrangement the bore is said to be formed with
more accuracy than by the other method of
putting the borer in motion.

In the jewelry and small metal industries,
hand drills, which consist of a spindle with steel
bits, to which reciprocating rotation is given,
are the implements for piercing small holes.
The boring of holes in metal plates is effected
by means of drills driven by machinery. The
drill is inserted in the end of a vertical spindle,
which revolves in a fixed frame and is driven by
the bevel wheels. The metal to be bored is
placed on a table or other support, below the
drill ; and the up and down motion, or end pres-
sure and off action, of the drill is effected by
the hand gear turning the screw; which, being
coupled to the top of the spindle, presses it
down or raises it, according to the way it is
turned. The spindle slides vertically in the
collar forming the axis of the bevel wheel, but
is carried round with it by means of a pin
which projects into a groove.

As applied to the earth and to rocks, boring
embraces two classes of operations — boring of
shot-holes for blasting, and the sinking of bores
in prospecting for minerals and in forming wells
for water, brine, and mineral oils. Blast-holes
in rocks are made from one to two — sometimes
more — inches in diameter, and may pierce to
the depth of nine feet. Such holes are most
simply made in hard rock by a steel-pointed
drill, struck by a hammer, and turned partly
round after each blow to make the hole cylin-
drical. The addition of a little water serves to
preserve the temper of the boring tool, and

makes the rock more easy to cut. In soft rock,
whenever the hole is to be vertical, a jumper
is used. This is a weighted drill, which acts-
merely by its own weight when let fall from-
about a foot in height. The powdered stone is
removed at intervals by a scraper. But in all
great engineering undertakings rock-boring
machinery now supplants hand work. The
machines are principally devised to imitate the
percussive action of the hand drill, the boring
chisel being worked and rotated by compressed
air, and sometimes directly by steam. The com-
pressed-air machines possess the great advan-
tage of aiding in the ventilation of the working —
often a most important consideration, seeing the-
operations are chiefly carried on in confined
spaces where large volumes of poisonous gases
are evolved from explosions. The earliest prac-
tical rock-boring machine was that of Sommeil-
ler, one of the engineers of the Mont Cenis
tunnel, at which undertaking the apparatus was
first used. Now the forms of percussion
machines are very numerous, improvements
being directed toward lightness and simplicity
of parts, and to the method — automatic or
otherwise — of advancing the boring-tool as the
work proceeds. Among the best knowrt
machines are the Barrow, Burleigh, Darlington,
Ferroux, Ingersoll, and McKean rock-borers.
Diamond drills working in the manner described
below are also used. Brandt's rotatory borer is-
an apparatus similar in action to the diamond
drill, but with a crown of hardened steel in
place of cutting diamonds. The tool is pressed
against, and rotated by water power. An appa-
ratus similar in principle to the brace and bits
of the carpenter is used with advantage in uni-
form rock, such as slate.

The bores for deep wells of all kinds, and for
discovering the mineral contents of a region,
come under one category. As a preliminary
operation in mining, boring is of the utmost
importance for discovering the position, thick-
ness, and dip of mineral strata or lodes, and for
ascertaining the nature of the overlying deposits.
Bores are made by three classes of implement — ■
(i) boring-rods, (2) rope borers, and (3) dia-
mond drills.

The rod-boring instrument consists of an
iron shank having a cross-bar at the top and a
hollow screw at the bottom ; to this all the suc-
cessive boring instruments are fastened. A sim-
ple chisel is first attached to the screw, and one
or two men press upon the cross-bar, and, at the
same time, force it round like an auger; while
another workman, by means of a lever erected
overhead, with a chain descending from it to the
cross-bar, gives an up-and-down motion to the
instrument. When the chisel becomes clogged,
from the accumulation of material which it has
loosened, it is exchanged for a cylindrical auger,
provided with a valve, which scoops out the
separate material ; and thus by alternate chop-
ping and scooping the work is carried on. The-
nature of the strata is determined with consider-
able facility and certainty by examining the frag-
ments brought up by the auger. As the work
advances, successive lengths of rod are screwed
on at the upper end. A derrick pole is erected
over the bore hole for the purpose of elevating
the rods, to permit the change of the tools.

The rope method of boring has been long in
use among the Chinese. By it the great loss_ of
time arising from the screwing and unscrewing

BORISSOGLEBSK — BORN

-of the rods at each elevation of the chisel or
-auger is saved. The chisel and scooping instru-
ment are fastened to a rope, which is alternately
elevated and allowed to descend by the simple
force of gravity; the instrument thus forces its
way through the ground. In the softer rocks of
the newer formations this method has been suc-
cessfully employed in boring for artesian wells.
The rope-boring machinery of Mather and Piatt,
of Salford, England, in which a flat hempen rope
is employed, is in extensive use.

For deep well-sinking, as in the Pennsylvania
oil region, where depths of 2,000 feet and more
have to be reached, and for mineral prospecting,
the diamond drill has of late years largely super-
seded all other borers. With this apparatus the
earth can be pierced at any angle, which is a
great advantage in investigating mineral
deposits ; and, moreover, the drill produces solid
and continuous cores of the strata through which'
it passes, so that a complete section of any bore
can be exposed to view. The diamond drill con-
sists of a crown, or cylinder of steel, around one
edge of which are fixed a series of black dia-
monds. These diamonds are so set that they
project alternately a little beyond the outside and
inside edge of the cylinder. This crown is
screwed to lengths of iron ttibing as it cuts its
v^^ay by rotation into the rock, and it makes, as
it descends, an annular cutting somewhat larger
than the thickness of the continuous tube, which
the crown and its shaft form. Thus, a core of
rock is cut out and held within the tube, and
the pieces may be lifted out from time to time as
the work proceeds. The detritus resulting from
the abrasion of the ring of rock is continuously
washed away by a current of water, forced down
within the tubing. Diamond drills are made of
many sizes, from 1^4 tip to 18 inches in diameter.
The prototype of the diamond drill was M. Fau-
velle's hollow boring-rod with steel crown,
described at the British Association meeting in
1846.

Borissoglebsk, bo-re's5-glepsk, Russia, a
town in the government of Tambof, 120 miles
south of the town of that name, and capital
■of the government. From its situation and
water communications it is the centre of a very
large trade. It is the seat of an annual fair,
and has woolen and iron manufactures. Pop.
about 25,000.

Borissov, bo-re'sof, Russia, a town in the
government of Minsk, 50 miles northeast of the
town of that name, on the left bank of the Bere-
zina. Not far from it took place the disastrous
passage of the Berezina by the French in 1812.
Pop. about 15,000.

Borjeson, Johan Helenus Laurentius, yo-
han el-a'nus l6-ren'she-us ber'yt;-s6n, Swedish
sculptor : b. Halland, 1835. He studied at Rome
and Paris, and in 1879 became professor at the
Art Academy of Stockholm. His work includes
both portrait-statues and ideal subjects, in which
he unites fidelity to nature with love of beauty.
Among his works are ^The Bowler' ; 'The
Fisher Bov of Capri' ; <Youth with a Tortoise' ;
and the statues of the poet Holberg at Bergen,
of the historian Geiger at Upsala, of Axel
Oxenstiern at Stockholm, and of King Charles
X. Gustavus at Malmo.

Borland, Solon, American senator: b. Vir-
ginia; d. Texas, 31 Jan. 1864. He was educated
in North Carolina, studied medicme and settled

in Little Rock. Ark. During the Mexican war
he served as major in Yell's cavalry, and was
taken prisoner m January 1847. After his dis-
charge in June 1847 he served as a volunteer aid
to Gen. Worth until the end of the campaign.
After serving in the United States Senate
(1848-53), he was appointed minister to Central
America. When returning to the United States
after his resignation he was assaulted at San
Juan de Nicaragua for interfering to prevent the
arrest of a person charged with murder at
Puntas Arenas. For this insult the sloop-of-war
Cyane bombarded and destroyed the town, under
instructions from the United States govern-
ment, 13 July 1854. During the Civil War he
was a brigadier in the Confederate service, and
before his State seceded, raised troops and seized
Fort Smith, by order of Gov. Rector, 24 April
1861.

Bor'lase, William, English mineralogist
and antiquarian: b. Pendeen, Cornwall, 1606;
d. 1772. He studied at Oxford, entered orders,
and became successively rector of Ludgvan and
vicar of St. Just. The richness of Cornwall
in mineral products and antiquities gave a direc-
tion to his studies, and he began making collec-
tions with the view of afterward giving a descrip-
tion of his native county. In 1750 he was
elected a Fellow of the Royal Society, to which
he had communicated a valuable paper on the
spars and crystals of the Cornish mines, and fo^
many years after he continued to write in its
'Transactions.' In 1754 he published his
'Antiquities of Cornwall,' and in 1758 he com-
pleted the work by publishing his 'Natural His-
tory of Cornwall.' He kept up a correspond-
ence with the most eminent men of his day,
and was on intimate terms with Pope, whom
he furnished with materials for his grotto at
Twickenham. Dr. Borlase's name, formed out
of crystals, is still to be seen there.

Bormann, bor'man, Edwin, German poet:
b. Leipsic, 14 April 1851. He was educated at
the Polytechnic Institute of Dresden, and at
Leipsic and Bonn. His first success w-as won
by a series of humorous poems in the Saxon dia-
lect which appeared in the 'Fliegende Blatter. '
His other works are in High German ; they
include 'Seid umschlungen, Millionen,' a book
of humorous songs, 'Schelmenlieder' ; 'Das
Biichlein von der Schwarzen Kunst,' 'Lieder-
hort in Sang und Klang,' and 'Klinginsland,
Minnelieder und Spielmannsweisen.'

Bormio, bor'me-o (Ger. Worms, voormz),
Italy, a town in Lombardy, near the Adda ; pop.
about 2,000. In its vicinity are the salt baths
called Bagni di Bormio. The temperature is 99"
5'. Gen. Dessolles achieved here a victory over
the Austrians, 26 March 1799. The beautiful
galleries of the road which leads over the Worm-
ser Joch (an Alpine mountain), from Tyrol to
Italy, were destroyed by the Italians in 1848.

Born, Bertrand de, bar-troii de born,
French troubadour and warrior: b. in the Castle
of Born, Perigord, 1140; d. about 1209. He dis-
possessed his brother of his estate, whose part
was taken by Richard Cceur de Lion in revenge
for De Born's .satirical lays. Dante places him
in the 'Inferno' on account cf his verses inten-
sifying the quarrel between Henry II. and his
sons.

BORNE — BORNEO

Borne, Ludwig, lood'vlg ber'ne, German
political writer : b. Frankfort-on-the-Main, of
Jewish parents, 6 May 1/86; d. Paris, 12 Feb.
1837. He founded, and for three years con-
ducted. Die Wage, a journal devoted to civics,
science, and art. Of his numerous satirical
sketches, all full of humor and wit, these are
perhaps the most brilliant; ^Monograph on the
German Postal Snail, •• H'he Art of Becoming an
Original Author in Three Days,^ ^Memorial
Address to Jean Paul.^ Fierce animosity
toward the dynastic policies of Germany per-
meated whatever he wrote; even his literary and
dramatic criticism was biased by this passion.
His last completed work. ^Menzel, the French
Devourer^ (*Franzosenfresser^ ), is proof that
to the last his voice was still for war. His
'Complete Works,^ in 12 volumes, were pub-
lished in 1863.

Bor'neene. See Borneol.

Borneil, Giraud de, zhe-ro de bor-na-e, a
Provengal troubadour of the 12th century : a
native of Exideuil, Dordogne. His contempo-
raries bestowed on him the sobriquet **Master of
Troubadours.^^ Some 80 of his songs are
extant ; among them the charming song of the
morning, ''Alba.*

Bornemann, Wilhelm, vil'helm bor'ne-
man, German dialect poet: b. Gardelegen, 1766;
d. 1851. He is one of the foremost representa-
tives of modern Low German poetry. His
works are 'Low German Poems' (1810), repub-
lished in a loth edition in 1891 ; 'Pictures of
Nature and the Chase^ (1829) ; 'Humorous
Hunting Songs.^

Bor'neo (corrupted by the Portuguese
from Bruni or Brunei, the name of a state on
its northwest coast), one of the islands of the
Malay archipelago, and, next to Australia and
New Guinea (but not much smaller than the
latter), the largest island in the world. On the
south it has the Java Sea ; on the east the Strait
of Macassar and the Sea of Celebes ; on the
north the Sulu Sea ; on the west and northwest
the China Sea. Its circumference is about
3,000 miles, its greatest length, 780 miles, and its
greatest breadth 690 miles ; area, according to
recent calculation, 283,358 square miles. Its out-
line is but slightly indented by bays and inlets ;
and yet the skeleton of its mountain ranges,
now well ascertained by the travels of Dalton,
Low, Burns, and Schwaner, show that at not
a very remote period it must have presented the
same singular configuration with Celebes and
Gilolo — that of a group of peninsulas. Starting
from the central mountains, the Anga-anga
group, and proceeding northeast, we trace a
chain, terminating in Kinibaloo (11,000 feet
high, the highest peak in Borneo), which forms
the backbone of the peninsula. Hardly half
of the island is good terra firma, habitable for
man. An alluvial marshy band, varying from
30 to 50 miles in width, surrounds the island,
the only avenues to the interior being its numer-
ous rivers and streams. The mouths of 23
rivers, all navigable on an average 100 miles
for vessels drawing not more than 12 feet of
water, can be counted along the northwest
coast, between Capes Sampanmanjo and Datoo.
Berow and Coti rivers on the east, Banjar,
Murong, Kahajan, and Mendawei rivers on the
south, and the rivers Pontianak and Sambas on
the west are large streams with tides flowing

far up, and some of them navigable for 200
miles. Innumerable smaller streams tlow from
the great water-sheds.

In connection with the river systems there
are numerous lakes in Borneo ; but of true
mountain lakes on a large scale there are proba-
bly few. The great lake of Kinabalu, which
figured in older accounts, with 100 miles of cir-
cumference, is a pure myth, based perhaps on a
misunderstood description of the great grass-
covered plain of Danao.

Meteorological Conditions, Products, etc. —
The climate in the low grounds is humid, hot,
and unhealthful for Europeans ; but in the
higher parts toward the north the temperature
is generally moderate, the thermometer at noon
varying from 81° to 91° F. During the rainy
season, from November to Maj', heavy storms
of wind with loud thunder are experienced on
the west coast. The influence of the land and
sea breezes passes inland to quite remarkable-
distances across the level plains tand up the
river valleys. Vegetation is extremely lu.xuri-
ant. The forests produce ironwood, bilian,
teak, ebony, sandalwood, gutta-percha, dye-
woods, benzoin, wax, dragon's-blood, sago,
various resins, vegetable oils, and gums. The
camphor of Brunei is the best in Asia. The
mohor-tree, well adapted for making native
boats, attains a height of 80 feet, and the kala-
dang, suited for large masts, of 200 feet. Nut-
megs, cloves, cinnamon, pepper, betel, ginger,
rice, millet, sweet potatoes, yams, cotton in
Amuntai, sugar-cane in Sambas and Montrado,
indigo, tobacco, coffee in Sambas, pineapples,
cocoanuts, etc., are cultivated. The mountains
and forests contain many monkeys, among which
is the orang-outang. Tapirs, a small kind of
tiger, small Malay bears, swine, wild oxen or
banteng, and various kinds of deer abound.
The elephant is found only in the north and
the rhinoceros in the northwest. The few
domesticated animals are buffaloes, sheep, goats,
dogs, and cats. A few horses are seen in Ban-
jermassin. Among the birds are eagles, vul-
tures, argus pheasants, peacocks, flamingoes,
pigeons, parrots, and also the swifts (Collocalia
esculcnta) which construct the edible nests prized
by the Chinese for making soup. The rivers,
lakes, and lagoons swarm with crocodiles, and
many kinds of snakes, frogs, lizards, and
leeches. Fish is plentiful, and the coasts are
rich in tortoises, pearl mussels, oysters, and
trepang. Brilliant butterflies and moths are in
great variety. Among the mineral products are
coal, gold, and copper, especially in Montrado ;
antimony, iron, tin, platina, nickel, diamonds
and other precious stones, rock crystals, porce-
lain clay, petroleum, and sulphur. The dia-
mond mines are chiefly in Landak and Ponti-
anak; Sambas produces the greatest quantity
of gold ; the kingdom of Brunei, Kutel, and
Banjermassin, the largest amount of coal. The
Pengaron coal field, worked by the Dutch gov-
ernment, is one of the most important.

Population. — The population consists of
three classes, the Dyaks or Dayaks, who are the
aboriginal heathen inhabitants and constitute the
great bulk of the population ; the Mohamme-
dans or Malays — for this name is extended so
as to include all professors of Islam, whether
true Malays, Buginese, Javanese, Dyaks, or
Arabs; and the Chinese. The Dyaks live
chiefly in the interior, and employ themselves

BORNEOL

with tillage and the collecting of gutta-percha,
resin, gums, rattans, gold dust, and wax. They
are divided into numerous tribes. The Malays
(taking the name ethnographically) dwell on
the coasts, are traders and bold sailors. They
are more civilized than the Dyaks, cultivate the
grounds around their houses, lay out gardens,
keep cattle, and live partly by fishing. The
Chinese, chiefly from Canton, have penetrated
far into the interior. Thc-y engage in trade and
mining, are unwearied in their eft'orts to make
money, and then return to their native country.
They have always endeavored to live as inde-
pendent republics (koiig-si) under chiefs chosen
by themselves, and according to Chinese laws.
In 1857 the Chinese living in Sarawak rebelled,
and were nearly exterminated. The Dutch
were also compelled to put them down by force
of arms, and have imposed a poll tax. The
women of Borneo, except the Dyak. weave cot-
ton fabrics, make earthenware, baskets, and
mats of beautiful designs and colors. In the
district of Banjermassin are factories of wea-
pons. The principal exports are gold, gold
dust, diamonds, coal, rattans, gutta-percha, edi-
ble nests, cotton, wax, timber, dye-woods, mats,
resins, sandalwood, camphor, etc. ; the imports,
earthenware, iron, steel, and copper work, piece-
goods, yarns, woolen and silk fabrics, medicines,
provisions, wines, spirits, rice, sugar, tea,
tobacco, opium, trepang. gambir, gunpowder, etc.
Divisions. — Borneo has never formed a
political unity, and there is no native designa-
tion for the island as a whole. The name
Borneo (Burnei or Brunei) in fact properly
applies only to the Malay kingdom on the north-
west coast ; and Kalamantan or Kalamantin,
sometimes quoted as a general appellation, is
also of limited purport. Borneo originally
included nearlj' the whole of the northwest of
the island. The sultan has absolute authority.
In 1847 he undertook not to surrender any of
his territory to any other power without the
sanction of the British government. The capi-
tal, Brunei, 20 miles from the coast, on the river
of the same name, has at the most 20,000 inhabi-
tants; whereas it was credited by Pigafetta (i6th
century) with 25,000 houses. The total popu-
lation of the country within its present limits
may be stated at 125,000. Its area was reduced
by the erection of Sarawak into a practically
independent principality by Sir James Brooke
(1841-68), and by the establishment of the Brit-
ish North Borneo Company as a recognized
governing body. The company's charter, granted
in 1881. transferred to them rights originally
obtained by an American in 1865. This terri-
tory consists partly of a portion of the old king-
dom of Brunei, partly also of districts on the
east coast, claimed by the sultan of the Sulu
Islands. Against the British occupation of tlie
Sulu territory a protest was made by Spain,
which had for some time been gradually incorpo-
rating the sultan's possessions. As a matter
of fact the British North Borneo Company has
been successful in appropriating and developing
its territoi-y, which, with an area of 30.709 square
miles, and a coast line of 900 miles, is now
divided into the East Coast Residency and the
provinces of Dent, Keppel, and Alcock, and has
its capital at Elopura or Sandakan. the largest
settlement, with 5.000 inhabitants. The popula-
tion of the territory is estimated at 200.000. By
far the largest part of the island is ruled directly

or indirectly by the Dutch, who have divided it
into the residency of the western division of
Borneo, and that of the southern and eastern,
the former having Pontianak as the seat of
government, the latter Banjermassin. Besides
a number of smaller dependencies, the western
division contains the kingdom of Landak, Tayan,
Mampawa, Sukadana, Simpang, Matan, Seka-
dow, Sintang, Sambas. Among the separate
states which go to form the southern and eastern
divisions are Kotaringin, Banjermassin, and
Martapura. In consequence of a decree of the
Sultan of Banjermassin, the district watered by
the Great Dyak or Kahayan is preserved for
the native tribes, who in 1879 were estimated at
18,000 souls ; Chinese, Malays, etc., are forbid-
den to ascend the river higher than the Kanpore
Pjlany. The same is the case with the basins
of the Kapuas, Mururg. known as the Little
Dyak district. The population of the whole of
the Dutch portion of the island on 31 Dec. 1881,
was 959.491. of whom 799 were Europeans,
31,550 Chinese, 924-73I natives, 2,070 Arabs, and
341 miscellaneous Orientals. In the number of
natives are included from 200.000 to 300.000
Malays settled along the coast, who used, for-
nierly. to be counted among the strangers. The
island of Labuan, off the coast of Brunei, has
belonged to the British since 1846.

The Chinese had commercial dealings with
Borneo as early as the 5th century, but they
made no settlement for a long time after. The
Malay kingdom of Borneo proper dates back to
the 13th century. Another ^lalay settlement
of later origin. Sambas, was at first dependent on
Johore in the Malay peninsula. Sukadana was
founded by Hindu Javanese from the kingdom
of Majapahit (see Jav.a.) and spread its influence
on the whole southern part of the west coast.
Mampawa was a Buginese settlement, and Pon-
tianak was founded as late as 1771 by a colony
of Arabs, Malays, and Buginese. Islam began
to be preached by Arabs from Palembang in the
i6th century.

The Portuguese effected a settlement in 1690
at Banjermassin; from thence they were, how-
ever, soon expelled. The Dutch succeeded in
concluding a treaty of commerce with the
princes of Banjermassin. They erected a fort
and factory in 1643, and a second in 1778 at
Pontianak. The British made unsuccessful
attempts in 1702 and 1774 to effect a settlement
in Borneo, but, during the 19th centur>' they
acquired a preponderating influence on the north-
west coast.

Bor'neol, or Borneo Camphor, a crystal-
line organic compound, often used as a substitute
for common or laurel camphor. Borneol is
obtained from a tree indigenous to Sumatra,
Borneo, and Labuan, being deposited in crystals
in cracks in the wood. To obtain it the tree is
cut down, and the longitudinal fissures are
opened, and the camphor removed. Large trees
often yield only from 3 to 11 pounds; and
owing to the reckless manner in which the trees
have been destroyed without the planting of
others, the Sumatran forests now contain few
that are worth working. Borneol has the chemi-
cal formula CioHir.OH, and it may be prepared
from common camphor by the action of redu-
cing agents. It is not so volatile as common
camphor, and is also harder. It is but slightly
soluble in water, although it dissolves freely in
alcohol and ether. When distilled with phos-

BORNHOLM — BORODIN

phorous pentoxide, borneol is converted into one
or more terpenes, prominent among which is
borneo-camphene or borneene (doHie). Pure
borneol sinks in water, while common camphor
floats.

Born'holm, a Danish island in the Baltic
Sea, nearly surrounded with rocks ; situated in
lat. 55° lo' N. ; Ion. 15° E. ; about 24 miles long,
and 16 broad ; pop. 35,364. It is stony but fer-
tile ; yields oats and butter ; has excellent pas-
tures ; and also mines of coal, marble quarries,
and fisheries. The island has long been famous
for its rock-crystals.

Bornier, Henri, oii-re bor-ne-a (Vicomte
BE, ve-koht de), French dramatist: b. Lunel, 25
Dec. 1825. His plays are notable for splendor
■of diction. Among them are 'Luther's Wed-
ding^ (1845) ; 'Dante and Beatrice^ ; 'The
Daughter of Roland.' He twice won fhe prize
■of the Academy, with the lyrics, 'The Isthmus
of Suez* (1861) ; and 'France in the Extreme
East' (1863). He is the author of several suc-
cessful novels and romances, and is a member
of the Academy.

Bor'nite, a native sulphide of copper and
iron, containing these metals in various propor-
tions. The mineral crystallizes in the isometric
system, and its crystals have the formula
3Cu;S.Fe2S3. It is reddish brown in color when
freshly broken, but speedily takes an iridescent
tarnish. Its hardness is 3, and its specific grav-
ity from 4.9 to 5.4. The massive varieties con-
tain from 50 to 70 per cent of copper, and the
mineral constitutes a valuable ore of that metal.
Bornite occurs abundantly in a copper-mine at
Bristol, Conn. Bornite occurs in many western
■copper mines, as at Butte, Mont., and in Colo-
rado, being at times highlv argentiferous. It
abounds in Chile, Peru, Mexico, Canada and
many other countries.

Bornou',' a kingdom of Central Africa,
lying between lat. 10° and 15° N., and Ion. 12°
and 16° 30' E. ; bounded north by Kanem and
the desert, east by Lake Chad, south by Man-
dara, and west by Sudan. From March to
July the heat is extreme, the thermometer rising
to 107° and rarely falling below 86° F. ; during
this time scorching winds from the south prevail.
As in other tropical countries the seasons are
divided into the dry and rainy : the latter con-
tinues from March to October, when the air
becomes milder and fresher. The country is
populous, containing 13 principal towns. These
are generally large and well built, with walls 40
feet high, and about 20 feet thick. The houses
•consist of several courtyards, with apartments
for slaves, habitations for the different wives,
and several turrets connected by terraces, form-
ing the apartments of the owner. The Bornou
people, or Kanuri, have negro features ; they
are peaceable and industrious, practising agri-
culture and various mechanical arts. The gov-
ernment is an absolute monarchy, with certain
constitutional forms, and the sultan or mai can,
it is said, muster a well-equipped army of
25,000 or 30,000 men, partly cavalry, armed with
musket, rifle, sabre, etc. Indian corn, cotton,
and indigo are the most valuable productions of
the soil. Fruits and vegetables are also raised.
The domestic animals are asses, camels, horses,
dogs, sheep, goats, and oxen. Lions, leopards,
hyenas, jackals, elephants, and buffaloes roam

the forests. The crocodile and hippopotamus
are considered a luxury. The ostrich, pelican,
crane, and guinea-fowl abound. Locusts often
appear in great clouds, and are eaten by the
natives. The capital is Kuka, near the shore
of Lake Chad. Bornou belongs to the British
sphere of influence. Estimated pop. 5,000,000.

Boro Budor, bo-ro boo-dor (the "Great
Buddha''), the ruin of a temple in Java, near
the junction of the Ello and Progo, the most
elaborate monument of the Buddhist style of
architecture anywhere existing. Javanese chron-
icles ascribe the building of the temple to the
beginning of the 7th century ; there are no
inscriptions, but it was probably finished between
1400 and 1430. Boro Budor is built on a low
hill between four vast volcanoes which supplied
the blocks of trachyte of which the edifice is
built; its height to the cupola is 118 feet. It
is a pyramid of a square form, each side at the
base measuring 520 feet, and consists of seven
walls, which are built like the steps of a stair,
up a hill. Between the walls are narrow ter-
races running round the building; in each is
an arched doorway leading to the next higher
terrace. These walls are richly ornamented
with statuary. Outside are over 400 niches
topped with fantastic domes, and each occupied
by a large statue of Buddha. Between each of
these are bas-reliefs, including figures of the
god seated, and architectural ornaments and
carvings of all sorts. Below the niches, on the -,
lower story, is an immense bas-relief running •'
round the whole building, representing scenes '
from the life of Buddha, and religious subjects.
The inner faces of the building are also profusely
ornamented with bas-reliefs, representing bat-
tles, sea-fights, processions, and chariot races,
carried to an extent unrivaled by any other
building in the world. Of the large reliefs
alone there are over 2,000 ; and most of them are
as vigorously designed as they are carefully exe-
cuted. Within the upper square terrace are
three circular ones, the outer ornamented with
32, the next with 24, and the upper with 16
small bell-shaped shrines (dagops), each con-
taining a seated statue of Buddha, which can
be seen through the open works of their roofs.
The whole is surmounted by a cupola, the prin-
cipal and probably the most ancient part of the
structure. It is now empty, a sunken chamber,
10 feet deep, representing what was, no doubt,
a dagop intended to contain the precious relic
for which this splendid temple was erected. The
niches containing the cross-legged figures have
been supposed to be a copy, in durable architec-
ture, of the cells of a Buddhist monastery, each -
occupied by a shaven priest ; the cupola is rather
to be classified with the topes or stupas of
Afghanistan. The structure is thus a compound
of a tope with a copy, in durable architecture,
of the frail cells of a vihara.

Borodin, bo-ro'den, Alexander Porfirye-
vich, por-fer-ya'vich, Russian coinposer: b.
St. Petersburg. 12 Nov. 1834; d. there, 27 Feb.
1887. He studied medicine and chemistry, and
was made professor of chemistry at the Medico-
Surgical Academy of St. Petersburg- He was
at the same time an excellent musician, one of
the chief representatives of the new Russian
school. His chief works are two symphonies
and 'In Central Asia.' His opera, 'Prince
Igor,' which he had not completed at his death

BORODINO — BOROUGH

was finished by Rimsky-Korsakoff and Glazou-
noff, and was brought out in St. Petersburg in
November 1890.

Borodino, bo-ro-de'no, Russia, a village 70
miles west of Moscow ; on the Kaluga, an afflu-
ent of the Moskwa. It gave name to the great
battle fought between the French army under
Napoleon and the Russians under Kutusoff, 7
Sept. 1812. The battle of Borodino was one of
the most obstinately disputed in history, and the
loss on both sides was almost equally great.
Out of 257,000 men engaged, between 70,000
and 80,000 were killed and wounded. The Rus-
sians retreated on the following day, but in the
most perfect order, and therefore claim this bat-
tle as a victory : but the French, who name the
battle from the Moskwa, have always maintained
a similar claim.

Boroglyceride, -glis'- (from *boron'^ and
^'glycerine"), an antiseptic substance, soluble in
alcohol and in 40 parts of water, and containing
about 25 per cent of borate of glycerine
(C3H5BO3), the remaining 75 per cent con-
sisting of free boracic acid and glycerine in
equivalent proportions. Boroglyceride is con-
sidered harmless, and is much used in the pres-
ervation of fruits and wines, and other articles
of food.

Bo'ron (from "borax^'), one of the non-
metallic elements. In nature it is never found
in the uncombined or elementary state, though
it occurs abundantly in combination with other
elements, especially in regions that are or have
been volcanic. The principal compounds of it
that are found in nature are borax and boracic
acid (qq.v.). It is a constituent of numerous
other minerals, but most of these have but little
commercial importance. Boron was first ob-
tained in the elementary state about the year
1808, by Gay-Lussac and Thenard in France,
and by Sir Humphry Davy in England. Gay-
Lussac and Thenard prepared the element by
heating boracic acid very strongly until all its
water was expelled, and then heating the result-
ing substance (now known as boric oxid) with
metallic potassium. The potassium removed the
oxygen from the boric oxid, setting the element
boron free. When thus prepared boron is an
opaque amorphous powder of a greenish-brown
color. It has neither taste nor odor, but it stains
the fingers strongly. Owing to its finely divided
condition it is apt to take fire spontaneously;
but if it is consolidated by pressure it is not
affected by the air at common temperatures,
though it burns with a reddish light when
heated. It is not affected by water save that
water will dissolve a slight amount of it when
it is freshly prepared. Strong nitric acid will
dissolve it in the cold, and hot sulphuric acid
attacks it also. It is one of the few substances
that will combine directly with nitrogen, which
it does when heated in that gas. The atornic
weight of boron has not been determined with
satisfactory precision, but Clarke gives 10.97 as
the best result obtainable from the existing
data. The amorphous boron described above is
soluble in melted aluminum, from which it
crystallizes out on cooling. The crystals so
obtained were formerly thought to consist of
pure boron, but it has been shown that they
always contain a definite amount of aluminum.
These crystals may be obtained of such hardness
that they will scratch both corundum and the
Vol. 2— 5v

ruby, the diamond being the only substance that
exceeds them in this respect. The specific
gravity of amorphous boron has not been sat-
isfactorily determined, but it appears to exceed
1.84. The specific gravity of the crystals
obtained as described above is said by Miller to be
2.68. The specific heat of boron varies con-
siderably with the temperature. At 250° C.
it is .2,7, and at 1,000° C. it is probably 0.5.
Boron is a non-conductor of electricity.

Bororos, bo-ro-ros', a tribe of South
American Indians of the Tupi or Guarani stock,
variously reported from a few hundred to a few
thousand, living in southwestern Brazil around
the headwaters of the Parana and Paraguay,
the small remnants of a once powerful race,
thinned by old Portuguese slave raids and
disease. They live in villages and do some
planting, but live mainly by hunting with long
bows and bone-tipped arrows. They are excep-
tionally tall, averaging over five feet eight
inches, and athletic, and are reported to prac-
tice both polygamy and polyandry, but little is
really known of them.

Borough, in England, either an incorpo-
rated municipality with an organized govern-
ment and a charter of special privileges (muni-
cipal borough), or a district represented by a
member of Parliament (parliamentary bor-
ough). The burh (hill) was originally a hill-
fort ; then the settlement around it, with its own
court, and head officer called a "port-reeve."
Under the Norman dynasty the port-reeves were
replaced by royal officers, and the boroughs grad-
ually received special charters and were gov-
erned by their leading guilds. As their support
came to be needed by the governing factions they
were given representation in Parliament ; and
under the Tudors, especially Mary, small bor-
oughs in great profusion were created expressly
to return members in the government interest.
This was stopped under Elizabeth. Besides
these the older boroughs decayed till they had
little or no population, but were allowed to
keep their parliamentary power to strengthen
the aristocratic and land-owning interest, the
proprietors of the sites returning whom thej'
chose: these were called ^'rotten boroughs,"
and the chief was "Old Sarum" (that is, Old
Salisbury), with not a single inhabitant but two
members of Parliament. Others had only one.
Those somewhat larger, but still so small as
to be at the dictation of some one person or
family, were called "pocket boroughs." The
Reform Bill of 1832 swept away the worst of
these anomalies.

In the United States the term is now
restricted to certain incorporated villages below
the rank of cities in four States — Connecticut,
New Jersey, Minnesota, and Pennsylvania ; and
is practically synonymous with "town" in most
other States, and with "village" in Ohio. At
the beginning of colonization the natural idea
was to transplant the English borough system to
America; but the conditions of settlement and
government made it generally inapplicable. In
Virginia the term was applied in the sense
of "parliamentary borough." to districts made up
of hundreds and plantations, having representa-
tion in the House of Burgesses, of which in 1619
there were 1 1 ; but the municipal borough did not
take root there. Lord Baltimore and William
Penn were empowered to establish the latter in

BOROUGH-ENGLISH — BORROW

thei. colonies of Maryland and Pennsylvania;
but ./ic former did not avail himself of it at
all, jnd the latter very little, nor his heirs
after him. After the Revolution, however, the
Penirsylvania legislature granted special bor-
ougn charters freely, and in 1834 passed an act
empowering courts of quarter sessions to grant
thciii; in 1851 a general act for their creation
and regulation was passed. In New Jersey they
weie created by special charters as early as
the beginning of the 18th centurj^ and in 1818
a gi^neral act was passed. In Connecticut they
ha\c always been created by the legislature, in
special acts. In Minnesota and Pennsylvania
the boundaries of the borough are conterminous
witf. the township, forming one of the primary
couiity divisions: in Connecticut and New Jer-
sey the borough is only a village government
witnin a town, which in all cases is a separate
bod/ including the borough ; the latter being
onl> the thickly settled portion within the range
geutei-ally of the postal, fire, etc., departments,
and governed by a warden and burgesses, cor-
responding to the mayor and single-chamber
couiicil of a city.

A still further extension was given to the
term by the New York legislature in 1897. when
the city of Greater New York was constituted
of five ^oroughs^^ — IManhattan, Brooklyn,
Queeirs, The Bronx, and Richmond.

Borough-English, in law, a mode of de-
scent in some ancient boroughs and manors, in
which the owner's youngest son, or his young-
est brother (if he has no issue), is the heir. It
is evidently a custom of Saxon origin, and is so
named to distinguish it from the Norman cus-
toms. It. still holds in a few places.

Borromean (bo-ro-ma'an) Islands, four
small islands in a bay of Lago Maggiore, north
Italj% belonging to the Borromeo family, and
named respectively Isola Bella, Isola Madre,
Isola dei Pescatori, and L'Isolino. The Isola
Madre lies farthest from the shore of the lake.
It is laid out in seven terraces, rising one above
the other, v- ith charming walks and a mansion
on the top. The Isola Bella contains a hand-
some and extensive palace, with private chapel
and picture gallery, the fine gardens adjoining
being laid out upon 10 terraces rising above each
other. The island was formerly little more than
a barren rock and much soil required to be
brought from the mainland. The Isola dei Pes-
catori is mostly occupied by a fishing village.
Magnificent views of the surrounding scenery are
obtained from these islands.

Borromeo, bo-ro-ma'o, Carlo (Count),
saint and cardinal of the Roman Catholic Church :
b. Arona, Italy, 2 Oct. 1538; d. 3 Nov. 1584. He
studied law at Pavia ; was in 1559 made doctor,
and in 1560 was successively appointed by his
uncle Pius IV. apostolical prothonotary, refer-
endary, cardinal, and archbishop of Milan. As
legate over Romagna, the March of Ancona, and
Bologna, he had a great share in the civil gov-
ernment : as protector of Portugal, of the Neth-
erlands, of Switzerland, of the Franciscans, Car-
melites, and of the Knights of Malta, he admin-
istered several important branches of the
spiritual government of the Pope, who created
him his grand penitentiary, and did nothing of
importance without his advice. The re-opening
and the results of the Council of Trent, so advan-
tageous to the papal authority, were chiefly

effected by the great influence of Borromeo'
He did much for the embellishment of the papal
buildings, employing even his own fortune for
that purpose, and established many excellent
institutions as archbishop of Milan ; improved
the discipline of the clergy, founded schools,
seminaries, an order of secular priests (oblates),
libraries, and hospitals, and was indefatigable
in doing good. During the pestilence which
raged in Milan in 1576 he distinguished him-
self by his heroic devotion to his flock. As soon
as the scourge appeared in the city he hastened
from a distant part of his diocese, where he was
making a pastoral visitation, and spent all his
energies in giving bodily aid and spiritual con-
solation to the plague-stricken inhabitants. All
his virtues, however, could not save him from
persecution and calumny : he was even severely
attacked by the government, but no charge could
be proved against him. ]\Iiracles were said to
have been wrought at his tomb immediately after
his death, and his canonization took place in
1610.

Borromeo, Federigo, fa-da-re'g5 (Count),
cardinal, and archbishop of Milan, nephew of St.
Charles: b. Milan, 1564; d. 22 Sept. 1631. He
founded the Ambrosian Library at Milan in 1609,
and devoted to it most of his fortune. He sent
emissaries to several countries to collect manu-
scripts for it. He added to it a printing estab-
lishment, and founded academies, schools, and
charitable institutions. When Milan was deso-
lated by a pestilence in 1630, Federigo showed
the same heroism as his uncle Carlo had done
during that of 1576.

Borromini, Francesco, fran-ches-ko bor-
r5-me'ne, Italian architect: b. Bissone, 1599;
d. (by his own hand) 1667. He studied sculp-
ture in Milan and architecture in Rome under
Maderno, architect of St. Peters. After Ma-
derno's death he was a pupil of Bernini, by
whom he was employed on various parts of St.
Peters. He built the church of San Ivo alia
Sapienza, the Oratory and Cloister of San Fil-
ippo Neri, the facade of the church of Santa
Agnese in the Piazza Navona, and the interior
of San Giovanni in Laterano. He was one of
the chief representatives of the baroque style.
Borromini conceived an unreasoning hatred for
his instructor Bernini and determined to surpass
him in his art, but maddened by the latter's
success he committed suicide.

Borrow, George, English traveler, linguist,
and writer on gypsy life: b. East Dereham, Nor-
folk, 1803 ; d. Ouiton Broad, Suffolk, August
1881. On his father's side he was descended
from a Cornish family, and his mother was of
French extraction. His father was a recruit-
ing officer who constantly changed his residence,
and thus Borrow's early years were passed in
various parts of the United Kingdom. He
received part of his education in Edinburgh High
School, and in 1S20 was articled to a Norwich
solicitor. It was about this time that he laid
the foundation of his linguistic knowledge under
the guidance of William Taylor, a friend of
Southey. After his father's death he went to
London, where he earned his livelihood by lit-
erary hackwork ; but, soon tiring of this, he set
out on a series of journeys through England,
France, Germany, Russia, and other countries,
acting latterly as agent of the British and For-
eign Bible Society and making gypsy life and

BORROWING DAYS — BOSANQUET

customs a special study. During the seven years
or so prior to his engagement by the Bible So-
ciety he seems to have suffered great privations,
but of his movements at thnt time he has told us
nothing. He married in 1840, and settled on a
small estate of his wife's at Oulton Broad, in the
northeast of Suffolk, where he died. He main-
tained to the last his strong sympathy for gypsy
life, and not only permitted but encouraged the
gypsies to encamp on his estate. His best known
work is ^The Bible in Spain' (3 vols. 1843) ;
and his other publications include 'Targum: or,
Metrical Translations from Thirty Languages
and Dialects' (1835) *The Zincali : or, an
Account of the Gj'psies in Spain' (1841) ;
^Lavengro, the Scholar, the Gypsy, the Priest'
(1851), a sort of idealized autobiography; *The
Romany Rye,' a sequel to ^Lavengro' (1857) ;
'Wild Wales, Its People, Language, and Scen-
ery' (1862) ; and 'Romano Lavo-LiP (1874), a
dictionary of the gyspy language. Borrow was
a strong, manly character, delighting in the free,
open-air existence of the gypsies whose life he
knew so well, and despising heartily all affecta-
tion and false gentility. His later works, by
their outspokenness, lost him much of the repu-
tation earned by his 'Bible in Spain.' See the
'Life Writings, and Correspondence' by Dr.
Knapp (2 vols. 1899).

Borrowing Days, the last three days of
March, Old Style ; the popular notion being, in
Scotland and some parts of England, that they
were borrowed by March from April. The fic-
tion is of great antiquity, and probably arose in
the observation of a frequent wintry relapse
about the end of March.

Borrowstounness' (popularly pronounced
and now often written Bo'ness), a town in Lin-
lithgowshire, Scotland, distant 17 miles west by
north of Edinburgh. It is situated on a low
peninsula, washed by the Forth, and possesses
three principal streets running from west to east,
one of them a continuation of the other two.
The chief industrial establishments are potteries,
iron-foundries, engineering shops, chemical
manure works, saw-mills, timber-yards, coal and
coke works, distilleries, brick-fields, etc., and in
the vicinity are very extensive collieries. A new
dock has recently been constructed and the old
harbor improved, hydraulic hoists and other
appliances being provided. The wall of Anto-
ninus ran through Borrowstounness, and traces
of it are still visible. Pop. (1901) 9,100.

Borsip'pa, a very ancient city of Babylonia,
the site of which is marked by the ruins Birs
Nimrud.

Bert, a rounded, translucent variety of
diamond, harder than the distinctly crystallized
gem variety. It is of much value as an abrasive.

Bortnyanski, Dmitri Stepanovitch, dme'tre
step-an'o-vich bort-nyan-ske, Russian com-
poser: b. Glukhov, 1751; d. St. Petersburg, 9
Sept. 1825. He received his education at Mos-
cow and at Venice and other Italian cities,
under Galuppi. In 1779 he returned to Russia
and was appointed director of the Imperial
Chapel, devoting himself to the improvement and
traming of the choir. His compositions are
almost entirely church music, including 35 sa-
cred concertos, a liturgy for three voices, and a
collection of psalms. His music, combining the

spirit of both the Slavic and the Italian, is thor-
oughly original and made an epoch in Russian
church music.

Bory de Saint Vincent, Jean Baptiste
George Marie, zhon bap-test zhorzh ma-re
bo-re de san van-son, French naturalist: b.
1780; d. 1846. About 1800-2 he visited the
Canaries, Mauritius, and other African islands.
He afterward served for a time in the army,
and conducted scientific expeditions to Greece
and to Algiers. Among his chief works are
'Annales des Sciences Physiques' (8 vols.
1819-21); 'Voyage dans les Quatre Principales
lies des Mers d'Afrique' (3 vols. 1804); 'Ex-
pedition Scientifique de Moree' (3 vols. 1832) ;
'L'Homme, Essai Zoologique sur le Genre Hu-
main' (2 vols. 1836).

Borysthenes, bo-ris'then-es, the ancient
name of the Dnieper.

Borz'oi, or Russian Wolfhound, a hunting-
dog of northern Europe, substantially the same
as the ancient long-haired greyhound of the
Arabs and Persians, whose coat has been length-
ened in adaptation to a cold climate. It is a
lithe, active dog, standing 28 inches high at the
shoulders, and upward, and weighing from 75 to
100 pounds. Its hair is silky and loose, espe-
cially so on the tail, which, contrary to the
other greyhound characteristics, is "feathered"
longer than is the setter's, which it very mucli
resembles. It has large padded feet. In color
the borzois are combinations of black, white,
and tan. These dogs are popular, especially
as stately attendants upon ladies, and good speci-
mens may be seen at all the principal kennel
shows of the country.

Bos, Lambert, Dutch philologist: b. Wor-
kum, Friesland, 23 Nov. 1670; d. 6 Jan. 1717.
He was instructed by his father in Greek and
Latin. Vitringa, the distinguished Oriental
scholar, was professor at Franeker, and thither
young Bos went to pursue his philological stud-
ies. Not long after he was chosen Greek pro-
fessor in that university. He is best known by
his work entitled 'Ellipses Graecse' (1702),
though he was the author of several others,
among which may be mentioned an edition of
the Septuagint and 'Animadversiones ad Scrip-
tores Grascos.'

Bosa, a seaport on the west coast of Sar-
dinia, province of Cagliari, built partly on the
side of a hill crowned by an old castle, and
partly in an unhealthy plain. It has a cathedral
and other churches, a theological seminary, and
is the residence of a bishop, suffragan to the
archbishop of Sassari. It is in a wine and oil
producing region and carries on coral fishing
and tanning. Pop. (1901) 6.846.

Bosanquet, bo-san-ka, Bernard, English
philosopher : b. 1848. He was lecturer af Uni-
versity College, Oxford, 1871-81, and from 1881
to 1897 was much engaged in university exten-
sion lecturing and charily organization. He has
written ' Logic, or Morphology of Knowledge' ;
'History of .Esthetic'; 'Knowledge and Real-
ity' ; 'Essays and Addresses'; 'Civilization of
Christendom'; 'Essentials of Logic'; 'Aspects
of the Social Problem'; 'Psychology of Moral
Self ; 'Companion to Plato's Republic, for Eng-
lish Readers' ; 'Education of the Young in
Plato's Republic' ; 'Philosophical Theory of the
State.'

BOSC — BOSCOBEL

Bosc, Louis Augustin Guillaume, French
naturalist: b. Paris, 29 Jan. 1759; d. there, 10
July 1828. Employed in various public offices
until 1793, his political sympathies made him ob-
noxious to the terrorists, and concealing him-
self in the forest of Montmorency, he resumed
there, under the greatest difficulties, his favorite
science of botany, having already previously
gained some distinction as a naturalist. On
returning to Paris after the fall of Robespierre
he was sent in 1796 as French consul to the
United States ; but, not recognized in this posi-
tion by the American authorities, he explored
the country for scientific purposes. In 1799 he
was appointed chief of the administration of
prisons, but lost this office on the i8th Brumaire.
Applying himself thenceforward to literary la-
bors, he made numerous contributions to natural
science. His ^Histoire Naturelle des Coquilles^
(S vols. 2d ed. Paris 1824) and 'Historic des
Vers et des Crustacees-* (2 vols. 2d ed. Paris
1829), and his studies on the vines of France,
are his principal achievements. He was made a
member of the Academy of Sciences, of the
Central Agricultural Society, and finally, after
having been inspector of the gardens at Ver-
sailles, he became professor at the Jardin des
Plantes at Paris. Roland, under whose admin-
instration he had served, and who perished with
his wife on the guillotine, made him guardian
of their daughter. Bosc published memoirs of
the celebrated Madame Roland, and succeeded
in obtaining for Mile. Roland the confiscated
property of her unfortunate parents.

Boscan Almogaver, Juan, Spanish poet:
b. Barcelona, about 1493 ; d. near Perpignan,
April 1542. His parents, who belonged to the
most ancient nobility, gave him a careful educa-
tion. He followed the court of Charles V. and
in 1526 was attached to it for some time
in Granada. His noble manners and character
gained him the favor of the emperor, and the
education of the Duke of Alva was committed
to him. After his marriage Boscan lived at
Barcelona, occupied in publishing his works,
together with those of his deceased friend Gar-
cilaso, in which task he was employed at the
time of his death. Boscan first introduced Italian
measures into Spanish, and thus became the
creator of the Spanish sonnet. He published his
poetical works in I.S43. His poems are still
esteemed, the best edition being that published
at Madrid in 1875. Among his works are ^Le-
andro y Hero^ and ^La Allegoria.^

Boscawen, Edward, British admiral: b.
Cornwall, England, 19 Aug. 171 1; d. near Guild-
ford, Surrey, 10 Jan. 1761. He was a son of
Viscount Falmouth. Having entered the navy
he distinguished himself at Porto Bello (1740)
and Cartagena (1741), where he stormed a bat-
tery at the head of a part of his crew. In
1744 lie was promoted to the Dreadnought, a 60-
gun ship, in which he took the French frigate
Medea. Three years afterward he signalized
himself under Anson, at the battle of Cape
Finisterre. Toward the close of this year he
was appointed commander-in-chief by sea and
land in the East Indies, and was despatched
thither with a squadron. He failed in attempts
on Mauritius and Pondicherry, and in 1750 re-
turned to England, where he obtained a seat
at the admiralty board. In 1755 he became vice-
admiral and sailed for North America, and in

an action with a French squadron two ships of
the line fell into his hands. It was he who
signed the immediate order for the execution
of Byng in 1757. In 1758 he was promoted
to the rank of admiral of the blue, and in con-
junction with Lord Amherst, who commanded
the land forces, he was present at the capitula-
tion of Louisburg. The year following, having
then the command in the Mediterranean, he
pursued the Toulon fleet, under De la Clue,
through the Straits of Gibraltar, and coming
up with it in Lagos Bay, completely defeated it,
burning two ships and taking three. For these
services he received the thanks of Parliament
and $15,000 a year, with the rank of general
of marines, in 1760.

Bosch, Balthazar van den, Dutch painter:
b. Antwerp, 1681 ; d. 1715. The first work which
brought him into notice was an equestrian pic-
ture of the Duke of Marlborough, executed
in concert with Van Bloemen, who painted the
horse. He was afterward employed on a num-
ber of works, for which he is said to have
received as high prices as Teniers or Ostade;
and a short time before his death was appointed
director of the Academy of Antwerp.

Bosch, Ernst, German painter: b. Crefeld,
1834. He studied under Schex at Wesel and at
the academy in Diisseldorf. His works show a
pleasing combination of figure, animal, and land-
scape painting ; many of his pictures excel in
humor. Among his best paintings are *The
Smuggler^ ; ^Defense of a Block-house against
Indians' ; 'Gipsy Gang in the Village' ; 'The
Rogues' School' ; 'Hermann and Dorothea at
the Spring.'

Bosch, Hieronymus, Dutch painter and
engraver : b. Bois le Due, Netherlands, about
1462; d. there 1516. His fancy partook of the
grotesque, Gothic character of the Middle Ages,
and his pictures are ingenious representations
of devils, spectres, and the torments of the lost.
Some of his works, however, representing scrip-
tural scenes, possess greater dignity. His en-
gravings resemble his paintings, and have be-
come very scarce.

Boschbok, the Dutch form of the English
name "bush-buck," given to several South Afri-
can antelopes, specifically the Tragelaplius syl-
vaticus. It is prized for its venison.

Boschvark, the bush-hog or bush-pig of
South Africa (Chccropoiamiis or Potamochccrus
africanus), one of the swine family, about five
feet long, and with very large and strong tusks.
The Kaffirs esteem its flesh as a luxury, and
its tusks, arranged on a piece of string and
tied round the neck, are considered great orna-
ments.

Boscobel, England, a parish in Shropshire,
unimportant in itself, but remarkable historically
as the hiding place of Charles II. for some
days after the battle of Worcester, 3 Sept. 1651.
Boscobel House belonged at the time to a
stanch royalist, and as it was judged a con-
venient place of retreat, Charles at once pro-
ceeded in that direction, and hid himself during
the day in the thickest part of the wood. After
making one attempt to escape from England
through Wales, he was compelled to return again
to his former hiding-place, and concealed himself
among the branches of a pollard oak in Boscobel
Wood, where it is related that he could actually

BOSCOVICH — BOSNIA

see the men who were in pursuit of him, and
hear their voices. The "royal oak» which now
stands at Boscobel, is said to have grown from
an acorn of this very tree. An account of
Charles' adventures after the battle of Worces-
ter was published in 1662, with the title/ Bos-
cobel, or the Compleat History of his Sacred
Majestie's most Miraculous Preservation after
the Battle of Worcester.^ This history is said
to have been the work of Thomas Blount.

Boscovich, Roger Joseph, Italian astrono-
mer and physicist : b. Ragusa, Dalmatia, 18 May
1711; d. Milan, 12 Feb. 1787. He was educated
among the Jesuits, and entering into their order,
was appointed professor of mathematics in the
Roman College, before he had entirely com-
pleted the course of his studies. He was em-
ployed by Pope Benedict XIV. in various under-
takings, and in 1750 began the measurement of
a degree of the meridian in the Ecclesiastical
States, which operation occupied him for two
years. He afterward visited the Pontine
Marshes, to give advice respecting the draining
of them. He was then intrusted by the Republic
of Lucca with the defense of its interests, in
a dispute about boundaries with the government
of Tuscany. This affair obliged him to go to
Vienna, and having terminated it with success,
he visited Paris and London. He was elected
a Fellow of the Royal Society, and dedicated to
this body a Latin poem on eclipses. Returning
to Italy, he was appointed mathematical pro-
fessor in the University of Pavia ; whence, in
1770, he removed to Milan, and there erected
the celebrated observatory at the College of
Brera. On the suppression of the order of
Jesuits, he accepted an invitation to France
from Louis XV., who gave him a pension of
8,000 livres, with the office of director of optics
for the navy. This appointment induced him to
pay particular attention to that part of optical
science which treats of the theory of achromatic
telescopes, on which subject he wrote a treatise
of considerable extent. He was obliged to leave
Paris in 1783, on account of ill health, when
he retired to Milan. He was one of the first
among continental philosophers to adopt the
Newtonian theories. An edition of the works of
Father Boscovich was published by himself at
Bassano, in 5 volumes, 4to, 1785. His "^Theoria
Philosophias Naturalis reducta ad Unicam Legem
Virium in Natura Existentium,' first published
in 1758, is a curious production containing spec-
ulations of which Dr. Priestley availed himself
in his writings in favor of materialism. He
wrote also ^De Maculis Solaribus.^

Bosio, Angiolina, Italian opera singer:
b. Turin, 22 Aug. 1829; d. St. Petersburg, 12
April 1859. At an early age she showed so
decided a taste for music, that her parents were
induced to place her under the instruction of
Cattaneo, at Milan. The best evidence of her
progress and talent for singing, was her debut
in her 15th year at Milan, in Verdi's ^Due Fos-
cari,^ with decided success. Thenceforth a
series of triumphs awaited her.

Bosio, Frangois Joseph (Baron), French
sculptor: b. Monaco, 19 March 1769; d- Paris,
29 July 1845. He was much employed by Napo-
leon I., for whom he executed busts of Josephme
and Hortense, and by the successive Bourbon
and Orleans dynasties. His works are well
known in France and Italy.

Bosna-Sera'i, or Serajevo (ancient Tiberiop-
OLis), formerly capital of the province of Bosnia,
now of the Austro-Hungarian district of Sera-
jevo, situated on the Miliatzka, which is here
crossed by a handsome stone bridge, 122 miles
southwest of Belgrade, and 570 miles west-
northwest of Constantinople. The town was
founded about 1263. It is well built, and al-
though most of the houses are of wood, has a
gay and pleasant appearance from the number
of towers and minarets with which it is embel-
lished. Many improvements have been intro-
duced since the Austrian occupation. It con-
tains a serai or palace, built by Mohammed II.,
to which the city owes its name ; many mosques,
great and small ; churches, monasteries, two
large bazaars, schools, baths, and charitable insti-
tutions. It v/as formerly surrounded with walls,
but these are now completely decayed ; and its
only remaining defense is a citadel, built on
a rocky height at a short distance east from
the town, mounted with cannon. Serajevo is the
chief mart in the province, the centre of com-
mercial relations between Turkey, Austria, and
South Germany ; and has, in consequence, a con-
siderable trade. It has manufactures of arms
and utensils of copper ; ironware, woolen and
worsted stuffs, morocco leather, cottons, etc.
There are also several tanneries in the city,
and at a short distance from it several impor-
tant iron mines ; and on a plain which stretches
to the west the baths of Serajevesko. Pop.
26,286.

Bosnia (properly Bosna), the extreme
northwestern province or eyalet of European
Turkey, comprising Bosnia proper, Herzegovina,
and parts of Turkish Croatia and Dalmatia,
bounded north by the river Save, west by Dalma-
tia and the Adriatic, east by Servia, and south
by Albania and Montenegro. By the terms of
the Treaty of Berlin (1878), it was occupied by
Austrian troops, to be administered for an
undefined future period by the Austrian govern-
ment. It comprehends, besides the ancient Bos-
nia, part of Croatia, a tract of Dalmatia, and
Herzegovina, and contains from 23,000 to 24.000
square miles (of which Bosnia proper occupies
16,200). The inhabitants are mostly of Slavo-
nian origin, and comprise Bosniaks, Servians,
Morlaks, and Croats, besides Turks, Greeks,
Jews, Gypsies, etc. The Bosniaks are the most
numerous. They are partly Mohammedans,
partly Roman and Greek Catholics. The Ser-
vians and Croats are next in point of number.
The country is level toward the north ; in the
south mountainous and woody. Its chief rivers
are the Save, the Verbas, the Bosna, Rama, and
Drina. Bosnia contains fertile fields, orchards,
and vineyards ; the breed of cattle is excellent,
and the mountains furnish good iron, of which a
great part is manufactured in the country into
guns and blades. The other articles manufac-
tured are leather, morocco, and coarse woolen
cloths. In the 12th and 13th centuries Bosnia
belonged to Hungary. In 13.^9 't fell into the
hands of Stephen, king of Servia. After his
death it remained independent, and the Ban
Twartko took the title of king in 1370. In 1401
it became tributary to the Turks, and since 1463
has been a Turkish province. It is divided into
the southern and northern parts, or Upper and
Lower Bosnia. The former is commonly called
Herzegovina (q.v.). The capital of Bosnia is

BOSPORUS — BOSSE

Bosna-Serai (q.v.) ; Zvornik, Banyaluka, Mos-
tar, and Travnik are also important places. The
Bosniaks are boorish in their manners and un-
courteous toward strangers, but industrious and
temperate. The women, like the men, are well
and strongly made, and mostly good-looking.
The Bosniaks are fond of hunting and fishing,
and engage to some extent in agriculture and
cattle-raising. Servian is the language gener-
ally spoken. Bosnia has often attempted to
throw off the Turkish yoke, and after the Russo-
Turkish war of 1877-8, which was led up to by
an insurrection in Herzegovina and Bosnia, the
provinces were with the consent of the great
powers occupied by Austria. Pop. including
Herzegovina (1895) 1,591,036.

Bosporus, or Bosphorus (that is, "^^Ox-

ford"), the strait, 18 miles long, joining the
Black Sea with the Sea of Marmora, called
also the Strait of Constantinople. It is defended
by a series of strong forts, and by agreement
of the European powers no ship of war belonging
to any nation shall pass the strait without the
permission of Turkey. The shores of the Bos-
porus are elevated and the scenery picturesque.
Over this channel (about 3,033 feet wide) Da-
rius constructed a bridge of boats, on his expe-
dition against the Scythians. The Cimmerian
Bosporus was the name given by the ancients
to the strait that leads from the Black Sea
into the Sea of Azov, now the strait of Kaffa
or Yenikale, the other Bosporus being distin-
guished as the Thracian Bosporus. There was
anciently a Greek kingdom of the name of Bos-
porus, so called from the Cimmerian Bosporus,
on both sides of which it was situated. The
capital of this kingdom was Panticapjeum (rep-
resented by the modern Kertch), in the Tauric
Chersonese, the ancient name of the Crimea.
This kingdom was founded about 480 B.C. Spar-
tacus was among the first kings. Under a
successor, Satyrus, the kingdom was extended
to the coast of Asia, and his son Leucon far-
ther extended it. He improved the commerce
of the country (in particular by the exportation
of corn to Athens, also of fish, fur, skins, bees'-
wax, and slaves). From him his descendants
were called Leuconidae. Leucanor became trib-
utary to the Scythians 290 B.C., and the tribute
was finally so oppressive that Parisades, the last
of the Leuconid,'?, preferred to submit to Mith-
ridates king of Pontus, who vanquished the Scy-
thians under Scilurus 116 b. c, and made his
son king of Bosporus. At the death of Mith-
ridates the Romans gave the country, 64 B.C., to
his second son, Pharnaces, who was afterward
murdered. The Romans placed different princes
successively upon the throne, who all pretended
to be descendants of Mithridates. When this
family became extinct, 259 a.d., the Sarmatians
took possession of the kingdom, from whom
it was taken by the Chersonesians in 344. The
Tauric Chersonese then belonged to the East-
ern Empire, till it was seized by the Chazars,
and afterward by the Tartars, under the Mon-
gol princes.

Bosquet, bos-ka, Pierre Frangois, French
soldier : b. Mont de Marsen, France, 8 Nov.
1810; d. Toulouse, 5 Feb. 1861. In 1829 he
entered the Polytechnic School, and, in 1833,
became a sub-lieutenant in the artillery. In
1835, he went with his regiment to Algeria,
where he began to distinguish himself. Be-

tween 1836 and 1848 he had passed through
the successive ranks of captain, chef-de-bataillon,
lieutenant-colonel, and colonel, when, in that
year, he was appointed by the Republican gov-
ernment general of brigade. In 1854 the Em-
peror Napoleon HI. raised him to the rank of
general of division, and enrolled him in the staff
of the army of Marshal St. Arnaud. He was
with the French army in the Crimea, where he
greatljr distinguished himself, and was wounded
in the assault on the IMalakoff Tower at the siege
of Sebastopol. In 1856, he was made a marshal
of France, and a senator. In 1859, he was ap-
pointed to a command in the war against Aus-
tria.

Boss, Lewis, American astronomer: b.
Providence, R. I., 26 Oct. 1846. He was grad-
uated at Dartmouth College, in 1870 ; astronomer
of the Northern Boundary Survey for the deter-
mination of the line between the western part of
the United States and British America ; and,
since the completion of that work, director of
the Dudley Observatory, Albany, N. Y. He
was chief of the United States party sent to
Chile in 1882 to observe the transit of Venus;
was elected a member of the National Academy
of Science, in 1889, and an honorary foreign
associate of the Royal Astronomical Society, in
1890. He is best known for his work upon
star declinations, undertaken in connection with
his work on the boundary survey, which is the
most complete investigation of the kind ever
executed, and for his "^Catalogue of 8,241 Stars^ — ■
which was a part of the *^ Co-operative Cata-
logue^ prepared by leading astronomers of
Europe.

Boss, a master or overseer, a term often
applied to the superintendent of a gang of work-
men. In American politics, the term came into
use, after the exposure of the Tweed Ring,
to designate the leader of a political organiza-
tion who retains his power by unscrupulous
methods and the use of public offices as rewards
for his supporters.

Boss, in Gothic architecture the protuber-
ance in a vaulted ceiling formed by the junc-
tion of the ends of several ribs, and serving
to bind them together; usually elaborately
carved and ornamented.

Bosse, bos, Abraham, French engraver
and etcher; b. Tours, 1605 (?); d. there, 1678.
He lived most of his life in Paris and was pro-
fessor in the Royal Academy of Painting there.
He prepared about 800 plates representing fes-
tivals and various scenes in the life of the peo-
ple. He wrote also ^Traite des Manieres de
Graver en Taille Douce sur I'Airain par I'Eau
Forte et les Vernis Durs et Mols.^

Bosse, bos-se, Robert, German statesman:
b. Quedlinburg, 1832. He studied law at Heidel-
berg, Halle, and Berlin, held different offices
in Prussia, and in 1876 he entered the Prus-
sian ministry. In October 1889 he became
under-secretary of state in the imperial Depart-
ment of the Interior, and in this capacity had
an important part in framing the laws for the
insurance of workingmen, and in defending
them in the Reichstag. In 1891 he became sec-
retary in the Department of Justice, and was
president of the commission to frame the new
Civil Code. In 1892 he again entered the Prus-
sian ministry as minister of education. He was

BOSSI — BOSTANJI

editor of the ^Monatsschrifte fiir Deutsche
Beamte' ; and he wrote * Commentary on the
Laws of 1889 for the Insurance of Invahds and
the Aged' ; ^An Official Journey to the Orient-*
(1900) and several articles in sociological and
legal periodicals.

Bossi, Enrico Marco, en-re'ko mar-ko
bos-se, Italian composer: b. Salo, 1861. He was
educated at the Milan Conservatory, was organ-
ist in the Como cathedral and instructor in or-
gan-playing at the Naples Conservatory. His
musical compositions include an organ concerto,
*I1 Cieco,' an opera, and 'Canticum Canti-
corum,' a sacred cantata. He has written (with
Tebaldini) * Method of Study for the Modern
Organ.'

Bossi, Giuseppe Carlo Aurelio, Italian pol-
itician and poet: b. Turin, 15 Nov. 1758; d. Paris,
20 Jan. 1823. When only 18 years old he made
a successful debut as a dramatist. In 1792 he
was sent on a diplomatic mission to Berlin, and
a few months later to St. Petersburg. In 1796
King Charles Emanuel IV. appointed him his
agent near Gen. Bonaparte. He acted a some-
what conspicuous part in the various changes
imposed upon the Sardinian states by the direct-
ory and the consular government of France;
and finally was, with Carlo Giulio and Carlo
Botta, a member of the triumvirate which gov-
erned Piedmont previous to its annexation in
1802. Some two years later he entered the
French civil service, and was appointed prefect
of Ain. In 1810 he was made a baron of the
empire, and promoted to the prefecture of
Manche, which post he kept on the first resto-
ration ; but having, in March 1815, adhered to
Napoleon, he was dismissed on the second re-
turn of the Bourbons. He wrote some lyrical
poems, and also ^L'lndipendenza Americana,'
*La Olanda pacificata,' in two cantos, and ^Oro-
masia,' in 12 cantos, giving a description of the
principal events in the French revolution.

Bossuet, Jacques Benigne, Bishop of
Meaux: b. Dijon, 2^ Sept. 1627; d. 16 April
1704. While attending the Jesuit College at Di-
jon he got possession of a Latin Bible, which
made an indelible impression upon him. At
the age of 15 he was sent to Paris, where he
entered the College of Navarre, the president
of which, Nicholas Cornet, took pleasure in
forming his mind. Bossuet, under the direction
of this worthy teacher, studied Greek and the
Holy Scriptures, read the ancient classics, and
investigated the Cartesian philosophy. He was
made Doctor of the Sorbonne and canon in
Metz. Here he edified his hearers by his preach-
ing and example ; was commissioned by his
bishop to refute the catechism of the Protestant
minister Paul Ferry, and did it in such a way
that even his antagonists were obliged to re-
spect him. The queen-mother (Anne of Aus-
tria) was induced, by this work, to employ Bos-
suet in the conversion of the Protestants in the
diocese of Metz. This business often called him
to Paris, where his sermons met with great ap-
probation. The sermon which he delivered in
*i668, on the occasion of Marshal Turenne's join-
ing the Roman Church, procured him the bish-
opric of Condom. In 1670 the king charged
him with the education of the dauphin. In con-
sequence of this appointment he resigned his
bishopric in 1671, because he thought it in-
consistent with his duty to retain it during a

continual absence from his diocese. At this time
he delivered his sermon at the funeral oi
Madame the Duchess of Orleans — a princess
who, in the midst of a brilliant court, of which
she was the ornament, died suddenly in the
bloom of youth. His last sermon of this kind
(that at the tomb of the great Conde) is con-
sidered as a masterpiece. The manly vigof
which characterized his orations is seen alsd
in the ^Discours sur I'Histoire Universelle,' de-
signed for the instruction of his royal pupil.
The care which he took of the education of
this prince was rewarded in 1680 by the office
of the first almoner of the dauphin; in 1681 bji
the bishopric of Meaux; in 1697 he obtained
the dignity of a councilor of state, and a year
afterward that of the first almoner of the Duch-
ess of Burgundy. His practice and his doctrine
were equally severe. AH his time was divided
between his studies and the execution of his
official duties ; he seldom allowed himself any
recreation. The learned Benedictines of the
Brotherhood of St. Maur published a complete
edition of the works of Bossuet in 43 volumes
Svo (Versailles 1815-19). Bossuet was unrivaled
as a pulpit orator, and greatly distinguished for
his strength and acumen as a controversialist.
Among the most celebrated of his works are his
*^Oraisons Funebres' ; ^Histoire des Variations
des Eglises Protestantes' ; * Politique tiree des
propres Paroles de I'Ecriture Sainte.' The
French Academy consider him among their mosi
renowned members. He has described his own
life at length. For his dispute with the arch-
bishop of Cambrai, Fenelon, see Fenelon and
Quietism.

Bossut, Charles, French mathematician:
b. Tartaras, in the department of the Rhone,
II Aug. 1730; d. 14 Jan. 1814. He was edu-
cated at the Jesuit College, Lyons, and having
met with the ^Eloges of Fontenelle,' was smitten
with so eager a desire to imitate the distin-
guished individuals therein described, that he
wrote to Fontenelle himself on the subject. That
veteran, now 90 years of age, not only answered
the letter, but expressed such an interest in the
future progress of his young correspondent, that
Bossut repaired to Paris, and was introduced by
Fontenelle to Clairaut and D'Alembert, the lat-
ter of whom he appears to have particularly ad-
mired and studied to imitate. In 1752 he was
appointed profes.sor of mathematics to the school
of Mezieres, and held that office for 16 years,
during which he gained several prizes offered by
the Academy of Sciences. He was afterward ad-
mitted a member of that body, and was at the
same time appointed examiner of candidates for
the artillery and engineers. At the Revolution
he was deprived of all his appointments, and after-
ward lived in retirement till his death. His
most important works are a ^Course of Mathe-
matics,' which was long in repute as a text-
book; a ^Treatise on Hydrodynamics' ; the ^In-
troductory Discourse to Mathematics,' and
various other articles in the Encyclopedic ; and
a 'History of Mathematics.' He also edited the
works of Pascal.

Bostanji, a class of men in Turkey, num-
bering about 600, originally the Sultan's garden-
ers, but now also employed in several ways
about his person, as mounting guard at the ser-
aglio, rowing his barge, etc., and likewise in
attending the officers of the royal household.

BOSTON

Boston, England, a municipal and parlia-
mentary borough and port of Lincolnshire, sit-
uated on the river Witham, about five miles
from the sea, 32 southeast from Lincoln. It
derived its name (a corruption of Botolph's
town) from St. Botolph, who founded a monas-
tery here about the year 650. Its chief interest
for Americans lies in the fact that it was the
English home of the most influential of the
settlers of Boston, Mass. The port had for-
merly a flourishing trade, but owing to various
causes, and especially the fact that in dry sea-
sons the river became choked up with sand
brought in by the tides, this trade greatly
declined. In 1881 a new channel was con-
structed so as to bring the town within three
miles of the sea by navigable water ; and a
new dock of seven acres area, capable of admit-
ting vessels of 3,500 tons at the highest tides,
was opened three years later. Boston contains
some fine buildings, notably the parish church
of St. Botolph, the Cotton chapel, and various
other places of worship, a grammar-school dat-
ing from 1554, the Athenaeum, the Guildhall, and
the Assembly rooms, under which are arranged
the butter-market, poultry-market, and the po-
lice-station. St. Botolph's Church is a very
large and handsome Gothic structure, with a
tower, known as Boston Stump, 282 feet high,
containing a carillon of 36 bells cast at Louvain.
In the upper part of the tower, octagonal in
shape, lights used to be suspended for the guid-
ance of mariners at sea and travelers crossing
the fens by night. The town is now well sup-
plied with water brought from a reservoir dis-
tant about 14 miles. The leading industries
comprise iron and brass foundries, the manu-
facture of farm implements, sails, ropes, and
bricks, and tanning, brewing, and malting. Fish-
ing also gives occupation to many of the inhab-
itants, and there is steam communication with
Hamburg, Hull, and London. Pop. (1901)
15,711.

Boston, Mass., the capital of the State,
and, according to the United States census of
1900, fifth city in population in the United States.
It is situated on the western shore of Massa-
chusetts Bay. The settlement from which it has
grown was made in 1630 by members of the
Massachusetts Bay Company, bearing with them
the charter granted to this organization by
Charles I. The leader of the first expedition
of settlers who landed at Charlestown, 17 June
1630, was Gov. John Winthrop, a Puritan
gentleman. In his fleet came others of like
condition. Sir Richard Saltonstall, Isaac Johnson
and his wife, the Lady Arbella, daughter of the
Earl of Lincoln, together with a company of
sturdy Puritans, chiefly from Lincolnshire. They
landed 700 or 800 strong, a number soon in-
creased to 1,000 and then to 2.000 by later ar-
rivals — the most considerable settlement on the
American coast. At the end of the first sum-
mer, a season of hardship, they moved across
the Charles River to the promontory of Shaw-
mut — an Indian word translated "living foun-
tains.^^ This headland, with ample water-supply,
was called by the English settlers Trimountain,
from the three-peaked hill, now Beacon
Hill, which formed its highest eminence. On 17
Sept. 1630 it was voted to change its name to
Boston, after the Lincolnshire town from which
some of the chief settlers had come. The origi-

nal settler of the land, the Rev. William Black-
stone (q.v.), a scholar who had left England
to avoid the *lord-bishops,*^ sold the newcomers
his land and moved on to Rhode Island, in
order to escape the ''lords-brethren.**

From the first the power of the Puritan
clergy was important. Church and State were
practically one. Trained in the English univer-
sities, the ministers set a true value upon edu-
cation. A free public school was established
in 1633, and in 1636 the General Court provided
for the beginnings of Harvard College. The
government both of town and of colony was
purely democratic, having for its unit the town-
meeting, which in Boston itself maintained its
sway, with the single interruption of British
military rule at the outbreak of the Revolution,
until the town became a city in 1822. Besides
the training in self-government thus acquired,
Boston had the advantage of virtual independ-
ence through its early years. At first the Crown
was fully occupied with its own problems in
England ; and when Cromwell came into power,
so strongly Puritan a settlement was naturally
left much to its own devices. Thus the charter
of the Bay Company, and the liberties enjoj^ed
under it. became very dear to the people of Bos-
ton. When Charles 11. came to the throne there
were grave fears that these liberties would
be seriously curtailed. In 1664 four roj'^al com-
missioners came from England to adjust difficul-
ties in several colonies. Their mission to Bos-
ton was a failure, and for some years to come
the town was secure under its original system
of government.

Under James II. came the dreaded change.
Complaints of the Boston spirit of independence
and religious intolerance were borne more fre-
quently to the English court, and before the
death of Charles II. the Court of Chancery
voted the Massachusetts Bay charter vacated.
In the summer of 1686 the original government
of the colony came to an end. Before the
close of this year. Sir Edmvmd Andros, the
new governor appointed by the king, the first
chief magistrate in Massachusetts not chosen
by popular election, arrived in Boston. Prob-
ably nobody in his peculiar place could have sat-
isfied the people at this time. Within less than
three years from his arrival a bloodless revolu-
tion in Boston, a well-organized uprising of the
people, removed him from office. Early in 1690
he was sent back to England, where Increase
Mather, the leading minister of Boston, had
already been for nearly two years, trjnng to
have the old charter restored, or to get the
best possible substitute for it. This he suc-
ceeded in doing, after the accession of William
and Mary, and had the further satisfaction of
choosing the first governor under the new
instrument making Massachusetts a royal prov-
ince. With this governor. Sir William Phipps,
Mather returned to Boston in the spring of
1692.

By this time Boston had grown to impor-
tance as the leading seaport, and in many
respects the foremost town in America. Before
the end of the 17th century its population was
approximately 7,000. In another half century
this number was more than doubled. A good
idea of certain aspects of the town in this period
is given by an Englishman, Daniel Neal, who
wrote in 1719 :

BOSTON

" The bay of Boston is spacious enough to contain
in a manner the navy of England. The masts of ships
here, and at proper seasons of the year, malve a kind
of wood of trees like that we see ujion the river of
Thames about Wapping and Limehouse, which may
easily be imagined when we consider that by com-
putation given into the collectors of his Majesty's
customs to the governor upon the building of the light-
house, it appeared that there was 24,000 ton of ship-
ping cleared annually.

"At the bottom of the bay is a noble pier 1,800
or 2,000 foot long, with a row of warehouses on the
north side for the use of merchants. The pier runs so
far into the bay that ships of the greatest burthen may
unlade without the help of boats or lighters. From the
head of the i)icr you go up the chief street of the
town [now State Street], at the upper end of which
is the town house or Exchange, a fine piece of build-
ing, containing, besides the walk for the merchants,
the Council-Chamber, the House of Commons, and
another spacious room for the sessions of the courts
of justice. The Exchange is surrounded by booksellers'
shops, which have a good trade. There are five print-
ing presses in Boston, which are generally full of
work, by which it appears that humanity and the
knowledge of letters flourish more here than in all
the other English Plantations put together; for in the
city of New York there is but one bookseller's shop,
and in the Plantations of Virginia, Maryland, Carolina,
Barbadoes, and the Islands, none at all."

As in the 17th so in the i8th century, the
clergy and ecclesiastical affairs loomed large
upon the local horizon. The prominence in
Boston records of what is known as the "Mather
dynasty* — of which Increase and his son, Cot-
ton Mather, were the chief figures — bears wit-
ness to this condition. The younger of these
Puritan priests is remembered largely for his
connection with the witchcraft delusion, which
had its worst effects in Salem, but in tem-
poral matters and humanitarian work he im-
pressed himself no less forcibly on the life of his
time. Of the devout laity, educated at Harvard
College, giving themselves to public service,
living private lives of dignity and piety, Samuel
Sewall, whose diary preserves the true flavor of
ancient Boston, stands as an admirable type.
In contrast with the background of lives like
his, the society of which royal governors were
the central figures presents a less austere pic-
ture. About the governors, established from
1716 onward in a sort of vice-regal state in the
Province House, gathered the more worldly ele-
ment of the place — prosperous merchants, offi-
cials of the Crown, members of the King's
Chapel congregation and the two other Anglican
churches established before the middle of the
century. Under the Province charter religious
liberty was increasing, and churches of various
denominations — including even the Quakers,
whose first representatives in Boston were hanged
on the Common — had come into being. Mean-
while the constant friction between the governors
and the General Court, always meeting in Bos-
ton, kept the spirit of political independence wide
awake. A fruitful source of trouble was the
annual grant voted by the court to the governor.
A salary the people steadily refused to pay to
an oflficial not of their own choice ; and the
amount of the grant varied according to the
personal popularity of the chief magistrate.
Through all these years, moreover, the town-
meeting was educating the people in self-rule,
so that when the time was ripe for active oppo-
sition from American coloni.sts to the colonial
government of England, the men of Boston
were ready to take a leading part in the
struggle.

In 1761 James Otis, advocate-general of the
province, resigned his position under the Crown
in order to contest the Writs of Assistance,

which permitted customs officials tc enter any
hoiise, search for smuggled goods, ; vd on sus-
picion seize what they might find. The argu-
ment against these writs was the first of many
conspicuous acts of resistance to royal authority.
In 1765 the Stamp Act, taxing many articles
of daily use in the colonies, was passed by
Parliament. Its principle was bitterly resented
in Boston, where riotous outbreaks soon took
place^ A mob completely destroyed the house
of Thomas Hutchinson, chief justice of the
Province, and was properly denounced by re-
spectable citizens. In the next year the repeal
of the act was joyfully celebrated by all classes.
In 1770 occurred the "Boston Massacre'* (q.v.),
the result of friction between the inhabitants and
the British troops stationed in the town. In the
use of "a word which historians apply to such
events as Cawnpore or the Sicilian Vespers'*
— the word "massacre'* to describe "the careless
shooting of half a dozen townsmen" — John
Fiske finds "all the mildness of New England
civilization brought m.ost strikingly before us.'*
The town-meeting was even more typical of
this civilization, and from its training Samuel
Adams, at about this time, stepped into virtual
leadership of the revolutionary cause in Bos-
ton. The Committee of Correspondence was
formed upon his motion, and out of it grew by
degrees the union not only of towns, but of
colonies, in their opposition to the throne. On
16 Dec. 1773, occurred the "Tea Party,'* a clev-
erly planned and executed plot for throwing into
Boston harbor, by men disguised as Mohawk
Indians, the cargoes of three vessels bearing tea
upon which the people of Boston would not pay
the hated tax. Parliament retaliated by passing
the Boston Port Bill, which closed the harbor
and brought the chief industry of the town,
its maritime trade, to a standstill. A military
governor. Gen. Gage, took the place of Hutchin-
son, who had been acting as the chief civil mag-
istrate, and open hostilities were at hand.

The events of ig April 1775 — the warning
ride of Paul Revere, the escape of John Han-
cock and Samuel Adams, the fights at Concord,
Lexington, and along the road between the two
towns — are the commonplaces of American his-
tory. They belong to Boston in so far as the
Boston revolutionary leaders were concerned in
them, and as the British troops set forth from
the town and returned to it defeated. The battle
of Bunker Hill in Charlcstown, 17 June 1775,
bears much the same relation to Boston history.
On 3 July Washington arrived in Cambridge
and took command of the American army, which
from that time until the following March kept
the British closely within the lines of the siege
of Boston. Many of the inhabitants were per-
mitted early to depart. Those who remained
suffered hardships and privations, besides wit-
nessing the destruction of much American prop-
erty, and such scenes of desecration as the use
of the Old South meeting-house as a riding-
school. On the night of 4 March 1776 Wash-
ington made his memorable seizure of Dorches-
ter Heights (now South Boston), and on the
17th Howe with all his army and a large fol-
lowing of American Tories sailed for Halifax.
Thereupon Washington entered the city, and
even before the signing of the Declaration of
Independence Boston ceased to be a scene of
active warfare in the long conflict. Yet John
Adams, Hancock, and other Boston men bore

BOSTON

an important part in the counsels of the young
nation', in whose army and navy the town was
fully represented.

The recovery from the effects of the siege
was slow. To take the place of the departed
Tories, and to occupy their spacious houses,
there was in the remaining years of the i8th
century a gradual immigration from the neigh-
boring country (where Tories were few) of
families possessing wealth, energy, and qualities
of leadership. Local government by town-meet-
ing was resumed. In 1780 a State government
for Massachusetts was formed, and John Han-
cock was chosen the first governor. In the gen-
eral readjustment maritime affairs took their
previous place of importance. Cut off by Brit-
ish legislation from the West India trade, the
Boston merchants looked farther abroad. The
prospects of the fur trade on the northwest coast
of America became known through Capt. Cook's
journals, published in 1784. In 1787 two small
vessels, the Columbia and the Washington, sailed
from Boston to attempt this trade. Before her
return in 1790 the Columbia had circumnavi-
gated the globe — first of American vessels to
accomplish this feat. The furs collected in the
Northwest had been sold in China, and the
example thus set led the way to an important
trade with the East in which Boston long
maintained the American supremacy. In such
a seaport as Boston, Jefferson's Embargo and
the War of 1812 were naturally unpopular. The
Federalist party, moreover, had much of its best
strength in Boston. The powerful mercantile
class saw its best interests in a strongly cen-
tralized government and conditions of general
stability. The opinions of this class colored the
influential feeling of the community to an ex-
tent which laid Boston open to charges of
something very near disloyalty to the national
government. The crippling of commerce, how-
ever, had the good effect of turning capital and
energy toward manufacturing. In 1814 Francis
C. Lowell, of Boston, made the first American
use of the power-loom in his mill at Waltham
at almost the same time with its introduction
into England. The growth of the great cotton
industry at Lowell followed rapidly upon this
invention. With the spread of manufactures
Boston itself was growing. In 1820 its popula-
tion was over 43,000. The old form of town
government had become unwieldy. For some
years efforts had been making toward the adop-
tion of a city charter. In 1822 this was finally
achieved.

From the time of this change in local gov-
ernment to the present, the outward growth of
the city, as figures can speak for it, has been
unbroken. In matters not computed in this way,
che development has been in several important
respects unique. With Boston, for example, the
Unitarian movement in America is especially
associated. Before the town became a city there
were divisions among the clergy of Congrega-
tionalism — practically the established order in
New England — on various doctrinal points, no-
tably that of the Trinity Under the leadership
of 'William Ellery Channing the ^'liberaP' clergy
and most of the older and more influential reli-
gious societies turned from Calvinism to the
■new theology. Especially between 1820 and 1830,
an acute controversy took place. Between 1840
and 1850 the Unitarian body itself was disturbed
by differences between the more conservative

element and the radicals, of whom Theodore
Parker was a type. The result of the succes-
sive controversies has been a liberalizing of
religious beliefs not only in what came to be
Unitarian Boston, but in the many Protestant
bodies which now acknowledge an important
debt to Unitarianism. Another far-reaching
movement which had its headquarters in Boston
was that of anti-slavery. Here in 183 1 William
Lloyd Garrison established his journal, the Lib-
erator. A year later the first anti-slavery soci-
ety in America was established in Boston. The
agitation of the Abolitionists was for a long
time opposed by the conservative class, which
resorted even to mob violence in the hope of
suppressing the reformers. But to Garrison and
his associates it was due, as Mr. J. F. Rhodes
has said, "that slavery became a topic of dis-
cussion at every northern fireside.'^ When the
Civil War broke out, the cause of the union,
perhaps even more than that of abolition, en-
listed the enthusiastic support of the Boston
community ; yet, as if in fulfilment of the work
which Garrison began, it was from Boston that
Gov. Andrew sent forth the first regiment of
colored troops raised in the North.

With Boston and its immediate vicinity,
moreover, are associated the names which stand
for the most important contribution of the 19th
century to American literature. Prescott, Tick-
nor, Bancroft, Motley, and Parkman; Emerson,
Hawthorne, Lowell, Longfellow, Holmes, and
Whittier, — these and their associates, bound
together by many ties of sympathy and friend-
ship, constituted a group of writers which gave
the place a unique distinction in letters. The
^Atlantic Monthly,^ founded in 1857, became the
vehicle for much of their most characteristic
utterance. The influences of Transcendentalism
(largely a local movement, culminating in the
forties), of anti-slavery feeling, of creative ex-
pression, combined to give to this utterance as
a whole something of the distinction which the
individual writers won each for himself.

During the 19th century two important
changes in the Boston landscape affected the
future of the city, in the regions both of resi-
dence and of business. The first of these was
the filling in of the Back Bay, an arm of the
Charles River which spread between the Com-
mon and the hills of Brookline, running south
and east as far as the Neck or narrow strip of
land connecting Boston and Roxbury. From
the early years of the century changes in the
shore line of Boston had been wrought by cut-
ting down the principal hills and filling out the
irregularities of the harbor front. The first
step in the series of events which led to the
conversion of the Back Bay from water into
land was the granting of a charter in 1814
to the Roxbury Mill Corporation, permitting the
building of dams across the Back Bay and con-
fining its water for mill purposes. To these
rights the Boston Water Power Company sue-
ceeded in 1832. At about the same time the
Boston & Providence and Boston and Worcester
railroads invaded the Back Bay with their
bridges. Moreover the waters became unsani-
tary through drainage, and to solve the entire
problem, hygienic and legal, a State commission
was appointed, and made a full report in 1852.
Its recommendations to create the whole tract
of land now known as the Back Bay did not at
once satisfy the various conflicting interests,

ajPLEY S()UARE, BOSTON.

MUSEUM OF FINE ARTS. BOSTON.

BOSTON

but in 1858 the actual work of filling up the
waters was begun. The result was a large en-
richment of the State treasury, and the addition
to the city of the whole district occupied by the
residences, clubs, churches, hotels, and other
institutions connected with the most prosperous
life of the city. The original peninsula of Bos-
ton contained 783 acres. Through its encroach-
ments upon water, largely in the Back Bay, it
has grown to 1,829 acres. With the accessions
of outlying districts, the total area of the city
is now 23,707 acres.

The second great change in the outward as-
pect of Boston resulted from the great fire of
9 and 10 Nov. 1872. From the beginning of its
history Boston had been afflicted by serious fires.
This greatest of them all destroyed 776 build-
ings, all but 67 of which were of brick and
stone. It devastated Summer Street (both
sides), Washington Street from Summer to
Milk, Milk Street to the post-office, Devonshire
Street, Water (both sides). Congress, Lindall
and Oliver streets to the harbor. From the
corner of Washington and Franklin -streets the
shipping at the wharves was in clear view.
Nearly 2,000,000 feet of land were burned over.
The total loss was estimated at more than
$75,000,000. Yet by private enterprise and State
aid the recovery was immediate. The oppor-
tunity to widen and straighten streets in the
business district was seized. Statelier buildings
rose in the place of those destroyed, and a new
business region, corresponding to the new dis-
trict of residences, was created.

The census of 1900 gave the population
of Boston as 560,192. The metropolitan dis-
trict, including the 38 cities and towns of
which Boston is the centre, has by the same
census a population of 1.162,197. The territory
within 50 miles of Boston has 2,849,686 inhabi-
tants — a population second in America only to
that in the corresponding area about New York.
The assessed valuation of all taxable property in
Boston itself is $1,191,308,100 — a figure sur-
passed in the United States only by the cor-
responding figures for New York and Philadel-
phia.

The city government is conducted by a
mayor, elected for two years, salary $10,000;
a board of 13 aldermen, elected annually; and a
common council of 75 members, three for each
ward, elected annually. The fire department is
controlled by one commissioner, the police and
health departments by three each. The school
committee consists of 24 members, of whom 8
are elected anrtnally for a term of three years.
In the 807 public schools under their charge
there were, according to the < Boston Municipal
Register for 1902,^ i,939 teachers and 84,778
pupils.

The park system of Boston is under the Joint
control of the Metropolitan Park Commission
(appointed by the governor of Massachusetts)
and the Board of Park Commissioners
( appointed by the mayor of Boston ) . These com-
missioners serve without pay. In theMetropolitan
system are included the Blue Hills Reserva-
tion (4.232 acres), the Middlesex Fells and
Mystic Lakes (3,002 acres) and smaller reser-
vations, including 66 acres at Revere Beach,
where the State bath-house of 1,000 rooms
provides the best facilities for sea-bathing. To
the Board of Park Commissioners falls the
n^anagement of the Marine Park at South Bos-

ton, Franklin Park at West Roxbury, Arnold
Arboretum at Forest Hills, boulevards, fens,
playgrounds, and open-air gymnasia. The
Common (48% acres) and the adjoining Public
Garden (2454 acres), both in the heart of the
city, are in charge of the Public Ground Depart-
ment of the city of Boston. The State com-
mission acts in consultation with local boards,
including that of Boston, and serves the people
of 12 cities and 25 towns within a radius of 25
miles from the State House. The general park
system thus provided is remarkable for its
beauty, accessibility, and actual benefit to the
community. The work of the city bath depart-
ment is a characteristic example of municipal
service to the people. The five trustees of this
department maintain seven beach baths, one
river bath, two swimming-pools, nine floating
baths, five gymnasia, and the Dover Street bath-
house, a model building with free baths for men
and w^omen throughout the year. Metropolitan
commissions of water and sewerage correspond-
ing to the Park Commission, serve the city and
surrounding towns. The water-supply is drawn
from lakes and rivers in eastern Massachusetts,
— the Sudbury River, Mystic Lake, Lake
Cochituate, and watersheds of wide area. A
city water department does its separate work in
connection with the Metropolitan Commission.

The churches of Boston, according to the
'City Directory* of 1902, are 309 in number.
Of these 50 are Roman Catholic (including Pol-
ish. German, Italian, French, Portuguese, and
Syrian parishes), 38 are Baptist, 37 Congrega-
tional-Trinitarian, 34 Methodist-Episcopal, 32
Protestant Episcopal, 25 Congregational-Uni-
tarian, 13 Lutheran, and 10 Universalist, with
others in smaller numbers. The First Church of
Christ (Scientist) is the "mother church'* of
"Christian Science** throughout the country and
the world. Charitable organizations, both muni-
cipal and private, abound, and enlist the unpaid
services of a large class in the community. An
admirable organization of Associated Charities
gives direction to the proper sources or seeks
to obtain therefrom for the sick and needy
adequate and suitable relief. The principal
hospitals are the Boston City Hospital, a city
institution, the Massachusetts General, supported
by private endowment, the Carney, in charge of
Roman Catholic Sisters of Charity, and the
Massachusetts Homoeopathic. These are open
to persons of all races and creeds. In the Mass-
achusetts General Hospital in 1846 the properties
of ether as an anjesthetic were first demon-
strated. From the discovery then made the pro-
gress of modern surgery took its first great step.
There are. besides the institutions mentioned,
many smaller hospitals for special classes, chil-
dren, women, etc. The provisions for industrial
training and the education of defectives are
ample. The Perkins Institution and Massachu-
setts School for the Blind (incorporated 1829)
typifies the good work they have done and are
doing. Here Dr. Samuel G. Howe did his
memorable pioneer work in the case of Laura
Bridgman.

As a centre of higher education in many
branches Boston attracts and maintains a large
population of students. The Public Library,
housed in one of the most beautiful buildings in
the country, and distributing its more than
800,000 volumes through 10 branch libraries and
21 delivery stations throughout the city, puts the

BOSTON CASE — BOSTON MASSACRE

materials of scholarship within the reach of all.
Harvard University is close at hand. Its Medi-
cal School is in Boston itself. Here also are
the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Bos-
ton University, the Boston Museum of Fine
Arts, with its School of Drawing and Painting,
and the New England Conservatory of ]\Iusic,
supplemented by the concerts of the Boston
Symphony Orchestra. The courses of free lec-
tures provided by the Lowell Institute, estab-
lished in 1838, with an original endowment of
$237,000, have made a constant contribution to
the cause of general education. If the sugges-
tion to co-ordinate these and the many other
educational institutions of Boston into a general
university is ever carried out, the place may
well become one of the foremost centres of
organized learning in the world.

In 1894 the Union Station at the North End
of the city brought together the terminal facili-
ties of all the railroads connecting Boston with
northern New England, with Canada, and,
through Fitchburg, with the West. On i Jan.
1899 the first train entered the South Station,
the largest railway terminal in the world. Here
the railroads connecting Boston with southern
New England, New York, the South, and the
West, by way of Albany, meet under one roof.
The North and South Stations are connected
both by surface and by elevated electric cars —
a part of the system of the Boston Elevated
Railway. This company has succeeded to the
rights of the several street railways formerly
holding franchises, and by surface cars, elevated
lines, and subw^ays, upon which the underground
systems of other cities have been modeled, gives
the city, with the attractive and accessible sub-
urbs for which Boston has always been noted,
a rapid-transit service of unusual comfort and
effectiveness. The subway system will be still
further extended, first of all by the completion
of the tunnel now building under the harbor
to connect Boston and East Boston.

In the Rivers and Harbors Bill passed by the
United States Congress in June 1902 an appro-
priation of $3,600,000 was made for the improve-
ment of Boston Harbor. Its expenditure in
making a broader and deeper channel from
Charlestown and Chelsea bridges to the sea
is expected to forward the progress made in
recent years by Boston as a seaport. Its ample
harbor, well protected from the sea bj^ islands,
has always played an important part in the life
of Boston. In foreign commerce for the gov-
ernment fiscal year ending 30 June 1902, Boston
stood second in the United States only to New
York, with imports and exports valued at
$172,325,740. For peculiar temporary causes this
was smaller by more than $40,000,000 than the
volume of trade for the year before. Fourteen
transatlantic steamship lines run from Boston.
The coastwise commerce of the port is valued,
in merchandise, in sums ranging annually be-
tween $85,000,000 and $131,000,000. As a wool
market Boston stands second in the world only
to London. In the single week of 1901, in
which Boston made its greatest record in the
sales of wool, it sold more than the total clip
of any State in the Union, excepting Montana
and Idaho, for that year. In the business of
shoes, leather, and hides, Boston is the chief
distributing centre of the United States. The
trade in salt and fresh fish — as befits the
capital of the State with a cod for its emblem —

is larger than in any other city of the country.
The cotton industry of Massachusetts looks to
Boston for much of its capital and control. Mis-
cellaneous trades and manufactures, added to
the branches of business enumerated, give Bos-
ton a high place among the commercial and in-
dustrial cities of the country.

In the growth from an ancient to a modern
city many historic buildings have inevitably
disappeared. But Boston is fortunate in a few
of those that remain. Chief among these are
Christ Church (1723), the Old South Meeting-
house (1729), Faneuil Hall (1742, enlarged in
1806), the Old State House (1748), King's
Chapel (1749, built around the previous wooden
church erected in 1688), the front portion of the
present State House (i795~8), and Park Street
Church (1809).

'The Memorial History of Boston^ (Boston
1881) in four volumes, edited by Justin Winsor,
completely covers the local history from 1630
to 1880. Its chapters are written by persons
with special knowledge of the themes assigned
them. 'Boston,' by Henry Cabot Lodge in
the series of "Historic Towns'^ (New York
1892) is an excellent shorter history.

M. A. DeWolfe Howe,
Author of ^Boston: The Place and the People.^

Boston Case, in the history of slavery, a
case where a Georgia slave hid or was hidden
on the ship Boston returning from Georgia
to Maine, and on arrival escaped to Canada.
The governor of Georgia issued a requisition
to the governor of Maine for the surrender of
the captain to the Georgia authorities, as a
slave-stealer and fugitive from justice; and on
his refusal, the Georgia legislature demanded
that Congress pass a law obligating the governor
of Maine and all others in similar cases to com-
ply with the requisitions. The resolution was
warmly advocated by the Georgia senators, re-
ferred to the judiciary committee, and never
reported on. In his next message, the governor
of Georgia recommended that "all citizens of
Maine who should thereafter come within the
jurisdiction of Georgia on vessels, either as
owners, officers, or mariners, should be con-
sidered to have done so with intent to commit
the crime of seducing negro slaves from their
owners, and be dealt with accordingly by the
officers of justice.'^

Boston College, an educational institution
in Boston, Mass.; founded in 1864; under the
auspices of the Roman Catholic Church. Pro-
fessors and instructors, 20 ; students in all de-
partments, 477; scholarships, 15; volumes in
the library, 34.109 ; value of grounds and build-
ings, $537,000; income, $17,000; and benefac-
tions, $3,000. The course is four years leading
to the usual academic degrees.

Boston Massacre, a riot in Boston, 5
March 1770, provoked by the presence of the
British regiments quartered there since i Oct,
1768. On Friday the 2d, some ropemakers
started a war of insults with passing soldiers,
and on being challenged to a boxing match, used
sticks instead, . to which the soldiers retorted
with cutlasses; several persons were hurt when
the fray was stopped by outsiders, but it was
reported that it would be resumed Monday.
Early Monday evening the soldiers passing to
their posts from the main guard, at the head of
King (State) Street, were met by a crowd

BOSTON MOUNTAINS — BOSTON PORT BILL

armed with canes and sticks, who refused to
make way, and shouted insults; the soldiers
were about to force a passage when an officer
came up and ordered them into the yard ; but
the alarm-bell had called out the citizens, the
hot-heads wished to assault the main guard,
and apparently they and the boys set to harrying
the sentinel in front of the custom-house oppo-
site the main guard, who about 9 o'clock hit
a specially annoying boy with the butt of his
musket. The boy ran off and brought a crowd
to the spot, headed by one Crispus Attucks
(q.v., apparently a half-breed Indian), and
pointed out the sentinel, at which they shouted
*'Kill him! Knock him down!'^ The sentinel
retreated up the steps and loaded his gun amid
a shower of snowballs and other missiles ; told
Henry Knox who was passing, and counseled
him not to fire ; that he would if they touched
him ; leveled the gun and warned off the crowd,
and called for help from the main guard across
the street. A sergeant and seven men were sent
to his help, and he came down and took his
place in line; soon afterward Col. Thomas
Preston joined them, making 10 in arms. They
loaded; the crowd jeered, hooted, taunted them
as cowards, dared them to fire, and closed about
them ; the soldiers drove them back with clubs
and bayonets ; Preston, in turn warned by
Knox, rushed among his men, and either with
or without his orders they fired, killing Attucks
and two others and mortally wounding two
more. The crowd fell back, and Preston pre-
vented the men firing again and rejoined the
main guard. The drums beat to arms, and the
vicinity was soon thronged with divisions of
soldiers and masses of enraged citizens. Lieut.-
Gov. Hutchinson quieted the tempest by having
Preston bound over for trial, placing the im-
plicated soldiers under arrest, and inducing the
officers to order the companies back to barracks ;
but the next day a town-meeting forced Hutch-
inson to have the regiments removed to the
Castle in the harbor. Preston was tried in Oc-
tober and the soldiers in November before the
Superior Court, and defended by Robert Auch-
muty, assisted by John Adams and Josiah
Quincy, who took their futures in their hands
from professional duty ; Preston was acquitted,
six soldiers were brought in not guilty, and two
found guilty of manslaughter, branded in the
hand, and discharged.

Boston. Mountains, a range in western
Arkansas, extending into the Indian Territory;
highest summits, 3,000 feet above the sea.

Boston News Letter, 1704-76; the first
real newspaper issued in America. A periodical
called 'Publick Occurrences,^ to be issued
monthly, or oftener if ^^a glut of occurrences^'
made it advisable, had been essayed in Boston by
Richard Pierce, 25 Sept. 1690; but it was in-
stantly suppressed by the authorities as contain-
ing "reflections of a very high nature,'' and
the first number was the last. The next venture
was by John Campbell (q.v.), a Scotch book-
seller and postmaster of Boston, who had been
actively writing and sending "news letters* of
European occurrences to New England gover-
nors for a year or more, and thought it would
save trouble to print them for all. With official
permission he issued on 24 April 1704 the
first number of a weekly consisting of a single
leaf, 8 x 12, printed on both sides, and dated

"From Monday April 17. to Monday April 24.
1704." It was printed by Bartholomew Green,
for many years one of the best printers of
Boston, who in 1722 became its editor. Dying
in 1732, he was succeeded by his son-in-law,
John Draper, who conducted it till his death in
1762, and made it a representative of the best
interests of the province; he was a journalist of
the highest character. His son Richard Draper,
considered the best news compiler of his day,
though in feeble health, edited the paper till
his death in 1774, when his widow succeeded
him and carried it to the end. Draper had
been an ardent loyalist, and firmly supported
the mother country in the stormy times of the
previous decade ; his widow naturally shared
his feeling, and when the young man Robert
Boyle whom she installed as editor showed
sympathy with the Revolution, she replaced him
by John Howe, who conducted it till the British
evacuated Boston, 17 March 1776, when he
and Mrs. Draper left with them and the paper
ceased to exist. The British government gave
her a life pension. There are only three copies
of the first number extant: in the Massachusetts
Historical Society at Boston, the American
Antiquarian Society at Worcester, Mass., and
the New York Historical Society at New York.
A facsimile of the first page is given in the
^Memorial History of Boston,' Vol. II., page
389. See Newspapers, American.

Boston Port Bill, of 31 March 1774,
was Great Britain's retort to the destruction of
the tea in Boston harbor, 16 Dec. 1773. (See
Boston Tea P.\rty.) The maintenance of Eng-
lish authority by force, or abdication in favor
of a party which would maintain it, were the
only alternatives left to the government. The
King's Speech of 7 March 1774 charged the
colonists with attempting to injure British
commerce and subvert the constitution ; and on
the i8th Lord North brought in the Port Bill,
providing that there should be no further "land
ing or discharging, lading or shipping of goods,
wares, and merchandise at the town and within
the harbor of Boston" till the town paid for the
tea and promised submission to the laws ; that
the colony's seat of government should be re-
moved to Salem, and Marblehead made a
port of entry ; the act to take effect i
June. Even some of the best friends of
America in Parliament at first approved it as
moderate and reasonable, as the town could end
the punishment at any moment by paying for
legitimate merchandise destroyed by riot, and
allowing law and order to have their course;
but the Whig opposition soon collected itself,
and the bill was fought in its various stages
by Burke, Barre, Pownall, and others. In
spite of them it became a law 31 March, without
a division in the Commons, and by unanimous
vote in the Lords. The fleet and army were of
course to join in enforcing the blockade; Boston
was filled with troops, and Gage made com-
mander-in-chief. The immediate results were:
a flood of contributions from the other New
England towns, of grain and provisions, so
great that the Boston leaders boasted that it
would become the chief grain port of America if
the act were not repealed; and. in connection
with the regulating acts for changing the gov-
ernment of the province passed soon after, a
speedy union of the colonies for joint defense.

BOSTON SYMPHONY ORCHESTRA — BOSTON TERRIER

Boston Symphony Orchestra, a large
orchestra organized in Boston in 1881, having
abc at 80 members in 1903. It gives a series
of concerts in Boston annually, and in 1900
ina igurated a series of Wednesday afternoon
cor certs in New York. Daily rehearsals are
th(. rule throughout the season, and the orches-
tra plays only at concert performances. The
c( nductors are now appointed for five years ;
the conductor in 1903 was William Gericke;
ithers who have held the position are, George
Henschel, the first, Arthur Nikisch, and Emil
Paur.

Boston Tea Party, 16 Dec. 1773. Till
shortly before the Revolution, imported teas
paid a shilling a pound duty at English ports ;
but the inerchants received a drawback of three
fifths on exports to the colonies, who were
charged the remaining 4J4<i. in the selling price.
As they obtained it more cheaply by smuggling
from Holland, there was no English tea trade.
In 1767, as part of a series of duties to raise
revenue for paying the colonial executives and
judiciary, to make them independent of popular
control, this duty was reduced to 3d., but to be
collected at American ports. This was done
with the threefold object of aiding the strait-
ened East India Company to market its tea ;
substituting a small collectible duty for a larger
uncollectible one; and helping to break up the
illicit free-trade which was the life of the colo-
nies. The political purposes made Americans
invincibly hostije to it. Associations were
formed to abstain from the tea, merchants who
handled it lost custom, and the Dutch smuggling
went on. In 1770 the other new duties were
repealed, but that on tea remained. In 1773
the East India Company, with 17,000,000 pounds
of unsalable tea stored in London warehouses
because of this non-importation, and in immi-
nent danger of a failure most disastrous to
English financial and political interests, asked
Parliament for a colonial drawback of the en-
tire shilling, to undersell the Dutch. This was
granted 10 ]\Iay, tea ships were sent to Boston,
New York, Philadelphia, and Charleston, and
consignees or "tea commissioners" appointed in
each place. But the colonies were now resolved
that no taxes, external or internal, should be
paid except under their own control, and set
themselves to prevent the collection of the duty.
In the other cities than Boston this was done
by forcing the consignees to resign, and in New
York and Philadelphia the ships were sent back
without unloading. In Charleston the duty was
left unpaid for 20 days, when by law the cus-
toms officers seized it and offered it for sale
to pay the charges, but as no one dared buy it,
it spoiled unused. In Boston the tax was
defeated by the refusal of the consignees —
two sons of Gov. Hutchinson and three loj^alist
friends of his, to resign. On Sunday, 28 No-
vember, the Dartmouth, under Capt. Hall and
owned by the Quaker Francis Rotch, arrived
with 114 chests of tea, and was moored at
Griffin's wharf. The committee of correspond-
ence which really governed the province, in-
duced Rotch to defer its entry until Tuesday,
and on Monday morning called a great mass
meeting at the Old South Church, which
resolved that Rotch would enter the tea at his
peril. The captain was cautioned to let none
be landed, and a watch of 25 men was stationed
at the wharf. The consignees, asked to send

the tea back, replied that it was not in their
power, but they would store it till they could
hear from their constituents. Tuesday after-
noon, however, Rotch and Hall agreed to return
it without its touching land or paying duty ;
and the owners of two other ships which arrived
shortly after, the Eleanor and Beaver, made
the same promise. These ships were moored
at the same wharf, so that one guard might
serve for all. But by law the ships could not
be cleared till the cargo was discharged, and
Hutchinson refused to give the owners permits
to pass the Castle; had the guns loaded, and
Admiral Montagu guarded the mouth of the
harbor with two war-ships, though curiously
neither of them put a guard on the tea ships.
At midnight on the i6th, the Dartmouth's 20
days would expire, and the American victory
be practically won by the seizure of the tea for
unpaid duty, since none of it would come on
the market. But the object of the Boston
leaders was not merely to prevent the English
exchequer profiting, but to commit the colony
to open disobedience of English orders, and
have some issue to unite upon with the other
colonies. On the 14th Rotch was again ordered
by a meeting at the Old South to apply lor
a clearance, and several leading patriots es-
corted him to the custom-house to see that he
did so. The collector refused to give an answer
till the next day, when, upon a final visit from
Rotch and his volunteer bodyguard, he definitely
refused unless the teas were discharged. At
10 the next morning Rotch appeared before
another huge meeting at the Old South and
reported the refusal. He was directed to pro-
test against it at once, and apply to Gov.
Hutchinson for a permit to pass the Castle.
Hutchinson was at his house on Milton Hill,
some eight miles out; and it was 6 p.m. before
Rotch returned with the news that the governor
also refused. Meantime some 7,000 people had
gathered in and about the Old South, probably
half of them from neighboring towns; addresses
were made by Samuel Adams, Josiah Quincy,
and several other leaders, and it was unan-
imously resolved that the tea should not be
permitted to land. Hutchinson's refusal had
been discounted, and 40 or 50 men disguised as
Indians, with paint and gear, had gathered in
the back room of a printing office near by,
waiting for an agreed signal, and the meeting
continued in session till long after dark, wait-
ing Rotch's report. On receiving it, Samuel
Adams gave the appointed signal, ^^This meeting
can do nothing more to save the country,'' and
a shout from the porch was answered by a
war-whoop from the ^^Mohawks^' ; who at once
rushed to the wharf followed by a thousand or
so of others, and with perhaps a hundred of
them boarded the ships, and for three hours
worked steadily with hatchets, breaking open
the chests and throwing the tea into the harbor.
The entire 342 chests on the three ships, valued
at about £18,000, were destroyed, without a
sound from the mob, which then dispersed.
Meantime a fourth tea ship was wrecked off
Cape Cod. The immediate result of this was
the Boston Port Bill (q.v.) ; but as the Boston-
ians had expected, the whole country rallied to
their support.

Boston Terrier, a breed of dogs, resem-
bling bull-dogs without their eccentricities,
which originated in Boston about 1870, and

BOSTON UNIVERSITY — BOSTON AND MAINE RAILROAD

soon became popular for its admirable qualities
as a companion. This terrier has a shapely
bull-dog-like head, and the straight legs and
active manners of the old bull-terrier. Those
truly bred always have a white muzzle, a white
bfeze on the face and on the chest and feet, with
a fine coat, short and bright, and a deep broad
chest. Light-class ones weigh from 15 to 23
pounds, and the heavy from 23 to 30 pounds.
This breed arose from a cross between Robert
C. Hooper's "Judge" (a dog three quarters Eng-
lish bull and one quarter white terrier, which
was a rich dark brindle with a white flare on his
face), and Burnett's "Gyp," a pure white bitch
low on the legs and stockily built, not unlike
the old-fashioned bull-terrier. The product was
Wells' "Eph." He was born in Boston about
1870 and was bred to Tobin's "Kate," an old-
fashioned bull-terrier, and the result, Barnard's
"Tom," may be said to be the first of the real
new breed, for he developed the typical screw
tail of the present Boston terrier. This dog has
a most afifectionate disposition, is well knit in
build, and is stylish.

Boston University, a co-educational insti-
tution of Boston, Mass., organii^ed in 1869. The
work is divided into two main departments, the
Schools requiring previous college training, and
the Colleges requiring no such qualification.
The schools are those of theology, law, medicine,
and all sciences (for post-graduate work in
language, philosophy, history, and science) ; the
colleges are those of Lil)eral Arts and of Agri-
culture, the latter allied with the Massachusetts
Agricultural College at Amherst. In 1905 the
number of students was 1,324, and the number
of professors and instructors 148 ; volumes in the
liljrary, 30,000.

Boston, a game of cards played by four
persons, with two packs of cards. The cards
are never shuffled; one of the packs is dealt,
and the other cut alternately to determine the
trump, which governs the game. The dealer
deals five cards to each player twice, and three
the last time around. If the first player can
make five tricks, he says, "I go to Boston" ; and
his competitors may overbid him by saying,
"I go 6, 7, 8, 9, ID, II, 12, or 13," as the hand
of each may warrant. Should either of them
fail to make the number of tricks he "bids"
for, he must pay to each competitor a forfeit
regulated by a card of prices, which must be
prepared beforehand. Without such a card
Boston cannot be played. It is one of the most
complicated of games. It is said to have been
introduced into France by Dr. Franklin, who
gave it the name of his native city.

Boston and Albany Railroad. — The Boston
and Albany Railroad as it now exists was
formed 28 Dec. 1870, by the consolidation of
four railroad companies whose histories re-
spectively are as follows :

The Boston and Worcester Railroad Com-
pany, chartered 23 June 1S31, built a line be-
tween Boston and Worcester, a distance .of
44.63 miles, the road being opened to the public
4 July 1835. This company prospered and at
the end of eleven years the track between the
two cities was paralleled. Branch roads were
built to Milbury and Saxonville. to Lower Falls,
Milford and Brookline, and to Frarnington Cen-
ter, and were opened respectively in 1846, 1847
and 1819.

Meantime, on 15 Feb. 1833, the Western Rail-
road Company was chartered to build a line
from the terminus of the Boston and Worcester
road to Springfield, Mass., and thence to some
point on the western border of the State. This
road was opened to the public in 1841.

The Albany and West Stockbridge Railroad
Company was chartered 5 May 1836, to build a
line from Albany, N. Y., to the terminus of the-
Western Railroad Company on the Massachu-
setts State line, a distance of 39 miles, the com-
pany being financed by the Western Railroad
Company. The construction of the road was
begun two years after the date of its charter and
in December, 1840, a section of the road front
Albany to Chatham Four Corners was opened.
In November, 1841, the Albany and West Stock-
bridge Railroad Company was leased to the
Western Railroad Company for a term of 50
years from April, 1840. Work was now re-
sumed on the remainder of the road, which was
completed in September, 1842.

In 1854 interests allied to the Western Rail-
road Company purchased the Hudson and Bos-
ton Railroad, whose line extended from Hudson
to the Massachusetts State line, a route parallel
to that of the Albany and West Stockbridge
Railroad. On account of this latter fact that
part of the Hudson and Boston's line lying be-
tween Chatham Four Corners and the Massa-
chusetts State line was abandoned.

In September, 1867, the Boston and Albany
Railroad was formed by the consolidation of
the Boston and Worcester and the Western
Railroad Companies. In December, 1870, the
new corporation absorbed the leased Albany and
West Stockbridge, and consolidated with the
Hudson and Boston road, forming the present
Boston and Albany Railroad.

In 1866, by purchase of the Grand Junction
Railroad the line was extended toEast Boston;
in 1880 the Springfield and Northern Railroad
was purchased and DUt into operation as the
Athol Branch; in 1889 the company bought the
Spencer Railway.

The Boston and Albany Railroad is now-
leased to the New York Central and Hudson
River Railroad Company (q.v.), the lease hold-
ing good for ninety-nine years from date, i July
1900. For this lease the lessee pays an annual
rental of two million dollars, equivalent to eight
per cent on the capital stock of the leased road.
In addition to this the lessee pays the or-
ganization expenses, a sum which at present
amounts to $10,000 per annum ; the taxes ; the
interest on bonds of the leased road ; and the
rentals which the leased road pays for its leased
lines. These lines, leased by the Boston and
Albany, comprise the North Brookfield Rail-
road, the Pittsficld and North Adams Railroad,
and the Ware River Railroad.

Boston & Maine Railroad. The Boston &
Maine system, as it stands to-dav. is one of the
most remarkable examples of railroad evolution
and consolidation to be found in the world. In-
cluding the constituent roads owned, leased, con-
trolled, and operated, it represents fully 125 dis-
tinct units, ranging from a four or five-mile line,
like the Trov & Bennington, to a great 400-mile
"system." like the Fitchburg division. Some of
its branches were incorporated as far back as
the earlv thirties, while others are creations of
the last 15 or 20 years.

BOSTON AND MAINE RAILROAD

To bring together all of these different and
sometimes conflicting transportation units under
a single management represents a feat of finan-
ciering probably unique on this continent. Of
the 2,290 miles now operated by the Boston &
Maine Railroad no less than 1,665 miles repre-
sent roads leased by the parent company. One
of these, the Troy & Bennington, is leased in
perpetuity, and the lease having the longest
term to run is that of the Vermont & Massa-
chusetts road, which expires in 2873. The Mas-
sawippi Valley road lease expires in 2869, the
Fitchburg road lease in IQ99, and the one to
first expire will be that of the Suncook Valley
road, in igi2.

To give a clearer idea of the full extent of
l»ie Toston & Maine Railroad system the follow-
inr table, showing the leased roads, w'ith the
dates of their incorporation, the beginning and
expiration of leases, and mileage has been pre-
pared under the direction of Fourth Vice-Presi-
dent William J. Hobbs :

Abraham Marland, Amos Abbott, John Smith,
and Merrill Pettingill, all residents of Andover.
The capital stock was $100,000.

Hobart Clark was elected president, and the
road was surveyed under the direction of
Col. Loammi Baldwin, of Charlestown, Mass.,
the well-known civil engineer.

Work was commenced in the spring of 183S,
and the first section of the road was opened to
Andover 6 Aug. 1836. By the fall of 1837 't
had been opened to the Merrimac river, at Brad-
ford ; by 1840 to Exeter ; by 1841 to Dover, and
by 1843 to South Berwick Junction.

In 1835, a second charter had been obtained
allowing the extension of the road to Haverhill,
and the name was changed to the Andover &
Haverhill Railroad; and a little later in the
same year a charter was obtained from the New
Hampshire Legislature for a road from the
Massachusetts line through New Hampshire to
the Maine State line, under the name of the
Boston & Maine Railroad.

NAME OF ROAD.

Danvers

Newburyport,

Danvers & Georgetown

Newburyport

Lowell & Andover

Kennebunk & Kennebunkport. . . .
Worcester, Nashua & Rochester. .

Worcester & Nashua

Nashua & Rochester

Manchester & Lawrence

Boston & Lowell

Nashua & Lowell

Stony Brook

Wilton

Peterboro

Northern

Connecticut & Passumpsic

Massawippi \'alley

Connecticut River,

Northampton & Springfield...

Greenfield & Northampton . .
Concord & Montreal,

Concord railroad

Boston, Concord & Mbntreal.

Concord & Portsmouth

Suncook Valley

Pemigewasset Valley

New Boston

Franklin & Tilton

Fitchburg

Vermont & Massachusetts

Troy & Bennington

Total mileage

Date of
Incorporation.

March 15,

May 7,

March 1 1 ,

Feb. 5,

Aug. 16,

March 5,
July 5,
June 30,
June 8,
April 16,
March 26,
Dec. 28,
July 7,
Dec. 2y,
Nov. 10,

March i,
Jan. 25,

Tune
Dec.

Tulv
July
Feb.
Aug.

March 3,

March 15,
March 27,

1852

iSsil
1846J
1873
1882

1
1845 1-
1867 J
1S47
1830
1836
1845
1844
1866
1844
183s

1842 ^
184s J

1835 '

1844 j

1845

1863

1874

1 89 1

1887

1842

1844

1851

Date of Lease.

May
Feb.

30, 1853
21, i860

Oct. 18, 1875
June 18, 1883

Oct.

June

Nov.

Sept.

Feb.

April

Dec.

Tune

Dec.

Jan.

30, 1S8S

I, 1887

22, 1887

no, 1880

30, 1884

1, 1884

I, 1893

30, 1889

I, 1887

7, 1871

I, 1893

June 29, 1895

May 26, 1862
March 1 1, 1870

March

Tune

"Oct.

Tune

Tan.

Oct.

31. 1883
21, 1893

8, 1895
30, 1900

I, 1874
12, 1872

Date of
Expiration.

May 30, 1953

Feb. 21, i960

Dec. I, 1973

May IS, 1982

Jan.

Sept.

April

Oct.

Tan.

Oct.

April

Jan.

July

Jan.

I, 1936

I, 1937
I, 1986
I, 1979
I, 1989
I, 1982
I, 1986
I, 1989
1, 1986
I, 2869

April I, 1986

Jan.

Tan.

Feb.

June

April

July

Jan.

Perpetuity

I, 1961
I, 1912
I, 1982
19, 1992
I, 1986
I, 1999
1,2873

Miles of
Road.

9.26

26.98

8.85
4-50

94.48

22.39

I II -75

14.50

13.16

15-50

10.50

172.32

110.30

35-46

79-85

387-10

39-87

17.41

22.93

S-19

4-95

394-14

58.58

5-04

1,665 -01

v^'^'-.ile it is impossible to give anything like
a complete history of such a complicated system
as that of the Boston & Maine Railroad in such
a b'-ief sketch as this must be, it is important to
no*e some of the events in its history which
stand out most conspicuously. For example, it
's certainly worthy of record that the original
railroad — the acorn from which the present
great Boston & Maine system has sprung — was
first conceived in the brain of its founjler, Ho-
bart Clark, of Andover, Mass., in the fall of 1832.

Mr. Clark, after traveling over the Albany &
Schenectady Railroad, then rhe only line west
of the Hudson river, saw the utility of a branch
railroad to Andover, tapping the Boston & Lowell
road (then under construction) at Wilmington.

The road was, in 1833, granted a charte- un-
der the name of the Andover I Wilmington
Railroad, the first directors being Hobart Clark,

In the following year the Maine Legislature
granted a charter extending the line to Port-
land, and thus was finally organized the original
Boston & Maine Railroad, which to-day serves
a very large section, annually transports 40,-
000,000 passengers and nearly 20,000,000 tons of
freight, earns $35,000,000 a year, owns 17,000
freight cars and 1,200 passenger cars, carries a
veritable army upon its payrolls,, and operates in
five States and one Canadian province.

In addition, the Boston & Maine, through
ownership of a majority of the capital stock,
also controls the Maine Central Railroad, al-
though that is separately operated.

The system had its beginning in the day of
small things, and to-day it exists in an era of
great ones^ as far as railroad policies are
concerned.

The slow but certain process of amalgama-

BOSTONIANS — BOSWORTH

tion which has resulted in the present vast trans-
portation system under one management has
been an exceedingly interesting one, but its his-
tory would require too much space to be given
even in outline here.

It has been attended by many exciting epi-
sodes, legislative and financial, particularly with
reference to the leasing of the Connecticut River
road in 189,^, the Concord & Montreal in 1895,
and the Fitchburg in 1900.

These leases were hotly contested by minority
stockholders or opposing interests, but most of
the leased lines were absorbed without much
show of opposition.

It has for some time been the policy of the
company to purchase outright its leased lines,
whenever that has been practicable.

In view of the present highly-organized con-
dition of railroad operation it is noteworthy that
when the original Boston & Maine road was first
built and operated the telegraph had not been
invented and double tracks were essential for
the safe operation of trains.

Moreover, civil engineering was then in its
infancy and surveying instruments were clumsy
and primitive, the transit not even having been
produced at that time.

Few of those who were engaged in building
the road had ever had any experience in such
work, for railroads themselves were very new
then, and there is a tradition that fully 75 per
cent of the surveying for the line was done
without instruments and by purely visual work.
There were no time fuses to aid in blasting, and
not even friction matches had come into ex-
istence.

Aside from the relocation of a part of the
Central Massachusetts division, made necessary
"by the construction of the great Wachusett res-
ervoir, the only considerable piece of railroad
in the territory now controlled by the Boston
& Maine which has ever been actually aban-
doned was part of the original Portsmouth &
Concord road. This line once ran between Sun-
cook and Candia, and that portion of it was
afterward given up for a m.ore favorable location.

According to the latest financial report issued
by the company — that for the year ending 30
June 1905 — the total earnings of the road dur-
ing the previous 12 months were $36,213,245.
Deducting operating expenses, $26,619,740. left
the net earnings, $9,503,505, an amount that was
further increased to $ro,iSi,093, by the addition
of $587,588. which represented the road's income
from other sources.

Edward O. Woodward,
Conveyancer, B. & M. R. R,

Bostonians, The, a novel of American life,
by Henry James, published in 1886. Written
in a satirical vein, it presents with unpleas-
ant fidelity a strong-minded Boston woman
possessed by a ^^mission,** "who takes life hard,^^
is never so happy as when struggling, striving,
suffering in a cause which throughout the novel
is the emancipation of women.

Boswell, James, English writer: b. 29 Oct.
1740; d. 19 May 1795. He was the son of a
Scotch judge. Lord Auchinleck, who took this
title from the name of his estate. He was
educated at Edinburgh and at Glasgow, and
early displayed literary tastes. In 1763, when
on a visit to London, he was introduced to
Johnson, and though this first meeting was not

Vol. 2--=;t.

very hopeful for the future, a warm friendship
soon sprung up between them. During a year
spent on the Continent, he made the acquaint-
ance of Voltaire, Rosseau, and other prominent
men of the day. Returning in 1766 he was ad-
mitted an advocate, but the practice of his
profession was little to his taste. In 1768 he
published a history of Corsica, with a lively
account of his own experiences in the island.
The same year he again met Johnson in London,
and his intercourse with him was kept up by
many subsequent visits to the metropolis; while
Johnson himself came to Scotland in 1773,
when the pair made their famous journey to the
Hebrides. This year also Boswell became a
member of the famous Literary Club, with
various members of which, such as Burke and
Reynolds, he was on terms of intimacy. In
1769 he had married, but he continued mainly
dependent on his father till the latter's death
in 1782, when he succeeded to the estate. In
1784 he met Johnson for the last time at a
dinner at Sir Joshua Reynolds'. Two years
after (1786) came out his 'Journal of a Tour to
the Hebrides with Samuel Johnson, LL.D.*
(Johnson's own account of the tour had ap-
peared in 1775). Having latterly been admitted
to the English bar, he went on circuit ana held
for a year or two the recordership of Carlisle;
and from 1788 onward he mostly resided in
London. In 1791 appeared his <Life of John-
son,^ a work which he had been long preparing,
and which at once gave readers the same delight
as it has ever since inspired. A second and
enlarged edition came out in 1793. By this
time Boswell's health had greatly suffered from
his too convivial habits, and he died in London
having been a widower since 1790. Boswell was
a singular compound of sense and folly, of
genuine ability and foible bordering on craziness.
His good nature was universally admitted ; his
vanity and want of self-respect and self-control
were his most evident faults. His weaknesses
were easily seen, but the man who enjoyed the
sincere affection of Dr. Johnson and the en-
during friendship of Burke and Reynolds had
better stuff in him than appeared to the super-
ficial observer. His life of Johnson is such 3
masterly performance as only a genius for life-
portraiture could have produced. Among edi-
tions of the Life may be mentioned that 0/
Croker (10 vols.) and those of Rev. A. Napier
(Bohn's Standard Library, 6 vols.), and Dr.
Birkbeck Hill (Clarendon Press, 6 vols.), all
containing the Tour. See Macaulay's essay,
and the much more humane and penetrating
essay by Carl5'le. Boswell left two sons. The
elder, Alexander, born in 1775, succeeded to the
family estate, sat for a year or two in Parlia-
ment, and was created a baronet in 1821. He
wrote several well-known Scottish songs and
various other things in verse and prose, and also
set up a private press from which issued reprints
of rare old works in the Auchinleck library.
In 1822 he met his death in a duel with a Mr.
Stuart, against whom he had made some severe
attacks in a political journal. James, the second
son, born in 1779, died in 1822, was the editor
of an improved edition of Malone's Shakspere,
generally known as the ^Variorum Shakspere*
(21 vols. 1821).

Bosworth, Francke Huntington, physician:
b. Marietta, Ohio, 25 Jan. 1843. He was edu-
cated at Yale and Bellevue Hospital Medical

BOSWORTH — BOTANICAL GARDENS

colleges. He is professor of diseases of the
throat in Bellevue, consulting physician to the
Presbyterian and St. Vincent's hospitals, and an
authority on diseases of the nose and throat.
Publications: ^Manual of Diseases of the
Throat and Nose' (1881) ; ^A Study of Nasal
Catarrh' (1882); ^Growths in the Nasal Pas-
sages' ; ^The Three Tonsils' ; ^Treatise on the
Diseases of the Nose and Throat' ; ^Malignant
Disease of the Upper Air Tract' ; ^Taking
Cold' ; ^Text-Book of Diseases of the Nose
and Throat.'

Bosworth, Joseph, English philologist: b.
Derbyshire, 1789; d. 27 May 1876. He was edu-
cated at Repton, Aberdeen, and Trinity College,
and was ordained deacon in 1814, and after fill-
ing several livings in England was British chap-
lain at Amsterdam and Rotterdam for 12 years.
He devoted much time to researches in Anglo-
Saxon and its cognate dialects, the result of his
studies appearing from time to time. His chief
works are his ^Anglo-Saxon Grammar; Dic-
tionary of the Anglo-Saxon Language; and
Compendious Anglo-Saxon and English Dic-
tionary.' In 1857 he was presented to the
rectory of Water Shelford, Buckingham, and
next year was appointed Rawlinson professor
of Anglo-Saxon at Oxford, a post which he
held till his death. He was M.A. and LL.D. of
Aberdeen ; Ph.D. of Leyden, and D.D. of Cam-
bridge. In 1867 he gave $50,000 to establish
a professorship of Anglo-Saxon at Cambridge.
He left a certain amount of materials that he
had accumulated for a new edition of his larger
Anglo-Saxon Dictionary, and these have been
utilized and greatly added to by Prof. Toller of
Manchester in the copious Dictionary which has
been published under his editorship by the
Clarendon Press.

Bosworth, or Market-Bosworth, England,
a small town in the county of Leicester, about
three miles from which is Bosworth Field, where
was fought, in 1485, the memorable battle be-
tween Richard III. and the Earl of Richmond,
afterward Henry VII. This battle, in which
Richard lost his life, put a period to the long
and bloody Wars of the Roses, between the
houses of York and Lancaster.

Bot-fly. In these flies, so interesting in
their habits, the body is stout, hairy, like the
bumblebees, and they are easily recognized by
having the opening of the mouth very small,
with rudimentary oral organs. The middle part
of the face is exceedingly narrow, and the
minute antennae are inserted in rounded pits.
The eggs hatch very soon after laying, and
Riley thought, from the. testimony of three in-
dependent witnesses, that the sheep bot-fly is
viviparous, the larvae hatching within the body
of the parent, who deposits in the nostrils of the
sheep the perfectly formed and living grub.

The larvae are, in general, thick, fleshy, foot-
less grubs, consisting of 11 segments exclusive
of the head, which are spined and tuberculated,
the former in rows, which enable them to move
about readily when living under the skin or in
the frontal sinus, and thus greatly irritate the
animals on which they live. The stigmata are
placed in a scaly plate on the thickened posterior
end of the body. The mouth of the cutaneous
larv^ consists simply of fleshy tubercles, while
in those species that live in the stomach and
frontal sinuses of their hosts, it is provided with

horny hooks. While in this state they moult
twice, and then attain their full size. They feed
on the purulent matter originating from the
irritation produced by the movements of their
bodies. Just before assuming the pupa state,
the larva leaves its peculiar habitat, descends
into the ground, and there becomes a coarctate
pupa (see Pupa).

Besides the horse bot-fly (q.v.), the ox bot-
fly (q.v.) and the sheep bot-fly (q.v.), there is
included in the genus Dermatobia the "ver
macaque*' of Cayenne and Mexico, which is
found beneath the skin of man in tropical Amer-
ica. It is disputed whether it be a true indige-
nous ^^CEstrns hominis^ or one that originally
attacks the monkey, dog, or other mammal. In
Cayenne the species attacking man is called the
<S-er macaque"; in Eastern Brazil <Para) "ura" ;
in Costa Rica, *torceP' ; in Colombia, ^'gusano
peludo," or "muche." The *ver moyocuil" (D.
noxialis) lives on the dog, sheep, cattle, and
man ; and is found in Mexico and New Granada.
The larvae are long, cylindrical, S-shaped, dif-
fering greatly in form from others of this fam-
ily. The flies are closely allied to those of the
preceding genus.

Leidy states that several specimens of the
larva of a bot-fly were obtained in Honduras
(by Le Conte). They were usually found be-
neath the skin of various parts of the body, and
the eggs were suspected to have been introduced
while the persons were bathing. The men were
not aware of the circumstance, and the presence
of the larva gave them comparatively little un-
easiness. According to Krefft, a species of
Batrachoniyia is parasitic upon four species of
Australian frogs. The larvae are found between
the skin and the flesh behind the tympanum.
When they quit the frog the latter dies. The
change to the pupa state is usually effected on
the lower surface of a piece of rock in some
damp locality. The perfect insect emerges in 3?
days. Consult: Packard, ^Guide to Study of
Insects' (1889) ; Brauer, ^Monographie der
Oestriden' (Vienna 1863) ; Osborn, ^Insects
Affecting Domestic Animals' (1896).

Botallack, a mine on the west coast of
Cornwall, England, eight miles north of Land's
End. The works are on the edge of the cliff;
part of the underground workings (abandoned
in 1875) extended 2,448 feet beneath the sea.
The mine has been wrought for both tin and
copper.

Botanical Gardens. The term botanical
garden is used to designate a limited area of
ground on which is grown a collection of plants
including a large number of species brought
together to subserve scientific, educational,
aesthetic, or economic purposes. In the broadest
sense, it is a museum of plants, and one of its
chief ends is to represent, by means of living
specimens so far as possible, the principal types
of vegetation of the earth. It is impossible to
cultivate more than a few thousand species on
any given area under the natural conditions of
soil and climate, and the open-air plantations
are generally supplemented by collections grown
under shelter, in glass houses, and in specially
prepared soils. It has been found practicable
to grow in this manner as many as 12,000 or
15,000 species of the higher plants in the botan-
ical gardens at St. Louis and New York, at
Kew, England, and at Berlin, Germany. A

^'*^f

BOTANY.- STEM-STRUCTURE, &c.

' '^'' ""'" "'fVicol'Td''^''''^"''''"

il-!r'!,','!M" '^'■'' >''i '.■ ";'' ="-■'"■" ■"■ ^Hni -A a'cmr.iis.' "■'"■'■. -■ Network of N'orwlsVom s\pm";l"fV^ vascular 1,;.skc in a 1-\tii.
lMr„ms v,,-m. -> KL-.-a .irtictiire of K^ogcnous stem. =* Medi.Ilarv r^y nf Oak. To ^^''?^;^* Sow-ih.stt. -•' Cross ^cct.or

'-■ Longilurrmal section nf Root Stock of Iris. ^ Vertical i?L'"°f'n'''^",?'? "^^ Endogtn..i,. s

tmcar section of Beecli leaf.

Uo. of young Aide

Crrss section of a Monocotyledonous vsscular bundle.

i Ulack Currant Hark. ^. -" Cross and longitudinal scctiops nf I

BOTANICAL GARDENS

proper selection of this number may be made to
represent somewhat fairly the principal forms of
plants, which include about 250,000 species.
That is to say, it is possible to grow in one place
about one species out of every 17 in existence.

Living plants cultivated in the open air are
most suitably arranged in plantations according
to their general habit, and in such manner as to
show their general relationships. Then special
groups are often made of certain families, such
as the conifers, the willows and poplars, the
grasses, ferns, or mosses. The most common
arrangement of plantations includes the her-
baceous grounds, the aquatic plants, alpinum,
viticetum, fruticetum, arboretum, and economic
plantations. Some institutions bring together
collections for the purpose of illustrating the
local flora, or the flora of any given geographical
district.

The herbaceous plantations are intended to
include the representatives of small soft-bodied
plants which die down to the soil during the
winter or resting season, and which may or
may not have a perennial underground stem-
formation of some kind. Many of the species
are annuals and must be grown from seeds
every year.

The pools for aquatic plants are arranged to
afford suitable means for the culture of forms
which float or root in ponds and streams of
fresh water, and include a wide variety, such as
the water-lily, pondweeds, Philotria, water-
hyacinth, etc.

An alpinum is a special plantation generally
arranged to afford means of cultivation of
species from cold climates on mountain-tops or
in higher latitudes. Plantations of this kind are
often termed rockeries, and are in the form of a
ridge or hill covered with boulders. In such
plantations precautions must be taken to give
lime-loving plants a place among limestone
rocks, and with the necessary low temperatures.

The viticetum is a plantation devoted to the
cultivation of climbing and trailing vines, and
may take almost any form demanded by the
exigencies of practical gardening. Among the
necessary features are trellises or supports for
twining and tendril climbing forms.

The fruticetum includes all woody perennial
plants which do not form a central trunk six
feet in height, and which are therefore not trees.
These are most effectively grouped when the
individuals of the separate species are placed in
the ground separately in a scheme of general
arrangement by which every plant may be in-
spected from all sides and is unshaded by its
neighbors.

The arboretum includes trees, and these may
be variously arranged, singly or in groups, al-
ways with respect to their mutual relationships.
On account of their great size and comparatively
slow growth and greater permanency, the plac-
ing of trees in any given landscape scheme in a
garden is attended to with the greatest care.

The economic plantations may include useful
plants arranged according to their relationships,
and grouped according to the use or nature of the
derivative. Thus a division may be made in which
only species used for medicine, foods, or cloth-
ing are included, or a division may be made to
include plants which yield starches, oils, gums,
and resins.

Special plantations of selected families must

depend for their constituency upon the location
of the garden. Thus it would be possible to
form a collection of palms in a tropical garden,
and one of pines or willows in a temperate
climate. Geographical plantations may take any
given district by variously arranged plantations.
Still another group of plantations is being
made in some gardens to illustrate types of habit
and structure. Some of the principal groups to
be illustrated in this manner are parasites, which
draw nourishment from the living bodies of
other organs; saprophytes, which live on de-
caying organic matter; xerophytes, plants
adapted to living under the driest conditions;
plants with structures serving as a protection
against animals. Forms of propagation and re-
production, methods of dissemination of spores
and seeds, etc., also serve as subjects to be illus-
trated by separate groups.

The collections grown under shelter and in
conservatories are generally grouped in such
manner that species are partly assembled with
regard to their climatic requirements, and partly
according to their relationships. Thus a house
may be devoted to tropical plants, or to tem-
perate plants, or may contain only orchids,
palms, ferns, cacti or succulents, or other special
groups.

The part of the vegetable kingdom which may
not be cultivated may be represented in a
museum by dried specimens, material in pre-
serving-fluids, and dissections of various kinds.
Here again the arrangement may be upon the
basis of natural relationship, or upon the basis of
economic usefulness. The species which formed
the vegetation of the previous geological periods
are represented by fossil specimens, completing
the history of the plant-world so far as it is
known, and yielding suggestions as to the de-
scent of the present types.

Two general educational purposes are served
by an institution of this character. Its collec-
tions are arranged to present information on the
form, relationship, mode of life, habit, and gen-
eral biological character of the principal types
of vegetation, in such manner as to be capable
of comprehension by persons unacquainted with
the technical aspects of the subject. Further
interpretation of such facts may be made by
means of books, journals, lectures, etc., devoted
to this branch of work and study.

The material accumulated for the exploita-
tion of popular knowledge of plants also affords
an excellent basis for the induction of students
into the more strictly scientific aspects of
botanj^ ; and when such material is supplemented
by laboratories furnished with apparatus, micro-
scopes, and other instruments of precision, the
activities of these students may be carried be-
yond the frontiers of the subject into the in-
vestigation and discovery of new facts and
phenomena. This extension of the boundaries
of knowledge concerning the plant-world may be
carried on to advantage only when a library is
at hand containing all of the more important
literature bearing upon the subject.

Botanical gardens owe their origin to the
needs of medical science, in accordance with
which species showing valuable medical proper-
ties were grown in convenient places.

The first authentic record of the introduction
of medicinal plants into cultivated plots of
ground dates no farther back than the time of

BOTANICAL GEOGRAPHY — BOTANY

the elder Pliny (23-79 A. D.), who writes of
the garden Antonius Castor, at Rome, in which
were grown a large number of medicinal plants.
This step, however, may have been taken much
earlier by the Greeks, Chinese, or Mexicans.
Later the Benedictine monks of northern Italy
paid great attention to the growing of remedial
herbs, and devoted an important proportion of
the monastery gardens to this purpose. This
practice was also carried beyond the Alps, and
in 1020 a garden was in existence at the
monastery of St. Gall, in Switzerland, not far
from Lake Constance, which contained 16 plots
occupied by medicinal plants. A garden of
this character was founded 1309 at Salerno,
and another at Venice 1330.

The i6th and 17th centuries witnessed the
foundation of many gardens in England, France,
Germany, Holland, and Sweden, some of
which have had a continuous existence to this
day. The garden of Bologna was founded 1568;
Leyden, 1577; Leipsic, 1579; Montpellier, 1596;
Paris, 1597. The last-named was organized for
the determination of "what variations were pos-
sible in the style of bouquets worn at the royal
courts.^' Then followed the establishment of
the gardens at Giessen, 1605; Strasburg, 1620;
Jena, 1629; Oxford, 1632; Upsala, 1667; Chelsea,
1680.

The number of these institutions at the
present time is nearly 300, only a few of which,
however, are devoted to the more important
purposes named above. Many botanical gardens
are merely municipal parks in which some at-
tempt is made to exhibit special groups of
plants, and are devoted chiefly to floriculture.
Others are almost entirely experiment stations
for the exhibition and testing of economic
species, while still others find their chief useful-
ness as an aid in teaching botany in schools and
colleges.

D. T. MacDougal,

Director of Laboratories,

New York Botanical Garden.

Botanical Geography. See Distribution
OF Plants.

Botany is that branch of biology, or the
science of living organisms, which deals with
plants, and is thus distinguished from zoology,
which deals with animals. An individual plant,
considered as a living or once living organism,
may be studied in two ways — with reference to
its structure or with reference to its functions.
These represent the two great subdivisions of
pure botanical science — anatomy and physiology
respectively. All other phases of botanical sci-
ence are special developments of one of these
two, either alone or in combination with the
other, or in relation additionally to some other
branch of knowledge. Anatomy and physiology
are thus the primary elements, as it were, of
botany, which in varying combinations with each'
other and with the elements of other sciences
constitute the branches of botanical science
actually in existence, such as taxonomy, ecology,
cytology, and pathology. The term plant anat-
omy is restricted frequently in actual use to
gross anatomy and is often called structural bot-
any. In this sense is covered about as much of
the whole of anatomy as can be studied by the
unaided eye or with a lens. Minute anatomy, or
histology, covers the minute structure of plants,

the principal instrument in its study being the
compound microscope. A study of the rela-
tionships of plants on the basis of anatomical re-
semblances constitutes comparative anatomy, or
morpholog}\ The classification of plants, known
as taxonomy or systematic botany, is in the
main a specialized branch of morphology, for the
principal means by which plants may be grouped
so as to indicate their genetic relationship is a
comparison of their structural differences and
resemblances. In its actual study plant physi-
ology is closely associated with plant histology
because most of the functions of the plant are
intimately connected with the structure of plant
cells, and the physiologist must of necessity
understand these structures. A special branch
of botanical research which has to do with the
complex structure and activities of the plant
cell is known as plant cytology. The study of
the diseases of plants, whether they are due to
fungi or other plant organisms, or are purely
physiological, is plant pathology, sometimes
called vegetable pathology.

History. — Among the ancients, Aristotle
the Greek philosopher (384 to 322 B.C.), The-
ophrastus his pupil (about 372 to 287 B.C.), the
Roman naturalist Pliny the Elder (23 to 79
A.D.), and the Greek physician Dioscorides (of
the 1st or 2d century a.d.) left botanical records
of historical interest, but botany as a modern
science has developed in the last four centuries,
dating from the Reformation. The writing, par-
ticularly by the Germans, of herbals, or treat-
ises on economic and medicinal plants, and the
founding of botanical gardens, occupied most
of the i6th century, but in the j^ear 1583 Cesal-
pino, an Italian physician, published the first
formal and comprehensive classification of
plants. This, though artificial, formed the basis
of all generally recognized classification to and
including the time of Linnaeus in the latter part
of the i8th century. The 17th century was
chiefly notable for advances not in the classifi-
cation of plants, but in their structure and vital
processes. Malpighi, an Italian, and Grew, an
Englishman, almost simultaneously published
their researches on the gross anatomy and the
cellular structure of plants, the first of which
were presented in 1671. To the work of these
men in plant anatomy little of importance was
added in more than a hundred years. The
other important discovery of the century was
the demonstration by Camerarius in 1691,
through direct experiment, of the sexuality of
plants. The i8th century was marked especially
by advances in classification. In the year 1700
Tournefort published his *^Institutiones,^ in
which for the first time genera were systematic-
ally named and described. During this century
Linnasus, the great botanical compiler and sys-
tematizer, brought out his successive works, cul-
minating in the 'Species Plantarum,^ in 1753.
It was later in the same century, too, that botani-
cal exploration came to be recognized as an
important department of the voyages of geo-
graphic and scientific discovery in which the
nations of Europe became engaged. In 1789 A.
L. de Jussieu published his * Genera Plantarum,'
in which was first systematically formulated a
comprehensive classification of plants according
to their natural relationship, as opposed to the
artificial systems followed by Cesalpino and Lin-
naeus. In the last two decades of this century
were laid the foundations of our present know-

BOTANY.

An Alaskan Valley, Covered with Arctic Vegetation (upper).

Spruce Forest of Interior Alaska, Representing the Boreal Zone (lower).

BOTANY

ledge of the important part played by the air in
the nutrition of plants, a proper conception of
which was possible only in the light of the new
developments which took place at that time in
chemistry. The 19th century witnessed enor-
mous strides in plant anatomy and plant physi-
ology, the latter largely contributed to by work-
ers in chemistry and physics, and the former
rendered possible by improvements of the com-
pound microscope and accessory instruments, es-
pecially those which came into general use about
1840. From this movement has been derived
most of our knowledge of the life history and
relationship of the lower groups of plants, the
fungi, algse, and lichens, and the assignment of
the pines and their relatives to their true posi-
tion next above the ferns. The whole realm
of botanical research was profoundly affected by
the work of Darwin, beginning with the publi-
cation of his ^Descent of Man,^ in 1858, which
gave a new point of view for all subsequent
work. In systematic botany the principle of the
development of species from a common ancestor
was substituted for the old view of the con-
stancy of species. The remarkable adaptations
for cross fertilization in the coloration, odor, and
structure of flowers was given its true and sig-
nificant explanation as a means for originating
and perpetuating species. Darwin's work gave
a new philosophical basis for the interpretation
of observed phenomejia and facts.

Progress in the United States. — At the be-
ginning of the 19th century the advancement of
botany in North America was largely in the
hands of physicians, through their requirement
of a knowledge of plants as materia medica.
Professors of botany were unknown. Linnseus
and other great botanists in Europe had had
American correspondents, and geographic expe-
ditions accompanied by European botanical col-
lectors had touched the margins of the continent.
Some botanical exploration, chiefly by European
visitors, had been effected east of the Alleghany
Mountains. The centre of botanical activity was
at Philadelphia, among the members of the
American Philosophical Society. With Lewis
and Clark's expedition across the continent to
the mouth of the Columbia, in 1803-6, began a se-
ries of American explorations of the great inte-
rior, directed first to the Louisiana Purchase,
then to Oregon, and finally to California. These
were supplemented on the north by the British
expeditions of Sir John Franklin and others in
quest of a Northwest Passage. In the fifties be-
gan the Pacific Railroad surveys and these were
followed by the geological surveys. All these
contributed materials for the discovery, descrip-
tion, and orderly arrangement of the North
American flora, the collections going largely
mto the hands of Thomas Nuttall at Harvard
Lhi'versity, John Torrey at Columbia, Asa Gray,
who was Nuttall's successor, and George Engel-
mann, a physician of St. Louis. Meanwhile ap-
peared a new factor which was destined to play
an important part in the development of bo-
tanical science in America, the establishment of
agricultural colleges in the late sixties. These
institutions created a demand for a class of bot-
anists who did not exist in the United States
or anywhere else, botanists who had brought
a critical scientific training to bear on the hard
problems of agriculture. For the succeeding
two decades the universities of the country,
including some of the agricultural colleges them-

selves, were busily engaged in educating the re-
quired men, a movement which resulted in the
preparation of many wiio were competent not
only to act as teachers of botany in the agricul-
tural colleges but, a still more important matter,
to act as investigators in agricultural experiment
stations, one of which was established in each of
the States and Territories in the late eighties.
The branch of botany which received its great-
est impulse was pathology, the science of the
diseases of plants. Plant pathology has al-
ready been carried to a point of high scientific
development and practical application attained
in no other country. Systematic, or, as it is
now more commonly known, taxonomic, botany
has made rapid strides forward in the past two
decades, largely through the application of
methods developed and perfected by American
ornithologists. These methods differ from
others chiefly in a full consideration of the ge-
ographic relationships of plants and the exam-
ination of very large series of specimens. A
new revision of the whole North American flora
along these lines and accompanied by syste-
matic botanical exploration is now under way.
For the future two lines of inquiry are likely
to be conspicuous in American botany, first, the
principles of heredity in plants and "the applied
phase of the subject, plant breeding on a sci-
entific basis; and second, the correlation of plant
functions with plant structures, a work which
will have far-reaching importance in broadening
our understanding of the processes of nature.
The geographic location of American botanical
research has undergone a profound change as a
result of the Spanish-American war. The area
to which up to that time the energies of Ameri-
can botanists had been chiefly directed was the
north temperate belt of one hemisphere, but
they now must deal in addition with botanical
problems in the tropics of both the New World
and the Old World.

Classification. — The plant kingdom is divisi-
ble into five great groups, the Myxophyta, or
slime molds ; the Thallophyta, including the
bacteria, algse, fungi, and lichens; the Bryophyta,
including the liverworts and mosses ; the
Pteridophyta, including the ferns and their al-
lies; and the Spermatophyta, or flowering plants.
The first four of these are often jointly desig-
nated as the Cryptogamce, or cryptogams, in con-
tradistinction to the Phanerogamce, an older
name for the flowering plants.

The Myxophyta, or slime molds, known also
as the Myxomycetes, Mycctozoa, and Myxothal-
lophyta, are organisms which though usually
treated as belonging to the vegetable rather than
the animal kingdom, have no cellulose walls
covering the cells of which they are composed;
pass a part of their life as plasmodia. or masses
of naked creeping protoplasm similar to the
animals known as amoeb?e ; and are reproduced
without even the simplest method of sexual re-
generation. Most of them resemble fungi in
that they grow upon decayed animal or vegetable
matter. The Thallophyta include a wide variety
of plants, associated with each other by exclu-
sion, on the one hand, from the animal-like
Myxophyta, and, on the other, from the Bry-
ophyta and higher plants. The plant body is
commonly not differentiated into stem and leaf,
and may even be unicellular; a cell wall is
usually present; chlorophyll is often wanting;
and frequently sexual reproduction does not ex-

BOTANY

ist. Among the important groups belonging to
the Thallophyta are the Schiso)iiycctes, or bac-
teria; the ScliizophycecE, or bluegreen algae; the
Euphycea, or true algre, including the diatoms,
desmids, green algae, stonevvorts, brown algse, and
red algae ; the Eumycetes, or true fungi ; and the
Lichenes, or lichens. The Bryophyta, or liver-
worts and mosses, are small plants, having in
their life cycle a sexual generation in which the
sexual organs are borne on a plant body usu-
ally differentiated into stem and leaves, followed
by a non-sexual generation, which consists of a
stalked or sometimes sessile spore-bearing cap-
sule remaining attached to the plant body of
the preceding generation. The female organ
of reproduction consists of an oosphere in a sac
called an archegonium, the walls of which are
made up of many cells, much more complex
structurally than the female organ of the Thal-
lophyta. The male organ consists of motile
antherozoids produced from an antheridium.
The group consists of the Hepaticce, or liver-
worts, some of which have a flat scale-like body
called a thallus, and of the Musci, or mosses.
The PteridopJiyta, represented by the ferns, re-
semble the Bryophyta in their sexual organs,
but differ in the possession of what is known as
vascular, as opposed to merel}' cellular, tissues,
and also in that the asexual generation becomes
a large plant and maintains a separate existence
independent of the earlier generation. The
group includes, besides the true ferns, the grape-
ferns, jointrushes, clubmosses, quillworts, and
a few others. The Spermatophyta, or flowering
plants, also known as Anthophyta or Phanero-
gamce, find their essential difference from the
Pteridophyta, not in the production of flowers,
but in the relationship of the sexual and the
asexual generations and in the character of the
sexual organs and their embryonic product. In
an ordinary fern the sexual generation is a small
flat green organism, resembling a thallose liver-
wort, growing on the ground or other sub-
stratum and deriving its nourishment from it,
but in the Spermatophyta the sexual generation
is reduced to almost microscopic dimensions, and
leads no independent existence but is enclosed
within the body of the non-sexual generation,
the male portion consisting of the pollen grain
and the tube that grows out of it w^ien the
pollen grain germinates, the female portion con-
sisting of a minute cellular structure within the
embryo sac of the ovule. It is to be noted
that no motile bodies are produced, as in the
two preceding groups, and that the fertilization
of the ovule results in the development of an
embryonic plant called a seed, which is pro-
duced by none of the lower groups of plants.
The Spermatophyta are divided into two groups,
of which the lower is the Gyninospennce, in-
cluding the cycads, the cone-bearing trees, and
a few related families. In these the ovules are
borne not in ovaries but naked among the
floral bracts, and the sexual generation of the
female is still comparatively complex before fer-
tilization and bears considerable resemblance to
that of some Pteridophyta. In the other group,
the Angiospermcc. the ovules are borne in
ovaries, and only the simplest remnant of a sex-
ual generation persists. In this group are the
Monocotyledones, including the grasses, palms,
lilies, orchids and their relatives, and the Dicoty-
ledoncs, including the great majority of flower-

ing plants. The dicotyledonous and the gym-
nospermous plants were at one time classed as a
group Exogena:, in contradistinction to the
group Efidogena, which consisted of the mono-
cotyledonous plants. This grouping of the flow-
ering plants into exogens and endogens, how-
ever, is no longer maintained, it having been
shown from embryological studies that the
gymnosperms should stand next above the ferns.
The old division of dicotyledonous plants into
Apetalcc, Gainopetalce, and Polypctala is also
now discarded, the families included under
Apetalce appearing not to constitute a real group.
They have therefore been interpolated among
the families of the remaining two groups, most
of them going with the Polypetalcc. All three of
the old names have been abandoned, the name
Archichlamydece being now used for the apeta-
lous and polypetalous plants jointly, and the
name Sympctalce for the gamopetalous plants.
The known species of plants as based on recent
standard and conservative enumerations of the
various large groups are approximately as fol-
lows :

Myxophyta 400

Thallophyta SQ.ooo

Bryophyta 8,000

Pteridophyta 3,500

Spermatophyta 120,000

190,900

Plants hi Relation to Geology. — Plants pla},
an important part in the configuration of the
earth's surface bv the prevention or retardation
of erosion. This is accomplished by the direct
binding action of roots on the soil, by obstruct-
ing the run-off of water as it filters through a
layer of decaying vegetable matter, and by hin-
dering the melting of snow under the shade of a
forest cover. Wind erosion of sand or dust
soils both on beaches and in arid regions is
prevented chiefly by vegetation. In the build-
ing up of peat deposits, such as the sphagnum
bogs of the Northern States, or the Dismal
Swamp, Okefinokee Swamp, or the Everglades,
plants are the principal factors. Deposits of
coal and petroleum are of vegetable origin. The
disintegration of rocks is hastened by the pres-
ence of living mosses and other plants. The
fertility of soils is largely dependent on the ad-
mixture of decayed vegetable matter, or humus ;
and the so-called nitrifying organisms of the
soil, which change nitrates, which can not be
taken up as food by plants, to nitrites, which are
readily absorbed, belong to a group of micro-
scopic plants known as bacteria. A very im-
portant role in soil fertilization is played by a
certain group of plants, the Legiiminosce, in-
cluding the clovers, beans, and peas. One of the
essentials of plant food is nitrogen. Ordinary
plants have not the power to take free nitrogen
from the air, where it exists in almost unlimited
quantities, but absorb their nitrogen from cer-
tain nitrogenous substances in the soil. This
element of soil fertility is soon exhausted.
Leguminous plants, however, produce on their
roots small tubercles containing bacteria which
have the power to take free nitrogen from the
air in the soil and put it into a form suitable for
plant food. By the death and rotting of the
plant the nitrogen thus absorbed from the air is
incorporated in the soil and is available as food

BOTANY.

1. Samnela, and Vegetation of Western Texas. ". Agave, and Vegetation of \\'c?tcrn Texas.

2. Yellow Pine Forest of Oregon. 4- Tree Fern, and Vegetal vjn of the Tropical

Zone.

BOTANY

for all sorts of vegetation. In this way the legu-
minous plants are almost indispensable for the
rehabilitation of soils worn out by excessive
cropping.

Plants in Relation to Geography. — Most
of the land surface of the earth is covered by a
green mantle of vegetation, which varies in its
makeup at different points in accordance with
several factors, the most general of which in its
variation is temperature. Certain areas of the
north polar and south polar regions, permanently
or almost permanently covered with snow or ice,
and various similarly cold areas on mountains of
higher and higher elevation in lower latitudes,
are devoid of vegetation. Next to this is an
area of sufficient warmth in summer to produce
a vegetation of herbaceous plants and shrubs
but devoid of trees — the arctic, antarctic, and al-
pine vegetation. Then come the temperate areas
of the earth, characterized by a vegetative cov-
ering able to withstand freezing during a portion
of the year, yet sufficiently warm to permit an
abundant growth of trees. Next follows the
tropical area, with a vegetation not subjected to
frost and characterized especially by forests made
up in part of palms. A factor of probably even
greater im.portance, but more broken and re-
stricted in its distribution, is moisture. The
four great temperature categories outlined above
are cross-hatched by moisture lines parallel
with the lines of equal precipitation. With too
little moisture forests can not exist, and we have
plains and deserts of grass or brush. Neither
do forests exist in a soil too persistently moist
and poorly drained, and thus we have moors,
bogs, natural meadows, and savannas. The ex-
treme of moisture is reached in the plants called
aquatics, growing either in fresh water or in the
ocean, often wholly submerged.

Each of the other factors in plant growth,
light, air, food, and the complex mechanical re-
lations of the plant, varies greatly from one lo-
cality to another, and in their various combina-
tions with different degrees of heat and moisture
they furnish an almost endless variety of envi-
ronments. Each of these combinations of condi-
tions has its characteristic association of plants,
which, adapted to the conditions, and to each
other, form a community. The study of plants
in their detailed relation to these local surround-
ings forms a branch of geographic botany known
as plant ecology. North America furnishes a
good series of geographic areas with sufficient
climatic differences to necessitate different floras.
The vegetation of the continent is divided by
Merriam into the following zones : Arctic,
Boreal, Transition, Upper Austral, Lower Aus-
tral, Tropical. The Arctic zone extends from
northern Labrador northwestward across the
northern edge of the continent to Bering
Strait, dipping southward along the shores of
Bering Sea to Bristol Bay, Alaska. The vege-
tation of this zone consists of herbaceous or of
depressed woody plants, trees being absent.
Over large areas, known as tundra, the ground
is permanently frozen underneath, a few inches
of the surface thawing each summer and permit-
ting the growth, in a cold, wet soil, of an often
luxuriant but low vegetation. The Arctic zone
is represented southward as far as southern Cal-
ifornia and northern Arizona by certain alpine
plants on the summits of mountains high enough
to have a timber line, approximately 12,000 feet
in that latitude. The Boreal zone, sometimes

subdivided into a northern, or Hudsonian, belt
and a more southerly, or Canadian, belt, extends
trom the Arctic zone southward to a line trav-
ersing the northern part of New England, On-
tario, Michigan, and Minnesota, jumping to the
higher elevations of the Adirondack and Ap-
palachian Mountain systems, then continuing
westward across North Dakota and Assiniboia
to British Columbia, dipping south in the higher
elevations of the Rocky Mountains nearly to
Mexico, in the Cascades and Sierra Nevada to
southern California, and along the shores of the
Pacific to northern California. The most cha-
racteristic feature of this zone is forests of
spruce or balsam fir. The Transition zone cov-
ers most of New England, New York, Michigan,
Minnesota, North Dakota, about half of South
Dakota, and the southern part of Assiniboia,
thence extending southward through the Plateau
and Great Basin 10 Arizona, New Mexico, and
California, in the southern parts of those States
reaching down to an elevation of about 6.000
feet. The most characteristic tree of the eastern,
humid part of this zone is the white pine ; of the
western, arid part, the yellow pine. The Upper
Austral zone, as represented in the eastern
United States by the so-called Carolinian flora,
covers the lower Hudson valley, southern New
Jersey, Delaware, eastern ^laryland, the Pied-
mont section of the south Atlantic States, middle
Tennessee and Kentucky, and most of Ohio,
Indiana, Illinois, Iowa, and Missouri, north-
western Arkansas, southeastern South Dakota,
and eastern Nebraska and Kansas. It is espe-
cially characterized by its forests of certain spe-
cies of oak and hickory. The flora of the west-
ern part of this zone, known as the Upper
Sonoran, covers the principal part of the arid
western plains, from Washington and Montana
southward through the Mexican plateau. The
flora is devoid of trees and is commonly cha-
racterized by sagebrush or bunchgrass. The
Lower Austral zone is divided, like the last, into
an eastern humid and a western arid part. The
eastern, containing the Austroriparian flora, cov-
ers the coastal plain from Chesapeake Bay to
middle Texas, extending northward in the ^lis-
sissippi valley to extreme southern Illinois and
Indiana. One of the most characteristic wild
plants is the cane, while cotton is the most con-
spicuous cultivated plant. In the arid region of
western Texas, the great valleys of New Mex-
ico, and the deserts of southwestern Arizona,
southern Nevada, and southeastern California,
lies the western part of the Lower Austral zone,
containing the flora known as the Lower So-
noran, characterized especially by the creosote
bush and the mesquite. This flora has large
extensions into northern Mexico. The Tropical
zone covers the lower third of the Florida
peninsula, enters the extreme southern point of
Texas, and on the Pacific coast reaches north on
the east side of the Gulf of California to the
lower Colorado and Gila rivers. From these
northern extremes the tropical flora extends
southward through Mexico. Central America,
and the West Indies. Various genera and spe-
cies of palms form the most conspicuous and
characteristic features of this flora.

Plants in Their Economic Relation to Man. —
Every savage race is intimately associated with
the flora of its region. Having no means by
which to supply the ordinary necessaries of life
through foreign trade, as do many civilized

BOTANY BAY — BOTHA

races, the savage has learned from necessity to
know the precise qualities of the plants about
him as foods, textiles, poisons, dyes, tans, fuels,
etc. In connection with the making of a single
aboriginal instrument, such as a bow or a fire-
drill and block, there is required on the part
of the savage a knowledge of the strength, elas-
ticity, texture, and other qualities of all the
kinds of wood occurring in the range of his
travels, such as is not possessed by one person in
a thousand among highly civilized races. The
economic value of a correct and discriminating
record of the uses of plants among aboriginal
peoples is evident. The influence of a familiar
flora in attracting a savage race to a wider ge-
ographic range or that of a strange flora in lim-
iting migration in any direction is a natural
outcome of the savage's exact knowledge of the
plants of his native region. The practice of
some of the migratory races of prehistoric man
to transport their cultivated plants with them
has resulted in the wide extension of these plants
from the regions they naturally occupied. From
this association it turns out that a critical study
of the origin and distribution of the plants cul-
tivated by aboriginal races throws important
light on their prehistoric migrations. Some of
these botanical facts appear to be of very great
antiquity, perhaps even antedating those fur-
nished by aboriginal arts or by language. This
study of the relation of primitive man to his
plant environment is called ethnobotany, or
aboriginal botany. Some of the processes of
plant life are important to man as being funda-
mental to his existence. The plant is an engine
which through the energy furnished by sunlight
is capable of transforming inorganic substances
into organic compounds, without which animal
life could not exist. The ordinary economic re-
lations of plants to civilized man are many, and
enter as important factors into such arts and in-
dustries as agriculture, horticulture, medicine,
manufacture, and commerce. The production
and elaboration of plant products and their trans-
portation from those parts of the world in
which they can be and are produced to other
parts in which they are needed occupies probably
the largest part of the energies of the human
race.

Bibliography. — Bailey, < Cyclopedia of Horti-
culture' ; Bailey, ^Lessons with Plants' ; Bail-
Ion, ^Dictionnaire de Botanique' ; Britton and
Brown, < Illustrated Flora of the Northern
United States and Canada' ; Engler and Prantl,
*Nalunicne Pflanzenfamilien-' ; Figuier, ^Veg-
etable World' ; Kerner and Oliver, < Natural
History of Plants' ; Lindley and Moore, 'Treas-
ury of Botany' ; Sachs, 'History of Botany' ;
Sargent, 'Silva of North America.^

Frederick V. Coville,

Chief Botanist, U. S. Deft, of Agriculture.

Botany Bay, New South Wales, Australia,
so called by Capt. Cook on account of the many
strange plants found growing here. Cook landed
in Botany Bay on his first voyage in 1770, and
Took possession of the country in the name of
his sovereign. The penal settlement, founded
in 1788, and popularly known by the name of
Botany Bay, was established on Port Jackson,
where the city of Sydney now stands.

Botany Bay Gum, a gum resin produced
by the XanihorrJiaxi hastilis, or resinifera, of
Australia.

Botargo, a relish made of the salted roe of
the mullet or tunny, used on the Mediterranean
coasts.

Botetourt, Norborne Berkeley, a conspic-
uous actor in American colonial history rb. Eng-
land, 1734 (?); d. Williamsburg, Va., 15 Oct.
1770. He was the descendant of John Berkeley,
the cavalier, who was ennobled by Charles II. in
1660. He was sent to Virginia as royal gov-
ernor in 1768, just eight years before the Decla-
ration of Independence. He had full instructions
from the Crown and directions to assume more
dignity than had been the wont of colonial gov-
ernors, and accordingly he paraded the streets of
Williamsburg with guards, a coach, and other
requisites of vice-regal pomp. Conflicting duties
to the king and the people made his situation
most unpleasant. In 1769 the assembly took
into consideration the incipient troubles with
England, and on 16 May passed firm but re-
spectful resolutions remonstrating against par-
liamentary taxation and the rigTit claimed to
*end them to England for trial. So firm were
they that Lord Botetourt summoned the speaker
and burgesses before him and dissolved them.
The result was that a convention met in a pri-
vate house and took the incipient steps for the
revolution. The convention did not attempt to
legislate, but simply remonstrated with Parlia-
ment, sending its resolutions to the other colo-
nies and to England. Under the influence of
these resolutions Lord Hillsborough wrote a
letter to Lord Botetourt, assuring him that it
was not the intention of government to tax the
colonies, and that the obnoxious imposts would
be 'withdrawn, which letter Lord Botetourt com-
municated to the assembly. All these anticipa-
tions, however, were destroyed by the policy of
Lord North, who succeeded Charles Townsend,
and the promise was not fulfilled in full, the
duty on tea being retained. Botetourt was
deeply mortified, and soon died of disease aggra-
vated by mental sufi^ering. He was deplored by
men of all classes in the colony, and the legisla-
ture erected a inarble statue to his memory,
which is still standing in the college of William
and Mary.

Both, John and Andrew, two Flemish
painters, were born at Utrecht about the year
1610, Andrew being the younger. They were
the sons of a glass painter, who instructed them
in the rudiments of drawing. They afterward
made further progress in the school of Abraham
Bloemaart, and went at an early age together to
France and Italy. John, attracted by the works
of Claude Lorraine, chose him for his model ;
Andrew preferred the painting of the human fig-
ure, and imitated the style of Bamboccio. But
although their inclinations led them in different
directions, their fraternal affection often united
their talents in the same works. Thus Andrew
painted the figures in the landscapes of his
brother ; and their labors harmonized so well,
that their pictures could not be suspected of
coming from different hands. The ease and fine
coloring in the beautiful figures of John cannot
be overlooked in spite of the excess of yellow
sometimes found in them. Andrew was
drowned at Venice in 1650. John, inconsolable
for his loss, abandoned Italy, and returned to
Utrecht, where he died shortly after.

Botha, Christian, Boer commander: b.
the Transvaal ; d. Kokstad, Griqualand West, 8

BOTHA — BOTOCDOS

Oct. 1902. At the opening of the Boer war in
1899 he led a commando into Natal and was
active in the siege of Ladysmith and at the de-
fense of the Tugela crossing. After the relief
of Ladj'smith, he retreated to Laing's Neck,
where he was left by his brother, Louis Botha,
in command of the Boer forces. By opening
negotiations with Gen. Buller he delayed that
general's advance for several days, and after
the fall of Pretoria he was placed in command
of all the Boer forces in the southeastern Trans-
vaal. His frequent raids into Zululand effected
the diversion that allowed Gens. Louis Botha
and De Wet to continue the war.

Botha, Louis, Boer soldier: b. Greytown,
Natal, about 1864. He began life as a farmer,
and, as a young man, had a share in the estab-
lishment of the Transvaal Republic. Later he
fought in the Kaffir campaign. He was elected
to the Volksraad at Pretoria. Upon the out-
break of the Boer war with England in 1899 he
was given a subordinate command, and upon
the death of Gen. Joubert in March 1900 he
became comm-^ndcr-in-chief of the Boer iforces,
gaining victories at Spion Kop and Colenso.
In 1906 he became Prime Minister of Pretoria.

Bothie (Gael, bothag, a cot), a house, usu-
ally of one room, for the accommodation of a
number of work people engaged in the same
emplo3'ment ; especially, a house of this kind in
parts of Scotland, in which a number of un-
married male or female farm servants or labor-
ers are lodged in connection with a farm.
Bothies are most common in the northeast of
Scotland, and are chiefly for the accommodation
of unmarried male farm servants engaged on
the larger farms, who as a rule have to do their
cooking and keep the bothie in order for them-
selves. The bothie system has often been con-
demned.

Bothnia, the name formerly given to a
country of northern Europe, e.xtending along
the east and west shores of the Gulf of Bothnia,
the east portion now being comprised in Fin-
land, and the west in Sweden.

Bothnia, Gulf of, the northern part of the
Baltic Sea, w-hich separates Sweden from Fin-
land. It commences at the island of Aland, lat.
60° N., and extends to 66° ; its length is about
450 miles, its breadth from 90 to 130, and its
depth usually from 20 to 50 fathoms. As its
water contains little salt, it freezes over in the
winter, so as to be passed by sledges and car-
riages. It abounds in salmon and other fish,
and also in seals.

Bothriocephalus, a genus of cestoid worms
which is found very abundantly in the intestines
of predaceous fishes, and one species of which
is sometimes found in the intestinal canal of
man. It belongs to the same family as the tape-
worm (Tocnia solium), but it is distinguished
from it by having its segments broader than
they are long; by wanting the four disks which
surround the head of the tapeworm, and hav-
ing in their place two lateral longitudinal open-
ings; and thirdly, by having the se.xual organs
on one of the flat surfaces of each segment
instead of at the edges of the segments. The
two longitudinal openings (whence the worm re-
ceives its name, from bothrion, a little pit, and
kephalc, the head) do not seem to be organs of
nutrition, but merely a kind of suckers by which

the worm is enabled to attach itself to the intes-
tines of the animal which it infests, while it is
nourished by absorption throughout its whole
length. Although, as already stated, this worm
generally infests the bodies of predaceous
fishes, it is capable of being transmitted to all
vertebrate animals, and especially it is found in
those birds which live upon fish. The only
species which is found in the intestines of man
is the Bothriocephalus latus, and it is rare to
find even this species except among the inhab-
itants of two distinct parts of Europe, the north
and the centre. It is found, on the one hand, in
Russia, in Norway, and in Sweden, and on the
other hand, in Switzerland, the north of Italy,
some provinces of Germany, and some depart-
ments of France, but rarely elsewhere. It has
been remarked that this worm is common where
the Taenia or true tapeworm is rare, and vice
versa. It is rare in the United States, but with
the increase of emigration from the regions of
Europe, where it abounds, its appearance may
be looked for.

Bothwell, James Hepburn, Earl of, is

known in Scottish history by his marriage to
Queen Mary. He was the only son of the third
earl: b. about 1536; d. 1578. He succeeded his
father in 1556, thus obtaining important offices
and estates, and by 1566 he had attained to high
favor with the queen. The plot by which Darn-
ley lost his life in 1567 was of his contrivance,
and the queen was suspected of conniving at it.
Bothwell was charged with the crime and under-
went a mock trial, being of course acquitted.
After the death of Darnley he seized the queen
near Edinburgh, and carrying her a prisoner to
Dunbar Castle, prevailed upon her to marry him.
Before this he had divorced his own wife, Jean
Gordon, sister of the Earl of Huntly. Though
seemingly secure in the possession of power, and
though created Duke of Orkney by the unfortu-
nate queen, he soon found that his conduct had
roused the indignation of the kingdom. A con-
federacy was formed against him by the barons,
the queen was liberated from his power, and he
escaped to the Orkneys, and afterward to Nor-
waJ^ The Danish authorities kept him impris-
oned for some time at Malmo, latterly at Drang-
holm in Zeeland, where he died insane. See the
various histories of Scotland, and the ^Life of
BothwelP by Prof. Schiern (English transla-
tion 18S0).

Bothwell, Scotland, a village of Lanark-
shire, on the north bank of the Clyde. It is
situated eight miles east of Glasgow, and about
one mile beyond it stands Bothwell bridge, where
a decisive battle was fought in 1679 between
the Scottish Covenanters, commanded princi-
pally by their clerg\', and the royal forces, com-
manded by the Duke of Monmouth, in which the
former were totally routed. Near the village
are the fine ruins of Bothwell Castle, once a
stronghold of the Douglases.

Botocdos, or Aymores, a Brazilian race of
Indians. They live 70 to 90 miles from the At-
lantic, in the virgin forests of the coast range
(Serra do Mar or Serra dos Aymores), on
the borders of the forests of Minas-Geraes and
Espirito-Santo, especially on the Rio Doce. They
receive their name from the custom which they
have of cutting a slit in their under lip and in
the lobes of their ears, and inserting in these,
by way of ornament, pieces of wood shaped like

BOTRYCHIUM — BOTTARI

ihe bung of a barrel (Fortuguese botoque).
They have oblique eyes and projecting cheek-
bones. Their color is a dirty brown. They go
quite naked, and paint their bodies, and a
Botocudo warrior with his lip and ear plugs,
his body painted black and red, and his face
bright red, strongly reminds one of a denizen of
the infernal regions. They are very skilful vi^ith
the bow and arrow, and live chiefly by hunting.
They now number only a few thousands, and
are decreasing.

Botrychium, a genus of fern (adder's-
tongue), of the sub-order Osmimdca and tribe
OphioglossecE, characterized by its distinct
tliecce in a compound spike attached to a pinnate
or bipinnate frond. The common American
species are: B. hinaria, common moon wort,
which grows on elevated lands and pastures
where other ferns are seldom found. It was
once supposed to possess great virtues, both
magical and medicinal, and was carefully gath-
ered by the light of the moon. B. virginicum,
the largest of the species, is known by the name
of rattlesnake fern, from growing in places fre-
quented by that dangerous reptile.

Botrytis, a genus of fungi belonging to
the section Hypomycetes, and familiar by name
to cultivators from its connection with the
potato disease. The genus contains a number
of those minute plants known as inolds and
mildews, and of these some have the peculiar
habit of growing in the tissues of living vege-
tables. The threads of which their growth con-
sists creep among the loose cells of the under
side of leaves, and send up their fertile shoots
through the stomata. Many kinds of Botrytis
are extremely destructive to Various plants.
Whole crops of onions are soon destroyed by
one species ; legumes suffer from another, but
in a less degree; and a third species is some-
times injurious to turnips. The decay of the
leaves and stem in the potato disease is now
charged against PJiytopJithtlwra infcstens, but
old writers attributed the trouble to B. infestcns.
Though extremely injurious to the farmer
these molds are sometimes very serviceable by
destroying weeds. Various agricultural pests
may often be seen looking yellow and unhealthy,
when an examination of the under side of the
leaves will show that this is owing to the rav-
ages of these minute parasites.

Botta, Anne Charlotte Lynch, American
author: b. Bennington, Vt., 1820; d. 28 March
1891. She was educated in Albany, N. Y. ; began
her literary career in Providence, R. I., and,
removing to New York, married Prof. Vincenzo
Botta, in 1855. From the time of her marriage
to her death, her house was a favorite centre of
literary and art circles. Her publications in-
cluded a collection of poems, many essays, re-
views and criticisms, and ^A Handbook of
Universal Literature.^ She was a sculptor of
much merit, and was influential in promoting
the establishment of Barnard College for
Women.

Botta, Carlo Giuseppe Guglielmo, Italian
statesman, historian, and poet : b. San Giorgio
del Canavese in Piedmont, 6 Nov. 1766; d.
Paris, lu Aug. 1837. During the time of the
French Revolution he was a student of medicine
at Turin, and adopting revolutionary opinions
with enthusiasm, he suffered for his zeal by
*.wo years' imprisonment (1792-4). After pass-

ing as a physician he entered the French service,
and accompanied the expedition which Napoleon
sent to Corfu, and he was soon after elected as
a member of the provisional government of
Piedmont. When this territory was, in 1803,
annexed to the French empire, Botta was
elected a member of the Corps Legislatif, where
his behavior was characterized by a bold opposi-
tion to the emperor. During the ''Hundred
Days*^ he was rector of the academy at Nancy,
and after the second return of the Bourbons he
went in a like capacity to Rouen. The greater
part of the remainder of his life was passed by
him as a private gentleman at Paris. His chief
works belong to the department of history.
Among these are: 'Storia della Guerra dell'
independenza degli Stati Uniti d' America^ ;
<Storia d'ltalia dal 1789 al 1814' (10 vols.). He
also furnished a continuation to Guicciardini's
Italian History from 1490-1534, bringing it down
to 1789.

Botta, Paul Emile, French traveler and
archaeologist : b. about the beginning of the
19th century; d. Poissy, April 1870. He was a
son of Carlo Giuseppe Botta (q.v.). While still
very young he made a voyage round the world,
traversed the western portion of America, and
took part as physician to Mehemed Ali in an
expedition which set out from Egypt to Sennaar,
of which he took advantage to make a consider-
able zoological collection. At a later period he
was appointed French consul at Alexandria,
and from this place he undertook a journey to
Arabia in 1837, the scientific results of which
he communicated to the world in his "^Relation
d'un Voyage dans I'Yemen.^ His chief service
to science consists in his having discovered the
ruins of ancient Nineveh, a discovery made by
him in 1843 in the course of excavations in the
neighborhood of Mosul, which he conducted
with great energy and ability while acting as
consular agent for the French government at
that town. As the result of investigations made
upon the spot he published two important works,
one on the cuneiform writing of the Assyrians,
*^Memoire de I'Ecriture Cuneiforme Assyrienne,'
and the other upon the monuments of Nineveh,
< Monuments de Ninive^ (5 vols, folio, with
drawings by Flandin, Paris). The latter is a
work of great splendor, and marks an era in
Assyrian antiquities. From 1847 to 1857 Botta
lived as French consul-general in _ Jerusalem,
and from 1857 to the end of his life in the same
capacity at Tripoli.

Botta, Vincenzo, Italian scholar: b. in
Piedmont, 11 Nov. 1818; d. 5 Oct. 1894. He was
elected to the Sardinian parliament in 1849.
In 1853 he settled in the United States and was
appointed professor of the Italian language and
literature in the University of New York. He
published 'Dante,- < Modern Philosophy in
Italy,' and other studies.

Bottari, Giovanni Gaetano, Rompn Catho-
lic prelate: b. Florence, 1689; d. _I775- After
completing his studies he was admitted a mem-
ber of the Academy della Crusca, and entrusted
with the preparation of the celebrated dictionary
of that body. He labored for six years on this
work, which was published in 6 volumes folio.
The ability which he displayed in it induced the
Duke of Tuscany to give him the management
of the grand-ducal printing office. He left
Florence in 1730 and settled in Rome, where

BOTTICELLI.

Nymph and Centaur.

UOTTESINI — BOTTIGER

Pope Clement XII. appointed him professor
of ecclesiastical history and polemics in the Col-
legio della Sapienza ; the same year he was ap-
pointed palatine prelate. Shortly after he was
employed with the geometer Manfredi in exam-
ining the course of the Tiber from Perugia to
the mouth of the Nova, with the view of render-
ing it navigable, and providing a remedy against
its devastating inundations. The excellent re-
port on the subject, though signed by Manfredi,
is said to have been drawn up by Bottari. As a
compensation for the performance of this task,
the Pope appointed him keeper of the Vatican
library. After living under several Popes, all of
whom treated him with favor, he died at the age
of 86. His works, in addition to those already
mentioned, are partly original and partly cor-
rected editions of celebrated writings previously
published. Among the former are 'Lectures on
Boccaccio, Livy, and Dante* ; among the latter
is a splendid edition of Virgil, with a learned
preface and notes, and a corrected edition of
Vasari's 'Lives of the Painters.^

Bottesini, Giovanni, Italian musician: b.
Crema, Italy, 24 Dec. 1822; d. 7 July 1889. He
was taught the double-bass in Milan, by Luigi
Rossi, according to the method of Andreoli and
Dragonetti, and soon became a first rate per-
former ; meanwhile stud\nng musical composi-
tion under several distinguished masters. When
scarcely 22,, he was engaged as contrabassist for
the Italian opera in Havana, where in a few
seasons he rose to the post of maestro and musi-
cal director of the company. Here he produced
in 1846 his first opera, 'Cristoforo Colombo.*
During the five years of his stay in Havana, he
paid occasional visits to the United States,
where he secured considerable fame by his won-
derful performances in the concert room. His
masterly handling of the huge instrument took
everybody by surprise, while his style, at once
elegant and impressive, won the admiration of
all critics and amateurs. His success on his
return to Europe in 1851 was not less complete;
the concerts he gave in London and Paris es-
tablished his reputation as the first living con-
trabassist. In 1853 he returned to the United
States with M. Jullien, and afterward accom-
panied Madame Sontag to Mexico. Subse-
quently he became director of the orchestra at
the Italian opera in Paris, where his opera
*L'Assedio di Firenza* was successfully per-
formed during the spring of 1856. Other works
are: <Ali Baba* (1871) ; 'Ero e Leandro^
(1879) ; 'Garden of Olivet* (1887), an oratorio.
He also published numerous overtures, sympho-
nies, and quartettes.

Bottger, or Bottcher, also written Bot-
tiger, Johann Friedrich: b. Schleitz about
1681 ; d. Dresden 13 March 1719. He was a
Saxon alchemist whose pretended discovery of
the philosopher's stone resulted in the useful
invention of Saxon porcelain. After various
vicissitudes he handed over to King Augustus
II. an account of his discovery, which is still
preserved in the archives of Saxony. The king,
however, not availing himself of his suggestions,
they were put in application by Count Tschirn-
hausen, who established a manufactory at Weis-
sen in 1705, employing Bottger. who succeeded
in producing of the reddish-brown clay which
abounds in the vicinity of Weissen a porcelain
of remarkable beauty and solidity.

Botticelli, Alessandro Filipepi, a-les-san'-
dro fil-i-pa'pe but-te-chel'le, Italian painter of
distinction commonly called Sandro Botticelli:
b. Florence 1447; d. there, 17 May 1510 or
1515. His name is derived from that of Botti-
cello, his first master, a goldsmith, from whom
he acquired his knowledge of gold afterward
made useful by his employment of it in foliage,
hair, and embroidered tissues. He subsequently
became one of the most distinguished pupils of
Filippo Lippi, the Carmelite, and is reckoned
the richest and most fanciful colorist of the
Florentine school. He excelled both in devo-
tional and mythological subjects and was an
admirable painter of flowers. He was employed
by the most influential art patrons of his time,
including Lorenzo de Medici. About 1481 he
was commissioned by Sixtus IV. to paint the
walls of the Sistine Chapel ; three of the frescoes
there are his work: 'The Life of Moses*;
'The Temptation of Christ' ; 'The Punishment
of Korah, Dathan, and Abiram,* and several of
the portraits of the Popes. He became an
ardent follower of Savonarola, and is said lat-
terly to have neglected his art and suffered many
privations. He is said to be one of the engravers
of a celebrated series of illustrations executed
by Florentine artists toward the close of the
15th century, notably a set of designs fpr the
'Divina Commedia' of Dante, of which 686 are
in the Berlin Museum. His works are to be
found in various European galleries, his Ma-
donnas being especially characteristic of his
style. In these the Virgin appears peculiarly
slender and with a melancholy expression as
if oppressed by forebodings. He was greatly
esteemed by his contemporaries, but subsequently
fell into disfavor. Although opinions as to his
merits differ widely, Botticelli is to-day very
popular and forms the theme of much art dis-
cussion. See Ulmann, 'Sandro Botticelli*

(1893) ; Pater, 'Studies in the History of the
Renaissance* (1873) ; Phillimore, 'Botticelli'

(1894) ; Berenson, 'Florentine Painters of the
Renaissance* (1898) ; Supino, 'Sandro Botti-
celli* (1900) ; Steinman, 'Botticelli* (English
translation 1901).

Bottiger, Karl August, German writer,
particularly distinguished as an archaeologist:
b. Reichenbach, Saxony, 8 June 1760; d. Dres-
den, 17 Nov. 1835. After a philological course
at Leipsic, he became in the first place a private
tutor at Dresden, and then successively head-
master of a school at Guben, and another at
Bautzen. In 1791, through the influence of
Herder, he became director of the gymnasium
at Weimar, and it was here that, while he en-
joyed the society of Goethe, Schiller, Wieland,
and other distinguished men, he began his fruit-
ful literary career. In 1804 he removed to Dres-
den, where he devoted himself exclusively to
archaeology. Ten j'ears later he was appointed
chief inspector of the Museum of Antiquities in
that city, where he continued to reside to the
end of his life. In 1832 he became a member
of the French Institute. Among his most im-
portant works are: 'Sabina, or Morning Scenes
of a Wealthy Roman Lady* ; 'Griechiscl-.e Vas-
engemalde* ('Paintings on Greek Vases');
'Thoughts on the Archaeology of Painting* ;
'Mythology of Art* : 'Lectures and Essays on
Archaeolotn'* ; 'Amalthea* (3 vols.).

BOTTLE — BOTTLING

Bottle, a vessel designed to hold liquids,
constructed of various materials and in various
forms according to the necessities of local man-
ufacture and the demands of the kind of liquid
to be enclosed. It is now understood to mean
a vessel made of glass, with a more or less
narrow neck and mouth. In ancient times, how-
ever, the bottle was nothing more than a skin
of some animal. Thus the Biblical aphorism
concerning the putting of new wine into old
bottles as an illustration of folly means that it
would not be wise to trust a new wine, while yet
active with fermentation, to the chance of burst-
ing a leathern vessel necessarily weakened by
use and age. In Spain, Turkey, India, and
some parts of South America to this day, various
skins, and especially that of the goat, are used
for containing wine and water. The hide is
stripped from the animal as entire as possible,
and the various natural openings having been
sewed up, with the exception of that of one of
the legs, which is retained as a nozzle, the
vessel is ready, after a certain preliminary cur-
ing of the skin, for the reception of the wine.
The peculiar taste of Amontillado sherry is sup-
posed to be owing to the fact of its being kept
in leather. The ordinary bottle is, however, of
glass. The various bottles used for different
well-known purposes are generally distinguished
by peculiar shapes and sizes, as, for example,
the English wine, beer, ale, and soda bottles,
the French champagne, Burgundy, and claret,
and the Rhenish wine bottles. Port wine is oc-
casionally put into very large bottles, called
magnums, and acids in still larger ones termed
farboys.

Bottle Charts, maps of the terminal
points of the voyages of sealed bottles thrown
into the sea, and either drifting to land or
picked up afloat. These bottles had long been
used by the victims of ship-wreck to convey
messages or record their fate, or by travelers or
seamen for joke or experiment; but the first
serious note taken of them was by Lieut. Becher
of the British navy, who in 1843 published in
the ^Nautical Magazine^ a Mercator chart of
the Atlantic coast from lat. 6° S. to 63° N., or
say from Cape St. Roque, in Brazil, to Hudson
Strait, with straight lines from start to finish
of a number of bottle voyages he had noted,
the length of these lines, time elapsed since set
afloat, etc. Of course some bottles leak and
founder and others are crushed ; but he was
able to collect 119 bottles, one of which had
traveled 3,900 miles in a straight line, and of
course far more in fact, and 4 over 2,000,
while the time of voyage varied from 3 days
to 16 years. This chart has been repeatedly
freshened up with new facts, re-engraved, and
republished in the ^Nautical Magazine.^ Later,
several government departments, of which the
United States Hydrographic Office is far the
chief, have used this method systematically for
the study of ocean currents. The office fur-
nishes shipmasters with papers for inclusion in
bottles, containing requests in several different
languages for their delivery, with date and cir-
cumstances of finding, to the nearest United
States consul, who will forward them to Wash-
ington. By this means three or four hundred
new bottle voyages have been registered, with
curious results. In general, their track is re-
markably uniform, given the same local condi-
tions. Of two bottles thrown out from the

Blonde within five days in 1826 (one of Becher 3
list), one was picked up 14 and the other 16
years after at the same spot on the French
coast. Yet the effect of local winds is so
great that of two set afloat simultaneously at
the same spot, one was picked up on the Shet-
lands, the other on the west coast of France.
Just north of the Azores, the surface conditions
are so variable that of five bottles thrown out in
one summer within 100 square miles, one drifted
to the coast of Norway, two to the west coast
of Ireland, one to France, and one to Spain.
The longest recorded voj^age was about 8,500
miles, from the Allertons, south of the Falkland
Islands, to the shore of the great Australian
Bight, in a little less than three years. See
Chart; Map.

Bottle-gourd. See Calabash.

Bottle-tree, a medium-sized Australian
tree (Sierctilia rupestris) of the natural order
Stcrculiacecc. From the top of the globular
stem, as from the mouth of a bottle, the
branches extend. They bear lanceolate leaves
two to four inches long, and axillary panicles
of inconspicuous flowers followed by leathery
six-seeded follicles. The soft brittle wood
is of little economic value, but the stems
are said to contain much water, which is fre-
quently obtained by the natives and bj- travelers.
Some other allied species, also called bottle-tree,
furnish edible mucilaginous roots which are
largely used by the aborigines.

Bottlenose, or Bottlehead, a small Arctic
and North Atlantic whale {Hypcroodon ros-
tratiis) closely allied to the sperm whale, and so
called from the dolphin-like shape of its head or
snout, where the two pointed teeth are in the
lower jaw. Placed farther back than ordinarily,
and in smaller proportion, is a dorsal fin ; the
skin is smooth, and glossy, lead-colored on the
back, graduating into white on the belly. These
whales travel in small bands, generally keeping
just south of the Arctic ice, and moving north-
ward during the breeding season. They feed
mainly on deep-water squids, for which they
dive to great depths. Their chief value lies in
the amount of oil and spermaceti that they
yield.

Bottling, the process of enclosing liquids in
bottles ; including the operation of stopping or
corking. The use of bottles for retaining liquids
involves three requisites : that they shall be
clean enough not to injure the purity, taste, or
looks of the contents, or the looks of the bot-
tle, or to cause chemical action which will do
so ; shall be strong enough to resist the prob-
able pressure ; and shall have stoppers which
will not be disintegrated or corroded, and will
be tight enough not to let air in or volatile
substances out, the degree of such precaution
varying with the liquid. For scientific prepara-
tions, which includes chemical analysis in crim-
inal cases, an indispensable condition is that
the bottle shall contain no impurities which would
cast doubt on the result ; hence chemists in such
cases use only new bottles, cleanse them
thoroughly with some preparation to remove
external substances, and expose them to a red
heat before using. For common household use,
as there is no bottling under pressure, the kind
or weight of glass is of no importance. For
cleaning, it is best to shake up with warm
water and caustic soda and clean with a bottle-

BOTTOMRY — BOTTOMRY

brush ; to clean out gummy residues like paraf-
fine from naphtha and gasoline bottles, shake
up with sulphuric acid.

The material of the stopper is of the first
importance. For scientific use, only glass is
possible; as also to retain corrosive acids, and
perfumes that would pass through the pores of
a cork, in which latter case also nice taste as
well as security is a desideratum. In general
family use, for volatile fluids like gasoline and
naphtha, and ammonia which might soak up
and disintegrate the cork and let its gas escape,
rubber is the usual stopper. In commercial
bottling on a large scale, of beer, wine, mineral
waters, and carbonated beverages generally, the
only stoppers used are cork and rubber, except
in the case of siphons with valves. For wine,
the old-fashioned long cork, driven deep in and
pulled with a corkscrew, still holds the field.
The common stopper for "soft^^ drinks, and in
part for beer, is a ^^terraced^' rubber one fas-
tened to the under side of an iron cap, and
attached to the neck of the bottle by a wire loop
whose leverage forces the rubber tightly into
the mouth of it, and can be easily thrown off
and the stopper removed. But in the United
States, for beer even the rubber stopper is rap-
idly being displaced by a patent cork made in
Baltimore, . consisting of a crimped metal cap
lined with cork, which a machine tightens
around the neck of the bottle. It is easily lifted
off by an iron ring, thrown over the neck and
pulled up by a short handle; is much cheaper
than the permanent rubber, and nearly as
handy; and is cleaner, as good houses use only
new ones. Indeed the use of old corks re-
cleaned belongs to a low grade of goods. For
milk bottles and others of which the corks are
to last but a few hours, and need no strength,
pasteboard or wood-pulp are much used.

Old bottles, however, are used over and over ;
and here thorough cleanliness is a prime requi-
site, both for salability and because dregs of old
liquor might ferment and ruin the new. If any
corks have been driven in, they are extracted
by machinery; for the rest, in the large estab-
lishments, the bottles are placed in rows of
pockets on the surface of a large drum, which
their weight, as the upper rows are added and
the emerging ones taken off, causes to revolve
slowly through a vat of hot solution of caustic
soda, which enters the open mouths and eats out
the sticky remnants of the last filling. They are
then taken out and placed by sets, inverted, in
a frame over revolving brushes, now consisting
almost entirely of two or three rubber prongs held
apart by strings or centrifugal force, — the old
bristle brushes being disused because they wear
out, and leave bristles in the bottles, — at a speed of
from 2.500 to 3,000 times a minute; then rinsed
in frames of from two to four dozen vertical
sprinkling tubes, over which the bottles are set,
and jets of hot water forced into them. The
filling is done by siphonage, or air or gas pres-
sure. A simple form for small breweries is an
open trough filled from a barrel, and supplying
.several siphon tubes which the operator starts
by sucking them, shifting the bottles as fast
as filled ; the siphon is tilted up by the weight
of the bottle enough to give a flow, and the
liquid in the trough is kept at a constant level
by a float. But in the larger ones, a row of
barrels or hogsheads is drawn upon by a set of
rubber pipes with stop-cocks, to which the bot-

tles are held and filled by means of air or gas
pressure, one pipe having several branches. With
carbonated beverages there is danger of the
bottles bursting, and they are filled in iron cages
open only at the top, to protect the workmen ;
with heavily charged waters in siphons, the
latter are of tougher glass and are tested before-
hand, and the men sometimes wear rubber cov-
erings for face, hands, or body. With flavored
or sweetened drinks, the sirup is fed into the
bottle from one spout while the carbonated
water comes from another ; in small works,
however, the sirup is put in first and the bottle
filled right-side up.

The recrimping of patent corks has been de-
scribed ; the old-fashioned long corks are shaped
by a compressor and driven indb the bottles by a
plunger, operated either by hand or foot, or a
self-feeder which can do 2,000 an hour. The
corks are previously thrown into a hollow re-
volving drum for several hours, to rub against
and batter each other, which knocks off the
loose chips and shakes out the dust ; then
soaked and rinsed. There are wiring machines
for either the small wires over the long corks,
or the hinged wires with the rubber stoppers.
The bottles when filled and corked are labeled by
a machine, usually the bottles being laid in a crib
with expansible sides, and a plunger forcing
them down against the label, which at the same
time is picked up and moved under the bottle
across a paste roll ; sometimes the label is
pressed against the bottle. The speed of this
process is practically limited only by the ability
of the workman to feed bottles to the machine.
A special label is sometimes fitted over the cork,
for security against refilling the bottles of a
reputed firm with inferior liquors. Sometimes
the corks have a stamp or brand burnt into
them with a hot die pressed down by a machine.
Finally, the corks are often covered with tin-
foil or caps of some kind ; the former is done
by hand.

Much capital is invested in this business, and
there is a national association composed of
manufacturers. Returns are made by nearly all
these firms and companies to the association,
from which it appears that this industry em-
ploys nearly 30,000 persons ; it serves 4,489,038
customers, owns 22,940 horses, employs a capi-
tal of nearly $51,000,000, and owns bottles to
the value of $12,747,633. Its loss of bottles
annually is $3,522,804. In this line are con-
sumed annually, besides bottles, corks in great
number, wire, patented arrangements for clos-
ing bottles, paper boxes for holding bottles,
sealing wax, and labels. The cost of these mate-
rials is given at $7,937,001. The capacity of
corking-machines reaches 2,000 bottles per hour;
that of labelling-machines 12,000 bottles daily.

Bot'tomry is the hypothecation or pledge
of a vessel for the payment of a debt. The
creditor has no right to take possession of the
ship until the expiration of the time for which
the loan is made, and then (under a bottomry
contract in the usual form) only by the inter-
vention of an admiralty court. If the loan is
not repaid at the stipulated time, the lender
applies to an admiralty court, which (the truth
of the claim being established") decrees a sale
of the ship to satisfy the debt. The conditions of
such a contract usually are that, if the ship
is not lost or destroyed by those risks which the

BOTTS — BOUCHARDON

lender agrees to run, the debt is to become
absolute. The risks assumed by the lender are
usually the same as are enumerated in a common
policy of insurance. If the ship is wholly lost
HI consequence of these risks, the lender loses
his loan. In case of a partial damage, the bot-
tomry bond usually provides that this damage
shall be borne by the lender in the proportion
of the amount loaned to the value of the ship.
If this amount is equal to half the value of the
ship, the lender is to bear half the amount of
such loss, etc. As the lender thus assumes a
certain risk he is justly entitled to a greater
interest than if he did not thus take the hazard
of the loss of the whole loan ; and this is called
♦•marine interest.^^ He is entitled to the usual
rate of interest on his loan, in addition to the
usual premium of insurance for the same voy-
age or period. The stipulation for such a rate
of marine interest is not a violation of the
laws against usury, for it is not merely a com-
pensation for the use of the money lent, but
also for the risk assumed. The ship-owner
may borrow money on bottomry whether his
vessel be in port or at sea. But the captain of
the ship, as such, cannot so borrow when in the
port where the owner resides, or near enough
to consult him on any emergency. In any
other port he may pledge the ship on bottomry
for the purpose of raising money necessary for
repairing, suppljang, and navigating her, if he
can obtain it in no other way. If he borrow
thus without necessity the bond is void, and
the lender can look only to the personal respon-
sibility of the captain.

Botts, John Minor, American legislator:
b. Dumfries, Va., i6 Sept. 1802; d. Culpeper,
Va., 7 Jan. 1869. He studied law and in 1833
entered the Virginia legislature. He was
elected to Congress in 1839 and was frequently
re-elected. Upon the outbreak of the Civil War
he asserted his devotion to the Union, and in
1862 he suffered imprisonment on that account.
After the war he published 'The Great Rebel-
lion, Its Secret History, Rise, Progress, and Dis-
astrous Failure-' ; was one of Jefferson Davis'
bondsmen ; and attended the Convention of
Southern Loyalists in Philadelphia.

Botulism, bot'ii-lism, a form of poisoning
due to the eating of tainted sausages, ham, head-
cheese, or other impure meats. As a rule a
certain stage of decomposition has taken place
in the meat. Bacteria are abundant and gen-
erate toxins, some of which are responsible for
the symptoms, which are those of acute gastro-
intestinal irritation. There is usually a period
of from 12 to 24 hours (even 48 hours) after the
eating of the meat before symptoms develop.
The symptoms are various ; there may be
intense muscular weakness, with sudden nausea
and vomiting; chills, small rapid pulse, cold
extremities, headache, and pain are also present.
Following the chilly sensations the temperature
may rise, even to 103° or 104° F. Cramps,
delirium, hallucinations, diarrhoea, and intense
prostration may also be present. In some sud-
den and severe cases death has resulted with
cholera-like symptoms. Recovery is very pro-
tracted. Many of the cases resemble internal
hemorrhage, and great difficulty sometimes exists
in the diagnosis. There are, however, more
intestinal symptoms as a rule in meat poison-
ing (ptomaine ooisoning). Abstaining from

all tainted meats is the sole preventive. See
Poisons.

Boturini Benaduci, bot-ii-re'ne ba-na-doo'-
che, Lorenzo, Italian antiquarian: b., Milan
about 1702; d. Madrid about 1750. In 1736 he
went to Mexico and traveled there among the
Indians, collecting a large number of their
writings and valuable Spanish records ; these
finally came into the possession of the Mexican
government and have been mostly lost or
destroyed. He afterward lived in Spain, where
he held the office of historiographer for the
Indies. He wrote 'Idea de Una Nueva Historia
de America.'

Bot'zen, or Bolzano, bol-tza'nd, Austria,
a town in the Tyrol, 54 miles south of Inns-
bruck, at the confluence of the Talfer with the
Eisack. It is a well-built, flourishing town,
surrounded by a wall two miles in length, built
to protect it from a mountain torrent close by.
The parish church is a Gothic building of the
14th century, with an elegant spire;, adjoin-
ing it is the new cemetery. The other objects
worthy of notice are : the church of St. Nicho-
las, a gymnasium, custom-house, two monas-
teries, a normal school, and a nunnery. It has
some silk and woolen manufactures, tanneries,
dye-works, etc. Botzen has an important transit
trade, and has four annual fairs, resorted to
by commercial travelers from all parts of Italy
and Germany. In the environs wine and fruits
are produced. Pop. about 12,000.

Bouch, bowch. Sir Thomas, English civil
engineer : b. Thursley, Cumberland, 22 Feb.
1822; d. Moffat, 30 May 1880. He was early
attracted to engineering studies, and in 1839
began his apprenticeship to a civil engineer in
the north of England. He was a resident engi-
neer on the Stockton & D. Ry. for a period of
four years, and in 1849 went to Scotland as
manager and engineer of the Edinburgh &
Northern Ry. While in the service of this
company he devised a sort of floating railway
for carrying goods trains across such estuaries
as those of the Forth and Tay. After this he
was for a time engaged in railwaj^ construction
in England. He was engineer of the first rail-
way bridge across the Tay, which was com-
pleted in September 1877, and opened in May
of the following year. For this he received the
freedom of Dundee, and in 1879 the honor of
knighthood. On 28 December of that year the
bridge gave way during a stormy night, while
a train with some 70 passengers was crossing.
All were drowned, and the accident caused
such severe mental distress to Sir Thomas
Bouch that it undoubtedly hastened his death.

Bouchardon, Edme, ed-ma boosh-ar-doh,
French sculptor: b. Chaumont-en-Bassigny,
1698; d. Paris, 27 July 1762. In order to devote
himself to statuary he went to Paris and entered
the school of the younger Coustou. He soon
gained the highest prize, and was made royal
pensioner at Rome. The Duke d'Antin recalled
him to Paris and gave him a studio at the
Louvre. He assisted in repairing the fountain
of Neptune at Versailles, and executed 10
statues which adorn the church of St. Sulpice.
The fountain in the Rue de Crenelle, which the
city of Paris ordered to be constructed in 1739,
was made by him. and is considered his master-
piece. The execution of the greatest monument
of that period, the equestrian statue of Louis

BOUCHER — BOUCICAULT

XV., which was erected by order of the city of
Paris, was committed to hini. He labored 12
j-ears on this with inconceivable perseverance,
and has left in the horse a model which may
be ranked with any work of antiquity. His
pieces bear the character of simple grandeur,
but, in general, more fire is to be desired in his
sculpture. Latterly he adopted a more polished,
delicate manner, to suit the taste of the age.
Caylus has written his life.

Boucher, boo-sha, Alfred, French sculp-
tor: b. Bouy-sur-Orvin, 1850. He studied
under Dumont and Paul Dubois. His statues
include <Venus Astarte^ and *At the End,^
both bought by the French government for the
Luxembourg Gardens; *Eve After the FalP ;
'The Earth' ; and 'A Sleeping Woman. ^

Boucher, Frangois, fran-swa, French
painter: b. Paris, 29 Sept. 1703; d. 30 May 1770.
While a pupil of the celebrated Lemoyne he
gained at the age of 19 the first prize of the
Academy. He produced with remarkable facil-
ity, and his sketches alone amounted to more
than 10.000. He also etched some plates, and
many of his paintings have been engraved.
Some of his more important works are: *L'Au-
rore et C^phale' ; * Diane Sortant du Bain' ;
'Femme Couchee' ; *Le But' ; *Le Repos en
Egypte' ; etc. He was a director of the Acad-
emy of Painters.

Boucher, bow'-cher, Jonathan, English
clergyman: b. Cumberland, 12 March 1738; d.
Epsom, 27 April 1804. He came to Virginia
about 1754; officiated first as private teacher,
and, after receiving episcopal ordination in Eng-
land, as rector in Virginia and Maryland until
1775, when he returned to his native country,
his anti-revolutionary sentiments having given
umbrage to his American congregation. From
1784 to the time of his death he officiated as
vicar of Epsom, Surrey. He is the author of
a glossary of provincial and archaeological
words, which was intended by him as a supple-
ment to Dr. Johnson's dictionary. In 1799 he
published 2 assize sermons, and 15 sermons
which he had delivered during his ministry in
America, and which treated of the American
Revolution. These he dedicated to Washing-
ton ; they are interesting from the political anec-
dotes which they contain.

Boucher, Pierre, pe-ar boo-sha, French
pioneer in America : b. Perche, France, 1622 ; d.
Bouchdrville, Canada, 20 April 1717. He came
to Canada in 1635, took part in an Indian war,
and was sent to France in 1660 as a deputy for
the colony of New France. He was later made
governor of Three Rivers. He wrote ^A True
History of the Customs and Products of New
France.'

Boucher de Crevecoeur de Perthes,
Jacques, zhak boo-sha de krav-kcr-de part,
French anthropologist: b. Rethel, 10 Sept. 1788;
d. Abbeville, 5 Aug. 1868. Through his father,
an active botanist, he came under the notice
of Napoleon, and was employed in numerous
missions to Italy, Germany, Austria, and Hun-
gary. After the Restoration he lived at Abbe-
ville. He wrote travels, poems, and an early
apology for free trade; but only his works on
the arc'hseology of man are of consequence now.
The first. 'Oii the Creation' (5 vols. 1839-41).
already brought him some reputation, but his
long investigations on stone weapons piri other

remains of early human civilization in the Ter-
tiary and older Quaternary Diluvial strata made
him famous. His most striking discovery wau
that of a fossil human jawbone in the quarries
of Moulin-Quignon, near Abbeville, in 1863.
Other works of great value are < Celtic and
Antediluvian Antiquities' (3 vols. 1846-65) ;
and 'Antediluvian Man and His Works' (1860!.

Bouches - du - Rhone, boosh dii ron,
("Mouths of the Rhone";, a department in the
south of France, in the ancient government of
Provence, bounded north by Vaucluse, west by
Gard, east by Var, and south by the Mediter-
ranean. Chief town, Marseilles. Area, 1,971
square miles, of which about half is under cul-
tivation, the remainder being occupied by for-
ests, heaths, wastes, water, etc. Between the
Rhone and the lagoon of Berre is the great
plain of La Crau. Its borders are tolerably
well cultivated and support a number of cat-
tle; but the centre is little better than a desert
of stones and pebbles, affording, however, winter
pasture for sheep. The Rhone is the principal
river; near Aries it divides into two branches
which enclose an island called La Camargue.
Several canals facilitate transport and are espe-
cially useful for irrigation. The climate is gen-
erally very warm, with little rain during the
summer. A cold and generally violent wind,
called mistral, always blows from the Cevennes
after rain. It lasts from 3 to 9, sometimes,
though rarely, even 12 days, and dries up the
ground with astonishing rapidity. The soil of
the department is for the most part arid and
unproductive without irrigation. Vines, how-
ever, thrive, and almonds, figs, capers, nuts, and
particularly olives, are extensively cultivated.
The minerals are of little commercial impor-
tance. Salt is extensively manufactured from
the lagoons, and the salt-works of Berre are
celebrated both for the quality and quantity of
their produce. The articles manufactured,
besides salt, are principally soap, brandy, olive
oil (the best in France), soda, chemicals, vine-
gar, scents, leather, glass, etc. The fisheries are
productive. The department includes the three
arrondissements of Marseilles, Ai.x, and Aries.
Pop. (1896) 673,820.

Boucicault, Dion, di'on boo'se-ko, Irish
dramatic author and actor : b. Dublin, 26 Dec.
1822; d. New York, 18 Sept. 1890. He was
educated at London University and wrote his
first play, 'London Assurance,' when he was
only 19 years old. This was produced at the
Covent Garden Theatre in London and won
immediate success. He made his first appear-
ance as an actor in 1852 in his own play. 'The
Vampire' ; in 1853-60 he was in the United
States, where his success on the stage was as
great as it had been in England. He founded a
theatre in Washington and reconstructed the
Metropolitan Theatre in New York, but was not
very successful as a manager. Returning to
London in i860 he brought out 'The Colleen
Bawn.' one of his best-known plays, and was
at one time joint manager of the Adelphi and
manager of a new theatre, the Westminster.
The latter venture was unsuccessful, but he
shortly afterward brought out a number of very
popular plays. In 1876 he came to New York,
where he lived until his death. He continued
his work as both actor and playwright, and also
opened the New Park Theatre on Broadway.

BOUCICAULT — BOUGAINVILLE

Boucicault wrote about 400 plays, many of
which were adaptations; among the best not
already mentioned are: *01d Heads and Young
Hearts^ ; ^Love in a Maze^ ; ^Used Up^ ; *^Cor-
sican Brothers^ ; ^The Octoroon,^ dealing with
the condition of the slaves in the United States ;
'The Streets of London^ ; 'The Shaughraun^ ;
'Daddy O'Dowd^ ; and 'Foul Play,^ a dramati-
zation of Charles Reade's novel of the same
name. In 'The Colleen Bawn^ he created one
of his favorite types, the Irish hero that appears
in many of his plays. He also rewrote and
adapted 'Rip Van Winkle^ especially for Joseph
Jefferson's use. While writing his numerous
plays he found time to engage in a political con-
troversy with Lord Beaconsfield over the rights
and liberties of the Irish people. He intro-
duced many improvements in the staging of
plays, being the first to use carpets on the
stage and moving scenery.

Boucicault, Mrs. Dion, English actress.
Before her marriage to Boucicault she had won
success as Agnes Robertson in 'Our Clerks^
and other plays. After her marriage she came
with her husband to the United States, but
returned with him to London in i860 and took
important parts in several of his plays. She
again came to the United States and was later
separated from her husband.

Boudin, Eugene, e-zhan boo-dan, French
painter: b. Honl^eur, 12 July 1824; d. 8 Aug.
1898. He lived in Paris for most of his life,
traveling somewhat in Brittany and Holland.
He was devoted to the painting of seaports and
river scenes, the gray expanses of French skj'^s
and waters, the picturesque confusion of ships
in hai-bors. Among his works are: 'Fishing*;
'The Meuse at Rotterdam* ; 'Low Tide* ;
'High Tide*; 'Getting Under Sail*; 'A Dutch
Bark at Antwerp*; and 'Bordeaux Harbor.*

Boudinot, boo-di-not, Elias, American
philanthropist: b. Philadelphia, 21 April 1740;
d. Burlington, N. J., 24 Oct. 1821. He studied
law at Princeton with Richard Stockton, and
in 1760 commenced practice at Elizabethtown,
N. J. He early became a devoted advocate of
the patriot cause, and in 1774 was a member
of the Provincial Convention which took the
control of New Jersey out of Gov. Franklin's
hands. Congress appointed him commissary-
general of prisoners, 15 Maj'- 1777; he was
elected to Congress in 1777, 1780, 1781, and
1782, and was chosen its president 4 Nov. 1782,
and as such signed the treaty of peace with
Great Britain. He was director of the mint at
Philadelphia 1795-1805, being appointed by
Washington, whose trusted friend and counsel-
lor he was throughout the Revolution and
afterward. From 1772 to 1805 a trustee of the
College of New Jersey (Princeton), he founded
its cabinet of natural history with a liberal con-
tribution. He was active in the organization of
the American Bible Society, becoming in 1816
its first president. By his will he left the bulk
of his large estate to various institutions and
charities. He wrote: 'The Age of Revelation^
(1790). to counteract Paine's 'Age of Reason* ;
'Oration 4 July 1793,' before the New Jersey
Society of the Cincinnati; 'Second Advent of
the Messiah* (1815) ; 'The Star of the West*
(1816} , an attempt to identify the North
American Indians with the descendants of the
lost tribes of Israel.

Boudinot, Elias, Cherokee Indian: d. 10
June 1839. He was one of three Cherokee youth
brought before Elias Boudinot (1740-1821) in
1818, and he received that philanthropist's per-
mission to assume his name. He was educated at
the mission school at Cornwall, Conn., and
married a white lady of that place. He became
a man of considerable talent and ability, and of
influence among his people. In December 1835,
he, with others of his nation, was persuaded
to make a treaty with the United States. He
was thereupon accused of having betrayed his
country and was murdered by the John Ross
party west of the Mississippi, 10 June 1839.
He published 'An Address to the Whites*
(1826), delivered at Philadelphia, 25 May 1825,
and edited the Cherokee Plicenix, 1828-34.

Bouflflers, Louis Frangois, loo-e frah-swa
boo-flar (Due de, diik de), French soldier: b.
10 Jan. 1644; d. Fontainebleau, 20 Aug. 1711.
He saw active service under Conde, Turenne,
Crequi, Luxembourg, and Catinat, and was cre-
ated a marshal of France in 1693. His defense
of Namur in 1695, and of Lille in 1708, are
famous. The siege of the former place was
conducted by King William in person, and cost
the allies more than 20,000 men. The latter
was conducted by Prince Eugene. An order
was sent from Louis XIV., signed by his own
hand, commanding Boufflers to surrender; but
he kept it secret until all means of defense were
exhausted. The retreat of the French after
their defeat at Malplaquet, under the direction of
Boufflers, was more like a triumph than a defeat.

Boufflers, Stanislaus, Chevalier de, she-
va-le-a de stan'is-low, French soldier and
author (son of the Marchioness of Boufflers,
mistress of Stanislaus, king of Poland) : b. Luni-
ville, 31 May 1738; d. Paris, 18 Jan. 1815. He
entered the army, was soon appointed governor
of Senegal, and while in this ofiice made many
useful regulations. After his return he devoted
himself to that light kind of literature which
distinguished the age of Louis XV. His repu-
tation gave him a seat in the States-General,
where he was esteemed for his moderation and
his good intentions. After 10 Aug. 1792 he left
France and met with a friendly reception at
Reinsberg from Prince Henry of Prussia, and
Frederick William II. A large grant was made
to him in Poland for establishing a colony of
French emigrants. In 1800 he returned to Paris,
where he devoted himself to literary pursuits
which in 1804 procured him a seat in the French
Institute. He lies buried near the Abbe Delille,
and on his tomb is this inscription, written by
himself and characteristic of his lively dispo-
sition : "Mes amis, croyez que je dors.** His
works were published in 8 i2mo volumes in
181S.

Bougainville, Louis Antoine de, loo-e an-
twan de boo-gan-vel, French soldier and
statesman: b. Paris, 11 Nov. 1729; d. same
place, 31 Aug. 181 1. At first a lawyer, after-
ward a distinguished soldier, diplomatist, and
scholar, he was always remarkable for his energy
of character. He fought bravely in Canada
under Montcalm, and it was principally owing
to his exertions in 1758 that a body of 5,000
French withstood successfully a British army of
16,000 men. Toward the _ conclusion of the
battle he received a shot in the head. The
governor of Canada, finding himself unable to

BOUGAINVILLE ISLAND — BOUGIE

defend the colony, sent Bougainville to France
for reinforcements. He set off in November
1758, and returned January 1759, after the king
had made him colonel and knight of St. Louis
After the battle of Quebec, 13 Sept. 1759, in
which Montcalm was killed, and the fate of the
colony decided, Bougainville returned to France
and served with distinction under Choiseul
Stainville, in the campaign of 1761, in Germany.
After the peace he entered the navy and became
one of the greatest naval officers in France. He
persuaded the inhabitants of St. Malo to fit out
an expedition for the purpose of establishing a
<:olony in the Falkland Islands, and undertook
the command of the expedition himself. The
king appointed him captain, and Bougainville set
sail with his little fleet in 1763. But as the
Spaniards had a prior claim to the islands
France \yas obliged to surrender them, and
Bougainville, having returned to France, was
commissioned to carry the surrender into exe-
cution on receiving from Spain a remuneration
for his expenses. For this purpose he set sail
with one frigate and a merchant ship from St.
]\lalo, 15 Dec. 1766. After the immediate object
of his voyage was accomplished he circumnavi-
gated the world and returned to St. Malo 16
March 1769. He enriched the science of
geography by a number of new discoveries. In
the American war he commanded several ships
of the line with great honor; was in 1779 chief
of squadron and in the following year field-
marshal in the land forces. After 1790 he
devoted himself to science, and in 1796 was
admitted to the Institute.

Bougainville Island, an island in the
Pacific Ocean, belonging to the Solomon group
and under German protection; area, 4,000
square miles. It is separated from Choiseul
Island by Bougainville Strait.

Bougainvil'lea, a small genus of South
American tropical shrubs of the natural order
Xyctaginacece, largely used for ornament in
warm climates and in greenhouses. Their chief
beauties are their large, brilliantly colored
bracts, which subtend the inconspicuous flowers.
In the climbing species, which are the most
popular, the bracts are so numerous as to con-
ceal the foliage and stems as well as the walls
upon which the plants are trained. They often
remain thus attractive for months. Because
of their ease of propagation and cultivation
they are rapidly growing in popularity in the
United States. For discussion of species, prop-
agation, and cultivation, consult Bailey and
Miller, "^Cyclopedia of American Horticulture^
(New York 1900-2).

Bough, Samuel, English painter: b. Car-
lisle, 8 Jan. 1822; d. Edinburgh, 19 Nov. 1878.
He never obtained any systematic art instruc-
tion. In 1845 he was a scene-painter in Man-
chester, and later in Glasgow, where Daniel
Macnee encouraged him to become a landscape-
painter; and he shortly produced ^Shipbuilding
on the Clyde. ^ Among the more important of
his oil pictures are: ^Edinburgh from the
CanaP (1862); <Holy Island' (1863): ^In
the Trossachs' (1865) : <The Vale of Leith>
(1866) ; 'Kirkwall Harbor> C1867) ; <Borrow-
dale' : <St. Monance' ; 'London from Shoot-
er's HilP (1872). His 'Royal Volunteer Re-
A'iew' (i860) is in the National Gallery of
Scotland. His best oil pictures are spirited and

Vol. J— 5 7.

expressive in touch, and possess a fine sense of
atmosphere; but he frequently painted care-
lessly and hurriedly, and produced much, espe-
cially during his later years, that was unworthy
of his brush. His numerous water-colors are
of more uniform excellence; they are strongly
influenced by the example of David Cox, and
are especially remarkable for the delicate gray
tones of their skies. He settled in Edinburgh
in 1855. A collection of over 200 of his works
was brought together in the Glasgow Institute
in 1880.

Bought and Sold Notes, written memo-
randa of a transaction, made by the broker in
the case, and delivered by him to his principals.
They state respectively that the broker has
bought for the vendee, and sold for the vendor,
the subject of the transaction. When the broker
has not exceeded his authority, both parties are
bound thereby (4 Esp. 114; 2 Camp. 337). No
particular form is required, but there are four
kinds: (i) "Where the broker professes to act
for both parties, whose names are disclosed in
the note. (2) Where the broker does not dis-
close in the bought note the name of the vendor,
nor in the sold note the name of the buyer, but
still shows that he is acting as broker and not
as principal. (3) Where the broker, on the
face of the note appears to be the principal. (4)
Where he professes to sign as broker, but is
really the principal" (4 Am. & Eng. Enc. Law,
751)- The bought and sold notes, however, do
not constitute the contract. They may, however,
be accepted as evidence of the contract, and not
the original contract, when so established by
the usage of trade.

Boughton, bor'ton, George Henry, Eng-
lish painter : b. near Norwich, England, 1833 ; d.
London 19 Jan. 1905. His parents came to the
United States in 1839, and settled in Albany. He
studied art without a master, and in 1853 went
to London and Paris to continue his studies.
After 1861 he resided in London. His best pic-
tures were 'The Idyl of the Birds*; 'Hay-Har-
vest in Brittany' ; 'The Scarlet Letter' ; 'Way-
side Devotion'; 'Puritans Going to Church';
'Snow in Spring'; and 'The Return of the
Mayflower.' He became a member of the
National Academy in 1871 ; associate of the
Royal Academy, London, in 1879; and member
of the Royal Academy in 1896.

Boughton, Willis, American educator: b.
Victor. N. Y., 17 April 1854. He graduated at
the University of Michigan, and since 1892 has
been professor of rhetoric and English litera-
ture at Ohio University. He has won note in
the work of imiversity extension. His writings
include 'Mythology in Art' and 'History of
Ancient Peoples.'

Bougie, boo-zhe', Algeria, a port on the
Bay of Bougie, 120 miles east of Algiers.
Bougie was the Sald?e of the Romans, and in
the 5th century was a chief seat of the Vandals.
Under the Arabs it was raised to such impor-
tance that it was called Little Mecca, and was
the entrepot of the trade between Christendom
and north Africa; but after various vicissitudes
it had sunk to a small village in 1833, when the
French captured the place. Their extensive i
works have since rendered it a strong fortress (
and a commercial centre of some value. Pop.
(1892) 7,862.

BOUGIE — BOUILLON

Bougie (Fr. ^^taper®), in surgery, a smooth
cylindrical rod, designed to widen the ca-
nals of the human body by its introduction
therein, or to apply medicaments to a
particular part of the interior of the body.
It is distinguished from a catheter by being
solid, while the latter are hollow and open
at the ends for the purpose of affording
a passage for fluids. Bougies are gener-
ally pointed at one end, and grow gradually
thicker toward the other end, but in some cases
they are of the same thickness throughout their
whole length, the ends being only rounded off.
They are made sometimes of linen dipped in wax
and then rolled up, sometimes of a kind of plaster
and linen, also of caoutchouc or gutta-percha,
or of metal, such as 'lead, silver, or German
silver.

Bouguer, Pierre, pe-ar boo-ga, French
scientist: b. Croisic, Brittany, i6 Feb. 1698; d.
15 Aug. 1758. He studied the elements of math-
ematics under his father, who was an able
hydrographer, and is well known as the author
of an excellent * Treatise on Navigation.^ In
1727 he gained a prize at the French Academy
for the best essay on the masting of vessels.
He gained similar prizes in 1729 and 1731, and
added still more to his fame by a work enti-
tled ^Traite de la Gradation de la Lumiere,^ in
which he endeavors to ascertain the quantity of
light absorbed by transparent bodies, explains
the construction of several ingenious instru-
ments which he had invented for the purpose of
facilitating such investigations ; and maintains
that the light of the sun is more intense at its
centre than on the edges of its disk, while in
the moon the reverse is the case. About this
time the figure of the earth was the subject of
frequent discussion in the Academy of Sciences;
and for the purpose of ascertaining exactly how
much it was elevated at the equator and flat-
tened toward the Poles, it was proposed to
measure the length of a degree at each of these
positions, and at the same time make other
observations and experiments of importance to
astronomy and navigation. An expedition was
accordingly fitted out, in which Bouguer was
associated with Godin and La Condaniine. The
main burden of the task fell upon Bouguer, who
published the results in a work entitled *The-
orie de la Figure de la Terre.^ A quarrel with
La Condamine concerning the honors of the
work embittered the latter part of his life, and
probably hastened his death.

Bouguereau, Guillaume Adolphe, ge-yom-e
ad-61f boo-gro, French painter: b. La Ro-
chelle, 30 Nov. 1825; d. there 20 Aug. 1905.
After many hardships he succeeded in reach-
ing Paris, where he was educated at the studio
of Picot and at the Beaux Arts. In 1850 he
gained the Prix de Rome and went to Italy
to study. His first great success was ^The
Body of St. Cecilia Borne to the Catacombs^
in the Salon of 1854. Among his paintings are:
<The Meeting_ of Christ with His Mother' ;
an ^Annunciation' ; *^The Holy Women at the
Sepulchre' ; <_The Trium'ph of Venus,' etc. He
paints _ portraits occasionally, but his subjects
are chiefly ideal, idyllic, and religious. He is a
thorough draftsman, and is thought to excel
in the painting of flesh. In 1885 he received
the medal of honor at the Salon, was president
of the Society of Artists, and received the
medal of the Legion of Honor.

Bouilhet, Louis, loo-e boo-e-ya, French
poet: b. Cany, Z/ May 1822; d. Rouen, ly July
1869. He first achieved fame with 'Melsenis,
a Story of Rome^ in the time of the Caesars, and
*The Fossils,' a series of delineations of ante-
diluvians. His versified dramas, ^Mme. de
Montarcy' (1856) ; "^Dolores' (1862) ; and espe-
cially ^The Conspiracy of Amboise,' are elegant
in style, rich in imagery, perfect in melody, but
lack compactness of structure and are open to
moral censure. The same faults are found in
his comedies, ^Uncle Million' (1861) ; *Faus-
tine' (1864) ; and especially in his posthumous
^M'lle Aisse.

Bouille, Frangois Claude Amour, fran-swa
cl5d a-moor boo-e-ya (Marquis de), French
soldier : b. Cluzel Castle, Auvergne, 19 Nov.
1739; d. London, 14 Nov. 1800. He distin-
guished himself in the Seven Years' war ; was
appointed governor of Guadaloupe in 1768; and
conquered Dominica, St. Eustatia, Tobago, St.
Christopher, Nevis, and Montserrat. After the
Peace of 1783 he returned to Paris and was
appointed lieutenant-general. He afterward
traveled in England, through Holland and
a jgreat part of Germany, until he was made
chief of the province Trois-Eveches. In the
Assembly of Notables (1787-88) he declared for
the proposed reforms of Calonne, which, how-
ever, were defeated by Cardinal Brienne. He
was opposed to the plan of Necker for the union
of the provinces. At the breaking out of the
Revolution he supported the existing govern-
ment, both in his former province and in Lor-
raine, Alsace, and Franche-Comte. It was only
at the urgent desire of the king that he swore
allegiance to the constitution of 1791. He
repressed in 1790 the rebellion of the garrisons
of Metz and Nancy; and although the National
Assembly decreed him a vote of thanks for the
bravery and ability he had displayed on this
occasion, still the revolutionists distrusted him.
Shortly afterward he made preparations to
assist Louis XVI. in his escape. Bouille had
made his arrangements well, and had not the
king forbidden any bloodshed he certainly would
have rescued him. Being thus compelled to
leave the king at Varennes to his fate, he fled
from the dangers to which he himself was
exposed by the attacks of the revolutionists.
From Luxembourg he wrote a threatening let-
ter to the National Assembly, and then exerted
himself to excite the foreign powers against the
republic. He succeeded well at Vienna, gained
over Gustavus III., and obtained the promise of
30,000 men from the Empress Catherine II., to
be put under the command of the king of
Sweden and the French general. But Gustavus
was murdered, the empress forgot her promises,
and Bouille went over to England in 1796.
Here he wrote his ^Memoirs of the Revolution,*
which appeared in an English translation (Lond.
1797). and, after his death, in the original.

Bouillon, boo-e-yoii, the name of one of
the most distinguished historical families of
France. The last Duke of Bouillon of the first
line had sold the duchy to the bishop of Liege,
but a new line arose toward the end of the isth
century. It originated with a cadet of the house
of Marck, which, at the commencement of the
15th century, possessed the principality of
Sedan. In 1482 William de la Marck, well-
known as "The Boar of Ardennes," seized the

BOUILLON — BOULAINVILLIERS

territory of Bouillon, belonging to the bishopric
of Liege, and conferred it on his brother Rob-
ert. The bishop of Liege attempted by force
to regain it, but this Robert, and a son of the
same name who succeeded him, were successful
in resisting; and at the end of the war, which
was brought to a close in 1492 by the mediation
of the king of France, Robert the younger
remained virtually, if not formally, Lord of
Bouillon. The third Robert succeeded his
father last mentioned ; and having, like his
predecessors, entered the service of France, was
made prisoner with' Francis I. at the battle of
Pavia. He afterward obtained a marshal's
baton, and under the name of Marshal de Fleu-
ranges, which was the title he assumed, is
known as the author of very curious memoirs.
Robert IV., son of Robert III., appears to have
been temporarily dispossessed by the bishop of
Liege, but recovered possession, and not only
became marshal of France, but received the title
of Duke, and thus became the first Duke of
Bouillon of the new line. He was taken by the
Spaniards at the siege of Hesdin in 1553; and
three years after, when he had been liberated
on parole for the purpose of procuring the
60,000 crowns at which his ransom had been
fixed, died by poison. His wife was a daughter
of the celebrated Diana of Poitiers. His son,
Henry Robert, lost Bouillon, which, by the
Treaty of Chateau-Cambray, returned to the
bishop of Liege, but he still preserved the title,
and transmitted it to his son William Robert,
who died in 1588 without having married. The
male line thus became extinct. He was survived
by a sister, who married Henri de la Tour
d'Auvergne, Viscount Turenne, but died without
children in 1594. She had, however, bequeathed
her possessions to her husband, and thus the
two powerful houses of Turenne and Bouillon
were merged into one. This new Duke of
BouiHon was one of the most distinguished per-
sonages of his time. He was at first devotedly
attached to Henry IV. while he was fighting
his way to the throne, but afterward leagued
with his enemies ; and, being implicated in the
conspiracy which cost Marshal Biron his life,
was long obliged to live in exile. He was
restored to favor in 1606, and figured much dur-
ing the intrigues in the suljsequent part of the
following reign ; and, having embraced the doc-
trines of the Reformed Church, became one of
its most distingui.shed leaders. He died in 1623,
leaving two sons, the younger of whom was the
celebrated Marshal Turenne. The elder, narned
Frederic Maurice, after serving with distinction
in the Low Countries, returned to _ France,
became a Roman Catholic, served Louis XIII.,
then joined the insurrection against him headed
by the count of Soissons, and helped him to
gain the battle of Murfee. During the Fronde
he joined the princes and took a prominent part
in the civil war, but was reconciled to the court
in 1651, obtained the title of prince, and received
large accessions of territory in exchange for the
principality of Sedan. He died in 1652, leaving
interesting memoirs of his life and times. He
was succeeded by Godefroi Maurice, who figured
much in the wars of the period and became
great chamberlain to Louis XIV., and who died
in 1721. One of his brothers was the cele-
brated Cardinal de Bouillon, who was born in
1644, obtained the cardinalate when only 26
years of age, was long the representative of the

Galilean Church at Rome, made himself noto-
rious by his vanity, ambition, and intriguing
spirit, and died in 1715.

Bouillon, originally a German duchy, now
a large^ district in Belgium, 9 miles wide and 18
long, on the borders of Luxembourg and Liege.
This woody and mountainous tract consists of
the town of Bouillon with 2,800 inhabitants,
and 25 villages with 20,000 inhabitants. The
town was once the capital of the duchy of the
same name. This ancient place lies in the midst
of hills, on the left bank of the Semois, which
abounds with fish, 40 miles from Liege and 8
from Sedan. It has a strong castle upon a
rock, which, however, is commanded by the
neighboring mountains. Godfrey of Bouillon
once possessed the dukedom of this name. He
was Duke of Lower Lorraine, and Bouillon was
bestowed upon him as belonging properly to the
county of Ardenne. In order to supply himself
with funds for his expedition to the Holy Land,
Godfrey mortgaged his duchy of Bouillon in
1095 to the bishop of Liege. After the estate
had been held for many years by the bishopric,
the houses joi La Marck and La Tour d'Au-
vergne laid claims to Bouillon, but in 1641 relin-
quished their pretensions to the bishop of
Liege for 150,000 Brabant guilders. In the war
of 1672 France conquered Bouillon, and Louis
XIV. gave it in 1678 to the Chevalier La Tour
d'Auvergne, his chamberlain. After this time
it belonged to the house of La Tour until the
Revolution, when it was taken from them in
1792. The last possessor, Godfrey Charles
Henry de La Tour d'Auvergne, died December
1812. By the Peace of Paris, in 1814, the duke-
dom was included in that of Luxembourg, which
had fallen to the king of the Netherlands. The
title of prince of Bouillon was assumed in 1792
by Philip d'Auvergne, captain in the British
navy, and he continued to bear it till his death
in i'8i6. The congress which met at Vienna in
1815 appointed commissioners to investigate the
comparative claims of this nobleman and Prince
Charles of Rohan. They decided in favor of
the latter. By him it was sold to the Nether-
lands in 1821, and on the division of the king-
dom at the revolution of 1830 it fell to Belgium.

Bouilly, Jean Nicolas, zhoii ne-ko-lar boo-
e-ye, French poet: b. Coudraye, 4 Jan. 1763;
d. Paris, 14 April 1842. He made his debut
with the comic opera < Peter the Great^ in 1790.
For a few years he was judge and prosecuting
attorney at Tours, and then was called to Paris
to assist in organizing the primary school sys-
tem. He was a man of ancient Roman virtue,
and his character is reflected in all his works.
His comedies and comic operas (music by the
first masters) were eminently successful as well
in Germany as in France, particularly 'The
Abbe de I'Epee,^ <The Two Days,' <Mme. de
Sevigne.' He also wrote 'Stories for French
Children,'* and 'Counsels to My Daughter.'

Boulainvilliers, Henri de, oii-re de boo-
lan-ve-ya, French historian: b. Saint Saire,
Normandy, 11 Oct. 1658; d. 23 Jan. 1722. He
studied at the College of Juilli, entered the
army, but shortly after became devoted to his-
torical and antiquarian pursuits. He wrote a
number of works in connection with the history
of France, but is perhaps best known by his
'History of Mohammed,' in which he writes in
a very Oriental style, lauds the Prophet, and

BOULANGER — BOULEVARD

«eems almost disposed to become a believer in
the Koran. He is said to have been muck ad-
dicted to astrology.

Boulanger, Georges Ernest Jean Marie,

zhorzh ar-nest zhori mii-re boo-lon-zha,
French soldier : b. Rennes, 29 April 1837 ; d.
Brussels, 30 Sept. 1891. After a successful
career in Algeria and in the East he became
minister of war in 1886, and the fact that a
new man was in possession of that portfolio
was speedily felt. He introduced many needful
reforms, insisted on the adoption of a repeat-
ing rifle, and caused important experiments to
be made with high explosives. In the minis-
terial crisis of 1887 he lost his portfolio and
was appointed to the command of the 13th Army
Corps, but was retired, 28 March 1888. In Jan-
uary 1889 he was elected deputy to the National
Assembly by 81,000 majority, in consequence of
which the Floquet ministry resigned. In Aug-
ust 1889 he was charged with embezzlement,
treason, and conspiracy, and found guilty by the
Senate ; the elections in the 12 cantons were
annulled, and he was sentenced to deportation.

Boulanger, Gustave Rodolphe Clarence,
goos-tav ro-dolf klii-rons, French painter: b.
Paris, 25 April 1824; d. Paris, 22 Sept. 1888.
He had a wide reputation as a painter of classi-
cal subjects; received the Prize of Rome in
1849, and was decorated with the Legion of
Honor in 1865.

Boulanger, Louis, loo-e, French painter:
b. Vercelli, Piedmont, 11 March 1806; d. Dijon,
7 March 1867. He studied under Guillon-
Lethiere and Deverias ; became acquainted with
Victor Hugo and illustrated many of his works ;
also taking subjects for many of his paintings
from the poems of Hugo and Chateaubriand.
Among his paintings are ^Mazeppa,^ *^The Tri-
umph of Petrarch,^ and ^ Macbeth.^

Boulay de la Meurthe, Antoine Jacques
Claude Joseph, an-twan zhak klod zho-zef
boo-la-e de la mert (Count), French lawyer
and politician : b. Chamousey, Lorraine, 19 Feb.
1 761 ; d. Paris, 2 Feb. 1840. During the Revo-
lution he served as a volunteer in the army,
and as a judge on the bench, until the Reign
of Terror, when he was outlawed. After the
9th Thermidor he was appointed presiding judge
of the civil court, and afterward held the office
of attorney-general at Nancy. He sat in the
Council of Five Hundred, was active in the
coup d'etat of the i8th Fructidor, and aided in
the revolution of the i8tli Brumaire. Being
appointed chairman of the legislative section in
the Council of State, he took an active part in
digesting the Code Civil. On the first restora-
tion he kept aloof from public affairs ; during
the Hundred Days he was again a minister of
state ; on the abdication of Napoleon I. he
caused his son to be proclaimed as Napoleon
II., and was appointed minister of justice by
the commission of government. He was, of
course, outlawed by the returning king, and for
four and a half years was an exile. In 1819
he was permitted to return to France.

Boulay de la Meurthe, Henri George,
on-re zhorzh (Count), son of the preceding:
French statesman: b. Nancy, 15 July 1797; d.
1858. He took an active part in the revolution of
1830. In 1837 he was elected to the chamber of
deputies. In 1843 he voted for the repeal of the

decree of banishment against the Bonaparte
family. In February 1848 he sided with the
moderate Republicans, was elected to the Con-
stituent Assembly, and there again supported the
motion for the return of the Bonaparte family.
When Louis Napoleon was elected president the
name of Boulay de la Meurthe was placed by
him at the head of the list of candidates for
the vice-presidency ; and the assembly almost
unanimously chose him. After the coup d'etat
of 185 1 he was made a member of the Senate.
Boulder, Col., city "and county-seat of
Boulder County, situated on Boulder Creek and
the Union Pac. and other railroads ; 30 miles
north of Denver, the State capital. It is in a
noted gold, silver, coal-mining, agricultural, and
stock-raising region, at the eastern base of the
Rocky Mountains. It was settled in 1858 and
received a city charter in 1880; is the seat of
the State University ; and has three national
banks, daily and weekly periodicals, and a prop-
erty valuation of over $1,000,000. The famous
Boulder Canon is an object of wide interest to
the tourist. Pop. (1900) 6,150.

Boulder, a rounded water-w^orn stone of
some size; in geology, applied to ice-worn and
partially smoothed blocks of large size lying on
the surface of the soil, or embedded in clays and
gravels, generally differing in composition from
the rocks in their vicinity, a fact which proves
that they must have been transported from a
distance, probably by ice. When lying on the
surface they are known as ^'erratic blocks. ^^

Boulder Clay, the name given to the mass
of clay, sand, and boulders deposited by the ice-
sheet which invaded the. northern portions of
North America and Europe during the Pleisto-
cene period. It is also known as "tilP^ and
Aground moraine.^^ The material is generally
compact and tenacious and shows no stratifica-
tion, the stones and boulders being irregularly
distributed. It represents the detritus carried
along beneath the ice and finally left in its
present position covering the eroded rock-
surfaces upon the retreat of the glacier. Its
thickness varies from a few inches to 100 feet
or more ; the heaviest accumulations are gath-
ered into rounded hills called drumlins (q.v.).
The stones included in boulder clay are usually
oblong with rounded edges and frequently with
striated surfaces, the latter being produced by
the friction of the moving mass. See Drift;
Glacial Period.

Boulevard, bool-var (O. Fr. hoidevart, a
word derived from the German bolhverk, the
same as the English ^^bulwark"). The word
was formerly applied to the ramparts of a forti-
fied town, but when these were leveled, and the
ditches belonging to them filled up, and the
whole planted with trees and laid out as prom-
enades, the name "boulevard* was still retained,
and thus came to have its present signification.
The most famous boulevards are those of Paris,
especially those which, in the time of Louis
XIV., took the place of the fortifications on the
northern side of the city, and became first a
promenade and then a street. Modern usage
has applied the word to many streets which were
not originally ramparts, but which have been
cut through the older and denser parts of the
town, or have been laid out in the new quarters.
All that the more modern boulevards have in

BOULGER — BOULTON

common with the older ones is that they are
broad and are planted with trees. The modern
boulevards are for the most part situated at
some distance from the bustle of the town,
and are therefore less frequented than the older
, ones, which are in the very heart of the city,
and in the neighborhood of the chief resorts of
amusement and pleasure. In the United States
the name is applied to wide avenues planted
with shade-trees, and with more or less orna-
ment in the v.-ay of stcituary, flower-beds, lawns,
etc. The Thames Embankment, in London,
though not usually called a boulevard, is of
this order. See Paris.

Boulger, Demetrius Charles, English
writer: b. 14 July 1853. He is an authority on
military topics and with Sir Lepel Griffin
founded the ^Asiatic Quarterly Review^ in 1885
and edited it for nearly five years. He has
published <Life of Jakoob, Bey of Kashgir^
(1878) ; * England and Russia in Central Asia^ ;
* Central Asian Portraits' ; <The History of
China' ; 'General Gordon's Letters from the
Crimea' ; 'Armies of the Native States of
India' ; 'Central Asian Questions' ; 'Lord Wil-
liam Bentinck' ; 'Short History of China' ; 'Life
of Sir Stamford Raffles' (1897); 'The Congo
State' (1898); 'The Belgians at Waterloo';
'India in the 19th Century' (1901).

Boulger, Dorothy Henrietta (Theo. Gift),
English novelist : b. 30 May 1847. She is a
daughter of Thomas Havers of Thelton Hall,
Norfolk, and married George S. Boulger (q.v.),
in 1879. She began to publish in 1871, and is
the author of 'True to Her Trust,' 'Pretty
Miss Bellew,' 'Maid Ellice,' 'A Matter-of-
Fact Girl,' 'Visited on the Children,' 'Victims,'
'Lil Lorimer,' 'An Innocent Victim,' 'A Gar-
den of Girls,' 'Not for the Night-time,' 'Dis-
honored,' 'Wrecked at the Outset,' 'An Island
Princess,' 'Women Who Work,' 'Cape Town
Dicky,' 'The Little Colonists,' 'Fairy Tales
from the Far East,' 'The Case of a Man with
His Wife.'

Boulger, George Simonds, English bota-
nist: b. Blechingly, Surrey, 5 ^Iarch 1853. He
has been professor of botany and geology at
City of London College from 1884 and has pub-
lished 'Familiar Trees' (1886-9) ; 'The Uses
of Plants' (1889) ; 'Biographical Index of
British and Irish Botanists,' with Britten
(1893) ; 'The Country, Month by Month,' with
Owen (1894-5) ; 'Elementary Geology' (1896) ;
'Flowers of the Field' (1900) ; 'Wood'
(1902).

Boulogne - sur - Mer, boo-l5n siir mar,
France, a seaport of the department Pas de
Calais, at the mouth and on the right bank of
the River Liane. with the suburb of Capecure
on the left. The town proper consists of an
upper and lower town. The former is sur-
rounded with old and well-planted ramparts ;
the latter, which is the business section, has
straight and well-built streets and is semi-
English in character, many of the signboards
being in English, the shops having an English
air, and much English being spoken. The
Church of Notre Dame (begun in 1827, conse-
crated in 1866) has a magnificent high altar, and
a crypt, part of which dates from the 12th
century. Among the churches, some of which
are handsome edifices, there are several for the
English population. The castle, which dates

from 1231, is a massive structure, communicat-
ing with the upper town by a bridge. It serves
at present as a barrack and artillery depot.
Here Louis Napoleon was imprisoned in 1840.
Other noteworthy buildings are the Hotel de
Ville, the Palais de Justice, the large and hand-
some bathing establishment, the library of 50,000
volumes, the museum of natural history and
antiquities, the custom-house, the exchange, etc.
Boulogne carries on various industries, is one
of the chief French seaports, and is a great
fishing centre, giving employment to about 5,000
hands. Extensive improvements in its accom-
modation for shipping are being carried out or
projected. There is a large passenger traffic
between Boulogne and Folkestone. Steamboats
run daily between this place and England. Bou-
logne still exhibits some Roman remains. The
Northmen took it in 882 and massacred the
inhabitants. In 1544 the town was taken by
Henry VIII. of England after a siege of si.x
weeks. The English retained it till 1550, when
Edward VI. sold it to France for 400,000 crowns^
The Emperor Charles V. demolished it in 1553.
During the first republic Boulogne received the
name of Port de 1' Union. With a favorable
wind, vessels can reach the coast of England in
two or three hours from this place. Bonaparte,
therefore, ordered the harbor to be made deeper,
and a number of vessels to be built in order to
transport the armj' intended for the invasion of
England, and some small forts and batteries to
be erected in order to strengthen the harbor
and the town. A large army remained here for
many months in a camp, which almost resembled
a town, waiting to embark ; but upon the break-
ing out of hostilities with Austria in 1805 they
were called to other places. Pop. (1896)
46,807.

Boulogne-sur-Seine, san, France, a town
in the department of the Seine, southwest of
Paris, of which it is a suburb. It is from this
place that the celebrated Bois de Boulogne gets
its name. Pop. (1896) 36.984.

Boulton, Charles ArkoU, Canadian soldier
and statesman : b. Coburg. 1841 ; d. 1899. He
entered the British army in 1858 and served for
10 years. During the first Manitoba insurrec-
tion he fought against the rebels and was cap-
tured in 1870 and condemned to death ; when
the rebellion broke out the second time he
commanded a corps organized by himself and
known as the Boulton Scouts. He became a
member of the Canadian Senate in 1889. He
wrote 'Reminiscences of the Northwest Rebel-
lion.'

Boulton, Matthew, English engineer: b.
Birmingham, 3 Sept. 1728; d. Soho, 17 Aug. 1809.
After being educated at a grammar school he
was instructed in drawing by Worlidge, and
he also studied mathematics. He engaged in
business as a manufacturer of hardware, and
as early as 1745 he is said to have invented
and brought to great perfection inlaid steel
buckles, buttons, watch-chains, etc., of which
large quantities were exported to France, whence
they were repurchased with avidity by the Brit-
ish as "the offspring of French ingenuity." In
1762 Boulton, finding his manufactory at Bir-
mingham too confined for his purposes, purchased
a lease of the Soho, about two miles distant, in
the county of Stafford. This spot, then a barren
heath, was gradually converted into an exten-

BOUNCING BET — BOUNTY LANDS

sive manufactory and school of the mechanical
arts, where ingenious men found ample employ-
ment for their talents from the liberal patronage
of the proprietor. The introduction of that
important machine, the steam-engine, at Soho,
led to a connection between Boulton and James
Watt, of Glasgow, who became partners in trade
in 1769.

Bouncing Bet, or Old Maid's Pink, an old-
time garden flower common as a weed. See

SOAPWORT.

Bound Brook, N. J., a town of Somerset
County, situated on the Raritan River and on
the Baltimore & O., the Central N. J., the Lehigh
Valley, and the Philadelphia & R. R.R.'s. It
has a large lumber trade, and rnanufactures
woolen goods, electric dynamos, paint, roofing-
paper, etc. During the Revolutionary War it
was the scene of a surprise of the American
troops by Cornwallis. The Americans, being
largely outnumbered, were forced to retreat after
a short battle. Pop. (1900) 2,622.

Boundaries, American. English monarchs
were very ignorant of American geography and
were perpetually making grants irreconcilably
and even grotesquely conflicting; as when the
grants to New Hampshire and New York each
included all of Vermont, and those ^westward
to the South Seas» included all the possible
territory out of which later grants, often with
the very same phraseology, were made. The
Wyoming dispute between Connecticut and
Pennsylvania, and the Western Reserve of the
former in Ohio, are only samples of the end-
less wrangles occasioned by these royal gifts;
and a considerable part of intercolonial history
is the account of the struggles — by influence
before the Privy Council, or by compromise
or outright war among themselves — by which
the present limits were gradually shaped. Short
of this, much interesting history is involved in
the surveys, from that of Mason and Dixon's
Line down to that between Connecticut and
Massachusetts, which rectified lines admitted in
theory. After the Revolution, jurisdiction over
boundaries was assumed by Congress, which, in
i;8i, under the Articles of Confederation, pro-
vided minutely for the selection of a courtto
determine such cases, modeled on the Grenville
Act of 1770. The adoption of the Constitution
in 1788 placed all such matters in the final
determination of the supreme court. The bound-
aries between foreign powers and the United
States as a whole present a different problem,
or rather a series of problems; for which see
also Alaska; Annexations; Canada; Florida;
Gadsden Treaty; Louisiana Purchase; Mexi-
can War; Northeast Boundary; Oregon
Question; Treaty of Versailles.

Bounty, a grant or benefaction from the
government to those whose services directly or
indirectly benefit it, and to whom, therefore,
it desires to accord some recompense, or at least
recognition. In law and commerce, it is a
premium paid by a government to the producers,
exporters, or importers of certain articles, or to
those who emplojr ships in certain trades. This
is done either with the view of fostering a new
trade during its infancy, or of protecting an old
one which is supposed to be of special impor-
tance to the country. In 1890 Congress passed
an act providing for a premium to be paid to
the producers of cane, beet, and sorghum sugar

by way of bounty. This bounty was in the

nature of a contract (made with each and every
person in the United States engaged in the cul-
tivation of such varieties of sugar), providing
that, in the event their produce attained a given
standard of saccharine strength, they should
receive the bounty provided therefor by the
appropriation from the treasury. This act
greatly stimulated the sugar-producing industry
of the country, and large amounts of money
have been invested, and a larger amount of
sugar has been produced in the United States
during the years that have followed the passage
of the act than in any equal period in the his-
tory of the country. All bounties or premiums
are not offered for the encouragement of domes-
tic talent and industry to the exclusion of for-
eign competition. Many of those offered by the
British and French governments, and by private
associations, are held out to all competitors indis-
criminately; and where the object is universal
improvement, this is one of the appropriate modes
of encouragement, though others concur with
it, such as the monopolies of copyrights and
patents, and the honors and distinctions con-
ferred on those who make any important
improvement. One other class of cases may,
properly enough, be made the subjects of boun-
ties or premiums ; namely, the productions of
extraordinary efforts of ingenuity and skill. A
competition is in this way excited, by which
none suffers, and all the effects of which are
beneficial to a community.

Bounty Mutiny. See Bligh, William.

Bounty- jumper, a term used during the
Civil War in the United States to denote one
who enlisted in the United States military ser-
vice to secure the bounty paid by the govern-
ment for volunteers, and then deserted. Some
of these enterprising individuals carried on a
regular business of enlisting in one place under
a certain name, hurrying to the front, receiving
the bounty, deserting at once upon its receipt,
and reappearing in some other place under a
different name, only to re-enlist and repeat the
process. The risks were great, but as the bounty
was, in some cases, quite large, the practice
found many votaries.

Bounty Lands. By royal proclamation of
7 Oct. 1763, American colonial governors were
prohibited from making land grants west of
the sources of the rivers flowing from the west
or northwest into the Atlantic. This was to
quiet the apprehensions of the Indians in the
Ohio region that their lands were to be granted
out. But Lord Dunmore of Virginia was em-
powered to offer bounties in land to all officers
and soldiers who had served in the French and
Indian war, and should personally apply to him
for warrants, — 5,000 acres to each field officer,
3,000 to captains, 200 to subalterns or staff offi-
cers, and 50 to private soldiers, — up to 200,000
acres, from the king's domain either in Canada
or Florida, or the ^*^crown lands. '^ This was
imderstood by Americans to mean precisely the
above western lands, and those who had the abil-
ity and foresight selected choice tracts beyond
the Alleghanies provisionally in hope of the
government validating them later. Washing-
ton, for example, by himself and his land agent
Crawford, had surveyed 70,000 acres, and se-
cured patents in his own and other officers'
names for 63,000, of which his own share was

BOUQUET — BOURBON

32,000 Dunmore began giving these warrants
on his own responsibility as early as July 1773,
and on 21 Jan. 1774 notified all gentlemen, offi-
cers, and soldiers to have their surveyors as-
semble at the mouth of the Great Kanawha
River and proceed to survey their claims. The
land agents and surveyors who went down the
river were stopped and in some cases attacked
by the Indians ; and this was one of the agencies
in bringing about Dunmore's War (q.v.), al-
though trouble had been gathering for a long
period from white settlement and Indian mur-
ders. The name ^'bounty lands*' has been defined
as pertaining to the Northwest Territory land--^
belonging to the States, because on 16 Sept.
1776 Congress olTered land bounties to volun-
teers in the Revolution (assessing the money
to buy them on the several States, to which
Maryland objected because the other States had
lands and she had none, and so would be un-
fairly taxed) ; but it does not appear that the
phrase was ever used of them at the time.

Bouquet, boo-ka, Henry, British officer in
the French and Indian wars : b. Rolle, Switzer-
land, 1719; d. Pensacola, Fla., 23 Aug. 1765.
He entered the army of the States-General of
Holland, then served in the Sardinian army
against France and Spain but returned to the
Dutch service in 1748 as an officer of the Swiss
Guards. When war broke out between France
and England in 1755, Bouquet was made
lieutenant-colonel of an English regiment known
as the Royal Americans. He reached Phila-
delphia in 1756 and in 1757 was ordered to
Charleston with a small detachment of his regi-
ment ; but in 1758 returned to Pennsylvania and
was made second in command of an expedition
against Fort Duquesne in which George Wash-
ington al'SO took part. The French deserted and
set fire to the fort before the expedition reached
there. This gave the control of Pennsylvania
to the English, but Bouquet remained in the
province, mostly at outlying posts. In 1763 the
Indians united in an attempt to expel the Eng-
lish; they massacred many settlers, coming
within a few miles of Lancaster, and blockaded
Fort Pitt. There was no time to raise provin-
cial troops if the fort was to be saved, so
Bouquet set out with a force of 500 regulars,
made his way through the forest, taking every
precaution against surprise, and defeated the
Indians at Bushy Run, within 20 miles of Fort
Pitt. The number of the Indians that attacked
him was as great as his own force, and his
soldiers had never seen Indian warfare, but by
•skilfully feigning a retreat Bouquet drew the
Indians from their cover and completely routed
ihem by a sudden charge. In the following year
^c led a force of regulars and provincial troops
to the forks of the Muskingum River, 150 miles
west of Pittsburg. The Indians, overawed by
bis former victory and by his boldness in pene-
trating so far into the wilderness, were ready
to make peace and surrender their white prison-
ers. He was subsequently made brigadier-gen-
eral and commandant of the Southern Colo-
nies of British America and went to Pensacola,
where he died.

Bouquet, Jean Claude, zhon klod. French
mathematician: b. i8ig; d. 1885. In 1865 he
became professor of mathematics in the Faculte
des Sciences of Lyons. He was then called to

Paris, where he taught special mathematics at
the Bonaparte Lyceum, and subsequently at the
Louis-le-Grand Lyceum. In 1873 he was ap-
pointed professor of mechanics at the Sor-
bonnc, and was elected member of the Academy
of Sciences in 1875 i" the place of M. Bertrand.
He also received the decoration of the Cross
of the Legion of Honor.

Bouquet de la Grye, Jean Jacques Anatole,

zhoh zhiik an-a-tol boo-ka-de-la-gre', I'Vench
hydrographical engineer: b. Thiers, Puy-de-
Dome, 20 May 1827. He studied at the Poly-
technic School, whence he was graduated in
1847 in the hydrographical engineers, and in
1866 he became their engineer-in-chief. He be-
came a member of the Institute; commander of
the Legion of Honor, and a member of the
Academy, elected in 1884. He is also a member
of the bureau of longitudes and vice-president
of the committee on hydrography. A project
which he has long urged is to make Paris a
seaport by means of a ship-canal up the Seine.
He is also known as an inventor and improver
of astronomical instruments. He has written
^Paris as a Seaport*; <Notes on Soundings of
the Sea* : '.\ Ilydrographic Study on the Bay
of Rochclle,' ; etc.

Bouquet of Wine, a pleasant, non-spirituous
aroma characteristic of good wines, and named
on account of its real or fancied resemblance to
the odor of flowers and fruits. The precise
chemical nature of the substances that give rise
to the ^bouquet" is not known. They consist
partly, without doubt, of a mixture of compound
ethers, derived from fatty acids that are pro-
duced by the oxidation of albuminous sub-
stances and vegetable fats or oils. Essential
oils of various kinds must also be included
among them. According to some authorities,
the kind of yeast that is used in the fermenta-
tion has much to do with the bouquet that is
developed. Fruit blossoms are occasionally
added to the must on account of the "ferment
oil" that is developed by their fermentation,
and which communicates a fruity smell to the
wine. Elder flowers, when added to the must
in this way, give rise to an aroma of Muscatel
bouquet.

Bouquetin, boo-k'taii'. a wild goat of the
Alps and Pyrenees. See Ibex.

Bourbaki, Charles Denis Sauter, sharl
de-ne s6-ta boor-ba-ke, French general: b.
Pan 22 April 1816; d. Bayonne 22 Sept. 1897.
He entered the army in 1836, and fought in the
Crimea and Italy. In 1870 he commanded the
Imperial Guard at Metz, whence he was sent
to England on a secret mission to the empress.
LTnder Gambetta he organized the Army of the
North, and commanded the .'Xrmy of the Loire.
His attempt to break the Prussian line at Bel-
fort, though ably conceived, ended in disastrous
failure ; in a series of desultory attacks on a
much inferior force, 15-17 Jan. 1871, he lost
10,000 men. In the wretched retreat to Switzer-
land that followed on the 27th, reduced to
despair by the ill success of his plans, he
attempted to commit suicide. From 1873 to
1879 he commanded the 14th Army Corps at
Lyons, and in 1881 he retired from service.

Bourbon, Antoine de, an-twan de. Duke of
Vendomc, and afterward king of Navarre : b. 22
April 1518; d. 17 Nov. 1562. He married, in

BOURBON — BOURBON FAMILY

1548, Jeanne d'Albret, only child of Henry II., expedition of Francis into Italy was arrested,
king' of Navarre, and assumed the title of king Having been appointed to the command of the
in her right. After the accession to the throne imperial troops, he made an unsuccessful attack
of Franc'e of the young king Francis II., he upon Marseilles, but contributed greatly to the
endeavored to obtain the control of the afifairs victory of Pavia. When Francis was carried a
of that country, but failed through his want prisoner to Madrid he went there in person, that
of energy and perseverance. On the death of he might not be forgotten in the treaties between
Francis^'lL, in 1560, he was made lieutenant- the two monarchs ; but Charles V. delayed con-
general of the kingdom and adviser to the queen eluding them, and Bourbon discovered that he
mother (Catherine de Medici) during the minor- could not trust the emperor, who had even
ity of her son. Upon the breaking out of the promised him his sister in marriage. Compelled
civil war, in 1562, he commanded the royal to smother his resentTuent he returned to Milan,
forces, and died of a wound received at the maintained possession of Italy by the terror of
siege 'of Rouen. His son. Henrv of Navarre, his arms, and obtained so much authority as to
isec'ame king of France, as Henry IV. (1594). become an object of suspicion to the emperor,

■n i. /-"u i„ /(^.„T^T,.TAT ^ v^^r^r^u who, in order to weaken him, refused to grant

Bourbon. Charles (Cardinal), rrencn , • ' , ,■ t j ^ ^

I3UU1UU11, yiiax o vv> . ■/ ' , T)^„_ him the necessary supplies. In order to prevent

prmce and prelate; brother of Ai tome de Bour- ^^^ dispersion of his army he led the soldiers to

bon; uncle to Henry IV., king of France, b. 22 ^^^ ^.^^ ^^ ^ ^^^ y^^^^^ ^^

Dec. 1520; f. Fontenay^le-Come 9 May 15^. i,%^ them. He was the first to mount the

He was archbishop of Rouen legate of Avig- i^^ ^^^^ ^,^^ ^.„^^ ^ .^

non, cardinal, peer of Trance, and member 01 , ^i 4. r- ir ■ xj- u ^ u • J

the Council. In spite of family ties he ardently ^y Benvenuto Cellini. His body being conveyed
supported the Guises and the League, and was ^o Gaeta, his soldiers erected over it a splendid
declared by that faction heir presumptive to the monument afterward destroyed. See Coignet,
throne on the ground that his brother, Antoine, ^Francis the First and His Times> (1888).
through heresy, had forfeited his claim. On Bourbon, Louis, loo-e. Spanish prelate: b.

the death of Henry III. he was declared king, as ^ ^^^^^^ ^g j^e was the son of the

Charles X and was recognized by a majori y .^^^^^^ Louis, brother of King Charles III. of
of the parlemcnts; though he was all the while ^ ■ ^^^^ ^j^^ Duchess of Chinchon. The mar-
a prisoner at Fontenay-le-Comte. ^-^^^ ^^^^ concluded with the royal assent:

Bourbon, Charles sharl (Duke of Bour- nevertheless, it was doubted, after the death of
BONNAis), French general, known as Constable Charles III., whether the prince would be law-
DE Bourbon; son of Gilbert, Count of Mont- f^l heir to the throne, if a male descendant of
pensier and Clara of Gonzaga : b. 17 Feb. 1489; the old line should be wanting. He therefore
d. 6 May 1527. He received from Francis I., in entered the Church, was appointed archbishop of
the 26th year of his age, the sword of Constable. Seville in 1799, and of Toledo in 1800. A ear-
By the coolness with which he faced death in final's hat was also given to him in 1800. After
posts of the greatest hazard he excited the ad- ^^^^ imprisonment of Ferdinand VII. at Valen-
miration of his fellow-soldiers. When viceroy ^^y^ ^^ joined the party of the Cortes, and
of Milan he won all hearts by his frankness and became very influential. He offered, in 1814
affability. His fame was not yet tarnished when ^he constitution of the Cortes to Ferdinand VII.
the injustice of his king deprived him of his f^j. ^^^s signature; and the king having altered
offices, banished him from France, and brought j^j^ determination, Bourbon lost his favor and
the family of Bourbon into disgrace, in which ^^^ deprived of the archbishopric of Seville,
state it continued until the conclusion of the ^fter the events which took place on the insur-
reign of Henry III. Whatever may be the true rection of the army at the island of Leon, he
cause of her conduct, it is certain that the engaged in the revolution, and was president of
Duchess of Angouleme, mother of Francis I.. ^^^ provisional junta before which the king
strove to invalidate a formal donation of gwore, at Madrid, 9 March 1820, to abide by the
Louis XII. The constable, enraged at see- constitution of the Cortes of 1812.
ing himself deprived of his estates by the ^ ^

mother of the king whom he had served with Bourbon, Louis Henri, loo-e oii-re (Due

so mAich fidelitv and zeal, listened to proposals de), French courtier, Prince of Conde : b. Ver-
made him by Charles V. and the king of Eng- sailles, 1692; d. Chantilly, 27 Jan. 1740. As
land. He experienced the usual fate of de- chief of the Council of Regency and superin-
serters; he was well received while his services tendent of the king's education, he robbed the
were needed, but narrowiy watched to secure public treasury and extorted huge bribes. Made
his fidelity. Exposed as he was to the con- prime minister in 1723. he persecuted the Prot-
tempt of the Spanish nobility and the jealousy estants, and granted exorbitant privileges to the
of the generals of Charles V., nothing remained India Company, in which he held shares. He
to him but his courage and repentance. His ^^g entirely controlled by his mistress, the Mar-
ability, however, induced the emperor to bestow guise de Prie.

upon him the command of an army, and to treat , . . n t:- -i tUc fr^,^r^r\pr

him with honor. He was already beyond the Bourbon (boor-bon) Family. ihetounoer

confines of France, when Francis I. sent to of this family, which has governed !:< ranee,
demand the sword which he bore as constable, Spain, the two Sicilies, Lucca, and Farma was
and the badge of his order. His answer dis- Robert the Strong, who in 861, became ^"^6 ot
■ plays the anguish of his heart:— «The king took Neustria, and in 866 lost his lite in a Dattie
from me mV sword at Valenciennes, when he against the Normans. Some trace his descent
gave to D'Alenqon the command of the van- from Pepin I'Heristal, others from a natinal son
guard, which belonged to me: the badge of my of Charlemagne, and others from the kings ot
order I left under my pillow at Chantelles.» Lombardy. It is certain that the two sons ot
His flight was a misfortune to France; the this Robert were kings of France, ihe elder.

BOURBON FAMILY

named Eudes, ascended the throne in 888, and
died in 898; the younger, Robert, in 922, and
died in 923. The eldest son of this Robert was
Hugh the Great, Duke of the Isle of France,
and count of Paris and Orleans. Hugh Capet,
son of Hugh the Great (great grandson of Rob-
ert the Strong), founded the third French
dynasty in 987. One of his descendants, named
Robert, was the root of the elder line of the
dukes of Burgundy, which became extinct in
1361. A descendant of this Robert, Henry of
Burgundy, was first regent of Portugal in 1995,
where his legitimate descendants became extinct
in 1383. Pierre de Courtenay, a descendant of
Hugh Capet, in the fifth generation, was father
and ancestor of many emperors of Constan-
tinople. The house of Anjou descended from
Hugh Capet, in the eighth generation, possessed
the throne of Naples for two centuries, and for
some time that of Hungary. Another descend-
ant of Hugh Capet, in the loth degree, founded
the house of Navarre, which continued from
1328 to 1425. A second family of Anjou,
descended from Hugh Capet, in the 13th degree,
gave some distinguished princes to Provence.
In the same degree, the younger line of the
powerful dukes of Burgundy derived its origin
from him. This line became extinct with the
death of Charles the Bold, in 1477, whose suc-
cessor, Maria, married Maximilian, archduke of
Austria, and became grandmother of Charles V.
Robert, Earl of Clermont, second son of St.
Louis, married Beatrice, Duchess of Bourbon.
In this way the city of Bourbon I'Archambault,
or Bourbon les Bains, in the department of Allier
(formerly Bourbonnais), became the birthplace
of the house of Bourbon, and Louis I.. Duke of
Bourbon, son of Robert and Beatrice, its founder.
Two branches took their origin from the two
sons of this Louis, Duke of Bourbon, w-ho died
in 1 341. The elder line was that of the dukes
of Bourbon, which became extinct at the death
of the Constable of Bourbon in 1527, in the
assault of the city of Rome. The younger was
that of the counts of La Marche, afterward
counts and dukes of Vendome. Of these,
Charles, Duke of Vendome, who died in 1537,
and who had been the head of the house of
Bourbon since the death of the Constable, had
two sons, Anthony and Louis, founders respec-
tively of the royal line of Bourbon, and of the
line of Conde. Henry, the son of Anthony,
obtained the throne of France as Henry IV.,
when the house of Valois became extinct in 1589
by the murder of Henry III. His father had
obtained the kingdom of Navarre through^ his
wife, who inherited it, and Henry now added
it to the French dominions. Anthony's younger
brother Louis, Prince of Conde, was the founder
of the line of Conde. There were, therefore,
two chief branches of the Bourbons —the royal,
and that of Conde. The royal branch was
divided by the two sons of Louis XIII., the
elder of w'hom, Louis XIV., continued the chief
branch, which, through his son, Louis (the dau-
phin), and grandson, Philip V., was separated
into the elder or royal French branch, and the
younger or royal Spanish branch : while Philip,
younger son of Louis XIII., founded the house
of Orleans, when he received the duchy of
Orleans from Louis XIV. The kings of the
elder or French line of the house of Bourbon
are as follows: Henrv IV., Louis XIII.. XIV.,
XV., XVI., XVIL, XVIII., and Charles X. The

house of Bourbon consists of the following
branches and members :

A. The Elder French Royal Line of Bourbons
as Distinguished from the Younger Branch or
House of Orleans. The last sovereigns of this
line were three brothers, Louis XVI., Louis
XVIII., and Charles X. (Louis XVIL, son of
Louis XVI., never obtained the crown), all of
whom were grandsons of Louis XV. Louis
XVIII. had no children, but Charles X. had
two sons, namely: Louis Antoine de Bourbon,
Duke of Angouleme, who was dauphin till the
revolution of 1830, and died without issue in
1844, and Charles Ferdinand, Duke of Berr>%
who died 14 Feb. 1820, of a wound given him
by a political fanatic. The Duke of Berry had
two children, (i) Louise Marie Thercse, called
Mademoiselle d'Artois, and afterward by mar-
riage Duchess of Parma, died at Venice, i Feb.
1864; and (2) Henri Charles Ferdinand Marie
Dieudonne, born in 1820, and at first called Duke
of Bordeaux, but afterward Count de Chambord.
His mother was the Princess Caroline, daughter
of Francis I., king of the two Sicilies. Charles
X., having abdicated in favor of his grandson
Henri above mentioned in 1830, and the dauphin
having renounced his claims on the French
throne also in favor of the latter, the Count de
Chambord was until his death looked upon by
his party as the legitimate heir to the crown of
France, and was styled by them Henri V.

B. The Branch of the Bourbons Knozcn as
the House of Orleans. — This branch raised to the
throne of France by the revolution of 1830, and
deprived of it by that of 1848, derives its origin,
as already mentioned, from Duke Philip I. of
Orleans (d. i/Oi), second son of Louis XHI.,
and only brother of Louis XIV. By his second
wife, Charlotte of the Palatinate, he left as his
successor in the dukedom his son Philip, known
as Duke of Chartres during his father's life-
time, and was regent of France during the
minority of Louis XV. Philip, second Duke,
was succeeded by his son, Louis Philip (b. 1703),
who married a princess of Baden, and died in
retirement in 1752, leaving a son of the same
name. Louis Philip. Duke of Orleans, who was
born in 1725, and died in 1785. The son of the
last-mentioned Duke was Louis Joseph Philip,
the Duke of Orleans whose name figures in the
first French Revolution, who perished on the
scaffold in 1793, after he had laid aside his
princely name the year before and assumed that
of "Citizen Egalite." He left four children : (i)
Louis Philip, before the Revolution Duke of
Chartres, after his father's death Duke of
Orleans, from 1830 to 1848 king of France, died
26 Aug. 1850, leaving a numerous family; (,2)
the Duke of Montpensier. who died in England
in 1807; (3) the Count de Beaujolais. w^ho died
at ]\Ialta in 1808; and (4) a daughter. Adelaide,
Mademoiselle d'Orleans. born in 1777. died 31
Dec. 1847. The eldest son of King Louis Philip
was Ferdinand. Duke of Orleans (b. 1810. d.
1842). who married a daughter of Frederick
Louis of Mecklenburg- Schwerin. and left two
sons: (i) Louis Philip. Count de Paris, b. Paris,
24 Aug. 1838; and (2) Robert. Duke of Char-
tres, b. Paris, 1840. Louis Philip having abdi-
cated in favor of the former in 1848. the Count
de Paris till his death in 1894 was looked upon
by the Orleanists as the true heir to the throne.
He was married to his cousin, Isabella, a daugh-
ter of the Duke of Montpensier, and left issue.

BOURBON — BOURCHIER

C. The Spanish-Bourbon Dynasty. — In 1700
Louis XIV. placed his grandson Philip, Duke of
Anjou, on the Spanish throne, who as Philip V.
founded the Bourbon dynasty in Spain. Philip
V. 'was succeeded in 1746 by his son, Ferdinand
VI., who, dying in 1759 without heirs, was suc-
ceeded by his brother, Charles III. To him
succeeded (1788) his son Charles IV., who, in
1808, resigned the throne in favor of a successor
nominated by Napoleon, and died at Naples in
1819. His son Fernando, Prince of the Astu-
rias, obtained the crown on the fall of Napoleon,
and reigned as Ferdinand VII., dying 29 Sept.
1833, and leaving behind him two daughters by
his third marriage, the elder of whom succeeded
him as Isabella II. She was married, in 1846,
to her cousin Francisco de Assis. In 1868 she
had to leave Spain in consequence of the revo-
lution, and in 1870 she renounced her claims to
the throne in favor of her son Alphonso, who
became Alphonso XII., and died in 1885, his son,
Alphonso XIII. , succeeding him.

D. The Royal Line of the Two Sicilies. —
The Two Sicilies being then a possession of
the Spanish monarchy, in 1735 Don Carlos, the
younger son of Philip V. of Spain, obtained
the crown and reigned over Sicily and Naples as
Charles III.. In 1759, however, he succeeded his
brother Ferdinand VI. on the Spanish throne,
when he transferred the Two Sicilies to his third
son Fernando (Ferdinand IV.), on the express
condition that this crown should not be again
united with Spain. Ferdinand IV. had to leave
Naples in 1806; but after the fall of Napoleon
he again became king of both Sicilies under the
title of Ferdinand I. He was succeeded by his
son Francis I in 1825 ; Francis was succeeded by
his son Ferdinand 11. in 1830; and the latter
was succeeded by his son Francis II. in 1859,
who was deprived of the kingdom in i860.

E. The Ducal Line of Parma. — This line, like
that of the Two Sicilies, was founded by a son
of Philip V. of Spain, namely: Don Philip, his
youngest son, who obtained the duchies of
Parma and Piacenza in 1748. Louis, grandson
of Don Philip, obtained Tuscany likewise (1802),
with the title of king of Etruria. The family
did not long retain this honor, however, being
soon forced by the power of France to give up
not only Etruria, but also Parma and Piacenza ;
and it was not till 1847 that there was again a
Bourbon Duke of Parma. In 1859 the reigning
Duke, Robert, had to leave his dominions, which
were soon incorporated in the kingdom of Italy.
See Coiffier Demoret, <Histoire du Bourbonnais
e*- des Bourbons^ (1824) ; Achaintre, *Histoire
Chronologique et Genealogique de la Maison
Royale de Bourbon^ (1825) ; Coxe, ^Memoirs of
the Kings of Spain of the House of Bourbon^
(1815) ; Lehes, <Genealogie des Bourbons de
France, d'Espagne, de Naples, et de Parme^
(1880) ; Bingham, ^The Marriages of the Bour-
bons > (1890).

Bourbon, Isle of. See Reunion, Isle de la.

Bourbon-Lancy, laii-se, a French watering
place, department Saone-et-Loire, famous for its
thermal springs, containing chloride of sodium
and iron. Its situation is notably fine, and by
the Romans it was called Aquae Nisineii or Nis-
ienses. Remains of the Roman baths are still to
be seen here, and the town contains a hospital,
built by the Marquis d'Aligre, with 400 beds.
Pop. (1896) 4,162.

Bourbon- Vendee, v6n-da, Napoleon-Ven-
dee, or, since the dissolution of the
Second Empire in 1870, La Roche-sur-Yon,
a town in France, the capital of the depart-
ment Vendee, 231 miles southwest from
Paris, situated on a hill on the right bank of the
Yon. The streets nearly all end in a spacious
square, bordered with ranges of fine trees, and
surrounded by public monuments and elegant
mansions. The parish church, with a peristyle
of six Doric columns, and the mairie or
mansion-house, an elegant Italian building, are
both in the square. Besides these there are an
elegant market-house, theatre, and extensive
public offices, large barracks, and a small public
library. There is an active trade in woolen
cloth, and hardware. It was founded by Napo-
leon I. on the site of the ancient castle of Roche-
sur-Yon, destroyed at the Revolution, and
received the name of Napoleon- Vendee, which
was changed to Bourbon-Vendee at the Restora-
tion. Pop. (1891) 12,215.

Bourbon Whisky, a term applied to Ken-
tucky whisky, made from a mixture of corn,
rye, and malt, of which the corn constitutes
the larger part. In its distillation some of the
oils and acids are allowed to remain. These,
with age, undergo chemical action, and are
converted into aromatic ethers.

Bourbonnais, a province and government of
old France, with the title, first of a county,
and afterward of a duchy, Jying between the
Nivernais, Berry, and Burgundy. It now forms
the department of the Allier. It derived i^s
name from the small town Bourbon I'Archanl-
bault, from which the Bourbon family received
their title. Consult Montegut, ^En Bourbonnais
et en Forez* (1880),

Bourbonnais, boor-bon-na, 111., a village in
Kaskaskia County, 56 miles south of Chicago,
the seat of two important Roman Catholic
schools, Notre Dame Academy, and Saint Via-
teur's College, opened in 1865. Pop. 595.

Bourbonne-les-Bains, boor-bun-la-ban, a
town of France, department of Haute Marne,
21 miles east-northeast of Langres, with hot
springs, which were resorted to by the Romans.
They contam much chloride of sodium, with a
temperature which varies from 140° to 150° F.^
and frequented by some 3,coo invalids annually.
The town has a 12th century church, a large
military hospital, and interesting ruins of an
ancient chateau. Pop. (1896) 4,156.

Bourboule, boor-bool. La, France, a health
resort in the department of Puy-le-Dome, 22
miles southwest of Clermont. It is pic-
turesquely situated amid striking scenery and its
mineral thermal springs are visited by over
7,000 persons yearly. Its waters when bottled
are extensively exported for medicinal use. Pop.
1,947-

Bourchier, boor'chi-er, Arthur, English
actor: b. Speen, Berkshire, 22 June 1864. He
was educated at Oxford where he was promi-
nent in amateur theatricals and in 1889 went
upon the stage. He has played in leading
theatres in England and the United States
and took the Royalty Theatre in 1895 when he
brought out one of his own adaptations, ^The
Chili Widow, ^ which ran 300 nights, and the
Garrick Theatre in 1900, where he produced
Barrie's play, ^The Wedding Guest.^

BOURDALOUE — BOURGEOIS

Bourdaloue, Louis, loo-e boor-da-loo, the
founder of genuine pulpit eloquence in France :
b. Bourges, 20 Aug. 1632; d. Paris, 13 May
1704. He was sixteen when he entered the
society of Jesuits and his instruUors succes-
sively entrusted to him the chairs of polite let-
ters, rhetoric, philosophy, and moral theology.
In 1669 he entered the pulpit, and extended his
reputation by attacking, with a powerful and
religious eloquence, free from the bad taste of
the age, the passions, vices, and errors of
mankind. The dignity of his delivery, and
the fire of his language, made him distinguished,
amidst the victories of Turenne and the feasts
of Versailles, among the master-spirits of the
arts and of literature in the time of Corneille
and Racine. Louis XIV. invited him, in 1670,
to preach before the court, and Bourdaloue
acquitted himself with so much success that he
afterward received invitations at 10 different
times. After the repeal of the Edict of Nantes,
he was sent to Languedoc, in order to explain
to the Protestants the doctrines of the Roman
Catholic faith, and he succeeded in this difficult
business in reconciling the dignity of his office
with the rights of mankind. In his latter days he
devoted himself to the care of hospitals, prisons,
and religious institutions. He well knew how
to accommodate his manner to the capacity of
those to whom he gave instruction, advice, or
consolation. With the simple, he was simple;
with the learned, he was a scholar ; with free-
thinkers, he was a logician ; and came off suc-
cessful in all those contests in which the love
of his neighbor, religious zeal, and the duties
of his office, involved him. Beloved alike by
all, he exercised authority over the minds of
all ; and no consideration could make him give
up his openness and integrity of character. His
^Sermons and Moral Discourses* appeared in
English (3d ed. 1855); and < Married Life: Its
Obligations and Trials* (1897). See Fengere,
* Bourdaloue, sa predication et son temps*
(1874) ; Tousserat. ^Etude genealogique sur les
Bourdaloue' (1900).

Bourdillon, Francis William, English poet:
b. 22 March 1852. He has taught private
pupils for many years and as a poet is widely
known as the author of the lyric, <The Night
Has a Thousand Eyes.* His published works
include <Among the Flowers* (1878); 'Aucas-
sin and Nicolette* edited and translated (1887) ;
<Ailes d'Alouette* (1890); <A Lost God*
(1891) ; <Sursum Corda* ; <Nephele,* a much
admired musical romance (1896); 'Minuscula*
(1897).

Bourdon, Sebastian, sa-bas-te-oii boor-
doh, celebrated French painter: b. Montpel-
lier, "1616; d. 1671. Being poor and without
occupation, he enlisted as a soldier. After
receiving his dismission, he visited Italy, and
studied under Poussin and Claude Lorraine.
In 1652 he was driven from the French kingdom
by the religious troubles, when he was appointed
first painter to Queen Christina of Sweden. He
afterward became distinguished in his own
country by many great works, among which are
the following: the <Dead Chri.st.* the <01d Kings
of Burgundy in the Senate-house at Aix,'
the <Adulteress.* He had no peculiar man-
ner, but he imitated others. He was a good
engraver on copper. He died while engaged in
painting the ceiling of the Tuilenes.

Bourdon, named after the inventor, a
barometer consisting of an elastic flattened tube
of metal bent to a circular form and exhausted,
of air, so that the ends of the tube separate as
the atmospheric pressure is diminished, and
approach as it increases. The Bourdon is com-
monly known as the metallic barometer, although
the aneroid is also metallic, and both holosteric.

Bourdon de L'Oise, Frangois Louis, fraii-
swa loo-e boor-doh-de-lwaz, French revolu-
tionist: b. Saint Remy, about 1750; d. Cayenne,
Guiana, after 1797. He figured in the attack on
the Tuileries, 10 Aug. 1792, and did much to
bring to pass the execution of the king and the
fall of the Girondists, but from July 1794,
adopted ^ the side of the nobles and clergy.
After joining a Royalist club he was proscribed
and transported to Cayenne in 1797, where he
died not long after.

Bourg-en-Bresse, boorg-ah-bres, a town of
France, capital of the department of Ain, situ-
ated 232 miles southeast of Paris, on the Rcys-
scuse and the Cone. It is well built, and orna-
mented with public fountains, one of which was
erected to the memory of Gen. Joubert. On
the Promenade du Bastion is a bronze statue of
Bichat, the celebrated anatomist, who pursued
his early medical studies in the hospital here.
The parish church of Bourg-en-Bresse is a
handsome edifice of the i6th century. Out-
side the town is a magnificent hospital, sur-
rounded by gardens ; and the beautiful Gothic
church of Brou, built by the direction of Mar-
garet of Austria, daughter of Maximilian I.
In front of the portal stands a curious elliptical
sun-dial, reconstructed by the celebrated astron-
omer Lalande, who was a native of this place.
Bourg-en-Bresse has a library, a museum, a
lyceum, seminary, two hospitals, a lunatic
asylum, some manufactories of linen and hosiery,
tanneries, a cotton-mill, grain market, etc.
Its trade in grain, cattle, horses, and wine is
considerable. Pop. (1896) 18,501.

Bourgelat, Claude, klod boorzh'la, French
lawyer, founder of the veterinary schools and
creator of the art of veterinary surgery in
France: b. Lyons, 1712; d. 3 Jan. 1779. He estab-
lished the first veterinary school in his native
town in 1762, and by his works on the veterinary
art furnished the world with a complete course of
instruction both in its theory and in its practice*
they include 'Elements d'Hippiatrique, ou Nou-
veaux Principes sur la Connaissance et sur la
Medecine des Chevaux^ (1750-3); and *Traite
de la Conformation Exterieure du Cheval'
(1776).

Bourgeois, Charles Arthur, Baron, sharl
ar-tiir boor-zhwii, French sculptor: b. 1838; d.
1886. He was a student of Duret and M. Guil-
laume. Among the more notable of his works
are the ^Arab Washerwoman* ; and the 'Greek
Actor,* in bronze; *St. Agatha*; <The Slave*;
and 'Hero and Leander,* in plaster; 'The
Delphic Pythos* and several busts in marble,
and 'St. Joachim* and 'Religion,* two stone
figures for the church of St. EuStache and the
Church of the Sorbonne, respectively.

Bourgeois, Leon Victor Auguste, la-6h
vek-tor a-goost, French politician: b. Paris,
1851. After holding several positions of impor-
tance he t)f*came director of the ministry of the

BOURGEOIS — BOURGOING

interior in 1886 and in 1887 prefect of police.
He was minister of the interior in 1889; min-
ister of public instruction 1892-3 and prime
minister 1895-6. He was .for a time in 1S98
minister of public instruction for the second
time, and in 1899 was at the head of the French
delegation to the peace conference at The
Hague. He has written <Solidarite^ (1897).

Bourgeois, Sir Peter Francis, English
painter: b. London, 1756; d. 8 Jan. 181 1. At
first intended for a military career, he soon
determined to become an artist. In 1776 he went
on a tour through France, Holland, and Italy,
and three years later he exhibited his first pic-
ture. Elected A.R.A. in 1787, he became R.A.
in 1793, and landscape painter to George HI. in
1794. King Stanislaus of Poland in 1791
aippointed him his painter and conferred on him
the honor of knighthood, and shortly afterward
George III. also knighted him. He bequeathed
many pictures and a considerable sum of money
to Dulwich College.

Bourgeois, bur-jois', a size of printing type
larger than brevier and smaller than long
primer, used in books and newspapers.

Bourgeoisie, boor-zhwa-ze, a name applied
in France to citizens of towns who do not belong
to the nobility or clergy, and in a narrower
sense to townspeople occupying an independent
position — merchants, tradesmen, independent
artisans, lawyers, etc. In the early period of the
Middle Ages this class was much oppressed, and
as a consequence of that it was poor and pos-
sessed little culture and refinement. In subse-
quent centuries it succeeded in raising itself in
all these respects, and latterly attaining a posi-
tion of political equality with the nobility and
clergy, came to be spoken of as the ''third estate"
(tiers etat). The word is now used in a some-
what vaguer sense than formerly, and may be
taken to correspond with the equally vague Eng-
lish appellation the ''middle classes.*'

Bourges, boorzh, France, capital of the
department of Cher, 124 miles south of Paris,
on the canal of Berry and the Central railroad,
in an extensive plain, at the confluence of the
Auron and the Yevrette. When the Romans
invaded Gaul, it was known as Avaricum, the
capital of Biturigescubi. It was taken by Czesar,
52 B.C., and almost all its inhabitants slaugh-
tered. Under the name of Bituriges, it was for
475 years the metropolis of Aquitania. During
the Middle Ages, many councils were held here.
The French clergy assembled here in 1438 to
receive the famous charter known as the Prag-
matic Sanction, by which the liberties of the
Gallican church were secured. Jacques Coeur
and Louis XL were both born here. The former
established here in 1463 a university, where
Cujas taught during the i6th century. Bourda-
loue, the famous preacher, was born here in
1632. Don Carlos resided here from 1839 to
1845, when he signed the abdication in favor of
his son. The trial of Louis Blanc, Albert, and
others, took place before the supreme court at
Bourges, 7 M^ch to 2 April 1849. The city is
partly surrounaed by a thick wall, flanked with
lofty towers ; its streets are irregularly laid out,
while the houses are generally mean-looking,
with their gables to the street. Among the old
buildings which it contains are the magnificent
'cathedral, larger than Notre Dame de Paris,

and one of the finest Gothic monuments of
Europe; the city hall, built at great cost by
Jacques Cceur as a dwelling-house, and now oc-
cupied as the Palais de Justice; and the palace
of the archbishop. The establishments of public
instruction, including the imperial college, the
theological seminary, and the normal school,
are well patronized. Bourges has manufactories
of fine and coarse cloths, iron foundries, and tan-
yards. Pop. (1896) 43,587.

Bourget, Paul, pol boor-zha, French nov-
elist : b. Amiens, 2 Sept. 1852. After a brilliant
course at the Lyceum of Clermont-Ferrand,
where his father was professor of mathematics,
and the College of Sainte Barbe. he graduated
with high honors in 1872. He began to write
in 1873, but it was 10 years before he found his
true work, though he contributed, the while,
numerous articles to the magazines, and pub-
lished three volumes of striking verse, 'La Vie
Inquiete> (1875); 'EdeP (1878); and 'Les
Aveux> (1881). His 'Essais* (1883) was the
first indication of his strength. The second
series, 'Nouveaux Essais de Psychologic Con-
temporaine' (1886), was a singularly subtle and
exceedingly searching inquiry into the causes
of the pessimism then widely prevalent in
France. Bourget's first novel. 'LTrreparable'
(1884), was followed by 'Cruelle Enigme'
(1885); 'Un Crime d'Amour> (1886); 'Andre
Cornells' (1887), and 'Mensonges' (1887).
The keen insight into the hidden springs of
human motive, and the marvelous subtlety of
psychological analysis of these stories, together
with their clearness and refinement of style, have
lifted Bourget into the front rank of contem-
porary French novelists. His intimate know-
ledge of English and Italian life, and his travels
in Spain and Morocco, gave him the material
for 'Sensations d'ltalie' (1891) ; and 'Cosmopo-
lis' (1892) ; and he recorded his impressions
(1894) of travel in the United States. Other
novels are 'Le Disciple,' 'Notre Cceur,' 'La
Terre Promise,' 'Un Saint,' 'Antigone,'
'Drame de famille' (1900); 'Un homme d'Af-
faires' (1901) ; 'La fantome' (1901). Bourget
was admitted to the Academy in 1894.

Bourgoin, Edme Alfred, ed-ma al-fra boor-
gwaii, French chemist : b. Saint Cyr-les-
Colonne, 1836. In 1867 he became chief phar-
macist of the Children's Hospital in Paris and
has been director of the central pharmacy of
the Paris hospitals from 1885. Among his writ-
ings are 'Electro-chimie' (1868) ; 'Chimie
organique, Principes de la classification des sub-
stances' (1876); 'Traite de Pharmacie galen-
ique' (1880).

Bourgoin, a French town, capital of a
canton in the department Isere in southeastern
France. It is situated on the River Bourbre
and was called by the Romans Bergusium. It
contains important paper, linen, and woolen
industries. Pop. (1901) 7,279-

Bourgoing, Jean Frangois, zhon fran-swa
boor-gwaii, French diplomatist: b. Nevers,
20 Nov. 1748; d. Carlsbad, 20 July 181 1. While
at a military school in Paris his talents were so
marked that he was educated by the government
at the University of Strassburg for the diplo-
matic service. After four years spent in Ger-
many on diplomatic missions he went to Madrid
in 1777 and was secretary of legation there

BOURIGNON — BOURNE

seven years, writing in that time his noted ^Nou-
veau voyage en Espagne, ou Tableau de letat
actuel de cette monarchic' (1789). In 1791 he
was^ minister plenipotentiary to Spain, minister
to Saxony in 1808, and was at various times
employed on diplomatic missions to Germany
and Holland. Besides the work above named
he wrote ^Memoires historiques et philosoph-
iques sur Pie VI.' (1789).

Bourignon, Antoinette, an-twiin-et boo-re-
nyoh, Flemish visionary: b. Lille, 13 Jan.
1616; d. Ffaneker, 30 Oct. 1680. She was born
so ugly that her parents held a consultation to
determine whether it would not be better to
•destroy her as a monster. She was spared, but
her infancy was spent in neglect and solitude.
The first books she put her hands on were lives
•of early Christians and mystical tracts, which
she read eagerly. She entered a convent and
was subsequently in charge of a hospital at Lille,
but was obliged to leave on account of her reli-
gious vagaries. She held that religion consists
in internal emotion and is independent of know-
ledge or practice. Her views were adopted by
large numbers of Protestants and Roman Catho-
lics, and in the 17th and i8th centuries Scottish
Presbyterian ministers were for a long time com-
pelled to renounce Bourignianism at their
ordination. Among her works are ^Treatise of
Solid Virtue' (1699) ; <The Light of the World'
(1696, in English 1863) ; ^Restoration of the
Gospel Spirit' (1707).

Bourinot, boo're-not. Sir John George,

Canadian publicist : b. Sydney, Nova Scotia, 24
Oct. 1838; d. 14 Oct. 1902. He was educated at
Trinity College, Toronto ; founded and edited
the Halifax Reporter, became clerk of the
Dominion parliament in 1880; was created a
member of the Order of St. Michael and St.
George in 1890 ; and in 1892 became president
of the Royal Society of Canada. His publica-
tions include ^The Intellectual Development of
the Canadian People' (1880) ; ^Manual of Con-
stitutional History' (1888); < Parliamentary
Government in Canada' (1892) ; 'Parliamentary
Procedure and Practice' (1884) ; 'How Canada
is Governed' (1895) 5 'Canada's Intellectual
Strength and Weakness' (1893) ; 'Canada
Under British Rule' (1900) : 'Cape Breton and
Its Memorials of the French Regime' (1892).

Bourke, John Gregory, American military
officer: b. Philadelphia, Pa., 22, June 1846; d. 8
June 1896. He was graduated at West Point in
1869, and saw much service against the Indians,
rising through various grades to the rank of
major. He became an expert in American eth-
nological lore ; was a past president of the Amer-
ican Folk-lore Society, and wrote 'Snake Dance
of the Moquis,' 'Medicine Men of the Apaches,'
and other books. He distinquished himself on
the Mexican border. He was an officer of great
courage and ability.

Bourmont, Louis Auguste Victor, loo-e
a-goost vek-tor boor-moh, (de Chaisnes
CoMTE de), marshal of France: b. 2 Sept. 1773,
at the castle of Bourmont in Anjou; d. there
27 Oct. 1846. At an early age he took part in
the campaign in La Vendee, at a later period
entered the Republican army, and was advanced
hy Napoleon, under whom he had distinguished
himself at Dresden and Nogent, to the rank of
general of division. Although he had gone over

to the Bourbons in March 1814, Napoleon, on
his return from Elba, gave him a command,
which, however, Bourmont resigned before the
battle of Ligny, in order to go over to the side
of the allies. Some years after, as commander
of the army of intervention in Spain, he obtained
some brilliant successes. His greatest victory
was the conquest of Algiers, which procured
him a marshal's staff in 1830. After the revo-
lution of July 1830, he followed the banished
dynasty into exile. In 1833 Dom Miguel, king
of Portugal, placed him at the head of his
troops which were to act against the adherents
of Dom Pedro ; but he was unsuccessful. He
afterward sought to act in the interests of the
Carlists in Spain, and when he at last returned
to his native country found that he had almost
entirely lost his popularity, and accordingly
retired for the rest of his life to his estate in
Anjou.

Bourne, Edward Gaylord, American edu-
cator: b. Strykersville, N. J., 24 June i860. He
was graduated at Yale in 1883, and has been
professor of history there since 1895. He has
written 'The History of Surplus Revenue' ; is
one of the editors of the 'Yale Review' ; and
published a collection of his writings on histor-
ical subjects under the title of 'Essays in His-
torical Criticism.'

Bourne, George, American clergyman and
anti-slavery writer: b. Westbury, Wiltshire,
England, 1780; d. New York, 14 Dec. 1845.
In 1804 he settled at Harrisburg, Pa., where
he set up a printing office. He was an earnest
advocate of the total and immediate abolition
of slavery, a position which aroused consider-
able opposition to him, and in 1815 he formed
a church composed of non-slaveholders. His
ultra-radical views at last obliged him to re-
move to Germantown. Afterward he resided
for intervals at Sing Sing, N. Y., Quebec, and
New York, where he founded a paper, The
Protestant Vindicator. He wrote: 'The
Book and Slavery Irreconcilable' (1815) ;
'Lectures on Ecclesiastical History' (1822) ;
'Pictures of Quebec' (1830) ; 'Slavery Illus-
trated in Its Effects upon Women' (1834).

Bourne, Hugh, founder of the sect of
Primitive Methodists in England : b. Fordhays,
Staffordshire, 3 April 1771 ; d. Bemersley, Staf-
fordshire, II Oct. 1852. About 1810, some of
the Wesleyan Methodists were desirous of re-
newing the primitive form of worship and con-
stitution, and wished particularly to revive camp
meetings. These practices were considered un-
advisable, and accordingly Mr. Bourne and his
friends were expelled from the body. They,
were 20 in number, and Hugh Bourne was ac-
knowledged their elder. The name of Primitive
Methodists was adopted in 1812, but by their
opponents they were long styled "Ranters."
The sect is now a powerful body in England,
numbering in 1901. 198.874 members and 1,100
ministers. In the United States it has 74 min-
isters, 90 churches and 6,549 members. In 1844
Bourne visited the United States, where his
preaching excited much attention. He also vis-
ited Canada, Scotland, and' Ireland, where he
met with great success in his work. He pub-
lished a 'History of the Primitive Methodists'
(1823), and founded, in 1824, 'The Primitive
Methodist Magazine.'

THE LIBRARY
UNIVERSITY OF CALIFCy^NIA

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