;|^3 THE LIBRARY OF THE UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA LOS ANGELES -?^ DBPABTMEWT OF ASTRONOMY tflflVEftSTTY OF CAUPCRNIA '*r toe AfXiELES DfiPAKTMENT OF ASntONOSf ^mfSfEMarrt of cAuroswA AtlXm Ai«C»JB9 GIFT OF rMi:Di.:HirK C. LEONARD THE AMERICANA y4 Universal Reference Library COMPRISING THE ARTS AND SCIENCES, LITERATURE, HISTORY, BIOGRAPHY, GEOGRAPHY, COMMERCE, ETC., OF THE WORLD EDI TOR- IN- CHIEF FREDERICK CONVERSE BEACH EDITOR SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN MANAGING EDITOR GEORGE EDWIN RINES ASSISTED BY MORK THAN TWO THOUSAND OF THE MOST EMINENT SCHOLARS AND AUTHORITIES IN AMERICA AND EUROPE UssueD un^er tf^e ]EMtorial Supervision oX Xlbe Scientific Hmerican IN SIXTEEN VOLUMES ILLUSTRATED SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN COMPILING DEP'T 225 FIFTH AVENUE, NEW YORK Copyright 1903-1906, BY Fredekick Converse Beach. Copyright 1907-1908, Frederick Converse Beach. FOR READING iiOOfJ ONLY A Few of the Leading Articles in Vohime Two WRITTEN AND SIGNED BY SPECIALISTS AUGUSTINIANISM John Grier Hibben Professor of Philosophy, Princeton University AUGUSTINIANS ....' Thomas C. Middleton, O.S.A. AUTOMOBILE Marius C. Krarup Formerly Editor of ' The Automobile ' BACTERIA AND BACTERIOLOGY A. C. Abbott Bacteriologist, University of Pennsylvania BALTIMORE, Md William H. Love Secretary Board of Trade BAND SAW BLADES Edward C. Mershon Of W. B. Mershon & Co., Saginaw, Mich. BANKS AND BANKING O. P. Austin United States Treasury Department BANKS AND BANKING, AMERICAN Levi Parsons Morton BANKING INSTITUTIONS Willis S. Paine President Consolidated National Bank, New York BANKS, SAVINGS . . . . , William Hanhart Secretary " Savings Bank Section," American Bankers' Association BANQUETS Miles Bradford Author of ' Carlotta and I ' BAPTISTS IN AMERICA Henry Clay Vedder Crozer Theological Seminary BARBADOES Marrion Wilcox Authority on Latin-America BATH, HISTORY OF THE John R. Meader Editor American Year Book BEARINGS, ANTI-FRICTION Henry Southern Engineer of the American Compound Bearing Co. BEEKEEPING E. R. Root Author of ' A. B. C. of Bee Culture ' and Editor of ' Gleanings in Bee Culture ' BEET Samuel Eraser Instructor in Agronomy, Cornell University BEETHOVEN Henry T. Finck Musical Critic ' Evening Post,' New York BERKELEY, GEORGE H. W. Wright Of Cornell University BERLIN .E. HiRscHBERc Director of Statistical Bureau of Berlin BIBLE Charles Woodruff Shields Prof, of Harmony of Science and Revealed Religion, Princeton University BIRDS ;•.•••. Ernest Ingersoll Editorial Staff, Encyclopedia Americana BLIND, EDUCATION OF THE Edward Ellis Allen Principal Pennsylvania Institution for the Instruction of the Blind BOILER A. D. Risteen Hartford Steam Boiler Insp. and Ins. Co. BOOK OF THE DEAD Samuel A. Binion Author of ' Ancient Egypt or Mizraim ' BOOKBINDING Edwin Ives Of Edwin Ives & Sons, New York BOOKKEEPING Edgar M. Barber Expert Accountant, U. S. Appraiser's Office BOOTS AND SHOES Frederick D. Hull Vice-President ' The Shoe Retailer,' New York and Boston BOSTON M. A. DeWolfe Howe Author of 'Boston: The Place and the People' BOTANICAL GARDENS D. T. MacDougal Director of Laboratories, New York Botanical Garden BOTANY Frederick V. Covillb Chief Botanist, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture 613833 KEY TO PRONUNCIATION. a far, father a fate, hate a or a at, fat a air, care a ado, sofa a all, fall ch choose, church eel, we bed, end her, over : also Fr. e, as in de; eu, as in neuf ; and oeu, as in boeuf, coeur; Ger. o (or oe), as in okonomie. e befall, elope e agent, trident ff off, trough g gas, get &w anguish, guava h hat, hot h or H Ger. cJi, as in nicht, wacht hw what 1 file, ice i or 1 him, it I between e and i, mostly in Oriental final syllables, as, Ferid-ud-din j gem, genius kw quaint, quite & Fr. nasal m or n, as in embonpoint, Jean, temps h Span, n, as in canon (can'yon), pinon (pen'yon) ng mingle, singing nk bank, ink 6 no, open o or o not, on 6 corn, nor 6 p.tom, symbol o book, look 'oi oil, soil ; also Ger. eu, as in heutel 6 or oo fool, rule ou or ow allow, bowsprit s satisf}-, sauce sh show, sure th thick, thin fh father, thither u mute, use u or u but, us u pull, put ii between u and z zh Miiller of, very (consonantal) yes, young pleasant, rose azure, pleasure ' (prime), " (secondary) accents, to indicate syllabic stress THE ENCYCLOPEDIA AMERICANA Atahualpa, a'ta-wal'pa (atahii, Latin virtus and allpa, sweet), a Peruvian inca, the son of Huayna Capac, eleventh inca. His brother Huascar succeeded Huayna Capac ; but Ata- hualpa obtained the kingdom of Quito, and a civil war broke out between the brothers ; though the details are not accurately known, it appears that when Pizarro was beginning to move inland Huas- car had been defeated and thrown into prison, and Atahualpa had become inca. Pi- zarro set out in September 1532, and made for Cassamarca, where the inca was. On 15 Nov. Pizarro entered Cassamarca, and sent to request an interview with the inca. On the evening of the next day, Atahualpa entered the great square of Cassamarca, accompanied by some five or six thousand men, while Pizarro's artillery and soldiers were planted in readiness in the streets opening off the square. The in- terview was carried on by the priest Vicente de Valverde, through an interpreter. He stated briefly and dogmatically the principal points of the Christian faith and the Roman Catholic pol- icy, and concluded by calling upon Atahualpa to become a Christian, obey the commands of the Pope, give up the administration of his king- dom, and pay tribute to Charles V., to whom had been granted the conquest of these lands. To this the inca at first returned a very tem- perate answer. The priest retired, and Pizarro at once gave the signal for attack. The Span- iards rushed out suddenly, and the Peruvians, astonished and defenseless, were cut down in hundreds. Atahualpa, thus treacherously cap- tured, offered an enormous sum of money as a ransom, and fulfilled his engagement ; but Pi- zarro still detained him, until the Spaniards should have arrived in sufficient numbers to secure the country. While in captivity, Ata- hualpa gave secret orders for the assassination of his brother Huascar, and also endeavored to raise an army to expel the invaders. His plans were betrayed, and Pizzaro at once brought him to trial. He was condemned to death, and, as Vol. ?— I being an idolater, to death by fire. Atahualpa, however, professed himself a Christian, received baptism; and his sentence was then altered into death by strangulation. His body was after- ward burned, and the ashes conveyed to Quito. Consult Prescott, * Conquest of Peru.* Atakapa, a'ta-ka'pa, the designation of an extinct cannibal tribe who occupied the west gulf coast of Louisiana. Atala, a'ta'la, a romance of the American wilderness, by Chateaubriand, published in 1801. It is the extravagant and artificial but beautiful story of two lovers — a young Indian brave, Chactas (that is, Choctaw), and an Indian maiden, Atala. At'alan'ta, the name of two heroines in Greek mythology. One was a native of Ar- cadia, celebrated for her skill in archery. She slew with her arrows the Centaurs Rhoecus and Hylseus, sailed to Colchis with the Argonauts, and was present at the chase of the Caledonian boar, which she first wounded ; hence Meleager awarded to her the prize. She was renowned for her beauty and swiftness in running. She stipulated that every candidate for her hand should run a race with her, and if he conquered her she was his own, but if he was conquered he was doomed to death at her hand. Many had fallen victims in the attempt, when Meilanion, by the aid of Aphrodite, overcame her. The goddess gave him three golden apples, which he threw behind him, one after another, as he ran. Atalanta stopped to pick them up. and Meilanion reached the goal before her. She accordingly became his wife. The other Atalanta, who can- not very well be distinguished from the preced- ing, the same stories being told about both, is connected with Boeotia and Boeotian localities. She is said to have been married to Hippo- menes. See Morris. Vol. IV. (1898): M5hler, 'Athanasius and the Church of His Time' ; Hergenrother, 'Athanasius the Great, Gorres Gessellschaft.' Athapascan Stock (also Tinnch), of Ameri- can Indians, and one of their most numerous and widely distributed linguistic and ethnolog- ical groups. The type-name is taken from a northwest Canadian group, the western Alontag- nais: but the tribes are scattered from Alaska to Mexico. The original stock were semi- arctic, along the Yukon and Mackenzie, fierce and energetic, but of a low type of culture ; and spread southward by conquest on both sides of the Rocky ]\Iountains. They are divided into three chief groups, the northern, the Pacific, and the southern. The first are those in the original home. — northwest Canada and interior Alaska, — Montagnais, Montagnards, Chippe- wayan, Kutchin, etc. These number about 8,500. The second are those of Washington, Oregon, and California, except the Thlinkeet coast tribes, which extend along the Alaskan coast also. These are few and scattered tribes. about 900 souls in all. The southern, and far the most important, comprises some 23.500 mostly of the great .Apache and Navajo confed- eracies, also the Jicarillas and Mescaleros, and the Lipan, of Mexico. Atharvana, at'har'vana, the fourth of the Indian Vedas. Its language is more modern than that of the other three. The theological treatises, regarded as 52 in number, called Up- anishads, are appended to the Atharvan Veda. A'theism, the denial of the existence of a God. Among the Greeks atheism consisted in a denial or non-recognition of the gods of the State. Socrates was put to death for assert- ing the superiority of the divine wisdom to the other gods, as the ruler and disposer of the uni- verse, thus contradicting Greek mythology, which assigned that office to Zeus. In Latin times atheism still continued to be a negation, with no pretension to rank as a system. It was closely akin to that cultured unbelief which extensively prevailed among the Humanists dur- ing the early part of the Renaissance. The atheism of the i8th century was a protest against current religious hypocrisy; and, like its predecessors, put forward little or nothing to replace the system it attempted to destroy. The atheism of the 19th century may be taken to mclude every philosophic system which re- jects the notion of a personal Creator; in this sense it ranks as a genus, of which Atomism, Pantheism, Positivism, etc., are species. Strict- h-, it is the doctrine that sees in matter the sole principle of the universe. Popularly, athe- ism consists in the denial of a God; this view is probably founded on the mistranslation of Psalms xiv. i, and liii. I, which should be, "The fool hath said in his heart, Xo God for m.e," that is, he wilfully rejects God, at the same time knowing that he is. Ath'el, or Mthel, an Old English \vord signifying noble, eminent, not only in blood or by descent, but in mind. It is frequently a part of Anglo-Saxon proper names. Ath'eling, a title of honor among the Anglo-Saxons, meaning one who is of noble blood. The title was gradually confined to princes of the blood royal, and in the 9th and loth centuries applied exclusively to the sons or brothers of the reigning king. It was first conferred on Edgar by Edward the Confessor, his grand-uncle, who bestowed it when he de- signed to make him successor to himself. Athelney, ath'el-nT, a marshy island in Somersetshire, England, about seven miles southeast of Bridgewater. It is formed by the junction of the rivers Parret and Tone. Al- fred the Great established a fortified post here during a Danish invasion, and afterward found- ed an abbey which has entirely vanished. Ath'elstan, a Saxon monarch, the first to assume the title of king of England. He suc- ceeded his father, Edward the Elder, in 925, and died in Gloucester, 2~ Oct. 940. He was victorious in his wars with the Danes of North- umberland, and the Scots, by whom they were assisted. After the overthrow of his enemies at Brunanburh (937), which became famous in Saxon song, he governed in peace and with great ability. Ath'enae'um, the general name of temples to Athena, but more especially applied to the temple at Athens, frequented by poets, learned men, and orators. Instruction was also given there to the youth, and in later times the name was applied to all places of education for the young. The same name w-as given at Rome to the celebrated school which Hadrian estab- lished on the Capitoline ]\Iount about 135 a.d. Many learned men received ample salaries for giving instruction in this institution, and that they might be enabled to study at leisure. Here also learned men assembled to exchange ideas. Ath'enaeus, a Greek rhetorician and gram- marian, who lived at Xaucratis. in Egypt, then at Alexandria, and afterward at Rome, at the end of the 2d and beginning of the 3d century after Christ. He has left an encyclopedic work in the form of conversation, called the 'Feast of the Learned' vDeipnosophistse), a rich but ill-arranged treasury of historical, antiquarian, philosophical, grammatical, and other know- ledge. The principal editions are those of Schweighiiuser (1801-7) ; Dindorf (1827) ; Meineke (1859-67). Ath'enag'oras, a Christian philosopher of Athens, who wrote in Greek an 'Apology for the Christians.' addressed to the emperor Mar- cus Aurelius. in 177. This work defends the Christians from the accusations brought against them by the heathens (of atheism, of incest, of ATHENAIS — ATHENS eating murdered children, and the like), with a philosophical spirit and in a lively and forcible style. Ath'ena'is, or Eudocia, empress of the East, daughter of the Athenian philosopher Leontius : b. Athens about 393-4 -^-d. ; d. Jerusalem about 465. Athenais gaining the favor of Pulcheria, sister of the emperor The- odosius, a youth of 20 years of age, presently became the wife of Theodosius and was per- suaded to receive baptism by the name of Eu- ■docia. By Theodosius she had a daughter, Eudoxia, who was married to Valentian III., emperor of the West. She was indisposed to submit to the authority of Pulcheria, who vir- tually ruled the empire of the East, and a quar- rel ensued, in which Eudocia had for a time the ascendency; but the jealousy of her husband being aroused, the authority of Pulcheria was restored, and Eudocia was permitted to retire to Jerusalem. When her daughter and grand- daughters were taken prisoners by Genseric she became reconciled to the orthodox Church. Athene, a-the'ne. See Minerva. Athene, Temple of. See .Egina. Athen'odo'rus, a Greek sculptor of the Rhodian school, who, with his father, Agesan- der. and Polydorus, executed the celebrated group of the "Laocoon." Ath'ens, Ala., county-seat of Limestone County, situated on the Louisville & N. railroad, 107 miles south of Nashville, Tenn., 85 miles north of Birmingham. Athens has a cotton factory, knitting mill, sash, door and bhnd fac- tory, two large lumber mills. State Agricultural School ; Athens Female College, under owner- ship and direction of North Alabama Confer- ence, Methodist Episcopal Church south. Has five churches for whites and several churches for colored population, and two newspapers. Surrounded by a splendid agricultural country and has many advantages. City owms and oper- ates water and light plant and the town has an excellent sewer system. City also owns and operates a dispensary. Robert ^L Rawls, Editor '^Alabama Courier? Ath'ens, Ga., a city and county-seat of Clarke County, on the Oconee River, and the Central of G., the Georgia, the Northeastern of G., and the Seaboard A. L. R.R.'s, 67 miles east of Atlanta, the State capital. It is in a cotton- growing region; has a large trade in that staple; and contains cotton and woolen, rotton-secd oil, bobbin, and hosiery mills, iron works, furniture factories, and other industrial plants. It is the seat of the L'niversity of Georgia, the State Col- lege of Agriculture and Mechanic Arts, Lucy Cobb Institute, Knox Institute, Jeruel Academy, and a State Normal School. There are electric light and street railway plants, two national banks, several hotels, and daily, weekly, and monthlj' periodicals. The assessed property valuation exceeds $6,000,000. Athens was first settled in 1801. Pop. (1904) 14.000. Ath'ens (ancient Greek. Afheiiai), the cap- ital of the kingdom of Greece, anciently the capital of the State of Attica and the centre of Greek culture. Its origin and early history are shrouded in darkness. It is situated in the cen- tral plain of Attica, about four miles from the Saronic Gulf or Gulf of Athens, an arm of the yEgean Sea, running in between the mainland of Greece and the Peloponnesus. The site is irregular, the city having been built on and around several hills rising from the plain. Mount Lycabettus, on the northeast, overlook- ing the whole. The principal eminence within the city boundary was the Acropolis, the site first built on ; west from the Acropolis was a lower hill, called the Areopagus ; southwest from the Areopagus was the Pnyx and south from the Pnyx the Museum ; toward the sea on the south the view was unimpeded. On the east of the city was the stream known as the Ilissus, and on the west the Cephissus. The Acropolis was often called Polis or the city, from its having formed the original nucleus of the town, while the whole city, or sometimes only the lower city, as distinct from the Acro- polis, was called Asty. In the Areopagus and the line of hills that run north and south to the west of it traces of numerous dwellings cut in the rocks have recently been found. At its most flourishing period, in the 5th century B.C., Athens w-as connected with its port-town Pirseeus and the harbors of Pirseeus and ]Muny- chia by two massive walls 550 feet apart, while a third wall ran to the less important harbor of Phalerum. The first was considered the most convenient, and was one of the emporiums of Grecian commerce. The surrounding coast was covered with magnificent buildings, whose splendor vied with those of the city. The walls of rough stone which connected the harbors with the city were so broad that carriages could go on their top. The Acropolis contained the most splendid works of art of which Athens could boast. Its chief ornament was the Par- thenon or Temple of Athena Parthenos (the Virgin). This magnificent building was 228 feet long, loi broad, and 66 high. It was built under the administration of Pericles, and fin- ished in 438 B.C. It was of the Doric order of architecture, and was built of marble, resting upon a basement of limestone. It had columns on all sides, 8 at either front and 17 at the sides, counting the corner columns twice. These columns were fully six feet in diameter at the base, and 34 feet high. The structure was adorned both within and without with statues, reliefs, and other sculptures. Inside the temple stood the statue of Athena by Phidias, a master- piece of art, nearly 40 feet high, the unclothed portions formed of ivory, the drapery of plates of gold, the weight of which was estimated at 44 talents. The Propylaea, a magnificent building, built of white marble, formed the entrance to the Acropolis, of which it covered the whole western end. A splendid marble stair, 70 feet broad, led up to the Propylaea. The chief build- ing on the Acropolis, in addition to the Parthe- non and the Propylaea, was the Erechtheum, a kind of double temple, especially sacred to Athena Polias (or Athena, guardian of the city), and Erechtheus, or Poseidon. On the Acropolis also were other temples, altars, stat- ues, etc.. including a colossal bronze statue of Athena Promachos, 50 or 60 feet high. On the south slope of the Acropolis were the theatre of Dionysus, the Odeum of Pericles, and the later Odeum of Herodes, the latter two buildings being intended for musical competitions. In ATHENS the lower city the greatest pieces of architecture were the temples of Theseus and Olympian Zeus, one of which stood on the northwest, the other on the southeast side of the Acropolis. The first was of Doric architecture, and resem- bled the Parthenon. On the metopes of this temple the famous deeds of Hercules and The- seus were excellently represented. The temple of Zeus Olympius was of Corinthian architec- ture, and was the largest temple in Athens, and the greatest ever erected to the supreme deity of the Greeks. It was begun by Pisistratus, and continued from time to time until at length, after 700 years, it was finished by Hadrian. The outside of this temple was adorned by 120 fluted columns, 60 feet high, and 6 feet in diam- eter. It was 354 feet long and 171 broad. Other structures deserving of notice were the Horologium of Andronicus Cyrrhestes or the «Temple of the Winds," the choragic- monu- ment of Lysicrates, and the Stoa Poikile or gallery of paintings. Besides these wonderful works of art Athens contained many other places which must always be interesting from the recollections connected with them. Such a spot was the renowned Academy where Plato taught, lying about six stadia north of the city, and consisting of a gymnasium surrounded by walks, groves, and fountains. Such a place was the Lyceum, where Aristotle taught, and which, through him, became the seat of the Peripatetic School. It lay on the bank of the Ilissus, oppo- site the city, and was also used for gymnastic exercises. Not far from thence was the less renowned Cynosarges. where Antisthenes, the founder of the Cynic School, taught. The sects of Zeno and Epicurus held their meetings in the city. Zeno chose the well-known Poikile, and Epicurus established himself in a garden within the walls, for he loved both society and rural quiet. Not only literarj', but political assemblies gave a particular interest to different places in Athens. Here was the court of Areo- pagus, where that illustrious body gave their decisions ; the Prytaneum or senate-house ; the Pnyx, where the free people of Athens deliber- ated. After 23 centuries of war and devasta- tion, of changes from civilized to savage mas- ters, have passed over this great city, its ruins still excite astonishment. The northern wing of the Propylsea is still tolerably perfect, and the inner wall, with its five gateways leading into the Acropolis, still stands. The Parthenon remained almost entire till 1687, when it was much injured by an explosion of gunpowder during the siege of Athens by the Venetians. It is now a magnificent ruin. Its two pedi- ments represented, respectively, the contest of Poseidon and Athena for Athens and the birth of the goddess, while the metopes represented a number of events in which the goddess or he- roes connected with Athens took part. A great number of these sculptures are now in the Brit- ish Museum. In the whole of this mutilated building we find an indescribable expression of grandeur and sublimity. Near the Propylaea is the small but elegant temple of Nike Apteros (Wingless Victory), which having been de- stroyed in 1687, was re-erected in 1835 from its remains. There are well-preserved remains to be seen of the Erechtheum. especially the beautiful female figures called Caryatides, sup- porting the roof of the southern portico. The Temple of the Winds is still tolerably perfe'rt. Its form is an octagon : on each side it is cov- ered with reliefs, which represent one of the principal winds. The choragic monument of Lysicrates also remains. It consists of a ped- estal surrounded by a colonnade, and is sur- mounted by a dome of Corinthian architecture. Outside of the city are the lofty ruins of the temple of the Olympian Zeus. Of 120 pillars 16 remain, but none of the statues are in exist- ence. The pedestals and inscriptions are scat- tered here and there, and partly buried in the earth. The main body of the temple of Theseus has remained almost entire, and it now contains a collection of ancient sculpture. On the hill where the famous court of Areopagus held its sittings are tO' be seen steps hewn in the rock, places for the judges to sit, and over aga-'nst these the stations of the accuser and the ac- cused. The hill became a Turkish burial- ground, and is covered with monuments. The Pnyx, the place of assembly for the people, not far from the Areopagus, is very nearly in its primitive state. One may see the place from which the orators spoke hewn in the rock, thf; seats of the scribes, and at both ends the places of those officers whose duty it was to preser-'e silence, and to make known the events of puV lic deHberations. The niches are still to be seen where those who had any favor to ask of the people deposited their petitions. The spot occupied by the Lyceum is only known by a quantity of fallen stones. The ground occu- pied by the gardens of the Academy is still well cultivated and fertile. The long walls are totally destroyed, though the foundations are yet to be found on the plain. The Piraeus has scarcely anything of its ancient splendor, ex- cept a few ruined pillars scattered here and there, though it promises to become a handsome modern town, and has again a harbor filled with shipping, engaged in carrying on a con- siderable trade. The most thorough investiga- tion of the places among the ruins of Athens worthy of attention is contained in Leake's ^Topography of Athens, with Some Remarks on its Antiquities^ (1821, with an atlas in folio; 2d ed. 1841). Other valuable works on the same subject are such as Stuart and Rev- ett's ^Antiquities of Athens^ (1762-1816) ; Dodwell's *Tour Through Greece^ ; Words- worth's ^Athens and Attica-* ; Curtius' ^Attische Studien^ ; Dyer's "^Ancient Athens* ; and Wach- smuth's "^Die Stadt Athen in Alterthum.* An- cient Athens is believed to have had a popula- tion of not more than 200,000. Athens was at no time so splendid as under the Antonines, when the magnificent works of from eight to ten centuries stood in view, and the edifices of Pericles were in equal preserva- tion with the new buildings. Plutarch himself wonders how the ancient structures could re- tain such a perpetual freshness. Pausanias. wha traveled in Greece at this time, that is, in the 2d century after Christ, has left a valuable ac- count of the state of Athens as he saw it. Many of the edifices of later times were due to foreign potentates, rulers of Pergamus. of Egypt, of Rome. But after a time the whole- sale robberies of collectors, the removal of great quantities of the works of art, first to^ Rome and then to Constantinople, Christian zeal, and the attacks of barbarians, made sad PARTHENON AND ACROPOLIS. I. Acropolis from the Hill of the Museum. 2. Parthenon (west front) restored. ATHENS — ATHERTON inroads among the monuments. When Justin- ian closed the schools of the philosophers in 529, Athens soon ceased to be a centre of intel- lectual activity. The Parthenon was turned into a church of the Virgin Mary, and Saint George stepped into the place of Theseus. In 1456 Athens fell into the hands of the Turks, under whom the Parthenon became a mosque. When it was selected as the capital of the modern kingdom in 1833, it had only a scanty population inhabiting a scene of ruins. Modern Athens lies mostly northward and eastward from the Acropolis, and consists of well-built streets, the most important being Piratus, Athens, Stadion, and University. Among the principal buildings are the royal palace, the university, the academy of science and art, the polytechnic, the national museum, the observatory, the chamber of deputies, ex- hibition buildings, new theatre, and new library. The palace (1838-43) is a conspicuous but un- attractive building of limestone with marble portico. The National University, founded in 1837, is a handsome structure, with a large number of teachers and an attendance of over 2,000 students. The academy is a beautiful building faced with Pentelic marble ; the new National Library is also a fine building, contain- ing over 200,000 volumes, and so is the Poly- technic School, part of which is occupied as a museum, and contains the Schliemann and other collections. Saint Nicodemus, the largest and finest of the Byzantine churches (62 feet long by 45 wide), dates from the nth century. Athens is well equipped with educational insti- tutions, possessing besides the National Uni- versity and Polytechnic School, a number of high schools, a gymnasium, a school for the higher education of girls and female teachers, orphanages for boys and girls, and four foreign archaeological schools or institutes, the French, German, American, and British. The city is governed by a mayor elected every four years, with a council of 18 members. There is a mu- nicipal fire department and the city controls the gas, electric light and waterworks, but the water supply is so inefficient that the inhabi- tants are obliged to have recourse to water-car- riers. Street cars cross the city in all direc- tions and it is an important railroad centre. The bathing resort of Phaleron. adjoining the Fort of Pirseus, is connected with Athens by a suburban railroad. The city has very little manufacturing, although the financial centre of the kingdom, and its trade is concerned chiefly with its own requirements. Pop. (1896) 1 1 1 ,486. Ath'ens, Ohio, a town and county-seat of Athens County, situated on the Baltimore & O. S. W., the Toledo & O. C, the Hocking V. & T., and the Kanawha & :\I. R.R.'s. Athens was settled in 1797, and in 181 1 was incorp- orated. The government is by a mayor, elected every two years, and a village council. The town owns and operates the waterworks. It is the seat of Ohio State University fq.v.) and of the Southeastern Ohio Insane Asylum, and manufactures lumber and brick. Pop. (1900) 3,066. Ath'ens, Tenn., a town and county-seat of McMinn County, on the Southern R.R. half way between Knoxville and Chattanooga, 56 miles to either city. The town was incorpor- ated in 1868. It has woolen mills, spinning mills, lumber factories and two newspapers. It is the seat of Grant Memorial University (q.v.). Pop. (1904) 2,600. w. T. Lane, Editor *^ Athens Post.^ Ath'ens, Texas, city and county-seat of Henderson County; at the junction of the Saint Louis & S. and the Texas & N. O. R.R.'s., 75 miles from Dallas. It is an important manu- facturing town and has pressed brick, fire brick and tile works, cotton oil mills, potteries, and other industries. There are excellent public schools, four churches, and two national banks. Athens was first settled in 1850 and was incor- porated as a city in 1901. Pop. (1900) 3,200. Ath'ens of America, a name frequently ap- plied to Boston, Mass., on account of her in- tellectual and literary pre-eminence. Ath'ens of the North, a name given to Edinburgh, Scotland, on account of the pictur- esqueness of the site and beauty of architecture, as well as intellectual distinction. Copenhagen also is often so called. Ath'ens of the West, a name given to Cordova, Spain, the centre of Arab learning and culture in the Middle Ages. Ath'ens, American School at, an institu- tion for classical study, founded in Athens, Greece, in 1882. It is affiliated with the Arch- aeological Institute of America, and is man- aged by a committee representing the colleges in the United States which contribute to its sup- port. The building was erected by means of private subscriptions, on grounds donated by the Greek government, and the institution has an endowment of $50,000. Ath'erine, a small fish, from five to six inches long, called also the sandsmelt. Atheroma, a term sometimes applied to the process of arteriosclerosis as a whole, but best restricted to that type of chronic degenera- tion of the blood vessels associated with soften- ing of the tissues and their infiltration with the necrotic products, fat cholesterin, etc. See Arteries, Dise.\ses of. Atherton, Charles Gordon, American pol- itician : b. Amherst, N. H., 1804; d. iNIanchester, N. H., 15 Nov. 1853. He was graduated from Harvard in 1822, was a member of the New Hampshire legislature for five years and speaker of the lower house for four, and in 1837-43 was a Democratic representative from New Hamp- shire in Congress. In 1843-9 and 1852-3 he was a member of the Senate. On 11 Dec. 1838 he introduced in the house the so-called "Ather- ton gag" resolution, which provided that all bills or petitions on the subject of slavery should be "laid on the table without being de- bated, printed, or referred." The resolution was passed by a vote of 126 to yj,, and remained in effect until 1844. It was resolutely opposed l^y J- Q- Adams, who advocated the "right of petition.'' Adams was ultimately victorious, and on 3 Dec. 1844 the 21st rule of the House, pro- viding that no paper praying the abolition of slavery or the slave trade should be in any wise entertained, was abolished by a vote of 108 tc^ 80. See G.^G-RULEs. Atherton, George William, American edu- cator: b. Boxford, Mass., 20 June 1837; d. Belle- fonte, Pa., 24 July igo6. He worked his way ATHERTON — ATHLETICS through Phillips Kxeter Academy and Yale Col- lege ; was professor of political economy and constitutional law in Rutgers College, N. J., in 1869-82; was admitted to the bar of New Jersey in 1878; and from 1882-1906 was president of the Pennsylvania State College. Ath'erton, Gertrude Franklin (Horn), American novelist : b. San Francisco in 1857. Since the death of her husband she has chiefly pursued a literary career. She has written 'The Doomswoman* (1892): 'Before the Gringo Came* (1894) ; % though it is destitute of sea weed. It extends between 20° and 30'' S. and 0° and 25° W. Besides the surface currents, recent investigation has established the existence of a general oceanic circulation, consisting of an un- der current of cold water flowing from the Poles to the equator, and an upper current of warm water from the equator to the Poles. The winds of the Atlantic are not peculiar to that ocean, but identical with those that prevail in the same latitudes in the other seas around the globe. The most remarkable of these are the perennial or trade winds, which blow constantly in one direction, namely, from east to west, or nearly so. The tract of the trade winds to the north of a zone, which is almost always found on the north side of the equator, is called the region of the northeast trade wind, from blow- ing one or two points north of east ; that to the south, the region of the southeast trade wind, from blowing south of east. The northeast trade wind blows with less steadiness than the southeast, but toward the West India islands it keeps generally steady between east and northeast. The trade winds are constant only at a considerable distance from land, and be- come more steady the greater the expanse of water over which they blow. Depths. — The greatest depth yet discovered in the Atlantic is to the north of the island of Porto Rico, in the West Indies, namely, 27,366 feet. Formerly depths of 40,000 or 50,000 feet were reported, but this was owing to defective sounding apparatus. The geog- raphy of the ocean bed is now pretty well known, especially in the North Atlantic. Cross- sections of the North Atlantic between Europe and America show that its bed may be repre- sented as exhibiting two great valleys lying in a northerly and southerly direction, and separat- ed by an intervening ridge. Each of these val- leys is about 500 miles in width. The mean depth of the east valley is about 14,000 or 15,000 feet, and it can be traced from the equator to the latitude of the Faroes, where it terminates, or over an extent of 3,700 miles. The west valley has a maximum depth of 16,800 feet, and can be traced from the latitude of the Azores as far north as Greenland, where it bifurcates, the deeper portion pointing north up Baffin Bay. The submarine ridge dividing these two valleys appears to be very uniform in depth below the surface, having 1,600 fathoms of wa- ter above it from the Azores to the latitude of the Hebrides. It then rises gradually till at last it culminates in Iceland. On this plateau the Atlantic telegraph cables have been laid, and from it the first specimens of deep-sea mud were brought up. This was found on examination by the microscope to consist to a large extent of calcareous shells {Foramini- fera), not water-worn, but quite perfect, show- ing that the water at such depths can have little or no motion. No sandy particles were found in the mud. The South Atlantic is not so well known as the North, but so far as soundings yet prove it has not a greater depth than the latter, the greatest depth found being 2,900 fathoms, in lat. 28° S. It would ap- pear to be separated from the North Atlantic by a rocky ridge, on which rest the islands of Ascension, Fernando de Noronha, and St. Paul. The saltness and specific gravity of the Atlantic differ in various parts, and gradually diminish from the tropics to the poles, and also from within a short distance of the tropics to the equator. In the neighborhood of the British Isles the salt is given as one thirty eighth of the weight of the water. See Ocean Current. Atlan'tic Telegraph. See Telegraph. Atlan'tides, a name given to the Pleiades, the seven daughters of Atlas or of his brother Hesperus. Atlan'tis, or Atlan'tica, a large island traditionally asserted to have once existed in the ocean immediately beyond the Strait of Cades ; that is, in what is now called the Atlantic Ocean, a short distance west of the Strait of Gibraltar. Homer, Horace, and some others made two Atlanticas, distinguished as the Hesperides and the Elysian Fields, and be- lieved to be the abodes of the blessed. Plato states that an easy passage existed from the one Atlantis into other islands, which lay near a continent exceeding in size all Europe and Asia. Some have thought this America. At- lantis is represented as having ultimately sunk beneath the waves, leaving only isolated rocks and shoals in its place. Geologists have discov- ered that the coast line of western Europe did once run farther in the direction of America than now ; but its submergence seems to have taken place long before historic times. *^The New Atlantis^ is the title which Lord Bacon gives to a literary fragment, in which he sketch- ed out an ideal commonwealth. Atlan'tis, a romance of the antediluvian world, by Ignatius Donnelly (1882). Atlan'tosau'rus. See Camarasaurus. Atlas, an extensive mountain system in North Africa, starting near Cape Nun, on the Atlantic Ocean, traversing Morocco, Algiers, and Tunis, and terminating on the coast of the Mediterranean. It is divided into the great and little Atlas. The little Atlas is the range nearest the sea-coast ; the great is more inland, and borders on the desert. In fact, however, the two ranges are one and the same system, though sometimes connected only by separate mountains, or ranges of low hills. On the coast, the range skirts the Mediterranean, from Cape Spartel, and the straits of Gibraltar, to Cape Bon, on the northeast of Tunis. The Atlantic shore is sometimes sandy and low, at other times formed by cliffs, which do not at- tain any great height, except at Cape Ghir. The Mediterranean shore, between Capes Spar- tel and Bon, is generally rugged, and in places attains a considerable height. Between Cape Bon and the gulf of Gabes it is rocky, but with- out reaching any great elevation. The southern slope of the Atlas reaches the great desert, from which it is . separated by a region of sand hills, shifting with every strong wind, and gradually making encroachments on the fertile lands at the foot of the mountains. On the west of the gulf of Gabes, Mount Nofusa, the If. St eastern spur of the Atlas, joins Mount Ga- rian, which extends into the regency of Tripoli. The French geographers include within the limits of the Atlas their own province of Alge- ria, together with the empire of Morocco, and a part of Tunis. The whole area is 500,000 square miles, including a great variety of sur- face, mountains, valleys, and extensive plains. ATLAS — ATMOSPHERE The loftiest peaks form a diagonal line, striking across the general course of the mountains from southwest to northeast. This Ime begins at Cape Ghir, on the Atlantic, which rises almost perpendicularly from the sea to a great eleva- tion. It then stretches away, east of the meridi- an of Morocco, then turns abruptly northeast, and from this quarter four important rivers take their rise, the Wady Oum Erbegh (Morbeya), the Muluia, the Tafilet, and the Draa. At this precise spot, the loftiest peaks of the whole mass seem to be brought together, and the most elevated chain runs away north. The principal chain traverses a region called the desert of Ansad, the boundary line between Morocco and Algiers. Here the name great Atlas is first applied. The principal chain recurs in Algeria, where its highest part is called Wanashrees, or Warensenis, and terminates on the banks of the Shelliff, whose valley makes a gap in its course. It reappears southwest of Algiers, in the lofty summits of the Jurjura. From this point, the chain follows a direction parallel to the coast, then it dips again to the southeast, and takes the name of the mountains of Wan- nooga. Further on to the east, we meet it as the Djebel Aiires, and approaching the coast again, it penetrates into the territory of Tunis, under the name of Mount Tipara, terminating at Cape Blanco and Cape Zibeb, on the north of the city of Tunis. The highest summits, the Miltsin (11,400 feet), southeast of the city of Morocco, and other mountains near the Wady Oum Erbegh, and the Muluia, are rarely free from snow. The greatest heights of the entire system are the Jebel Ayashi (14,600 feet), and Tamjurt (14,500 feet). The little Atlas is by no means so lofty, its highest peak, Shelia, having an altitude of only 7,611 feet. The great Atlas is the water-shed of the province. The rivers flow- ing north from this line force their way through the lesser Atlas to the Mediterranean, while those that take their rise on the southern slope are lost in the marshes of the desert. There are several defiles through the Atlas, the best known of which are those of the Beboonan, leading to Terodant in Morocco, and the Biban, or Iron gate on the east, leading from Algiers to Constantine. The geological constitution of these mountains presents old limestone alter- nating with a schist, oftentimes passing to a .veil-characterized micaceous schist, or gneiss. The stratification of the gneiss is also very ir- regular, only presenting organic debris; then come schistose clays, alternating with second- aiy limestones; then come limestone with white clays, and iron sands resting on blue clay. This formation is particularly developed near Oran, and the plains in which the soil is formed from it are of great fertility. Volcanic rocks have been found in small quantities. There are veins of iron, copper, and lead. Saltpetre is found near Terodant. x\bout 50 miles from the same towm, excellent malleable iron is found. At Elala there are copper and silver mines. The vegetation embraces all the varieties of T)oth temperate and tropical climates. The At- las was known to the ancients, and the Romans formed several colonies in the district. AtTas, an anatomical term applied to the first vertebra of the neck, which supports the head. It is connected with the occipital bone in such a way as to permit of the nodding \'oi. 2 — ^ movement of the head, and rests on the second vertebra or axis, their union allowing the head to turn from side to side. At'las, in Greek mythology, the Titan v/hom Zeus condemned to bear the vault of heaven. The same name is given to a collection of maps and charts, and was first used by Gerard Mercator in the i6th century, the figure of Atlas bearing the globe being represented on the title-pages of such works. At'lee, Washington Lemuel, American surgeon: b. Lancaster, Pa., 22 Feb. 1808; d. 6 Sept. 1878. He became noted as a pioneer in ovariotomy and the removal of uterine fibroid tumors, and published < Ovarian Tumors' (1873) ^Struggles and Triumphs of Ovariotomy' (1875), and a prize essay on 'Fibroid Tumors of the Uterus' (1876). At'midom'eter, an instrument for measur- ing the evaporation from water, ice, snow, etc. It consists of two glass or metal bulbs, one of them placed above the other, with which it communicates by a narrow neck. The instru- m.ent having been immersed in a vessel of wa- ter through a circular hole in which the steam rises, distilled v;ater is gradually poured into the pan above, causing it to sink to the point at which the zero of the stem is on a level with the cover of the vessel. As then the water in the pan gradually evaporates, the steam slowly ascends, the amount of evaporation being indicated in grains on the graduated scale. Atmorysis, the separation of the compo- nents of a gaseous mixture by means of diffu- sion. See Diffusion. Atmom'eter, an instrument invented by Sir John Leslie for measuring the quantity of moisture exhaled in the open air in a given time from any humid surface. It consists of a very thin ball of porous earthenware, from one to three inches in diameter, having a small neck firmly cemented to a long and rather wide tube of glass, to which is adapted a brass cap with a narrow collar of leather to fit closely. It is filled w^ith distilled or pure water, and its cap screwed tightly. It is then suspended out of doors where it is exposed freely to the action of the wind, but sheltered from rain. As the water evaporates from the external surface of the ball, it transudes through its porous sub- stance, and the waste is measured by the cor- responding descent of the liquid in the stem. To test the amount of this descent, there is a finely-graduated scale. When the water has sunk to the bottom of the stem, the latter re- quires to be filled anew. At'mosphere (Greek, "vaporous sphere''), in ordinary usage, the gaseous envelope that surrounds the earth. The atmosphere consists chiefly of the gases oxygen and nitrogen, not chemically combined, but mechanically mixed in the proportion of about 21 volumes of oxy- gen to 79 of nitrogen. It also contains small quantities of carbon dioxid, organic matter, wa- ter vapor, argon, and other substances. (For a more precise statement of its composition, see Air.) At the surface of the earth it has a den- sity of about i/8ooth of that of water, though this varies somewhat with the height above the sea level at which the determination is made, and with the temperature and barometric pres- sure prevailing at the time. The presence of ATMOSPHERE free nitrogen in the atmosphere may be attribut- ed, probably, to the comparative inertness of that gas, so far as any tendency to form chem- ical compounds is concerned. The presence of free oxygen cannot be explained in this man- ner, however, because oxygen is one of the most active chemical substances known. It appears more probable that oxygen is present in the free state simply on account of the immense quantity of that element that the earth contains. In past geological times, it combined with prac- tically all of the oxidizable minerals that were near enough to the surface of the earth to be accessible to it, and the present supply of free oxygen in the atmosphere must be regarded as merely the excess of that element that re- m.ained unused, after all the possible oxidations had been effected. According to this view, the earth (at least in its more superficial parts) is a gigantic, burned-out cinder ; and this accords with the estimates that chemists and geologists make, that nearly one half of the weight of the earth's crust consists of oxygen. It is likely that in past ages, and particularly in the carbon- iferous period when the vegetation that gave rise to our modern coal fields was flourishing, the quantity of carbon dioxid present in the atmo- sphere was considerably greater than at the present time. Part of this gas was absorbed by plants, its carbon being stored in the coal beds and its oxygen returned to the air ; but it is likely that by far the greater portion combined with lime and other similar earths to produce the present vast deposits of limestone and other carbonated minerals and rocks. At the present day, carbon dioxid is being absorbed from the atmosphere by plants, and returned to it again by animals, and by factories in which coal is burned. We have no means of knowing wheth- er the balance is being preserved, so far as this constituent of the atmosphere is concerned, or not ; because the mass of the entire atmosphere is too vast for the composition to be sensibly changed by these causes, since the time when exact analyses became possible. Galileo observed that water cannot be drawn up by a suction pump or other equivalent device, to a greater distance than about 34 feet. He did not succeed in explaining the existence of this limiting height, but his friend and amanu- ensis Torricelli, who succeeded him as profes- sor at Florence, afterward made the shrewd guess that water rises in such a pump for the reason that the atmosphere exerts a certain pres- sure upon all terrestrial objects, and that when a portion of this pressure is removed from the water in the suction tube of the pump, it is the pressure of the atmosphere upon the water external to the pump that causes the water in the pump-tu.be to rise ; and he saw that if that were the case, it would follow that a pump could only "draw^^ water up to the particular height at which the pressure due to the water- column so "drawn up** would precisely balance that of the atmosphere. The limit of 34 feet corresponds (as is easily shown by a simple calculation) to a pressure of about 15 pounds to the square inch ; and hence Torricelli inferred that the atmosphere exerts a pressure of that amount upon all objects. Meditating upon this hypothesis, it occurred to him that if his explan- ation were indeed correct; the atmosphere would be able to raise mercury (which is about 14 times as heavy as water) to only about one fourteenth of the height to which it can raise water. He accordingly (in 1643) procured a glass tube some 35 inches long, and closed at one end. Placing it with the open end up- ward, he filled it with mercury. He then cov- ered the open end to prevent the escape of the mercury, and inverted the tube so that its mouth, dipped into a basin also filled with mercury. Upon uncovering the open end of the tube, he was gratified to see that the mercury in the tube at once sank until its upper surface stood at about 30 inches above that in the basin. This experi- ment proved that the- atmosphere exerts a pres- sure equal to that due to a column of mercury 30 inches high ; or, in other words, equal to about 14.7 pounds per square inch. Additional proofs were soon given, also. Thus Pascal sug- gested that if the explanation were true, thi pressure ought to be less at the top of a moun- tain, than in a lower place; because the moun- tain projects up into the atmosphere so -fai that there is a sensibly smaller height of ail above it then there is above a point in a valley. The experiment was actually carried out by M. Perrier, who carried an apparatus like Tor- ricelli's (now known as a "barometer**) to the summit of a mountain in Auvergne called the Puy de Dome, and found at the top of this mountain (which is 4,800 feet high) the atmo- sphere could sustain only about 27 inches of mercury, although after returning to the plains, below, the full height of 30 inches was agam observed. Shortly afterward (in 1650) the air-pump was invented by Guericke, and the pressure of the atmosphere was demonstrated beyond any doubt whatever, by numerous direct experiments. The pressure of the atmosphere varies some- what from day to day, and even from hour to. hour, as well as with the latitude and with the height above the sea. For scientific purposes the normal atmospheric pressure is now gen- erally taken to be equal to the pressure due to a column of pure mercury 760 millimeters. (29.9212 inches) high, at the level of the sea^ in latitude 45° ; the mercury being at the tem- perature 32° F. The pressure so defined is called an "atmosphere** ; or, more briefly and conveniently, an "atmo.** The "atmosphere*' of pressure, as so defined, is nearly equal to a pressure of one million dynes per square centi- meter, and it has therefore been proposed to take one million dynes per square centimeter as the standard atmosphere of pressure, calling it an "absolute atmosphere,** because the dyne is a unit in the "absolute system'* of units. This proposal has not yet been adopted by physi- cists to anjf great extent. See Units. Knowing the pressure exerted by the atmo- sphere upon each square inch of the earth's surface to be about 14.7 pounds, and knowing the dimensions of the earth, it is not difficult to calculate the total weight of the entire atmo- sphere. The calculation, when performed, shows that the mass of the atmosphere is about i/i,ooo,oooth of that of the whole eartn. If the atmosphere were of uniform density, it would be easy to calculate the height to which it extends. We should only have to divide the pressure upon one square inch of the earth's, surface by the weight of a cubic inch of the air^ and the quotient would be the height of the ATMOSPHERIC ENGINE — ATMOSPHERIC RAILWAY atmosphere, in inches. Thus a cubic inch of air, at a pressure of 30 inches of mercury and at the temperature of freezing water weighs about 0.000749 of an ounce ; and as a column of mer- cury 30 inches high exerts a static pressure of about 235.8 ounces, it follows that if the at- mosphere were homogeneous (that is, of uni- form density throughout), its height would be about 253.8-^0.000749 = 314,000 inches, or 4.97 miles, when the air has a temperature of 32' F., and the barometric pressure is 30 inches. The height so calculated is convenient for use in cer- tain physical computations, and is called the "height of the homogeneous atmosphere." If we turn from this problem to the more difficult one of determining the actual height of the at- mosphere, we find that no satisfactory results can be given. As we go up, the strata become rarer and rarer, for the reason that the lower layers are weighed down and compressed by those above, and at increasing heights there is less and less air above, to exert this compression. At great heights the atmosphere becomes more and more attenuated, and thins out by insensible gradations into a perfect vacuum. There is no definite boundarj', immediately below which there is an atmosphere, and immediately above v.'hich there is none. Glaisher and Coxwell, in their famous balloon ascension of 5 Sept. 1862, attained an actual elevation of over 29,000 feet, and observed a barometric height of 9.5 inches (corrected) ; but it is certain that the atmo- sphere extends far higher than this. Some esti- mates, based on the calculated heights of shoot- ing stars when they first become luminous, place the limit at which the atmosphere has a density sufficient to produce any observable effects, at about 200 miles ; but, as has been pointed out above, all estimates of this kind are necessarily indefinite and unsatisfying. (For some of the questions raised in connection with the limits of the atmosphere, see G.\ses, Kinetic Theory OF.) The atmosphere, as might be expected from its relatively great depth, exhibits an absorption spectrum (see Spectroscope), and this varies to a certain extent from time to time. A portion of this absorption spectrum is due to the pres- ence of water vapor, and the "rain bands" in the spectrum have been utilized to a limited extent (though not very generally) in connection with W'eather predictions. It is also known that the atmosphere is less transparent to the rays at the blue end of the spectrum than to tliose in the middle and toward the red end. The experi- ments of Professor S. P. Langley, on the ex- pedition of the United States Signal Service to Mount Whitney, demonstrated that this selective absorption is so great that the sun would appear distinctly bluish, instead of white or yellowish as it does under actual conditions, if we could see it from a point outside of our own atmo- sphere. (See Langley, < Researches on Solar Heat,> 1884.) Little is yet known concerning the electrical phenomena of the atmosphere. In clear, calm weather, the atmosphere appears to be always positively electrified, with respect to the earth, and the diflference in potential increases greatly during snow storms and high winds. In thun- der storms it is subject to sudden and violent oscillations, as might be expected. Many the- ories have been proposed to account for the electrification so observed, particularly for the enormously high potentials that are in evidence during thunder storms; but none has yet met with general acceptance. It was formerly thought that the evaporation and condensation of water had much to do with it, but no ex- perimental evidence has been adduced to justify this hypothesis, although physicists have given it the most careful attention. Bartoli and Pet- tinelli made exhaustive experiments in connec- tion with it, both with water and with organic compounds; but always without obtaining any favorable results. Kelvin, MacLean, and Gall observed electrification when dry air bubbled through a liquid, the air being electrified nega- tively in the case of pure water, and positively in the case of sulphuric acid or salt water. Ap- parently these are all friction phenomena, and it is not certain that they have any bearing on the electrical phenomena of the atmosphere. We know, from numerous experiments, that dust facilitates the condensation of aqueous va- por, and numerous authorities have endeavored to trace a similar connection between dust and the development of high electric potentials in the atmosphere. No certain results have been at- tained, however, as may be judged from the fact that in the 12 years immediately preceding 1902, no less than 25 new thunder-storm theories were proposed, 6 of these being published dur- ing the year 1895. See also Meteorology; Wind. Atmospheric Engine, an early form of pumping engine, invented by Papin in 1695 and subsequently improved by Newcomen and Watt. The steam cylinder is vertical and single acting, the piston being alternately forced upward by steam, and downward by the pressure of the at- mosphere. See Steam and Steam Engine. Atmospheric Line. See Indicator. Atmospheric Railway, a railway in which the propulsive force designed to move the car- riages along is that of the atmosphere. The notion of such a method of locomotion seems first to have suggested itself, in the latter part of the 17th century, to the French physician Papin, whose name is forever associated with the celebrated digester. In 1810, Mr. Medhurst published a work entitled ^A New Method of Conveying Letters and Goods by Air.^ His pro- posal was to construct a close tunnel, in whick the carriages, — the last of them provided with a piston fitting the tunnel, — should be propelled by air forced in behind them. Vallance, of Brighton, in 1825, recommended, as an improve- ment on this plan, the exhaustion of the air in front. About 1835, Henry Pinkus, an Amer- ican, residing in England, patented a scheme for placing the carriages in the open air, but connecting them below with a small tunnel, having a narrow slit above, with ingeniously constructed apparatus to render the tunnel tem- porarily air-tight, notwithstanding the slit. Not much was done to carry out the patent ; and Pinkus' scheme of what he called a pneumatic railway was considered as having failed, when, in 1840, Messrs. Clegg and Samuda brought forward a somewhat similar project under the name of the "Atmospheric Railway.'' An e>- perimental fragment of line laid down near Wormwood Scrubs, just outside of London, on the Great Western line, was successful, a? was ATOLL — ATOMIC THEORY one designed for actual use from Kingstown to Dalkey, in Ireland, another between London and Croydon, and a third in South Devon ; but these have been since abandoned, and all that now remains to represent this mode of propulsion is the pneumatic dispatch tube, used for transmitting parcels to short distances. See Wire-rope. Atoll, a-tol', the Polynesian name for coral islands of the ringed type enclosing a lagoon in the centre. They are found chiefly in the Pa- cific in archipelagos, and occasionally are of large size. Suadiva Atoll is 44 miles by 34, and Rimsky 54 by 20. See Coral Islands. Atomic'ity. See Valency. Atomic Theory, in chemistry, the theory whose fundamental doctrine is that all matter is composed of ultramicroscopic particles, separated by spaces either entirely destitute of matter, or at least containing it in a very attenuated state. Such a theory was taught by Lucretius and other ancient philosophers, but the views of these early writers were neces- sarily vague and indefinite, and the atomic theo- ry, as held by chemists of to-day, is generally attributed to the English' scientist, John Dalton. In the early part of the 19th century Dalton called attention to the fact that when sub- stances combine chemically they do so in cer- tain definite proportions. His reasoning was something Hke this : In 100 pounds of carbon monoxid there are 42.9 pounds of carbon, and 57.1 pounds of oxygen. In the same weight of carbon dioxid there are 27.3 pounds of carbon, and 72.7 pounds of oxygen. These are merely experimental facts, obtainable by direct analy- sis, and they involve no hypothesis whatever. No particular relations are discernible among the numbers stated above ; but Dalton dis- covered that if the same facts are stated in a different way, a very remarkable relation ap- pears. Thus, suppose we calculate what weight of oxygen is combined with each pound of car- bon in 'the two gases. In carbon monoxid we find that there are 57.1 -^ 42.9= 1.33 pounds of oxygen to each pound of carbon, and in carbon dioxid we find that there are 72.7^-27.3 = 2.66 pounds to each pound of carbon. One of these numbers being exactly twice the other, we con- clude that carbon can unite with oxygen in two proportions, the quantity of oxygen, per unit weight of carbon, being twice as great in one case as in the other. Dalton observed similar relations among other compounds, — in fact, his theory first occurred to him while he was study- ing the simpler compounds of carbon and hy- drogen ; and after turning the matter over in his mind he came to the conclusion that the facts can best be explained by assuining that matter consists of exceedingly minute, indivisi- ble particles or atoms, each of which has a definite weight. When two bodies combine chemically, he conceived their atoms to come to- gether in pairs, or in threes, or fours, according to the compound formed ; and he devised sym- bols to represent the various elementary bodies and their compounds. Thus oxygen was repre- sented by a circle with a white centre, hydrogen by a circle with a dot in the centre, nitrogen by a circle crossed by a vertical straight line, and carbon by a solid black circle. His nota- tion has no advantages over the one now in com- mon use, and hence, in what follows, we shall adopt the modern symbols. As water was the only compound of oxygen and hydrogen that Dalton knew, he naturally represented it by the symbol OH, considering that in it the particles of oxygen and hydrogen are united in pairs. Taking the hydrogen atom as the unit, it fol- lows that the weight of the oxygen atom must be 8, if Dalton's view of the composition of wa- ter is correct ; for experiment shows that in a given mass of water there is eight times as miuch oxygen, by weight, as there is hydrogen. Carbon monoxid was represented by the sym- bol OC, and since for each unit of its oxvgen (by weight) this gas contains ^ of a unit of carbon, it follows that the atomic weight of carbon is ^ of that of oxygen. Hence the weight of the carbon atom is 6, the weight of the hydrogen atom being arbitrarily taken, as before, as i. Carbon dioxid was represented by the symbol OCO. Ammonia gas, being the only compound of hydrogen and nitrogen known to Dalton, was represented by the simple symbol NH ; and since experiment shows that am- monia gas contains (by weight) 47^ times as much nitrogen as hydrogen, the atomic weight of nitrogen must be 4^, or 4.67. In presenting the foregoing sketch of Dalton's views, use has been made of better experimental data than were available in his time, in order that the relation of his system of atomic weights to the modern system may be more clearly seen. A few of his actual determinations of atomic weights, from the imperfect data that he had, are given in the accompanying table. These were published in Element Atomic Weight Hydrogen Nitrogen Carbon Phosphorus Oxygen I.O 4.2 4.3 7.2 S-5 1805, and his general theory of chemical com- pounds was given in the first volume of his *New System of Chemical Philosophy,^ pub- lished in 1808. All subsequent researches have tended to confirm Dalton's fundamental con- ception, that matter is discontinuous in its ulti- mate nature, and consists of discrete atoms which come together in definite groups when chemical combination occurs. And we agree with him, to-day, in the belief that the so-called "atomic weights* of substances are really the true relative weiglifs of their atoms; the weight of the hydrogen atom being taken as unity. Soon after Dalton's theory had been announced, it was observed that there are simple volumetric rela- tions among gases when they combine. Thus it was noticed that 2 volumes of hydrogen com- bine with I volume of oxygen to form water ; that I volume of' hydrogen combines with I volume of chlorine to form 2 volumes of hydro- chloric acid gas ; and so on. This being the fact, it was suggested by Avogadro in 181 1, and independently by Ampere in 1813, that all gases, v/hen under the same conditions of temperature and pressure, contain the same number of con- stituent particles per unit of volume. This principle, known as "Avogadro's Law." has been of the greatest service to chemistry. Its truth was long questioned, but as it has led to results of great value, and has been found to be in conformity with all other known facts of ATOMIC THEORY chemistry, it is now accepted without reserve as a fundamental principle of nature. More- over, the kinetic theory of gases has shown that it is a mathematical necessity, if gases are admitted to consist of elastic particles, flying about through space, and colliding with one another, and with the walls of their containing vessels. (See Gases, Kinetic Theory of.) But if Avogadro's law be admitted to be a fact of nature, it becomes necessary, at once, to make an important modification in Dalton's the- ory. For it is plain that if i cubic inch of hydro- gen, containing (say) )i atoms, combines with i cubic inch of chlorine, also containing n atoms, to produce 2 cubic inches of hydrochloric acid gas, containing n con.stituent particles alto- gether, then the number of such particles in each cubic inch of the hydrochloric acid gas is only n -^ 2 ; whereas Avogadro's law requires us to admit the existence of n particles per cubic inch, in the compound gas as well as in each of its constituents. It follows, therefore, that when the rl and the CI combine, their ulti- mate particles do not simply unite in pairs. There is no way to explain the observed facts, consistently with Avogadro's law, unless we as- sume that the ultimate particles of H and CI are both compound, and that when these gases com- bine, their particles split in two, half a particle of the one combining with half a particle of the other, to produce a whole particle of HCl. In other words, Avogadro's law compels us to admit that the little corpuscles of which mat- ter is composed, and which we have heretofore called atoms, are really (in some cases, at least) systems composed of still smaller bodies. To distinguish between the two kinds of parti- cles — namely, between the systems and their component bodies — it therefore becomes neces- sary to introduce a new term. The systems are called "molecules'^ (literally, "tiny masses"), and their constituent parts are still called "atoms." To put the case in another way, the smallest parts into which a given substance can be conceived to be divided, without changing its chemical character, are called "molecules" ; while the word "atom" is reserved for the smallest portion of a substance that can enter into a chemical combination. A molecule is a system of atoms capable of independent exist- ence ; and an atom is one of the parts into v/hich the molecule of a substance divides, as a preliminary to entering into a chemical com- bination. We have but little information, up to the present time, concerning the number of atoms entering into the molecules of the different ele- ments. The molecules of cadmium, mercury, zinc, and indium are believed to be monatomic, at least when those bodies are in the gaseous state; so that in these cases there is no differ- ence between a molecule and an atom. The same is apparently true of the newly discovered gases, argon, helium, neon, krypton, and xenon. Hydrogen, nitrogen, oxygen, selenium, and tellurium are believed to be diatomic : that is, their molecules are believed to contain two atoms each. Phosphorus and arsenic are be- lieved to be tetratomic, their molecules contain- ing four atoms each. Chlorine, bromine, and iodine are diatomic at temperatures below iioo° F., but above iioo° their molecules are believed (by some authorities) to break up into single atoms, so that at about 2200° F. two thirds of the little particles present in these substances are free atoms, while the remaining one third continue to exist as diatomic molecules. Sul- phur is hexatomic at 900° F., but its molecules break up somewhat at higher temperatures, and are practically all diatomic above 1500°. Ac- cording to this view of the case, if H stands for the atom of hydrogen and CI for the atom of chlorine, what happens when a molecule of one of these gases combines with a molecule of the other is not simply H-|-C1=:HC1, because the molecule of hydrogen must be represented by H2 and that of chlorine by CI2. Hence the process of combination consists of two parts, the first of which is H, -f CI2 = H + H -f- Cl + Cl Molecule Molecule Atoms of Atoms of of hydrogen of chlorine hydrogen chlorine The atoms of hydrogen and chlorine, thus set free, then combine to form hydrochloric acid, in the following manner : H + H -f- CI + CI = HCl + HCl : or we may write the whole operation in the fol- lowing simple manner : H. + CU = 2HC1. Dalton, assuming that the formula of am- monia is NH, and knowing by experiment that the weight of the nitrogen present is 4.67 times as great as the weight of the hydrogen, would conclude that the atomic weight of nitrogen is 4.67 ; but since experiment shov/s that when ammonia gas is separated into its constituent elements, 2 volumes of the ammonia yield I volume of nitrogen and 3 volumes of hydrogen, Avogadro's law requires us to conclude that the true formula for ammonia is NH3 ; and hence we must take 3 X 4.67 = 14 as the atomic weight of nitrogen. This example will suffice to show how Avogadro's law obliged chemists to modify the atomic weights that would be ob- tained by the methods known to Dalton. Di' rect analysis of compounds of an element whose atomic weight is desired will give either that atomic weight itself, <5f some simple multiple or submultiple of it ; but to decide between these several multiples (as for example between 4.67 and 14, in the case cited above), it is necessary to have recourse to Avogadro's law, or to some other equally general principle. Unfortunately Avogadro's law cannot always be applied to the determination of atomic weights, because it frequently happens that no coi^pound of the element under examination can be obtained in the gaseous condition, or that the gaseous com- pounds that can be obtained are unsatisfactory, for one reason or another, and not adapted to the determination of the particular multiple that should be selected as the atomic weight of the element. In such cases recourse may be had to the law of Dulong and Petit, or to the "pe- riodic law" of Meyer and Mendeleeff. In 1819 two distinguished French physicists, MM. Du- long and Petit, announced that the specific heats of 13 elements upon which they had made care- ful experiments are inversely proportional to the respective atomic weights of those elements. In other words, that the product of the specific heat and the atomic weight (which product is called the "atomic heat") is the same for all of them. This remarkable generalization did not meet with universal and immediate acceptance, be- cause it failed in numerous cases unless the ATOMIC THEORY atomic weights of the corresponding elements were changed somewhat from the values that had been previously assigned to them from purely cnemical considerations. Thus in the case of bismuth, platinum, silver, and cobalt, Du- long and Petit substituted multiples or submul- tiples of the atomic weights then in use; and other changes were also made. Moreover, the law could not possibly be exact, because the spe- cific heats of bodies are not constant, but vary with the temperature, and sometimes to a con- siderable extent. Subsequent experimenters have paid great attention to Dulong and Petit's law, however, and now that the atomic weights of the more familiar elements have been pretty well determined in one way and another, the law is found to be surprisingly near to the truth, and most of the changes for which they contended, in connection with previously ac- cepted atomic weights, have since been made. A list of ten elements whose specific heats have been well determined are presented in the table, to illustrate the degree of accuracy with which Element Atomic Weight Specific Heat ("Atomic Product Heat ") Lithium Aluminum. . . . Potassium. . . . Copper Silver Antimony. . . . Tungsten Gold Bismuth Uranium 7- 27. 39- 63. 107. 119. 183. 196. 207. 238. 0.941 0.214 0.166 0.0952 0.0570 0.0508 0.0334 0.0324 0.0308 0.0277 6.6 5-8 6.5 6.0 6.1 6.1 6.1 6.4 6.4 6.6 a proposed element may be expected to conform to it. The atomic weights in the table range from 7 to 238, and yet when we multipl)' each one by the corresponding specific heat, we find that the product (or "atomic heat") remains con- stant, or nearly so. In some cases (notably for boron, silicon, and carbon), a large deviation from the law is observed ; but these exceptions cannot be considered in the present place. As an example of the use of Dulong and Petit's law, the case of silver may be cited. Previous to the publication of that law, the atomic weight of silver had been taken at 215. Dulong and Petit pointed out that if this value were retained, the product of the atomic weight and the spe- cific heat greatly exceeded the value 6, to which many of the other elements approximated. They therefore proposed to halve the then accepted atomic weight of this element, and to make (of course) a corresponding change in the formulas of all compounds of silver. Regnault con- firmed their experiments, and repeated their de- mand that the atomic weight be halved. But Berzelius, then the greatest living authority on such matters, refused to consent to the change, on the ground that silver and sodium com- pounds are isomorphous (see Isomorphism), and that the analogy between the formulas of their corresponding compounds would be de- stroyed, if the atomic weight of silver were halved, while that of sodium was left unchanged. Regnault then determined the specific heat of metallic sodium, and showed that the atomic weight of that element should also be halved, in order for it to conform to Dulong and Petit's law. Berzelius' objection thus lost its force, and the atomic weights of both silver and so- dium were ultimately halved, by universal con- sent. The "periodic law," already referred to, cannot be adequately treated in this place (see Periodic Law) ; but it may be said that when the known elements are arranged in the order of their atomic weights, it is found that certain attributes recur in a remarkable "periodic" man- ner, as we pass from one end of the array to the other. This fact is of great assistance in the determination of atomic weights, because any great error in the assignment of the atomic weight of an element would throw that ele- ment, among others with which it would have relations, entirely out of harmony with those that prevail in other parts of the array. This "periodic" classification is so powerful and far- reaching, that the existence of new and previous- ly unsuspected elements has been predicted by it, and afterward verified (in some cases) by the actual discovery of the elements themselves. The newly discovered gas "argon" (q.v.) affords an interesting case of the determination of an atomic weight by indirect means. Argon has re- sisted all attempts to make it combine with other substances, and hence it has been impossible, thus far, to analyze any of its compounds. Its density was found, by direct experiment, to be about 20 times as great as that of hydrogen. Now if, as Avogadro's law states, a cubic inch of argon contains just as many molecules as a cubic inch of hydrogen (under the same condi- tions of temperature and pressure), then it fol- lows that a molecule of argon weighs 20 times as much as a molecule of hydrogen, or 40 times as much as an atom of hydrogen. To find the weight of an atom of argon we therefore merely have to divide 40 by the number of atoms that there are in its molecule. For an explanation of the method by which the number of atoms in the molecule of such a gas is obtained, we must refer to the article G.a.ses, Kinetic The- ory of; it will suffice, in the present place, to state that it was found that argon is monatomic, its molecule containing but a single atom. Therefore the conclusion was, that the atomic weight of argon is about 40. The "periodic law" was not of any great service in this case, because the properties of the new gas proved to be so unlike those of any previously known sub- stance that its proper place in the general scheme could not be even guessed until its atomic weight had been determined. The sub- sequent discovery of helium and the other inert gases of the same group showed, however, that the atomic weight already assigned to argon is in reasonably good accordance with the periodic law. Chemists educated in recent years can hardly conceive the confusion that prevailed half a century ago, while the principles that have been outlined above were struggling for recognition and universal adoption. There was no agree- ment as to what atomic weights nor what for- mulas should be used. Mendeleefif says : "Some took o=:8 and others 0=16. Water in the first case would be HO and hydrogen peroxid HO2, and in the second case (as is now gen- erally accepted) water would be H2O and hydro- gen peroxid Hi>02 or HO. Discussion and con- fusion were reigning. In i860 the chemists of the whole world met at Carlsriihe for the pur- pose of arriving at some agreement on the sub- ject. There was great diflterence of opinion, ATOMIC THEORY and a conditional agreement (or compromise) was proposed and defended with the greatest acumen by the ranks of science. A conditional agreement was not arrived at, and ought not to have been; but instead of it, truth, in the form of the law of Avogadro-Gerhardt, received by means of the Congress a wider development, and soon afterward conquered all minds. Then the new so-called Gerhardt atomic weights establish- ed themselves, and in the seventies they had al- ready become generally used. As soon as a few of the atomic weights had been determined with some little degree of precision, it became evident that they came nearer to exact integers than one would naturally expect them to, judging from the theory of probability. As early as 1815, Prout made the assumption (since known as *Prout's Hypothesis") that the true values of these atomic weights are really integral num- bers ; .and he drew the inference that all elements are composed of hydrogen. Thus nitrogen, whose atomic weight is almost exactly 14, he believed to contain 14 times as many atoms to the molecule as hydrogen contains, and he be- lieved the fundamental atom to be the same in each case. Ihere is nothing about this assump- tion which conflicts with what has been said above about nitrogen being a diatomic gas ; for all that Avogadro's law positively shows is that when a molecule of that gas divides, it. splits into halves, and therefore contains an even num- ber of atoms. In the absence of any evidence to the contrary we assume it to be simply diatom- ic, although we must always remember that fu- ture research may require us to admit if to be tetratomic, hexatomic, or even more complex. Front's hypothesis has provoked a great deal of discussion, and since it was first proposed it has been attacked and defended by many distin- guished chemists ; and although rather in dis- favor at present, we can hardly yet say that it has been finally laid to rest. One can scarcely glance at a table of atomic weights (such as that here presented) without being impressed by the manifest tendency shown by these atomic weights to approach integral values. Of course there are conspicuous exceptions — chlorine, for example — but the fact that many of the atomic weights are nearly integral demands some sort of an explanation. What that explanation may ultimately prove to be, we cannot now guess ; but it is possible that it will be found in the de- velopment of the remarkable corpuscular hy- pothesis of Prof. J. J. Thomson. (See Elec- tron.) The atomic weight of oxygen was long thought to be precisely 16 ; very careful experi- ments then indicated that 15.96 is a closer ap- proximation to the real fact ; and it has recent- ly been ascertained that 15.88 is a still better approximation. It is a matter of choice what element is taken as having the atomic weigiit unity, hydrogen having been chosen for this purpose merely because it is the lightest element known. For many purposes it would be con- venient if the atomic weight of oxygen were precisely 16; but this value is now known to be incompatible with the assumption that the atom- ic weight of hydrogen is i. Chemists have therefore been in the habit, in recent years, of multiplying all the atomic weights, as de- duced on the hypothesis that H^=i, by a con- stant number, so determined as to make the atomic weight of oxygen come precisely 16. It happens that this number is 1.008, and this is therefore the atomic weight that must be as- signed to hydrogen, if we are to adopt a scale on which the atomic weight of oxygen is to be precisely 16. A majority of the chemists of the world now use this modified scale, on which the atomic weight of hydrogen is taken as 1.008; and the scale so established is known as the ^'International" scale of atomic weights. A table of the atomic weights of the elements, both for H = i, and for 0=16, is presented herewith. TABLE OF ATOMIC WEIGHTS. Element Symbol Aluminum. . . . Antimony. . . . . Argon Arsenic Barium Bismuth Boron Bromine Cadmium Caesium Calcium Carbon Cerium Chlorine Chromium. . . . Cobalt Columbium. . . Copper Erbium Fluorin Gadolinium. . . Gallium Germanium. . . Glucinum. . . . , Gold Helium Hydrogen. . . . Indium - Iodine Iridium Iron Krypton Lanthanum. . . Lead Lithium Magnesium. . . Manganese. . . Mercury Molybdenum. , Neodymium. . Neon Nickel Nitrogen Osmium Oxygen Palladium. . . . Phosphorus. . . Platinum Potassium. . . . Praseodymium Rhodium. . . . Rubidium. . . Ruthenium. . Samarium. . . Scandium. . . Selenium. . . , Silicon Silver Sodium Strontium. . . Sulphur Tantalum. . . Tellurium. . . Thallium. . . . Thorium. . . . Thulium. . . . Tin Titanium. . . . Tungsten. . . Uranium. . . . Vanadium. . . Xenon Ytterbium. . . Yttrium. ... Zinc. Zirconium. . . A! Sb A As Ba Bi B Br Cd Cs Ca C Ce CI Cr Co Cb Cu E F Gd Ga Ge Gl Au He H In I Ir Fe Kr La Pb Li Mg Mn Hg Mo Nd Ne Ni N Os O Pd P Pt K Pr Rh Rb Ru Sa Sc Se Si Ag Na Sr S Ta Te Tl Th Tu Sn Ti W U V X Yt Y Zn Zr Atomic Weight H=i. 0=16. 26.9 1 19.1 39-6 74.4 136.4 206.9 10.9 7936 III. 6 132. 39-7 1 1. 91 139- 35.18 51-7 58.56 93-3 63.1 164.8 18.9 155- 69-5 71-5 903 195.7 4- I. 113.1 125-9 191-5 55-6 81.2 137. 205-35 6.98 24.18 54-6 198.8 95-3 142-5 19.9 58.3 13-93 189.6 15.88 105.2 30.77 193-3 38.86 1394 102.2 84.76 100.9 148.9 43-8 78.5 28.2 107.12 22.83 86.94 31-83 181.6 126. 202.6 230.8 170. I 17.6 47-7 182.6 237-7 50.8 127. 172. 88.3 64.9 90. 27.1 120. 39-9 75- 137-4 208.S 1 1. 79.96 112.4 133- 40. 12. 140. 35-45 52-1 59- 94- 63-6 166. 19- 156. 70. 72. 9-1 197.2 4- i.oo» 114. 126.8s 193- 56. 81.8 138 206.9 7.03 24.36 55- 200.3 96. 143.6 20. 58.7 14.01 191. 16. 106. 31. 194.8 39. IS 140.5 103. 8s-4 101.7 ISO. 44.1 79.1 28.4 107.93 23.05 87.6 32.06 183. 127. 204.1 171. 118.5 48.1 184. 239.5 51-2 128. 173- 89- 65-4 90.7 ATONEMENT The many questions that suggest themselves as to the size and physical nature of atoms be- long properly to the domain of physics, and are discussed under the heading Molecular Theory. The day will doubtless come when the phy- sicist and the chemist will find some common ground for the discussion of the nature of atoms and molecules ; but at present these two sciences deal with such widely different classes of phe- nomena that no such common ground can be discerned. The atom and the molecule of the physicist appear to be hardly capable of pos- sessing the properties that the chemist demands ; but this difficulty may one day be overcome. See Chemistry ; Electron ; Molecular Theory ; Gases. Kinetic Theory of; Valency; Spectro- scope ; Periodic Law. ^ ^ Risteen, Ph.D. Editorial Staff ^-Encyclopedia Americana? Atonement. The Atonement is the caption under which Christian theology introduces the discussion of the application of the merits of the life and death of Christ to the reconcilia- tion of fallen man to his Creator, as well as of the acceptance thereof by the Divinity. It expresses the crowning effect of the incarna- tion. It is, in this sense, an attempt at an ex- planation of the coming of the Redeemer. In a general way it means compensation, restora- tion, expiation, satisfaction, ransom. It is a word made up etymologically of at and one, and suggests that two who were divided have become one again. It embraces all that the Saviour accomplished to nullify the effects of sin. The atonement is considered to have re- paired the consequences of the primal trans- gression, all the moral consequences, say some, say most of the authorities. As to the physical outcome of the rebellion in Eden, it claims no change save, that through it, man has been enabled to bear patiently and meritoriously all the ills of existence and to wrest from what is evil a good that worketh unto satisfaction. The atonement idea is co-existent with what, in order to avoid conflict with those who think otherwise, may be called Biblical humanity ; that is, the race whose chronicle is found in the pages of Scripture. It has no meaning for those who reject the inspiration of Holy Writ or for those whose beliefs are antagonistic to Christianity. With these, if there be any atone- ment at all, it lies in an evolution, by virtue of which man develops from worse to better and in the ^'process of the suns'' reaches, un- aided, to a deliverance and a perfection far surpassing even the dreams of Christianity. The subject is a vast one. It has many and far-reaching ramifications which are constantly in contact with every issue of soteriological study. To confine it within the limits of an encyclopedic article necessarily cramps it and scarcely -makes for completeness. All that can be done is to present its general features, the basis on which it rests, and some of the opin- ions which deserve attention in the different stages of development incidental to its growth. The fact upon which the doctrine reposes is that narrated in Genesis iii., wherein the pre- varication of the first couple is said to draw on them and posterity the curse of the Al- mighty, which He tempers with the promise of a Redeemer to come. This violation nf Gnd's command, while it rendered Adam and Eve criminal and placed them under a ban, was at the same time an insult outraging, as much as anything finite could, the infinite perfections. Thus a condition was brought about which consigned man to punishment and left an af- front against the Creator to be, in some way or other, atoned for. In this plight the whole race was involved and became ostracized from God. All humanity was confronted by a God whose infinite justice called for an indemnity of some kind as a reparation for the indignity offered to His perfections, by a penal sentence to be endured, by the loss of innocence, by the unbridling of concupiscence and by a slavery which reduced it to the thrall of the prince of the powers of darkness. Immediately is per- ceived the gaping breach which the atonement had to bridge over. Could the restoration be achieved by man himself and alone, or by en- tire humanity? The general answer is a nega- tive. It is clear from the attitude into which man was forced by his sin what the questions are which in this discussion call for a reply. The views entertained by theologians are not marked by very harmonious notes. There is a very great discrepancy of opinion. Like other doctrines, that of the atonement did not come into existence full grown. It was not formu- lated in the beginning. Hints of its nature are found in the New Testament. By Christians up to the time of the Reformation it was re- ceived from individual teachers, by whom, as by the laity, it was instinctively grasped, though scarcely expressed, and thus in many forms traversed the duration of nearly 15 centuries. Whenever, during all that period, it was treated by the fathers and doctors and other writers, there was unanimity on this one point : that the atonement was effected by the incar- nate Son of God and that the satisfaction was complete and answered all the exactions of a just Deity, while it simply deluged man with a sea of spiritual blessings. Their contention, summed up, was that it was in the absolute power of God to pardon man without any atonement, without sending His Christ. In His wisdom, however, consulting not only the great wrong perpetrated against Him, but the welfare of His creatures. He decreed the in- carnation of His divine Son, the second person of the Blessed Trinity. That Son incarnated was both God and man, possessing two natures in one person. This person was divine. As all acts are attributable to the personality of the individual, it followed that the acts of the God-man were divine, and so, whether proceed- ing from the human nature or not, they were infinite in value. It was necessary for an atone- ment act to have infinity, because sin, though committed by a finite agent, was in a measure infinite, si.nce its malice was directed towards a being infinite in nature. Theologians made the distinction that sin was finite subjectively, but objectively infinite. The divinity of the person made the atonement secure on the side of the Father. Man was doubly privileged. The Redemption of Christ obtained for him, through grace which had its efficacy in the blood of the Saviour, the remission of sin, and strengthened him against his own weakness, his own passion and the wiles of the enemy from wh-^se thraldom he had been rescued. In a word, the insult to the Father was wiped ATONEMENT out; man was restored to the old friendship, was endowed with the means of justification and sanctification and his feet put on a path to the vision of God, in the enjoyment of which sin becomes an impossibiHty and happiness is supreme. With very few exceptions this, more or less completely, was the form the atonement took in the thoughts of the large majority of teachers of the Church for a decade and half of centuries. They labored to hold up the dig- nity and liberality of the atonement. The Atoner was Christ, and He atoned through His sac- rifice on the cross in a manner ample beyond all human reckoning. But the atonement was not a thing of Christianity only; its effects reached back to the whole past of man, for the Lamb who atoned was <'slain from the founda- tion of the world.'* They argued that the re- demption was universal as to time and place and for all the generations of man. All the peoples before Christ came within its pale. No man, however incult, fell outside of the plan of redemption. Everyone everywhere could find its blessings within his reach. It wrought from alpha to omega on the race. Not the chosen people only, but the Gentiles as well participated in its benefits. It was taught in the period under reflexion that just as soon as tht Pvcdeemer was foretold to Adam and Eve the atonement began to energize in some inexplicable manner, but always with a view to the merits of Qirist, who was to come in the fulness of time and pay the ransom. The concession of the Creator in granting a Re- deemer who was to make plenary atonement for every man until the passing away of the race was, before the incarnation, a promissory note — if it may be allowed to use the term — a prom- issory note of salvation accepted and honored by the Maker, who knew that at the appointed time a priceless amount would be stored up for its redemption. The atonement idea, that is, the necessity of making amends to a Ruler whose mandates had been and were being vio- lated, prevailed everywhere in the ancient world and was not confined to the descendants of Abraham. Sacrifices, propitiatory and ex- piatory, so common among the ancient idolators, are evidence sufficient. Among them was an uppermost thought that reconciliation with God or wMth the gods could not be brought about by individual efforts alone. The sacrifices of Israel emphasize the essence of all atonement. A victim was always called for. Something outside of the transgressor had to be offered to effect the lifting of the ban. That blood offerings, or others, were ineffective, save in- directly and by a mysterious connection with the oblation of Christ, is admitted throughout the extent of ante-Reform tradition. In the Jewish mind the concept of sacrifice in a mul- titude of cases connoted effusion of blood. The Hebrews were instructed that transgressions placed on the back of the victim died with the victim. This only in a measure, for it does not appear that they professed that after the death of the victim the guilt of the sacrificers was cancelled without any further act or co- operation on their part. Repentance was nec- essary and each had to do his utmost to share by individual action in the redeeming work of the sacrificial object. The vexed subject of imputation (q. v.) recurs frequently but can- not be touched here. The religion of the Jews was distinguished by the number and variety of its sacrifices. But atonement was ever be- fore their eyes. Yom hakkippurim, or Day of Atonement, is another proof. It was a penitential occasion. Its austerity was rigor- ous. From the evening of the Qth to the even- ing of the loth of the seventh month no bodily labor could be done, no food taken under pen- alty of death. All the ritual was carried out by the high priest, who offered sacrifices for the sins of himself, of the priesthood and of the people. For the typical meaning of these ceremonies see Heb. viii-x, and for a descrip- tion of the solemnity cf. Lev. xvi. These types ceased with the advent of Christ. Mention has already been made of the gradual develop- ment of the doctrine of atonement. From the death of the Saviour it was admitted that "Je- sus died, the just for the unjust, to redeem mankind from the bondage of corruption and to restore the broken connection between heav- en and earth.'' Different ways of looking at this fundamental axiom of Christianity in gen- eral, have suggested various explanations. The conditions of the dispute led to many questions which relate to the incarnation. The one thing the teaching Church held to was that Christ as man is the first and supreme mediator be- tween God and man (i Tim. ii. 5). Because as man He was a created being He is below God, but is above all creatures by reason of the plenitude of His grace and glory. As man He offered to God a satisfaction so singu- larly adequate that by it was destroyed "the handwriting of the decree" so adverse to us, and by it also man was endowed with all that is requisite to be in friendly association with God, by grace in the present and by glory in the future. Others, ministerially or otherwise, may co-operate in uniting God and man, but Christ is the chief and first and literally the only mediator (Billot). The doctrine of the incarnation in its en- tirety illumines this subject, but of it and of other cognate subjects, such as justification and original sin, notice cannot be taken here. The atonement, as such, has not been treated spe- cifically by early writers, and it would be diffi- cult to put one's finger on any dogmatic decree in which it is definitely formulated. Just as from definitions here and there spread over the volume of authoritative teaching the na- ture of the atonement is elicited, so from the utterances of ecclesiastical writers one is able to reach a conclusion in harmony with the af- firmation of tradition. The view still claiming attention bases itself on Scripture. Texts there- from are not necessary for the present writing: they embrace the prophetic language of the Old and the literal language of the New Tes- tament. The Apostolic Fathers, from Clement to Polycarp, are satisfied with stating the fun- damental idea that "Christ died for us" and for our sakes. Irenaeus and Origen insist that a price had to be paid to Satan because Satan had gained a rightful mastery over and own- ership of men, for which the only equivalent was the blood of Jesus. This view was never universal, but now and again it is brought for- ward, even up to the time of Peter Lombard. The Fathers and writers from Origen to An- selm wrote more systematically on nearly every ATONEMENT topic, but were unanimous in maintaining that the death of Christ was the sacrifice unique and par excellence and amply satisfactory. Some do, others do not, endeavor to explain whether and why this sacrifice was imperative. This is true of 'the Church East and West, Greek and Latin. Two ideas are prominent : the infinite value of the human acts of Christ, and the need of grace for human weakness. More stress is placed on the incarnation than on its concom- itant effecting of the atonement. "The work of mediation was summed up but not exhausted in the dying. He was a priest and a sacrifice from the beginning, and is and always will be. The imitability of Christ's career was not confined to the death on the cross, but as well to the whole existence" (Newman). Occasionally a peculiar view would startle the world, but without changing the generally accepted opinion. Anselm (1033) in his (Hebrews viii, 12.) The space of this article is inadequate to include even the most summary account of the atonement idea as it was understood by the nations outside of the chosen people. Research has made it ad- missible that everywhere there have been re- ligious beliefs, opinions and practices pointing to the acknowledgment of a Supreme Being and judgment to come and a reward or punishment in a life beyond this. With this are apparently connected sacrifices which no matter how ac- companied by fanaticism and superstition are an attestation of an homage paid to a deity, a homage of praise, or petition, or thanksgiving or of supplication for pardon — an homage which was inspired by an underlying sentiment of the need of appeasing some offended divin- ity. Yet it is not easy to trace this need in those religions which are so widespread in the Levant and furthest East and proclaim as fundamental Fatalism, Metempsy-chosis and Pantheism. The investigation of the subject of atonement as advanced by the followers of Christ, by those followers who profess that Jesus was the Son of God, that is, was Divine, among other questions inevitably suggests the question of the possibility of salvation for all individuals of the race whose creed negatives Christianity altogether. Some reply, adequate or otherwise, may be found in the dogma that "Christ died for all men,'' whence the inference is deducible that even those who never heard of the Redeemer, or the atonement, cannot but be affected by that death. How? is a large thesis. That the problem has been approached by hon- est and able thinkers is plain to the readers of history. In the Christian world there is no small number who deny the primal fall and hence see nothing urgent in the discussion of the atonement. The Messiah has not yet reached this earth say the Jews, Christ was not God, say the Arians. there is no God, say the Atheists, if there be He is unknowable, say the Agnostics. For all these the atonement has very slight, if any, significance. Teacher? of note advance the theory, basing it on Scrip- ture, that the first tradition of a redeemer to ATOSSA — ATRIUM come and who was to atone, was carried by the earlier peoples as they grew and scattered and populated the earth. The Jewish idea brought by the Israelites in their wanderings and cap- tivities and assimilated by the tribes and na- tions among whom they dwelt, was in the lapse of time weakened or metamorphosed, or adapted to pagan beliefs and so corrupted. "The only theory which accounts for all these facts,^' says Rawlinson, "is that of a primeval revelation variously corrupted through the manifold and multiform deterioration of human nature, in different races and places.^' Bibliography. — Various commentaries on the Fourth Gospel and the Epistles of Saint Paul ; Canones Concil Trident; Luther's 'de Servo Arbitrio,^ robably A. belladonna. See Belladonna. Atrophy, a term denoting a diminution in the size of the organs, or tissues that make up the body. It is part of the physiological process in its simpler forms, as many parts of the body atrophy and become of secondary service in adult life ; the thj'mus gland and umbilical ves- sels being examples. It may also be a symptom of disease, particularly in affections of the nervous system in which the trophic fibres of an organ are involved. It may also indicate a perverted state of nutrition. See Nutrition. At'ropine, a crystalline alkaloid obtained from the deadly nightshade. It is extremely poisonous. Large doses cause delirium, convul- sions, and finally stupor and death. It is em- ployed for several purposes in medicine, to re- lieve pain or spasm, and to arrest excessive sweats. The physiological action of atropine is chiefly exerted on the nervous system. It is a strong stimulant, particularly of the motor and respiratory centres, and paralyzes the end fila- ments of many nerves, particularly those that supply the secretorj' glands, the involuntary muscles, and the heart. Its chief poisonous symptoms are, in the stage of excitement, dry- ness of the mouth and pharynx, with anes- thesia, a hot dry skin, dilatation of the pupil with blurred vision, due to paralysis, ex- treme restlessness, due to the motor excita- tion, a noisy, busy, and incoherent brain action, perhaps a delirium, quickened pulse, quickened respiration. This stage may pass into one of depression in which the patient becomes comatose, the pulse and respiration DCcome slowed and death results from as- phyxia. Treatment of the poisoning should include prompt washing of the stomach, emet- ics being of no service because of the aues- thesia, artificial respiration, infusions oi hot coffee, and general supportive measures. See Belladonna ; Solanace.e. Atropos, at'ro-pos, the eldest of the Fates, who cuts the thread of human life with her shears. Atsuta, at-soo'ta, Japan, a town in the southern part of Honishu, practically a suburb of Nagoya, with which it is connected by rail. It contains a number of Shintoese temples, in one of which the sword formmg part of the Japanese imperial regalia, is kept. Pop. (1898) 24.291. Attache, a'ta'sha', a military, naval or sub- ordinate member of the diplomatic service at- tached to an embassy or legation. Modern usage in effect restricts the term to subordinate officers of an embassy or legation. Attach'ment, in law, a taking of a person, goods, or estate by virtue of a writ or precept. It is distinguished from an arrest by proceeding out of a higher court by precept or writ, where- as the latter proceeds out of an inferior court by precept only. An arrest lies only against the body of a person, whereas an attachment lies often against the goods only, and sometimes against the body and goods. It differs from a distress in that an attachment does not extend to lands, while a distress cannot touch the body. In the United States attachment may be defined as the taking into the custody of the law the person or property of one already before the court, or whom it is sought to bring before the court; also a writ for this purpose. To some extent it is of the nature of a criminal process. In some States a plaintiff can at the beginning of an action to recover money attach the property of the defendant as a security for the payment of the judgment expected to be recovered ; and in case of recovery the property is applied in satisfaction of the judgment. But the more usual rule is that there can be no seizure of property, except in specified cases, till the rights of the parties have been settled by judgment of the court. The exceptions are chiefly in cases where the defendant is a non- resident or a fraudulent debtor, or is attempting to conceal or remove his property. In some States, attachments are distinguished as foreign and domestic — the former issued against a non-resident having property with the jurisdic- tion of the State, the latter against a resident in the State; jurisdiction over the person or prop- erty being necessary for an attachment. An attachment issued under a State law not adopt- ed by Congress, or by a rule of court, cannot be sustained in a United States court. Attack', a term denotmg the openmg act ot hostility by a force seekmg to dislodge an enemy from its position. It is considered more advantageous to offer than to await attack, even in a defensive war. The historic forms of attack are: (i) The parallel; (2) The form in which both the wmgs attack and the centre is kept back; (3) The form in which the centre is pushed forward and the wings kept back ; (4) The famous oblique mode, dating at least from Epaminondas, and employed by Frederick the Great, where one wing advances to engage, while the otlier is kept back, and occupies the attention of the enemy by pretending an attack. Napoleon preferred to mass heavy columns against an enemy's centre. The forms of attack have changed with the weapons used. In the days of the pike, heavy masses were the rule, but the use of the musket led to an extended battle front to give effect to the fire. The advent of magazine rifles, machine and rapid-fire guns, breech-loading field and horse artillery guns, smokeless powder, etc., has reduced the methods of attack to a practical science. See Tactics. Attain'der, the legal consequence of a sentence of death or outlawry pronounced against a person for treason or felony, the per- son being said to be attainted. It resulted in forfeiture of estate and "corruption of blood," rendering the party incapable of in- heriting property or transmitting it to heirs ; but these rpsu'us now no longer follow. For- merly persons were often subjected to attainder by a special bill or act passed in Parliament. In the United States, the Federal Constitution declares that "No bill of attainder shall be passed, and no attainder of treason, in conse- quence of a judicial sentence, shall work cor- ruption of blood or forfeiture except during the life of the person attainted." ATTAINT — ATTERBURY Attaint', a writ at common law against a jury for a false verdict. It was abolished in England in 1825 except as to jurors guilty of embracery. See Attainder. At'tal'ea, a genus of about 20 species of mostly tall, smooth-stemmed tropical American palms with large pinnate leaves sometimes used for thatch, mats, hats, etc., and with nut fruits enclosed in a fibrous husk. A. fitnifera, the piassaba palm of the coast provinces of south- ern Brazil, yields a cordage of great strength and durability in sea water. Its fruits (coquil- la nuts) are as large as ostrich eggs and are used like vegetable ivory (see Vegetable Ivory). The piassaba palm of northern Brazil is a different species. It furnishes a fibre which is exported. A. excelsa and A. speciosa furnish nuts which are burned in rubber-making to dry and color the rubber obtained from Siphonia elastka. A. compta, the pindova or indaja palm, a handsome species with a wide-spread- ing crown, yields edible fruits as large as goose eggs. A. Cohune, indigenous to Honduras, sup- plies a fruit from which the oil is extracted for soap-making at home and abroad. Several spe- cies are cultivated in greenhouses, but are gen- erally considered too slow of growth from seed to be satisfactory. At'talus, the names of three kings of an- cient Pergamus, 241-133 B.C., the last of whom bequeathed his kingdom to the Romans. All were munificent patrons of art and literature. At'talus, Flavius Priscus, the emperor of the East for one year, 409-10. He was pro- claimed by Alaric and his Goths, but soon de- posed. Honorius later cut off his thumb and forefinger and banished him to the island of Lipari. AttSr, at-tar', Ferid eddin, celebrated Per- sian poet: b. near Nishapur, 11 19; d. about 1229 (?). Ihe son of a spicer, he followed his father's trade (whence his surname of At- tar), but afterward became a dervish and one of the greatest mystics of Persia. He is said to have been killed by a Mongol soldier dur- ing the invasion by Jenghiz Khan. Of his ex- tant political works the most famous are: 2> oil. Specific gravity 872. Formula, C23H23O3. Many at- tempts have been made to discover some chem- ical reaction whirh would reveal the falsifi- cation of attar with geranium oil, but hitherto mostly in vain. Attempt', in criminal law an endeavor to accomplish a crime carried beyond mere prep- aration, but falling short of the execution of the ultimate design in any part of it. 5 Cush. Mass. 367. To constitute an attempt, there must be an intent to commit some act which would be indictable, if done, either from its own character or that of its natural and proba- ble consequences. In some States an attempt to commit a crime is defined by statute. The statute in New York is substantially similar to that of other States. The Penal Code of New York, § 34, provides that ''An act, done with intent to commit a crime, and tending but fail- ing to effect its commission, is an attempt to commit that crime." Attention. See Consciousness. Atterbom, at'ter-bom, Peter Daniel Ama- deus, Swedish poet: b. Asbo, East Goth- land, 19 Jan. 1790; d. Upsala, 21 July 1855. Having visited Germany and Italy in 1817-19, he formed ties of friendship with Schelling and Thorwaldsen ; became instructor to Crown Prince Oscar, in 1820, and professor at the university in Upsala in 1828. He was unques- tionably the foremost among the lyric poets of the romantic school in Sweden. His most cele- brated work is 'The Isle of Blessedness' (1823), a romantic drama in the manner of Tieck; but he also wrote 'The Flowers,' a cycle of lyrics; 'The Blue Bird,' a play; and 'Swedish Seers and Poets,' a volume of criti- cism. At'terbury, Francis, celebrated English prelate : b. Middleton Keynes, England, 6 March 1662; d. Paris, 15 Feb. 1732. He distinguished himself at the university as a classical scholar, and gave proofs of an elegant taste for poet- ry. In 1687 he took his degree of M.A. ; is thought to have assisted his pupil, Boyle, in his famous controversy with Bentley on the Epis- tles of Phalaris. Taking' orders in 1691 he set- tled in London, where he became chaplain to William and Mary, preacher of Bridewell, and lecturer of St. Bride's, and soon became distin- guished by the spirit and elegance of his pulpit compositions, but not without incurring opposi- tion, on the score of fheir tendency and doc- trine, from Hoadly and others. Soon after the accession of Queen Anne he was made dean of Carlisle, and besides his dispute with Hoadly on the subject of passive obedience, he aided in the defense of the famous Sacheverell, and wrote 'A Representation of the Present State ATTIC — ATTICA of Religion,^ deemed too violent to be presented ceiling is square with the sides, to distinguish ii to the queen, although privately circulated. In from a garret. 1712 he was made dean of Christ Church and At'tica, a State of ancient Greece, whose m 1713 Bishop of Rochester and dean of West- capital, Athens, was once the first city in the minster. The death of the queen, in 1714, put ,vorld. It is a peninsula, united, toward the an end to his hopes of further advancement; ^orth, with Bceotia. toward the west, in some for the new king treated him with great cool- degree, with Megaris, and extends far into the ness Aterbury not on y refused to sign the .^gean Sea at Cape Sunium (now Cape Colon- loyal declaration of the bishops in the rebellion ^a). The unfru.tfulness of its soil protected it of 1715, but suspended a clergyman for lending ^g^inst foreign invaders, and the Athenians his churcn xor the performance of divme ser- boasted of their ancient and unmingled race, vice to the Dutch troops brought over to act The earliest inhabitants of Attica lived in a against the rebels. Not content with a consti- savage manner until the time of Cecrops, who tutional opposition, he entered into a corre- ^ame 1550 B.C. with a colony from Sais, at the spondence with the Pretender s party, was ap- ^q,,^]., of ^^^ ^iie, to Attica, and is acknow- prehended in August 1772. and committed to jedged as their first real king. One of Cecrops' the lower; and in the March foHowing a bill descendants founded 11 other citi'^s, which was brought into the House of Commons for j^ after-times made war upon each other, the infliction of pains and penalties. This mea- Theseus compelled these cities to unite, and to sure met with considerable opposition in the giyg to Cecropia, now called Athens, as the House of Lords, and was resisted by the bishop capital city of the whole countrv, the supreme who maintained his innocence with his usual po^^er over the confederacy. He founded the acuteness and dexterity. His guilt, however, great feast called the panathencea, watched over has been tolerably well proved by documents the administration of the laws, commanded the since published. He was deprived of his digni- ^rmy, divided the whole people into three ties, and outlawed, and went to Pans where classes — noblemen, husbandmen, and mechan- he chiefly occupied himself in study, and m cor- jcs. He embellished and enlarged Athens, and respondence with men of letters. But even invited foreigners to people the country. Af- here. m 1725, he was actively engaged in fo- ter the death of Codrus. 1068 b.c, the monarchi- menting discontent m the Highlands of Scot- cal form of government, which had continued land. As a composer of sermons he still re- 487 years from the time of Cecrops, was abol- tains a great portion of his original reputation, jghed. An archon, chosen for life, possessed His letters, also, are extremely easy and ele- the regal power. After 316 years the term of gant; but, as a critic and a controversialist, he office of the archons was limited to 10 years, IS deemed rather dexterous and popular than and 70 years later to i year, and their number accurate and profound. was increased to 9. A regular code of laws At'tic, pertaining to Attica or to Athens, was now needed. The archon Draco was corn- Elegant; classical; poignant; characterized by missioned to dra_w one up ; but his severity dis- keen intellect, delicate wit, sound judgment and gufed the minds of the people, and 594 B.C. expressive brevity ; as, the Attic Muse. Attic Solon introduced a milder code and a better dialect was the most refined and polished of all constitution. He provided that the f9rm of the dialects of ancient Greece; and in it wrote government should continue democratic, and Solon, the lawgiver ; Thucydides and Xeno- that a senate of 400 members, chosen from the phon, the historians; Aristophanes, the comic People, should administer the government, poet; Plato and Aristotle, the philosophers, and Pisistratus, a man of talents boldness and am- Demosthenes, the orator. When, after the bjtion, put himself at the head of the poorer Macedonian conquest, Greek became the Ian- classes, and made himself master of the su- guage of literature and diplomacy in most parts preme power in Athens. His government was of the civilized world, the Attic came to be that splenaid and beneficent, but his tvvo sons could dialect of the Greek tongue which was general- "ot maintain it Clisthenes, a friend of the 1 adooted people, exerted himself to prevent future abuses ^ by some changes in the laws of Solon. He di- Attic Order, in architecture, a low order, vided the people into 10 classes, and made the commonly used over a principal order, never senate consist of 500 persons. Attica was al- with columns, but usually with antae or small ready highly cultivated; the vintage and har- pilasters. It is employed to decorate the vest, like all the labors of this gay people, were fagade of a stpry of little height, terminating celebrated with dance and song, with feasts and the upper part of a building; and it doubtless sacrifices. Then came the splendid era of the derives its name from its resemblance in pro- Persian war, which elevated Athens to the portional height and concealed roof to some of summit of fame. Miltiades at Marathon, and the buildings of Greece. In all the best ex- Themistocles at Salamis, conquered the Per- amples, and especially in the remains of antiqui- sians by land and by sea. The freedom of ty at Rome, the attic is decorated with a Greece escaped the dangers which had threat- molded base and cornice ; often with pilasters ened it ; the rights of the people were enlarged ; and figures, as in the Arch of Constantine. In the archons and other magistrates were chosen modern architecture, the proportions of the from all classes without distinction. The pe attic order have never been subject to fixed riod from the Persian war to the time of Alex- rules, and their good effect is entirely depend- ander (500 B.C. to 336) was most remarkable ent on the taste and feeling of the architect, for the development of the Athenian constitu- Attic base: The base of a column consisting of tion. According to Bockh's 'The Public Econ- an upper and lower torus, a scotia and fillets be- omy of Athens,* Attica contained, together with tween them. Attic story: A term frequently the islands of Salamis and Helena, a territory applied to the upper story of a house, when the of 847 square miles, with 500,000 inhabitants, ATTICA — ATTILA 365,000 of whom were slaves. Cimon and Pericles (444 b.c.) introduced the highest ele- gance into Athens, but the latter laid the foun- dation for the future corruption of manners, and for the gradual overthrow of the state. Under him began the Peloponnesian war, which ended with the conquest of Athens by the Lace- dsemonians. A more dangerous enemy rose in the north — Philip of Macedon. Athens, to- gether with the other states of Greece, became dependent on the Macedonians. When they suffered themselves to be misled to support Mithridates against the Romans, they drew upon themselves the vengeance of Rome. Sulla captured the city, and left it only an appear- ance of liberty, which it retained until the time of Vespasian. This emperor formally changed it into a Roman province. After the division of the Roman empire, Attica belonged to the empire of the East. 396 a.d., it was conquered by Alaric the Goth, and the country devastated. Attica, along with the ancient Boeotia, now forms a nome or province (Attike and Viotia) of the kingdom. See Athens. Attica, Ind., city in Fountain County, on the Wabash River and Wabash Railroad ; 21 miles southwest of Lafayette. It has numerous manufactories, churches, schools, two banks, and a public library. Pop. (1900) 3,005. At'ticus, Titus Pomponius, a noble Roman, the intimate friend of Cicero : b. 109 B.C. ; d. 32 B.C. The Pomponian family, from which he originated, was one of the most distinguished of the eqiiites, and derived its origin from Numa Pompilius. When he attained maturity, the republic was disturbed by the factions of Cinna and Sulla. His brother, Sulpicius, the tribune of the people, being killed, he thought himself not safe in Rome, for which reason he removed, with his fortune, to Athens, where he devoted himself to science. His benefits to the city were so great, that he gained the affec- tions of the people in the highest degree, and acquired so thorough a knowledge of Greek, that he could not be distinguished from a na- tive Athenian. When quiet was restored in Rome he returned and inherited from his uncle 10,000,000 sesterces ($500,000). His sister married the brother of Cicero. Cjesar treated him with the greatest regard, though he was known as a friend of Pompey. After the death of Caesar, he lived in friendship with Brutus, without, however, offending Antony. At'ticus Herod'es, Tiberius Claudius, a wealthy Athenian; b. about 104 a.d.; d. about 180. He received a careful education under the most distinguished masters of the time, and specially devoted himself to the study of ora- tory, to excel in which seems to have been the ruling motive of hie life, ultimately attaining to great celebrity as a speaker and as a teacher of rhetoric. Among his pupils were Marcus Aurelius and Lucius Verus. He was highly esteemed by the Antonines, particularly by Aurelius, and received many marks of favor, among others the archonship at Athens and the consulate at Rome. Atticus is principally celebrated, however, for the vast sums he ex- pended on public purposes. He withdrew from Athens, and resided at his villa near Marathon, where he died about 180 a.d. None of his writ- ings are extant. Attila, at'ti-la (in German, Etzel), the sou of Mundzuk, a Hun of royal descent, who fol- lowed his uncle, Roas, m 434, and shared the supreme authority with his brother, Bleda. These two leaders of the barbarians, who had settled in Scythia and Hungary, threatened the Eastern Empire, and twice compelled Theo- dosius H. to purchase an inglorious peace. The Huns themselves esteemed Attila, their bravest warrior and most skilful general. Their re- gard for his person soon amounted to supersti- tious reverence, and being now sole master of a warlike people, his unbounded ambition made him the terror of all nations; and he became, as he called himself, the scourge which God had chosen to chastise the human race. In a short time he extended his dominion over all the people of Germany and Scythia, and the eastern and western emperors paid him tribute. The Vandals, the Ostrogoths, the Gepidse, and a part of the Franks united under his banners. Hearing a rumor of the riches and power of Persia, he directed his march thither, but was defeated on the plains of Armenia, and drew back to satisfy his desire of plunder in the do- minions of the emperor of the East. He easily found a pretext for war, for all states which promised him a rich booty were his natural enemies, and all princes whom he hoped to conquer had broken alliances. The Emperor Theodosius collected an army to oppose his pro- gress ; but in three bloody battles fortune de- clared herself for the barbarians. Constantino- ple was indebted to the strength of its walls, and to the ignorance of the enemy in the art of besieging, for its preservation. Thrace, Mace- donia, and Greece, all submitted to the savage robber, who destroyed 70 flourishing cities. Theodosius was at the mercy of the victor, and was obliged to purchase a peace. Attila now directed his eyes to Gaul. With an immense army he passed the Rhine, the Moselle, and the Seine, came to the Loire, and sat down under the walls of Orleans. The inhabitants of this city, encouraged by their Bishop, Agnan (Anianus), repelled the first attack of the bar- barians, and the united forces of the Romans, under their general, Aetius, and of the Visi- goths, under their king, Theodoric, compelled Attila to raise the siege. He retreated to Champagne, and waited for the enemy in the plains of Chalons. The two armies soon ap- proached each other. Attila, anxious for the event of the battle, consulted the soothsayers, who assured \\m\ of a defeat. He concealed his alarm, rode through the ranks of his war- riors, reminded them of their deeds, spoke of his joy at the prospect of a battle, and at the thought that their valor was to be rewarded. Inflamed by his speech, and by the presence of their leader, the Huns were impatient for bat- tle. At length the fanks of the Romans and Goths were broken through, and Attila was al- ready sure of the victory, when the Gothic prince, Thorismond, the son of Theodoric, poured down from the neighboring height upon the Huns. Attila, pressed on all sides, escaped with difficulty to his camp. This was perhaps the bloodiest battle which has ever been fought in Europe; for, according to contemporary his- torians, 106,000 dead bodies covered the field of battle. Attila caused all his camp equipage and treasures to be brought together into a heap, in ATTITUDE — ATTORNEY-GENERAL order to burn himself with them, in case he should be reduced to extremities. But the enemy- were contented with collecting their forces during the night, and having paid the last hon- ors to the dead body of King Theodoric (Die- trich), which they discovered with difficulty, they saluted his son, Thorismond, king upon the field of battle. Thus Attila escaped, but the Franks pursued him till he had passed the Rhine. He now demanded Honoria, the sister of Valentinian III., in marriage, and conquered and destroyed Aquileia, Padua, Vicenza, Vero- na, Bergamo, and laid waste the plains of Lom- bardj\ The inhabitants fled to the Alps, to the Apennines, and to the small islands in the shal- lows (lagoons), of the Adriatic Sea, where they built Venice. The emperor had no army to op- pose him; the Roman people and senate had re- course to tears and supplications. Pope Leo L went with the Roman ambassadors to the ene- my's camp and succeeded in obtaining a peace. Attila went back to Hungary. The Romans looked upon their preservation as a miracle, and the old chronicles relate that the threats of St. Peter and St. Paul had terrified Attila — a legend which the art of Raphael and Alghardi has immortalized. Not having obtained Honoria for a wife, Attila would a second time have de- manded her, sword in hand, if the beautiful Ildico had not been added to his numerous ■wives, with whom he solemnly united himself (453)- On this occasion he gave himself up to all the extravagance of debauchery ; but on the other day after the marriage, the ser- vants and warriors, impatient to salute their master, thronged into the tent; they found Ildico veiled, sitting by the cold corpse of her husband. During the night he had died of a hemorrhage. The news of his death spread sorrow and terror in the army. His body was enclosed in three coffins — the first was of gold, the second of silver, and the third of iron. The captives who had made the grave were strangled. The description that Jornandes has left us of this barbarian king reminds us of his Kalmuck-Tartar origin. He had a large head, a flat nose, broad shoulders, and a short and ill- formed body. See Thierry, *Histoire d'Attila' (1814). Attis. See Atys. At'titude, an art term signifying an artis< tic pose or position assumed by living figures. Attitudes require a regular study, a part of which is a Knowledge of anatomy. The art of exhibiting attitudes, at least in modern times, is of recent invention. At the end of the i8th century the celebrated Lady Hamilton began the practice, and imitated, with great talent, the attitudes of antique statues in many large towns of Europe, so that Sir William Hamilton could say that he possessed, in his wife, a whole collection of antiques. Her dress was a simple tunic, fastened with a ribbon tight un- der the breast, and a shawl. With these she imitated all the different draperies. On the con- tinent of Europe this art was carried to much perfection by Mrs. Hendel Schutz, who exhibit- ed attitudes, copied from the Greek, Egyptian, Italian, and German styles of art. At'tleboro, Mass., a town of Bristol County, 30 miles southwest of Boston, and 12 miles from Providence. It has good railroad connections, contains national banks, newspaper Vol. 2— J offices, several churches, and a system of graded schools. The town is the seat of several m:por- tant industries, the chief of which is the man- ufacture of jewelry and electro-plate. There are also manufactories of cotton, woolen, and knit goods, and of boots and shoes. Pop. (1900) 11,335- Consult Daggett, (1894). Attock, at-tok', a town and fort of the Punjab, on the east bank of the Indus. Attock stands below the fort, established by the Em- peror Akbar in 1581, to defend the passage of the river. The great railway bridge across the Indus here was opened in 1883. It has five arches 130 feet high, and renders continuous the railway connection between Calcutta and Peshawur (1,600 miles). The situation of At- tock is important, whether in a commercial or in a military view. It is at the head of the steamboat navigation of the Indus, being 940 miles from its mouth. Taxila, where the Macedonians crossed the Indus, has been identified with Attock. Attorney, at-tiir'ni (attoniatus, in Latin), a person appointed to do- something for and in the stead and name of another. A public at- torney or attorney at law is a person quali- fied to appear for another before a court of law to prosecute or defend any action on behalf of his client. The term was formerly applied especially to those practising before the supreme courts of common law at Westminster, and corresponded to the term solicitor u.sed in re- gard to the courts of chancery. As an attorney was almost invariably a solicitor, the two terms came to be generally regarded as synonymous. By the Judicature Act of 1873 all persons prac- tising before the supreme courts at Westmins- ter are now called solicitors. Attorneys or solicitors do not plead or argue in court on be- half of their clients, this being the part of the barristers or counsel : their special functions may be defined to be, to institute actions on be- half of their clients and take necessary steps for defending them, to furnish counsel with necessary materials to enable them to get up their pleadings, to practice conveyancing, to prepare legal deeds and instruments of all kinds, and generally to advise with and act for their clients in all matters connected with law. An attorney, whether private or public, may have general powers to act for another ; or his power may be special, and limited to a particu- lar act or acts. In Scotland there is no class of practitioners of the law who take the name of attorneys. A special attorney is appointed by a deed called a power or letter of attor- ney, and the deed by which he is appointed specifies the acts he is authorized to perform. It is a commission, to the extent of which only he can bind his principal. As far as the acts of the attorney, in the name of the principal, are authorized by his power, his acts are those of his principal. But if he goes beyond his au- thority, his acts will bind himself only; and he must indemnify any one to whom, without au- thority, he represents himself as an attorney of another, and who contracts with him, or other- wise puts confidence in him, as being such at- torney. Attorney-General, in English law, an mi- portant officer under the king, made by let- ters patent. His most important duties are to ATTORNEY AT LAW — ATWATER exhibit informations and prosecute for the crown in matters criminal, and to file bills in the exchequer in any matter concerning the kings revenue. The attorney-general of the United States is an officer appointed by the President He is required by statute to give his advice and opinion upon questions of law whenever required by the president; to pass up- on the validity of the title to public lands pur- chased for the erection of public buildings by the United States; when requested, to give his opinion to the head of any executive depart- ment on any questions of law arising in his department; to conduct and argue all cases in which the United States is interested, whenever he deems it best for the interests of the United States for him to do so; to exercise general superintendence and direction over the attor- neys and marshals of all the districts in the United States and the Territories as to the manner of discharging their respective duties. The attorney-general is also a member of the Cabinet, and according to the provisions of the act of Congress of 19 Jan. 1886, is the fourth in succession, after the Vice-President, to the office of President in case of a vacancy in that office. In each of the United States there is an attorney-general, or similar officer, who appears for the people, as in England he appears for the Crown. Only a few of the duties of the at- torney-generals in the various States are defined by statute, consequently, so far as applicable to our altered situation, jurisprudence, and system of government, attorney-generals of the various states are clothed with the common law powers of the attorney-generals of England. The at- torney-general of England had the power (i) to prosecute all actions necessary for the pro- tection and defense of the property and reve- nues of the Crown; (2) by information to bring certain classes of persons accused of crimes and misdemeanors to trial; (3) by ^'■scire facias''^ to revoke and annul grants made by the Crown improperly, or when forfeited by the grantee thereof; (4) by information, to recover money or other chattels or damages for wrongs committed on the land, or other possessions of the Crown; (5) by writ of quo zvarmnto, to de- termine the right of him who claims or usurps any office, franchise, or liberty, and to vacate the charter, or annul the existence of a corpora- tion for violations of its charter, or for omit- ting to exercise its corporate powers ; (6) by writ of mandamus to compel the admission of an officer duly chosen to his office, and to com- pel his restoration when illegally ousted; (7) by information to chancery, to enforce trusts, and to prevent public nuisances, and the abuse of trust powers; (8) by proceedings in rem, to recover property to which the Crown may be entitled, by forfeiture for treason, and property for which there is no other legal owner, such as wrecks, treasure trove, etc. ; (9) and in certain cases, by information in chancery, for the pro- tection of the rights of lunatics, and others who are under the protection of the Crown. Attor'ney at Law, an officer of a court of justice employed by a party in a cause to man- age it for him. Appearance by attorney has been allowed in England from the time of the earliest records of the courts of that country. Such appearances were first allowed in France by letters patent of Philip le Bel, 1290 a.d. No one can, by consent, be the attorney of both the litigating parties in the same section or suit. The agreement of an attorney at law, within the scope of his employment, in general, binds his client (i Salk. 86) as to amend the record, to refer a cause, not to sue out a writ of error, to strike out a non pros, to waive a judg- ment by default, etc. The principal duties of an attorney are to be true to the court and to his client, to attend to the business of his client with prudence, skill, and honesty (4 Burr. 2061, 72 Ga. 83) ; to keep his client in- formed as to the state of his business, and to keep his secrets confided to him as such, and an attorney is privileged from disclosing such se- crets when called as a witness (16 N. Y. 180, 29 Vt. 701). An attorney is allowed consid- erable freedom of speech, and ordinarily, is not liable for the use of false, defamatory, or ma- licious language, provided it was material to the issues raised by the pleadings (Hastings v. Lusk, 22 Wend. N. Y. 410). He is liable, how- ever, if his language is defamatory, if it can be shown that it was not relevant to the issues, and was used for the purpose of injuring the char- acter of his adversary (i Barn. & C. 258). Attrac'tion, in physics, any force acting between two bodies, which tends to bring them nearer together, or to oppose their further separation. All attractions can be divided into two classes: (i) Those which act at sensible distances, such as gravity and magnetism, and (2) those which exert measureable effects only when the bodies are exceedingly close together. Cohesion and molecular forces are examples of the second class. See Cohesion ; Electricity ; Ether; Gravitation; Magnetism; Molecular Theory; Surface Tension. At'tribute, in philosophy, a quality or property of a substance, such as whiteness or hardness. A substance is known to us only as a congeries of attributes. In the fine arts an attribute is a symbol regularly accompanying and characterizing some personage. Thus the caduceus, purse, winged Hat, and sandals are attributes of Mercury, the trampled dragon an attribute of St. George. Attrition, a disposition of the soul which con- sists in sorrow for sin springing from a salutary fear of its consequences. Theologians of the Catholic Church teach that such sorrow joined to the absolution of the priest in the Sacrament of Penance is sufficient for the remission of sin, al- though the penitent is counselled to strive for the more perfect sorrow (contrition), which has its motive the love of God. At'water, Lyman Hotchkiss, American theologian : b. Hampden, Ct., 23 Feb. 1813 ; d. Princeton, N. J., 17 Feb. 1883. He was pastor of the First Congregational Church in Fairfield Ct., in 1835-54 ; in the last named year becomin- professor of mental and moral philosophy a Princeton College, and, in 1869, professor ot logic, metaphysics, political science, economics and ethics there. He was the author of i, < Manual of Elementary Logic' (1867). At'water, Wilber Olin, American chem- ist : b. Johnsburg, N. Y., 3 May 1844. He was graduated at Wesleyan University in 1865 ; made a special study of chemistry in the Shef- field Scientific School of Yale and the univer- sities of Leipsic and Berlin. He has beeti ATWILL — AUBE successively professor of chemistry in East Ten- nessee University, Maine Stale College, and Wesleyan University. He was director of the Connecticut Agricultural Experiment Station, 1875-7, and was appointed director of the Storrs (Conn.) Experiment Station in 1887. He has been connected for several years v;ith the United Slates Department of Agriculture; has published a large number of papers on chemical and allied subjects; and since 1894, has given much attention to nutrition investiga- tions. At'will, Edward Robert, American bishop: b. Red Hook, N. Y., 18 Jan. 1840. He was graduated from Columbus University in 1862, and General Theological Seminary, 1864. He was rector of St. Paul's Church, Burling- ton, Vt., 1867-80; of Trinity Parish, Toledo, O., 1881-90; and was consecrated first Protestant Episcopal bishop of West Missouri, 14 Oct. 1890. At'wood, Charles B., American archi- tect: b. Millbury, Mass., 18 May 1849; d. Chi- cago, 19 Dec. 1895. He studied at the Harvard Scientific School, and opened an office in 1872. Within three years he received prizes for de- * signs for the San Francisco city hall, the Connecticut State capitol, the court house in Springfield, Mass., and a commission to build the Holyoke, Mass., city hall. Removing to New York in 1875, he designed residences for W. H. Vanderbilt. Elliot F. Shepard, and W. D. Sloane, and interior decorations for the houses of Mrs. Mark Hopkins in San Francisco and Gt. Barrington, Mass. In 1884 he gained the first prize for a design for the Boston Public Library, and later a prize of $5,000 for plans for a new city hall in New York city. From 1891-3 he was associated with D. H. Burnham in planning the World's Fair buildings in Chi- cago. The art building, peristyle, service building, and many minor features were from his designs. He was a close student of his art, and a marvelous draughtsman, using his left hand with sureness and rapidity. D. H. Burnham said of him, "He was of an honorable, charitable disposition, but like most great artists, a mere child in the practical things of Iife.» At'wood, George, an eminent English mathematician: b. London 1746; d. 11 July 1807. In 1874 he published ^Treatise on the Rectili- near Motion and Rotation of Bodies ; with a Description of Original Experiments relative to that Subject^ — a work remarkable for its per- spicuity and the extensive information which it afifords. About the same time he made pub- lic an 'Analysis of a Course of Lectures on the Principles of Natural Philosophj',^ read at the University of Cambridge, which is not less val- uable than the preceding. He published a 'Dis- sertation on the Construction and Properties of Arches^ (1801), and several other valuable treatises relating to mathematics and mechanical science. He invented a machine still used in physical lectui '--rooms, which affords great fa- cilities for verifying the laws of falling bodies. See Atwood's Machine. At'wood, Isaac Morgan, American edu- cator : b. Pembroke, N. Y., 24 March 1838. He was ordained in the Universalist Church in 1861 ; held several pastorates ; edited The Christian Leader (1867-73); became an as- sociate editor of ^the Universalist Leader; and was chosen president of the Canton (N. Y.) Theological Seminary in 1879. His chief works are: ^Have We Outgrown Christianity ?> (1870) ; 'Latest Word of Universalism' (1878) ; 'Manual of Revelation* (1888) ; 'Walks About Zion> (1881). At'wood, Melville, Anglo-American geol- ogist: b. 31 Juiv 1812, Prescott Hall, Eng- land ; d. Berkeley, Cal., 25 April 1898. He stud- ied iithology, microscopy, and geology early in life, and engaged in gold and diamond mining in Brazil. In 1843 he made a discovery that greatly enhanced the value of zinc ore. After coming to the United States, in 1852, he in- vented the blanket system of amalgamation. He also established the value of the famous Comstock silver lode, by an assay of minerals in that region. At'wood's Machine, an instrument devised by George Atwood, an English physicist, for illustrating the principles governing the mo- tion of falling bodies, and described by him in a book published in 1784. It consists es- sentially of a light wheel or pulley, over which a thin, flexible cord passes. A mass of mat- ter is attached to each end of the cord, and the experiment consists in observing the velocity acquired by the system at the end of a given time. The mass to be removed is evidently the sum of the two masses attached to the ends of the cord (assuming that the wheel is light enough to be disregarded) ; and the force tending to set the system in motion is the difference of the weights of the two masses. By making these masses nearly equal, the mo- tion can be made slow enough to be conveniently studied. The intensity of gravity can be de- termined by the aid of this machine, with suffi- cient accuracy for class-room purposes, and it is an admirable device for illustrating the laws of uniformly accelerated motion. For a more detailed account see Gravity. Atys, a'tis, or Attis. (i) The favorite of Cybele, who, having broken the vow of chastity which he made to the goddess, castrated him- self, as a punishment for his crime. (2) A son of Croesus, king of Lydia — an affecting example of filial love. He was dumb, but, see- ing a soldier in a battle who had raised a sword against his father, he exerted himself so much that the bands of his tongue gave way, and he cried out, "Soldier, kill not Crcesus!'* Aubanel, o-ba-nel', The'odore, French poet, sometimes called "The Petrarch of France*': b. 1829; d. 1886. He devoted his life to the restoration of the troubadour literature. His drama, 'Lou Pan don Pecat,* was success- fully staged in 1878 at Montpellier. Aube, 6b, a French department, formed out of the south of Champagne and a small portion of Burgundy; area, 2,351 square miles. The north and northwest districts are very bleak, bare of trees, and almost destitute of vegetation ; the southern districts are remarkably fertile. The forests, which are extensive, fur- nish much fuel for the supply of Paris. The chief manufactures are worsted and hosiery. Troyes is the capital. AUBER— AUBURN Auber, 6-bar', Daniel Francois Esprit, celebrated French operatic composer : b. Caen, 29 Jan. 1782; d. Paris, 13 May 1871. From natural inclination he devoted himself to the study of music, in which he had the assistance of Cherubini. His first decided success was his opera *La Neige,^ produced in 1824. By this time he had associated himself with Scribe, a very skilful writer of libretti; and other operas now followed in quick succession, for which the words were supplied by Scribe, and the music by Auber. Some of these are still favorites, for example, ^Le Domino Noir,^ *Les Diamants de la Couronne^ (Crown Diamonds), and above all, *^Fra Diavolo,' and ^La Muette de Portici^ (usually known as ^Masaniello^). Aubigne, D', J. H. M. See D'Aubigne, J. H. M. Aubigne, o'be-nya', Theodore Agrippa d', French soldier and author: b. Saint Maury (Saintonge), 8 Feb. 1552; d. Geneva, 29 April 1630. He fought under Henry IV., king of France, who made him a gentlemen of his bed- chamber ; but when the king, thinking it nec- essary, favored the Roman Catholics more than the Protestants, Aubigne expressed his displeas- ure with little reserve, and lost the favor of Henry. He now retired to Geneva, where he devoted himself to literary pursuits. He wrote a valuable ^Histoire Universelle, from 1550 to 1601* (3 vols, folio), the first volume of which was ordered to be burned by the Parlia- ment of Paris. A volume of sonnets and other poems, under the title ^Le Printemps,^ also bears his name. Aublet, 6-bla', Albert, French painter : b. Paris. He studied historical painting under Gerome ; won a first-class medal in the Paris Exposition of 1889, and the decoration of the Legion of Honor in i8go. His first great paint- ing was the ^The Wash-room of the Reserves in the Cherbourg Barracks,^ exhibited in the Salon of 1879, and probably his most celebrated one is the ^Meeting of Henri IH. and the Due de Guise, ^ shown in the Salon of 1880. Aubrey, a'bri, John, English antiquary: b. Easton Pierse, 1626 ; d. 1697. He published little, but left large collections of manuscripts, which have been used by subsequent writers. He collected materials for the ^Monasticon Anglicanum', and afforded important assistance to Wood, the Oxford antiquary. His ^Mis- cellanies^ (1696) contains a great deal of cu- rious and interesting information, but also dis- plays much credulity and superstition. Another work of his was published in 1719 under the title of the ^Natural History and Antiquities of the County of Surrey.^ In 1898 appeared a work by him entitled ^ Brief Lives Chiefly of Con- temporaries,' edited by Andrew Clark. Au'burn, Cal., a city and county-seat of Placer County, situated on the Southern P. R.R., 36 miles east of Sacramento. It was first set- tled in 1849 and was incorporated as a city in 1888. It is the seat of the Sierra Normal Col- lege. Gold and quartz is found in the vicinity and there are many quartz mills. The leading industries are mining, fruit-growing, and farm- ing. Pop. (1900) 2,050. Au'burn, Ind., city and county-seat of De Kalb County, situated on branches of the Lake Shore & M. S., and the Baltimore & O. R.R.'s, 22 miles north of Fort Wayne. It has a thriving trade in grain, live stock, etc., and its chief manufactures are furniture, carriages, automobiles, gas engines, windmills, and stoves. Auburn was first settled in 1833, became a borough in 1836 and a city in 1900. The mayor and other officials are elected biennally. Pop. (1900) 3,396. Au'burn, Me., a city and county-seat of Androscoggin County, on the west bank of the Androscoggin River, on the line of the Maine C. and Grand Trunk R.R.'s, 34 miles north of Portland. The city is one of the most beautiful in the State. It rises westerly from the river in almost amphitheatre form, culminating in beautiful heights known as the Western Prom- enade. These heights are terraced by broad, handsome avenues, upon which, overlooking the city, are elegant residences with spacious and well-kept grounds. The view from the summit of these heights is one of the most strik- ing in Maine. The beautiful Androscoggin River, with its waterfall grand and picturesque, flows through the valley below, the two thriving cities of Auburn and Lewiston on either bank, while broad and fertile fields dotted with com- fortable farm homes stretch to the north and east. Taylor Pond and Lake Auburn lie to the west and are justly considered among the most beautiful lakes of Maine. The territory of the city covers an area of 65.4 square miles. History. — Auburn is an old town and has an interesting history. Its territory is a part of a large tract of land, originally known as Bakerstown, granted by the general court of Massachusetts in 1765. It was settled as early as 1786 and Auburn was incorporated as a town in 1842, and as a city in 1869. Industries. — Its largest single industry is the manufacture of boots and shoes, and in this branch of manufacture it is one of the fore- most cities in the country. It has ten large shoe factories employing 3,325 persons. The value of their yearly product is $6,730,000, and the shoe shipments include every State in the LTnion, also Canada, England, Australia, South America, China, and the Philippine Islands. Its other industries include one cotton mill with 250 employees, last, box, and carriage factories, machine shops, shoe findings, dairy products, beef and packing houses, marble and foundry products, lumber, shuttles, and spools. Banks. — There are two national banks and two savings banks located here. The capital stock of the two national banks is $350,000; surplus, $138,378. The deposits in the savings banks, $2,492,595. Government. — The municipal government is created by charter of the State Legislature and consists of a Maj^or, a Board of Aldermen, and a Board of Common Councilmen, all are elected annually by the people on the first Monday of March. One Alderman and three Common Councilmen are elected from each of the five wards into which the city is divided, while the Mayor is elected by the votes of the entire city. The administrative officers of the city are partly elected by the Board of Aldermen and Common Council in joint body known as the City Council and partly appointed by the Mayor with the confirmation of the Board of Aldermen. The police, including the chief, are AUBURN— AUBURN THEOLOGICAL SEMINARY appointed by tlie Mayor, subject to confirmation by the Board of Aldermen. The Fire Depart- ment is under the management of a Board of Fire Commissioners consisting of three mem- bers elected by the City Council and holding office for a term of three years. The streets, sewers, and bridges, and all matters pertain- ing to the repair and maintenance of the same, are under the direction of a Board of Public Works of five members created by special act of the State Legislature, elected by the City Council and holding office for a term of five years. The city owns its waterworks and the same is under the management of a board of seven Water Commissioners of which the Mayor is a member ex-ofiicio, also created by special act of the Legislature of the State. They are elected by the City Council, each holding office for a term of six years. The schools are under the control of a Superintending School Committee of ten members, two from each ward in the city. The members of the com- mittee are elected annually by the voters of each ward and hold their office for a term of two years. The Mayor is ex-officio chairman of the board. The assessed valuation of the real and personal property in 1904 was $6,610,071 : rate of taxation 20 mills; bonded debt $533,700; floating debt $56,820. Churches and Schools. — The city has nine churches, one of them organized as early as 1807, supported by the following denominations : Baptist, Free Baptist, Universalist, Episcopal, Methodist, Congregational, and Catholic. The city has a school population of about 5,000. School accommodations are furnished absolutely free from the kindergarten to the completion of the high school course. Excellent buildings, commodious, well appointed, and equipped with modern improvements are distributed over the city sufficient for the full accommodation of all the pupils in the primary, intermediate, grammer and high school grades. At the head of the public school system stands the Edward Little High School, a noted institution having its origin in the old Lewiston Falls Academy, incorporated in 1834. In addition to the public schools there is a Catholic Parochial School of 300 scholars, supported solely by the Catholic portion of the population. There is also an excellent free public library. The city, generally speaking, is thriving and prosperous. Its popu- lation is composed larsrely of skilled workmen who own their own homes and are permanent residents. The streets are wide and well paved, regularly laid out, and in the residential sections adorned with beautiful shade trees. There is an excellent and extensive electric street rail- way, two large and centrally located hotels, a beautiful public park, a handsome and com- modious set of Count}' buildings in which are located the Supreme Court rooms and all the Countj' offices, and the railroad facilities and connections with all parts of the country are of the, best. The city is connected with the city of Lewiston (q.v.), located immediately across the river, by four large iron bridges, and the two cities are so closely related socially and in a business way, that they form practically one community and are known as the Twin Cities of Maine. Pop. (1842, at the time of its incor^ poration as a town), about 2,000 (1869, at the time of its incorporation as a city), 6,169; (1900) 12,951, a gain of 15 per cent, in the preceding decade, with one exception the largest percent- age of gain of any city in the State. D. J. McGlLLICUDDY. Au'burn, Neb., a city and county-seat of Nemaha County, situated on the Missouri P. and the Burlington & M. R. R.R.'s, 65 miles south of Omaha. It was first settled in 1861, became a borough in 1804 and a city in 1890. There are large fruit packing and canning plants and a flour mill here. Pop. (1900) 2,664. Au'burn, N. Y., city, county-seat of Cayuga County ; on Owasco River, the outlet of Owasco Lake, and on the New York Central and Lehigh Valley R.R.'s, 26 miles southwest of Syracuse. It was first settled in 1793 by Colonel John Hardenburgh, and was called Hardenburgh's Corners ; in 1805 the name was changed to Au- burn, and it was selected as the county-seat ; in 1815 it was incorporated as a village, and in 1848 became a city. It is the seat of a session of the Federal Court. Auburn was the home of William H. Seward, of Gen. John S. Clark (Gen. Clark still lives here), the Indian archae- ologist, and of Theodore Cuyler. It is situated on hills commanding an extensive view to the northeast ; the head of Owasco Lake is only a few miles from the city limits to the south ; and the course of the outlet of the lake is very picturesque until reaching the manufacturing district. This outlet furnishes excellent water power for the numerous industries which have made Auburn prosperous. The largest estab- lishment is a manufactory of agricultural imple- ments which exports its goods to every part of the world ; other industries of almost equal im- portance are tool, carpet, and shoe factories, woolen mills, cordage factories, and breweries. The city has a progressive board of trade, and six banks, two of which are national banks having a combined capital of $400,000. Auburn con- tains a number of fine pul)lic and private build- ings, including a general hospital, costing $100,- 000, a municipal hospital for contagious diseases, the court-house, the United States government building, the Case Memorial Library, and the Burtis Auditorium (erected 1904-5). There are 14 public grammar schools, the public high school, and 4 Roman Catholic parish schools. Auburn is also the seat of the Auburn Theolog- ical Seminary (Presbyterian), which, with its four buildings, Welch Memorial, and Dodge Li- brary, IMorgan Hall and Williard Memorial Chapels, forms another interesting feature of the city. In 1883 the 400th anniversary of Luther's birthday was celebrated at the Seminary by the planting at Morgan Hall of a sprig of ivy from Wartburg Castle, Luther's prison home. The city government is vested in a mayor, elected every two years, and a board of aldermen of 10 members; the mayor has the power of appoint- ing the heads of the city departments. The municipality owns and operates the waterworks. Pop. (1900) 30,345; (1905) 3I>423. Clinton S. Marsh, Superintendent of Schools, Board of Education. Au'burn Theological Seminary, a Presby- terian institution in Auburn, N. Y. ; organized in 1820. At the close of 1905 it had 9 profes- sors and instructors, 56 students, 30,240 volumes in the library, grounds and buildings valued at $300,000 ; aggregate endowment funds, $752,583 \ income, $63,823; benefactions, $11,456. Its grad- uates then numbered 1.608. AUCKLAND — AUDETTE Auckland, a province of New Zealand, forming the northern part of North Island, and with an area of 25,746 square miles. Auckland, a city and capital of the province, and formerly- capital of New Zealand, is situated on the northeast coast of North Island. It has two excellent harbors, one at Waitemata and one at Manukan on the opposite side of the isthmus. The former is one of the finest in New Zealand. There are numerous wharves and two graving docks, one of which, the Calliope dock, opened in 1887, is one of the largest in the South Seas. Connected with the chief towns of the island by rail the city has a large and increasing trade. The site is fine, and there are numerous hand- some public buildings, including churches, fine schools, and the Auckland Institute. Chief manufacturing interests are ship-building yards, boiler works, glass works, shoe factories, etc. There is a United States consulate here. Pop. (1901) 34.216. Auck'land Islands, a group of islands in the Pacific Ocean to the south of New Zealand. The largest island is about 30 miles long by 15 broad, and is covered with dense vegetation. They belong to the English government, almost entirely uninhabited, and serve as a station for whaling ships. Auction and Auctioneer. An auction is a public sale of property to the highest bidder. It is not material how the sale is conducted, whether by public outcry or other manner. The essential part is the selection of a purchaser from a number of bidders. Catalogues describ- ing the property are usually printed, the terms of the sale are also usually stated in the cata- logue. Auctions are generally conducted by persons licensed for that purpose. Bidders may be employed by the owner of the property, if it be done bona fide and to prevent a sacrifice of the property under a given price, but where the bidding is fictitious and by combination with the owner to mislead the judgment or inflame the zeal of others it would be a fraudulent and void sale. Unfair conduct on the part of the pur- chaser will avoid the sale. Misdescription of property sold will avoid the sale if it is material. An auctioneer cannot bid for himself; he can- not deny his principal's title; he cannot sell at private sale ; he has ordinarily the power to col- lect the purchase price of goods 3old from the buyer. The auctioneer must use ordinary care and skill in the discharge of hs duties, and like other agents he must obey the instructions he receives from the owner of property sent him for sale. An auctioneer, according to the weight of authority, who sells stolen property is liable to the owner, notwithstanding that the goods were sold by him, and the proceeds paid over to the thief without notice of the felony. An auctioneer is also liable for want of care of the goods while in his possession. The auctioneer has a lien upon the goods for the charges of the sale, and for his commission. He is the agent of the seller, and for same purposes, of the buyer. Aucuba, a'ku-ba, a genus containing three species, of which A. japonica is the best known. They belong to the natural order Cornacece. The species mentioned is a dioecious evergreen laurel-like shrub of many varieties, native of China and Japan, largely planted on lawns and in shrubberies. It withstands the dust, smoke. and gases of cities remarkably well, but is not hardy in the Northern States. The plants bear purple flowers in summer and the female ones are particularly beautiful when bearing their scarlet berries which ripen in early spring. It is easily propagated by seed, or by green wood cuttings, and succeeds in half shade where the soil is good, friable, moist, but well-drained. Audae'us (Syrian Udo), the founder of a religious sect called Audians, which held an- thropomorphic views, and was established under the following circumstances: Audius (b. at the end of 3d century; d. 370), was a Mesopotamian, of singular purity and severity of character. He became disgusted with the Syrian clergy, and on expressing his opinion with more firm- ness than discretion, was excommunicated ; when a considerable number of sympathizers gathered around him and constituted themselves into a church. But this sect could not long withstand the persecutions to which it was ex- posed, and died almost at the same time as its founder, who passed the latter part of his life in exile in Scythia, where he converted many pagans to Christianity by the force of his teach- ings, and the moral beauty of his ascetic life. Aude, od, a maritime department in the south of France; area. 2,430 square miles. It is mainly covered by hills belonging to the Py- renees or the Cevennes, and is traversed by a valley drained by the Aude. The loftier dis- tricts are bleak and unproductive ; the others, tolerably fertile, yielding good crops of grain. Its capital is Carcassonne. Pop. (1901) 311,386. Aude, a river of France, which rises in the East Pyrenees, in the Department of Pyrenes Orientales, and after a course of nearly 130 miles, falls into the Mediterranean. It receives several affluents, of which the principal is the Orbieu. Audebert, 6d-bar', Jean Baptiste, French naturalist and engraver: b. Rochefort, 1759; d. 1800. He went, at the age of 18, to Paris to learn drawing and painting, and made himself a skilful miniature painter. This occupation having awakened in him a taste for natural his- tory, he undertook some works which laid tht foundation of his fame. The first was 'Histoire Naturelle des Singes, des Makis, et des Gale- opitheques^ (1800), in which he shows himself an able draughtsman, engraver, and writer. Not satisfied with laying different colors on the same plate, so as to produce a kind of painting, he went farther, and, instead of water colors, used the more durable oil colors. He carried his art to still greater perfection by using gold in his impressions, the color of which he changed in different ways, in order to imitate the splen- dor of his patterns. Natural history was greatly benefited by his work, the splendor of which was astonishing. His ^Histoire des Co- libris. des Oiseaux-Mouches, des Jacamars, et des Promerops' (1802), is esteemed the most complete work that has appeared in this depart- ment. Fifteen copies were struck off with golden letters. Audette, a-det', Louis Arthur, Canadian lawyer : b. Quebec, 14 Dec. 1856. He was edu- cated at Quebec Seminary and Laval University ; called to the bar in 1880 ; was secretary to the board of arbitrations appointed in 1893 to deter- AUDIFFRET-PASQUIER — AUDRAN mine disputed matters of account between Can- ada and the provinces of Ontario and Quebec; and also became registrar of the exchequer court of Canada. He published ^The Practice of the Exchequer Court of Canada^ (1895). Audiff ret-Pasquier, o'de-f ra'pas-kya', Edme Armand Gaston, Due d', French statesman: b. Paris, 1823. He was president of the National Assembly in 1875 and was the first life-senator appointed by that body. In 1878 he was chosen to the French Academy. Au'diom'eter, for the measurement of hearing, an instrument devised by Prof. Hughes, the English inventor of the microphone. Among its constituent parts are an induction coil, a mi- crophone key and a telephone. The audiome- ter has been materially modified, and is now principally used for obtaining a balance of in- duction from two electric coils acting upon a third. A scale is provided to show the extent of the movement. A varying or interrupted current being passed through the two outer coils, the preponderating current will produce the most induction if the central coil is equidis- tant. It can always be moved to such a point that there will be no inductive effect, one coun- teracting the other. Thus its position measures the relative induction. A telephone is in cir- cuit with the intermediate coil and is used to determine when its position is such that no current is induced in it. Au'diphone, an invention to assist the hearing of partially deaf persons in whom the auditory nerve is not entirely destroyed. The instrument, made of a thin sheet of ebonite rub- ber or hard vulcanite, is about the size of a palm leaf fan, with a handle and strings at- tached to bend it into a curving form, and a small clamp for fixing the string at the handles. The audiphone is pressed by the person using it against his upper front teeth, with the convex side outward ; when so placed it communicates the vibrations caused by musical sounds or ar- ticulate speech to the teeth and bones of the skull, thence to the organs of hearing. For different sounds it requires to be focussed to different degrees of convexity. A simple strip of fine glazed mill-board has been recommended by some experimenters as cheaper and equally serviceable; and birch wood veneer has been used with success for the same purpose. Au'dit, a term denoting an examination into accounts or dealings with money or prop- erty, along with vouchers or other documents connected therewith, especially by proper offi- cers, or persons appointed for the purpose. Also the occasion of receiving the rents from tenants on an estate. Audition. See Ear: He.aring. Au'ditor. An auditor is an officer of the government, whose duty it is to examine the accounts of officers who have received and dis- bursed public moneys by lawful authority. In practice an auditor is an officer of the court, as- signed to state the items of debit and credit between the parties in a suit where accounts are in question, and exhibit the balance. They may be appointed either by courts of law or equity. They are appointed at common law in actions of account, and in many of the States in other actions, under statutory regulations. The auditor's report must state a special ac- count, 4 Yeates, Penn. 514, giving items allowed and disallowed, 5 Vt. 70, but it is sufficient if it refer to the account, and it is their duty to re- port exceptions to their decisions of questions taken before them to the court, and exceptions must be taken before them, 4 Cranch, U. S. 308; 22 Bart. N. Y. 39; unless apparent on the face of the report. The report of the auditor ar to facts is final in some of the States, unless impeached for fraud, misconduct, or very evi- dent error. When the report is set aside in whole or in part, it may be referred back or may be rectified by the court, or accepted if the party in favor of whom the wrong decision is made, remits the item. Auditory Canal. See E.\r. Auditory, or Eighth, Nerve, the nerve of hearing, and of the sense of position. It has its origin in two distinct portions of the ear, in reality being two distinct nerves, the cochlear and the vestibtdar. both of which are sensory in their function. The cochlear nerve originates in the cells of the organ of Corti in the cochlea of the ear, and is the one that carries sound im- pressions mto the brain. The vestibular nerve has its origin in the semicircular canals and is the nerve that conveys the sense of localization of position. Both of these nerves soon join and run together in the internal meatus, where they lie in the same sheath for some distance with the seventh or facial nerve. They enter the medulla, the cochlear nerves forming the acoustic striae on the floor of the fourth ven- tricle, and end about the superior olivary body and the nucleus of the trapezium. From here the fibres enter the fillet and end about the auditory centre in the brain in the second tem- poral convolution. Disease here causes auditory aphasia. The fibres of the vestibular branch end in the nuclei of Deiters and Bechterew in the medulla, and then further fibres pass for the most part into the cerebellum. Disease here causes cerebellar ataxia. See Ataxi.\ ; Apha- sia ; Equilibrium ; Hearing. Audley, a manufacturing town in Stafford- shire, England. Pop. (1901) 13,700. Audouard, 6'dowar', Olympe, French writer: b. 1830: d. 1890. She was married to a notary in [Marseilles, but soon after divorced. She traveled in Egypt, Turkey, and Russia ; and having conducted various journals in Paris since i860, made a successful lecture tour through the United States in 1868-9. After her return she became interested in spiritism. She was an ardent advocate of woman's rights. Among her novels and books of travel may be mentioned : ^How Men Love* (1861); ; *La Grand MoguP (i884> ; (1870); 'In the World's Labyrinth^ (1878); 'Castles in the Air> (1882). Au'er, Alois, Ritter von Welsbach, Aus • trian printer: b. Wels, 1813; d. 1869. He was trained as a compositor and in his leisure mo- ments acquired several languages, _ becoming A professor of Italian in the Gymnasium of Linz. From 1841 to 1868 he was at the head of the im- perial printing office at Vienna. He made many typographical discoveries and published 'Die Sprachenhalle oder das Vaterunser in 60S Sprachen' (1844) ; and 'Das Vaterunser in 206 Sprachen' (1847). Auerbach, OAv'er-baH, Berthold, German novelist : b. Nordstetten, Wiirtemberg, 28 Feb. 1812; d. Cannes, France, 8 Feb. 1882. He be- gan to write while a student in Heidelberg, and under the pseudonym "Theobald Chauber'' pro- AUERBACH — AUGIER duced a ^Biography of Frederick the Great^ (1834-6). A series of novels from the history of Judaism, under the collective title ^The Ghetto/ of which ^Spinoza* (1837) and *Poet and Merchant^ (1839) were printed in separate editions, was followed by a translation of Spinoza, with a critical biographv (1841). < Black Forest Village Stories^ (1843), was re- ceived with universal favor, translated into near- ly all European languages, and established his fame. To this class of tales belong also <^The Professor's Lady^ (1847); 'Little Barefoot' (1856); 'Joseph in the Snow^ (i860); 'Edel- weiss' (1861); 'After Thirty Years' (1876). His first effort in the field of the novel, 'New Life' (1851), met with little favor; but 'On the Heights' (1865) constituted the crowning suc- cess of his literary career. It was followed by 'The Villa on the Rhine' (1868); 'Waldfried, a Family History' (1874) ; and 'The Head For- ester' (1879). Au'erbach, Henry: b. 1482, at a place of the same name in Bavaria, the builder of the Auerbach court and cellar at Leipsic, mentioned in Goethe's 'Faust.' The building was erected in 1530, and tradition reports that five years after Dr. Faust was seen riding out of it on a barrel of wine. This tale Goethe has made use of in his famous poem. Au'erbach's Keller. See Auerbach, Hexry. Auerlite, a rare North Carolina mineral, remarkably rich in thoria, named after Dr. Carl Auer von Welsbach, the inventor of the Wels- bach incandescent gas mantel. It was origi- nallv described as a hydrous silico-phosphate of thoritim, Tha.(Si02. iP205) +2H0O. It oc- curs in yellowish, zircon-like crystals of resinous lustre and having a hardness of 2.5 to 3 and a specific gravity of 4.1 to 4.7. Auerstadt, ow'er-stet, a village in Saxony, famous for the great battle which took place there 14 Oct. 1806, between the French under Davoust, and the Prussian army under Duke Charles of Brunswick, which ended in a great victory for the former. The Prussians, who num- bered 48,000, left nearly half of their men dead or wounded on the ground, while the French (30,000) escaped with a loss of only 7,000. Napoleon made Davoust Duke of Auerstadt. Augean (a'je-an) Co'dex (Codex Augien- sis), a noted Greek and Latin MS. of the Epistles of St. Paul, supposed to have been writ- ten in the 9th century, and so called from Aiigia Major, the name of a monastery at Rheinau. After passing through several hands it came, in 1718. to Dr. Bentley, who purchased it for 250 Dutch florins, and is now in the library of Trinity College, Cambridge. This MS. is written in uncial letters, and without accents; not coutinua serie, as is common with the more ancient copies, but with intervals between the words, and a dot at the end of each. The Greek text is written in capitals, the Latin in Anglo-Saxon letters ; hence it is tolerably clear that it must have been written in the west of Europe, where that formation of the Latin letters, usually called Anglo-Saxon, was in general use between the 7th and i2th centuries. Au'geas, in Greek legend, a king of Elis, famed for his stable, which contained 3,000 oxen and had not been cleaned for 30 years. Her- cules was desired to clear the filth away in one day, and Augeas promised if he performed it to give him a tenth part of the cattle. This task Hercules is said to have executed by turn- ing the River Alpheus, or as some say. the Peneus through the stable, which immediately carried away the dung and filth. Augeas re- fused to perform his engagement. Upon this a war ensued and Hercules conquered Elis and put Augeas to death. Au'ger-shell, a common designation of the spiral gastropod mollusks of the Tereboidce fam- ily. The shells are slender and tapering, some- times ending in a sharp point, and are usually decorated with brown, orange, and red spots or patches. More than 200 species are known, all inhabitants of tropical waters, where they occur from the shallow waters of the shore to very great depths. Augereau, ozh-r5', Pierre Frangois Charles, Duke of Castiglione, a marshal of France: b. Paris, 1757; d. 12 June 1816. He distinguished himself in 1794 as general of bri- gade in the army of the Pyrenees, and in 1796 as general of division in the army of Italy. He made himself master, 16 April, of the intrenched camp of the Piedmontese at Ceva, after%vard of that at Casale; threw himself on the Bridge of Lodi, and carried it with the enemy's in- trenchments. i August he came to the assistance of Massena; maintained during a whole day a most obstinate struggle against a superior num- ber of troops and took the village of Castiglione, from which he derived his ducal title. In the battle of Arcole, when the French columns wavered, Augereau seized a standard, rushed upon the ^nemy, and gained the victory. The directory bestowed this standard on him 29 Jan. 1797. In 1799 he was chosen a member of the Council of Five Hundred, and therefore resigned his command. He then obtained from the consul Bonaparte the command of the army in Holland. Being superseded in October 1801, he remained without employment till 1803. when he was appointed to lead the army collected at Bayonne against Portugal. When this enter- prise failed, he went back to Paris, and 19 May 1804, was named m.arshal of the empire, and grand oflficer of the Legion of Honor. In July of this year the king of Spain sent him the order of Charles III. He contributed to the successes which gave birth to the peace of Pressburg, and in March 1806, had possession of Wetzlar and the country around, until, in the autumn of this year, a new war called him to Prussia. Early in 181 1 Napoleon gave him the command of a corps in the army of Spain. After the entrance of the allies into France, he made submission to Louis XVIIL. who made him a peer. Napoleon, on his landing in 1815, declared him a traitor. Augereau, however, ex- pressed himself in his favor, but took no active part in the new order of things. After the re- turn of the king he took his place again in the chamber of peers. Augier, 6-zhya', Guillaume Victor Emile, (ozh-ya'), French dramatic poet: b. Valence, 20 Sept. 1820; d. 25 Oct. 1889. 'La Cigue.' his first piece, in two acts, after being rejected at the Theatre Frangaise in 1844, was accepted by the managers of the Odeon Theatre, and there brought out. It had a run of three months, and established the popularity of the author. The AUGITE — AUGUST latter subsequently produced other light pieces. These, however, were thrown in the shade by •Gabrielle,^ a five-act comedy, which has been pronounced by competent critics to be Augier's most finished and best constructed work, whether as regarding lot, poetry or the delinea- tion of character. At the solicitation of Mile. Rachel, Augier wrote < Diane. > In 1868 his *Fils de Giboyer' was successful. The style of Augier is at once classic and easy, dignified and j'et pictorial. He may be said to have founded a new school in French dramatic liter- ature, and his works, partly by their originality, and partly by intrinsic merit of a kind pos- sessed in common with other dramatic produc- tions, have acquired very great popularity. Aug'ite. See Pyroxene. Augsburg, owgz'burg, a city of Bavaria; situated on a plain, 35 miles northwest of Munich. It was founded by the Emperor Au- gustus, 12 B.C. The streets are narrow but pic- turesque, the buildings retaining many mediaeval characteristics. Among the most notable are the cathedral, arsenal, town hall and Abbey of St. Ulrich. Napoleon III. received his early education in a gymnasium of this city. It is a centre of the book trade. Augsburg has been prominent since the Middle Ages for its com- mercial and financial operations and was long the home of merchant princes such as the Fug- gers. It was the scene of the Augsburg Diet. It was a free cit}' till 1806, when Napoleon ceded it to Bavaria. Pop. (1900) 88,700. Augs'burg Confession, a document adopt- ed by the Protestants in 1530 as a declaration of faith. Charles V., on his accession to the throne of Germany (1520), found his new do- minion the theatre of religious dissensions. The insurrection in Castile, and the war with France and Italy, called Charles into Spain, diverting his attention from the Lutheran schism. The Diet of Spires (1529) had issued a decree for the purpose of conciliating the Lutherans to the proposed Roman Catholic reform, and uniting them against the Sacramentarians and Anabap- tists. At this juncture, Charles returned, and the German princes and estates were summoned to convene in diet at Augsburg in June. The summons was conciliatory, and called for aid against the Turks, making no reference to the religious difficulties of the kingdom, further than to promise at no distant time a speedy ad- justment of them. On the 25th of the month, a confession, prepared by Melanchthon, and ap- proved by Luther, was presented and read by Dr. Christian Bayer in the diet. This confession is said to have been prepared on the basis of the Swabach and Torgau articles, although these had been drawn up (1528-9) in the attempt to unite with the Zwinglians, and the object of the present confession was to become reconciled to the Roman Catholic reform party. A copy of the confession, in German and English, was de- livered to Charles. Two days after the reading of the confession, it was delivered to the Roman Catholic theologians for a reply. The reply was read in the diet on 3 August following, and called forth from Melanchthon a defense (Apo- logia Confessionis), which was afterward en- larged and published in Latin, and then in Ger- man. The object of the Augsburg Confession was not attained, and the edict of the emperor (22 September) gave the Lutherans until the following April to bring themselves into con- formity with the requirements of the Church, and required their co-operation with the throne against the Zwinglians and Anabaptists. The Augsburg confession and ]\Ielanchtlion's defense were generally circulated in western Europe, and became a sort of rallying point among the re- formers. Augs'burg, League of, a league concluded at Augsburg, 9 July 1686, for the maintenance of the treaties of Miinster and Nimeguen, and the truce of Ratisbon, and to resist the encroach- ments of France. The contracting parties were the Emperor Leopold I., the kings of Spain and Sweden, the electors of Saxony and Ba- varia, and the circles of Suabia, Franconia, up- per Saxony and Bavaria. Augs'burg Seminary, an educational in- stitution in Minneapolis. Minn., under the aus- pices of the Lutheran Church. It was organized in 1869 and reported in 1902: Professors, 10; students, 170 ; grounds and buildings valued at $50,000; income, $12,250; graduates, 374. Au'gur, Christopher Colon, American mil- itary officer: b. New York, 10 July 1821 ; d- Washington city, 16 Jan. 1898. He was grad- uated at the United States Military Academy in 1843; became major of the I3tli United States Infantry in 1861 ; colonel of the 12th Infantry m 1866; brigadier-general, L^nited States army, 4 March 1869; major-general in the volunteer service in 1862 ; mustered out of that service in 1866; and was retired in the regular army, 16 July 1885. He commanded a division in the bat- tle of Cedar Mountain, being severely wounded. Au'gur, Hezekiah, American sculptor: b. New Haven, Conn., 21 Feb. 1791 ; d. 10 Jan. 1858. ^Jephthah and His Daughter,^ in the Trumbull gallery at Yale, is the most important of his works. In addition to his skill as a sculptor, he possessed much mechanical genius, inventing among other machines one for carving wood. Au'gurs, a celebrated college of diviners in ancient Rome, who predicted future events and determined the will of the gods from the occurrence of certain signs, connected with thunder and lightning; the flight and cries of birds ; the feeding of the sacred chickens ; the action of certain quadrupeds or serpents ; ac- cidents, such as spilling the salt, etc. The an- swers of the augurs and the signs were called auguries ; bird-predictions were auspices. Noth- ing was undertaken without the advice of the augurs, and by the w-ords alio die ('^meet on an- other day"), they could dissolve the assembly of the people and annul decrees passed at the meeting. August, ow'gust, the name of many princes of the German principalities: (i) August Wil- HELM, prince of Prussia, brother of Frederick the Great, and general in the Prussian army: b. Berlin, 9 Aug. 1722: d. 12 June 1758. He took an active part in the Silesian campaign, and dis- tinguished himself at the battle of Hohenfried- berg (in June 1745), but owing to the fatal retreat of Zittau, in 1756, he incurred the dis- pleasure of his brother, and withdrew from the army. This conflict between the two brothers led to a correspondence, which was published in 1769. (2) August Emil Leopold, duke of Saxe- Gotha and Altenlaurg, successor to the throne, AUGUST — AUGUSTA 20 April 1804. He was twice married, and the first marriage left him issue, one daughter, who became the reigning duchess of Saxe-Coburg, and died in 1822. By the second marriage he had no children, and on his death he was suc- ceeded on the throne by his brother, Frederick IV., with whose decease, 11 Feb. 1825, the line of Saxe-Gotha became extinct. Duke August Emil Leopold was a favorite of Napoleon, and his duchy enjoyed perfect immunity from the burdens of French invasions and French wars. He was a man of taste and considerable literary talent. (3) August Friedrich Wilhelm Hein- R]CH, prince of Prussia: b. 19 Sept. 1790 ; d. 19 July 1843, in Bromberg; the son of Prince Au- gust Ferdinand, the brother of Frederick the Great, who died in 1813. He was considered one of the richest men in Prussia, and left various children by morganatic marriages. He took an active part in the campaign against Napoleon in 1806, by whom he was taken prisoner, and de- tained in Paris until after the peace of Tilsit. On his return to Prussia in 1813. he resumed his duties in the Prussian army, fought at Dres- den, Ulm, and Leipsic, distinguished himself during the campaign of 1814, on various occa- sions, and bore throughout his life the character of a gallant soldier and an upright man. (4) August P.\ul Friedrich, grand duke of Olden- burg: b. 1783; d. 27 Feb. 1853; mounted the throne 21 May 1829, under the title of grand duke, which had been conferred upon his fam- ily by the Congress of Vienna ; but of which his father had never availed himself. When Olden- burg was invaded by the French, in 181 1, he ac- companied his father to Russia, where his younger brother (b. 1784, d. 1812) was married to the Grand Duchess Catharine. He distin- guished himself in the Russian war, and in 1813 was appointed governor of Revel. His reign, after his return to Oldenburg, was marked by political and material progress. In 1830 he con- cluded a treaty with Prussia for the annexation of Birkenfeld to the Prussian-Hessian Zollver- ein, and a reciprocal treaty of navigation. In 1836 he prevailed upon Hanover and Bruns- wick to make satisfactory arrangements for the regulation of excise duties. In 183 1 he laid the foundation for a constitution of Oldenburg, which was ratified in 1848, and which, although modified in 1852, still secures much civil and re- ligious freedom to the people. In 1817 he married the Princess Adelaide of Anhalt-Bern- burg, who died in 1820, leaving him two daugh- ters, Frederica and Amalie; the latter, in 1830, married King Otho of Greece. In 1825 he mar- ried the sister of his first wife, Ida, who died in 1828, having borne him a son. In 1831 he mar- ried for the third time, Cecilia, youngest daugh- ter of the former king of Sweden, Gustavus Adolphus IV., who died in 1844, leaving a son. He was succeeded by his first son. Nicholais Frederick Peter, grand duke of Oldenburg. Au'gust, the eighth month of our year, named by the Roman Emperor Augustus after himself, being associated with several of his vic- tories and other fortunate events. Before this it was called Sextilis or the sixth month Ccount- ing from March). July had been named for Julius Caesar, and the Senate, to gratify Augus- tus, decreed that August should have equal length, taking a day from February. Augus'ta, a title first given to his wife Livia, after the death of Augustus, according to the will of the emperor. It was afterward con- ferred by Claudius on Agrippina (51 a.d.), and by Nero on his wife, Poppaea, as well as her daughter (64 .ji.d.). Eventually it became a common title of the mother, wife, sister, or daughter of an emperor. Augusta, ow'gus-ta, Marie Luise Katha- rina, a queen of Prussia, and empress of Germany: b. 181 1 ; d. 1890. She was the daugh- ter of Charles Frederick, grand duke of Saxe- Weimar, and was educated at the Weimar court. In 1829 she married William, then crown prince of Prussia, afterward emperor of Germany. Augus'ta Victoria, duchess of Schleswig- Holstein-Sonderburg-Augustenburg: b. 22 Oct. 1858. She is the daughter of the late Duke Friedrich; married Prince Friedrich Wilhelm, afterward Wilhelm II., 27 Feb. 1881, and became empress of Germany and queen of Prussia on the accession of her husband to the thrones in June 1888. In 1900 she had borne the em- peror seven children, the crown prince, Fried- rich Wilhelm, being born 6 May 1882. Augus'ta, Ga., the third city of the State in population and wealth. It is the capital of Richmond County, and at the head of navigation on the Savannah River, 231 miles by water above its mouth. It is 132 miles by rail from Savan- nah, 171 miles east of Atlanta, and 137 miles northwest of Charleston. It lies about 150 feet above sea level, has an even temperature and dry, invigorating atmosphere very different from most riverside cities, being indeed a well-known health resort for pulmonary invalids, particularly its suburb Summerville. on the Sand Hills 400 feet above it. It is laid out in broad rectangu- lar streets, many of them beautifully shaded, and with a good electric car service; and has several parks, of which the chief is May Park of about II acres. The city hall is in a park containing a granite monument to the Georgia signers of the Declaration of Independence; while on Broad Street, the principal thorough- fare of the city, is a noble monument to the Confederate dead. The cemetery and fair grounds are also suburban attractions. Manufactures. — The power is chiefly derived from a dam across the river seven miles above the city (enlarged from a smaller one in 187s, at a cost of about $1,000,000), 150 feet wide at top, 106 at bottom, and 11 feet deep; turning a part of the river into a canal affording 14,000 horse-power, sold to industries at $5.50 per horse-power per annum, with a working day of 16 hours. Augusta is one of the chief seats of cotton manufacture in the South. Eli Whit- ney's cotton gin was invented on a farm on the outskirts, and the first working gin was set up in the city. In 1902 there were 13 cotton mills with offices in the city, having a capital of nearly $6,000,000, operating 329,740 spindles, and 19,360 looms, and employing some 8.000 hands. Dur- ing 1899, of about $8,000,000 new capital invested in Georgia cotton manufacturing, fully a third was in Augusta. There are also four large cot- ton-seed oil mills, and a bleachery. Of other manufactures, the chief are of lumber and wood products, bricks and tile drain pipe from the fine clays in the vicinity, flour, and iron goods. In 1900 there were 388 manufacturing establish- ments, with $9,016,619 capital and 7,042 em- AUGUSTA ployees; paying $2,093,915 for wages and $6,244,286 for materials ; and having a total out- put valued at $10,069,750. The increase within the past three years, however, has been very large ; and it is proposed to utilize the river still more for electric power, the present manu- factories practically exhausting the direct water power. The river at Augusta is about five feet deep the year round, and fair-sized passenger and freight steamers make semi-weekly trips to Savannah. Augusta is the largest inland cotton market in the South ; and it has also a large shipping trade in lumber, fruit and vegetables. Its annual trade exceeds $80,000,000, its cotton receipts amounting to 200,000 bales. The water supply is derived from the Savannah River and is unlimited. The city abounds in educational and charitable institutions. Most notable among the former is the Georgia INIedical Col- lege, a branch of the State University at Athens; there are also Richmond Academy, which has recently been put under the care of the State University; Saint Mary's and Sacred Heart (Roman Catholic) academies, Paine's Institute for Colored Students, and high schools for white and colored youth. There is also a public library of 10,000 volumes. There is an orphan asylum, two public hospitals (white and colored), a juvenile reformatory, and the Louise King Home. A United States arsenal, a Masonic temple, an Odd Fellows' hall, a Cham- ber of Commerce, and a cotton exchange are also among the notabilities. The city has three daily and several weekly newspapers. The assessed property valuation exceeds $20,000,000, and the bonded debt in 1900 was $1,752,300. There are two national and several state banks. Augusta is on the line of many railroads, among them the Central of Georgia, the Charleston & West Carolina, the South Carolina & Georgia, the Southern, etc. Its original char- ter was obtained in 1798, and revised 1882; the mayor is elected for three years, and a city council, consisting of 15 members, is also elected for three years, one third being elected each year. The board of education is elected by the people. All other offices are appointive by the council, save that the mayor appoints the super- intendent of canal and waterworks, and of streets and drains. Population. — In 1800, 2,215; (1840) 6,403; (1852) 10,217; (i860) 12,493; (1870) 15,389; (1880) 21,891; (1890) 33,300; (1900) 39-441- It suffers on the census returns, however, from having suburbs. North Augusta, across the river in South Carolina ; Summerville, and others not counted in ; and claims about 60,000 at present. History. — Augusta was founded in 1736 by Gen. James Edward Oglethorpe (q.v.), the founder of Georgia, and named after the Prin- cess Augusta of Saxony, who married Freder- ick, Prince of Wales, in that year, and became the mother of George III. All through its early period it was the chief trading station in Georgia, and a very important military post ; especially notable as the seat of conferences and treaties with the southern Indians, who under the treaties of 1763 and 1773 ceded large tracts of land to the whites ; the latter, how- ever, had to occupy much of it at the same risk of Indian warfare as before. In 1778 it was made the State capital, and remained such till 1798. The building of the Georgia railroad in the middle of the 19th century was a heavy blow to its prosperity for a time, carrying trade over new routes ; but its natural advantages enabled it to recover itself. Thos. W. Loyless, Editor '•The Augusta Chronicle.'* Augusta, ]\Iaine, city county-seat of Ken- nebec County and capital of the State ; on the Kennebec River, 40 miles above its mouth, at the head of tidal navigation, and on the IMaine Central R.R., 63 miles northeast of Portland. It is situated on both sides of the Kennebec, mainly on the right or west bank, and some por- tion of it, including much of the residential sec- tion, occupies an elevation considerably above the river, along which the principal business part of the city extends. The Augusta, Win- throp and Gardiner electric railway connects the city with neighboring places, and its water communications afford excellent facilities for travel and trade. Public Buildings and Institutions. — The State Capitol is a handsome granite building, for which the stone was quarried from the sur- rounding hills. It stands on high ground over- looking a wide extent of pleasant country. Among other noteworthy buildings are those of the Maine Insane Hospital, the City Hospital, the public library, the county buildings, and the United States arsenal. The churches include those of the Congregationalists, Episcopalians, Free Baptists, Colonist Baptists, Christians, Universalists, Unitarians, Methodists, Roman Catholics, and the People's Church. The public schools include all grades from the primary to the high school. In the capitol are the State library, a notable collection of portraits of American statesmen, and, in the rotunda, an impressive array of the Civil War battle flags of iNIaine soldiers. In the principal park is a soldiers and sailors' monument. Industries. — Augusta, by reason of its rail- road and river facilities, is the trade centre of a large region, and the water-power furnished by the Kennebec, across which, just above the city, extends a dam nearly 1,000 feet in length, affords abundant means for manufacturing. The cotton factories here employ about 1,100 persons; shoe manufacture, 300; pulp mill, 250; lumber mill, 100 ; sash and blind factory, 75 ; and besides various smaller establishments the city has publishing houses in which some 400 persons are employed. Banks, etc. — There are two national banks in the city, with a combined capital of $350,000, a trust company having a capital of $100,000, and two savings banks. The deposits of these institutions aggregate $11,000,000. Municipal Government. — The city is gov- erned by a mayor and a city council, a body consisting of boards of aldermen and common council, elected by the people. History. — Augusta was first permanently set- tled in 1754 by colonists from Massachusetts : was incorporated under the name of Hallowell in 1771 ; and upon the setting off of Hallowell in 1797 became a separate town. In 1831 it be- came the capital of the State, and has been the scene of many important political events. _ It received a city charter in 1849. Its population in 1900 was 11.683; in 1903 it was estimated at 12,031. The employees of the cotton factories AUGUSTA — AUGUSTINE are mostly French Canadians, the other inhabi- tants chiefly natives. Consult: North, 'History of Augusta> (1870). Fred'k W. Plaisted, Editor ^Tlie New Age."* Augus'ta, the name of many ancient Euro- pean towns, as Augusta Trevirorum, now Treves; Augusta Taurinorum, now Turin; Au- gusta Vindelicorum, now Augsburg, etc. Augus'ta, a city of Sicily. See Agosta. Augus'ta Histo'ria, a series of Roman biographies of the emperors from the accession of Hadrian to the death of Carinus, the predeces- sor of Diocletian, a period covering 167 years. The writers included in this collection are six in number, namely, ^Elius Spartianus, Julius Capi- tolinus, ^lius Lampridius, Vulcatius Gallicanus, Trebellius Pollio, and Flavins Vopiscus. Augus'tan Age, the Latin literary epoch of the reign of the emperor Augustus Caesar. During this period Horace, Ovid, Virgil, Ti- "bullus, and other writers flourished ; also great patrons of literature like Maecenas. The poets of the Augustan .A.ge are noted for their pure Latinity. The name is applied in England to the reign of Queen Anne (1702-14). By far the foremost name is that of Sir Isaac Newton, and of commanders, John Churchill (Duke of ]\Iarlborough). The poets were Congreve, Garth, Gay, Parnell, Philips, Pope, Prior, Rowe, and Swift. The other authors were Addison, Barnes, George Bull, Anthony Collins, Jeremy Collier, Roger Cotes, Defoe, Dodwell, Flam- steed, George Hickes, Dr. John Jeffery, John Norris, Ray, South, Steele, etc. Wren, Archi- bald Pitcairn, and Sir Cloudesley Shovel also lived in this reign. Au'gusta'na Col'lege, a co-educational in- stitution in Rock Island, 111., organized in i860 under the auspices of the Lutheran Church ; re- ported in 1902: Professors, 31; students, 250; volumes in the library, 18,000; ground and build- ings valued at $166,000; productive funds, $225,000; income, $32,119; graduates, 881. Au'gustine, Saint (Aurelics Augustinus), one of the most renowned fathers of the Chris- tian Church: b. Tagaste, in Numidia, 13 Nov. 354; d. Hippo, 28 Aug. 430. His father, Patri- cius, was a pagan, his mother, Monica, a Chris- tian. He has related his own early life in the work to which he gave the title of 'Confessions.^ His mother instructed him in Christianity, but for many years this faith had little influence on his life. He was long devoted to pleasure, and when quite young became father of a son by a woman with whom he was not connected by marriage. He was intended for the profession of rhetorician, and was sent to Carthage to study with this object in view. Cicero's work, *Hor- tensius,^ which has not come down to our times, first led him to speculative studies, and he now became a member of the sect of the Manichasans. He was one of their disciples for nine years ; but after having obtained a full knowledge of their doctrine, he found it unsatisfactory and left them. In 383 he left Africa for Rome, and after a short stay there proceeded to Milan, where he was invited as a teacher of rhetoric. St. Am- brose was bishop of this city, and his eloquent discourses, combined with the study of the Scriptures, converted Augustine to the orthodox faith, and wrought an entire change in his life and character. His conversion appears to have taken place in 386. He now retired into solitude, and prepared himself for baptism, which he re- ceived in the 33d year of his life, together with his son Adeodatus, from the hands of Ambrose, his mother being then with him. Returning to Africa, he sold his estate, and gave the proceeds to the poor, retaining only enough to support him in a moderate manner. For three years he lived a retired life, devoting himself to reli- gious duties, and to the composition of several treatises. Chancing on one occasion to be pres- ent in the church at Hippo, the bishop, who was a very old man, signified a desire to conse- crate a priest to assist and succeed him. At the desire of the people Augustine entered upon the holy office, preached with extraordinary success, and in a few years became Bishop of Hippo. The remainder of his life was occupied with his ecclesiastical labors, and with various controver- sies in which he warmly engaged, such as those with the Donatists, the Manichaeans, and more especially the Pelagians, concerning the doctrines of free-will, grace, and predestination. Augus- tine maintained the necessity of divine grace in determining man's moral acts to salvation, and he supported the doctrine of predestination, includ- ing election and reprobation, but always allowing for free-will and for the merit of the individual. His authority has alwaj^s been very influential in the Roman Catholic Church, and his view upon any doctrinal matter has at all times car- ried great weight and is constantly eited in controverted questions. He died at Hippo, while the town was besieged by the Vandals. There have been more learned fathers of the Church, but none have ever more powerfully touched the human heart, and warmed it toward religion. Painters have, therefore, given him for a symbol a flaming heart. His writings (which are in Latin) are very numerous. The most celebrated are his 'Confessions^ (belonging to the year 397), his 'De Civitate Dei^ (On the City of God), a work on the Christian Church, his treat- ise on the Trinity, 'Christian Doctrine^ ; 'Na- ture and Grace^ ; 'Grace and Free-WilP ; 'Im- mortality of the Soul,^ and his 'Letters.' His works have been published at Paris in 22 vol- umes, and an English translation in 15 volumes has appeared at Edinburgh, edited by Dr. Marcus Dods See Neander, 'Church History' ; Mil- man, 'Latin Christianity' ; Farrar, 'Lives of the Fathers,' etc. Two monastic bodies, the Au- gustiitian Canons, or Black Canons, and the Aitgustinian Hermits (q.v.), claimed to derive their origin from St. Augustine. Life by Hatzfeld. Au'gustine, or Austin, Saint, the first arch- bishop of Canterbury: d. 26 May 604. While prior of the Benedictine monastery of Saint Andrew at Rome he was selected by Pope Gregory L, together with 39 other monks, to convert the Anglo-Saxons to Christianity, and ■ establish the authority of the Roman See in Britain. In the spring of 597 the missionaries landed on the Island of Thanet and were kindly received by Ethelbert, king of Kent, whose wife Bertha was already a Christian. The conver- sion of the king speedily followed, contributing greatly to the success of Augustine's Vv'ork. large numbers of persons were converted and baptized, and it was soon manifest that a new influence for good had come into the lives of AUGUSTINIANISM the Anglo-Saxons. In acknowledgment of his success, the Pope directed Augustine in 597 to go to Aries, where he was consecrated arch- bishop of Canterbury and metropolitan of Eng- land. On his return he at once informed the Pope of his success, sending a presbyter and a monk to Rome for that purpose and also to obtain instructions concerning other questions with regard to the propagating of the faith. The answer of Gregory to the archbishop's in- quiries are fine examples of tact, good sense and judgment in dealing with the problems confront- ing the early missionaries, and instead of de- stroying the heathen temples they were con- verted into Christian churches. Saint Augustine was a zealous missionary of the Church and labored with untiring energy to extend the au- thority of the Church and to convert the ancient Britons, whom the English had driven into the mountains of Wales. In this, however, he was only partially successful, some of the British bishops refusing to acknowledge his authority and to unite with the English Church. Augus- tine died in Canterbury, and eight years after- ward his body was removed to the Ca- thedral of Canterbury. Consult: Bede, rne- times in winter coming as far south as New York and the Great Lakes (see Dovekie) ; and the razor-billed auk {Alca tarda), which has a bill of remarkable length and sharpness, and which breeds even as far south as the Maine coast. (See Murrelet; Puffin; Razor-Bill.) The auk lays only a single large egg, which, as no nest is prepared, the parents care for by holding upon the top of their webbed feet and between their thighs. These eggs are a staple food for the natives of the arctic re- gions, as are the birds, also. They are taken in summer and preserved for winter use, as in the autumn the auks migrate from the frozen coasts and spend the winter in the open spaces of the sea. Consult American and British ornitholo- gies; and Selous, ^Bird Watching^ (1901). Auld Lang Syne, aid lang sin, a song at- tributed to Burns, who added a couple of stan- zas to a poem known to have existed in 1600 and set to an old Lowland air by George Thomp- son. Auld Licht Idylls, aid Hcht i'dills, a work by James ^I. Barrie. It is a series of 12 sketches of life in Glen Quharity and Thrums. In all of them the same characters appear. Auld Rob'in Gray, a famous Scottish ballad by Lady Anne Barnard, published anony- mously in 1722, but unacknowledged till 1825. Au'lic (Latin, aula, a court or hall), a term applied to a council {the Reichshof rath) in the old German empire. It was one of the two supreme courts of the German empire, the other being the court of the imperial chamber {Reichskain- mergcricht). It had not only concurrent juris- diction with the latter court, but in many cases exclusive jurisdiction, in all feudal processes, and in criminal affairs, over the immediate feudatories of the emperor and in affairs which concerned the imperial government. The title is now applied in Germany in a general sense to the chief council of any department, political, administrative, judicial, or military. Aulich, ow'Hh, Ludwig, Hungarian general: b. Presburg, 1792 ; d. Arad, 6 Oct. 1849. After the evacuation of Pesth by the imperial troops in 1849, Aulich made his triumphant entry into that capital, and was received with enthusi- asm by the people. In his famous proclamation of Godollo, Kossuth paid also an appropriate homage to Aulich's gallantry. Subsequently, when Gorgey was forced to renounce either the army or the ministry of war, he took the lat- ter alternative, and Aulich was appointed his successor. But although he might have used his authority as minister of war to frustrate Gorgey's negotiations with the Russians, he actu- ally assisted Gorgey to bring these negotiations to a successful close. He was then delivered over to Austria by the Russians, and, in com- pany with 12 others, perished on the gallows. Au'lis, in ancient Greece, a seaport in Boeotia, on the strait called Euripus, between Bceotia and Euboea, noted chiefly for its temple of Artemis, and as the scene of the sacrifice of Iphigenia. Aullagas, owl-la'gas, a salt lake in Bolivia, which receives the surplus waters of Lake Titi- caca through the Rio Desaguadero. and has only one perceptible, insignificant outlet. The disposition of its superfluous water is, there- fore, still a matter of uncertainty. Au'lula'ria (from Aulula, a pot), a corned v by Plautus. Euclion, an old miser, is the prin- cipal character. Aumale, d-mal', Henri Eugene Philippe Louis d'Orleans, Duke of, 4th son of king Louis Philippe: b. Paris, 16 Jan. 1822; d. 7 May 1897. He entered the military .service at the age of 17, and distinguished himself by his bravery. At the age of 20, he was promoted to the rank of brigadier-general, and was sent to Algeria, in October 1842. Intrusted with the command of the district of Medeah, he at- tacked the smala of Abd el Kader with such impetuosity that in less than two hours the emir's troops were entirely routed. As a re- ward, Aumale was made lieutenant-general and commander of the province of Constantine. In 1847, the young prince, but 25 years old, was in- trusted \vith the general governorship of Al- geria, which was taken from the hands of Mar- shal Bugeaud. This appointment was not approved either by the army or the French nation, and it was the occasion for loud com- plaints against the ambition of the king, who was concentrating the direction of the whole military service in the hands of his sons. Af- ter the revolution of 1848, he went to England, where he devoted his attention to literary pur- suits. His latest years were passed in Sicily. He wrote ^Les Institutiones Militaires de la France^ (1867) ; ^Histoire des Princes Conde' (1869). Aumale, a town in France, 35 miles north- east of Rouen, which has given titles to several notables in French history : Jean d'Arcourt, Eighth Count d'Aumale, fought at Agincourt, and defeated the English at Gravelle (1423). Claude II., Due d'Aumale, one of the chief in- stigators of the Massacre of St. Bartholomew, was killed 1573. Charles de Lorraine, Due d'Aumale, was an ardent partisan of the League in the politico-religious French wars of the i6th century. Pop. (1900) 2,219. Aumont, 6-m6n', the name of one of the great historical families of France. The first Aumont mentioned in history is Je.\n III., Sire d'Aumont, who, in 1328, took part in the bat- tle of Cassel, and served under Philip de Valois, on many other important occasions. A more distinguished member of the family was Jean" d'Aumoxt : b. 1522; d. 1595. He was on the battlefield almost from his cradle to his grave, and served under si.x kings : Francis I., Henry II., Francis II., Charles IX., Henry III., and Henry IV. Antoine d'Aumont: b. 1601 ; d. 1669; served with distinction under Louis XIV., and in 1662 was appointed governor of Paris. Louis M.\rie Victor d'Aumont and de Roche- baron: b. 1632; d. 1704; took an active part in the war in Flanders under Louis XIV., was governor of Boulogne and the Boulonnois, and member of the academy of inscriptions and belles-lettres. Jacques, duc d'Aumont: b. 1732; d. 1799; was the commandant of the national guard, on 5 Oct. 1789, when Louis XVI. was forcibly taken away from Versailles. Louis Marie Celeste de Vienne. duc dAu- mont: b. 1762; d. 183 1 ; served in Germany, Spain, and Sweden, until the restoration, when he was appointed lieutenant-general. He made AUNGERVILLE — AURELIUS ANTONINUS himself very useful to the cause of royalty in suppressing the troubles in Normandy, and in 1815 was created peer of France, and raised to the office of first chamberlain. He was one of the most prominent men at the courts of Louis XVIII. and Charles X., but he exchanged poli- tics for theatres, and became the chief director of the comic opera. Aungerville, an'ger-vil, Richard, known as Richard de Bury (from his birthplace, Bury St. Edmunds), an English statesman, bibli- ographer, and correspondent of Petrarch : b. 1281 ; d. 1345. He entered the order of Bene- dictine monks, and became tutor to the Prince of Wales, afterward Edward HI. Promoted to several offices of dignity, he ultimately became Bishop of Durham, and Lord Chancellor of England. He made the acquaintance of many of the eminent men of the day, and was a dili- gent collector of books. He was the author of *Philobiblon,^ 'Epistolse Familiarium,^ includ- ing letters to Petrarch, etc. Aura. See Epilepsy. Au'ramine. See Coal Tar Colors. Aurangabad, ow-run'ga-bad', a town in India; 175 miles from Bombay, and on the Kaum River, a small tributary of the Godavery. It is surrounded by walls with semicircular towers at the different angles, and contains a ruined palace of Aurengzebe and a mausoleum erected to the memory of his favorite wife. A mile to the west of the town are cantonments for cavalry, infantry, and artillery. Auranga- bad was founded early in the 17th century, and rose to be a considerable trading centre, but its commercial importance decreased when Hyderabad became the capital of the Nizam. In late years the trade has revived considerably, and embraces wheat, cotton, and manufactured goods. Pop. (1891) 33,887. Auran'tia. See Coal Tar Colors. Au'rates. See Auric Acid. Aurbacher, owr'ba-ner, Ludwig, German author: b. 1784; d. 1847; well remembered by his *^Volksbiichlein* (1827-9) ; a collection of popular tales, ranking among the best produc- tions of this kind in German literature. Aure'lia. See Jellyfish. Aure'lian, Lucius Domitius Aurelianus, one of the later emperors of Rome : b. about 212 ; d. 275. He was the son of a peasant of Illyricum, and rose to the highest rank in the army, and even to the consulate ; which good fortune was increased by a wealthy marriage. Claudius IL, on his death-bed, in 270, recom- mended Aurelian to the choice of the troops of Illyricum, who readily acceded to his wishes. He delivered Italy from the barbarians, re- duced Tetricus, who had been unwillingly made to assume the purple in Gaul, and conquered the famous Zenobia, queen of Palmyra. Aur- elian followed up his victories by the reforma- tion of abuses, and the restoration throughout the empire of order and regularity, but tar- nished his good intentions by the general se- verity of his measures, and the sacrifice of the senatorian order to his slightest suspicions. He had planned a great expedition against Persia, and was waiting in Thrace for an opportunity to cross the straits, when he lost his life by assassination, the result of a conspiracy ex- cited by a secretary whom he intended to call to account for peculation. Aurelian was a wise, able, and active prince, and well deserved the title given him by the Senate of "Restorer of the Roman Empire.^' Aure'lian, a historical novel by William Ware, an American author born in 1797. It was first published in 1838 under the title *^ Pro- bus,^ and was a sequel to 'Letters of Lucius M. Piso,' published the year before; and like that novel, written in the form of letters. The full title is * Aurelian; or. Rome in the Third Century. In Letters of Lucius M. Piso, from Rome, to Fausta, the daughter of Gracchus at Palmyra.' The novel presents a singularly faithful picture of the Rome of the second half of the 3d century. Aure'lian Wall, a wall around Rome, huilt mostly by the emperor Aurelian, but completed in the reign of Probus. It was almost 12 miles long, and 54 feet high, enclosing an area of 5,000 square iniles, and marking the boundaries of Rome in the time of Aurelian. The wall was built in great haste as a defense against the barbarians, and includes the re- m-ains of house- and garden-walls. It was fairly well preserved until recently, but is now rapid- ly falling to decay. Aure'lius Antoninus, Marcus, often called simply Marcus Aurelius, a distinguished Ro- man, and according to Canon Farrar, "the no- blest of pagan emperors'' : b. Rome, 29 April 121 a.d. ; d. Vindobona, — the modern Vienna — 17 March 180 a.d. He was descended from an il- lustrious line which tradition declared extended to the good Numa, the second king of Rome. In the descendant Marcus were certainly to be found, with a great increment of many centuries of noble life, all the virtues of his illustrious an- cestor. Doubtless the cruel persecutions of the infamous emperors who preceded Hadrian ac- count for the fact that the ancestors of Aurelius left the imperial city and found safety in His- pania Bsetica, where in a town called Succubo, — not far from the present city of Cordova — the emperor's great-grandfather, Annius Verus, was born. From Spain also came the family of the emperor Hadrian, who was an intimate friend of Annius Verus. The death of the father of Marcus Aurelius when the lad was of tender years led to his adoption by his grand- father and subsequently by Antoninus Pius. By Antoninus he was subsequently named as joint heir to the imperial dignity with Commodus, the son of iElius Csesar, who had previously been adopted by Hadrian. From his earliest youth Marcus was distinguished for his sincerity and truthfulness. '^Hadrian's bad and sinful habits left him," says Niebuhr, ''when he gazed on the sweetness of that innocent child. Punning on the boy's paternal name of Verus, he called him Verissimus, 'the most true.' '' Among the many statues of Marcus extant is one represent- ing him at the tender age of eight years offer- ing sacrifice. He was even then a priest of Mars. .It was the hand of Marcus alone that threw the crown so carefully and skilfully that it invariably alighted upon the head of the statue of the god. The entire ritual he knew by heart. The great emperor Antoninus Pius lived in the most simple and unostentatious manner ; 3'et even this did not satisfy the ex- acting, lofty spirit of Marcus. At 12 years AURELIUS ANTONINUS of age he began to practise all the austerities of Stoicism and became a veritable ascetic. He ate most sparingly ; slept little, and when he did so it was upon a bed of boards. Only the re- peated entreaties of his mother induced him to spread a few skins upon his couch. His health was seriously affected for a time; and it was, perhaps, to this extreme privation that his subsequent feebleness was largely due. His education was of the highest order of excel- lence. His tutors, like Nero's, w'ere the most distinguished teachers of the age ; but unlike Nero, the lad was in every way worthy of his instructors. His letters to his dearly beloved teacher, Fronto. are still extant, and in a very striking and charming way they illustrate the extreme simplicity of life in the imperial house- hold in the villa of Antoninus Pius at Lorium by the sea. They also indicate the lad's deep devotion to his studies and the sincerity of his love for his relatives and friends. When his predecessor and adoptive father Antoninus felt the approach of death, he gave to the tribune who asked him for the watchword for the night the reply "Equanimity,* directed that the golden statue of 'Fortune' that always stood in the emperor's chamber be transferred to that of Marcus Aurelius, and then turned his face and passed away as peacefully as if he had fallen asleep. The watchword of the father became the life-word of the son, who pronounced upon that tather ill the 'Meditations,' one of the noblest eulogies ever written. It would be im- possible here to detail even briefly all the mani- fold public services rendered by Marcus Aure- lius to the empire during his reign of 20 years. Among his good works were these : the es- tablishment, upon eternal foundation, of the noble fabric of the civil law — the prototype and basis of Justinian's task; the founding of schools for the education of poor children ; the endowment of hospitals and homes for orphans of both sexes ; the creation of trust companies to receive and distribute legacies and endow- ments; the just government of the provinces; the complete reform of the system of collecting taxes ; the abolition of the cruelty of the crimi- nal laws and the mitigation of sentences un- necessarily severe ; the regulation of gladiatorial exhibitions ; the diminution of the absolute pow- er possessed by fathers over their children and of masters over their slaves ; the admission of women to equal rights to succession to prop- erty from their children ; the rigid suppression of spies and informers ; and the adoption of the principle that merit, as distinguished from rank or political friendship, alone justified promo- tion in the public service. But the greatest reform was the reform in the imperial dignity itself, as exemplified in the life and character of the emperor. It is this fact which gives to the ^Meditations' their distinctive value. The in- finite charm, the tenderness, and sweetness of their moral teachings, and their broad .humanity, are chiefly noteworthy because the emperor him- self practised in his daily life the principles of which he speaks, and because tenderness and sweetness, patience and pity, suffused his daily conduct and permeated his actions. The horri- ble cruelties of the reigns of Nero and Domi- tian seemed only awful dreams under the be- nignant rule of Marcus Aurelius. It is not surprising that the deification of a deceased empeJor, usually regarded by senate and peo- ple as a hollow mockery, became a veritable fact upon the death of Marcus Aurelius. He was not regarded in any sense as mortal. All men said he had but returned to his heavenly place arnong the immortal gods. As his body passed, in the pomp of an imperial funeral, to its last resting-place, the tomb of Hadrian.— the modern Castle of St. Angelo at Rome, — thousands invoked the divine blessing of Antoninus. His memory was sacredly cher- ished. His portrait was preserved as an in- spiration in innumerable homes. His statue w^as almost universally given an honored place among the household gods. And all this con- tinued during successive generations of men. Marcus Aurelius has been censured for two acts: the first, the massacre of the Christians which took place during his reign ; the second, the selection of his son, Commodus, as his suc- cessor. In extenuation of his persecution of the followers of Christianity, it has been alleged in his behalf that he was deceived by evil coun- cillors, who misrepresented the conduct of the Christians to him. This excuse impinges upon his wisdom as a ruler and his admittedly wide knowledge of the conditions of the empire. It is further urged that when we take into considera- tion the environment of the emperor, no just cause for condemnation of his course remains. He imbibed a bitter prejudice against the new religion from his beloved friend and instructor, Fronto. In the writings of Epictetus, whom he greatly revered, he found severe condemnation of the Christians as fanatics. With such a pro- found natural bias, it is urged, it is no wonder that he was led to regard the new creed with aversion. But the reason of his course is to be found rather in his deep-rooted attachment to the heathen beliefs of his ancestors and of the empire. It was rather his fear that the ancient cult, bound up as it seemed in the character of Roman rule, was seriously menaced by the prog- ress of Christianity, which actuated him to the severe and bloody measures he took to root out a dangerous rival. Regarding Christianity as a «pernicious sect,» a «secret conspiracy" against the empire, an «immoral superstition,)) whose poison was eating into the social life, and him- self as the conservator of the empire and its traditions, some extenuation might be conceded to such fierce zeal in persecuting the Christians in almost any other emperor that Marcus .Aure- lius. For there is a glaring inconsistency in his character in the adoption of so cruel and mon- strous a course by one who appears otherwise so admirable. In this signal instance he is as bloody and heartless as a Domitian, a Nero or a Calig- ula; in all other things merciful, in this pitiless; in his general administration, just and humane; in this, singularly unjust and even vindictive. Whatsoever may be urged in his defense, this relentless persecution of the Christians is a dark blot on his fame. Whatever extenuating circumstances may seem to condone it, his policy in this instance was utterly inconsistent with his general character. His first edict against the Christians was pub- lished in 177. Multitudes perished in the fierce persecutions which followed. Notable amongst the victims were St. Polycarp in Smyrna and St. Caecilia at Rome. The manner in which they were tortured before being relieved from sufferings by death was more befitting a savage chief than a civilized ruler. AURELIUS — AURORA Of the appointment of Commodus as his successor, it may be said that the paternal heart hoped against hope for filial excellence. Marcus Aurelius believed, as clearly appears from many passages in the ^Meditations,^ that men did not do evil willingly, but through ig- norance ; and that when the exceeding beauty of goodness had been fully disclosed to them, the depravity of evil conduct would appear no less clearly. The emperor who, \vhen the head of his rebellious general was brought to him, grieved because that general had not lived to be forgiven ; the ruler who burned unread all treasonable correspondence, would not, nay, could not believe in the existence of such an inhuman monster as Commodus proved himself to be. The appointment of Commodus was a calamity of the most terrific character; but it testifies in trumpet tones to the nobility of the emperor's heart, the sincerity of his own belief in the triumph of right and justice. See Farrar, < Seekers after God> (1868) ; Renan, Auri'ga, in astronomy, the Wagoner, a con- stellation of the northern hemisphere, contain- ing as its chief luminary Capella, a star of the first magnitude. Aurillac, 6're-yak', a town of France, 272 miles south of Paris. It is noted for its an- cient buildings, among which are the Church of Notre Dame, constructed in the 13th cen- tury, and the castle of St. Stephen. It has man- ufactures of jewelry, copper, kettles, paper, woolen stuffs, and carpets. Pop. (1896) 13,531. Au'rin, Au'rine, a trade name for impure rosolic acid. Au'ringer, Obadiah Cyrus, American poet: b. Glens Falls, N. Y., 4 June 1849. He served for some years in the United States na\'y. In 1875 he became a farmer in his native place. Among his works are: 'Voices of a Shell,-* 'Scythe and Sword' (1887) ; 'Episode of Jane McCrea> ; and 'The Book of the Hills.' Aurochs, a'roks, the European bison {Bos honasus, or Bison eiiropceus) called by the Germans "wisent*' and in the Slavonic lan- guages "zubr'' tor "suber.*' This great bison stands six feet or more in height at the shoul- der, and closely resembles the American bison or "buffalo* (q.v.) ; it is believed, indeed, that the American animal descended from the an- cestral race of aurochs. When the Romans spread northward into Europe they found these and other oxen in the forests wherever they went, and even down to the days of Charle- magne they were spread over Germany and were beasts of chase. They have steadily di- minished, however, until now they exist only as a single herd in the royal forest-preserves of Bielovege, in Lithuania, which in 1899 num- bered 700, while a few hundred roam in the Caucasian Mountains. See Bison. Aurora, 111., city, Kane County; on Fox River, and on the Chicago, B. & Q., the Chicago & N. W., the Elgin, J. & E., and the Illinois, I. & i\I. R.R.'s. It was founded in 1834 by Joseph and Samuel McCarty; was organized as a vil- lage in 1857, and was incorporated as a city in 1887. It is an important manufacturing city, having a variety of extensive establishments ; these include the shops of the Chicago, Burling- AURORA — AURORA BOREALIS. ton & Quincy Railroad, cotton mills, a wheel- scraper manufactory, carriage and wagon fac<;ones, smelting-works, and foundries and machine shops. There are five national banks with a combined capital of $600,000, and a State bank. There are 38 churches, a good system of public schools including two high schools, the East Aurora High School and the West Aurora High School, the latter established in 1870 ; and a public library, a building for which was pre- sented bj' Andrew Carnegie. It is also the seat of Aurora Business College and of the Jennings Seminary for j'oung women. The government is vested in a mayor and a city council of 14, seven of which are elected each year for a term of two years ; the city officials are elected by the people. The waterworks and the electric light plant are owned and operated by the city. Pop. (1890) 19,688; (1900) 24,147; (1904; estimated) 28,000. Auro'ra, Ind., town in Dearborn County, on the Ohio River; C, C, C. & St. L., and the Ohio and Miss. R.R.'s. It has regular steam- boat connection with Cincinnati. There are ex- tensive car shops here, and a large grain and hay trade. Pop. (1900) 3,645. Auro'ra, Mo., a city in Lawrence County, situated on the Kansas City, Fort Scott, and Memphis R.R.'s., about 18 miles northwest of Pierre City. The chief industries are fruit growing, lead and zinc mining, and farming. There are also flour mills, foundries, and ma- chine shops. Aurora has two banks with $75,- 000 capital. Pop. (1900) 6,191. Auro'ra, N. Y,. a village in Cayuga County, situated on Cayuga Lake ; 25 miles northwest of Ithaca ; on the Lehigh Valley R.R. It is the centre of an agricultural region, and is a residental town and excellent summer resort. It is the seat of Wells College for Women, Pop. (1900) about 1,000. Auro'ra (Greek, Eos), in mythology, daugh- ter of Hyperion and Theia, and sister of Helios and Selene. She is goddess of the dawn ; rises from the ocean, drawn by the celestial horses, Lampus and Phsethon, and with rosy fingers raises the veil of night, shedding light upon the world. Auro'ra, a famous painting by Guide Reni, on the ceiling of the Casino Rospigliosi in Rome. Auro'ra Bo'rea'lis (French, aurore borcale; German, Nordlicht), the northern light. An illumination in the sky, seen oftenest north of middle latitudes in the northern hemisphere, and south of them in the southern hemisphere. In our hemisphere it is generally visible in the north, and has, therefore, been called the Aurora Borealis. In the southern hemisphere it is called the Aurora Australis. The frequency with which it is seen varies with the latitude of the place. It is compara- tively rare within 45° of the equator, but be- comes more frequent toward the north up to the latitudes of about 60°, where it sometimes be- comes almost a nightly occurrence. Nearer the pole it again becomes less frequent. We shall first describe it as it is commonly seen in our own latitudes. The first noticeable phenomena commonly occurs after the end of twilight, when the northern sky near the horizon will be seen illuminated with a light somewhat like that of the dawn. Careful examination will show, how- ever, that the illumination is in the form of a broad arch, highest near the magnetic north, and reaching the horizon in the northeast and northwest directions. Presently beams of light are seen crossing this arch with a quivering or flickering motion, and shooting toward the zenith. Each beam constantly varies in bright- ness and seemingly fades away to give place to another. In more northern latitudes, say north of 45" or 50°, these beams form the most brilliant feature of the aurora. Sometimes they are ar- ranged in curved, wavy lines like the slats of a window shade flying in the wind, giving the appearance of a scroll in the process of being unrolled. In the case of a very brilliant aurora the beams may cover almost or quite the entire sky. In this case they will be seen to converge toward a point commonly not far from the zenith. The appearance presented by the beams grows out of the direction in which they are seen and to the laws of perspective. Long-re- peated observations show that the rays are really parallel to the direction of the dipping needle, or to the lines of the earth's magnetic force. In the latitudes which we have men- tioned, the dip is commonly more than 60°, in- creasing to 90° at the magnetic pole ; hence when a great number of beams, all parallel to each other, are viewed from a point on the earth's surface under the region in which they are found, they all seem to converge according to the laws of perspective, toward that part of the sky to which the upper (south) pole of a dipping needle is directed. If the parallelism to the magnetic lines is exact, the direction of this point should be the same as that of the compass needle itself. It is still an open question where the parallelism is exact. Many observations seem to show a deviation of 10° or more, but the determination of the exact centre of convergence is difficult unless the rays are so numerous as to cover a large part of the sky, and it is not certain that the deviation may not be due to errors of estimation. The Nature of the Auroral Light. — As a gen- eral, perhaps universal, rule, the rays or beams which we have described have a slightly yellow- ish tinge. When their light is analyzed with the spectroscope, several lines, sometimes as many as 12, are found in the spectrum. Of these the brightest and most constant is in the yellowish green part of the spectrum, having a wave length of 557. This line is characteristic of the aurora, but has not been identified with that emitted by any known substance. The light of an aurora does not proceed wholly from the beams. Very irregular sheets of light, having the appearance of thin lumi- nous clouds, are often seen. These are of various colors, red being especially frequent. The appearance is then that of a red cloud illuminated by the rays of the sun sometime after the latter has _ set. The light can, how- ever be easily distinguished from that of a cloud by its diffused character and the ab- sence of any definite outline. The height of the region in which the auroras are formed has never been definitely determined. The most important question is, whether the height is, in any case, above the upper lim.it of the atmosphere. This question is all the more difficult in that this limit is in itself an uncertain quantity. Observations of shooting AURORA LEIGH — AUSABLE CHASM stars show that these objects become visible at a height of about lOO miles above the earth's surface. The limit of the atmosphere must therefore be as high as this, and may be much higher. The difficulty of making observations upon the same auroral beams, at one moment, at different points of the region from which they are visible, is such that no exact deter- mination of the height of a beam has ever been made. There is some reason to believe that the height may range from lOO to 150 miles, but there is no reason to believe that a beam is ever seen above the possible limit of the atmosphere. The lower limit of the aurora is undeter- mined. Observers have sometimes been sup- posed to see a beam between their own position and a mountain or other terrestrial object, but this was probably one of those optical illusions from which even the best observers can scarcely free themselves. It is also very frequently be- lieved in countries where auroras are numerous that the phenomenon is accompanied by a crack- ling sound, somewhat resembling the rustling of silk or straw. As these sounds have been more difficult to hear, the more accurate and well-trained the ear of the observer, the pre- sumption is that they are entirely illusory. It is a well-known psychological fact that when a phenomenon is seen which is commonly asso- ciated with sound, many people fancy that the latter is heard even in cases where it is mani- festly impossible. A familiar instance of this sort is the rocket-like sound which many per- sons fancy to accompany the passage of a bril- liant meteor through the air. Apart from the fact that such a sound could not possibly have come from the meteor, we have the fact that only untrained observers ever hear these sounds. Caitse of the Aurora. — Science has not been able to as yet determine with certainty and pre- cision the cause of this very common phenom- enon. When the luminous effect produced by the passage of electricity through the highly rarefied air of a vacuum tube was first observed, its resemblance to the aurora led to the view that the latter was produced by electric currents in the upper regions of the atmosphere. Al- though it is not impossible that such currents may be associated with the aurora, they do not adequately explain its light, and are apparently inadequate to explain its rays. Yet there is no doubt that the aurora is associated in some way with the magnetism of the earth. The coinci- dence of the rays of the aurora with the direc- tion of the magnetic needle is one proof of this relation ; another proof is found in the rela- tion of the aurora to magnetic storms. The general rule is, that a very brilliant aurora is associated with such a storm, disturbing the magnetic needle not only at the point where the aurora is visible, but perhaps over the whole earth. Earth currents so strong that from time to time a line of telegraph may be run by them are also occasional accompaniments of a bril- liant aurora, but although the intimate connec- tion of the two phenomena is so well established, the exact relationship is yet to be worked out. In recent years Arrhenius has propounded a theory, based on the very probable fact that the sun emits a flood of corpuscles of a nature sim- ilar to that of the mysterious rays known as X- rays, cathode rays, electrons, etc., the investiga- tion of which has occupied so large a place in recent physics. His theory is, that these cor- puscles on approaching the earth are acted on in the direction of the lines of its magnetic force round which they describe helices. While noth- ing as yet has been found to disprove this the- ory, it is one which still needs much proving. What can be said with reasonable probability is that the aurora is caused by irregular emana- tions of corpuscles from the sun, which are stopped in the upper regions of our atmosphere. Periodicity of the Aurora. — Records of au- roras extending back two centuries or more show that they have been much more numerous at some period than at others. Sometimes it has been supposed that they have been more numerous at intervals of 2>3 or some fixed number of years, but this has not yet been proved, nor has any law been determined by which we can definitely say at what times they appear in the greatest number. But several periods are observed which show that the ap- pearance of the aurora is in some way con- nected with the sun. The first instance of this is the fact that they are more numerous when the spots of the sun are more numerous. As there is an ii-year period in the spots on the sun, so there is a corresponding period in the aurora. There is also a semi-annual period in the frequency of the aurora, the greatest number being observed in March and Septem- ber and the smallest in June and December. Arrhenius has connected this with the fact that in March and September the earth is over the region of the sun's surface in which spots are more numerous. Statistics also show that there are more auroras in the northern hemisphere when the moon is south of the equator than when she is north. This, however, is not proved to be a general law. There is also an observed period of 25.93 days in the frequency of the aurora. This is so near the time of the sun's rotation that it may be connected with the latter. Consult : Angot, *The Aurora,^ International Scientific Series. Simon Newcomb, LL.D. Auro'ra Leigh, le, a blank verse novel by Mrs. Browning, published 1857. The book dis- cusses various theories for the regeneration o£ society, and is filled with passages of great beauty, and ethical utterances of a lofty nature. Aurungzebe, a'riing-zeb', the last impor- tant emperor of Hindustan, of the Mogul dynas- ty: b. 22 Oct. 1618; d. Ahmednuggur, 21 Feb. 1707. He was the son of Shah Jehan, and prop- erly named Mohammed, but received from his grandfather that of Aurungzebe (Ornament of the Throne), by which he is known to history. Aurungzebe, in 1658, was crowned sole monarch of the great Mogul empire. Ausable (6-sa'b'l) Chasm, a picturesque and popular American summer resort, in New York State ; 12 miles from Plattsburg, and i mile from Keeseville. It is an isolated forma- tion, wholly independent of, and disconnected from, any other similar panorama. At the be- ginning of the chasm, the river is hemmed into a channel not more than 10 feet wide by walls of rock from 100 to 200 feet high. Lower down the walls gradually spread apart till in some places there is a distance between them of 50 feet, and then extend with sharp turns and oc- casional enlargements for nearly 2 miles. AUSCULTATION — AUSTEN Lateral fissures, narrow, and deep, project from the main ravine at nearly right angles, and through one of these a staircase of over 200 feet reaches to the abyss. The walls are formed of laminae of sandstone, laid in precise and regu- lar order, and their crevices are filled with a thick growth of hardy pines and cedars. The trip through the chasm may be made in a small boat or on foot. For the accommodation of tourists, stone walks with substantial iron rail- ings and firm bridges have been constructed. Auscultation, a method of examining the body by means of the sounds given to the ear. The naked ear may be used, or instruments, such as the stethoscope (q.v.), or the phoneidoscope be employed. The natural sounds may be alone investigated, as in listening to the breathing sounds, or the heart sounds, or the organ, or that portion contiguous or remote from the organs, may be tapped, or percussed, to deter- mine variations in the resonance. All of the parts of the body may be investigated by these means. Auscultation is probably, next to in- spection, the oldest mode of investigation. Hip- pocrates II. used it extensively, but it was not until Lsennec, in 1816, gave his demonstrations that the method came to be recognized as one of the most important in the diagnosis of dis- eased conditions. Consult Butler, 'Diagnostics of Internal Medicine^ (1901) ; Sahli, 'Unter- suchungsmethoden.> See Percussion. Auso'nia, a poetical synonym for Italy; so used by Virgil and other Roman poets. Auso'nius Decimus Magnus, the most dis- tinguished Roman poet of the 4th century a.d. : b. Burdigala (Bordeaux) about 310; d. about 392. He studied under several distinguished masters, and became at last professor of rhetoric in his native city, whence his fame extended through the whole empire. Valentinian intrust- ed to him the education of his son, Gratian, and appointed, him afterward quaestor and prae- torian prefect. After Gratian had ascended the throne he showed himself not less grateful to his preceptor. About the year 379 he appointed him consul in Gaul. After the death of Gratian, Ausonius lived upon an estate at Bor- deaux, devoted to literary pursuits. As Valen- tinian was of the Christian religion, it is prob- able that Ausonius was so, too ; and many of his writings confirm this conjecture. Critics are not unanimous on the subject of his poetical merits. He is undeniably learned and ingenious, but his style and versification have the blem- ishes of the age, and his Latin is impure. His epigrams, idyls, eclogues, letters in verse, etc., are extant. The best edition is that of -Peiper^ (1886). Aus'pices, among the Romans, omens, es- pecially those drawn from the flight or other movements of birds, supposed to be indications of the will of heaven, and to reveal futurity. At first only the augurs took the auspices, but after a time civil officers, discharging impor- tant functions had the right of doing so. Two kinds of auspices, however, arose — a greater and a lesser ; the former reserved to dictators, consuls, censors, praetors, or the commander-in- chief in war ; the latter permitted to less exalted functionaries. The glory of a successful enter- prise was universally assigned to the person who took the auspices, and not to the leader of the enterprise itself; hence, the phrase arose, to carry on a war "under the auspices'' of the emperor or some other high authority. See Augurs. Aussig, ow'sig, a town in Bohemia, near the junction of the Bila with the Elbe; 42 miles north-northwest of Prague. It has large manu- factures of woolens, chemicals, etc. Pop. (1901) 38,407. Austen, Jane, English novelist: b. Steven- ton, Hampshire, 16 Dec. 1775; d. Winchester 18 July 1817. Miss Austen was the daughter of the Rev. George Austen, rector of Steventon and Deane, and Cassandra Leigh Austen, daughter of the Rev. Thomas Leigh and niece of Theo- philus Leigh, for many years master of Balliol College, Oxford. Jane was the youngest of seven children, of whom others besides herself, particularly Admiral Francis William Austen, became distinguished. Until 1801 she lived at Steventon. Her life here was quiet, domestic, and moderately studious. Much of her spare time she spent in writing, chiefly for her own amusement. In 1801 the family removed to Bath, whence Miss Austen made visits to Lyme, Southampton, and other places in the south of England. Her father died in 1805, and in 1809 she settled at Chawton, in Hampshire, where she remained until within two months of her death. In May 1817, after some months of ail- ing health, she went to Winchester for treat- ment, and there died in the following July. ]\Iiss Austen began writing stories at an early age, and before 16 is said to have composed good-humored nonsense. The first of her ex- tant novels, 'Pride and Prejudice, > was written between October 1796 and August 1797. Be- fore that she had written 'Eleanor and Marianne,' which, in 1797-98, she altered into the present 'Sense and Sensibility.' Her third novel, 'Northanger Abbey,' belongs to 1798. The first of these novels to be published was 'Sense and Sensibility,' in 181 1. Two years later 'Pride and Prejudice,' which had been re- fused by a publisher in her father's lifetime, made its appearance. 'Northanger Abbey' had an even longer period of darkness ; in 1803 it had been sold to a publisher for £10, but the publisher, after keeping it ten years or more, sold it back to the family, by whom it was issued in 1818, the year after the author's death. In 1804, Miss Austen began 'The Watsons,' but never finished it, and until 1811 apparently did comparatively little writing. Between that year and 1816, however, she wrote 'Mansfield Park,' 'Emma,' and 'Persuasion,' published respec- tively in 1814, 1816, and 1818. There is also an unfinished story, 'Lady Susan.' The novels were not especially popular in the author's lifetime, though Scott and Macaulay (a little later) paid sincere and high tribute to their excellence. To-day they are regarded as among the best novels in the language and are probably as widely read as those of any first- rate woman novelist in English. The reason for their high place appears to He in Miss Austen's skill as a story-teller and a drawer of character. The people she deals with are chiefly from the higher middle classes in the English country, and she rarely goes above or below them. In a time, that of' the Napoleonic wars, when there was every temptation to write battle stories and heroics, iMiss Austen kept her eye on. the life AUSTEN — AUSTIN that she knew, and had nothing to do with spec- tacular means of arousing interest. The aspect of the few warriors and seamen who come into her pages is domestic rather than martial. Nor is there any very serious adventure of any sort; the worst that happens is an elopement, or when a heroine slips down stairs and is stunned. Her people are quite unintellectual and in no wise grand or heroic. On the whole, her material is less startling than that of any English novelist, but the picture which she gives is unsurpassed in the perfection of truth, humor, and vivacity. As a story-teller, she has, in point of technical construction, no superior. Her plots are not elaborate and there is no conspicuous wealth of invention ; in all her six novels the plot turns on an elopement or a hidden engagement ; but, granting this, the construction of "^ Pride and Prejudice,^ "^Emma,^ and ^Mansfield Park' is not to be bettered. They are models of their class of story telling. As an artist in character drawing, ]\Iiss Austen has contributed to the gallery of familiar persons such figures as Miss Bates,' Mr. Woodhouse, Mrs. Bennet, "Sirs. Nor- ris, and a number of others, all of whom are brilliant, though occasionally exaggerated, creations. All her important characters are strongly individual, and are so firmly drawn that there is no tendency to confuse them as types or as persons. < Pride and Prejudice' is usually regarded as the best of the novels in point of liveliness of style, neatness of structure, and vigor of sub- stance. This position would be disputed by ad- mirers of the more intricate ^Emma' and the more intricate and gloomy ^Mansfield Park,' both of which probably surpass ^ Pride and Prejudice' in maturity and variety of character- ization. Bonwick, 'Climate and Health in Aus- tralia> (London, 1886) ; Kent, (London, 1893), and 'Exploration of Australia^ (London, 1895) ; Collingridge, (Sydney, 1895) ; Favenc, ^History of Australia Exploration from i788-i888> (London, 1892); Finney, 'History of the Australian Colonies > (Sydney, 1901) ; Giles, 'Australia Twice Traversed^ (London, 1889) ; Gre3% 'Two Expeditions of Discovery in Northwestern and Western Australia^ (Lon- don, 1841), and 'Early Voyages to Terra Aus- tralia,> Hakluyt Society, (London, 1859) ; Grimm, 'Discovery and Exploration of Austra- lia) (Melbourne, 1888); Howlitt, 'History of Discovery in Australia, Tasmania, and New Zealand from the Earliest Times' (London, 1865) ; Parkers, 'Fifty Years in the Making of Australian History* (London, 1892) ; Rusden, ^History of Australia* (Melbourne, 1897) ; G. F. Scott, 'The Romance of Australian Explor- ing* (London, 1899). William John Sowden, Editor of the South Australian ^Register.'' 4. Australia — Political History. Begin- nings of Colonial Sclf-Govermncnt. — It was a maxim of the common law that, if an unin- habited country were discovered and peopled by British subjects, they were supposed to possess themselve of it for the benefit of their sovereign, and that such of the laws of England as were applicable and necessary to their situation and the conditions of an infant colony were imme- diately in force; that wherever an Englishman went he carried with him as much of English law and liberty as the nature of his circum- stances required. It was recognized that Eng- lishmen carried their political birthright with them over the broad surface of the earth ; that the charters of freedom for which their ances- tors fought were not left behind, but accom- panied them to their new homes beyond the seas. The Colonial Legislatures of Newfoundland and Jamaica were established not by British statutes, but by Royal Commissions under the Great Seal accompanied by Royal instructions. Local self-government in Australia did not, however, originate in the exercise of the pre- rogatives of the Crown, as it did in the case of some of the early North American and West Indian colonies. From the very first it was founded upon, as it was subsequently developed and built up, by statutory authority. NEW SOUTH WALES THE FIRST ORIGINAL COLONY. Foundation.— In 1784 the British Parliament passed the statute of 24 Geo. III., c. 56, intituled "An Act for the effectual transportation of felons and other offenders, and to authorize the removal of prisoners in certain cases, and for other purposes therein mentioned.*' This law empowered the King, with the advice of the Privy Council, to appoint places to which felons might be transferred. By an order in Council bearing date 6 Dec. 1786, His Majesty's "terri- tory of New South Wales, situated on the east part of New Holland,** was appointed a place for the reception of persons within the meaning of the Act. By letters-patent and commission dated 2 April 1787, Captain Arthur Phillip was ap- pointed Governor of the territory. The limits of his authority extended from Cape York on the north to the southern extremity of the coast of the continent and inland and westward as far as the 135th meridian, which w'as afterward extended to the 129th meridian east longtitude. The Governor was empowered to make orders for the good government of the settlement. By the Act 27 Geo. HI., c. 2, the King was authorized to establish a Court of Criminal Jur- isdiction on the eastern coast of New South Wales. Such was the legal authority under which, on 26 Jan. 1788, a penal settle- ment was established at Sydney Cove. It was not at first intended to be a colony, or planta- tion, for the purposes of trade and cultivation, within the ordinary meaning of those terms. Tlie First Constitutional Charter. — The tem- porary Act 4 Geo. IV., c. 96. (1823), which be- came law during the governorship of Sir Thomas Brisbane, was the first legislation passed by the Imperial Parliament conferring anything like the rudiments of local self-gov- ernment on the New South Wales community. A council of five persons was appointed having limited legislative powers. On 17 May 1824, a Charter of Justice, creating a Supreme Court was promulgated. Tlie Second. Constitutional Charter. — The Act 9 Geo. IV., c. 83 (25 July 1828), passed during the governorship of Lieutenant-General Sir Ralph Darling, was the second Constitu- tional Charter of Australia. Courts of Criminal and Civil Jurisdiction, coupled with trial by jury, were organized. The laws and statutes in force within the realm of England, so far as applicable, were applied to the administration of justice in New South Wales and Van Die- men's Land. The Crown was authorized to constitute in New South Wales and Van Die- men's Land respectively, an Advisory Council to consist of such persons resident in the said colonies respectively, not exceeding 15. and not less than 10, as the King might be pleased to nominate. The Tliird Constitutional Charter. — The third charter regulating the government of New South Wales was the Act 5 and 6 Vic, c. 76 (30 July 1842), passed during the governorship of Sir George Gipps. This Act established for the first time in Australia a legislature, partly, but not wholly, representative in its character. It enacted that, there should be within the colony of New South Wales a Legislative Council consisting of 36 members, 12 of whom were to be appointed by the Crown, and 24 were to be elected by the inhabitants of the colony having certain property qualifications. AUSTRALIA — POLITICAL HISTORY The Governor, with the advice of the Council, was authorized to make laws for the peace, welfare and good government of the colony, provided that such laws were not repugnant to the laws of England ; nor were they to interfere with the sale or occupation of the waste lands of the Crown. Bills imposing duties of customs had to be reserved for the Queen's assent. This Act did not grant to New South Wales the system known as "Responsible Government.* The Governor presided over and managed all the public departments. It contained, however, the feeble germs whence has since sprung the splendid fabric of parliamentary institutions in Australia. It was the first concession made by enlightened British statesmen to the growing wealth and importance of the Australian colonies. The new Council was opened by Sir George Gipps on I Aug. 1843. The Fourth Constitutional Charter. — The next important charter granted to Australia was 13 and 14 Vic, c. 59 (5 Aug. 1850, intituled "An Act for the better government of Her Alajesty's Australian Colonies," and commonly known as the Australian Colonies Government Act. The bill, of which this Act was the outcome, was first introduced into the House of Commons in June 1849. The two main objects of the Act were the separation of the Port Phillip District from New South Wales, and the establishment in all the colonies of an improved system of Provincial Government. The Legislative Coun- cil, erected in New South Wales by the Act of 1842, was not materially disturbed. Its powers were in some respects increased, and the fran- chise on which its representative members were elected was liberalized. The Xezu Constitution. — A new election of members of the Legislative Council of New South Wales on the liberalized franchise then took place. The new Council complained that the Act 13 and 14 Vic, c. 59, did not place the control of revenue taxation, and the waste lands o- the Crown in the Colonial Legislature, and a full measure of local self-government in a Con- stitution similar in outline to that of Canada was applied for. In 1852 gold was discovered in New South Wales and Victoria, which caused a great influx of immigrants into these colonics. In a despatch addressed to Governor Fitzroy, dated 15 Dec. 1852, Sir John Packington, Secretary of State for the Colonies, stated that Her Majesty's gov- ernment had been greatly influenced by con- siderations arising from the extraordinary dis- coveries of gold in the Australian colonies, which had imparted new and unforeseen features to their political and social positions. It was the wish, therefore, of Her Majesty's Govern- ment that there should be established in each colony, a new Legislature consisting of a Legis- lative Council nominated by the Crown, and an elective House chosen by qualified inhabitants. To such Legislatures it was proposed to give general powers including that of dealing with the waste lands of the Crown. Upon the receipt of this despatch the Legis- lative Council of New South Wales, under the authority conferred by 13 and 14 Vic, c 59, s. 32, appointed a select committee to draw up a constitution establishing a bicameral Legisla- ture, having increased powers and functions. A constitution was accordingly drawn up. It pro- vided that, in place of the Legislative Council then existing there should be a Legislative Council and a Legislative Assembly, and that Her Majesty should have power by and with the advice and consent of the said Council and Assembly to make laws for the "peace, welfare, and good government of the said colony in all cases whatsoever." The members of the Coun- cil were to be nominated by the Governor with the advice of the Executive Council. The first nominees were to hold their seats for five years only. The members of the Assembly were to be chosen by male electors having certain residen- tial and property qualifications. An Assembly once constituted was to continue for five years unless dissolved by the Governor. The new Legislature was endowed with full power to deal with the waste lands of the Crown and to impose duties of customs. On 21 Dec. 1853, the new Constitution was adopted and transmitted to the Secretary of State for the Colonies. In an amended shape it was made a schedule to a bill introduced into the Imperial Parliament, intituled "A Bill to en- able irier ]\Iajesty to assent to a bill as amended by the Legislature of New South Wales to con- fer a Constitution on New South Wales." The bill was passed by Parliament and received the Royal assent on 16 July 1855. Its number is 18 and 19 Vic, c. 54. The Act conferring a Constitution on Victoria was assented to on the same day. The Constitutions were then trans- mitted to the respective Colonies, accompanied by explanatory despatches from the Secretary of State, Lord John Russell, in which the Gov- ernors were instructed as to the introduction of responsible government. Responsible Government. — That great change in the colonial system of administration known as " The Introduction of Responsible Govern- ment " — that is of Ministers appointed by and responsible to the Governor, but constitution- ally and practically responsible to Parliament — is said by some authorities to have been effected solely by despatches from the Secretary of State to Colonial Governors. These despatches de- scribed the circumstances in which the Crown, through the Governor for the time being, would exercise its right of displacing one set of public servants and of appointing others in their places — that no change would be made so long as those public servants, being Ministers in charge of Departments, possessed the confidence of the local Legislature. In the body of the Constitu- tion Act of New South Wales (and this remark applies equally to that of Victoria) the words "responsible ministers" do not occur. Were it not for a marginal note to one of the sections, not even a hint would have been given on its face of the important change it was intended to effect. Other constitutional jurists, however, afiirm that section 37 of the Constitution Act of New South Wales, and the corresponding section of that of Victoria, contains provisions which as- sume if they do not originate some plan of min- isterial and responsible government. Both those sections declared that appointments of all public offices shall be vested in the Governor with the advice of the Executive Council, "except tlie appointment of officers liable to retire from office on political grounds which appointments AUSTRALIA — POLITICAL HISTORY shall be vested in the Governor alone. '^ The Constitution Acts of South Australia, Queens- land and Western Australia, contain substan- tially similar sections. But section i8 of the Constitution Act of Victoria and section 32 of the Act of South Australia went much further in the direction of expressly recognizing and introducing responsible government. Those sections enacted that a certain number of offi- cers of the Governments in those colonies for the time being should be members of the Legis- lature created by the new Constitutions. On 22 May 1856, the first Parliament of New South Wales under the new Constitution was opened by Sir William T. Denison. The first Respon- sible Ministry had Mr. Alexander Donaldson as Colonial Secretary and Premier. Aduiinistration and Lc,^islation. — With the establishment of responsible Government in New South Wales the initial pulsations of po- litical life in Australia may fairly be said to date their beginnings. The Governor of the colonv was the representative of the Crown, but he was no longer his own Prime Minister. In 1859 a new Parliament was elected under the provisions of an Act to Amend the Consti- tution, introduced and passed by the advice of the Cowper Administration, providing for in- creased electoral representation, vote by ballot and manhood suffrage which in later years was developed into *one man one vote,^^ and finally into "one adult one vote.'* In i860 the Robertson Ministry introduced two Land Bills, one providing for the alienation and the other for the pastoral occupation of Crown lands. The main principles of these bills were free selection — before survey, which constituted the battle cry of the land reformers. In 1861 the bills were again introduced into the Assembly, Mr. Robertson resigned his seat in the Assembly and was appointed a member of the Council in order to pilot the bills through that Chamber. Both bills were again passed by the Assembly and sent to the Council. In order to counteract and overcome the opposi- tion in the Council it was decided to swamp that Chamber by the appointment of 21 members. A parliamentary crisis was thus brought about. A majority of the old members withdrew from the Chamber, thus leaving it without a quorum and the fresh nominees could not be sworn in. The term of office of the first members of the Coun- cil was limited to five years which was then about to expire. The Council was reconstituted by the appointment of 27 life members on 24 June 1861 ; Wentworth being appointed the first President. In 1862 the Crown Land Alienation Bill and the Crown Land Occupation Bill were passed by both Houses. A Chinese Immigra- tion Restriction Bill embodying the main pro- visions of Victorian legislation, was also passed. In 1863 Messrs. Dalley and Parkes returned to the Colony from England where they had been sent on a mission to promote emigration to New South Wales. From this time on Mr. Parkes became a prominent figure in the polit- ical world of New South Wales. He was closely identified with the cause of free trade. In 1868 Mr. Parkes resigned, and temporarily withdrew from public life. The most notable public events of this period were the withdrawal of the British troops from New South Wales and Victoria, and the successful transmission of the first through cable message from Aus- tralia to England. In 1872 the Martin-Robertson Ministry was defeated. Mr. Parkes having returned to the House was entrusted with the task of forming a ministry. He retained the premiership until 1875 when his government was defeated on the motion by Mr. Robertson. The Robertson Min- istry remained in office imtil 17 Dec. 1877, when Mr. Parkes formed another ministry which had but a short reign. A political duel went on be- tween Mr. Parkes and Mr. Robertson for a considerable time, but was at last terminated by a coalition of the two leaders who in De- cember 1878, formed a Ministry which lasted until Jan. 1883. In 1881 a Chinese Immigration Restriction Act was passed imposing severe penalties on Chinese entering the Colony, with- out payment of a poll tax of iio. An Act was passed legalizing trade unions. The Federal Council of Australia was created on 28 Nov. 1883. A rich silver field was discovered at Broken Hill (1883). The Land Bill of 1882 was the rock on which the Parkes-Robertson Ministry was wrecked. A general election resulted in Mr. (afterwards Sir) Alexander Stuart coming to power which he held until October, 1885. In 1888 another Chinese Restriction Act was passed. The Poll Tax was raised to £100 per head. Chinese were not permitted to engage in mining and they were not qualified to be naturalized. A tonnage limitation was imposed on vessels bringing Chinese to New South Wales ; they were not allowed to bring more than one Chinese pas- senger to every 300 tons. In February 1890, a Federal Conference, presided over by Sir Henry Parkes, was held in Melbourne, at which it was resolved that a National Australian Convention should be held to draft a Constitution for the federation of the Australian colonies. In March 1891, the Con- vention was held in Sydney and a draft Con- stitution was adopted. In October 1891, the last Parkes Ministry was defeated, being suc- ceeded by that of Sir George Dibbs. In 1893 an Electoral Bill was passed embodying the prin- ciple of "one man one vote.*' In August 1894, the Dibbs' Ministry, which had introduced protection in a modified form, gave way to a free trade Ministry formed by George H. Reid. A new tariff on free trade lines, a land tax, an income tax, and homestead bills were passed under his leadership. Early in 1895 Mr. Reid attended a conference of Premiers at Hobart at which the draft of an Enabling Bill to be introduced into the Legis- lature of each colony, providing for the election directly by the people of each colony of 10 rep- resentatives to attend a Federal Convention to frame a Constitution for the federation of the colonies, to be afterward submitted to a referendum of the people of each colony, was adopted. Subsequently the Parliament of New South Wales, as well as the Parliaments of the other colonies passed identical bills for the aforesaid purpose. It was under the authority of this legislation that the Commonwealth Con- stitution was afterward framed and adopted. In 1897 an Immigration Restriction Act, based on the Natal Act, imposing an education test in order to exclude colored aliens, was passed. AUSTRALIA — POLITICAL HISTORY Legislation on similar lines was adopted in sev- -eral other colonies. On 13 Sept. 1899, the Reid ]\Iinistry was de- feated and Sir William Lyne formed a Govern- ment which succeeded in passing the Early Closing Act, the Navigation Act. the Old Age Pension Act, and the Women's Franchise Act. In March 1901, Sir William Lyne retired in order to take office as a Commonwealth Min- ister. The Ministry formed by Mr. (after- wards Sir) John See succeeded it. One of the most important measures passed through its instrumentality was the Industrial Arbitration Act (1901) ; under which the principle of com- pulsory arbitration and settlement of industrial disputes was established. A short-lived Wad- dell ^linistry was followed bv one formed by Mr. Joseph Hector Carruthers, and it is still in office (September 1906). VICTORIA AN OFF-SHOOT OF NEW SOUTH WALES. Separation. — By Act 13 and 14 Vic, c. 59, (5 Aug. 1850), the district of Port Phillip, bounded on the north and northeast by a straight line drawn from Cape Howe to the nearest source of the river ^lurray, and thence by the course of that river to the eastern boundar}' of the colony of South Australia, was separated from the colony of New South Wales, ceased to return members to the Legislative Council of such colony, and was erected into and thence- forth formed l separate colony, *to be known and designated as the colony of Victoria.*' A Legislative Council was created in and for the new colonj' having powers and functions similar to those of the newly-organized Council of New South Wales. On i July 1851, writs for the election of 20 elective members for the Legislative Council of Victoria were issued ; 10 were nominated by the Crown. Mr. La Trobe was appointed Lieutenant-Governor. In this manner the Colony of Victoria was called into existence and received the first impulse of an autonomous political life. The new Council was convened for the despatch of business in November 1851, at about the time when gold was being discovered in fabulous quantities in the famous goldfields of Ballarat and Bendigo. The official members were : Mr. W. Lonsdale, Colonial Secretary; Mr. (afterwards Sir) W. F. Stawell, Attorney-General; Mr. (afterwards Sir) Redmond B;.rry, Solicitor-General; C. H. Ebden. Auditor-General ; and R. W. Pohlman, Chairman of the Court of Requests. J. F. Palmer was elected Speaker. The A'ew Constitution. — A new Constitution drawn on the same lines, and passed in the same manner as that of New South Wales, was assented to by Her Majesty on 16 July 1855. The only substantial difference between the two bicameral Legislatures was that whilst the Legislative Council of New South Wales was composed of members nominated by the Crown the members of the Legislative Council of Vic- toria were elected by residential inhabitants having high property qualifications. Responsible Government. — The Premier of the first Responsible Government was W. C. Haines. The first election for the Legislative Assembly took place in the spring of 1856. The first Ministry resigned on the passing of an un- favorable resolution upon the subject of the Estimates, in ISIarch 1859. Sir John O'Shan- assy, the mover of the resolution, then became Premier. Administration and Legislation. — Among the problems which soon engaged the attention of the newly-created Parliament of Victoria were those of Constitutional Reform, Manhood Suffrage, Land and Mining Legislation, Agri- culture, Protection, and Free Trade. Inter- Colonial Relations, Public Works, Railways, Telegraphs, Water Supply, Immigration, Chi- nese Immigration Restriction, Naval and Mili- tary Defence, and Education. Arnong the first Administrations which held office in Victoria were those of which William Clark Haines was Premier in 1855-57; 1857-58; r\Ir. (afterwards Sir) John O'Shannassy, Pre- mier, 1857; 1858-59; 1S61-63; Wm. Nicholson, Premier, 1859-60; Richard Heales, Premier, 1860-61. In the early days of the goldfields great dis- content existed because of the heavy license fee of 30 shillings per month which every digger was required to pay. In Noven-ffier 1854, the tyr- annical policy of the Government culminated in an open insurrection which broke out at Ballarat. A flag of revolt, having the emblem of the Southern Cross, was hoisted over a bar- ricade known as the "Eureka Stockade.*' By command of Governor Sir Charles Hotham a force of British troops were sent to Ballarat to storm the stockade. Many lives were lost. After this tragic period, — the first and only bloodshed in Australia in the name and for the cause of political freedom, — the grievances of the diggers were redressed. In 1855 the Legislative Council of the newly- created Colony of Victoria led the way in the passage of a number of laws intended to restrict Chinese immigration, which commenced in 1854, when the fame of the gold diggings of Victoria began to attract thousands of Chinamen to that Colony. The Victorian Council passed a bill, which w^as assented to by the Governor, "to make provision for certain immigrants.** The substance of the law was that no ship should bring to a Victorian port more passengers, be- ing Chinese immigrants, than in the proportion of one person to every 10 tons of the tonnage of such ship, under a penalty of iio for each passenger in excess of such proportion. On the arrival of a ship in any port of Victoria with Chinese immigrants on board, the master was required to pay to the Collector of Customs a tax of iio for every such immigrant. The money so collected was to be invested by the Government to form a fund for the relief, sup- port and maintenance of such immigrants. Pro- vision was made for the registration of such immigrants, on their arrival in any district or place to which they proceeded. This and other Immigration Acts were consolidated in 1865. Another notable measure passed by the first Legislative Council of Victoria was a bill adopt- ing "vote by ballot;'* this was the first measure in the history of Parliamentary Government in which this method was made legal. The first important bill was introduced by James Service as Commissioner of Crown Lands and Surveys in the Nicholson Govern- ment, on 30 Nov. 1859. The chief feature in this bill was that of free selection for settle- ment and agriculture over all the waste land of the Colony, subject to certain conditions with AUSTRALIA — POLITICAL HISTORY respect to lands not yet surveyed. The bill was passed by the Assembly but was rejected by the Council. The period from 1863 to 1866 was memor- able in the history of Victoria. It began in a conflict between the parties representing Pro- tection and Free Trade. It then developed into a struggle between the two Houses for financial supremacy, and in its third and last stage it became a contest between the Legislative As- semblv and the Crown. The first McCulIoch Ministry took ofiice in June, 1863 ; it remained in power until 6 May 1868. One of its first proposals was a bill imposing numerous cus- toms duties of a protective character. It was passed by the Lower House and rejected by the Council. It was then reintroduced tacked on to the Appropriation Bill. The Council again re- jected it, and a deadlock ensued. The Govern- ment in the meantime collected duties on the authority of the Assembly alone. Funds not having been voted for payment of the Public Service the Government borrowed money to the amount of £40,000 from the London Char- tered Bank which then sued the Government for money lent. The Government confessed judgment. The Supreme Court pronounced the collection of customs duties on the resolution of the Assembly to be illegal. It also held that confessed judgments against the Crown were illegal. A tariff, separated from the Appropri- ation Bill, was again passed by the Assembly and again thrown out by the Council. The Ministry resigned. Mr. Fellows formed a Gov- ernment which, however, could not carry on. Mr. McCulloch returned to office and the Tariff Bill was again passed by the Assembly, and again sent up to the Council. The preamble of the bill asserting the exclusive right of the Assembly to grant mone}' and taxes, was eventu- ally withdrawn, and the bill was passed. The second McCulloch ^Ministry was de- feated on 20 Sept. 1869. It was followed by an Administration formed by John Alexander McPherson which remained in office for six months. It was displaced on 9 April 1870, by Sir James McCulloch, who, on 19 June 1871, was dvjfeated on his Property Tax Proposals. Charles Gavan Duffy then formed a Ministry which successfully proposed and carried a Pro- tectionist Tariff. The Duffy ^linistry was de- feated on 10 June 1872. The Governor refused a dissolution and James Goodall Francis be- came Premier. The first Mining on Private Property Bill, was carried in the Assembly by 43 votes to 3, but was rejected by the Upper House. A bill to regulate mines, in order to prevent mining accidents, and to protect miners, was passed. In 1875 the Kerferd Government introduced a bill imposing certain duties on wines and spirits. The tariff proposals were carried by a majority of one. This the Government ac- cepted as an adverse vote and applied for a dissolution, which the Governor refused. On 7 Aug. 1875, Graham Berry formed his first Ministrjf, but he was defeated on 20 Oct. 1875. Sir James McCuUoch's fourth and last Govern- ment then came into power. Its accession marked the beginning of a stormy and momen- tous political period. The Berry party raised a *'stonewall" of obstruction, and the AlcCulloch party retaliated by passing standing orders to restrict and limit debate, which became known as the "Ironhand" and the «Gag.» The McCul- loch Alinistry became very unpopular through- out the country. At a general election held on II ]\Iay 1877, an immense majority was returned against the Government. ]Mr. Berry then formed his second Ministry. The principal planks in its program were, a Land Tax to "burst up the large estates," and payment of members. A Land Tax Bill was introduced and passed. Provision for the payment of members, to the amount of £300 per year, was made in the Appropriation Bill. In that form it was sent to the Council where it was rejected on the ground that it was a "tack.*^ Then en- sued the historic deadlock of 1877-78. No money having been voted to pay the public servants the Government on 8 Jan. 1878, or- dered the dismissal of all heads of departments. County Court Judges, Police ^Magistrates, and other public officers. This proceeding caused a great sensation, and by the opponents of the Ministry it was denounced as "revolutionary.* Shortly afterwards a compromise was arrived at ; payment of members was passed in a sepa- rate bill and the Appropriation Bill without the obnoxious "tack" was carried. The Berry party then devoted their attention to the ques- tion of Constitutional reform. A bill was passed through the Assembly providing for the adoption of a method of referendum to settle disputes between the two Houses. It was re- jected by the Council. A deputation, or em- bassy, consisting of the Premier and Professor Pearson, was sent to England to interview the Secretary of State for the Colonies, who was asked to settle the Constitutional difficulty ia Victoria. Sir Michael Hicks-Beach gave a very guarded reply stating that the Imperial Parlia- ment would never alter the Constitution of the Colony at the instance of one House only. In 1879 the Parliament of Victoria again re- sorted to legislation in order to arrest the in- flux of Chinese. Vessels were not allowed to- introduce into any Victorian port more than one Chinaman per 100 tons of tonnage, and a poll tax of iio was imposed on each immigrant oa his landing. In April, 1888, a Chinaman, Chun Toy, arrived in the port of Melbourne on board the British ship Afghan. The Collector of Cus- toms considered that the Afghan had brought a larger number of Chinese than was allowed b}'' law ; he refused to allow any of them to land, or to accept the poll tax of iio each. Chun Toy brought an action against the Collector in the Supreme Court of Victoria, which decided that the action of the Government in preventing the landing of the Chinese prepared to pay the pre- scribed poll tax was illegal. The Victorian Government appealed from this decision to the Privy Council which reversed the judgment of the Victorian Court, and held (i) that the Col- lector of Customs was under no legal obliga- tion to accept payment, whether tendered by the master on behalf of any such immigrant, or tendered b\' or for any individual immigrant; (2) that, apart from the Act, an alien has not a legal right, enforceable by action, to enter Brit- ish territory. After an appeal to the Constituencies in March, 1880, Berry resigned, and James Service then formed a Alinistry. He introduced a meas- ure to amend the Constitution, which upon a AUSTRALIA — POLITICAL HISTORY division was lost by two votes. Parliament was dissolved and a general election was held in June, 1880, which resulted in the Berry party being returned to office with a substantial ma- jority. The nrmcipal work done by the third Berry Ministry was the carrying of a bill to amend the Constitution of the Legislative Coun- cil by reducing the qualification of electors and of members. A bill was also passed making permanent provision for payment of members. In July 1881, the third Berry Ministry was suc- ceeded by one formed by Sir Bryan O'Lougthlin, The O'Loughlin Ministry' lost office in March, 1883. when a Coalition ^linistry under Service and Berry was formed. Under this Govern- ment, Acts were passed for the abolition of po- litical control of the Government railwaj's, by placing them under the management of three independent commissioners, and for the aboli- tion of patronage in the public service. During his premiership. Service took great interest in the question of Australian Federation, and through his instrumentalit}' a convention was held in Sydney at which a scheme for the es- tablishment of a Federal Council was adopted. The Service-Berry Alinistry was followed in Februarj^, 1886, by the Gillies-Deakin combina- tion. In 1888 another Chinese Immigration Restriction Act was passed providing that no vessel should enter any Victorian port having on board more than one Chinaman for every 500 tons of the tonnage of such vessel. Any Chinese who should enter Victoria by land, without first obtaining a permit in writing, from some person to be appointed by the Gov- ernor in Council, was declared guilty of an offence against the Act, and made liable on con- viction to a penalty of not less than £5 nor more than £20 and also upon the warrant of the Commissioner of Trade and Customs, to be re- moved or deported to the colony from whence he came. On 5 Nov. 1890, the Gillies-Deakin Ministry was succeeded by a Ministrj' formed by James ^lunro, who in his turn gave place in February, 1892, to one formed by William Shiels. The career of the Shiels ^linistry, the Patterson ]^Iinistry, and the early part of that of the Turner ^linistry, which came into office on 27 Sept. 1S94, were comparatively uneventful. In February. 1895, Sir George Turner was as- sociated with Reid and other Premiers in a conference held at Hobart at which a Federal Enabling Bill was drafted. The first Turner Ministry was defeated in December, 1899. Allen McLean's Ministry held office for a little over II months; during which time several con- tingents were sent from Victoria to assibt the British army in South Africa. On 15 Nov. 1900, Sir George Turner again became Premier in lime to make arrangements for the establish- ment of the Commonwealth. An Old Age Pen- sion Act was passed, also bills protecting the rights and interests of Victorian public serv- ants. In the beginning of 1901 Sir George Tur- ner resigned the Premiership and accepted office as Treasurer in the first Federal Cabinet. Sir Alexander Peacock became head of the new Government. On 3 June 1902, the Peacock Ministry was displaced on a no-conlidence mo- tion by W. H. Irvine. During the career of the Irvine Ministry a railway strike occurred in Victoria which resulted in an Act being passed for the separate representation in Parliament of railway and other public servants. On the re- tirement of Irvine through ill-health he was succeeded by Thomas Bent as Premier, who still holds office (September 1906). T.A.3M.A.NI.\ AN OFF-SHOOT OF NEW SOUTH WALES. Separation.— By the Act 4 Geo. IV., c. 96 (19 July 1823). the Crown was empowered to separate Van Diemen's Land from Xew South Wales, and erect it into a separate colony which then received a Lieutenant-Governor, an'Execu- tive Council and a sm-M Legislative Council, consisting of seven members. Bv Act 13 and 14 Vic, c. 59, s. 7, it was provided that the Legislature already existing in Van Diemen s Land might establish within the colo.iy a Legis- lative Council to consist of not more than 24 members, of whom one-third should be nomi- nated by Her Majesty and the remainder elected by Qualified inhabitants of the colony. Under the aiithority of this law a new Legislative Council was called into existence having pow- ers and functions similar to the Legislative Council of Xew South Wales. The Xezi.' Constitution. — During the Gov- ernorship of Sir William Denison the new Legislative Council of Van Diemen's Land under the powers conferred by 13 and 14 Vic, c. 59, s. 2>-< drafted a Constitution for the es- tablishment of a bicameral Legislature in Van Diemen's Land composed of a Legislative Coun- cil of 15 members elected by the qualified in- habitants, and a House of Assembly of 30 members elected on a more popular franchise than that of the Council. The bill so drawn was passed by the Legislative Council and reserved by the Lieutenant-Governor for the Royal as- sent. It became law on 24 Oct. 1856; the first Parliament being opened on 2 Dec. 1856. Sir Henry E. F. Young was appointed the first Governor-in-Chief of the colony under the new system of Responsible Government. The first Premier was William T. N. Champ. In the year 1853, upon tlic cessation of transportation, the name of the island was changed from that of Van Diemen's Land to Tasmania. Administration and Legislation. — L'pon the cessation of transportation and the grant of Responsible Government to Tasmania a new life and destiny was imparted to the struggling community. Between 1855 and 1872 there was substantial improvement and progress in the position ;.nd prospects of the island, marked by the development of the interior, the con- struction of roads and tramways, the initiation of railway and telegraphic communication, the expansion of the agricultural and pastoral in- dustries, the division of the colony into muni- cinalities, the laying of a sub-marine cable be- tween Tasmania and the mainland, the discovery of tin at Mount BischoflF and other places, gold in the quartz reefs at Brandy Creek, and sub- sequently of silver and lead at Zeehan. and gold and copper at Mount Lyell. The west coast be- came famous by the opening up of some of the richest silver lead mines in the world ; coal seams were opened at Hastings, Langlock, and Ivanhoe. In February 1894, whilst the Dobson Min- istry was in office the necessity of financial re- form became a burning question. Financial proposals were submitted by the Government. A bill to authorize a graduated Land Tax was submitted to the Assembly and rejected; conse- AUSTRALIA — POLITICAL HISTORY quently Dobson and his colleagues resigned in Anril 1894, and Sir Edward Braddon formed a Ministry. An Income Tax was passed, to- gether with a Land Tax iinposing one penny per £ on the capital value of all land in the colony. This general tax was adopted as a sort of a compromise instead of the proposed tax on the unimproved capital value of the land which was at first submitted and rejected. In February 1895, ^ conference of Premiers was held at Hobart at which the draft of a Federal Enabling Bill was adopted. At a gen- eral election held in 1897, a system of voting based upon Hare's preferential method was used for the first time. During the year a Federal Referendum was held at which a large majority of votes was given in favor of the Federal Con- stitution. In 1899 the Braddon ]\Iinistry was defeated and it was succeeded by one formed bj- Sir Neil Elliot Lewis on 12 Oct. 1899, who retained office until 8 April 1903. On 9 April 1903, William Bispham Propsting became Pre- mier, and on 12 July 1904 he was succeeded by John William Evans, who still holds office (September 1906). QUEENSLAND AN OFF-SHOOT OF NEW SOUTH WALES. Separation. — On 6 June 1850, letters-patent were issued erecting the Moreton Bay district into a separate colony, under the name of Queensland, and appointing Sir George Fergu- son Bowen to be Captain-General and Governor- in-Chief thereof. The boundary of the new colony was defined as a line commencing on the sea coast at Point Danger, in latitude about 28° 8' south, running westward along the Mac- pherson and Dividing Ranges and the Duma- resq River, to the Mclntyre River, thence by the 29th parallel of S. latitude to the 141st meridian of E. longitude; on the west the 141st meridian of E. longitude from the 29th to the 26th parallel, and thence the 138th meridian north to the Gulf of Carpentaria, together with all the adjacent islands, their members and ap- purtenances in the Pacific Ocean. The Gover- nor was authorized to appoint an Executive Council to advise and assist him in the govern- ment of Queensland. The Constitution of Queensland was embodied in an Order in Coun- cil bearing the same date as the letters-patent. The A'czv Constitution. — The Order in Coun- cil provided that there should be within the Colony of Queensland a Legislative Council and a Legislative Assembly, with the advice and consent of which Her Majesty should have power to make laws for the peace, welfare, and good government of the colony in all cases what- soever. In its main outlines the Constitution of Queensland was almost a replica of that of Is^ew South Wales. The first Parliament under the New Constitution was convened for the despatch of business on 29 May 1859. Administration and Legislation. — Public events in Queensland became clustered around and associated with the following prominent men who held office as Premier between 1859 and 1899: Robert G. Herbert, Arthur Mac- Alister, Robert Mackenzie, Charles Lilley, Arthur Palmer, George Thorn, John Douglas, Thomas Mclllwraith. Samuel Griffith, Boyd D. Morehead, Hugh Muir Nelson, Thomas J. Byrnes, and James R. Dickson. From the date of separation Queensland began to advance with rapid strides, and it soon occupied a prominent position in the Australian group. Between 1861 and 1871, under a policy of assisted immigration the population largely increased and the resources of the country were developed in the direction of pastoral and agri- cultural pursuits, gold and silver mining, sugar and cotton growing. Cotton growing was stim- ulated by bounties. The pastoral industry was promoted ; railway construction was com- menced ; state aid to religion was withdrawn and a system of primary and secondary educa- tion was initiated. Queensland was found to be particularl}' suitable for sugar growmg and a demand for cheap labor quickly sprang up. In course of time shiploads of South Sea Islanders were introduced by the sugar planters and it was soon found necessary for the Legis- lature to interfere. A financial crisis occurred in 1865, which in 1866 resulted in a change of Ministry. The first MacAlister Ministry had a short term of office. Herbert was again called to the helm of affairs but in a few months he was again displaced. The second MacAlister Ministry lasted for 12 months and eight days. It secured the passing of an important measure dealing with the cultivation and occupation of Crown lands. It was followed by the MacKenzie Min- istry and the Lilley Ministry. The MacKenzie Ministry of 1867 introduced and passed a Crown Land Act which gave greater facilities for set- tlement. The Lilley ^Ministry of 1868 passed Acts relating to the Civil Service, Court proced- ure, and electoral laws. The Lilley Ministry was followed by the Palmer Ministry which lasted from 3 Jan. 1870 to 8 June 1874. In 1875 during the reign of the third MacAlister Administration a State Education Act was passed which embodied the principles of free, secular, and compulsory education. A complete measure of local government was passed in 187S, under the rule of the Douglas Administration. In the same year the first act to restrict Chinese immigration into Queensland became law. In 1879, Mr. (afterward Sir) Thomas Mc- lllwraith formed his first Government. On 4 April 1883, he made a dramatic and sensa- tional attempt to annex New Guinea, directing H. M. Chester, at Thursday Island to cross Torres Straits and on behalf of Her Majesty's Government in Queensland to hoist the British flag and proclaim the annexation to that colony of that part of the island not claimed by the Dutch. This act was repudiated by Lord Derby, who, however, on 10 Oct. 1884 declared a British Protectorate over the southern part of the island; Germany seized the remainder. In November, 1S83, Mclllwraith was de- feated and Mr. (afterward Sir) Samuel Grif- fith succeeded him. During his term of office a convention of Australian representatives was held in Sydney, at which a scheme for the es- tablishment of a Federal Council of Australasia, drafted by Griffith, was adopted and it after- ward became law by Imperial legislation. A Crown Lands Act was passed by the Griffith Administration in 1884. It encouraged Crown Tenants to improve their holdings, facilitated bona fide settlement and discouraged the specula- tive acquisition of land. The first Griffith Min- istry was succeeded (13 June 1888) by the AUSTRALIA — POLITICAL HISTORY second Mcllhvraith Government, which had only a brief tenure of office, being on 20 Xov. 1888, supplanted by the Morchead Ministry which lasted until the 7 Aug. i8go. The second Grif- fith ^Ministry was then formed. In April 1891, Griffith took an active part in a Federal con- vention held in Sydney at which a draft Con- stitution for the union of the Australian Colonies was adopted. The Kanaka labor question became important about this time and the Griffith Ministry advised the reintroduction of Polynesian laborers. On 14 April 1892, the Pacific Laborers" Extension Bill was passed, notwithstanding strong objec- tions urged against the introduction of colored races into Queensland. On 11 Jan. 1893, Grif- fith was appointed Chief Justice. Mr. (after- ward Sir) Huijh Muir Nelson occupied the post of Acting Chief Secretary pending the ar- rival from England of Sir Thomas Mclllwraith who, on 27 March, became Premier of his third nnd last Administration. In October follow- ing he resigned the Premiership in which he was succeeded by Sir Hugh Muir Nelson. In 1S94 the great strike of shearers occurred in Queens- land, leading to a reign of lawlessness which resulted in the passage of the Peace Preserva- tion Act. In 1896 a Meat and Dairy Produce Act was passed which gave a stimulus to the primary industries. Increased facilities for land settlement were offered. On 13 April 189S, Sir Hugh Nelson resigned the Premiership and was appointed President of the Legislative Council. The task of form- ing a new Government was entrusted to T. J. Byrnes who gave promise of a brilliant political career v.-hich was cut short by his death, at the early age of 36, after five months of office. Mr. (afterwards Sir) James R. Dickson then be- came Premier. He was an ardent Federalist and exercised the whole of his influence in favor of Queensland joining the Commonwealth which was then on the eve of being established. He represented Queensland at a conference of Premiers at which the constitution, as adopted by the Convention, was slightly modified. In Sept. 1899 the constitution was submitted to the people of Queensland by a referendum and was approved by a large majority. In Decem- ber 1899, a Labor Ministry was formed by Anderson Dawson; it lasted six days and R. Philp, a former colleague of Dickson, then formed a ^linistry. Philp held office until 17 Sept. 1903. The Labor Party, having in the meantime increased in members and influence, became sufficiently strong to take a share in the Executive Government of the country, and accordingly Arthur Morgan vacated the Speak- er's chair and formed a Liberal Labor Govern- ment in which the Liberals and Laborites were equally represented. In January 1906, Morgan resigned the Premiership and became Vice- president of the Executive Council, William Kidston, leader of the Labor Party becoming Premier. WESTERN AUSTR.\LI.\ THE SECOND ORIGINAL COLONY. Foundation. — The first Imperial Act applica- ble to Western Australia was 10 Geo. IV., c. 22. (1829). It was intituled ".An Act to Provide Until the 31st Day of December 1834, For the Government of His Majesty's Settle- ments in Western Australia on the Western Coast of New Holland.'' It will be noticed that the name "Australia" first suggested for the continent in 1814 by Matthew Flinders, is here used and for the first time mentioned bv an Imperial Act. By that Act the King, with the advice of the Privy Council, was empow- ered to authorize any three or more persons resident within the settlements, to make, ordain, and constitute laws, institutions, and ordinances for the peace, order, and good government of His Majesty's subjects and others within the settlement. A Representative Legislature. — Under the Act 13 and 14, Vic, c. 59 (5 Aug. 1850), Western Australia was granted a Legislative Council, consisting of 26 members, nine of whom were nominated by the Crown and 17 were elected by qualified inhabitants. Three years afterward an agitation was commenced in favor of Re- sponsible Government as it existed in the east- ern colonies. In 1874, a draft of a Constitu- tional Bill was sent to the Secretary of State, who. however, decided that the colony was not yet ripe for the change. The Nezu Constitution. — The movement was not successful until July, 1890, when a new Constitution was passed by the Imperial Parlia- ment, being embodied in the Act 53 and 54 Vic, c 26. It created a bicameral Legislature con- sisting of a nominee Council and an elective Assembly to make laws in and for Western Australia, and along with it Responsible Gov- ernment was introduced. The first Premier was Sir John Forrest. Administration and Legislation. — The dis- covery of goldfields, and a rapid influx of popu- lation were factors which largely contributed toward the success of the constitutional move- ment. The new Parliament was called upon to pass legislation relating to gold mining, land settlement, railway construction, and water sup- ply. Under the old regime a railway 243 miles long had been constructed on the land grant system between Beverly and Albany. Under the terms of the contract, payment was made at the rate of 12,000 acres for every mile of completed road. The lands selected in payment were situated within a belt of 40 miles on each side of the line; half the frontage to the rail- way was reserved to the Government. In 1896 the Government acquired this private land-grant railway, the purchase price being £1,100,000. The Perth Water Works constructed by the Perth Water Supply Company, was taken over by the Government at a cost of £220,000. Among the lines of railways which greatly assisted in the development of the interior were the lines to Kalgoorlie, Menzies, and Kanowna, penetrat- ing into the heart of the eastern gold-fields. A gigantic scheme of water supply for the convey- ance of water through pipes by pumping from station to station, from the Mundaring Reser- voir to Coolgardie and Kalgoorlie, a distance of 330 miles at a cost of £2,500,000, was in- augurated, and afterward successfully com- pleted. In 1897-99 the question of federation came into prominence. The attitude of the Forrest Government toward the new Constitution was not favorable whilst on the gold-fields there v.-as a strong movement in favor of the bill backed up by threats of separation. This led to a <:hange AUSTRALIA — POLITICAL HISTORY of attitude on the part of the Government, and at the test referendum that followed a majority of electors voted in favor of Federal union. In 1899 an Electoral Bill was passed which conferred the political franchise on adult woman ; it was exercised for the first time on the occasion of the Federal referendum. Sir John Forrest retired from state politics in February, 1901, and G. Throssell succeeded him as Premier. The Throssell Ministry w'as defeated at a general election held the same year. George Leake then formed a Ministry which was short-lived, as also was another formed by Alfred Edwards Morgans. On 23 Dec. 1901 Leake formed his second Ministry and held office until his death on 24 June 1902. He was succeeded in the Premiership by Walter H. James on i July 1902. The only notable piece of legislation passed in this period of short-lived Ministries, were the Arbitration and Conciliation Act, and the Workmen's Com- pensation Act. On 10 Aug. 1904 James was de- feated and a Labor IMinistry was formed by Henry Daglish. It remained in office until 25 Aug. 1905 when it was displaced — partly by dissension within the ranks of the Labor Party, and ostensibly on the question of purchasing and resuming possession of the ^Midland Railway. On 25 Aug. 1905 Cornthwaite Hector Rason became Premier of a Liberal Administration, pledged to oppose the extreme policy of the Labor Party. He secured a dissolution and went to the country from which he returned with a strong working majorit3^ He resigned in May 1906, to accept the position of agent- general in London and Newton James Moore became Premier and is still in oftice (September 1906). SOUTH AUSTRALIA THE THIRD ORIGINAL COLONY. Foundation. — This province was originally carved out of that part of the colony of New South Wales lying between the meridians 132° and 141° E. longitude, bounded on the north by the 26° parallel of S. latitude and on the south by the Southern Ocean. This region was never occupied, or settled, by the New South Wales Government. On 15 Aug. 1834, the Act 4 and 5 Wm. IV., c. 95, intituled "An Act to empower His jNIajesty to erect South Aus- tralia into a British Possession or Province, and to provide for the Colonization Thereof" was passed. It did not purport to separate the territory from New South Wales ; it seemed to contemplate the whole of that part of the con- tinent as not being subject to any prior statutory authority. It empowered the King to appoint a Governor and Colonization Commissioners, who were to have the control of the Crown lands, with power to survey and sell the same, and to employ a portion of the money so derived in conducting the immigration of laborers from Great Britain. In the exercise of these powers the Province was erected; a Governor, a Judge, seven commissioners, and other officials were ap- pointed. The Governor, with the concurrence of the Chief Justice, the Colonial Secretary, and Advocate-General, or two of them, was authorized to make laws and impose taxes. Captain (afterward Sir) John K. Hindmarsh was appointed the first Governor. On 28 Dec. 1836, Governor Hindmarsh ar- rived at Glenelg and proclaimed the establish- ment of the Government. He was succeeded' on 12 Oct. 1838, by Governor Gawler, during whose term of office the settlement became in- volved in debt to the extent of £281,842. Gaw- ler was recalled (May 1841), and a radical change was made in the government of the colony ; the office of Colonization Commission in London was abolished ; South Australia was made a Crown colony, and the government was vested in the Secretary of States for the Colonies. Captain (afterward Sir) George Grey was appointed Governor, and almost abso- lute power was entrusted to him. In 1842 the Act 5 and 6 Vic, c. 61, intituled "An Act to provide for the better government of South Australia^' was passed. Under it a nominated Legislative Council, consisting of the Governor and seven other persons resident in the colony, was created, having power to make laws for its government. On 25 Oct. 1845. Cap- tain Grey was transferred to New Zealand, and Lieutenant-Colonel Robe acted as Governor for a short time. His successor was Sir Henry Fox Young, to whom the colony was indebted for an extensiv^e main road system, and the institu- tion of local government in the shape of Dis- trict Councils. A Representative Council. — Under the Act 13 and 14 Vic, c. 59. (5 Aug. 1850) the Legislative Council then established in South Australia was authorized to establish another Legislative Council consisting of not more than 24 mem- bers, one third of whom were to be appointed by the Crown and the remainder were to be elected by the qualified inhabitants. This new Council was authorized to make laws for the peace, order, and good government of the province and to impose rates and taxes. On 21 July 1851, this Council consisting of 24 mem- bers was duly constituted. The A'czv Constitution. — In 1853 the Legis- lative Council of South Australia, in pursuance of powers conferred by section 32 of the Act 13 and 14 Vic, c 59, passed a bill to establish a bicameral Legislature for South Australia, consisting of a Legislative Council and a House of Assembly. This bill was reserved for the Queen's assent but it was disallowed. Subse- quently a second bill to create a bicameral Leg- islature was introduced in the Council and passed. It provided for the creation of two elective Houses to take the place of the Council created by the Act 13 and 14 Vic, c 59. This bill eventually received the Royal assent, and is sometimes called the "Constitution Act" of South Australia. It contained provisions and machinery somewhat similar to the Constitu- tion Act of Victoria. The suffrage for the Assembly was manhood coupled with regis- tration and residence. Both Houses were chosen by ballot which was adopted on the mo- tion of Francis S. Dutton, afterwards Premier. Responsible Government. — The election of members of the two new Houses took place in ■March 1857. The first session of the new Parliament commenced on 22 April 1857, during the Governorship of Sir Richard Graves Mc- Donnell. The first Premier was B. T. Finnis. Administration and Legislation. — Among the public men of South Australia, who, in the early history of the Colony under Responsible Gov- . ernment. took an active and prominent part in the great business of administration and legis- AUSTRALIA — POLITICAL HISTORY lation were the following who held office as Premiers from 1856 to 1870; Lieutenant- Colonel Boj-l Travers Finniss, John Baker, Robert Richards Torrens, Richard Davies Han- son, Thomas Reynolds, George Marsden Water- house, Francis Stokes Button. Henry Ayers, John Hart, Arthur Blyth, and Henry Bull Templar Strangways. Mr. (afterward' Sir) R. R. Torrens took office in 1857. His name has become famous by association with an act simplifying the transfer, conveyance, and registration of land. Torrens was the originator of the plan ; it was based on practical knowledge obtained by him as Collector of Customs, but he was assisted by the leeal knowledge of Doctor Hubbe. The Torrens' Land Act system was afterward adopted by all the other Australian colonies. In 1861 a strip of territory lying between latitude 129° and 132° E. longitude and south of the 26° S. latitude known as «Xo ]\Ian's Land*> was added to South Australia. Sir Dominic Daly succeeded Sir Richard G. JilacDonnell on 4 March 1862. In ^larch 1863 an intercolonial conference was held in Mel- bourne at which the majority of the Australian colonies were represented. This conference was originated in a suggestion made by Sir Dominic Dah'. It was resolved that it was desirable to settle the basis for a uniform tariff for the Australian colonies. No practical results followed the conference, but it foreshadowed the necessity of some form of Federal Union. In the same year the Northern Territory was added to South Australia by letters-patent. In 1868-69, a Ministry, of which Henry B. Templar Strangways was Premier, held office. Its career was distinguished by the passing of a Land Act which was intended to promote settlement and prevent the monopolization of the large tracts of land by land sharks and dummies. Sale of land by auction was limited. Land was sold to bona fide selectors on credit, the payments being allowed to extend over a period of four }'ears, and no selector was al- lowed to take up more than 640 acres. The great overland telegraph line from Port Augusta to Port Darwin, the construction of which was prosecuted during the Premiership of Strangways, John Hart, and Sir Arthur Blyth, was completed on 2 Aug. 1872. In 1875—76 a strong administration formed by Mr. (afterward Sir) James Penn Boucaut, was in power ; it introduced a policy of internal de- velopment, public works and railways. It was proposed that a loan of £3,000.000 should be raised, coupled with increased taxation, stamp tax, and probate duties. This scheme was passed by the Assembly and rejected by the Council. ]Mr. (afterward Sir) John Colton formed a Ministry which adopted Boucaut's policy and carried his scheme of public works and railways without the increased taxation. In 1877 Boucaut's second ^Ministry was in office, and during that year the overland telegraph line between Adelaide and Perth was com- pleted. The second Boucaut Ministry was succeeded by Administrations of which the following were Premiers from 1878 to 1905 : William Mor- gan, John Cox Bray, John Colton, John W. Downer, Thomas Playford, John Alexander Cockburn, Frederick William Holder, C. C. Kingston, Vaibeu Louis Solomon, and J. G. Jenkins. In 1S86 the jubilee of South Australia was celebrated. C. C. Kingston came into power in 1893. A Crown Lands Consolidation Act was passed by his Ministry which restricted the sale of Crown lands by auction, introducing a system of leasing country lands, coupled with the right of purchase and provided perpetual leases for agricultural purposes. Small blocks not exceeding the unimproved value of iioo, were thrown open for lease on the application of working men. Personal residence on a block was necessar.v, either by the lessee or by his wife or children. The rent of each lease was notified in the 'Gazette'. These lots were not subject to a revaluation, but were liable to land tax. In 1894 a bill was passed conferring the franchise on women. In order to give en- couragement and to grant assistance to the farmers an Advance to Farmers' Act was passed in 1896, under which a State Bank has been established in South Australia with power to grant loans to farmers at a low rate of inter- est with extended time for repayment of the principal. On 25 April 1896, a general election was held in South Australia at which women exer- cised their right to vote ; about 66 per cent of the women whose names were enrolled recorded their vote. On 22 Jan. 1897, Sir Samuel J. Way, Chief Justice of South Australia, was appointed a member of the Judicial Committee of the Privy Council. On 22 March the Federal Convention held its first session at Adelaide, at which the first preliminary draft was pre- pared. Mr. Kingston being defeated i Dec. 1899, resigned, and V. L. Solomon formed a Ministry which was defeated on 7 December. F. W. Holder then became Premier. An Early Closing Act, and a Workmen's Compensation Act were passed. The gunboat Protector, be- longing to South Australia, was despatched to the Chinese Sea to assist in a naval demonstra- tion against the Boxers. In May 1901, Holder resigned in order to accept office in the Federal Parliament. He was succeeded in the Premier- ship by J. G. Jenkins, who held office in the Playford, Kingston, and Holder Cabinets. He undertook the difficult task of carrying consti- tutional amendments rendered necessary by the adoption of the Federal Constitution trans- ferring certain powers, functions, and depart- ments from the State to the Federal Govern- ment. He succeeded in carrying a measure re- ducing the number of responsible ministers, re- ducing the number of members of the Assem- bly from 54 to 42, and reducing the number of the Council from 24 to 18. He resigned on I March 1905, and accepted the appointment of Agent-General for South Australia in Lon- don. A Ministry of which Richard Butler was Premier then took office. A general election took place in May at which Butler's party was defeated and on 20 July he resigned, and was succeeded as Premier by Thomas Price who still holds office (September 1906). Bibliography — Australia. General. — Chap- man, * Parliamentary Government for Aus- tralian Colonies' (1854); Martin, ^\ustralian Essays, Political, Etc.> (1857); Lahillier. 'Constitution of Australian Colonies' (1870) ; Ranken, 'Dominion of Australia' (1874); AUSTRALIA — THE COMMONWEALTH GOVERNMENT Clarke, (1881) ; Allen, 'His- tory of Australia' (1882) ; Rusden, < History of Australia' (1883); Sutherland, 'History of Australia' (1883) ; Forbes, 'Present and Future of Australian Colonies' (1883); Service, 'Fed- eration of Australia' (1884)1 Carnarvon, 'Annexation and Federation in Australia' (1884) ; Parkes, Australia and the Imperial Connections' (1884) ; Parkes, 'The Australian Empire' (1884) ; Hodgson, 'Our Australian Colonies' (1885); Froude, 'Oceana' (1886); Garran, 'Picturesque Atlas of Australia' (1886) ; INIartin, 'Australia and the Empire' (1889); Hopkins, 'Australia; Progress, Peo- ple, and Politics' (1889); Duffy, 'Road to Federation' (1890) ; Dilke, 'Problems of Greater Britain' (1890) ; Reid, 'Commonwealth of Australia' (1891) ; Willoughby, 'Australian Federation' (1891) ; Clarke, 'Australia and the Imperial Connection' (1891) ; Braddon, 'Australia; Its progress and Resources' (1892) ; Tregerthen, 'Australian Commonwealth' (1893); Baker, 'The Executive in a Federa- tion' (1897) ; Way, 'Observations on Draft Commonwealth Bill' (1900) ; Butterworth, 'Annotated Constitution of the Commonwealth' (1901) ; Finney. 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Neiv South Wales. — Martin, 'History of New South Wales' (1836) ; Burton, 'Constitution of Government of New South Wales' (1840); Brain, 'History of New South Wales' (1846); Martin, 'History of New South Wales' (1853) ; Lang, 'Historical Account of New South Wales' (1875); Garran, 'New South Wales' (1884); Oliver, 'Constitution of New South Wales' (1884); Morris and Byron, 'Progress of New South Wales' (1886): Gane, 'New South Wales and Victoria' (1885) ; Buchanan, 'Hun- dred Year's Progress, New South Wales' (1888) ; Barton, 'History of New South Wales' (1889) and (1894); Coghlan, 'Wealth and Progress of New South Wales' (1893); Hutchinson, 'New South Wales' (1896); Britton and Bladen, 'Historical Records, New South Wales' (1898); Bcanvick, 'New South Wales' (1900). Queensland. — Boyd, 'Queensland' (1882); Coote, 'History of Queensland' (1882); Blakeney, 'Form of Government in Queensland' (1883) ; Trail, 'Historical Sketch of Queens- land' (1886); Weeden, 'Queensland; Past and Present' (1897); Dicken, 'Queensland' (1900). South Australia. — Martin, 'History of Sou«h Australia' (1836) and (1853): Angas. 'South Australia Illustrated' (1847); Duncan, 'Colony of South -Australia' (1850); Forster, 'South Australia; Progress and Prosperity' (i860); Harcus, 'South Australia ; History and Progress' ( 1S76) ; Stow, 'South Australia; History, etc' (1883); Finniss, 'Constitutional History of South Australia' (1886) ; Gill, 'Bibliography of South Australia' (1886); Hodder, 'History of South Australia' (1893) ; Blackmore. 'Law of Constitution of South Australia' (1894). Tasmania. — Parker, 'Van Dieman's Land^ (1834); Martin, 'History of Van Dieman's Land' (18^0) and (1853); Bonwick, 'Tas- mania' (1888); Braddon, 'History of Tas- mania' (1S91); Walker, 'Early History of Tasmania' (189S); Mill, 'Tasmania' (1899); Levy, 'Tasmania' (1900). Victoria. — Martin, 'Victoria, Its History and Conditions' (1853) ; Duff3% 'Land Law of Victoria' (1862) ; Wcstgarth, 'History of Vic- toria' (1864); Duffy, 'Political History of Victoria* (1876); FitzGibbon, 'Party Govern- ment in Victoria' (1878) ; Hodden, 'Constitu- tional Difficulties in Victoria' (1879); Walch, 'Victoria' (1880) ; Carlisle, 'Constitution of Victoria' (1884); MacFie, 'Victoria, Its His- tory and Prospects' (1888) ; Jenks, 'The Gov- ernment of Victoria' (1891) ; Dyer, 'Victoria and Its Resources' (1893) ; Dow, 'An Aus- tralian Colony' (1898) ; Clarke, 'Victoria and Her Resources' (1899). West Australia. — Martin, 'History of West Australia' (1836); Knight, 'History and Pro- gress of West Australia' (1870) ; Broome, 'Western Australia (1885); Bonwick, 'Western Australia' (1888); Hart, 'Western Australia' (1893); Calvert, 'Western Australia; History arid Progress' (1894) ; Robinson, 'Western Australia; Present and Future' (1896); Rob- inson, 'Western Australia' (1900). Sir John Quick, Member of Commonzvcalth House of Rcp~ resentatives ; Joint Author of ^Constitution of Australian Coininonivcalth''. 5. Australia — The Commonwealth — Its Constitution, Government, and Administra- tive Departments. Tlie Beginning of the Fed- eral M ovcmcnt Tozvards Political Union. — ■ Under the Acts of 63 and 64 Vic, c 12, (1900) known as the "Commonwealth of Australia Constitution Act," the people of New South Wales, Victoria, South Australia, Queensland, Tasmania, and Western Australia were vmited in a Federal Commonwealth under the name of The Commonwealth of Australia ; and the old colonies under the name of states, were de- clared to be parts of the- Commonwealth. This great act marked the completion and consum- mation of a movement in favor of Australian federation, which extended over a period of nearly 60 years. In 1847, Earl Grey, Secretary of State for the Colonies, proposed to create a separate Leg- islature in and for Australia in which all the colonies then in existence should be represented, and which should have power to make laws in matters of common concern. In 1849, the Privy Council proposed that there should be a General Assembly having power to deal with AUSTRALIA — THE COMMONWEALTH GOVERNMENT customs duties, postal matters, and to create a Supreme Court of Appeal. In 1853, a Commit- tee of the Legislative Council of New South Wales recommended the establishment of a General Assembly. All these proposals, how- ever, were regarded as premature. The fol- lowing is a sumraarj' of other unsuccessful ef- forts in the same direction: (1857) a select committee of the Victorian Legislative As- sembly agreed that "the time for union had come;" in the same year a select committee of the New South Wales Parliament passed a similar resolution; (i860), a select committee of the Victorian Assembly recommended nego- tiation; (1862), the Colonial Secretary of South Australia commenced correspondence with other colonies urging that a uniform tariff was indispensable; (1863), Tariff conference in Melbourne; (1865), Inter-Colonial conference at Sydney resulting in agreement by which the Murray border was made free of fiscal re- striction; (1867), Inter-Colonial conference in Melbourne in reference to ocean postal service to Australia, at which Sir Henry Parkes said "the time has arrived when the colonies should be united;*' (1880), Inter-Colonial conference in Melbourne, at which a resolution was passed that "a Federal Council was needed to deal with the question of inter-colonial interest;" (1883), Inter-Colonial conference at Sydney, at which the necessity of a Federal Council was affirmed, and at which a Draft Bill was adopted which afterwards became law. (This Council, however, was not a success as only three of the colonies joined it;) (1890), Federal conference in Melbourne convened by Sir Henry Parkes at which resolutions were passed affirming the necessity for an early convention of the representatives of all the colonies to pre- pare a scheme for a Federal Constitution. Coiizriition of 1891. — On 22 March 1891, the first Federal convention was held in Sydney at which all the Australasian colonies, including New Zealand, were represented by seven dele- gates chosen by the Parliament of each colony. A constitution was draftd and adopted by the convention, but no practical action was taken to give it effect. In January, 1895, a conference of Premiers was held at Hobart, at which all the Australasian colonies were represented. It was resolved that "a convention, consisting of 10 representatives from each colony, directly chosen by the electors, be charged with the duty to frame a constitution ; that the constitu- tion so framed be submitted to the electors for acceptance or rejection by direct vote." Five of the six colonies, viz. : New South Wales, Victoria. South Australia, Tasmania, and West- ern Australia elected 10 representatives. Queensland did not take part in the convention which met in Adelaide in March 1897. C. C. Kingston, then Premier of South Australia, was elected president of the convention, which afterwards sat in Sydney and Melbourne. A constitution was drafted, subsequently submit- ted to the people of the various colonies, and ratified, Queensland coming in at the last moment. The constitution so drafted and rati- fied by the people of Australia was afterwards embodied in an Imperial Act, came into force and the Commonwealth was proclaimed. The Federal Constitution. — The Federal constitution came into force and the Australian colonies were united on i Jan. 1901. By this constitutional instrument a new Parliament was called into existence, as well as a new execu- tive, and a new judiciary. The union of people and states, so organized and constituted, in many respects resemble that of the United States of America. The new form of govern- ment has been created for special and limited purposes to deal with matters of common Aus- tralian mterests. The power and authority of the Federal Parliament, and Federal Govern- ment, are limited and restricted to such powers and authorities as have been expressly taken from the states, or such new powers as are specified and particularized in the instrument. The Governments and Parliaments of the states have the same legislative and executive scope as before — save as to matters delegated to the Federal authority. In this respect the Austral- ian Constitution differs from that of Canada, which limits and defines the powers of the prov- inces, and confers upon the Dominion Parlia- ment all the residue of sovereign power. Executive Department of the Common- li'ealth. — The executive power of the Common- wealth is vested in the King, and exercised by the Governor-General as the King's represen- tative. It includes the maintenance of the con- stitution and the excution of the laws of the Commonwealth. There is an Executive (Coun- cil to advise the Governor-General in regard to the government of the Commonwealth. The Governor-General can appoint ministers to pre- side over the several departments. No minister can hold office longer than three months, unless he be a member of the Senate or of the House of Representatives. There can be no more than seven ministers in office at the same time. The sum of ii2,ooo per annum is appropriated to be divided among ministers by themselves. Immediately upon the establishment of the Commonweahh the departments of customs and excise in all states were by operation of law taken from the states and transferred to the Commonwealth. By proclamation later on, the departments of post offices, telegraphs, and telephones, naval and military defence were taken from the states and vested in the Com- monwealth. Four new Federal departments were also created by proclamation, viz., the Department of External Affairs, the Depart- ment of Home Affairs, the Department of the Treasury, and the Department of the Attorney- General. Legislative Department of the Common- zi-ealth. — The legislative power of the Com- monwealth is vested in a Federal Parlia- ment consisting of the King, or Queen, of the United Kingdom, the Senate and the House of Representatives. The Senate consists of rep- resentatives from each of the six states directly chosen by the people of each state voting as one electorate ; each state is entitled to six senators. Senators are chosen for six years, one-half re- tiring every three years. The House of Rep- resentatives is composed of members directly chosen by the electors of the Commonwealth; the total number of such members must be as nearly as practicable twice the number of the senators. The Senate is called the State House, the House of Representatives is called the National Chamber, in which the people of each state are represented according to popula- AUSTRALIA — THE COMMONWEALTH GOVERNMENT tion, save and except that no state to have less than five members. In the first Parliament New South Wales sent 26 members to the House of Representatives, Victoria sent 23, Queensland sent nine, South Australia sent seven, Western Australia and Tasmania sent five each. The House of Representatives continues to exist for a period of three years from the first meeting, unless sooner dissolved by the Governor-Gen- eral. In case of a deadlock between the two Houses extending over a certain time the Governor-General may under certain conditions and circumstances dissolve both Houses and send them to the people ; after such a double dissolution a joint sitting of both Houses of the newly elected members must be held at which thev deliberate and vote upon the proposed law in dispute. The Federal Parliament can make laws re- specting trade and commerce, taxation, bounties, borrowing, postal, and telegraphic matters, naval and military defence, light houses, fish- eries, census, currenc}^ inter-state insurance, weights and measures, negotiable instruments, bankruptcy, copyrights, patents, naturalization, foreign co-operations, marriage and divorce, old age pensions, service and execution of process, immigration, influx of criminals, ex- ternal affairs, relations of the Commonwealth with the islands of the Pacific, acquisition of property for Federal purposes, control of rail- ways for naval and military transport, acquisi- tion of state railways with the consent of such state, construction of railways through a state with the consent of such state, conciliation and arbitration for the settlement of inter-state in- dustrial dispues, seat of government of the Commonwealth, and departments of the public service. Judicial Department of the Common- ivealth. — The judicial power of the Com- monwealth is vested in a High Court consist- ing of a Chief Justice, and not less than two other justices. The High Court has appellate and original jurisdiction. It has jurisdiction to hear appeals from all other Federal courts, or courts exercising Federal jurisdiction, and from the Supreme Courts of states in the exer- cise of jurisdiction conferred by state laws. The High Court must be regarded as a Federal Court of Appeal, and a National Court of Ap- peal, and as such it holds a wider jurisdic- tional area than its great exampler, the Su- preme Court of the United States of America, which cannot entertain appeals from state courts in cases not involving Federal issues. The Act confers a new right of appeal from the Supreme Courts of States in state law cases, but it does not abolish the existing right of appeal in those cases to the Privy Council. The latter right still remains. The High Court, though a general Court of Appeal for Australia is not the sole or exclusive, but a concurrent Court of Appeal in state law cases. Parties to cases decided by the Supreme Courts of state on matters of state law here, there- fore, an alternative right of appeal, either to the Privy Council direct or to the High Court. The judgments of the High Court are de- clared by the constitution to be final and con- clusive. This negatives the right of litigants in the High Court to appeal to the Privy Coun- cil as a matter of right. The appeal as a mat- ter of right has been taken away, but the con- stitution has left unimpaired any right the King may be pleased to exercise by virtue of his prerogative to grant special leave of appeal from the High Court to His ]M^ljesty in Council. To this reservation of the prerogative to grant leave there is, however, a most im- portant exception. No appeal can be permitted to the King in Council from a decision of the High Court upon any question as to the limits inter sc of the constitutional powers of the Commonwealth and those of any state, or states, or as to the limits inter sc of the consti- tutional powers of any two or more states unless the High Court shall certify that ques- tion is one which ought to be determined by His Majesty in Council. The High Court has original jurisdiction to decide all matters arising under anj^ treaty, all matters affecting Consuls, all matters in which the Commonwealth is a party, all matters be- tween states or between residents of different states in any matters arising under the consti- tution or involving its interpretation. The several courts of the states have been vested with Federal jurisdiction to deal with matters arising under the constitution, or in- volving its interpretation, and in matters of any laws made by the Federal jurisdiction. Finance and Trade. — During the first 10 years after the establishment of the Common- wealth, the Federal Government has only a limited use of the revenue derived from cus- toms and excise duties. It can only use for Federal purposes one fourth of the total of the net sum so collected. The remaining three- fourths must be paid to the several states ac- cording to the following method of distribu- tion, viz., each state is credited with the whole of the revenue collected in it and each state is debited: (A.) with departmental expenditure actually incurred in such state; and (B.) with a proportion on a population basis of the other expenditure of the Commonwealth. The Com- monwealth pays to each state monthly the bal- ance in favor of each state. Upon the imposition of uniform customs duties in October, 1901, trade, commerce, and intercourse between the states, whether by land or by sea became abso- lutely free. Relations of States to the Commonwealth and the Crown. — The relations of the Austral- ian states to the Commonwealth and to the Crown were authoritively expounded by the Secretary of State, IMr. Chamberlain, in the despatch dated 15 April, 1903, directed to the Lieutenant-Governor of South Australia in re- ference to the case of the Dutch ship "Vondel.*' The owners of this ship complained to the British Government that the state government of South Australia had declined to arrest the crew of the ship while she was in South Australian waters. The Secretary of States brought the complaint under the notice of the Governor-General of Australia. The Federal government forwarded the papers to the state government desiring them to furnish a report on the case. The state government refused to report to the Federal government on the ground that the latter had no jurisdiction in the matter. The constitutional issues raised by the action of the South Australian government were dealt with at length in Mr. Chamberlain's AUSTRALIA — THE STATE GOVERNMENTS ■despatch: "So far as other communities in the Empire or foreign nations are concerned, the people of AustraHa form one poHtical com- munity for which the government of the Com- monweahh alone can speak, and for everything affecting external states or communities which takes place within its boundaries, that govern- ment is responsible. The distribution of powers between Federal and state authorities is a matter or purely internal concern of which no external country or community can take cognizance. It is to the Commonwealth and to the Commonwealth alone that, through the Im- perial government, they must look for remedy ■or relief for any action affecting them done within the bounds of the Commonwealth, whether it is the act of a private individual, of a state official, or of a state government. The Commonwealth is, through His ^lajesty's gov- ernment, just as responsible for any action of South Australia affecting an external com- munity as the United States of America are for the action of Louisiana or any other state of the Union. The Crown undoubtedly remains part of the constitution of the state of South Australia, awd in matters affecting it in that capacity, the proper channel of communication is between the Secretary of State and the State Governor. But in matters affecting the Crown in its capacity as the central authority of the Empire, the Secretary of State can, since the people of Australia have become one p®litical community, look only to the Governor-General as the representative of the Crown in that community. The view of your ministers would, if adopted, reduce the Commonwealth to the position of a Federal League, not a Federation, and appears to me to be entirely opposed not only to the spirit but to the letter of the Act.'* Administration and Legislation. — The first Federal government was formed by Mr. (after- ward Sir) Edmund Barton. The principal measure passed by the first Parliament were as follows : A L^niform Tariff Act, an act to restrict immigration by the imposi- tion of an educational test for the purpose of excluding colored races and to exclude laborers coming to Australia under contract of service ; an act to abolish Kanaka labor in connection with sugar growing, and to encourage the use of white labor by granting a bonus of £2 per ton on sugar so produced : an act establishing a imiform suffrage for both the Senate and the House of Representatives ; a naval agreement with the admirality under which the Common- wealth undertook to pay £200,000 per year for 10 years towards the maintenance of a navel force on the Australian station ; an act to organize the High Court, of which Sir Samuel Griffith was appointed Chief Justice, Sir Ed- mund Barton, and R. E. O'Connor, Justices. An administration formed by Alfred Deakin came into office on 24 Sept. 1903. The first Par- liament was dissolved on 23 November, and the second Parliament was convened for business on 2 March 1904. The Deakin ministry was de- feated on 26 April by an amendment to the Conciliation and Arbitration Bill proposed by the Labor Party extending it to state railway servants. J. C. Watson then formed a Labor ministry. On 17 August an adverse amend- ment to the Conciliation and Arbitration Bill, limiting the principle of preference to unionists \'oI 2 — 6 was carried against the Labor ministry and they resigned. G. H. Reid, leader of the Free Trade Party, next formed a government in combination with a number of Protectionists, including Sir George Turner and A. McLean. They successfully wound up the business of the session. Parliament reassembled on 26 Juh% 1905, when the Reid ministry was de- feated. Deakin formed his second ministry which received the support of the Labor party. Among the measures passed this session were a Commerce Act; Sugar Bonus Extension Act, and a Trade ^Larks Act — the latter containing clauses legalizing the «Union Label." Acts were also passed modifying the educational test and the contract labor clauses of the Immigra- tion Act. Bibliography — See article Australi.il — Political History. Sir John Quick, Member of Commonzvealth House of Repre- sentatives; Joint Author of ^Constitution of Australian Commonwealth? 6. Australia — The States, Their Consti- tutions and Governmental Departments. Colonies Transformed Into States. — Under the Constitution of the Commonwealth Act, the colonies of New South Wales, Victoria, Tas- mania, Queensland, Western Australia, and South Australia, have been converted into states of the Federal Union, and certain legisla- tive, executive, and judicial powers formerly vested in colonial authorities have been trans- ^ ferred to the Commonwealth. Executive Departments of States. — In each state there is a Governor representing the King, and he is the head of the executive as well as a branch of the legislature. In the administra- tion of public affairs the Governor is assisted and advised by responsible ministers who pre- side over the public departments and generally have seats in the Legislature. In New South Wales the Governor receives a salary of £5,000. There are six responsible ministers, among whom the public departments are distributed as follows, viz.: (i) Premier and Treasurer; (2) Colonial Secretary; (3) Attorney-General, and Minister of Justice ; (4) Lands; (5) Instruction, Labor, and Industry; (6) Mines and Agriculture. The sum of iio,- 400 is appropriated for payment of ministers in such proportions as may be arranged among themselves. The Governor of Victoria receives a salary of £5,000; the various public departments are presided over and distributed among ministers as follows, viz.: (i) Premier, Treasurer and Minister of Railways ; (2) Chief Secretary and Minister of Labor; (3) Attorney-General and Minister of Justice; (4) Lands; (5) Public Instructions; (6) Works; (7) Mines and Forests ; (8) Water Supply and Irrigation. Two ministers must sit in the council. The ag- gregate amount of salary payable among min- isters is £8.400 per year. A minister being a member of one House may attend the other House by its permission, and speak upon and explain bills relating to his department. In Queensland the Governor's salary is £5,000. There are seven salaried ministers among whom the offices are distributed as fol- lows, viz: (i) Premier, Chief Secretary and Secretary for Railways; (2) Treasurer; (3) AUSTRALIA — THE STATE GOVERNMENTS Home Secretan^ ; (4) Secretary for Agriculture and Public Works; (5) Attorney-General, Secretary of Mines; (6) Secretary of Lands; (7) Public Instruction. The aggregate amount of salary payable among ministers is i7,300 per year. The Governor of Tasmania receives a salary of £2,750. Ministerial offices are distributed as follows, viz.: (i) Premier and Chief Secre- tary; (2) Attorney-General; (3) Treasurer and Lands ; (4) Mines and Works. The ag- gregate amount of salary payable among min- isters is £3,000 per year. In South Australia the Governor's salary is £4,000. There were formerly six responsible ministers, but by the Constitutional Amendment Act of South Australia, (1901), the number was reduced to four, and the aggregate salary divisable amongst them is £4,000 per year. The offices at present are distributed amongst them as follows, viz.: (i) Premier, Education and Works; (2) Treasurer and Attorney-General; (3) Chief Secretary; (4) Lands, Mines and Agriculture. The Governor of Western Australia receives a salary of £4,000. There are five ministers holding offices as follows, viz.: (i) Premier and Treasurer; (2) Education; (3) Colonial Secretary; (4) Railways and Labor; (5) INIines and Justices. The aggregate amount of salary payable amongst ministers is £7,200 per year. Leglslatiz'c Departments of States. — The State Parliaments have no longer any control over customs, excise, post offices, telegraphs, telephones, navy, and militar\' defences. The Parliament of New South Wales, like that of every Australian state, consists of a Legislative Council and a Legislative Assembh'. The council is still a nominated body as it was at the beginning of responsible government, being composed of about 65 life members. There were before Federation 125 members of the Assembly; in 1901 that number was reduced to 90 as one of the results of the transfer of certain powers and functions to the Common- wealth government. Plural voting was abol- ished in 1893. Manhood suffrage, established in 1858, was in 1903 superseded by adult suf- frage ; that is to say, *one adult person one vote.'' Since 1899, each member of the As- sembly receives the sum of £300 per year in reimbursement of his expenses together with a free railway pass. Members of the council receive free railway passes but no payment. The Assembl}' is a triennial chamber, but it may be at any time dissolved by the Governor. Elections are conducted by ballot: this being the method of election of members in all the Australian states. By the Constitutional Amendment Act, (1903), the Legislative Council of Victoria consists of 35 members, one of whom is directly elected by, and represents, the public and rail- way servants ; the others are elected by quali- fied voters of whom there are three classes, viz. : ( I ) owners of freehold land of the annual value of £10; (2) rate-paying occupiers of land of the annual value of £15; (3) uni- versity and professional men. The property qualifications of a member of the council were formerly ownership of freehold land of the annual value of £100; that has been reduced to £50. The tenure of a seat in the council is six years; one-half the members retiring every three years. In the event of a deadlock be- tween the two Houses on matters of ordinary legislation, (constitutional alterations being ex- cepted), the Governor may, subject to certain conditions, dissolve both Houses. The council has power by message to the Assembly to sug- gest amendments in the Appropriation Bill. Manhood suffrage coupled with <'no plural vot- ing" is the franchise for the Assembl}^ in addi- tion to which, however, every owner of free- hold land of the capital value of £100, and of the annual value of £5 is entitled to be regis- tered for, and to record his vote in every electorial district in which such land is situated ; the act abolishing plural voting prohibiting him, however, from voting more than once on the same day. There are 68 members of the As- sembly. Public and railway officers are unable to vote in and for ordinary electorates ; instead of which they are allowed to choose three special members to represent them in the As- sembly. ^Members of this House receive £300 per year, and a free railway pass. Legislative coun- cillors receive free railwa}^ passes but no pay- ment. The Assembly is a triennial chamber, but it may be dissolved by the Governor at any time. Every elector is qualified to be chosen as a member. In Tasmania the Legislative Council con- sists of 18 members elected by resident inhabi- tants possessed either of freehold land of the annual value of £20, leasehold of the annual value of £40, or having university or profes- sional qualification ( Constitutional Amend- ment Act. 1901). The Assembly consists of 35 members elected by adult suffrage coupled with residential qualification. Members of both chambers receive an honorarium of £100 each, subject to their attending a certain number of days per session. An act to confer the fran- chise on women was passed in 1904. In Queensland the Legislative Council, like that of New South Wales, is a nominated body consisting of ^7 members ; they are appointed by the Governor in council, and subject to cer- tain attendance each session they hold their seats for life ; they receive no payment, but are entitled to free railway passes. The Assembly consists of 72 members elected practically by manhood suffrage ; but owners of freehold land of the value of £100, and household occupiers of the annual value of £10 are entitled to vote in every electorial district in which they have that property qualification. The Assembly exists for three years unless previously dissolved, and its members receive a remuneration of £300 per year, and free railway passes, and allowances for traveling expenses. Every elector is quali- ved to be chosen a member. In Western Australia the Legislative Coun- cil consists of 30 members elected by adult persons having as a qualification, either freehold lands of the capital value of £100, or leasehold of the annual value of £25, or being Crown lessees or licensees of land of the annual value of £10. The tenure of seats is six years : one- third retiring every two years, (Constitution Act, 1890). The Assembly consists of 50 mem- bers elected by adult persons being residents of an electorate, but persons having freehold land of the capital value of £50, or leasehold AUSTRALIA — MUNICIPAL AND LOCAL GOVERNMENT ]and of ilie annual value of iio, are entitled to vote in any district in which they hold the property qualification. The Assembly, like other popular chambers of Australia, is a trien- nial House. A bill conferring the franchise on women was passed in the year 1899. Under the provisions of the Constitutional Amendment Act (igoi). tlic number of mem- bers of the Legislative Council of South Aus- tralia was reduced from 24 to 18. Under earlier acts the members are elected by adults of both sexes, having as a property qualification either a freehold estate of the capital value of £50, or a leasehold of the annual value of £20 with three years to run, or being the occupier of a dwelling house of the annual value of $25. ^Members of the council hold their seats for six years, one-half retiring every three j^ears ; un- less the chamber is sooner dissolved by the Governor : which can be done in cases of dis- putes, or deadlocks between the two chambers extending over a certain time. By the Consti- tutional Amendment Act of (1901) the number of members of the Assembly was reduced from 54 to 42. The Assembly is a triennial chamber, unless previously dissolved. In the event of a deadlock between the two Houses in reference to a proposed law it is within the power of the Governor to dissolve them both, subject to the following limitations, viz. : ( i ) It must have been passed by the Assembly and rejected by the council in one session; (2) it must have been, after a general election, passed a second time by an absolute majority of the whole number of members of the Assembly and a second time rejected by the council. Members of both Houses are entitled to receive £200 per annum each and free passes over government railways. Judicial Dcf^artmcnts of States. — The Su- preme Court of Xew South Wales is consti- tuted under Act 4, Geo. IV.. c. 96, and 9, Geo. IV.. c. 83. It consists of a Chief Justice and six other justices. It has unlimited civil and criminal jurisdiction. Circuit districts and cir- cuit courts are established to try civil actions and determine crimes and misdemeanors. The Supreme Court has appellate jurisdiction to hear appeals from all inferior courts. There are seven district courts having jurisdiction in personal actions not exceeding £200 and a lim- ited criminal jurisdiction. Courts of Petty Ses- sions having summary jurisdiction to deal with minor offences and a limited civil jurisdiction presided over by a Stipendary ^Magistrate, or by two or more justices, exist in all cities, towns and centers of population. There is a Supreme Court in and for Vic- toria, constituted under the authority of the constitution. It consists of a Chief Justice and four justices. It is unlimited in civil jurisdic- tion a? well as jurisdiction to try crimes and misdemeanors ; as a full court it has appellate jurisdiction from all inferior tribunals. Courts of General Sessions of the Peace having juris- diction to inquire into a limited class of indict- able offences and to hear appeals from Courts of Petty Sessions, exist in certain proclaimed districts. Wardens Courts and Courts of Klines exist for hearing mining disputes. County Courts having authority to decide all personal actions up to the amount of £500. Courts of Petty Sesssons having summary jur- isdiction in minor criminal matters and civil jurisdiction up to the amount of £50. The Supreme Court of Tasmania consists of a Chief Justice and two puisne judges; it has both original and appellate jurisdiction in common law, equity, ecclesiastical, and crim- inal matters. Local courts can deal with civil matters, some up to £100, and others up to £50. Justices in Petty Sessions can make con- victions and orders in minor or criminal mat- ters. The Supreme Court of Queensland may be composed of not less than four, and not more than five judges. It has the same jurisdiction as the Superior Courts of Common Law, and the High Court of Chancery, in England; it also possesses ecclesiastical and criminal juris- diction. An appeal lies to the full court from all inferior courts. District courts are vested with a limited civil and criminal jurisdiction. Courts of Petty Sessions and Small Debt Courts exercise a limited authority in specified civil and criminal matters. Wardens Courts are constituted to deal with mming disputes. The Supreme Court of Western Australia was established by Royal Charter in 1861, and the rnain provisions relating to its constitution and jurisdiction are contained in the Supreme Court Act, (1880.) It has jurisdiction in com- mon law, equity, ecclesiastical and criminal matters. Local courts similar to those in some of the other Australian states can decide small debt cases. Justices in Courts of Petty Session can summarily convict, imprison, or fine per- sons guilty of minor offences. Warden Courts have authority to deal with mining cases. The Supreme Court of South Australia is composed of a Chief Justice and two other puisne judges. Its jurisdiction extends to all matters of law and equity. It has also juris- diction in crimes and misdemeanors. It is the court of appeal from the decisions of all inferior courts. South Australian local courts are to some extent analogous to the district courts and county courts of other states. Some of these courts have jurisdiction in civil matters up to the amount of £490; other local courts are limited to actions where the debt or damage claimed is no more than £20. Bibliography. See article Austr.\li.\ — Political History. Sir John Quick, Member of Commonzvealth House of Represen- tatives ; Joint Author of '^Constitution of Australian Commonwealth.^ 7. Australia — Municipal and Local Gov- ernment. I)itroductory and General. — The or- ganization of municipal government in Australia is modeled largely on the English system and is composed of mayors, aldermen and coun- cilors in the chief cities and larger towns, with district or shire councils, local or divisional boards (the nomenclature varies in the different States) presided over by elected chairmen or presidents in the small towns or villages, and outlying districts where settlement is sparse. All of these are creations of statute deriving their authoritj', power, and duties from the Par- liaments of the various States. No salaries are paid to the mayors who in the capital and mo«t of the larger towns are voted an annual allow- ance by the councils for entertaining and keep- ing up the traditional dignities of the office. In AUSTRALIA — MUNICIPAL AND LOCAL GOVERNMENT Melbourne the vote is i 1,500, in Sydney and Adelaide ii.ooo. The mayor has no direct power of veto over the council's actions. He represents the city as a whole and presides over the council and undertakes only those duties which devolve naturally on the leading officer of a city. The paid officials are non-partisan appointed by the councils and form a permanent stafif holding their positions during good be- havior; the head of which (as in England) in the cities is the town clerk. The terms munici- pal and local government are interchangeable as applying to (a) the cities and the larger towns of the Commonwealth, of which the cap- itals are types, and (b) to the smaller towns and outlying districts which are simply micro- cosms like unto the larger bodies but with functions of a more prosaic and limited char- acter conditioned mostly by population. In fact it may be taken as axiomatic that when the gov- ernment of the cities is understood everything of importance to the student is known about municipal and local government in the Com- monwealth of the newest of the nations. Nominations for municipal offices usually re- quire the signatures of proposer, seconder, and candidate. In Melbourne 10 ratepayers' signa- tures are required together with a deposit of iio. Secret voting, or voting by ballot as it is styled, is the universal system, which had its origin many j^ears ago in Australia and has since found world-wude acceptance. Generally speaking adult owners and occu- piers of real estate assessed for taxation who have paid their rates, whether residents or non- residents, are entitled to vote in the cities of Australia. Aliens are barred in some cities and women are not yet universally welcomed to the council chambers although they may vote. The councils of the capital cities are single chambers, aldermen and councilors sitting to- gether, presided over by the Mayor. Except in the Federal Government, and in the State Par- liaments where it is universal, the bicameral system of government as it exists in some Amer- ican cities is unknown in Australia. The Origin of Local Government. — The be- ginning of municipal government in Australia dates back to 1839 when the first municipal law (based on the English Statute of 1835) was passed in the State of South Australia and put into operation in 1840 in the city of Adelaide whose virgin soil w^as surveyed in 1836. The parent city of Sydney, the capital of New South Wales, established in 1788, was incorporated in 1842. Melbourne, the chief city of the State of Victoria originated as a small settlement in 1835 ^"d was incorporated in 1842 by the legis- lature of New South Wales of which State it then formed an integral portion. The other capital cities are: Brisbane (Queensland), founded 1826, incorporated 1859; Perth (West Australia), founded 1829, incorporated 1871 ; Hobart (Tasmania), founded 1804, incorporated 1857. Local Government in Xezu South Wales. — The city council of Sydney is composed of 24 aldermen, one of whom is elected by the council annually to be Lord Mayor. Two aldermen for each of the 12 wards are elected by ballot by the ratepayers every two years. Plural voting obtains, based on assessment values up to four votes. Owners, leaseholders, occupiers and lodgers are entitled to vote. Accounts are aud- ited bv State Government inspectors. Assess- ments are based on rental values of improved property. The condition of local government in this State is admittedly unsatisfactory. In the metro- politan area the agitation for a "Greater Syd- ney* is still proceeding by which its advocates hope that the city council will absorb the small surrounding suburban local governing bodies, of whom there are no less than 41 each with its own separate mayor, council, officered staff, and administration. The number of municipalities in New South Wales is only 192, covering an area of 1,810,912 acres with an annual value for assessment pur- poses of £8,351,420 and a very large area still remains under the control of the State Govern- ment which is now considering proposals to extend the system of local government bj- the creation of shire councils and new municipalities allowing such bodies to levy their rates on the unimproved capital value of the land instead of on the annual value of improved property. Besides the municipalities there are boards and trusts composed of members appointed by the State Government and members appointed by various municipal bodies, which are estab- lished for the benefit of districts covering areas of two or more ordinary municipalities and are empowered to construct and supervise water works, drainage works and similar undertak- ings with power to raise money by the sale of debenture stock and levy rates on the assessed value of benefited properties. In New South Wales there are the Metropolitan Board of Water Supply and Sewerage, various Harbor Trusts, Country Water Trusts, and the Metro- politan Fire Brigades Board, on which latter representatives of the fire insurance companies sit who contribute to the upkeep of the brigades. Local Government in Victoria. — The city council of Melbourne consists of 28 members (seven aldermen and 21 councilors) presided over by the Lord Mayor who is elected annually by the council. Three councilors are elected for each of the seven wards of the city, one being chosen annually by plural voting for a period of three years. The aldermen are ap- pointed by the council and hold office for four years. Residence within seven miles of the city and minimum rating of iio qualifies for a vote which slides upward to three votes on a £150 assessment. This State has had a comprehensive system of local government in force for many years which divides it into cities, towns, boroughs, and shires ; the councilors are elected by the ratepayers, and the mayors of cities, towns, and boroughs, and presidents of shires by the coun- cilors. The total area under local control being 87,302 square miles, only 582 square miles remaining outside of local government. Melbourne and 22 suburban municipalities constitute the metropolitan area, and thoughtful students of local government look forward to the time when all or most of these will be amalgamated with the city. A Royal Commis- sion has taken most exhaustive evidence pro and con during the past three years but so far has not submitted its report. Other governing bodies outside, yet dove- tailing in with the municipal councils and the AUSTRALIA — MUNICIPAL AND LOCAL GOVERNMENT State Government in Victoria, are the Metro- politan Fire Brigades Board, the Melbourne Harbor Trust, the Tramway Trust consisting of representatives of the ]\Ierbourne City Council and 1 1 other suburban municipalities, the Metro- politan Board of Works controlling water sup- plies, sewerage and drainage and various other Water Works, Irrigation, and Water Supply Trusts under quasi-local and quasi-State Gov- ernment control. Local Government in South Australia. — The council of the city of Adelaide consists of the mayor, six aldermen, and 12 councilors. All of them including the ma3or are elected by the ratepayers. The mayor and aldermen hold office for one and three years respectively; the coun- cilors (two for each of the six wards) hold office for two years. At each annual election the mayor, two aldermen and six councilors are balloted for. Plural voting obtains for mayor and aldermen, the system allowing a citizen one vote in each ward where he has property assessed. The State is divided for local government purposes into municipal and district councils. Aldermen may be elected to surburban councils in addition to councilors after a poll of the ratepayers has been taken approving such a proposition, followed by a proclamation by the State Governor, and it is worthy of note that the chairmen of the dis- trict councils are elected not by the ratepayers but by the members of the councils. The an- nual assessed value of property in municipalities is £2,661,238. There are no boards or trusts (other than the Fire Brigades Board) of any im- portance, but very extensive powers are vested in corporate bodies w-ho may raise loans for the construction and working of tramwaj's, ferries, jetties, water-works, gasworks, electric- light works, baths and washhouses, abattoirs, markets ; and make and provide pleasure grounds, libraries, museums, hospitals, and asylums. Local Government in Queensland. — The city council of Brisbane comprises 14 members who are styled aldermen, one of whom is elected annually to be mayor. The capital value of land is assessed here and not the rental value. The owner or occupier has from one to three votes according to valuation. If, however, the prop- erty is valued at less than £120, only the occu- pier has a vote. A general system of local government was started in 1878 and revised in 1902. Local areas are divided into cities, towns, and shires. Members of councils are styled aldermen in cities and towns and councilors in the shires. Aldermen and councilors are elected by rate- payers in each area, but all mayors of cities and towns and chairmen of shires are chosen by the members of the councils. The total area controlled by local bodies is 668,252 square miles, leaving only 245 square miles unincorporated. In Queensland the water supply construction work is undertaken by the State Government and when complete is handed over to the local authorities with attendant liabilities, \yhich be- come a debt due from the local authority to the State Government which must be repaid in in- stalments. There are a few bridge boards and harbor boards in various districts. Local Government in West Australia and Tasmania. — The city of Perth — the capital of West Australia — is governed by a mayor and 15 councilors, all of whom are elected Dy the ratepayers. For ward elections there are two classes of voters and for general municipal elections four. The local governing bodies in West Australia are termed Municipalities, Water Boards, Road Boards, and Health Boards; the latter may be established within or without municipal boundaries. Members of boards are elected by ratepayers and the chair- men by the members. In Hobart — the capital city of the island State of Tasmania — the council consists of nine aldermen, one of whom is elected by the members to be mayor. The aldermen are elected by plural voting with a minimum quali- fication of £8 annual value, the scale being from one to seven votes according to assessed value of property. Tasmania has its outlying districts governed by Town Boards and Road Trusts. The rate- payers in these districts elect their representa- tives who are termed "councilors" and these councilors elect their chairman who is stvled «Warden.» Pozvcrs and Duties of the City Councils.-^ The functions of the city councils are leg+sla- tive as well as administrative. They are em- powered under statutes granted by the State Parliaments to make by-laws for the suppres- sion of nuisances for all matters of minutise relating to good rule and government, and af- fecting the comfort, convenience, and welfare of their inhabitants. They may levy rates to cover the cost of general administration and raise loans (under certain restrictions) when necessary for public works. Properties ex- empted from payment of rates are Federal and State Government buildings (including State schools), charitable and benevolent institutions, churches, chapels, and buildings used exclusively for public worship, and buildings privately owned which are used exclusively as schools. They are charged with the control of traffic, the testing of weights and measures, the construc- tion and maintenance of roads, bridges, and foot- ways, the care and management of parks and recreation grounds, public baths, street lighting sheep and cattle markets, meat, produce, and fish markets, abattoirs, the collection and dis- posal of garbage, trade refuse, and they may and do hold large properties in real estate. They supervise the erection and construction of buildings and in some cities have jurisdic- tion over theatres, music halls, and places of public entertainment as to fire-proof materials and means of exit. They regulate sky signs and scaffolding and in most cities license cars, cabs, and conveyances plying for hire. Public Health and Sanitary Functions. — The city councils are constituted as Boards of Health and are responsible in their areas for the proper administration of the various public health acts to the State Boards of Health or Government Commissioners as the case may be. They in- spect and license private hospitals and maternity homes and employ medical officers of health and staffs of inspectors (male and female) whose duties are to look after the adulteration of food and to have the oversight of food supplies (par- ticularly meat, milk, and bread), inspection of common lodging houses, dairies, milkshops and dairy cattle ; noxious trades and businesses, AUSTRALIA — MUNICIPAL AND LOCAL GOVERNMENT abatement of common nuisances and smoke nui- sances ; to prevent spitting in the streets and in public vehicles ; to inspect restaurants, fishshops, butcher shops and all premises where food is prepared or consumed ; to prevent overcrowding of premises ; and to attend to matters of isola- tion, disinfection, and hospital accommodation for infectious diseases and fevers. Notification of disease is generally compul- sory under penalty. Medical practitioners, heads of families, and relatives are all liable for neglect. In compulsory notification of pulmon- ary tuberculosis (consumption) the State of South Australia has led the way, and the diffi- culties and dangers feared by some medical men have been found to be mythical and non-existent. Budget Items and Flotation of Loans. — The chief sources of municipal revenue are income from rates, rents from real estate, market dues, fines, penalties, and license fees. The rates levied in the city of Adelaide may be taken as typical of Australia and are as fol- lows : General purposes, rate, one shilling in the pound ; street lighting, rate, three pence ; parks and gardens, rate, one halfpenny ; rate for sinking funds (loans), one halfpenny, rate for police purposes, two pence; and a sanitary rate of three pence. To which must be added a water and sewerage rate of one shilling and six- pence in the pound (levied by the State Govern- ment), making a total of three shillings and three pence to be paid by the citizens, which in comparison with the rates charged in London and most of the large populous cities of Great Britain is an exceedingly light impost. The expenditure budgets of the cities con- tain as principal items : road and footway main- tenance, upkeep of parks and gardens, baths, markets and kindred establishments, salaries and wages. Da\^ labor invariably obtains except on new construction work. The wage of the ordin- ary unskilled mimicipal laborer is on an average seven shillings per day — in some cities slightly higher. Loans are mostly raised by the sale of deben- ture stock, redeemable at due dates, although in some instances the State Government advances monej' and becomes the creditor of the local authority. In Sydney and Melbourne, bills are passed by the State Parliaments authorizing those cities to float loans for street construction work, establishment of electric light, erection of mar- kets, etc. In Victoria, outside the capital, the limit of indebtedness for municipalities is fixed at 10 times the amount of annual income; the establishment of a sinking fund is obligatory with an annual appropriation of not less than two per cent of the amount of the debt. A law similar in many respects exists in West Aus- tralia. A referendum of any proposed loan may be demanded in Victoria and the consent of the State Governor is required in West Australia. In New South Wales municipalities may bor- row on debentures, with the sanction of the State Governor, an}' sum not exceeding the total estimated amount of revenue for an en- suing five years. In South Australia the consent of the rate- payers is required preparatory to floating any loan, the maximum indebtedness of a municipal- ity is fixed, sinking funds are compulsory, and where the loan is to be applied to works of a non-revenue producing character, a rate must be struck to provide sinking fund and interest. Population. Annual Value. 511.030 £5,669.670 501,460 4.489,181 168,066 1,201,996 124.463 1,167.135 46,400 378,266 34.917 i75.'94 Statistics of the Metropolitan Cities. — In any survey of the progress of modern civilization the concentration of population in cities is the most startling fact. It is a world-wide move- ment and is nowhere more strikingly exemplified than in the cities of Australia. The progress of the chief cities has been remarkable and has no parallel among the cities of the old world. Even in the LTnited States the rise of the great cities has been accompanied by a corresponding increase in the rural population, but in Australia (perhaps for the first time in history) is pre- sented the spectacle of magnificent cities grow- ing with marvelous rapidity and embracing within their limits one third or more of the population of the States of which they are the seat of government. The population and annual assessment value for rating purposes of the metropolitan areas are illustrated in the following table : Sydney . . !^'ieIbourne Adelaide . Brisbane . Perth . . . Hobart . . City Functions Controlled by the States. — The police, although supervising traffic and ad- ministering city by-laws and regulations are controlled and paid by the State governments with the one exception of South Australia where the city and all other municipal corporations are compelled to contribute a moiety of the cost in each district. Education is invariably State con- trolled although private schools exist. The care of the poor is attended to by the States side by side with religious and philanthropic institu- tions. Prisons, asylums, and hospitals are under the charge of the central governments, although the local authorities are compelled to pay for the accommodation in some States of indigent cases of infectious disease. The cities generally take no share in the management of public libra- ries, museums, technical schools, and art gal- leries which exist in every capital. Telegraphs and telephones are entirely controlled by the Fed- eral Government. Tramways (street railways) are in the hands of the State Government in New South Wales and in the other capitals are owned and operated b}' private companies, under charters granted by the State Parliament. Pro- vision is, however, made in some States, notably in Melbourne and Perth, for the metropolitan municipalities eventually taking them over. Gasworks and supplies are mostly owned and operated by private companies. Electric light- ing is owned and operated municipally in Mel- bourne and Sydney. In Adelaide the private company's existing rights expire in 1908. Fire brigades are managed by boards, with municipal representation upon them. Water and sewerage are managed either by State Government de- partments or quasi-government boards. The Municipal Outlook for the Future. — The municipal limits of the capital cities of Australia by no means correspond to their social, industrial, and economic boundaries ; as municipal centres they are the < which contain only a fraction of the population of the metropolitan areas and are only just now wak- ing up to the necessity of bringing into being comprehensive Greater Sydneys, Greater Bris- AUSTRALIA — EDUCATION banes, Greater Melbourncs, and Greater Ade- laides. The same sociological forces are at work in Australia as in America, Great Britain, and the continent of Europe, where enlargement of areas and greater cities have been dominant planks in municipal platforms for years. We may therefore expect similar results to follow in Australia as have been achieved elsewhere in the course of the next decade. Some small effort in this direction has al- ready been accomplished, notably in Brisbane and Melbourne, by the recent absorption of one or two adjacent suburbs, but the movement gen- erally can hardly be said to have yet passed much beyond the embryonic stage. In the metropolitan areas of Sydney, Mel- bourne, and Adelaide there are respectively 41, 22, and 19 municipal governing bodies with be- wildering codes of by-laws and methods of ad- ministration, and it has been well said that on the score of economy alone the arrangement is an absurdity which tolerates within a lo-mile radius of the centres such an enormous num- ber of local governing bodies — each separate, distinct, and independent of the other — to man- age the affairs of from 160,000 to half a million of people with, of course, as many staffs of municipal officers, all working in isolation, and often unable to agree about matters of vital concern to all. Experience has shown that occa- sional conferences are at best but an inadequate substitute for a permanent body with a fair representation of all interests and smoothly working machinery. Whether reform takes the shape of federation or unification, whether it comes with a rush or gradually, as the dwellers outside the city bounds awaken to the advan- tages of co-operative effort — come it must, in order to permit the carrying out of works at present impracticable, such as the control and working of tramways, gas and electric light con- cerns and kindred undertakings. With the example of the London County Council before us it is obvious that it pays to concentrate as much as possible the municipal work of cities in one central body. Lord Rosebcrry has said that "the larger the sense of municipal responsi- bility which prevails the more it reacts on the community itself. And men outside the munici- pality, or who have hitherto held aloof from municipal government when they see the higher aims of which the municipality is capable, when they see the wider work that lies before it, when they see the incomparable practical pur- poses to which the municipality may lend its great power, are not inclined any longer to hold aloof. ^' The broad policy of the London County Council is proof of this where the finest intel- lects in England take their share of the work in common with those who are attracted to the Council of the Nation at Westminster. Notwithstanding its shortcomings the de- velopment of municipal government in Austra- lia exhibits an upward and progressive tendency. The cities have always been free from that gross corruption which has been such a marked feature and has wrought such pernicious results in some other countries. ^Municipal government in Aus- tralia stands for probity and purity and as a recent Australian writer in 'The Annals' of the American Academy has put it : "We are imdoubtedly further advanced to-day than we were 20 years ago, and we may reasonably hope that the silent evolution which is working out Its eternal purposes in the social, as truly as in the physical world, will equip us for the achieve- ment of higher things in the future. » T. G. El.LKRY, Tozi-n Clerk of Adelaide, South Australia. 8. Australia — Education. Formed, like the United States, by the union of previously autonomous communities, the Commonwealth of Australia has followed the example of the United States in the distribution of powers be- tween the Federal and State authority. That is to say none but enumerated powers have been conferred upon the Commonwealth, and all unenumerated powers remain in the hands of the originating states. Thus education, not being among the enumerated powers, is re- tained, as in the case of America, by the individ- ual States. Every man, and in recent years, every woman, possesses, after registration, a parliamentary franchise, and it is customary to subject knotty public questions to a direct refer- endum of the people of a State. Such a degree of democracy could exist only in a highly en- lightened community. Elementary education, therefore, being essential for the exercise of the duties of citizenship which are imposed upon all, is compulsory, and the corollary fol- lows that it is in almost every case free ; other- wise the school fees would amount to a poll tax on children, which in a country crying out for population is the most undesirable of im- posts. Being for the benefit of all and not of any sect, state education is secular; and this not from any disregard for religion, but be- cause experience has proved that when the state concerns itself, with dogma strife rather than religious amity is produced. Education was in the early days of each colony left to private enterprise. Before long, however, it was recognized, consciously by some and in- stinctively by the majority, that a function so essential to the general welfare must be re- garded as a duty of the state. So it came to pass that education was one of the first matters of public concern to be included in the ever widening of the sphere of state activity which is the most characteristic movement of the present age. Primary education is accordingly through- out Australia undertaken by the several gov- ernments. There is a general resemblance in the condi- tions which those who settle in new countries are called upon to face. The problems of edu- cation in Australia are very similar to those in America. The circulars of information issued by the bureau in Washington have been of the greatest assistance to the educational depart- ments in Australia, and several useful reforms have derived their inspiration from this source. The laws relating to education in the Austral- ian states, as might naturally be expected in adjacent communities springing from the same stock, bear a strong family likeness ; but as considerable intervals intervened between the dates of colonization, and as the science of education was steadily progressive, the system adopted by each state was colored with the views which obtained at the date of its founda- tion. The older colonies had, therefore, a more difficult task in bringing the laws into conformity with improved methods than those which at a later period were established on ground unencumbered. All have, however, now AUSTRALIA — EDUCATION come into a fairly uniform line. The sequence of evolution has been the same, although the successive steps taken were independent and not simultaneous. In the beginning of each colony the first schools were established by the churches, aided by government grants. Soon, however, state non-sectarian schools were es- tablished and the subsidies to private schools ceased. The state schools were in the first in- stance placed under the control of a Board of Education appointed by the government ; but the basic British idea of responsibility to Par- liament asserted itself, and a cabinet minister was vested with the powers previously exer- cised by the board. The Minister of Education or of Public Instruction, as he is sometimes termed, appoints and dismisses teachers and officers, arranges the curriculum and controls the whole department. Regulations framed by him and approved by the Governor in Council acquire the force of law after they have been laid before Parliament. This centralized ad- ministration is mitigated, and to some extent, assimilated to local conditions, through the agency of district inspectors and local boards of advice. The funds necessary for education are derived from the general revenue. From time to time attempts liave been made to place a portion, at least of the burden upon the local rates, but it is felt that the cost of a system designed for the benefit of the public at large should be met from a source to which, either directly or through the customs, all contribute. In New South Wales and Tasmania fees are still levied, but in the former these amount to only a fraction of the whole expenditure, and are about to be abolished; and in the latter there are free schools in the large towns. The net yearly cost to the State of primary instruc- tion per scholar in average attendance, exclud- ing the cost of school premises, varies from £3.9.1 to £4.17.3. The average of all six States being £4.4.9. The statutory school age is in New South Wales and Western Australia from 6 to 14 years; in Victoria from 6 to 13; in Queensland from 6 to 12; in South Australia and Tasmania from 7 to 13. Pupils under the maximum age are exempted from further attendance if on examination they pass a prescribed standard. Attendance is required in New South Wales on 70 days, and in Queensland on 60 days in each half year; in South Australia on 35 days in each quarter, and in central districts on 8 out of 10 school sessions in each week ; in Victoria on 75 per cent of the days in each quarter ; in Western Australia and in Tasmania on every day on which the school is open. As a rule, children under the age of nine, living within a radius of two miles by road from a state school, and those between nine and the maxin^um age living within a radius of three miles, come under the laws relating to compulsory attend- ance. Truant officers and in some cases the police are employed to enforce the law. Prose- cution and punishment of the parents of defaulting childrcu is when necessary resorted to without hesitation. State schools in Australia come under the category of Public, Provisional, Half-time, and Special. In most of the States a public school may be established if an average attendance of 20 can be maintained. The buildings are pro- vided by the department. In Queensland an average attendance of 30 is required, and the locality has to contribute one-fifth of the cost of erection and maintenance of the building. Where the average attendance is under 20, but over 12, the school is termed provisional. In sparsely populated districts half-time and spe- cial schools or itinerant teachers are provided. The policy of concentration of attendance has been largely carried out, children are carried free to and from school over the state rail- ways in New South Wales and in Tasmania. In Victoria they are carried at reduced rates. It is not unusual to see a passenger train stop at cross roads to pick up a group of children on their way to or from school. In many cases it is found to be more economical to make an allowance to parents for the, conveyance of children to a school than to bring a school to the children. JNIoreover, better schools can be provided and higher standards maintained imder the "conveyance* system which there is a disposition to extend. The schools will then still better serve the purpose of central or consolidated schools. The average attendance of pupils at the state schools is at the rate of about 62 per school, 30 per teacher, and 11. 51 per cent of the population ; the average enrol- ment being 15.59 per cent. Normal schools are provided for the training of teachers, and are usually recruited from those who have served for four years as pupil teachers. In South Australia a six-year course has been arranged for the training of teachers ; two years are spent in study combined with a certain amount of practical work; two years in teaching in the schools, and the final two years at the University. During the term of training the students receive a maintenance allowance of from £30 to £80. The schools are classified according to the number of the children in average attendance, and progressive grades of certificates are awarded to teachers which qual- ify them for appointments in the public schools. Uncertificated teachers are frequently employed in the provisional schools. In all the states with the exception of New South Wales, there is a preponderance of female teachers. The salaries of male head teachers range upwards to £450, and of female head teachers to £360. Male assistants receive from £60 to £262, and female assistants from £50 to £216. The salaries of provisional teachers run from £66 to £140. Payment by results has proved unsatis- factory in operation and has been practically abandoned. The system of inspection is less mechanical than formerly and several of the States exempt schools of recognized excellence from detailed examination, leaving the promo- tion of the scholars in the hands of the head teacher. Boards of Advice .visit, inspect and report upon the schools in their district, are authorized to expend small svmis on the school buildings, arrange for the use of the buildings out of school hours, and take part in the ad- ministration of the compulsory clauses of the Education Acts. The Boards of Advice are honorary. In some cases they are nominated by the Executive, in others they are wholly or partly elective. In Queensland there is usually a committee for each school. In no case, how- ever, has the theoretically desirable association of the official with a public body on each plane AUSTRALIA — EDUCATION been achieved ; viz., a school committee acting with the teacher, correlated with a Board of Advice co-operating with the District Inspector, and a Central Council stimulating, assisting, a.id, if need be, acting as a check upon the Minister. Education falls short of its object if the Department does not carry parents and the locality along with it. The schools, when the pubh'c sympathi/^es with their work, exercise a vitalizing and elevating influence on the whole neighborhood. There is no caste system in Australia. The state schools are intended to meet the requirements of rich and poor alike; it is not uncommon to see the child of a cabinet minister, or of a wealthy citizen imbibing the elements of knowledge by the side of the child of an artisan or laborer. The education in the state schools is prac- tical and is now designed as a preparation for the actual requirements of modern life rather than for the conditions that obtained in the Middle Ages. The pupil is led by carefully graded steps from the known to the unknown ; from the particular to the general; from the concrete to the abstract; "from the microcosm of the school to the macrocosm of the Universe.^' The tendency is to subordinate theory to practice. Language is taught before grammar ; religious conduct precedes dogma. Kindergar- ten methods, local geography, nature study, drawing, clay modelling, and manual training are taking the place of purely literary studies. History as now taught in Australia is less con- cerned than formerly with the character of medinsval kings, it is studied more with the view of inculcating patriotism, civic duties and responsibilities. Since the contingents from Australia bore arms with comrades from the mother country and the cementing power of kindred blood shed in common cause has been realized, the Union Jack is saluted in the schools of the Commonwealth as is the Star Spangled Banner in those of the United States. Arbor Day was instituted in the schnnls of South Australia in 1887, and the celebration has become general throughout the States. On this day the ordinary school work is sus- pended. The children assemble in the morn- ing, and, in the presence of the Mayor, or Chairman of the Board of Advice and other visitors, plant trees with some ceremony. After a few speeches and some words as to the care of trees and their usefulness, the school is dis- missed and the rest of the day is enjoyed as a holiday. All new country schools in South Australia are surrounded by a reserve of sev- eral acres. Some of the schools adopt practical agriculture as a form of manual training, and in all the States, teachers are encouraged to make, with the aid of the children, gardens around their schools. In some of the States there are Manual Training Centres at which pupils drawn from the surrounding schools receive instruction from special teachers. In South Australia the ordinary teachers are encouraged to qualify themselves in this branch of education. The greatest latitude is given as to the form of the instruction; for that subject is taught best in which the teacher feels the deepest interest. Chip carving, joinery, brush making, book binding, and wire work are among the subjects taken up in the various schools. Domestic economy and cookery are taught to girls in most of the States. Calisthenic class exercises to a musical accompaniment are commonly adopted as an attractive form of physical train- ing. The pupils are taught by drill to move in masses and the order is occasionally given for fire parade. The Cadet Corps are under mili- tary supervision. Rifles are supplied to the boys, but they have to provide themselves with an inexpensive uniform. Swimming is taught in some of the schools. The teaching of sing- ing by the tonic solfa method is a prominent feature.^ The principles of morality are sedu- lously instilled, and good manners cultivated. Special attention is given to temperance lessons in almost all the States. The average minimum time devoted to secu- lar instruction is four and one-half hours each day. This stipulated condition being fulfilled certain facilties are provided for imparting religious instruction. In New South Wales and Western Australia the word "secular'* is held to include religious teaching of a general as distinguished from that of a dogmatic char- acter; and the teachers in the performance of the ordinary day's duty give Scripture lessons based on those issued by tlie Commissioners for National Education in Ireland. In South Aus- tralia, if the parents at any school so desire, teachers may be required to read without note or comment a portion of Scripture for a quar- ter of an hour before the ordinary work be- gins. In Victoria and Queensland no teacher is allowed to give other than secular instruction in a school building. In Victoria. Queensland, and South Australia the buildings may be used for any approved purpose out of school hours. The regulation in Victoria states that half an hour may be set apart in one or two school days in each week for religious instruction by persons other than State school teachers. Such classes must, however, be held either from g.15 to 9.45 A. M.. or from 3.30 to 4 p. ^r. No sub- stituted secular instruction is to be given to the children who do not attend these classes. In New South Wales and Tasmania one hour a day may be set apart for the use of visiting clergymen or teachers of religion. The time, if not itsed for this purpose, is devoted to ordi- nary instruction. In Western Australia half an hour at any time in each day is available for special teachers of religion, subject to as little interference as possible with the ordinary work of the school. In none of the States is a child required to attend any religious lessons without the parents' consent. In South Australia the desire to arrive at a settlement of the vexed question of religious teaching in State schools led to the following resolution being carried in the House of Assembly 16 Dec. 1895: "That in the opinion of this House a poll of electors should be taken on the following questions : Do you favor (i) The continuance of the pres- ent system of education in State schools? (2) The introduction of Scriptural instruction in State schools during school hours? (3,) The payment of a capitation grant to denomina- tional schools for secular results?" The poll was taken at the general election in April 1896, and resulted in the following answers: Question No. i: Yes, 51,681; no, 17,819. Question No. 2: Yes, ig,j8o: no. 34,834. Question No. 3: Yes, 13.349". it^> 42,007. Informal, 12,830. The referendum. AUSTRALIA — RELIGION thus initiated has since been adopted for the sokition of various questions in Australia. Secular education does not satisfy the re- quirements of the Roman Catholic Church, which, therefore, in populous centres, maintains separate schools. In some of the States pri- vate schools are oflficiall}' inspected. There are but few evening schools ; little public require- ment in this direction has so far been manifest. But continuation schools have been fairly suc- cessful in Western Australia. Although as has been seen above Primary education is chiefly a State function, this is not the case with secondary education. With few exceptions the secondary and high schools for both sexes are private or denominational es- tablishments. The higher classes, however, in the State schools include subjects usually re- garded as secondary. Provision is made by means of exhibitions, scholarships, etc., to enable bright and successful pupils from the State schools to continue their ascent, free of charge, up the educational ladder, through the high schools and at the universities. In New South Wales children who reach the highest class in the public schools may receive advanced in- struction including Latin and French for 3d. a week, and the Department maintains four high schools, two for girls and two for boys. The Sydney Grammar school receives an annual grant from the State, as does also the high school in Perth. Queensland liberally subsi- dizes secondary schools. In South Australia there is an Advanced school for girls which, althoitgh a State institution, is largely supported by fees. There is also in Adelaide a secondary State school for boys which is preparatory for the School of !\Iincs and Industries, and the Agricultural College. The distinctive feature of this school is that only half of each day is spent in the class rooms, during the other half the pupils receive practical instruction in the garden, the laboratory, and the workshop. In Victoria extra and advanced subjects are taught in many of the public schools for a small fee. The Chambers of Commerce, the Bankers' In- stitute, and the Incorporated Institute of Ac- countants hold periodic examinations in com- mercial and allied subjects which have a stimu- lating effect on this branch of education. There are private schools in each of the capitals which provide a commercial curriculum. Technical education, being a special need in a new coun- try whose resources are only partially devol- oped, is largely undertaken by the State. In the cities and in many of the towns, schools of design, schools of mines and industries, tech- nological museums, and workingmcn's colleges abound. There are also numerous agricultural colleges. In several of the States technical schools have been built and equipped by private munificence. In the capitals are art galleries containing many works bj- famous modern artists and sculptors. In connection with these are fine art schools where instruction in painting, sculp- ture, art needlework, and allied subjects reaches a high standard. These are as a rule controlled by Boards, in some cases partly appointed by the Government and partly elected. The Uni- versity of Sydney was established in 1852, and that of ^Melbourne in 1855. South Australia followed Ml 1874 the example thus set and Tasmania founded a university in 1890. These universities are supported by grants from the public chest, by public and private endowments, and by fees. The Australian universities do not confer degrees in divinity; otherwise they resemble and are in no way inferior to those of the old world. The universities in Adelaide and Melbourne grant degrees in music, and each has a fully equipped conservatorium of music. In all the imiversities women are ad- mitted to degrees and to the full privileges of graduates. The universities of Sydney, Mel- bourne, and Adelaide grant degrees in medicine to both sexes. John Alexander Cockburn, Formerly Minister of Education in South Aus- tralia. 9. Australia — Religion. . There is no es- tablished Church in Australia. All religions are now on an equal footing so far as the Govern- ments are concerned ; grants in aid were for- merly given to the leading religious bodies, but one by one the States relinquished the practice. South Australia led the way in this abolition in 185 1, a few years after the foundation of the Colony. Queensland, in i860, shorth' after the assembling of its first parliament, limited future payments to the clergy actually in receipt of grants ; New South Wales followed suit in. 1862 and Victoria in 1875. Western Australia voted periodical subsidies until 1895. when future annual pay- ments were commuted by the distribution of two grants of £17,715 each in that and the following year among the Anglican, Roman Catholics, Wesleyans, and Presbyterians, which are the only denominations that have received state aid in recognition of their religious work. The members of these four churches constitute the great bulk of the population and their relative numerical strength has remained almost con- stant for the last 30 years. The Commonwealth is debarred from legislating in respect to reli- gion. Clause 116 of the Constitution Act pro- vides that : "The Commonwealth shall not make any law for establishing any religion, or for im- posing an}' religious observance, or for prohib- iting the free exercise of any religion, and no religious test shall be required as a qualifica- tion for any office or public trust under the Commonwealth''. In the convention which framed the Federal instrument after long and earnest debate the words "humbly relying on the blessing of Almighty God*' were inserted in the Preamble to the Act in recognition of the deeply religious sentiment of the people. At the census of 1901 the numbers of adherents of the various denominations in each State of the Aus- tralian Commonwealth were given as follows : Church of England i>497.S70 Roman Catholic 855,799 Presbyterian 426,105 Metho^.st 504,139 Baptist 9J,670 Congregational 73.561 Lutheran 75,021 Salvation Army 31,100 Unitarian 2.629 Other Christian 66,968 Jew, Hehrew 15,239 Mahometan 3,206 Buddhist, Confucian 16,405 Hindoo. Bralimin 846 Other Non-Christian 18,894 Freethinker, Agnostic, etc 10,402 Indefinite 479 Others 80,673 Total 3.771.715 AUSTRALIA — INDUSTRIES AND COMMERCE Australia was originally included for ecclesi- astical purposes in the province of Canterbury and up to the year 1836 was attached as an Archdeaconry to the diocese of Calcutta. For 15 years after the foundation of New South Wales the only denomination recognized by the Government or possessing a Minister was the Church of England. There is now a general Synod of this church which meets every five years under the presidency of the Archbishop of Sydney, who has the title of Primate of Aus- tralia, although each State preserves its auton- omy in church affairs. ^Melbourne and Brisbane also have Archbishops. There are six dioceses in New South Wales ; five in Victoria ; four in Queensland, together with that of New Guinea ; and two in Western Australia. There is also the diocese of Adelaide in South Australia and of Tasmania. The Roman Catholic Church occupies, so far as numbers are concerned, the second place in each of the States, with the exception of South Australia, where the Metho- dists are numerically stronger. Its organization in Australia as elsewhere is superb. At the head of the Church stands the Cardinal Arch- bishop of Sydney. There are Archbishops in Melbourne, Brisbane, Adelaide, and Hobart ; and 14 Bishops in the six States. Until 1834 Australia, so far as the Roman Catholic Church is concerned, was under the Bishop of Mauritius. Sydney was in that year constituted a see ; eight years later the prelate was invested with the title of '^Archbishop of Sydney and Vicar Apos- tolic of New Holland.** In 1885 the Archbishop of Sydney was created a Cardinal and placed at the head of the Roman Catholic Church throughout Australasia. In 1876 Mel- bourne, was made an Archdiocese as were also Adelaide and Brisbane in 1887, and Hobart a year later. The Cathedrals of Saint Mary in Sydney and Saint Patrick in Melbourne are especially magnificent structures. The Roman Catholic Church takes a prominent part in furthering social "and industrial legislation and in temperance work. The Wesleyan Methodist Church was established in New South Wales in 1812. at a class meeting attended by 12 persons. Up to 1855 this Church was re- garded as a Mission, but in that year it was constituted an affiliated Conference. In 1873 the Australasian Wesleyan Church was raised to the rank of an independent conference. On I Jan. 1902, the Wesleyan Methodist, the Primi- tive Methodist, and the United Methodist Free Churches of Australia and New Zealand were united under the name of the Methodist Church of Australasia. Tn South Australia this Church includes 25 per cent of the whole population and throughout Australia its members form a com- pact, enlightened, and progressive body, which has exercised a preponderating influence in pro- moting temperance legislation and measures tending toward a high plane of morality. The Presbyterians erected in 1810 one of the first places of worship in New South Wales. The Presbyterian Churches in all the States arc united under the title of the Presbyterian Church of Australia in a General Assembly which meets every year in the capital cities in rotation. The Church in each State, however, acts independently in local administration and is autonomous so far as property is concerned. There is a Union of the Congregational Churches in each State federalized in the Con- gregational Union of Australasia. Thus per- vading the Churches and leading to interstate Unions, is witnessed the same .synthetic spirit \vhich was materialized in Australian Federa- tion. By this means strength is acquired with- out the sacrifice of local liberty, for a Federal union combines firmness with 'flexibilitJ^ The youngest and one of the most active religious bodies in Australia is the Salvation Army. It started in South Australia in 1880 and two years later officers were sent from Adelaide to organize forces in Victoria. New South Wales, and Tasmania, and in 1886 to Queensland; operations in Western Australia were commenced in 1891. At first the officers of the Army met with mucla ridicule and some ill-treatment but the earnest and effective man- ner in which they grappled with the problems of social reform soon reconciled the public to their methods. Persecution gave way to popularity, and the work of the Army is now applauded by all classes. The Prison Gate Brigade reclaims many criminals, and does such good service in diminishing crime that several of the State Gov- ernments give a grant in aid of its operations. The headquarters of the Army are in Melbourne and the officer commanding in Australia has the rank of a Commissioner. There are Colonels or Brigadiers in each State. The several churches in Australia are ani- mated by those friendly and tolerant sentiments which are the natural offspring of freedom. An interchange of pulpits is not infrequent. On Empire day in 1906 a special service was ar- ranged at Saint Paul's Cathedral, Melbourne, in which the president of the Methodist Con- ference and the minister of the principal Pres- byterian Church took part. John Alexander Cockburn, Foniicrly Minister of Education i)i South Aus- tralia. ID. Australia — Industries and Commerce. Manufactorics.^Vor many years Australia relied chiefly on its raw products for its wealth, but recently steady progress has been made with its manufacturing industries, and at the present time 152,260 men and 50,638 women find em- ployment in what are ordinarily termed fac- tories, as well as a large number of others in smaller establishments. The most rapid increase in the manufactur- ing industry has taken place during tlic past 10 years — in fact between 1894 and 1904 the hands employed increased from 133,631 to 202.898, an increase of 69,267, as compared with an increase of only 28,366 during the previous 10 years, the growth of the factory employees being propor- tionately far greater than that of the population. As regards the manufacturing industry gen- erally, the population of the continent is at present hardly sufficient to maintain a large manufacturing population, while its distance from other market places is at some disad- vantage as regards the export of manufactured products. The total horse-power of machin- ery used in the factories amounts to 160,000, the increased use of electricity in recent years be- ing accountable for a rapid addition in such power. AUSTRALIA — INDUSTRIES AND COMMERCE The following table shows the number of establisiiments and the hands employed in each state of the Commonwealth in factories and works employing four hands and over : Hands Class of Industry. employed. Leatherware, not elsewhere included 566 Minor wares, not elsewhere included 1,884 Total -'02,898 New South Wales. Victoria. Queensland. South_ Australia. West Australia. Tasmania. 3,632 68,036 4,2oS 76,287 1,909 1.339 18,644 607 431 It will be seen from the above table that Vic- toria, which was the first state to displaj- activity in the manufacturing industry, emplo3-s the greatest number of persons, and of these 25,429 are employed in establishments employing from four to 20 hands, 25,042 in establishments em- ploying from 21 to 100 hands, and 25,816 in factories employing over 100 hands. The capital invested in Victorian factories amounts to a little over £20,000,000 sterling, in- cluding the value of the land, buildings, ma- chinery, plant and sundries. The capital in- vested in New South Wales factories amounts to £21,000.000. The capital invested in the manufacturing industries in Queensland amounts to £9,000,000. According to the census of 1901, the capital invested in the manufacturing indus- tries of the Commonwealth aggregates £65,000,- 000, of which £20.000,000 is represented by land and buildings, £21,000,000 by machinery and plant, and £24,000,000 by stock, material, etc. New South Wales comes next to Victoria in the employment given in the manufacturing in- dustries, and its total of 68,036 is made up of 53,457 males and 14,579 females. Establish- ments employing from four to 20 hands employ 19.879; from 21 to 100 hands, 24,797 persons, and over 100 hands, 23,360 hands. In Queensland the two principal manufac- turing industries are sugar refining and meat preserving, and of the total number of people employed, about 12 per cent find employment in these two industries. The total output of all factories in Australia, exclusive of those engaged in the production of butter, cheese and bacon, figures of which are included in the pastoral industry, amounts to £71,000,000, of which £43,000,000 represents the value of material and fuel used, and £28,000,- 000 the value added in the process of treatment. Of the latter sum £13,500,000 accrues to the pro- prietors to pay rent, depreciation, insurance, etc., and profits of the business, and £14,500,000 rep- resents wages paid to the employees. The following table gives the class of in- dustries which give employment to people in the Commonwealth : Hands Class of Industry. employed. Treating raw material the product of pastoral pursuits 7>'^2'' Oils and fats, animal, vegetable, etc i,709 Processes in stone, clay, glass, etc 7>904 Working in wood 15,709 Metal works, machinery, etc 37>3i7 Connected with food and drink, etc 32,754 Clothing and textile fabrics and materials 56,599 Books, paper, printing and engraving 18,019 Musical instruments 282 Arms and explosives 302 Vehicles and fittings, saddlery and harness, etc. 7,959 Ship and boat building, etc 1,826 Furniture, bedding and upholstery 5,396 Drugs, chemicals and by-products 2,110 Surgical and other scientific instruments 134 Jewelry, time]iieces and plated ware 1.286 Heat, light and power 4,020 Tanning, fell-mongering and wool scouring afford the largest amount of employment among the industries in class i, and this can be readily understood, seeing that the pastoral industry is still the greatest in the Commonwealth. In class 2 the manufacture of soap and candles is increasing rapidly. In class 3 the manufacture of bricks and tiles is the most important, about 65 per cent of those engaged in this class being employed in that industry. In class 4 it can be readily understood that with the immense forests of valuable timber,, the saw mill is the most important of wood- working establishments, and about 70 per cent of those employed in that section are in saw mills. Class 5 included a great number of persons employed in the engineering works of the re- spective state government railwaj'' and tramway workshops. Also workers in smelting establish- ments for the extraction of ore, though these employed in quartz batteries are not classified as factory hands in Australia. There are sev- eral important establishments for the manu- facture of agricultural implements, and at Gaw- ler, in South Australia, and in Melbourne, the capital of Victoria, important agricultural im- plement works have been founded. To an Australian firm is due the credit of inventing- that great labor-saving appliance, the " Com- plete Harvester." In industries connected with food and drink butter, cheese, meat preserving, sugar mills, and breweries employ a great number of hands, while fiour mills, derated water factories, biscuits and other articles required for local consumption also employ a great number of persons. Factories connected with clothing and tex- tile fabrics offer more employment than any other section, and here the females employed largely outnumber the males. Victoria shows the greatest development in this industry, and during the last few joars the manufacture of wool has made considerable progress in the various states. Perhaps a more interesting comparison will be found in arranging the industries into three natural classes: (i) Those which come into competition with imported goods; (2) those dependent upon the natural resources of the Commonwealth, and (3) those treating perish- able products for domestic consumption. We find that the first section employs 88.866 people, the second 102,206, and the third 11,826. Speaking of wages generally, Australia pays its employees high wages compared to other countries, while the genial climate and general healthy conditions of life makes living cheap compared to other countries of the world. During the last few j'ears a system of in- AUSTRALIA — INDUSTRIES AND COMMERCE •dustrial legislation has come into force in most of the states, which brings about better conditions of work, cleanliness, air space, sani- tation, etc. Australian factories, as a rule, are well built and room\-. The day's work is gen- erally limited to eight hours, with extra pay- ment for overtime in cases of need. Wages boards have also been appointed for many of the principal industries, and to prevent strikes and lock-outs, courts of conciliation and arbi- tration have been established. Taking the chief manufacturing state of Vic- toria as a basis, the latest records show that in industries controlled by wages boards, the aver- age earnings of male workers, 21 years old and upwards, is £2 4s. 3d. per week, and of females, 19s. pd. per week. The average wage in indus- tries not so regulated, being £2 is. iid. and 17s. 5d.. respectively. Pastoral Industry. — The pastoral industry plays the most important part in the resources and wealth of Australia. At the close of 1904 Australia had 65,822.918 sheep. 7,868,520 cattle, 1.595.256 horses, and 1.062,253 pigs. The 1905-06 figures are not at present available for all the states, but judging from those available it may "be safely estimated that the sheep show an in- crease of about 14 per cent on the figures given and now number 75,000,000 ; cattle show an in- crease of 8 per cent, now numbering 8.500,000, and horses an increase of 5 per cent, numbering 1,675.000. In swine, the figures are probably about the same. Nothing is more marvelous than the prog- ress of the pastoral industry. In the year 1800 there were only 6,124 sheep, 1,044 head of cat- tle, 203 horses, and 4,017 pigs in the whole of Australia, but it is since 1850 that the greatest progress has been made, and from that date the value of the wool alone which has been ex- ported has amounted to £650,000,000 sterling. The first sheep imported were from the Cape of Good Hope, and in 1823 and 1825 further lots of Spanish sheep were introduced. In some respects the climate of Australia changed and improved the character of the Spanish fleece. 1 he wool became softer and more elastic and increased considerably in length. The average ■weight of a fleece has increased remarkably, and while in 1861 the average weight of a Xevv South Wales fleece was only 3.28 pound per sheep, the present avcra.ge weight is 7.3 pound. In recent years there has ueen a tendency to divide the sheep into smaller flocks. In New South Wales for instance there are 17.361 sheep owners as compared with 14,033 ten years pre- vious, while the average size of a flock is now 1,650 as against 4.050 at a former period. Of the total number of the sheep in Australia about 95 per cent are merinos. On the coastal districts, however, where merino sheep do not do so well, the rearing of cross-bred and long wool sheep is increasing and these are specially valuable for the meat they produce. It is intercstin.g to note that at the present time Australia carries one- fifth of the total sheep in the world. The export of wool brings an immense amount of money to the Commonwealth and the 1904 return for each state was as follows : New South Wales £9,328,270 Victoria 3-376-" ' 5 Queensland 2,280,909 South Australia £1,306,238 West Australia 419,395 Tasmania 401,512 Total £17,112,339 Cattle.— Ovi'm^ to the more profitable char- acter of sheep farming, cattle breeding in the Australian states is, with the exception of Queensland, second to that of sheep. The fol- lowing table shows the number of cattle in the various states at the end of 1904 : New South Wales 2,167,129 Victoria ii694i976 Queensland 2,722,340 South Australia 520,379 West Australia s6ii49o Tasmania 202,206 Total 7,868,520 For the year ending 1905 the cattle in the states for which there are returns had increased by eight per cent and as the season generally in Australia w-as a favorable one it is safe to as- sume that in all the states an increase occurred on the returns of the previous year and the pre- sent numbers are not less than 8.500,000. No form of production in Australia has made such rapid strides of late years as dairying and included in the above figures for cattle are the following numbers of dairy cows and heifers : New South Wales 591.936 \'ictoria 632,493 Queensland 160,000 South Australia 88,826 West .\ustralia 27,721 Tasmania 50.230 Total 1,551,206 Horses. — Considerable attention has been paid to the breeding of horses and at an early period the stock of colonial-bred horses was improved by the importation of Arabian and other breeds. The following table shows the number of horses in the different colonies : New South Wales 482,663 \'ictoria 37->397 Queensland 413,165 South .Australia 200,241 West Australia 90.225 Tasmania 36.565 Total 1,595.^56 There is a considerable demand in India for Australian horses and as a rule between 6,000 and 7,coo are exported annually to India, valued at from £80,000 to £85,000. Angora Goats. — Considerable attention has been given during the last few years especially in Queensland and New South Wales, to the production of mohair and considerable numbers of pure bred angoras have been imported from the United States. The goat thrives admirabh^ in the warm dry climate of Australia and it seems likely that in the near future, tlie export of mohair will show considerable incrca.se. At the present time there are about 65,000 goats depastured in Australia. Catncls. — In some of the states cainels are employed for the carriage of wool and other produce. In West .Australia camels number 2,150 in New South Wales 850, and in the Com- monwealth as a whole the number is not less than 4,200. AUSTRALIA — INDUSTRIES AND COMMERCE Pastoral Returns. — The annual return from the pastoral pursuits in 1904 was about £36,000,- 000, to which total sheep contributed about £26,- 000,000; cattle £7,000,000; horses £3,000,000. The greater part of the sheep industry is, of course, the return from wool and skins which amounts to £20,250,000. The value of wool con- sumed locall}' is not more than £250,000. Frozen Meats. — A rapid increase in live stock in Australia in favorable seasons makes the question of disposing of the surplus material of serious consequence. In 1882 the first shipment of frozen mutton from Australia to Great Brit- ain was tried. In 1905 £441,018 worth of frozen beef, £1,081,151 worth of frozen mutton and £338,823 worth of hares and rabbits were ex- ported from Australia <■ ve*- sea. Queensland exports large quantities of chilled and frozen beef, the total amounting to about £1,000,000 worth annually. Much of this is sent to the other states and is not included in the oversea exports. New South Wales exports chiefly frozen mutton, which varies in value from about £200,000 to £500,000 annually. Vic- toria also exports large quantities of frozen mut- ton and beef, while South Australian lambs are highly prized in the British markets. The export of canned meat was valued at £264,000. Dairy Farming. — The introduction of the factories system at convenient centres in Au- stralia has caused rapid extension in this indus- try. Immense quantities of butter are now ex- ported to Great Britain, in 1905 the export amounting to £2,307,835 sterling or 11 per cent of the total imports into Great Britain. The total value of the dairying industry of Australia is shown in the following table : Total Value of Dairy and Swine Produce. New South Wales £2,426,000 Victoria 2,912,000 Queensland 646,000 South Australia 568,000 West Australia 240,000 Tasmania 338,000 Total £7,130,000 Forestry. — Australia is chiefly famous for its hardwood timbers, the export of which is now a considerable industry. In 1904 the total ex- ports from Australia amounted to £839,518 of which West Australia exported £584,422. The present annual value of the timber industry of the Commonwealth, that is of the rough timber as it leaves the forest saw mills, is about £2,- 250,000 sterling. In West Australia alone the forests of marketable timbers are estimated to cover about 21,000,000 acres. The Governments of all the States have a number of reserves where the young timber is conserved so that the source of supply can be maintained. Jarrah is the chief timber exported, its prin- cipal use being for wood-blocks, piles, railway sleepers, etc. The wattle tree grows well in most parts of Australia, from the bark of which large quantities of tanning material are pro- duced. There are various species of eucalyptus from which is distilled the famous eucalyptus oil which has a considerable vahie for medicinal purposes. Some of the fine grained woods are also very beautiful and rraich used for decora- tive purposes. The karri is probably the finest tree of the Australian forests and sometimes run to over 30 feet in circumference at three feet from the ground and up to 150 feet from the ground to the first branch. Other prime timbers are ironbark, tallow wood, jarrah, spot- ted gum, grey box, mahogany, blackbutt, etc. Besides hard woods there are beautiful cabinet woods, viz. : cedar, rosewood, redbean, silky oak, blackwood, etc. Agriculture. — Judging by the experience of the past 30 years, Australia appears to be on the threshold of vast agricultural developments. Up to 187 1 only 2,345,922 acres were under crop in the Commonwealth but in 1904 this had in- creased to 9,365.022 acres. Of the cultivated land 90 per cent lies within the borders of New South Wales, Victoria and South Australia. The following table shows the area cultivated in the various States : State. Acres. New South Wales 2,674,896' Victoria 3.3-21.785 Queensland 539,216 South Australia 2,275,506 West Australia 3.27.391 Tasmania 226, 22& Total 9,365,022 As in most new countries where the pioneer farmer needs a quick return from his land, wheat is the principal crop and nearly 67 per cent of the cultivated land is sown to wheat. The area under wheat for grain in the various states in 1904 was as follows : State. Acres. New South Wales i, 775. 955 Victoria 2,277,537 Queensland 1 50,958 South Australia. 1,840,157 West Australia . 182,080 Tasmania 43,091 Total 6,269,77s In 1905 the yield of wheat for the Common- wealth amounted to 68,000,000 bushels, but the figures showing areas imder crop in 1905 for the various states are not at present available. The other crops of most importance are hay, oats and maize, 1/6 of the cultivated area being under hay, 5.2 under oats and 3.5 under maize. The Commonwealth requires about 30,000,000 Inishels of wheat annually for home consump- tion and seed and a production of 65,000,000 leaves about 35,000,000 bushels annually for ex- port. The average yield of wheat in Australia may be taken at about 10 bushels per acre. This appears low judging by the standard of many other countries, but a bare statement of averages is misleading, as in Australia the cost of pro- duction is relatively very low. In ordinary dis- tricts the expenses of ploughing seed and sow- ing and harvesting the wheat amounts to only about i2/-per acre, so that a yield of 10 bushels at 3/- a bushel means a return of about 18/ an acre out of which to pay the other expenses. In South Australia the conditions of cultiva- tion are even more favorable than the above indicates, and with a smaller yield, wheat grow- ing is bound to be very profitable. The present comparatively low yields are largely due to the fact that immense areas are put under crop by individual farmers. In consequence, the culti- vation and harvesting methods are not carried out so thoroughly as in older countries of the world. With smaller areas and better farming, far higher averages will, it is believed, be ob- AUSTRALIA — INDUSTRIES AND COMMERCE trained in the future. The following tables show and Tasmania and attracted a rush of popula- the average area and yield of some of the other tion. A little later gold was found in Queens- principal crops : land and the last of the states in which extensive Area under other Principal Crops. State. Maize. Oats. Other grain crops. Hay. Potatoes. Sugar cane. Vines. Other crops. New South W.iles Acres. 193,614 11,394 119,171 Acres. 40,471 344,019 643 50,630 13,864 43,690 Acres. 23,120 59.879 17,746 30,982 4,377 24.077 Acres. 435,704 452,459 48,740 269,626 105,247 55,545 Acres. 23,855 46,912 J2,754 8,3'5 1,906 25,948 Acres. 21,525 Acres. 8,840 28,016 2,194 23,210 3,413 Acres. 151,812 101,569 66,693 52.586 16,418 33.728 120,317 West Australia 86 149 Tasmania Total 324,414 493.317 160,181 1.367,321 119,690 141,842 65,673 422,806 Agricultural Production. State. Maize. Oats. Other grain ,1 crops. «=»>'• Potatoes. Sugar cane. Wir.e. New South Wales Bushels. 4-951,132 623,736 2,542,766 Bushels. 652,646 6,158,929 15,137 555.696 226,318 1,178,819 Bushels. 334.205 1,105,822 347.738 440,536 50,396 502,818 Tons. 366,293 514,316 80,662 294,252 113.794 73.457 Tons. 48,754 92,872 33,257 19,521 5.614 110,547 Tons. 199,640 Gallons. 928,160 1,832,386 60,433 2,625,430 185,070 Queensland 1,326,989 West Australia 896 Total 8,118,530 8,787.545 2,781,515 1,442,774 310,565 1,526,629 5.631.479 Large areas are also under orchards in the various states of the Commonwealth, the total being about 155,000 acres. Victoria heads the list with 51,000; New South Wales 50,000 and S^uth Australia 20,000. The export of apples, oranges and dried fruits to Great Britain has been commenced and promises to develop into an important industry. All tlic Governments give considerable atten- tion to agricultural education and have estab- lished agricultural colleges and experimental farms where practical and scientific agriculture is taught. In most of the States also arrangements are made by the Government to advance money to assist farmers at low rates of interest. Irrigation. — The necessity for providing water for stock and irrigation in the dry parts of Australia induced the respective Governments to spend a good deal of money on water con- servation and artesian boring. Cretaceous beds extend over large areas of New South Wales, West Australia and South Australia. By sink- ing artesian bores supplies of water are brought to the surface from underground sources which exists in the tertiary drifts and the cretaceous beds. In New South Wales one of these wells has a daily flow of 1.750,000 gallons, the depth of the bore being 2,029 feet. Over 50 artesian bores have been successfully sunk in South Australia, the greatest daily flow amounting to 1.200,000 gallons. These bores give excellent water for stock purposes and are also used in many cases for irrigating crops. Mineral Resources. — Most metals of eco- nomic value are found in Australia. Gold is found in all the states and in 1823 the first dis- covery of the precious metal was made. In 185 1 and 1852 important discoveries were made ia New South Wales, Victoria, South Australia deposits were foimd was Western Australia. So important did these deposits prove that in 1905 the otitput of Western Australia was more than equal to all the other Australian states together. The following table shows the gold won in each State up to the end of 1905 and the return for the individual year of 1905 : Total Yield, 1905. £ Ounces. New South Wales 53,235,286 274,267 Mctoria 272,801,158 732,603 Queensland 61.618,291 578,364 Soutli Australia 2,778,392 20,447 West .Australia 62.686,475 1, 955, 304 Tasmania 6,026,845 74,3 16 Total. 459,146,447 3,635.301 Sikrr. — .\ustralia is rich in silver and it is found in all the states either alone or in the form of sulphides, chloride, bromide, iodide, chloro-bromide of silver and antimonial and arsenical ores and argentiferous lead ores. In the latter the largest deposits of metal are found. Prior to 1882 the output of silver in Australia was small, but with the opening up of the Bar- rier Mines at Broken Hill, close to the boundary cf New South Wales and South Australia, rapid advances took place. The following table shows the output of silver and silver lead in the re- spective state up to the close of 1904: Silver and State. silver-lead. New South Wales £37,348,699 Victoria 198.793 Queensland 995-583 South .\ustralia 141.848 West Australia 85.887 Tasmania 3. 436,546 Total £42.207.356 Of the above about £29.000,000 worth is the product of the Broken Hill mines. Copper. — The following table shows the pro- AUSTRALIA — INDUSTRIES AND COMMERCE duction of copper in Australia up to the end of 1904 with the output for 1904: State. Total. 1904. Xew .South Wales £7,017,166 £406,001 \ictoria 206,895 Queensland 2,981,910 257,896 South Australia 24,1 16,098 432,063 West Australia 461,447 25,180 Tasmania 5,602,184 507,066 Total £40,385,700 £1,628,206 It will be seen that South Australia has pro- duced the greatest quantity of copper, but of late ye-ars Tasmania has had the largest output. Tin is also found in payable quantities in many parts of Australia, the production to igo6 amounting to £21,549,000. Iron is distributed throughout the Commonwealth and at Lithgow, in Xew South Wales, where iron and coal de- posits lie alongside each other, a commencement has been made to smelt the ore. Tasmania has enormous deposits situated near the Blyth river. Other minerals widely diffused throughout Au- tralia are antimony, bismuth, manganese, plati- num, tellurium, lead, wolfram and a number of earth colors. The annual production of such other minerals amounts to about i8oo,ooo. Coal. — Coal was first discovered in New South Wales in 1797. Since that time it has 1-een proved that nature has bountifully supplied Australia with mineral fuel. Black coal forms one of the principal mineral resources of New South Wales and it is estimated that the known areas of coal fields of this class contain over 85,000 million tons. The following table shows the value of the total output of coal in the respective States and also the output for 1904: Output State. Total output, in 1904. New South Wales £46,016,054 £1,994,952 Victoria 1,331.877 70,208 Queensland 3, 3-5. 609 166,536 South Australia West Australia 373,598 67,174 Tasmania 524,859 29,878 Total £51,571,997 £2,328,748 Brown coal or lignite occurs principally in Victoria but it is much inferior to the black coal. Good coal has been found in Western Australia, while in Queensland the extent of the coal fields is practically vmlimited — over 24,000 square miles of coal measures having al- ready been explored. Tasmania also has im- portant carboniferous formations. ^farble of high quality is found in many parts of Australia, while the finest opal known is obtained in the Upper Cretaceous formation near Wilcannia, New South Wales. The out- nut of opals from this district amounts to about £125,000. Other gemstones, including emeralds, sapphires, rubies, etc., are found in various parts, while diamonds are found in New South Wales, Victoria, Queensland and South Au- stralia, though only in the first named are the diamond drifts worked commercially. Commerce. — The external trade of Australia is increasing rapidly as the following table shows : Year. Imports. Exports. Total trade. 1861 £17,562,960 £17,399,656 £34,962.616 '881 29,031, i'3i 27,528,583 56,559-714 1901 42,433,811 49.696,172 92,129,983 ^905 38,407,579 56,750,347 95,157.926 If the interstate trade be included the figures will be greatly increased. Taking, for instance, the returns for 1905 and including the interstate figures the trade of each state was as follows : Imports. 1905- New South Wales £29,433,078 \'ictoria 22,317,195 Queensland 6,504,919 South Australia 8.431.594 Western Australia 6,481,309 Tasmania 2,652,777 Total £75,820,872 The following figures show the distinction between oversea and Australian goods : Goods Interstate Imported. Trade. New South Wales £14,573,819 £14,859,259 Victoria 1-^,937,932 9,379 -'C'3 Queensland 3,164,487 3,340,432 South Australia 3,224,589 5,207,005 West Australia 3,768,830 2,712,479 Tasmania 737,922 1,914,855 Totals £38,407,579 £37,413,293 The total exports for the same year were as follows : Exports. 1905 New South Wales £36,645.451 \'ictoria 22,706,658 Queensland 1 1,862,367 South Australia 9,455,991 West Australia 9,789.354 Tasmania 3,703,819 Total 94,163,640 These are distinguished as follows : Oversea Interstate Direct. Trade. New South Wales £24,484,740 £12,160,711 Victoria 14,028,641 8,678,017 Queensland 3,384,856 8,477,511 South Australia 5,402,638 4-053,353 West .\ustralia 8,977,297 812,057 Tasmania 47^,175 3,23i-644 Totals £56,750,347 £37,413,-93 The external trade of the Commonwealth amounts to £23. lo.od per head of population, which is nearly four times that of the United States and considerably greater than that of the United Kingdom. Of the total trade 49 per cent in 1905 was with Great Britain, 23 per cent with other parts of the British Empire and 30 per cent with for- eign countries. The trade of Australia shows a considerable diversion in recent years from Brit- ain to foreign countries. In fact one-third of imported goods are now of non-British origin as compared to one-fourth 10 years ago, and of the exports over one-fourth are sent to non- British countries compared with one-tenth in 1885. The chief cause of this is the establish- ment of direct and rapid communication between Germany, France, Belgium, Japan and the Uni- ted States with Australia. In the exports the same tendency is notice- able, in 20 years the percentage to Great Britain having fallen from 74.91 per cent to 46.11, while exports to foreign countries have increased from 9.26 per cent to 25.89 per cent. The following are some of the chief articles of export during . 1905 : Butter £2,447,133 Copper, ingots, and matte 2,103,694 Coal 910, 518 Wheat 4,140,676 Flour 1, 211, 351 Lead, pig, and matte 772,079 Leather 418.681 Beef 441,018 Mutton and lamb 1,081,151 AUSTRALIA — GOVERNMENT UNDERTAKINGS Rabbits and hares £338,823 Silver, bar, ingot, etc 818,341 Silver lead 757,460 Hides 176,030 Rabbits and hares (skins) 231,627 Sheep skins 1,396,849 Tallow 774,646 Timber 1,036,183 Tin, ingots 71 4,074 Wine, fermented 106,789 Wool, greasy, washed and scoured 19,822,216 Gold 10,965,612 5/n>/';;;g.— In 1904-5 the total number of vessels, in the interstate, coastal and oversea trade, exclusive of river traders, entering and •clearing Commonwealth ports was 17,691, of 29,150,962 tons. This shows an increase of 813 vessels and 4,450,847 tons on the figures of the previous year. The number of vessels and tonnage of same •entering Au'^tralian waters from foreign parts and those clearing for same is shown in the following table : 1903. Description of Vessel. Vessels. Tons. Crew. Entered: Steam 1,038 2,639,708 75.845 Sailing 938 1,085,378 16,744 Total 1,976 3,725,086 92,589 Cleared: Steam 1,050 2,629,677 76,285 Sailing 1,062 1,089,654 17,067 Total 2,112 3,719.331 93.352 Timothy Augustine Coghlan, Agent-General for New South Wales. II. Australia — Government Undertak- ings. The manifold activities of the State — which is the striking feature of Australian polity — originated from the obvious inability of a sparse population to develop an enormous ter- ritory by individual effort. Australia is nearly as large as the United States, if we exclude the northern part of Alaska, and even now it only contains 4,000.000 people. Roads, railways and means of communication in this vast territory were necessarily the care of the State in a coun- try where neither individuals nor townships possessed sufficient capital or labor to under- take these works. Consequently posts, tele- graphs, and railways in every State of the Com- monwealth are under government control. The posts and telegraphs are since 190c under the Federal Government but the railways continue to belong to the several States. The impulse given to State energies by the necessity for means of locomotion and intercourse soon led to the provision by the same authority of facil- ities for shipping produce. The control of har- bors and rivers thus passed naturally to the State Governments and the State of New South Wales in 1902 compulsorily purchased all the sea frontages of the business portion of Sydney Harbor in order to exercise a more effective control of the wharves and prevent the charges being raised to shippers by any combination of private owners. The States have in many instances delegated the management of State property to boards. But the wisdom of vigorous and ever-watchful State activity is the accepted creed of the Australian democracy, which dreads nothing more than the industrial anarchy of imregvilated individualism. Raihvays. — Railways have always been re- garded in Australia as a means of opening up Vol 2 — 7 new country. Naturally, therefore, they run through sparsely settled areas. Nevertheless, and in spite of the fact that new lines are being continuously added, the 13,500 miles of railway in the Commonwealth give a net return of 3.38 per cent. In all the States — and in New South Wales the tramways also — they are under gov- ernment control. In Western' Australia there are also 277 miles of private lines; in New South Wales, 81 '4 miles; in Tasmania, 160 miles ; in South Australia. 20 miles, and in Queensland, 102 miles. Until 1897 Western Atistralia favored the construction of lines of private enterprise on the L'and Grant system; but the results as compared with governmental control were found to be so unsatisfactory, that, following the example of New Zealand which had had the same experience, the State acquired the Great Southern Railway (243 miles) by compulsory purchase. In order to minimize the dangers and political interference the manage- ment and maintenance of the railways in all the States is under the control of commissioners who are appointed for terms of not less than seven years and are independent of Parliament. In New South Wales and Victoria proposals for new lines are submitted to committees com- posed of members of both Houses of Parliament whose duty after taking evidence is to advise Parliament as to the expediency of their con- struction. The following table shows the amount ex- pended on construction and equipment up to 30 June 1905 : State. f New .South Wales 43,062,550 \'ictoria 41.279,045 Queensland 21,610,980 South Australia 13,587,406 West Australia 9,808,458 Tasmania 3,920,508 Commonwealth 133,268,947 The greater part of the public debt of Aus- tralia has been expended on railway construc- tion. In 1850 the first railway was commenced but it was not until 1855 that the line was opened. It ran for 14 miles from Sydney to Paramatta. At the end of 1871 just over i.ooo miles of rail- way lines had been built. After that the work of construction was carried on rapidly and the following table shows the total number of miles open for traffic in the various States at the end of June 1905 : State. Miles. New South Wales 3.-80 3-4 Victoria 3,394 Queensland 3,692 1-2 South Australia i,745 3-4 West Australia i ,605 Tasmania 462 1-2 Commonwealth 13,580 1-2 The following tables show the net profit after paying working expenses, and the percentage of profit to capital invested : jj Net Percentage •*"'^" profit. in capital. New South Wales £1,491,869 £3/9/3 Victoria 1,462,643 3/10/9 l-:» Queensland 598,695 2/15/5 -South .\ustralia 536,53° 3/19/ West Australia 354,126 3/12/2 Tasmania 71,926 1/16/7 Commonwealth £4,515,789 £3/ 7/9 AUSTRALIA — GOVERNMENT UNDERTAKINGS The freight charges are low, as the main object of railway construction has been to open up and develop the country Railway construc- tion in Australia has not proceeded with uni- formity of gauge. In New South Wales a gauge of 4 ft. 81/2 in. has been adopted. In Victoria 5 ft. 3 in., in South Australia partly 5 ft. 3 in. and partly 3 ft. 6 in., while in the other States 3 ft. 6 in. in gauge is universal. Speaking generally the agricuUural districts are excellently served with railways. The total number of passengers carried annually amounts to about 115,000,000, the receipts from coaching traffic being about 41 per cent of the whole and those from goods traffic 59 per cent. Other Public Works. — The early settlement of Australia, unlike that of America, was cen- tralized in the capital cities of each State ; con- sequently municipal institutions and local gov- ernment are as yet imperfectly developed. Thus many of the functions of municipalities are per- formed by the Central Government although there is a growing tendency to transfer these to local bodies as the country population gathers round townships. At present the State Govern- ments maintain all main roads and bridges. They also construct the harbor works and pro- A'ide dredgers for their maintenance. In Mel- bourne and Sydney this work has been delegated to Boards. Punts and ferries on rivers are also under the control of the State Governments ; which is also charged with the con- struction of all school buildings, prisons, and hospitals. Water conservation is another very important function of the State Governments, and large sums have been spent in sinking for water and maintaining artesian wells along the stock routes of the dry interior. Activities of Federal Government. — The Federal Government of the Commonwealth has not yet assumed all the powers which by the Constitution are permitted to it. At present it only controls public works in so far as these are connected with the postal, telephonic, and tele- graphic services, with military and naval de- fence, and with the customs houses. It will soon also take over from the States the light- ing of the coasts, the quarantine grounds, and the observatories. The Commonwealth Parliament has recently passed an act providing for the compulsory ref- erence of industrial disputes extending beyond the limits of one State to a judicial tribunal ; but it is questionable whether this act is not unconstitutional, and in its present form it is not likely to be effective. The Commonwealth has also, in the exercise of its powers to "make laws with respect to trade and commerce,'' passed a stringent law against fraudulent marks on goods whether these are imported or made in Aus- tralia, and also to provide for the marking with a government stamp on all goods intended for export. The same measure permits goods which are made under trade union conditions to be marked with a special union label. The Parlia- ment has now before it a measure to prevent trusts and combines within the Commonwealth and to prohibit the importation of "dumped" goods (i.e. goods sold for export at below cost). In military matters the Parliament, imder the influence of the Labor party, have adopted the principle that if a country is worth living in it is worth defending; and that therefore it is the duty of every citizen in a democracy' to be able to bear arms. The Defence Acts empower the calling out of every citizen under the age of 40, and provision is made for universal instruction in military matters by the formation of cadet corps in all the State schools. A movement is now on foot for providing for the coastal de- fences of Australia by means of locally owned ■ warships. The Federal Government administers as a dependency the British portion of New Guinea which is now known as Papua. It is also proposed that the Federal Government shall provide old age pensions. The Federal Government has control of im- migration but its activities in that direction are at present hampered by the jealousies of the States which own the available land and are willing to co-operate with the Commonwealth. The law as to the immigration of undesirables is practically the same as that of the United States, and Canada; but its administration is less strict. No white person has ever been ex- cluded under its provisions. State Actiz'ities. — All the States, except Tas- mania and Western Australia, have from time to time attempted to deal with the problem of the unemployed by means of labor settlements. None of these, however, have been permanently successful and they have not been adopted on any large scale. Co-operative and village settlements have, however, been more successful in Victoria and South Australia. Areas of land are set apart in both these States for village communities. The government makes advances for improve- ments and on the performance of the required conditions the occupier may obtain a perpetual lease on the freehold of his block. Up to 30 June 1904, a total of 1,891 settlers, making with their families a community of 8.556 souls, were residing in these settlements in Victoria on an area of 57,588 acres on which improve- ments had been effected to the value of £254.955. In South Australia at the same date, the num- ber of settlers was 84, to whom ii02,ii6 had been advanced, while the improvements effected were valued at £41.869. The unoccupied lands in every State belong to the State and not to the Commonwealth. Agricultural Activities. — Every State has tried by legislation to improve and develop its agricultural resources. Until the establishment of the Commonwealth the States gave bonuses on the export of butter, cheese, and fruit, but these have now ceased. There are, however, in New South Wales, Victoria, and South Aus- tralia depots under State management for the storage and freezing of perishable products. Exports of poultry, butter and cheese are graded and marked by government brands, and South Australia for some years maintained in London a depot for the sale of her wines. ]\Iost of the States have appointed boards which are empowered to lend money to farmers to effect improvements. Every State maintains agri- cultural colleges or lecturers, and in some there are experimental farms. New South Wales maintains State nurseries for fruit and forest trees. Charities. — The administration of charity is an important function of the States in a country AUSTRALIA — FINANCE which has no poor law ; hospitals, asylums for the insane, asylums for the aged, orphanages, and industrial schools are all established and main- tained by the State governments. A system of boarding out of State children is also in opera- tion in New South Wales, Victoria, and South Australia. Old age pensions of 10/ a week are given in New South Wales to all above the age of 65 who have not an income of Izd a year. Iitdusfriiil Aciiz'ifies. — In New South Wales and Victoria the States have adopted the view that an industrial dispute between capital and labor is as much a concern of the State as a quarrel in the street between two citizens. Each State deals with the matter in a different way. In New South Wales a tribunal has been established to which all industrial disputes must be referred. A workman striking or a master locking out before making such a reference is guilty of a misdemeanor. The court has power to enforce its awards by fine or imprisonment : it can direct a minimum wage and may order that preference be given to unionists in any in- dustry. It has power to declare an order made in any case to be the "common rule* of the in- dustry in question within a given area. It is claimed for this act, which has been in force since 1902, that it has given a new security to capital by preventing strikes and that it has abolished "sweating." In Victoria, Wages Boards have been established for every industry, consisting of an equal number of representatives of workmen and employers with an umpire. All questions relating to the trade may be referred. The decisions of the board may be enforced by action in the courts as upon the award of an arbitrator. The Factory Acts of Great Britain have been partially adopted by all the States, but in none is there the same strictness of supervision nor the same restraint upon the manufacturer as in Eng- land. The government of New South Wales makes the clothes of the railway employees and police in a State factory. Most of the States have State workshops for manufacturing rolling stock and railway engines. The State of New South Wales also owns a dry dock and a ship repairing plant. All the States publish Year Books giving full details of the progress of the State, and the working of all government departments. These can be obtained gratis on application to the Agent-General of the State in London. BERNn.\RD RlXGR^sSE WiSE, Formerly Attorney-General, .Vrtc South Wales. 12. Australia — Finance. In matters of finance, as well as in many other things, Aus- tralia presents a most interesting field for study. Sprung from a splendid body of pioneers, who had been brave and enterprising enough to quit the old home-land, with all its tender associa- tions, and well ascertained conditions of life, and to cross the ocean, in a voj^age lasting, in those days, three or four months, in order to the beginning of a new life under unaccustomed con- ditions, in a new and undeveloped land, the colonists have wrought wonders. Untrammeled by any vmdue preference for the old ways and with ample scope for bold, not to say audacious, experimenting, the spirit of enterprise, inherited from their fathers strong in them, the second generation of the settlers, who are the Austral- ians of to-day, have striven to put into practice, and by no means without success, some theories which have elsewhere remained merely theories. In their systems of land settlement, their State ownership of such undertakings are railways, tramways, water-works, etc., and in schemes of ta.xation, to say nothing of other matters of iinance, they have sometimes discarded precedent and have no reason to be ashamed of the re- sults which they have to show for their enter- prise and fearlessness. Complicated as are, in some respects, Australian questions, through the existence, at one and the same time, of a dual citizenship, every person owing allegiance to his own individual State and also to the broader Commonwealth government, a very little care will enable a complete view to be taken of Australian finance, including both those figures relating to the Commonwealth, or National, and to the State, or Provincial Governments. The 4,000,000 people of tlie Commonwealth occu- pying the great island continent of Australia and the adjacent small one of Tasmania, with an area, in all, of as nearly as possible 3,000,- 000 square miles, having, for national pur- noses, united imder the Commonwealth Consti- tution Act, are still, in respect of all but certain specified matters, citizens of one or other of the six States of New South Wales, Victoria, Queensland, South Australia, Western Australia, and Tasmania. So far as their finances are con- cerned it is necessary to remember that to the Commonwealth are assigned very large powers of taxation, which, however, are, so far, only exercised in respect of customs and excise, the whole revenue from which is collected bv the Commonwealth, the balance, after meeting its own necessities, being handed over to the States, in proportion to the amount of the duties derived in each State. The Commonwealth con- trols all posts, telegraphs, and telephones, as well as all military and naval defences, and also several other important departments of State, but the finances and statistics are unaf- fected by these matters, as in the case of all of them, where there is Commonwealth control State control ceases. In taxation, however, if it were attempted to show the total for Australia by adding to the total for the Commonwealth those for the States, the result would be wrong; just as would be any attempt to get the total revenue or expenditure for Australia by adding Commonwealth totals to those for all the States, because of the portion of the customs and excise revenue which, being first collected by the Commonwealth, is afterward paid over to the States and so would appear twice in the totals. In this statement care will be taken to show all the figures once, without any duplication whatever. The figures given will, unless other- wise stated, be from the unchallengeable author- ity of the latest volume published by the govern- ment statistician of New South Wales, }klr. Coghlan, now Agent-General for that State in "London. We shall, however, begin with the totals of revenue and expenditure of the Com- monwealth for the financial year ending 30 June 1905, as given to Parliament by the treasurer of the Commonwealth, the Rt. Hon. Sir John Forrest, in his budget speech in August 1005. AUSTRALIA — FINANCE The figures show the sum collected in each State : State Customs and Excise Posts and Telegraph Other Revenue Totals N. S.Wales. Victoria .... Queensland. S Australia. W. Australia Tasmania. . . £3.033,617 2,488,842 1,095,476 678,880 1,029.515 3^0,651 £980,141 682, 565 331,096 266,691 »57. 489 112,923 £6, q68 7,800 3,288 7,838 1,938 2,047 £4,020, 727 3,179,207 1,429,860 953,409 1,288,942 445,621 Totals £8,656,981 £2, 630, 905 £29, 880 £11,317,766 Beside the totals given the Commonwealth collected in Western Australia, and paid over to that State, temporary duties amounting to ii42,549. The expenditure was : Customs and excise department £256,060 Military and naval defences 706,279 Posts, telegraphs and telephones 2,560,756 Other expenditures 461,497 Total £3,984'592 The customs and excise revenue for the year ending 30 June 1905, was collected under the following heads : CUSTOMS. Stimulants £2,050,648 Narcotics 922,248 Sugar 192,391 Agricultural products and groceries 684,746 Apparel and textiles 1,348,848 Metals and machinery 454,325 Oils, paint and varnish 121,466 Earthenware, etc 138,122 Drugs and chemicals 56,646 Wood, wicker and cane 202,719 Jewelry and fancy goods 166,906 Leather and rubber 154.588 Paper and stationery 106,488 Vehicles 80,813 Musical instruments 47,062 Miscellaneous 122,025 Total customs £6,850,041 EXCISE. Stimulants £753,529 Tobacco 516,761 Sugar 503,627 Miscellaneous 33,023 Total excise £1 ,806,940 Total customs and e.xcise £8,656.981 The amount per head in each State was as follows: New South Wales, 41/7 1-2; Victoria, Queensland, 42/. ; South Australia, West Australia, 85/. ; Tasmania, Total, £235 1-2. The free list in the tarifif covers 10,000.000 sterling value of im- ports out of a total of £36.244,000 per annum. The Commonwealth, it will be noticed, has 41/1 1-2; 36/51-4; 36/8 1-4. main in the hands of the several States. It is to a large extent a tax-gatherer for the States, the constitution requiring it, for the first 10 years at least, to return to the States, or to pay on their behalf as interest or principal on State loans, not less than three-fourths of the total income from customs and excise. This provi- sion was adopted in order to avoid dislocation of the State finances through the transfer of this revenue from the States to the Commonwealth, and also to restrain the Commonwealth Parlia- ment from mopping up all the revenue from customs and excise by launching out on new and costly enterprises, which might leave the States in an awkward financial position. The Common- wealth Parliament as it is has set its face sternly against borrowing, even for public works, pays for all that are necessary out of sur- plus revenue. It is proposed in influential cir- cles to federalize the State loans to such an ex- tent as would finally absorb the revenue now returned year by year to the States, so as to remove the present interdependence of Com- monwealth and State finance. The expenditure of the Commonwealth is narrowed down to a very few items. We have the cost of the de- partments transferred from the States to the Commonwealth and now controlled by it, such as the customs and excise, posts, telegraphs, and telephones, military and naval defenses, etc. To these are added the cost of the Commonwealth machinery of government, including the de- partments of the Governor-General, the Minis- ters of State, and the Legislature, together with the Judiciary. The outlay on public works and buildings was for the year under review £333.- 725, and the total expenditure was therefore £4,- 318,435. The balance of revenue over expendi- ture was returned to the States as follows : New South Wales, £2,529,069; Victoria, £2.071,378; Queensland, £752,532; South Australia, £555.692; Western Australia, £885,349, and Tasmania, £259,099. Total, £6,999,119; beside £142,549 col- lected for Western Australia and paid to that State. This was in excess of the minimimi laid down by the constitution. The payments to the States must tend to diminish as the Common- wealth extends its functions, but, in many cases, the new departments will be taken over from the States, which will in that way obtain relief. The expenditure quoted includes the imperial naval subsidy and £20,000 for British New Guinea. The revenue and expenditure of the several States forming the Commonwealth will be seen by the following tables compiled from the bud- get speeches delivered by the State treasurers shortly after the close of the financial year end- ing 30 June 1905 : State. Returned by Commonwealth Taxation Land Sales and Rents Public Works Miscellaneous Totals New South Wales £2,529,069 2,017,378 752, ■;32 555,692 1,027,898 259,999 £1,114,408 713,227 454,574 439,048 221,735 216,953 £1. 7^7, 902 388.170 623,416 182,247 315,613 82,811 £5-055,353 3,6og, 120 1,409,414 1-382,749 1,797,433 220. 632 £880, I 86 781,762 355,462 165,988 252.661 3-199 £11,336,918 7,509,657 3-595-398 2,725-724 3,615.340 852.694 Totals £7,141,668 %, 159,945 £3-350,159 1 £13,544,701 £2,439,258 £29,635,731 no revenue from any other form of taxation The expenditure was as follows: beside customs and excise, neither has it any New South Wales £11,195.075 territorial revenue, having no control over the Ou^"n^and ......'..........'■..'. ■■■■■'■ 3!58i!403 huge areas of unalienated lands, which still re- South Australia 2,693,495 AUSTRALIA — FINANCE Western Australia Tasmania £3,745,224 842,469 The grand total was therefore £29,040,339, leaving a surplus of £595,392. It will be seen that nearly one half of the total revenue of the States is derived from ^'public works.* This represents the earnings of the railways, tramways, harbor works, and water-works, together with other lesser under- takings, the construction of which has been the main factor in building up what at first sight ap- pears to be the huge debt of Australia. It may, however, be noted that the public works not only aid very greatly in the development of the vast areas of the unoccupied Crown lands in Aus- tralia, but they also produce a large annual revenue, which maj'' well be set off against the annual interest charge, as the value of these permanent assets are set off against the debts themselves. The works include between 13 and 14 thousand miles of railways, which cost just over £132,930,764, up to the end of 1904, the latest year for which the details are obtainable, and for that year they earned, over and above working expenses and upkeep, the sum of £4,- 065,631 toward interest on the loans raised to pay for them. As the country through which they pass develops their earnings must increase. The item land sales and rents is much lower than in past years as the present policy of all the States is to encourage settlement, by leasing land on very long leases, with or without right of purchase, so as to assist people with little capital, rather than to sell land for cash. In many cases the purchase money is spread over as much as 20 years, all pajniients going off the purchase money, so as to aid would-be cultiva- tors, who art short of funds, to make a start. The provision of such conveniences as roads, bridges and schoolhouses, absorb practically all the proceeds from the land for several years after it is first leased, so that the States are by no means living on their capital. The lands which once returned no revenue at all are, by these means, being gradually developed and made to produce loading for the railways and business for the harbors as well as assets and income taxable by the treasurers. The taxation differs in the several States, though most of them now levy on the estates of deceased per- sons in proportion to the size of the bequests left and to the degree of relationship between the testator and the legatee, the larger bequest and the more distant relative paying the higher rate. There are also, in most States, taxes on income and on ^'unimproved land values," that is to say on the capital value of land less the value of improvements thereon. The direct taxation including all these came for the whole Com- monwealth, in the latest year for which figures are available, to 14 shillings and 4 pence per head. The extremes in different States were South Australia highest at 18 shillings and ' penny per head, and Victoria lowest at 12 shill- ings and 4 pence. The principle of progression in taxation is recognized in some States, not only in succession duties, but in income and also in land values taxation. The usual distinction is observed between income derived from per- sonal exertion, and therefore depenuent upon the life and health of the earner, and that derived from investments or property, which is inde- pendent of personal effort. The rate of tax is higher on the income from property than upon the produce of personal exertion. There is, too, the further graduation according to the amount of the income. In Victoria, for example, the rate is on incomes derived from personal exer- tion 3d. in the £ up to £300, on every £ in excess of £300 up to £800 4d.. over £800 to £1,300 5d., over £1,300 to £1,800 6d., and over £1,800 /d. in the £. Double these rates is charged on income from property. The land values taxation levied in certain States is on the value of the land after deducting the value of improvements thereon. It is, therefore, much heavier on city and suburban than on country land, area for area. Taking South Australia the rate is one halfpenny in the £ capital value up to £5,000 value, and one penny in the £ if the value be over £5,000, and there is also an extra tax of 20 per cent, on the first tax if the owner of the land be not resident in the State. The miscel- laneous receipts gall for no special remark. The total revenue looks very large, but it needs to be remembered that altogether apart from the postal and telegraphic receipts, which appear not in the State, but in the Commonwealth accounts, as do also all figures relating to military and naval defences, nearly one half of the total is for services rendered to the people by means of public works, and altogether outside the ordi- nary functions of government, as commonly un- derstood. On this account it cannot be said that Australians are burdened by the contribu- tions they make to revenue, even though they pay in all, to Commonwealth and States, £7, 8 per head per annum. The further taxation levied by local governing bodies for purely local expenditure, such as road maintenance and sani- tation, is not large. The figures for Western Australia are abnormal on account of the rapid development of the gold-fields and the resulting preponderance of highly paid adult males in the population, consuming highly dutiable goods. 'Ihe expenditure of the States would be absurdly high were it not for the fact that it includes, to the extent of 50 six per cent of the whole, pro- vision for the working of the railways and the payment of interest and repayments of debt. These charges are not in any true sense "costs of government." They must be considered in re- lation to special income appearing on the other side of the account. That seven per cent of the expenditure is for education is indicative of the general trend of affairs in Australia, and of the high ideals cherished. Of course it needs to be remembered that at the present stage set- tlement is sparsely spread over a huge terri- tor}% and that the costs of administration would be "lightly increased, if at all, if there were three or four times the number of people on the land that there are to-day, while the revenue would be largely multiplied. It is area rather than population which, under certain circum- stances, determines expenditure, and these cir- cumstances exist in many parts of Australia to- day. The Australian of the present is fully de- termined not to allow extravagance in public expenditure, and no blunder in public life is more speedily punished by the electors. The ex- penditure of the States of course includes all the cost of the legislative machinery, with the salary of the State governors, and the members of the State parliaments, and also all the charges con- nected with the administration of all the depart- ments, such as police, public health, and educa- AUSTRALIA — FINANCE tion, together with the oversight of an elaborate system of local government in each State, which in its turn deals with a wide area of purely local concerns. Australia indeed possesses all the concomitants of a highly organized political and social organism, and believes that it gets a. full return for its public expenditure. The ex- ceedingly close approximation of expenditure to revenue results from a disposition, whenever any considerable surplus appears in the accounts for any year, to devise further public conven- iences which may be provided for the future, and so the surplus is absorbed. There is no general desire to show large surpluses nor is there much efifort to reduce taxation, which is not felt to be burdensome, but rather to add to the facilities afforded for trade, and for the occupation and development of the country and of its industries. These ends are being achieved, and the cost of them is not grudged by those who have to find the money, and who reap the gain. The debts of Australia have all been in- curred by the States, and the Commonwealth has^ as yet, carefully avoided any line of policy which would involve it in any necessity for em- barking on a borrowing policy, on its own ac- count. Indeed, as has already been suggested, the Commonwealth Parliament has determined to construct all such public works as post offices, fortifications, etc., out of revenue. It has taken over from the States all the customs houses, post offices, military and naval defences, stores, etc., which were the property of the States, prior to the establishment of the Com- monwealth, and will ultimately have to recoup the States for them, either by taking over State debts to an amount equivalent to their value, or in some other way, which must almost of neces- sity involve the Commonwealth in a debt, and it is probable that the final settlement between the Commonwealth and the States, as to the annual surplus now paid over to the States out of the proceeds of the customs and excise duties, may result in the assumption by the Common- wealth of the responsibility for a certain por- tion of their public debt. There are further schemes in contemplation for the transfer of State obligations on certain terms to the Com- monwealth, beside which there are proposals under consideration, in Commonwealth circles, for the construction of trunk lines of railway across the continent of Australia, east and west, as well as north and south, and also for naval defence which, when carried out, will require the raising of Commonwealth loans. For the present, however, we have only the debts of the States to treat of. Mr. Coghlan's < Statistical Account of Australia and New Zealand,' pub- lished early in 1905, gives the debts of all the States of the Commonwealth as follows: State Debt Per head Annual interest New South Wales. . . ^80,033,581 51, 819,962 41,781,287 28, 593, 645 16,090,288 9, 318, 400 £55 7 2 42 19 4 79 II 5 77 9 I 67 12 I 51 i3 4 £2,841,368 1,885,983 I 1 547 -47° South Australia Western Australia.. 1,069, 325 547,160 341,627 Total debt £227,637, 163 £57 8 8 £8,232,933 These figures practically represent the posi- tion as it is to-day. All the States have some provision of the nature of a sinking fund for the ultimate extinction of the debts and in several cases stock is from time to time purchased and canceled out of funds set apart for purposes of redemption. None of these funds have, how- ever, as yet, assumed proportions sufficiently large to modify materially the facts as to the total debts just quoted. The debt of Australia in no case represents the cost of war. The whole of it has been incurred with a view to the development of the vast resources of the con- tinent and for practically the whole of it there are very valuable permanent assets. Of the total debt of ^227,637,163, £136,600,855 was spent on railways and tramways; £29,245,167 on water supplies and sewerage; £17.373,507 on harbors, rivers, and navigation; and £17,188,178 for pub- lic works and buildings, beside other sums for telegraphs, telephones, defence, and other items. The net revenue produced by these works aggre- gated, in the year under review, over and above working expenses and maintenance, 2.30 per cent, on their cost. It should be also remarked that the year for which the figures are given was not a normal year, the effects of the prev- ious year's drought liaving by no means passed away. The revenue from this source could be increased to an amount sufficient to meet in full the interest charge, if it were desired to do so. but the charges for railage and harbor dues and water supplies, etc., are all kept down with a view to the encouragement of settlement and of production, it being recognized that the direct return received from the enterprises is by no means the sum of their earnings, as they produce through the resulting prosperity of the people, a very large indirect return through the customs house, and in many other ways. It is the general prosperity rather than the direct revenue which is the primary objective for the time being. Meantime the works are permanent assets of constantly increasing value, and revenue earning power. As has often been pointed out, Australia could, by the sale of her railways, harbor works and water services, im- mensely reduce her public indebtedness, for the undertakings would sell readily for what they cost, but she would be poorer, rather than richer, by the transaction at once, to say nothing of the folly of such a policy from the point of view of the future. There is, further, one great asset of Australia which cannot be overlooked in any consideration of her financial position, and that is her imalienated land. In four out of the six States the areas are very large and, al- though the values vary very widely according to climate and other conditions, they call for tabu- lation, and the following statement shows the area of each State, and the unalienated land in each, etc. : It is necessary to bear in mind that the public indebtedness of the Australian States was not contracted against any specific security, but against the public credit of each generally, so that there is behind it, not only the public estate in the shape of land and works of every kind, but also the whole taxing power of the re- spective governments. In view of this it must AUSTRALIA— THE LABOR PARTY be manifest that the securities are absolutely The volume of business done in the Common- «gilt edged.» The following table shows the wealth by the various life assurance offices is State Area in Acres Area alienated or in process of alienation Area leased Area neither alienated nor leased New South Wales 198,848.000 56,245,760 427,838,080 578,361,600 624.588,800 16,778,000 48,851,524 24,526,255 16,991. 127 14, 14Q, 171 10.S48.057 5,040,415 127,901.840 9,516,372 277.569,396 189, 531 955 135.678,028 I. 581. 937 Victoria 22,094.636 22, 203,433 South Australia 13^.277,557 Western Australia 374.680,474 478.362,715 19 155-650 Total Commonwealth 6/So 1 £ , ,240 "".'""047 741,779,528 1.040,774,165 figures given by Air. Coghlan as to the values of the alienated land and the improvements thereon, and also the value of the private prop- erty in Australia : very large as the figures quoted below will show, and there are also a number of friendly benefit societies, whose roll of membership is indicative of the widespread practice of habits St.\te Land without improvements Land and improvements Total value of property Per head New South Wales £136,417,000 126,078,0^0 41,400,000 .'5. 957,00^ 21,832,000 21,832,000 £264, 492,000 234.057,000 72, 040, 000 59, 176,000 19, 272,000 34.907,000 £368,778.000 310,074,000 no, 454,000 86, 320,000 49,0^5,000 48,288,000 £258 256 Victoria 234 2l6 269 Tasmania Total Commonwealth ^373.679,000 £683,944,000 £981,979,000 £249 Of course, the figures in the last two columns are subject to adjustment on account of absentee ownership, persons in one State often owning properties in other States. Mr. Coghlan also furnishes elaborate calculations to show the amount of the private incomes of the people, ex- cepting interest paid by Australian governments, that is to say money paid by themselves to themselves, and his result is a total of private annual incomes of £179,563,000 or £45 per in- "habitant of Australia, including men, women, and children. The extent of the financial operations con- ducted within the Commonwealth will appear from the sworn returns of the banks doing busi- ness there for the year 1904. The totals were : Notes in circulation not bearing interest, £3,- 133,268; bills in circulation not bearing interest, £521,267; deposits not bearing interest, £34,968,- 383; deposits bearing interest, £56.579,719; balances due to other banks, £290,439; total liabilities, £95,493,076. The assets are shown as follow-s : Coin, £17,910,771; bullion, £1.447.698; landed property, £5,245.311; debts due to banks from other banks, including notes and bills dis- counted. £87,052,471 ; balances due from other banks, including notes and bills of other banks, £2,126,809; total assets, £113.783,060. Beside the joint stock banks, whose returns have just been quoted, there are numerous investment com- panies carrying on business in the Common- wealth such as savings banks, land, building, and investment, trading and commercial companies, complete returns of whose business are not available. For the savings banks, which are under government supervision, the following figures will be suggestive : Number of deposi- tors, 1,072,853, or 27 per cent of the whole pop- ulation. Amount on deposit at the close of the year, £34.180,055 or £8 13s. 8d. per head of the ■whole population, and £31 17s. 2d. per depositor. of thrift and self-help. Industrial life assur- ance is also widely availed of by persons who ( are not able to afford large premiums for life assurance of other types. The receipts and ex- * penditure of the 17 life assurance institutions for the year were: Receipts, £5,186,062; expendi- ture, £3,483,532. The average amount of life assurance per head of the population was £25. There are 300.453 members of friendly societies, and their funds amount to £3,190.322. It will thus appear that as regards the public wealth, the private wealth, and the annual product of labor and capital in Australia there are abundant evidences of soundness and of progress, and that Australia may fearlessly challenge compari- son with any other part of the world. At the same time the magnitude of her undeveloped resources points unerringly to a future which shall outshine both the past and the present. Sir F. W. Holder, Speaker House of Representatives, Coiiniion- Zi'ealth Parliament, 1901-1907 13. Australia — The Labor Party. The Australian Labor Party has its genesis in the great maritime strike of 1890. It is true that spasmodic attempts had been made during earlier years to procure direct Parliamentary representation for working-class interests, and in two or three isolated instances men had been returned to one or other of the Colonial Parlia- ments. Nothing, however, in the nature of an extended or sustained effort had been attempted prior to the great strike. For some years before 1890 the trades unions generally had been gain- ing in strength and influence, and had won many concessions from the employers in regard to wages and w-orking conditions ; but the sea- faring classes had not participated in these ad- vantages in anything like equal degree. A AUSTRALIA — THE LABOR PARTY crisis was reached when the marine officers, who had been for years overworked and under- paid, decided to form a union and affiliate with the other labor orgnizations. The shipowners demanded, as a prehminary to the discussion of grievances, that the officers should dissociate themselves from the labor unions : but, fearing this would leave them at the mercy of the em- ployers, the officers refused to acquiesce, and a strike was precipitated. In sympathy with the officers, the seamen and longshoremen around the coast ceased work, and as the employers continued obdurate the trouble extended until the strike included many unions wholly imcon- nected with shipping. ^'Freedom of Contract^'— an equivalent of the American *open shop* — became the war-cry of the employers, and prac- tically the whole community took sides with one party or the other. After a struggle lasting some three months, during which trade was paralyzed, much bad blood created, and both sides financially injured, the men acknowledged defeat. Apart from the cost to the combatants themselves, the public had suffered severely, and when the smoke of battle had cleared away there was a general desire expressed to find some way of avoiding similar conflicts in the future. A Royal Commission was appointed by the gov- ernment of New South Wales, and served some good purpose in ascertaining clearly the griev- ances of the men ; but it achieved little of a practical nature beyond suggesting the creation of an Arbitration Court to which disputes could be voluntarily referred. The press, while mostly taking the employers' view upon the points at issue, concurred in advising the unions to rely upon legislation to remedy their legitimate grievances, and this advice was taken seriously by the men when they emerged from the con- flict — defeated, but grimly determined to re- trieve their lost influence. While the effects of the strike had been felt all through Australia, the battle had raged most fiercely along the eastern seaboard, where population is greatest, and therefore the colonies mostly affected were those of Xew South Wales, Victoria, Queensland, and South Aus- tralia. It was in these colonies, then, where the cry arose for a more equitable distribution of political power and a greater consideration of labor interests. This demand was accentuated by the political conditions existing at the time. From the granting of self-government the Par- liaments of the various colonies had included many men who fought strenuously for the peo- ple's interests, and who deserve the whole- hearted gratitude of the reformers of to-day. but in spite of their efforts matters political were so backward in 1890 that there was an urgent need of a fresh impulse. While manhood suffrage had been nominally secured, plural voting obtained in all the colonies except South Australia ; factory legislation was either non- existent or so inefficient as to be practically use- less ; except in Victoria, nothing had been done to protect those working in dangerous occupa- tions, such as mining ; the question of employ- ers' liability was in a very unsatisfactory state ; hours of employment were unregulated, and sweating was rampant ; and many other social questions were carefully avoided. In addition, and perhaps most important, there was no method by which public opinion could find ex- pression in an authoritative manner with regard to the merits of labor disputes. Briefly, the complaint of the unionists and their sympathizers was that working-class interests had been neg- lected, as should perhaps have been expected from Parliaments made up for the most part of the wealthier classes or their representatives. With a view to altering this state of affairs for the better, the unions decided upon political organization ; but, recognizing that no purely class effort could be permanently successful, they called upon radicals generally to assist them in the work of reform. On this wider basis leagues connected with, but independent of the unions were formed, and programmes embracing the legislation immediately desired were speedily adopted. Necessarily these dif- fered with the circumstances existing in the various colonies, but in the main they were markedly similar. In all, the central idea was to form a new party, working independently of those already existing, and prepared, until strong enough to take office, to accept 'install- ments from either of the older parties. Taking the platform adopted in New South Wales as typical, the aims of the new part}- were stated as being: "(i) To secure for the wealth-pro- ducers of this colony such legislation as will advance their interests, b}^ the return to Parlia- ment of candidates pledged to uphold the plat- form of this league : (2) to secure the due enrollment of all members of the league who may be entitled to a vote in any electorate: (3) to bring all electors who are in favor of demo- cratic and progressive legislation under one common banner, and to organize thoroughly such voters with a view to concerted and effec- tive action at all Parliamentary elections in the future.'* The platform adopted ran as follows : 1. Electoral reform — to provide for the abolition of plural voting; the abolition of money deposits in Parliamentary elections; the extension of the franchise to seamen, shearers, and general lab- orers by the registration of votes: the extension of the franchise to policemen and soldiers; the abolition of the six months' residence clause as a qualification for the exercise of the franchise; the establishment of single member electorates and equal electoral districts on an adult pop'ula- tion basis; the holding of all Parliamentary elec- tions on one day — that a pviblic holiday; and that all public houses shall be closed during the hours of polling. 2. Free, compulsory, and technical education — higher as well as elementary — to be extended to all. 3. Eight hours to be the legal maximum working day in all occupations. 4. A Workshops and Factories Act to provide for the prohibition of the sweating system; the super- vision of land, boilers, and machinery; and the appointment of representative working men as inspectors. 5. An amendment of the Mining Act — to provide for all applications for mineral leases being sum- marily dealt with by the local wardens; the strict enforcement of labor conditions on such leases; the abolition of the leasing system on all new gold fields; the right to mine on private property; the greater protection of persons en- gaged in the mining industry; and that all in- spectors shall hold certificates of competency. 6. The extension to seamen of the benefits of the Employers' Liability Act. 7. The repeal of the Masters and Servants Act and the Agreements \'alidating Act. 8. The amendment of the Master and Apprentices Act and the Trades Union Act. 9. The establishment of a Department of Labor; a National Bank; and a national system of water conservation and irrigation. 10. Election of magistrates. AUSTRALIA — THE LABOR PARTY 11. Local government and decentralization; the exten- sion of principle of the (lovcrnment acting as an employer, through the medium of local self-gov- erning bodies; and the abolition of our present unjust method of raising municijial revenue by the taxation of improvements effected by labor. 12. The federation of the Australian colonies on a national as opposed to an imperial basis; the abolition of the present Defence Force, and the establishment of our military system upon a purely voluntary basis. 13. The recognition in our legislative enactments of the natural and inalienable rights of the whole com- munity to the land — upon which all must live and from which by labor all wealth is produced — by the taxation of that value which accrues to land from the presence and needs of the com- munity, irrespective of improvements effected by human exertion; and the absolute and indefeasi- ble right of property on the part of all Crown tenants in improvements effected on their hold- ings. 14. The execution of all Government contracts in the colony. 15. The stamping of all Chinese-made furniture. 16. -Any measure which will secure to the wage-earner a fair and equitable return for his or her labor. On these lines the Labor Party entered the political arena in the four eastern colonies. The first skirmish occurred in South Australia, when the new party succeeded in returning three workingmen to the Legislative Council (the Second Chamber) in spite of a restricted fran- chise. This happened early in i8gi. and in the middle of that year the first real trial of strength for control of the popular chamber took place. This was in New South Wales, where, notwithstanding the existence of plural voting, the Laborites captured some 36 seats out of 141. In i8g2, Victoria followed the example of the older colony by returning a small con- tingent of labor members, and in 1893, both Queensland and South Australia elected parties of greater proportionate strength on the labor ticket. With the first labor successes the wildest views were expressed by critics on both side — the Conservatives prophesying utter ruin for the community, and many Labor supporters ex- pecting tliat the millenium would arrive in short order. Xeedlcss to say, both proved wrong. In the first place it was soon found that a pro- portion of those returned as Laborites were so only in name, and had no conception of the sentiment responsible for the movement. These quickly dropped out or were pushed aside. Then, as might have been expected in a party hur- riedly organized, there arose internal dissen- sions of such a character as to seriously threaten, in one or two of the colonies, the future of the movement. As matters settled down, however, the need for cohesion was em- phasized, and with the recognition of that fact better work resulted. Looked at broadly, the first Labor contingents did excellent v.'ork, which served to encourage the party's supporters to renewed efforts, and as a result the parties in the various colonies have been increasingly strengthened at each successive election. This steady growth has not been confined to those colonies where political organization was first entered upon, but has extended also to West Australia and Tasmania. At the present time ( 1906) Labor Premiers are at the head of coalition governments in Queensland and South Australia, while in New South Wales. Victoria, and West Australia, the Labor parties constitute the direct opposition, with the reversion of office. At the recent Tasmanian elections the party secured a material increase of strength. The Labor party has not, during its 15 years of existence, succeeded in gaining a majority in any of the Australian Parliaments; but its in- fluence is not to be gauged solely by its numeri- cal strength. In most of the colonies its appear- ance galvanized the older parties into some appreciation of the need for social legislation. Old-time politicians suddenly manifested a tender regard for the interests' of the working- classes, and vied with each other in propounding schemes for the amelioration of their condition. The democratization of those outside its ranks is among the most noticeable gains of the Labor party, and has resulted in many useful reforms being brought about. In New South Wales there has thus been secured during the party's existence a liberal Electoral Act. abolishing plural voting; an act to allow mining on private property : land and income taxes, adjusting taxation more equitably; a Coal Klines Regulation Act ; a Workshops and Factories Act ; an Amending Land Act to permit of perpetual leasing in lieu of outright sale ; an act to restrict the admission of colored immi- grants ; an important Navigation Act : an Early Closing Act, applying to shops ; an Old-Age Pensions Act : an act to nationalize the private wharves of Sydney; the Miners' Accident Re- lief Act, designed for the relief ?nd maintenance of injured miners and their dependents; the much-discussed Industrial Arbitration Act. pro- hibiting strikes and insisting upon the reference of disputes to the decision of a judicial body, and the Women's Franchise Act. In South Australia education has been made free ; the State has established a successful Pro- duce Export Department ; the nucleus of a State Bank has been formed, providing cheap loans to settlers ; workmen have been assisted to take up land ; adult suffrage has been passed ; factory legislation and early closing of shops secured; wages have been protected against liens ; private estates have been resumed and cut up for settle- ment, and other practical measures made law. In Victoria the party's influence has secured, among other things, improved factory legisla- tion, providing for boards to fix minimum wages ; compulsory early closing of shops ; abol- ition of plural voting; resumption of land for closer settlement, and cheap money for farmers on the credit fonder system ; minimum wage on government contracts ; State supervision of dairies ; prohibition of secret trade commis- sions ; pure food laws; exemption of tools of trade and furniture to the value of £20 from distraint for rent. In Queensland legislation has been passed providing for the early closing of shops ; adult suffrage and equal voting power ; workers' com- pensation ; State supervision of exports ; cheap advances to settlers, and the readjustment of taxation in favor of the poorer classes. In West Australia, although the party is only a few years in existence, the record includes adult suffrage, with electorates approaching equality ; factory laws and early closing of shops ; compulsory arbitration in industrial dis- putes ; prohibition of secret commissions in trade, and minimum wages on government con- tracts. With the inauguration of Federation in 1901 a new phase was entered upon, as a number of the most important governmental functions were AUSTRALIA — THE LABOR PARTY transferred from State to Federal control ; and the Labor political organizations throughout Australia agreed to a common platform upon which to contest the first Commonwealth elec- tions. It ran as follows : 1. Electoral Law, providing for one adult one vote. 2. Total exclusion of colored and other undesirable races. 3. Old-Age Pensions. 4. The Constitution to be amended to provide for: (a) The Initiative and Referendum for the alter- ation of the Constitution; (b) the substitution of the National Referendum for the double disso- lution in the settlement of deadlocks between the * two Houses. At the first Federal elections, held in IQOI, the Labor party returned 8 members out of 36 in the Senate and 16 out of 75 in the House of Representatives. Three years later, at the elec- tions of 1903, the numbers were increased to 14 in the Senate and 22 in the House of Representa- tives. Since then the number in the latter House has been increased to 25. Though in a minor- ity in both Federal Houses, the party has exer- cised a considerable influence on Commonwealth legislation. In the first Parliarnent it found a fairly progressive government in office, with a programme including several planks of the La- bor platform, and some of these found expres- sion in legislation. Naturally much time was occupied in passing necessary machinery meas- ures, and the tarifif discussion alone took up nearly 18 months. But time was found to pass adult suffrage and a liberal electoral law. The restriction, amounting practically to exclusion, of colored immigration was secured, and provis- ion made for the cessation of the traffic in Kanaka labor. In the Public Service Act a clause was inserted providing for a minimum v.'age of £110 yearly for adults of three years' service. When the Tariff was being considered, the Labor party, though assuming no party atti- tude on Protection or Free Trade, led the way in abolishing or reducing revenue taxes through the Customs, and later it headed a successful resistance to the proposal to enter upon a bor- rowing policy. At the second general election the Labor party increased its strength at the expense of both the Protectionists and Free Traders, with the result that when the Parliament met it con- tained three parties nearly equal in numbers. The Protectionist Government resigned through suffering defeat on an important phase of the Industrial Arbitration Bill, and a Labor Govern- ment took office. After a few months it was also defeated on one of the principles of the same measure, and was succeeded by a Coalition Ministry representing Free Traders and Protectionists. This govern- ment passed the Arbitration Bill through its remaining stages, but on again meeting Parlia- ment was in turn defeated by a combination of Protectionists with the Labor partj^ Since then measures have been passed to prohibit false trade descriptions ; to render illegal the acceptance of secret trade commisssions ; to allow of the pro- tection of union trade-marks in common with those of the trading community; and dealing with other matters of importance. In touching thus sketchily upon the work of the various Parliaments of Australia since the Labor party has arisen, the writer attempts to do no more than indicate the trend of legislation as affecting the working classes and bearing upon social problems generally. In both the State and Federal Parliaments, during the time covered, many other important laws have been passed, and in regard to these the Laborites have borne their share of the work involved. It is, however, to the Labor party that credit is mainly due for the quickening of the public conscience which has resulted in so many ameliorative measures being passed in a comparatively short period. The Labor party has been accused of con- cerning itself only with the interests of the vi-orking classes ; but gradually it is being recog- nized that the term *Labor* includes brain as well as hand workers, and all sympathizers are welcomed as members of the political organiza- tions. The Labor parties in Parliament include a fair sprinkling of professional and business men. who in any narrow interpretation would be excluded. There is no doubt that much of the success so far achieved is due to the recog- nition of the fact that the interests of all pro- ducers are identical and that justice must be extended to all equally. Much has been said about the socialism of the Australian Labor Party, and it is alluded to by some as a recent development. That is not so, as there has been no change, except perhaps in form, in the aims and programme as first put forward. Leaving aside the fact that nearly every plank of the original platform was broadty socialistic in its interference with individualism, distinct aspirations toward collectivism were voiced in the first declarations of the party. In Queensland this took the m.ost pronounced form, where as early as 1890 the council of the Aus- tralian Labor Federation, having decided upon political action, put forward as its aim **The nationalization of all sources of wealth and all means of producing and exchanging wealth.^* This was a declaration for complete socialism, but the organizations in the other colonies re- fused to go that distance. The New South Wales League in 1890 adopted a proposal for "the extension of the principle of the Govern- ment acting as an employer, through the me- dium of local self-governing bodies," and thus committed itself to socialistic ideals. In some of the other colonies declarations of principle v\ere considered imnecessary, and the platforms contained no direct mention of socialism, though many of the detailed proposals were of a social- istic character. Later on, the Queensland or- ganization dropped for a time any direct refer- ence to socialism, but continued its propaganda on collective lines. In 1897 New South Wales adopted as a plank of its platform "the national- ization of the means of production, distribution, and exchange,'^ and that remained on the pro- gramme until 1905, when it was struck out. At the same conference a statement of the local party's objective was agreed to, which has since been adopted by an Australian conference as the objective of the Federal Labor party, and may be here quoted: «(i) The cultivation of an Aus- tralian sentiment, based upon the maintenance of racial purity and the development in Australia of an enlightened and self-reliant community. (2) The securing of the full results of their industry to all producers by the collective own- ership of monopolies and the extension of the industrial and economic functions of the State and ^Municipality.*^ AUSTRALIA — SOCIAL CONDITIONS The dropping of the "whole hog** phmk in favor of this statement of aims was looked upon as a retrograde step by the more ardent social- ists in the movement ; but it appears to have been dictated by common sense. The platform is theoretically a programme for realization when the party gets a majority, and it is clearly im- practicable to attempt to carry out any complete scheme of socialism to-day. Recognizing this, the party declares its belief in socialistic princi- ples, and adjusts its programme so that every step taken will be in consonance with that ideal. This is shown in the platform for the next Fed- eral elections, due at the end of 1906, which is as follows : 1. Maintenance of a white Australia. 2. Nationalization of monopolies. 3. Old-age pensions. 4. Tariff referendum. 5. Progressive tax on unimproved land values. 6. Restriction of public borrowing. 7. Navigation laws (provision for manning, etc.) 8. Citizen defence force. 9. .\rbitration act amendment (ensuring effectiveness). 10. Commonwealth of deposit and issue and life and fire insuiance department. 11. Uniform industrial legislation; amendm.ent of con- stitution to provide for same. 12. Civil equality of men and women. This platform insists that monopolies shall be nationalized, as constituting a public danger, and the Labor party expresses its disbelief in the efficacy of measures designed to merely regulate modern trusts. Under its objective the party will embrace every opportunity of extending the functions of collective authority where it is shown to be practicable and of value to the com- munity. From this statement of the position it will be seen that the Labor party is undoubt- edly socialistic, but it does not propose to plunge Australia suddenly into any experiment of a wholesale character. The people have control in respect of each successive step, and may be relied upon to call a halt if at any stage failure is experienced. On the whole, the Labor party throughout Australia has given a much-needed impetus to social legislation ; and, in reply to those who urge that its objects and methods are opposed to the welfare of the community, it points to the fact that since its appearance in Australian poli- tics wealth has found a wider distribution; hours have been shortened and wages raised in many occupations ; sweating has been minimized ; and that, though much remains to be done, the peo- ple enjoy greater prosperity than before the advent of the new political force. J. C. W.\TSON, Premier of Australia 1904. 14. Australia — Social Conditions. The social conditions of a country may be considered from different points of view. They might be considered from the general welfare of the peo- ple, or from what is known as social distinction in society. This last aspect of the question could be disposed of in a few words so far as Aus- tralia is concerned. The people mostly belong to the great class of honest industry in one for;n or another. The large majority arc, if necessity requires, willing to undertake almost any kind of work, while those who are wealthy, with but few exceptions, prefer useful or philanthropic .employment to a life of idle dissipation. The common weal of the people is indicated by the fact that in no country is there less real poverty than in Australia, or better and more systematic organization for dealing with those few persons who arc in need of temporary assistance. No one is ever knowingly allowed to suffer for want of food. The State does not consider it to be its duty to find employment for those who may be out of work, but in the interest of humanity it always provides food for those in want of it. It has been said that the happiest people are those who can live upon the products of their own country. Australia offers greater possibil- ities for such happiness than almost any other land. Cattle and sheep, pigs, and poultry, all kinds of grain, vegetables of every variety, and nearly all known fruits are easily produced by properly applied industry. Primary Productions. — Sir George Syden- ham Clarke, G. C. M. G., who was Governor of Victoria for some years, recently said: «It may be taken as certain that where the averages from primary production stand high the country is a good one.» This dictum has such a direct bearing upon the condition of the people that the comparisons become important. According to population the primary production in Aus- tralia is about 40 per cent greater than in Canada, 57 per cent greater than in the United States, twice as great as in Franco, three times as great as in England, and over four times as great as in Russia. The productive nature of the soil and cli- mate has a great deal to do with the fact that a greater nurnber of people in Australia, in proportion to its population, enjoy more of the comforts and pleasures of life than is the case in many other parts of the world. The people as a whole are better housed, fed, and clothed than the residents of most other countries. Cheap houses and discomforts arc to be found in Australia as elsewhere, but even in the cities there is a lack of the poor shanties and tene- ments which are so noticeable in many large cities in Europe, Asia, and America. Educational Advantages. — No one question has a more important or direct bearing upon the social conditions of the people than that of edu- cation. No country has better facilities, and but few as good, and with the exception of some parts of America, Australia affords as good an opportunity for secondary and advanced educa- tion at a moderate cost as any other country. Generally speaking, the system of public edu- cation is free, compu!sorj% and secular, the whole expense being met out of the general revenue. The greatest care is taken to provide schools in every part of the country as well as in the thickly populated cities, and in some of the thinly settled districts, schools of from 10 to 15 children are established. Fortunately, Australia's educational advancement has not been delayed by sectarian interference. There it is generally considered that a country's advancement rests on the education of its people, and that as na- tional education is a national gain, the nation's treasury should meet the bill. Efforts have been made from time to time by zealous propounders of sectarian beliefs, to incorporate religious in- struction with the Education Acts of the differ- ent States, but the majority of the people are t-tronqly opposed to any form of State aid to religion. They feel that in the bitter strife for sectarian supremacy the efficiency of the schools AUSTRALIA — SOCIAL CONDITIONS would become impaired and the practical educa- tion of the children neglected. A large major- ity of parents take advantage of the public schools for their children, but for those who object, either from class prejudice or religious scruples, good private schools are available. The technical schools, colleges and universi- ties afford ample facilities for higher educa- tion. The Australian imiversities stand high in the educational world. Bj^ bequests, endow- ments, and grants of land they have been enabled to provide splendid buildings and appliances, and to procure able and learned professors. The degrees conferred are recognized and respected in other lands. No one need leave Australia to become well versed in music, medicine, litera- ture, law, or science. The technical schools have been especially valuable from a mining point of view, and many of those who have received their instruction there are now holding important positions on mining fields in Aus- tralia and other countries. Nearly 1,300 public libraries with 2,000,000 volumes of valuable lit- erature are a great help to those who have passed on beyond school life. In all the princi- pal cities there are public museums and art gal- leries, which are largely patronized, and have an elevating and refining influence. See Austr.\lia — Education ; Education — National Systems OF. Religious Insiruction. — The secular and non- sectarian nature of the public schools does not imply that the religious instruction of the people is neglected. Churches of every known denomi- nation are well supported. Sunday schools. Christian endeavor societies, and young men's and young women's Christian Associations are well attended, and all doing good work, while the Salvation Army has its branches stretching over every part of the land, and is to be com- mended for its tireless endeavors to reclaim the drunkard, lift up the oppressed, and to bring back to the paths of virtue and truth those who have strayed or fallen by the wayside. Tem- perance organizations of various kinds have many members, and are a powerful factor in preserving the better, simpler, and purer life of the community. See Australia — Religion. Government Institutions. — The Governments of the different States look after the poor, the sick, and the afflicted. They have destitute homes where the aged are properly housed, fed, and cared for. They have hospitals for the sick, where those who cannot afford to pay are nursed, and attended equally with those who can. Asylums for the insane, sanatoriums for the consumptive, while homes for incurables, and schools for the blind, deaf and dumb are either supported or subsidized by the Govern- ments. Genuine workingmen, if unable to ob- tain employment, are allowed to do certain work to pay for the food which is provided for them and their families. Such relief is of a tempor- ary character until more permanent employment is secured. Benefit societies and insurance companies have been established in every State, and num- ber their members by many thousands. These have a marked effect in encouraging provident habits, and, with the temperance societies, are valuable aids in teaching frugality and modera- tion, which are notable characteristics in the Australians. Some of the States have adopted a system of Old-age pensions, and a Royal Commission has recently reported favorably on a scheme for the whole Commonwealth. Out-door Life. — For those who are fond of an out-door life Australia. is an ideal country. The climate is such that one can practically spend the whole year in the open air. The ad- vantages of fresh air have been wisely con- sidered by those who had to do with laying out cities and towns, as well as those connected with the government of the country. Wide streets, squares, and parks are to be found in and adjacent to all the cities, while large tracts of land have been reserved as national parks within a few miles of the centres of population. This affords every opportunity for out-door sport of all kinds. Rowing, football, cricket, lacrosse, golf, baseball, and almost all other outside games have numerous patrons. In fact, games and sport are carried on so extensively that tourists have criticized Australians for in- dulging so much in them. Numerous holidays, reasonable hours for work, and long, fine days offer every inducement. Australians are de- cidedly a sport-loving people. The Melbourne Cup is one of the world's greatest racing events^ and the Flcmington grounds with their com- modious stands and extensive lawns are unsur- passed in any part of the world. The roads are so well made that motoring and cycling are greatly indulged in. Many residents own' motors, and during the last few years money has become so plentiful that vehicles for pleasure have been purchased in large numbers. Wealth of the People. — It is not generally known that the Australians are the richest people in the world, except the residents of England, and a good many of these draw their incomes from Australian investments. During the present year (1906) Australia will export produce of a greater value than ever before. The distribution of wealth is more general than in most other parts of the world. Over 30 per cent of the adult population are possessors of property, while in England only about 12 per cent of the adult population enjoy that privi- lege. There are 1,100,000 depositors in the sav- ings bank, being 27 per cent of the entire popu- lation, and they have to their credit $175,000,000, an average of about $160. Laii's and Socialism. — Taking an active and responsible part in the management of national affairs has a moderating effect upon most politicians, and to a large degree they have recognized the responsibility of office and en- deavored to safeguard the country's interest. The voice of the people can be made fully known through the ballot-box. The judgment of the public may not always be considered the wisest for the country's advancement, but when the error is discovered the same power that caused it can apply the remedy. The Australiari Commonwealth franchise is the broadest and most liberal possible. Everyone over the age of 21 (except criminals and lunatics) has the right to vote. In some of the State elections as well, women have the privilege. There were many strongly opposed to woman's franchise. AH the arguments about taking her from her home, destroying her womanly instincts, caus- ing her to neglect her proper duties, etc., were indulged in. After the law was passed, how- ABORICzIXAL AUSTRALIAN AND AUSTRALASIAN ART. i-S. Clubs from the Marquesas. Islands. 2, 9. Carving from Hervey Islands. 3. Shell Ornament from the Solomon Islands 4, 7, 14. Carved work from New Guinei. 5, II, 13. Obsidian Lances. 6. Australian Carving. 8. Steering Oar, from New Zealand. 10. New Zealand Pipe. 12. Australian Carved Ornament. 16 Carved Shield from New Guinea. AUSTRALIA — SOCIAL CONDITIONS ever, those who previously opposed it, quickly realized (especially if they were parliamentary candidates) that woman was highly intelligent and that it was her duty in the interest of the country to vote. Australia's socialism has grown with her people. It has not meant the destruction of private property. The State railways, harbors, water-works, telegraphs, telephones, wharves, ex- porting departments, public schools, and other tmdertakings, have naturally followed one after the other, and have not been a hardship to the capitalists, but have rather been the means of allowing them to invest their money in other undertakings and thereby assist in opening up the pastoral, agricultural, and mining industries. Many of Australia's laws have been passed on the belief that the Government could under- take certain things for the assistance of the people at less expense than this assistance could be carried out privately. National credit, as a rule, is much better than individual credit. IMoney can be borrowed by the State and lent to producers on better terms than it can be bor- rowed by private people for that purpose. Under certain laws the well-to-do pastoralists, as well as the poorer producer, can be assisted. It is necessary to understand Australian life to realize the need for assistance to pastoralists. The Governments own most of the lands ; hun- dreds of miles of which are let on lease to pastoralists. Wire netting has been found to be the most effective means of protect- ing the sheep from wild dogs, and of keeping the rabbits down. For the lessee on his own account to undertake to fence his lease- hold would mean an expense v.'hich would be a heavy burden upon him, and prevent the use of his capital for other improvements ; so by com- bining with adjoining lessees they form a ver- min trust, and apply to the Government for miles of wire netting; this is supplied upon the joint security of the lessees and they repay the Government, with interest, in instalments extending over a number of year.s. Large sums have been lent in this way. and, but little if any loss has occurred, and it has been the means of stocking much land that would otherwise have remained idle. The Governments also assist the farmers by loans from State Banks at low in- terest, a long term of years being allowed for repayments. Blockers, who only have a few acres, are also assisted, and under certain con- ditions they borrow from the Government to help build their houses and carry out other im- provements. All these loans are on.ly granted on business principles, after the officers of the Land Departments have made full inquiries as to necessary security. The Governments also largely assist in exporting produce and finding outside markets. This business is conducted on commercial lines, certain charges being made for the storage, freezing, and work done. If the producer is in need of ready money before his goods are disposed of an advance is made by the Government. All this may be considered Socialistic ; however, upon a moment's reflection it will be seen that it is only an assistance to further stimulate individual enterprise and ef- fort. It has carried many a struggling producer over early years of hardship, and probably saved his property for his family when under other circumstances it might have gone into the hands of the mortgagee. Charges, Rates, Taxes. — Railway charges are, if anything, less than on the roads owned and worked by private companies in other countries. The conveniences for traveling are good. The Government control of water-works and sewage systems for the large cities has proved economical and satisfactory. The land- tax i.s not heavy enough to be burdensome. Municipal and local rates are low in comparison with Englan(l. The total rates in the Australian cities, including water rates, on property worth $500 per annum, would be from $50 to $100, v.diile in and around London it would be from $150 to $300. Employer and Employee— Tht relations be- tween the employer and the employee are generally harmonious; occasionally disputes may arise but they are nearly always settled without those long strikes which result in heavy loss to both resisting forces and engender so much bitterness of feeling. The employers as a rule pay good wages, the hours worked are short, and the employees are provided with favorable sanitary and safety conditions. Being thus satisfied that their treatment is just, they in their turn do their best to give full value in their work for the wages they receive. Literature, Art, and Song. — According to Mr. Coghlan, who is a statistical authority, Aus- tralia has as large a number of first-class news- papers, considering its population, as any other country in the world, while in the matter of letter-writing the only two countries that sur- pass it are the United States and England. That Australians have a taste for literature cannot be denied ; what they read may not al- ways be of the highest standard, and what they write may sometimes lack artistic finish, but one must recollect that theirs is comparatively a new country. Its real growth has taken place during the last 50 years. Other countries have not risen rapidly to literary fame. The first settlements of America were made two centur- ies before the world had the benefit of Irving, Longfellow, Emerson, or Lowell. England's men of letters were not numerous or renowned until man}' generations had passed away. While in literature Australia may not up to the present have produced writers of marked distinction, yet there are those of more or less note whose productions are of no small merit, and who have thrown the bright sunshine and free life into their work. The same ma\' be said of art. While no one person stands out as a producer of highly valuable pictures there are several who have the true artist's spirit, and have made creditable displays at the Royal Academy in London and the Salons of Paris. But when one considers musical artists, Austra- lia has no need to feel ashamed. With the climatic conditions it naturally follows that those who are musically inclined have suc- ceeded ; and to-day, in proportion to her popu- lation, y\ustralia is stated to have more prominent musical talent of world-wide repu- tation than any other English-speaking country. Taking the residents of Australia as a whole they are a happy, prosperous, and contented people. They have of course the political and theological differences which are common to all AUSTRALIA — SOCIAL CONDITIONS nations. The leaders of public thought en- deavor to convince by reason, not by force. Occasional dissatisfaction is expressed. It is questionable, all things considered, whether any country in the world is more congenial as a place of residence for the following reasons : The death-rate is lower, the primary production is greater, the wages are higher, the standard of living is better, the houses are more substantial, and surrounded with more land, the hours of labor are shorter, telegraphic communication is cheaper, the weather is brighter, the laws more liberal, the wealth more evenly distributed, and class distinctions fewer than in almost any other country. Besides all this, Australia, in the matter of language, is more English than England or America. One can hear more foreign languages spoken in New York or London in a day than could be heard in Australia in a year. John G. Jenkins, Agcnt-Gcncral for South Australia, and Pre- mier 1901-1905. AUSTRALIA Austra'lia, South, one of the original states in the Commonweahh of Australia. It occupies the middle of Australia, and at first, as the colony of South Australia, extended be- tween Ion. 132° and 141° E., and from the South- ern Ocean to lat. 26° N., having then an area of about 300,000 square miles. In 1861 a dis- trict lying to the west of the colony was added to it, so tliat its western boundary was shifted to the nieridian of 129°. In 1863 it received in addition the country between its northern boundary and the opposite coast (this portion being now known as the Northern Territory), so that South Australia now possesses a terri- tory extending across Australia, and occupying an area estimated at 903,690 square miles. It is bounded on the east by Victoria, New South Wales, and Queensland; on the west by West- ern Australia. Its greatest length from north to south is 1,850 miles, and its width 650 miles. The south coast, for the first 120 miles east of where it begins at Port Eucla, is backed by steep limestone ranges from 400 to 600 feet in height, but as a whole the coast is low and desolate-looking. In a straight line from Port Eucla on the west to Cape Northumberland, near the boundary 01 Victoria, the distance is 850 miles, but the coast-line between these points ex- tends to nearly twice that distance, owing to the indentations of Spencer Gulf and the Gulf of St. Vincent. Opposite the latter is Kangaroo Is- land, the largest island on the Australian coast, excepting Tasmania. The coast of the Northern Territory is thickly strewn with islands, three of which are of large size. There are also some excellent ports, one of these, Port Darwin, where the overland telegraph and the cable from Ba- tavia r.nd the East meet, being among the finest harbors in Australia. On the eastern side of the Gulf of St. Vincent lie the most populous por- tions of the state, and here is situated Adelaide, the state capital. The interior formation of South Australia widely differs from that of the more eastern states. The mountains here run from the sea to the interior, ending somewhat abruptly among the lakes. The principal chain, the Mount Lofty range, begins at Cape Jervis, and follows the shore of the Gulf of St. Vincent past Ade- laide, meeting at the head of the gulf, the ridges forming the backbone of Yorke Peninsula. The range still running north is called Flinders range, and ends in a wide mass of mountain 3,000 feet high, separating the lakes Torrens. Eyre, Frome, and Blanche. All these so-called lakes are huge expanses of salt water, swamp, and mud. On the west of Spencer Gulf is Eyre Peninsula, through the heart of which runs the Gavvler range, attaining an elevation of 2,000 feet, and ending on the shores of another series of lakes of the same character as Lake Torrens. The principal summits of the Mount Lofty range are Razor-back, in latitude s^° 20', and immediately north of it Mount Bryan, close to which is the celebrated Burra-Burra copper mine. The highest peaks of the Flinders range are Mount Remarkable, 3,179 feet, Brown 3,174 feet, and Arden 3,000 feet. None of the peaks in the Gawler range attain more than a mod- erate elevation. On the left bank of the Mur- ray, and near its mouth, a range of moderately elevated heights proceed south-southeast, skirt- ing the coast to its extremity near Cape North- umberland. Throughout these ranges the exist- ence of volcanic agency at a former period is everywhere apparent. The Warburton range and the Stuart ranges lie beyond and to the north and west of the lakes; further north on the Tropic of Capricorn, are the MacDonnell ranges, rising to a height of 4.000 feet, from which the extreme western affluents of the Lake Eyre River system take their rise. The other portions of the territory to the north and west are almost level, and consist of either waterless plains or plains of sandstone boulders, with des- ert grass and spinifex. Among the mountains east of Gulf of St. Vincent, primitive limestone, often in the form of a beautiful white marble, is very abundant. There are indications of a large variety of min- erals throughout the state, but copper is the only one that has been met with in large quantities, the total production to the end of 1899 being valued at £23,000.000. Gold has been found in various places, but the quantity won has been small. In the Northern Territory gold has also- been ^ound over a considerable tract of country, and good progress has been made in mining, while other minerals are known to exist. Al- most the only stream within the state proper, which deserves the name of river, is the Mur- ray, which enters the colony on the east in lat- itude 34°. and flows first circuitously west and then south, into the extensive lagoon called Lake Alexandrina, communicating with the sea by a narrow opening. During the rainy season it is navigable by steamers through its whole course within the state, and for 1,500 miles in New South Wales. In the Northern Territory the Roper River is a fine large stream, navigable for sea-going vessels for 100 miles from its mouth in the Gulf of Carpentaria ; the \'ictoria is also navigable. The climate of South Aus- tralia proper greatly resembles that of Sicily and Naples. During nine months of the year it is agreeable, the disagreeable portion of the year being the three summer months of December, January, and Februar}^ when the natural heat of the season is greatly increased by hot winds^ from the interior. What is called winter would be considered in England merelj^ a wet autumn. There are no epidemic diseases. Scrofulous and tubercular diseases are rare, but diseases of the eyes are common in summer, being either occa- sioned by the impalpable dust floating in the atmosphere, or by exposure to the night air after the glare of the sun. South Australia produces nearly all the fruits and vegetables that are cultivated in Europe, as well as others, but in temperate regions is chiefly distinguished as a wheat and grape- growing country. Besides supplying its own wants, it sends large quantities of wheat to the neighboring states and to Europe, where *'Ade- laide'^ wheat is held in high estimation. The area under wheat is about 1.750,000 acres. The quantity produced varies greatly with the sea- son, but the average production is six bushels per acre. The area under vineyards is gradually extending, and now approaches 20.000 acres. Brandy is produced as well as wine. Hop- growing is attracting some attention, and the olive is also cultivated. The value of the ex- ports of the state is £7.100,000, and of the im- ports £7,300,000, total £14.400.000. The chief exports are wool, wheat, flour, copper, and cop- per ore, skins, etc. The value of the wool ex- ported 'T generally about £1,000,000, and of AUSTRALIA — AUSTRALIAN BALLOT wheat and flour from £800,000 to £1,500,000, ac- cording to the season. The trade of a large part of New South Wales passes through South Aus- tralia. The revenue and expenditures are each about £2r/OO.ooo. The length of raihvaj'S is 1,800 miles. There is a complete system of tele- graphs, besides the great line from Adelaide across the continent to Port Darwin, a distance of 2.000 miles. The public debt of the state is £24,309.035, and has been mostlj^ incurred for reproductive public works. See Australia ; Australian" Federatiox. Austra'lia, Western, one of the original states in the Commonwealth of Australia. It in- cludes that portion of Australia west of Ion. 129° E., and is bounded, east by South Aus- tralia, and northwest, and south by the Indian Ocean. It lies between the parallels of 13° 30' and 35° 8' S. ; greatest length, 1,450 miles north to south ; greatest breadth, 850 miles : area, 975,920 square miles. The coast-line measures about 3,000 miles, and, except on the south is indented bj' numerous bays, creeks, and estua- ries. The coast is fringed by many islands, but none of any importance. The principal inlets are Cambridge Gulf, Admiralty Gulf, York Sound, Collier Bay. King Sound, Roebuck Bay, Exmouth Gulf, Shark Bay, Geographe Bay, and King George Sound, the last the most important as having Albany on its shore, the port of call for the European mail steamers. The chief rivers are the Ord and Fitzroy on the north, De Grey, Ashburton, For- tescue, Gascoign, Murchison, Greenough. Swan, and Blackwood on the west. The Swan River is important, as Perth, the capital, is situated on its banks. Some of the rivers within the tropics are large and navigable, but few of the others run all the year, and fewer still are navigable ■even for boats to any great distance. The in- terior was till recent years not well known, but at present there is little territory which has not been explored. The country is chiefly an alter- nation of ridges and hollows, sandy, without grass, and clothed with bushes and scrubby timber, without the trace of a water-course. The really settled and occupied portion of the state forms only a mere fraction of its whole area. The population is mostly collected in the south- west corner, where the first settlements were Tnade, and around the recently discovered gold reefs. Scattered settlements stud the coast at various points. On the west coast are extensive banks covered with the pearl oyster, which give employment to a fleet of boats. The Kimberley di.strict in the north is a region of great promise ; it comprises 20.000,000 acres of well-watered land intersected by the Fitzroy River and other large streams, and is said to be admirably adapt- ed for pastoral purposes, besides having a large area suitable for the cultivation of sugar, coffee, and rice. The greater part of the seaboard, ex- cept along the Australian bight, is separated from the interior by a low range of hills running par- allel to it, and covered with forests. The fertile land exists in patches, and some of it is of a very rich character. The principal crops are wheat, barley, hay, and potatoes ; the vine is also successfully cultivated, and excellent wine is made in the colony. The area under cultivation comprises about 140,000 acres, of which wheat occupies 42,000 acres, hay 84,000 acres, vines 2,750 acres. The live stock in 1899 numbered 2.210,000 sheep, 245,000 cattle, 62,000 horses, be- sides a large number of camels, pigs, goats, and poultry. An available area of 1,000 square miles is covered with jarrah forests. The jar- rah is a species of eucalyptus (E. marginata) ; its timber is in great request for railway sleepers, for building purposes, and especially for marine constructions, having the valuable property of resisting the attacks of the white ant on land and the ship worm at sea. Considerable areas in the southwest are covered with karri (E. diversicolor). There are also numerous for- ests of sandalwood trees, the timber of which is exported in large quantities, chiefly to China for incense purposes. Flowers and fruits from all quarters of the globe grow luxuriantly. Among the fruits successfully cultivated are apples, pears, oranges, peaches, plums, apricots, figs, al- monds, bananas, olives, etc. English vegetables may be profitably cultivated at almost all sea- sons. Bees thrive and produce abundant stores of honey. The mineral resources of the state are not yet fully known. Gold has been discovered in large quantities, and Western Australia is now the chief gold-producing state of Australia, the Coolgardie gold fields being among the most pro- ductive. In 1899 the gold exported had the value of £6,246,731. Lead and copper exist abundantly, and several mines are in operation. Iron ore might be raised in almost inexhaust- ible quantities, and tin also exists. The gold discoveries have formed an epoch in the history of the state, and trade and population have re- cently increased very rapidly. The imports, which in 1887 were valued at £830,000, amounted in 1899 to £4,474,000, the exports in the latter year being £6,985,000. Besides gold the exports include wool, jarrah and karri timber, sandal- wood, pearls, pearl shells, tin ore, skins, etc. The revenue has grown enormously. In 1881 it was £206,205; in 1891. £497,670; and in 1898, £2,754,747. The public debt is £9.203,738, equal to £53 i6s. 8d. per inhabitant. There are about 1,400 miles of railway open. The principal towns are Perth, the capital, and Fremantle, which is the chief port. The first part of the state settled was the southwest corner, long known as the Swan River Settlement, estab- lished in 1829. From 1850 to 1868 it was a place for the transportation of convicts. In 1890 the state received a system of responsible gov- ernment similar to that prevailing in the other colonies of Australia. Austra'lian Alps, a range of mountains in the southeast of Australia, extending over a length of about 400 miles. The highest peaks are in New South Wales, and the highest, ac- cording to Lendenfeld, is Mount Townshend (7.353 feet), belonging to a group which he calls the Kosciusko group. The peaks next in height belong to the Bogong group in Victoria, and the west of the Mitta Mitta. the highest of which is Mount Bogong (6,508 feet). They do not reach the snow line, though snow lies in the higher valleys all the summer. Geological- ly, the Australian Alps are composed mainly of very ancient metamorphic rocks, which have been worn down in the course of ages to table- lands, and which slope down rather steeply on all sides. Volcanic rocks cover the table-land to the south of Mount Bogong. Austra'lian Bal'lot. See Ballot. AUSTRALIAN FEDERATION — AUSTRIA Australian Federation, the political union of the five Australian colonies, together with Tasmania. The first convention looking to this end was held at Hobart in January 1886. The colonies represented were Victoria, Queensland, Tasmania, Western Australia, and Fiji. An- other conference took place in 1891, at Sydney, New South Wales, attended by delegates from each of the colonies. A plan of federal gov- ernment was proposed, resembling in many of its features that of the United States. A draft bill to constitute the Commonwealth of Austra- lia was adopted by the convention, and it was agreed to submit it to the approval of the in- dividual legislatures of the several colonies. This bill met with success in the lower branch of but one colonial legislature — that of Vic- toria. In January 1895 there was a conference of premiers of five colonies at Hobart, and the Legislative Assembly of New South Wales passed a federal enabling act in November of that year, and notice of motion was given in other legislatures to bring in a similar bill. The first practical step was taken in 1898. A convention of representatives of New South Wales, Victoria, Tasmania, South Australia, and Western Australia, succeeded in drafting a constitution, which was submitted to the popu- lar vote of each of those colonies in June. The constitution provided for a governor-general, ap- pointed by the Crown ; a federal parliament, composed of the Crown, represented by the gov- ernor-general, a Senate, and a House of Repre- sentatives. The powers of the parliament were set forth in 39 articles, and covered trade with other countries, taxation, coinage, weights and measures, foreign corporations, pensions, arbi- tration, etc. Free trade between the states was recognized. By the terms of the plebiscite, an affirmative vote of substantially one third of the electors of New South Wales, and of one fifth of the electors of each of the other colonies, was required to adopt this constitution. But the elec- tion returns in June were fatal to the scheme. While the majorities in the four lesser colonies were overwhelmingly in favor of the constitu- tion, the requisite affirmative vote in New South Wales was not obtained. On 2 Feb. 1899, a unanimous agreement was reached by the colonial premiers in conference at Melbourne, regarding the unsettled questions referred to them by the colonial legislatures, thus insuring the success of the federation pro- ject. In 1900, a bill making federation effective was introduced into Parliament, at London, and passed, the only amendment offered having re- ference to the royal prerogative. Later in that year the Earl of Hopetoun was appointed by the queen first governor-general. He resigned in May 1902. Austrasia, as-tra'shia (the East Kingdom), the name given, under the Merovingians, to the Eastern possessions of the Franks, embracing Lorraine, Belgium, and the right bank of the Rliine. These districts, thickly inhabited by Franks, w^ere of great importance at the time of the rise of the Frankish power. Aus'tria (from the German Oestreich or Oesterreich, eastern empire), or Austria- HcjNGARY, the collective designation of several states of central Europe, consisting of two semi- iudependent countries, each with its own par- liament and government, but with one common Vol. 2—8. sovereign, army, and system of diplomacy, and also with a common parliament. History of the Country till the Year 982. — After the Romans had vanquished the Noricans, SS A.D., and gained possession of the Danube, the country north of the Danube, extending to the borders of Bohemia and Moravia be- longed to the kingdom of the Marcomanni and Quadi ; a part of lower Austria and Styria, with Vienna (Vindobona), a municipal city of the Roman empire, belonged to upper Pannonia ; the rest of the country, with Carinthia and a part of Carniola, formed a portion of Noricum. Gorz belonged to the Roman province of Illy- ricum, and Tyrol to Rhaetia. These lim-ts be- came confused by the irruptions of the barba- rians. The Boii, Vandals, Heruli, Rugii, Goths. Huns, Lombards, and Avars, in the course of the 5th and 6th centuries, successively occiipied the country. But after the year 568, when the Lombards had established their power in upper Italy, the River Ens formed the boundary line between the German tribe of Bajuvarii, the pro- prietors of the territory above the Ens, and the Avars, who had removed from the east to the banks of that stream. In 611 the Wendi, a Slavonic tribe, appeared on the Murr, Drave, and Save. In 788 the duchy of Bavaria was dissolved, and the Avars passed over the Ens and invaded the counties of the Franks in the Bavarian territory. In 791 Charlemagne forced them to retire to the Raab, and united the ter- ritory extending from the Ens to the junction Oi" the Raab with the Danube (the territory below the Ens) with Germany, under the name of Avaria, or the Eastern Mark (Marchia Orien- talis), or Austria; and in the loth century (in a document of Otho III. 996) it was called Ostirrichi, equivalent to the modern Oester- reich. Many colonists, particularly from Ba- varia, were sent by Charlemagne into the new province, and a margrave was appointed to ad- minister the government. The archbishop of Salzburg was at the head of ecclesiastical af- fairs. After its separation from Verdun, in 843, Avaria formed the east boundary of the German empire. On the invasion of Germany by the Hungarians, in 900, Avaria fell into their hands, and was held by them till 955, when the Emneror Otho I., in consequence of the victory of Augsburg, reunited a great part of this prov- ince to the empire. By the power and address of its margraves the whole country was joined again with Germany, and in 1043, under the Emperor Henry III. and the Margrave Albert I. (the Victorious), its limits were extended to the Leitha. Austria under the House of Bamberg till 1282. — From 982 to 11 56 the margraviate of Austria was hereditary in the family of the counts of Badenburg (Bamberg) ; the succes- sion, however, was not regulated by primogeni- ture, but by the will of the emperor. In ancient documents mention is made of the estates of Austria in the year 1096. After Henry the Proud (Duke of Bavaria and Saxony) was put under the ban of the empire, Leopold V.. mar- grave of Austria, received the duchy of Bavaria in 1 138 from the Emperor Conrad. But when the Margrave Henry, son of Leopold, under the title of Ja-so-mir-Gott (Yes-so-me-God), had again ceded it, in 1156, to Henry the Lion, the boundaries of Austria were extended so as to include the territory above the Ens, and tht AUSTRIA whole was oreatea a duchy with certain privi- jeges. Under this Duke the court resided at Vienna. Duke Leopold VI., the son of Henry, received the duchy of Styria in 1192 as a fief from the Emperor Henry VI., it having been added to the empire by Otho I., in 955, by his victory over the Hungarians. It was this prince who imprisoned Richard Coeur de Lion, king of England. Duke Leopold VII., the youngest son of the former, erected a palace within the city of Vienna, which w^as long occupied by the Austrian monarchs, under the name of the old castle. Leopold VII., called the Glorious, es- tablished the hospital of the Holy Cross, made Vienna, which had adopted a municipal consti- tution in 1 198, a staple town, and granted 30,000 marks of silver for the promotion of trade and commerce. In 1229 he purchased a part of Carniola from the ecclesiastical principality of Freisingen for 1,650 marks, and left the country in a flourishing condition to the youngest of his three sons, Frederick II., surnamed the War- rior. In 1236 this prince was put under the ban of the empire, on account of his joining the alliance of the cities of Lombardy against the Emperor Frederick II. ; and Otho, Duke of Ba- varia, seized upon his territory above the Ens as far as Lintz. The rest of the country was granted, as a fief by the emperor, to a mar- grave, and Vienna became an imperial city. During the emperor's campaign in Italy Duke Frederick recovered the principal part of his lands, and his rights were confirmed by the emperor at Verona, 1245. The rights of Vienna as an imperial city were abolished, and Frederick was to be called king, as sovereign of Austria and Styria ; but all his expectations of empire were disappointed by his death in the battle of the Leitha against Bela IV., king of Hungary, 15 July 1246, in the 35th year of his age. Thus the male line of the house of Bamberg became extinct. The period from 1246 to 1282 is styled the Austrian interregnum. The Emperor Fred- erick II. declared Austria and Styria a vacant fief, the hereditary property of the German emperors, and sent a governor to Vienna, the privileges of which, as an imperial city, were once more renewed. But the female relations of the deceased Duke Frederick, his sister Mar- garet (widow of the Emperor Henry VI), and his niece Gertrude, by the persuasion of Pope Innocent IV., in 1248, laid claim to the inher- itance of their brother. The Margrave Her- mann, with the aid of the Pope and a strong party, made himself master of Vienna, and of several Austrian cities. In Styria he was op- posed by the governor Meinhard, count of Gorz. But Hermann died in 1250, and his son Fred- erick, who was afterward beheaded in 1268, at Naples, with Conradin of Suabia, was then only a year old. The whole country was distracted by various parties, and the Emperor Conrad IV. was prevented, by disputes with his neigh- bors, from turning his attention to Austria. In 1251 the states of Austria and Styria deter- mined to appoint one of the sons of the second sister of Frederick the Warrior, Constantia (widow of the Margrave Henry the Illustrious) to the office of Duke. Their deputies were 01 the way to IMisnia when they were persuaded by King Wenceslaus, on their entrance int"" Prague, to declare his son Ottocar Duke of Austria and Styria, who made every effort to support his appointment by arms, money, and especially by his marriage with the em.press widow Margaret. Ottocar wrested Styria from Bela, king of Hungary, by his victory of July 1260, in the Marchfield; and in 1262 forced the Emperor Richard to invest him with both duch- ies. Soon after, by the will of his uncle Ulrich, the last Duke of Carinthia and Friuli (who died 1296), Ottocar became master of Carinthia, a part of Carniola connected with it, the king- dom of Istria, and a part of Friuli. But his arrogance soon caused his fall. In 1272 he re- fused to acknowledge Count Rudolph of Haps- burg emperor, and was obliged to defend himseh against Rudolph. After an unsuccessful war he was forced to cede all his Austrian pos- sessions in November 1276. In 1277 he at- tempted to recover these territories, but, in the battle of the Marchfield, 26 Aug. 1278, he was slain, and his son Wenceslaus was obliged to renounce all claim to them, in order to preserve his hereditary estates. The Emperor Rudolph remained three years in Vienna, and then ap- pointed his eldest son governor. But having succeeded in gaining the consent of the electors of Saxony and Brandenburg, of the three ec- clesiastical electors, and of the count-palatine of the Rhine, he granted the duchies of Austria and Styria, with the province of Carinthia, to his two sons, Albert and Rodolph, 27 Dec. 1280. Austria under the House of Hapsburg. — I. From 1282 to 1526. Albert and Rodolph transferred Carinthia to Meinhard, count of Tyrol, father-in-law to Albert. In 1283 they concluded a treaty, by which Albert was made sole possessor of Austria, Styria, and Carniola. Vienna, having again renounced its privileges as an imperial city, was made the residence of the court, and the successors of Rodolph, from this time, assumed Austria as the family title. The introduction of the Hapsburg dy- nasty was the foundation of the future great- ness of Austria. The despotic Albert was assailed by Hungary and Bavaria and in 1298 he won the Roman crown in an engagement with Adolphus of Nassau. After this he undertook the conquest of Switzerland ; but was assassin- ated I May 1308, at Rheinfelden, by his nephew, John of Suabia, from whom he had basely with- held his hereditary estates. The inheritance of John now fell to the five sons of the murdered Albert — Frederick, surnamed the Fair, Leo- pold, Henry, Albert, and Otho. They were forced to purchase of the Emperor Henry VII. the investiture of their paternal estates (consist- ing, in 1308, of 26,572 square miles) for 20,000 marks of silver. Under their father, in 1301, the margraviate of Suabia was added to the territories of Austria, and the contest with Bavaria ended in Austria obtaining Neuberg. On the contrary, the attempt of Duke Leopold, in 1315, to recover the forest towns of Switzer- land, which had been lost under Albert, was frustrated by the valor of the troops of the Swiss confederacy in the battle of Morgarten. In 1314 his brother Frederick, chosen emperor of Germany by the electors, was conquered by his rival, the Emperor Louis (of Bavaria), in 1322, at Miihldorf, and was his prisoner for two 3'ears and a half in the castle of Trausnitz. Tiie dispute with the house of Luxemberg, in Bohemia, and with Pope John XXII., induced the emperor, in 1325, to liberate his captive. AUSTRIA Upon this the laiier renounced all share in the government, and pledged himself to surrender all the imperial domains which were still in the possession of Austria. But Leopold con- sidered the agreement derogatory ro his dignity and continued the war against Louis, i^red- erick, therefore, again surrendered himself a prisoner in ]\Iunich. Moved by his faithful adherence to his word, Louis concluded a friendly compact with Frederick, and made prep- arations for their common government, 7 Sept. 1325. These preparations, however, were never carried into execution ; for the agreement had been concluded without the consent of the elec- tors. Leopold died in 1326, and Henry of Aus- tria in 1327; Frederick also died without chil- dren, 13 Jan. 1330, after which his brothers, Al- bert IL and Otho, came to a reconciliation with the Emperor Louis. After the death of their unr'e. Henry, margrave of Tyrol, and Duke of Carinthia (the father of Margaret Maultasch), they persuaded the emperor to grant them the investiture of Tyrol and Carinthia, in May 1335 ; they ceded Tyrol, however, to John, king of Bohemia, by the treaty of 9 Oct. 1356, in behalf of his son John Henry, or rather of his wife, Margaret Maultasch. In 1344, after the death of Otho and his sons, Albert H., called the Wise, united all his Austrian territories, which, by his marriage with the daughter of the last count of Pfirt, had been augmented by the es- tates of her father in 1324, and by the Kyburg es- tates in Burgundy in 1326. Of the four sons of Albert H. (Rodolph, Albert, Leopold, and Frederick), Rodolph H. (IV.) completed the church of St. Stephen's, and died in IMilan in , T365, without children, a short time after his youngest brother, Frederick. In 1379 the two surviving brothers divided the kingdom, so that Albert III. (with the Queue) became master of Austria, and gave the other territories to his brother, Leopold III. the Pious. Leopold had made repeated attempts to gain the Hapsburg possessions in Switzerland. He was killed 9 July 1386, on the field of Sempach, where he lost the battle, in consequence of the valor of Winkelried, and Albert administered the gov- ernment of the estates of his brother's minor sons. Margaret Maultasch ceded Tyrol to him on the death of Meinhard, her only son, who was married to the sister of Albert. She re- tained nothing but a few castles and 6,000 marks of gold. Her claims to Bavaria also she re- nounced in consideration of receiving Scharding and three Tyrolese cities, Kitzbiihel, Ballenberg, and Kutfstein, and 116,000 florins of gold. In 1365 Leopold HI. had bought the claims of the count of Feldkirch for 36.000 florins; for 55,000 florins Austria received Brisgau from the count of Fiirstenberg, with the cities of Neuberg, Old Brisach, Kentzingen, and Billingen. The re- mainder of Carniola and the Windisch Mark, after the death of the last count of Gorz, were purchased, together with the county of Pludentz, from the count of Werdenberg, and the pos- sessions of the count of Hogenberg, 7or 66,000 florins; and the city of Trieste was acquired in 1380 by aiding in the war between Hungary and Venice. Moreover, the two governments of upper and lower Suabia were pledged for 40,000 florins by the king of Rome, Wenceslaus, to Duke Leopold. The Austrian and Styrian lines, founded by Albert III. and Leopold HI., his brother, continued for 78 years. In 1395, when Albert HI. died, his only son, Albert IV., was in Palestine. On his return he determined to take vengeance on Procopius, margrave of Mo- ravia, for his hostile conduct ; but he was poisoned in 1404 at Znaym. His young son and successor, Albert V., was declared of age in 1410; and being the son-in-law of the Emperor Sigismund, he united the crowns of Hungarv and Bohemia in 1437, and connected them with that of Germany in 1438. But in the fol- lowing year the young prince died. His posthumous son, Ladislaus, was the last of the Austrian line of Albert, and its possessions de- volved on the Styrian line, 1457. From this time the house of Austria has furnished an unbroken succession of German emperors. Hungary and Bohemia were lost for a time by the death of Albert V., and, after the unhappy contests with the Swiss, under Frederick HI , the remains of the Hapsburg estates in Switzerland. But several territories were gained ; and, to increase the rising splen- dor of the family, the emperor conferred upon the country the rank of an archduchy. The dispute which broke out between Frederick and his brothers Albert and Sigismund, relating to the divisions of their paternal inheritance, end- ed with the death of Albert in December 1464. In the course of the troubles which resulted from this quarrel the emperor was besieged in the citadel of Vienna by the citizens, who fa- vored the cause of the murdered prince. Sigis- mund now succeeded to his portion of the es- tate of Ladislaus and Frederick became sole ruler of all Austria His son Maximilian, by his marriage with Mary, the surviving daughter of Charles the Bold, united the Netherlands tc the Austrian dominions. But it cost Maximilian much anxiety and toil to maintain his power in this new province, which he administered as the guardian of his son Philip. After the death of his father, 19 Aug. 1493, he was made em- peror of Germany, and transferred to his son Philip the government of the Netherlands. Maximilian I. added to his paternal inheritance all Tyrol, and several other territories, partic- ularly some belonging to Bavaria. He also ac- quired for his family new claims to Hungary and Bohemia. During his reign Vienna becamf the great metropolis of the arts and sciences in the German empire. The marriage of his son Philip to Joanna of Spain raised the "house oi Hapsburg to the throne of Spain and the In- dies. But Philip died in 1506, 13 years before his father, and the death of Maximilian, which happened 12 Jan. 1519, was followed by the union of Spain and Austria ; his grandson (the eldest son of Philip), Charles I., king of Spain (see Charles V.), was elected emperor of Ger- many. In the treaty of Worms, 28 April 1521, and of Ghent, 7 May 1540, he ceded to his brother Ferdinand all his hereditary estates in Germany, and retained for himself the kingdom of the Netherlands. The house of Austria was now the proprietor of a tract of country in Europe comprising 360,230 square miles. The Emperor Charles V. immediately increased the number of provinces in the Netherlands to 17, and confirmed their union with the German states, which had been concluded by his grand- father, under the title of the circle of Burgundy. In 1526 Austria was recognized as a European monarchy. AUSTRIA II. From 1526 to 1740. Ferdinand I., by his marriage with Anna, the sister of Louis II., king of Hungary, who was killed in 1526 in the battle of Mohacs, acquired the kingdoms of Hungary and Bohemia, with Moravia, Silesia, and Lusatia, the appendages of Bohemia. Bo- hemia rejoiced to hail Ferdinand its king. Not- withstanding the divided opinions of the nobles, and the rising fortune of his adversary, John von Zapolya (see Hungary), he was raised to the throne of Hungary, 26 Nov. 1526, by the Hungarian Diet, and was crowned 5 Nov. 1527. But Zapolya resorted for assistance to the Sul- tan, Soliman II., who appeared in 1529 at the gates of Vienna. The capital was rescued from ruin solely by the count of Salm, general of the Austrian army, and the imperial forces com- pelled Soliman to retreat. In 1535 a treaty was made by which John von Zapolya was allowed to retain the royal title and half of Hungary, and his posterity were to be entitled to nothing but Transylvania. But after the death of John new disputes arose, in which Soliman was again involved, and Ferdinand maintained the pos- session of lower Hungary only by paying the war-like Sultan the sum of 30,000 ducats an- nually. This took place in 1562. Ferdinand was equally unsuccessful in the duchy of Wiirtemberg. This province had been taken from the restless Duke Ulrich by the Suabian confederacy, and sold to the Emperor Charles V. ; and when his estates were divided it fell to Ferdinand. Philip, landgrave of Hesse, the friend of Duke Ulrich, took advantage of the opportunity offered him by the embarrassment of Ferdinand in the Hungarian war. With the aid of France he conquered Wiirtemberg; but France ceded it again to Ulrich in the treaty of Caden, in Bohemia, concluded 29 June 1534, on condition that the province should still be a fief of Austria, and after the extinction of the male line of the Duke that it should revert to that country. Ferdinand received also the imperial crown in 1556, when his brother Charles laid by the sceptre for a cowl. He died 25 July 1564, with the fame of an able prince, leaving 3 sons and 10 daughters. According to the directions given m his will, the three brothers divided the patrimony, so that Maximilian II., the eldest son, who succeeded his father as emperor, obtained Austria, Hungary, and Bo- hemia ; Ferdinand, the second son, received Ty- rol and Hither Austria ; and Charles, the third, became master of Styria, Carinthia, Carniola, and Gorz. But in 1595, after the death of the Archduke Ferdinand, the husband of Philip- pine Welser, the fair maid of Augsburg, his sons Andrew (cardinal and bishop of Constance and Brixen, and governor of the Netherlands for Spain) and Charles (margrave of Burgau) were declared incompetent to succeed their father, and his possession reverted to his relations. In Hungary the Emperor Maximilian met with far better fortune than his father had done. The death of Soliman at Szigeth in 1566 was followed by a peace, and in 1572 Maximilian crowned his eldest son, Rodolph, king of Hun- gary; he was afterward crowned king of Bo- hemia, and was elected king of Rome. In his attempts to add the Polish crown to his Aus- trian dominions he was equally unsuccessful with his fourth son, Maximilian, who engaged in a similar enterprise after the decease of Stephen Bathori in 1587. Maximilian died 12 Oct. 1576, and Rodolph the eldest of his five sons, succeeded to the imperial throne. The most remarkable events by which his reign is distinguished are the war against Turkey and Transylvania, the persecutions of the Protes- tants, who were all driven from his dominions, and the circumstances which obliged him to cede Hungary in 1608, and Bohemia and his hereditary estates in Austria in 161 1, to his brother Matthias. From this time we may date the successful exertions of the Austrian sov- ereigns to put down the restless spirit of the nation, and to keep the people in a state of ab- ject submission. Matthias, who succeeded Maximilian on the imperial throne, concluded a peace for 20 years with the Turks ; but he was disturbed by the Bohemians, who took up arms m defense of their religious rights. Matthias died 20 March 1619, before the negotiations for a compromise were completed. The Bohemi- ans refused to acknowledge his successor, Ferdinand II., and chose Frederick V., the head of the Protestant League, and elector of the palatinate, for their king. After the battle of Prague, 1620, Bohemia submitted to the au- thority of Ferdinand. He immediately applied himself to eradicate Protestantism out of Bohe- mia proper and Moravia. At the same time he deprived Bohemia of the right of choosing her king, and of her other privileges. He erected a Catholic court of reform, and thus led to the emigration of thousands of the inhabitants. This large exodus of inhabitants did much to retard the growth of Bohemia. In fact the religious wars waged upon Bohemian soil for so long a time, dating back to the first outbreaks of the_ Hussites, with the subsequent agitations and con- flicts consequent upon the Reformation, long and seriously hampered that state's general de- velopment up to modern times. The Austrian states also favoring, in general, the Protestant religion, were compelled by Ferdinand to swear allegiance to him, and Lutheranism was strict- ly forbidden in all the Austrian dominions. The province of Hungary, which revolted under Bethlem Gabor, prince of Transylvania, was, after a long struggle, subdued. This religious war dispeopled, impoverished, and paralyzed the energies of the most fertile provinces of the house of Austria. During the reign of Ferdi- nand III., the successor of Ferdinand II. (1637-57), Austria was continually the thea- tre of war. In the midst of these troubles Ferdinand ceded Lusatia to Saxony at the peace of Prague, concluded in 1635 ; and when the war was end- ed he ceded Alsace to France, at the peace of Westphalia in 1648. The Emperor Leopold I., son and successor of Ferdinand III., was vic- torious through the talents of his minister Eu- gene, in two wars with Turkey ; and Vienna was delivered by John Sobieski and the Ger- mans from the attacks of Kara Mustapha in 1683. In 1687 he changed Hungary into a hereditary kingdom, and joined to it the terri- tory of Transylvania, which had been governed by distinct princes. Moreover, by the peace of Carlovitz, concluded in 1699, he restored to Hungary the country lying between the Danube and the Theiss. It was now the chief aim of Leopold to secure to Charles, his second son, the inheritance of the Spanish monarchy, ther. AUSTRIA in the hands of Charles II., king of Spain, who had no children ; but his own indecision, and the policy of France, induced Charles II. to appoint the grandson of Louis XIV. his successor. Thus began the war of the Spanish Succession (see Succession Wars) in 1701. Leopold died 5 May 1705, before it was terminated. Em- peror Joseph I., his successor and eldest son, continued the war, but died without children, 17 April 171 1. His brother Charles, the destined king of Spain, immediately hastened from Bar- celona to his hereditary states, to take upon hun the administration of the government. He wcs elected emperor 24 December of the same year ; but was obliged to accede to the peace of Utrecht, concluded by his allies at Rastadt and Baden in 1714. By this treaty Austria received the Netherlands, Milan, Mantua, Naples, and Sardinia. In 1720 Sicily was given to Austria in exchange for Sardinia. The duchy of Man- tua, occupied by Joseph in 1708, was now made an Austrian fief, because it had formed an alli- ance w'ith France prejudicial to the interests of Germany. This monarchy now embraced 191,621 square miles. Its annual income was between 13.000,000 and 14,000,000 florins, and its army consisted of 130,000 men ; but its power was weakened by new^ wars with Spain and France. In the peace concluded at Vienna 1735 and 1738, Charles VI. was forced to cede Naples and Sicily to Don Carlos, the Infante of Spain, and to the king of Sardinia a part of Milan, for which he received only a part of Parma and Piacenza. In the next year, by the peace of Belgrade, he lost nearly all the fruits of Eu- gene's victories, even the province of Temeswar ; for he was obliged to transfer to the Porte, Belgrade, Servia, and all the possessions of Austria in Walachia and Bosnia. All this Charles VI. willingly acceded to, in order to secure rhe succession to his daughter, Maria Theresa, by the Pragmatic Sanction. This law^ of inheritance was passed 1713-19, and acknow- ledged one after another by all the European powers. Austria under the House of Hapsburg-Lor- rainc. — By the death of Charles VI., 20 Oct. 1740, the male line of the Austrian house of Hapsburg became extinct; and Maria Theresa having married Stephen, Duke of Lorraine, ascended the Austrian throne. On every side her claims were disputed, and rival claims set up. A violent war began in which she had no protector but England. Frederick II. of Prus- sia subdued Silesia ; the elector of Bavaria was crowned in Lintz and Prague, and in 1742 chosen emperor under the name of Charles VII. Hungarj^ alone supported the queen. But in the peace of Breslau, concluded 4 June 1742, she was obliged to cede to Prussia, Silesia, and Glatz, with the exception of Teschen, Jagerndorf, and Troppau. Frederick II., by assisting the party of Charles VII., soon renewed the war. But Charles died 20 Jan. 1745, and the husband of Theresa was crowned emperor of Germany under the title of Francis I. A second treaty of peace, concluded 25 Dec. 1745. confirmed to Frederick the possession of Silesia. By the peace of Aix-la-Chapelle, 18 Oct. 1748, Austria was obliged to cede the duchies of Parma. Pia- cenza, and Guastalla to Philip, Infante of Spain, and several districts of Milan to Sardinia. The Austrian monarchy was now firmly established; and it was the first wish of Maria Theresa to recover Silesia. With this object in view she formed an alliance with France, Russia, Saxony, and Sweden. This was the origin of the Seven Years' war; but, by the peace of Hubertsberg, 1763, Prussia retained Silesia, and Austria had sacrificed her blood and treasure in vain. The first paper money was now issued in Austria, called state obligations, and the Emperor Fran- cis erected a bank to exchange them. After his death, iS Aug. 1765, Joseph II., his eldest son, was appointed colleague with his mother in the government of his hereditary states, and elected emperor of Germany. To prevent the extinction of the male line of her family Maria Theresa now established two collateral lines; the house of Tuscany, in her second son, Peter Leopold ; and the house of Este, in the person of the Archduke Ferdinand. For these separa- tions Maria Theresa indemnified the country by the confiscation of several cities, formerly pledged to Poland by Hungary, without paying the sum for which they stood pledged ; by ob- taining Galicia and Lodomeria in the first profligate division of the kingdom of Poland in 1772 ; and by the capture of Bukowina. which was ceded by the Porte in 1777. In the peace of Teschen, 13 May 1779, Austria received Inn- viertel, and the vacant county of Hohenembs in Suabia, the county of Falkenstein, and the Sua- bian territories of Tettnang and Argen ; and thus at the death of the empress, 28 Nov. 1780, Austria contained 234,684 square miles ; it had lost 16,366 square miles, and gained 34,301. The population was estimated at 24,000,000 ; but the public debt also had increased to 160,000,000 florins. The administration of the empress was distinguished by substantial improvements in connection with government, agriculture, trade, and commerce, the education of the people, the piromotion of the arts and sciences, and of re- ligion. The foreign relations of the kingdom also, even those with the Roman court, w-ere happily conducted by the talents of her minis- ter, Kaunitz. Her successor, Joseph II., w^as active and restless ; impartial, but too often rash and vio- lent. While a colleague with his mother in the government he diminished the expenses of the state, and introduced a new system in the payment of pensions and of officers. But after the death of his mother all his activity and tal- ent as a sovereign was fully developed. As severe to the military as to the civil officers, he adhered, however, to liberal principles. The censorship of the press was reformed ; the Prot- estants received full toleration, and the rights of citizens ; the Jews were treated with kind- ness ; 900 convents and religious establishments were abolished, and even the visit of Pius VI. made no alteration in Joseph's system of refor- ination. The system of education he subjected to revision and improvement ; and he tried to foster manufactures by duties on foreign goods. But his zeal excited the opposition of the ene- mies of improvement. The low countries re- volted, and his vexation probably led him to attempt the exchange of the Netherlands, un- der the title of the kingdom of Austrasia, for the palatinate of Bavaria under an elector. But the project was frustrated by the constancy and firmness of the next agnate, the Duke of Deux- Ponts, and by the German league concluded by AUSTRIA Frederick II. Joseph was equally unsuccessful in the war of 1788 against the Porte. His exer- tions in the field destroj'ed his health; and grief at the rebellious disposition of his hereditary states accelerated his death, which happened 20 Feb. 1790. Joseph II. was succeeded by his eldest brother, Leopold II. By his moderation and firmness he quelled the turbulent spirit of the Netherlands, and restored tranquillity to Hungary. The treaty of Reichenbach with Prussia, 27 July 1790, and the treaty of Sistova, 4 Aug. 1791, led to a peace with the Porte. The unhappy fate of his sister and her husband, Louis XVT. of France, induced him to form an alliance with Prussia, but he died i March 1792, before the revolutionary war broke out. Soon after the accession of his son, Francis II., to the throne, and before he was elected German emperor, France declared war against him as king of Hungary and Bohemia. In the first articles of peace, dated at Campo Formio, 17 Oct 1797, Austria lost Lombardy and the Netherlands, and received, as a compensation, the largest part of the Venetian territory ; two years previous, in 1795, in the third division of Poland, the Austrian dominions had been en- larged by the addition of west Galicia. In the beginning of the year 1799, the Emperor Francis, in alliance with Russia, renewed the war with France. But Napoleon extorted the peace of Luneville, 9 Feb. 1801, and Francis acceded to it, without the consent of England. By the conditions of the treaty he was to cede the county of Falkenstein and the Frickthal. Fer- dinand, Grand Duke of Tuscany, at the same time renounced his claim to this province and received, in return for it, Salzburg and Berch- tesgaden, with a part of the territory of Passau, and was afterward made master of the largest part of Eichstadt, and honored with the title of elector. Austria obtained the Tyrolese arch- bishoprics, Trent and Brixen, and, notwith- standing its cessions of territory to France, had gained, including its acquisitions in Poland, 9.580 square miles ; this made the whole extent 253,770 square miles. The public debt had also increased to 1,220,000,000 florins. The first consul of France now caused him- self to be proclaimed emperor; and 11 Aug. 1804, Francis declared himself hereditary em- peror of Austria, and united the Austrian states under the name of the empire of Austria. Im- mediately after this important act he took arms once more with his allies, Russia and Great Britain, against the government of France. The war of 1805 was terminated by the peace of Presburg, (26 Dec. 1805). By the conditions of the treaty Francis was obliged to cede to France the remaining provinces of Italy ; to the king of Bavaria, Burgau, Eichstadt, a part of Passau, all Tyrol, Vorarlberg, Hohenembs, Rothenfels, Tettnang, Argen, and Lindau; to the king of Wiirtemberg the five towns lying on the Danube, the county of Hohenberg, the land- graviate of Nellenburg, Altdorf, and a part of Brisgau; and to the Grand Duke of Baden the remainder of Brisgau, Ortenau, Constance, and the commandery of Meinau. He received, in return, Salzburg and Berchtesgaden ; the elec- tor of Salzburg was compensated by the prov- ince of Wiirzburg; and the dignity of grand master of the Teutonic order was made heredi- tary in the house of Austria. Thus ended a war which cost the Austrian monarchy, besides the territories just enumerated, 90,000,000 flor- ins, which were carried away by the French from Vienna, and 800,000,000 for the other expenses of the war ; of which Francis paid a large pro- portion from his private purse. After the for- mation of the Confederation of the Rhine (12 July 1806) Francis was forced to resign his dig- nity as emperor of Germany (6 Aug. 1806), which had been in his family more than 500 years. The old German, or Holy Roman, em- pire thus came to an end, and Francis had now only the title of Francis I., emperor of Austria. In 1809 he resolved on a new war with France, aided only by Great Britain, which did nothing more than furnish some pecuniary assistance and made a useless attack on Walcheren. Austria fought courageously, but in vain. The peace of Vienna (14 Oct. 1809) cost the monarchy 42,- 380 square miles of territory, 3,500,000 subjects, and more than 11,000,000 florins of revenue. The public debt was also increased to 1,200,000,- 000 florins, and all the paper money in circula- tion was estimated at 950,000,000. Napoleon, after tearing from the Austrian monarchy its fairest provinces — the duchy 0/ Salzburg, with Berchtesgaden, Innviertel, west- ern Hausruckviertel, Carniola, and Gorz, Trieste, the circle of Villach, a large part of Croatia, Istria, a part of the Grisons, the Bo- hemian territories in Saxony, all west Galicia, the circle of Zamoski in east Galicia, Cracow, with half the salt works of Wieliczka, the circle of Tarnopol, and many other territories which were given to Russia — formed a personal con- nection with the ancient family of Hapsburg, by his marriage with Maria Louisa, daughter of the emperor of Austria, and (14 March 1812) concluded an alliance with the emperor Francis against Russia. But the emperor of France was repulsed on his invasion of this country ; Prus- sia rose up against him ; and after the Congress of Prague had separated without accomplish- ing anything, Francis, 12 Aug. 1813, declared war against France, and formed an alliance, 9 Sept. 1813, at Teplitz, with Great Britain, Rus- sia, Prussia, and Sweden, against his son-in-law. In the battle of Leipsic, the Austrian troops took an honorable part. The firmness with which the emperor signed the act of proscrip- tion against his son-in-law, and fixed the fate of his daughter and her infant, excited general respect. He signed the same act against Na- poleon a second time, when he returned from Elba. He also opposed Murat in Italy. Yet the Austrian cabinet endeavored to provide for young Napoleon in the settlement of the affairs of France. By the Congress of Vienna, 1814-15, Austria gained the portion of Italy which is usually known as Lombardy and Venetia, and recovered, together with Dalmatia, the hereditary territories which it had been obliged to cede. The former Grand Duke of Wiirzburg, on the contrary, ceded his territory to Bavaria, and again took possession of Tuscany. The final act resulting from the congress was signed in 1820. In 1821 liberal movements in Italy were put down. The July revolution of 1830, in France, cause warlike preparations to be made ; but after Great Britain had acknowledged the new government Austria acknowledged it also. Insurrections which took place in Mo- dena, Parma, and the Papal states, 183 1-2, were AUSTRIA suppressed without much difficulty. In the Lon- don conference relative to the affairs of Belgium Austria took an active share ; but in proportion as Great Britain and France became more close- ly united, Austria entered into more intimate relations with Russia and Prussia. In the Polish insurrection Austria ultimately gave indications of a strong leaning in favor of Russia. The death of the Emperor Francis I., 2 March 1835, and the accession of Ferdinand I. made little change in the Austrian system of government. Metternich still continued at the head of affairs and to foster the reactionary policy. In 1846 the failure of the Polish insurrection had led to the incorporation of Cracow with Austria, but discontent with the government very widely prevailed in the empire. In Italy, the declara- tions of Pio Nono in favor of reform, and the concessions into which most of the other gov- ernments of the Italian peninsula had been hurried, increased the difficulties of Austria. In Hungary the constitutional opposition became stronger and stronger, and latterly, under the guidance of Kossuth and other popular agita- tors, assumed the form of a great constitutional movement. In 1848 the expulsion of Louis Philippe shook all Europe to its foundations. Metternich found it impossible any longer to guide the ship of state, and the government found itself compelled to grant a free press, and allow the citizens freely to arm themselves. The popular movement made great progress in Hungary ; and in Italy a formidable insurrec- tion broke out, threatening the very existence of the Austrian power in the peninsula. In the very centre of the empire, in Vienna itself, the insurrection made equal progress, and the royal family, no longer in safety, removed to Inns- bruck. The Austrian monarchy appeared now to be hanging by a thread. The Hungarian diet declared itself permanent, under the presidency of Kossuth. Various ministerial changes took place, and at laot the emperor abdicated in favor of his nephew, Francis Joseph. More vigorous measures were now adopted, and Aus- tria, strongly aided by the forces of Russia, suc- ceeded in suppressing the Hungarian insurrec- tion. Haynau, on the occasion, rendered himself notorious by his severity, and Hungary under- went the fate of a conquered country. The year 1855 is memorable in Austrian history for the conclusion of a concordat with the Pope which put the educational and ecclesiastical af- fairs of the empire entirely into the hands of the papal see. It established an ecclesiastical censorship of the press, and placed all schools, €ven private schools, under the surveillance of the bishops ; it proclaimed the complete inde- pendence of the bishops in relation to the civil government, so that all decrees proceeding from Rome might be published without obtaining the royal placet, and it authorized the bishops to convoke the provincial councils and diocesan synods without the consent of the civil au- thority. In 1859 the hostile intentions of France and Sardinia against the possessions of Austria in Italy became so evident that she de- clared war by sending an army across the Ticino, but after disastrous defeats at Magenta and Solferino slie was compelled to cede Milan and the northwest portion of Lombardy to the Sardinian king. In 1864 she joined with Prus- sia and the other German states in the spolia- tion of Denmark, but a di<5pute about the con- quered provinces of Schleswig-Holstein involved her in a war with her allies (1866), while at the same time Italy renewed her attempts for the recovery of Venice, Austria had accord- ingly to show front both in the north and in the south. The southern army under Archduke Albert fought successfully, defeating the Ital- ians under Victor Emanuel at Custozza, 24 June, and driving them back across the Mincio, but the fortune of the northern army under Gen. Benedek was very different. On 3 July Benedek was completely defeated by the Prussian forccsat Koniggriitz (Sadowa) in Bohemia, and the road to Vienna lay open to the victors. Francis Joseph now ceded Venetia to Napoleon III., and claimed his intervention to assist in procuring a peace, evidently wishing to make a separate treaty with Italy, so as to be at liberty to employ the southern army against Prussia. This design did not succeed, however. Both Italy and Prussia were willing to accept the mediation of Napoleon, but Italy would not hear of a separate arrangement, and continued the war. On 20 July Admiral Teg- etthoff defeated the Italian fleet near the Dal- matian island Lissa; but, on the other hand, the Prussians continued to advance into Austria, and threatened Vienna. Francis Joseph accord- ingly saw himself obliged to conclude a peace with Prussia 23 August, and a little later peace was concluded with Italy also, 3 October. The result of the war was the cession of Venetia through France to Italy, and the withdrawal of Austria from all interference in the affairs of Germany. (See Seven Weeks' War.) Since 1866 Austria has been occupied chiefly with the internal affairs of the empire. The first aim of the government was to restore the constitution of the state, which had been es- tablished in February 1861, but which had been suspended since 1865 owing to the demand of Hungary for self-government. As Austrian statesmen were anxious for a settlement of the dispute, the Hungarian demands were finally agreed to, and the empire of Austria divided into two parts, the one made up of the Cisleithan or Slavonic-German provinces, the other of the Transleithan provinces, the latter forming to- gether the kingdom of Hungary. These two divisions of the empire were to be entirely inde- pendent, except in matters of diplomacy and military and naval matters — to some extent also in matters of finance. This settlement was consummated by the coronation of the Em- peror Francis Joseph I. as king of Hungary, which took place at Pesth-Ofen, on 8 June 1867. During the session of the Reichsrath, that is, the diet of the Cisleithan provinces, held in the same year, the important question of the concordat of 1855 came up for discussion. The Liberal majority in the diet were desirous of seeing it entirely repealed, but as they fully recognized the insuperable obstacles in the way of this step, they were content to proceed by separate enactments intended to weaken the power that had been gained to the papal see by the concordat. With this end in view three measures were brought forward, one for the re- establishment of civil marriage, one for the emancipation of the schools from the domina- tion of the Church, and one for the placing of the different creeds on a footing of equality. Before 25 May 1868, all these measures had passed through both houses of the diet, and on AUSTRIA that day they received the imperial sanction. These laws were declared by the Pope to be ''abominable,^' as well as null and void. Fur- ther enactments having in view the weakening of the power of the papal see in the state were passed in 1874, and were condemned by the Pope in the severest terms. The fact of the Austro-Hungarian dominions comprising so many different nationalities with different lan- guages has always given the government much trouble, both in the management of internal affairs and in regard to external matters. In the recent revival of the Eastern question, for instance, the course of Austria was hampered by the sympathy shown by the Mag>'ars for the Turks, while her Slav, subjects were naturally more favorable to Russia. Previous to the out- break of hostilities between Russia and Turkey she joined with the other powers in remon- strance with Turkey, but as to the actual strug- gle remained neutral. At the close of the war in the middle of 1878 Austria took part in the Congress of Berlin, where the settlement of the Eastern question was arranged, and by this congress it was decided that the provinces of Bosnia and Herzegovina should in future be administered by Austria-Hungary instead of Turkey. Since then the external history of the monarchy has been uneventful, but there has been considerable friction at home between the different nationalities and political parties. Area and Divisions. — The Austrian empire extends from about lat. 42° to 51° N., and from Ion. 8° 30' to 26° 30' E. ; the total area in round numbers is 240,000 square miles. Its greatest length from east to west is about 860 miles ; its greatest breadth about 400 miles. It is bounded south by Turkey, the Adriatic Sea, and the kingdom of Italy ; west by Switzerland, Bavaria, and Saxony; north by Prussia and Russian Poland ; and east by Russia and Ru- mania. On the shores of the Adriatic, along the coasts of Dalmatia, Croatia, Istria, etc., lies its only sea frontage, which, compared to the size of the monarchy, is of insignificant ex- tent. Besides being divided into the two great divisions above mentioned, the Austro-Hunga- rian monarchy is further divided into a number of governments or provinces. The following table exhibits the name and area of these govern- ments, with their population in 1890 and 1900 : Natural Features. — Although presenting ev- ery variety of surface the prevailing character of the Austrian dominions is mountainous, there being few districts where mountains are not found ; while the plains do not occupy more than a fifth part of the whole superficies. The loft- iest ranges, and the most extensively ramified, are found in Tyrol, Styria, lUyria, and the southern parts of Austria proper. In some of these regions the scenery is bold and romantic^ and has been considered equal to that of Switz- erland. The most extensive tracts of low or flat land occur in Slavonia and the southeast and central parts of Hungary ; much of this level land is remarkably fertile, but it is met at various points by vast morasses and arid steppes. The principal valleys are found in Tyrol, Salzburg, Styria, and lUyria. Extensive plains stretch along the courses of the rivers, particularlj' the Danube, the Theiss, and the March. The principal rivers of Austria are the Danube, the Elbe, the Save, the Drave, the Waag, the March, ihe Inn, the Teiss or Theiss, and the Maros. The Danube for up- ward of 800 miles is navigable for quite large vessels throughout the whole Austrian territory ; while all the others, most of them tributaries of the Danube, are navigable for ves- sels of smaller size. All the rivers abound in fish. The lakes are numerous and often pic- turesque, although those in the lowlands, par- ticularly in the plains of Hungary, are rather marshes than lakes. Austria lies between the isotherms of 60° and 50°, and has a climate nearly as various as its surface. The northern regions, between the 49th and 51st degrees of north latitude, have an average temperature re- sembling that of the north of France. Be- tween lat. 46° and 49° the heat is considerable ; and between 42° and 46°, which comprises the whole of South Austria, it is still greater ; the winter lasting two or three months only, and being, in general, extremely mild. The prin- cipal products of the north are wheat, barley, oats, and rye ; in the centre, vines and maize are added ; and in the south, olives. The productive capabilities of the soil, however, are not ren- dered available to their full extent. The wines of Austria are inferior on the whole, with ex- ception of a few choice kinds, including the well-known Tokay. A great portion of the Divisions. Austrian Provinces — Lower Austria Upper Austria Salzburg Styria Carinthia Carniola Coast land Tyrol and Vorarlberg Bohemia Moravia Silesia Galicia Bukowina Dalmatia Hungarian Provinces — Hungary and Transylvania. Croatia and Slavonia Fiume Military out of the country Total Area in sq. m. 7-654 4.631 2,767 8,670 4,005 3,856 3,084 11.324 20,060 8,583 1,987 30,307 4.035 4.940 115.903 108,258 16,773 Population, Dec. 31, 1890. 2,661,799 785.831 173.510 282,708 361,008 498,958 695.384 928,769 5,843,094 2,276,870 605.649 6,607,816 646,591 527.426 23.895.413 15,231,527 2,201,927 30,337 23.752 17,489,543 Population, Dec. 31, 1900. 3,100,493 810,246 192.763 1,356,494 367.337 508,150 756,546 981,989 6,318,697 2,437.706 680,422 7. 315. 816 730.19s 593.783 26,150,597 16,656,904 2,397.249 38.139 1 14,81 1 19,207,103 41,384,956 AUSTRIA ■worst wine is made into brandy. The average produce of wine is about 540,000 gallons, of which Hungary yields by far the largest pro- portion. The forests cover 69,000 square miles, or one third of the productive soil of the empire, and yield timber of excellent quality, adapted for all purposes. Wild deer, wild swine, chamois, foxes, lynxes, and a species of small black bear, are found in many districts, the fox and lynx being particularly abundant. Herds of a native breed of horses, of small size, roam wild over the plains of Hungary. All the domestic animals of England are known throughout the empire. A large portion of the countries now composing the Austrian empire was at one time submerged by the sea, par- ticularly Hungary, where the general appear- ance of its vast plains, the nature of their soil, and, above all, the occurrence of fossil sea shells, leave no room to doubt the former domin- ion of the ocean. Throughout all Austria the Tertiary formation prevails, with a margin of the Secondary formation, stretching to a greater or lesser extent nito the surrounding countries, and diversified by patches of igneous rocks of the Tertiary and Alluvial epochs. In mineral productions Austria is very rich, possessing, with the exception of platinum, all the metals. We may more particularly mention gold, silver, iron, copper, lead, zinc, quicksilver, coal, and salt. The total annual value of the mineral products of the Austrian empire is estimated at upward of ii2,ooo,ooo; of which £2,300,000 rep- resents coal; £2.000,000 lignite; £4,300,000 smelted ores ; and £3,400,000, salt. Manufactures and Commerce. — Manufactures are in the most flourishing condition in Bohemia. Moravia, Silesia, and Lower Austria ; less so in the eastern provinces, and insignificant in Dalmatia, Bukowina, and the military frontiers. The total money value of manufactured products amounts to at least £130,000,000, the value of agricultural products to more than £200,000,000. As regards the individual branches of manufac- ture, there are machines produced yearly to the value of £4,000,000 to £5,000,000, and the supply about equals the demand. In the manu- facture of musical and scientific instruments Austria holds a high position ; those of Vienna are especially celebrated. The manufactvire of stoneware and chinaware is very extensive, be- ing valued at about £2.500,000 yearly, and giv- ing rise to a brisk export trade. The glass manufacture is one of the oldest and most high- ly developed branches of industry in Austria. The manufactories, about 200 in number, are spread over the whole of the monarchy, hut arc most numerous in Bohemia, where glass and glasswares of every kind are produced. The yearly value of this class of manufactures is estimated at about £2.500,000. of which a Very considerable quantity is exported. The manu- facture of metal goods is carried on to a great extent, being valued at about £10,000,000; and some of the iron and steel goods, such as scythes and reaping hooks, have a world-wide reputation. The manufacture of gold and silver plate and jewelry is also important, and the ar- ticles of Vienna workmanship compete success- fully with the French. The production of chem- icals reaches the amount of £5.000,000, and about covers the home demand. As regards articles of food, the sugar from beets has an annual value of about £12,000,000; of beer the produc- tion is £4,000,000 in value, the number of brew- eries is over 2,000; spirits are distilled to the value of £3,500,000. The manufacture of tobac- co is a state monopoly, and is carried on in 38, mostly large, establishments. Of textile in- dustries, the silk manufacture, since the loss of the Lombardo-Venetian provinces, has become greatly limited. The manufactures of woolen, hemp, and flax are among the oldest and most important of the state. The first gives employ- ment to about 400,000 persons, and turns out about £14,000,000 worth of goods yearly, of which a considerable proportion is annually ex- ported. In the whole monarchy there are about 650.000 spindles and 65,000 looms employed in woolen weaving. The linen manufacture (in- cluding also hemp and jute) gives employment to a greater number of persons than any other branch of industry (many of them in their homes), and produces goods to a greater value. The chief seats of the manufacture are Bohemia, Moravia, and Silesia. The annual produce of the cotton manufacture is next in value to that of woolens. Although about 2,400,000 spindles are in activity, cotton yarn has to be imported. On the other hand, however, excellent cotton cloths are exported. Tanning is carried on to the greatest extent in Moravia, Lower Austria, and Bohemia, 3'et not sufficiently to supply the demand. The manufacture of leather goods, however, is very large, and in the production of gloves (in Vienna and Prague) Austria stands next to France. Altogether the manufacture of leather and leather goods employs about 200,000 persons and produces goods to about £10,000,000 yearly. In addition to the general import and export trade, Austria carries on, — partly from its cen- tral position in the contient of Europe, and part- ly from its numerous navigable streams, excel- lent roads, and in later times its partially completed railway system, — a very considerable amount of business in the transit of goods through her territory to other countries. In 1887 the total value of the imports into Austria- Hungary was, in round numbers, £53.000,000, while the value of the exports was £69,860,000 ; the respective figures for the year 1897 were £62,940,000 and £63,854,000. These values were exclusive of coin and bullion, the import of which into Austria-Hungary in 1897 amounted to £8,322,000, while the export for the same year was £4.304,000. The principal import is raw cotton, which was imported in 1897 to the value of £4,225,000; wool being imported to the value of £3,209,000 ; cotton and woolen yarn to the value of £2,433,000; silk and silk goods to the value of £2,725.000; coffee to the value of £2.192,000; tobacco leaf and manufactured to the value of £2,167,000; coal and coke to the value of £3,100.000. Among the other chief articles furs and hides were imported to the value of £1.842,000; leather was imported to the value of £1,783.000; machinery, locomotives, etc., to the value of £1,642.000: hardware and clocks to the value of nearly £1,000.000; books, news- papers, and maps to the value of £1,492,000; grain to the value of £3.400,000; cattle to the value of £1,300,000. Wood formed the chief article of export, the value of this product being in 1897 £7,000.000; next came sugar, value £5,120.000; cattle to the value of £3.800,000. Among other exports of importance were grain to the value of £3,475,000; leather and leather AUSTRIA wares (including gloves), £2,242,000; hardware, £1,533,000; eggs, £3,660,000; coal and coke, £2,- 850,000; woolen manufactures, £1,542,000; glass and glassware, £1,867,000; paper and paperwares, £909,000; wool, £883,000; malt, £2,042,000; wood- en goods, £1,600,000; hides, etc., £1,420,000. Nearly one half of the commerce of Austria is carried on with German}', the next places being occupied by Great Britain, Italy, Russia, and the United States. Including fishing vessels and small craft, Austria-Hungary, in the beginning of 1897, had 12,447 vessels of all sizes, with a tonnage of 270,250, and employing 34,431 men. Of these 227 of 212,069 tons were sea-going ves- sels, the coasting vessels being 1,739 in number with a tonnage of 35,515. The principal ports of the empire are Trieste, Pola, and Fiume. In 1898 there were 20,445 miles of railway open for traffic in the empire, of which 10,598 were in Austria, and 9.847 in Hungary. Money, Weights, and Measures. — On i Jan. 1900 a new monetary system went into effect, the coinage being changed from a silver to a gold basis, and the standard coin and money of account being the crown (equal to 20.3 cents in United States gold) . Practically the chief me- dium of exchange is banknotes, of various de- nominations. The Austrian centner, the weight by which all large quantities are rated, is 123^ pounds avoirdupois. The metze (pi., metzen), the largest dry measure =1.7 of a bushel, or somewhat less than the fourth part of an Eng- lish imperial quarter, nine metzen making two quarters nearly. The eimer, the most generally used liquid measure, is equal to 14.94 English wine gallons. The Vienna foot is equal to 12.45 inches English. The joch of land is 1.43 English acre. Population. — None of the European states, with the exception of Russia, exhibits such a diversity of race and language among their population as does the Austrian empire. The Slavs, who amount to above 19,000.000, or 45 per cent of the total population, are the chief of the component nationalities of the monarchy in point of numbers, forming the great mass of the population of Bohemia, Moravia, Carniola, Galicia, Dalmatia, the kingdom of Croatia and Slavonia, and Northern Hungary, and half the population of Silesia and Bukowina. This pre- ponderance, however, is only apparent, as none of the other races are split up into so many branches differing so greatly from each other in language, religion, civilization, manners, and cus- toms. These branches are the North Slavic Czechs, Moravians, and Slovaks, the Ruthenians and Poles, and the South Slavic Slovenians, Croats, Serbs, and Bulgarians. The Germans, about 10,570,000 in number, are scattered over the whole monarchy and form almost the sole population of the archduchy of Austria, Salz- burg, the greatest portion of Styria and Carin- thia, almost the whole of Tyrol and Vorarlberg, considerable portions of Bohemia and Moravia, the whole of the west of Silesia, etc. ; and they are also numerous in Hungary and Transylva- nia. The Magyars or Hungarians (7,440,000 in number, or about 16 per cent of the total popu- lation) form the great bulk of the inhabitants of the kingdom of Hungary and of the eastern portion of Transylvania. To the Italic or West- em Romanic stock belong the inhabitants of South Tyrol and parts of the coast lands and Dalmatia, numbering about 700,000 in all. A considerable portion of the southeast of the empire is occupied by members of the Rumanian (or Eastern Romanic) stock, who number alto- gether about 2,800,000, and form more than half the population of Transylvania, besides be- ing spread over the southeastern parts of Hungary, Bukowina, and part of Croatia and Slavonia. The number of Jews is also very con- siderable (above 1,000,000), especially in Galicia, Hungarj', Bohemia, and Moravia. There are also several other races whose numbers are small, such as the Gypsies (95,000), who are most numerous in Hungary and Transylvania, and the x-\lbanians in Dalmatia and neighboring regions. The population is thickest in Lower Austria, Bohemia, Silesia, and Moravia ; thin- nest in Salzburg. Generally speaking, it de- creases in density from west to east. Religion. — The state religion of Austria is the Roman Catholic, and next in numbers is the Greek Church. Calvinism and Lutheranism are also professed by a large body of the people; the former mostly in Hungary and Transylva- nia^ the latter in the German provinces and in Galicia. The civil power exercises supreme con- trol in all ecclesiastical matters, the emperor being, in everything but name, head of the Church ; and as no sentence of excommunica- tion, or other ecclesiastical edict, can be issued without the sanction of the Crown, the Pope's direct authority in Austria is somewhat limited. In 1890 there were in the Austrian portion of the monarchy 18,784,063 Roman Catholics, 2,797,- 089 Greek Catholics united to the Roman Church, 540,715 non-united, 430,849 Protestants, and 1,135,118 Jews. In Hungary and Transyl- vania there were 8.823,105 Roman Catholics, 1,670,283 Greek united and 2,633,491 non-united, 3,427,896 Protestants, and 724,588 Jews. Education. — The intellectual culture of the people is at very different stages of advancement among the different racss. It is highest in the German provinces and lowest in the east. In Upper and Lower Austria, Salzburg, Tyrol, Mo- ravia, Silesia, and Bohemia, almost all the chil- dren of suitable age are in attendance on the public schools ; while in Bukowina only about 34, and in Galicia about 59 per cent of them are at the schools. The educational system has been entirely remodeled in recent times. The elemen- tary schools, or those in which the common branches are taught, are designated national schools or schools for the people (Volksschu- Icn), and there children have to attend from the end of their 6th to the end of their 14th (in some provinces only their 12th) year. A higher class of elementary schools are known as town schools (Biirgerschulen), in which a su- perior education may be obtained. For the training of instructors for the people's schools, there are 43 normal schools for male teachers and 26 for female. As secondary schools or in- stitutions of a more advanced grade, there are the gymnasia and the '^real-schools,** as they are called. The gymnasia resemble the best sort of our grammar schools, being intended chiefly to prepare pupils for the universities, great attention being paid in them to the classical languages. In the real-schools a more practical end is kept in view, and modem languages and physical science form the ground- work of the educational course. A complete course in a gymnasium extends over four years, in a real-school either three or four. There AUSTRIA are also schools of an intermediate stamp known as "real-gymnasia.** The higher education is provided for by the universities, the pol3'technic institutes, and the various institutions in which particular subjects are taught. There are ii universities in the monarchy, namely, in Vienna, Prague (two — a German and a Bohemian), Pesth, Gratz, Cracow, Lemberg, Innsbruck, Klausenburg, Agram, and Czernowitz. Most of these have four faculties — Catholic theology, law and politics, medicine, and philosophy. There are also several technical high schools in which mathematics, physics, and natural science are the chief objects of study. Besides these there are theological institutions ; schools for jurisprudence and philosophy; schools of com- merce, industrial arts, agriculture, arboriculture, and mining; military schools, naval schools, art schools, conservatories of music, etc. The prin- cipal libraries are the royal librar}' at Vienna, with 450,000 volumes, 24,000 manuscripts, and 7,000 incunabula ; and the university libraries of Vienna and Prague. Constitution, Revenue. — As already men- tioned, the Austrian dominions now consist of a German, or Slav'O-Germanic, or Cisleithan empire, and a Transleithan or Hungarian king- dom, each with its own parliament, ministers, and government. The same hereditary sover- eign rules over both, and they have a common army and navy, and a sort of common parlia- ment known as the Delegations. The Delega- tions consist of 120 members, one half of whom are chosen by and represent the legislature of German Austria, and the other half that of Hungary, the upper house of each legislature returning 20 and the lower house 40 deputies. In all matters affecting the common affairs of the monarchy the Delegations have a decisive vote, and their resolutions do not require the confirmation of the representative assemblies in which they have their source. The Delega- tions meet alternately in Vienna and Budapest. Their ordinary mode of procedure is to sit and vote in two chambers, the 60 deputies of Cisleithan Austria forming the one, and the 60 of Hungary the other. But if no agree- ment can be arrived at in this manner, the two bodies must meet together and without further debate give their final vote, which is binding for the whole empire. The jurisdiction of the Delegations extends specially to all mat- ters affecting foreign affairs, war, and finance. The constitution of German Austria was final- ly established in December 1867. The prov- inces have each a diet or legislature of their own for provincial aft'airs, these diets being 16 in number, one each for Bohemia, Dalmatia. Ga- licia. Upper Austria, Lower Austria, Salzburg, Styria, Carinthia, Carniola, Bukowina, Moravia, Silesia. Tyrol, Vorarlberg, Gorz and Gradisca, and Istria. the municipal council of Trieste having similar functions. The provincial diets are composed of the archbishops and bishops, the rectors of the universities, the representatives of the great estates, of towns, of boards of com- merce, of rural communes, etc. The laws passed in these diets have reference to provincial taxa- tion, agricultural, educational, and other mat- ters. The national parliament or legislature of German Austria, called the Reichsrath (or council of the realm), consists of an upper house or house of lords (HerrnJiaus), and a lower house or house of deputies (Abgeordnetenhaus) . The former is composed of princes of the im- perial family, of nobles whose families have a hereditary right to this dignity, of the arch- bishops, the bishops of princely rank, and of a certain number of life members nominated by the emperor. The lower houses consist of 353 mem- bers, elected by all citizens above 24 possessing a small property qualification. The rights be- longing to the Reichsrath are: consent to all laws relating to military service ; co-operation in the legislation on commercial matters, customs, railways, etc. ; and examination of the estimates of the income and expenditure of the state, and other financial matters. The constitution of Hungary, including also Croatia, Slavonia, and Transylvania, dates from the foundation of the kingdom, or about 895 a.d. It rests upon a number of statutes published at long intervals, the principal of these being the Bulla Aurea or Golden Bull of Andrew II., granted in 1222, by which the government was defined as an aristo- cratic monarchy. The legislative power is vest- ed in the king and the parliament {Reichstag) conjointly. The latter consists of an upper house or house of magnates, and of a lowei house or house of representatives. The house of magnates consists of the archdukes of the imperial family who have attained their major- ity, 54 ecclesiastical dignitaries, 151 counts, and 36 barons as hereditary members, 84 life mem- bers nominated by the sovereign, or elected by the chamber, etc. The lower house (of 453 members) is composed of elected representa- tives. The Hungarian Reichstag corresponds to the Reichsrath of the Cisleithan provinces, and accordingly only deals with such matters as are common to the provinces belonging to the Hun- garian crown. Transylvania is, so far as legis- lation and administration are concerned, entirely incorporated with Hungary. Croatia and Sla- vonia, however, have a Landtag or diet of their own, which, like the provincial diets of the Cisleithan portion of the empire, consists of only one chamber, and which is competent to deal with all matters belonging to the interior administration of the provinces, with religion and education, and with the administration of justice. Fiume, which was formerly associated with Croatia and Slavonia, and subject to the Landtag of these provinces, has, since August 1870, been put directly under the central Hun- garian government. There being three distinct parliaments in the empire, there are also three budgets, namely, that for the whole empire, that for Cisleithan, and that for Transleithan Austria. In the budget of the whole empire for IQ02 the revenue and expenditure were each estimated at 365.181,966 crowns ; in that for Cisleithan Austria the reve- nue was estimated at 1,685,966.357 crowns, and the expenditures at 1,685.117.944 crowns; and in that for Transleithan Austria the estimated revenue was 1.086,870,018 crowns, the estimated expenditure being a little less. A small portion of the imperial revenue of Austria is derived from customs and other sources, and the re- mainder is made up by the two divisions of the empire, 70 per cent thereof being contributed by the Cisleithan and 30 per cent by the Trans- leithan portion. Recent Politics. — Austria to-day is what ]\Ietternich with less truth called Italy, little more than a geographical expression. Three bonds do indeed unite its discordant nationalities; but AUSTRIA for the hasty observer the country mght well seem in the last stages of decomposition. There is nothing really Austrian in Austria — no Aus- trian interests, no Austrian language, or litera- ture, or patriotism, no Austrian nationality, no Austrian standard of civilization ; nothing except the emperor, and the army, and the cockpit of the Reichsrath that the races share in com- mon. The Germans form a compact entity by themselves in Upper and Lower Austria and the Duchy of Salzburg. In Bohemia there is a respectable colony of them along the borders of Saxony and Bavaria, over 2.000,000 strong, but even so they are outnumbered by the Czechs in the ration of 3 to 5. All together the German-speaking subjects are about a third of the total population of Austria — some 8,500,- 000 out of 24,000,000. The Czechs in Bohemia, Moravia, and Silesia number roughly 5,000,000. In Galicia some 4.000,000 Poles hold down a trifle over 3,000,000 Ruthenians. A couple of million Slovenes, Servians, and Croats are scat- tered over Carinthia and Carniola, while nearly 1,000,000 Italians inhabit the Tyrol. None of these races can alone be said to represent Aus- tria, though all of them claim to ; and their mu- tual wranglings, struggles to realize themselves, struggles to elbow out their neighbors and seize an incontestable ascendency, are the back- ground, and at times something more, of mod- ern Austrian politics. But for the dashing tenacity of the Magyars, Hungary might be as heterogeneous as her partner in the dual mon- archy. The Magj'ars are only 7,500,000 out of nearly 18,000,000, but they are a race with the fierce hardihood and determination of the Teu- tonic stock and a grace and fascination that are neither Latin nor Celtic, but distinctively their own. Since the two nations entered into a partnership agreement as coequal and sover- eign states, the Magyars have devoted all their brilliant energies and the immense force of a concentrated one-idealness to making them- selves paramount throughout the southern half of the realm. They revolted against being Ger- manized, but see no inconsistency in insisting that the Servians, Croats, Rumanians, and Slo- venes shall be Magyarized ; and they have set about the task with unsparing persistency just saved from relentlessness by their genius for wise compromise. A restricted suffrage, ex- excluding nineteen twentieths of the people from the polls, keeps public affairs in their grasp. The schools have been a much more effective in- strument in the development of a national feel- ing, and the Magyars have thoroughly worked them to that end. Like the Russians and Amer- icans, but unlike the English, the Magyars rec- ognize that where there is difference of speech there will be difference of sentiment, of heart, of interests, and at a pinch perhaps of loyalty, and have accordingly refused to make the pres- ervation of dialects an object of government. Fifty years ago the Hungarian nobles spoke German and a bastard monkish Latin in their homes and diets. To-day the native tongue ob- tains, among all classes, and the absorption of all manner of outlanders, — German, Slovacks, jews, Rumanians, and Croats, — by the irresist- ible and peaceful process of denationalization in the schoolroom, has gone on at such a pace that the Magyars increase nearly three times as quick- ly as any of the neighboring races. The strug- gle of the nationalities in Hungary has ended in a more or less reoigned acquiescence in Mag- yar rule. In Austria, as in Spain, the factory is placed some distance behind the barracks as an ele- ment of national welfare, and a contemptuous bureaucracy shackles trade with a hundred en- tangling regulations. The Magyars, on the other hand, have been as attentive to commerce as to their racial position. Perhaps there is no country in which the state, as such, has done more for industrial development. The really vital domestic problems of Hungary are, indeed, no longer racial, and as freedom ot worship is the law, they have never been acutely religious. But in the rise of what is called Agrarian So- cialism, there is something that may test Mag- yar statesmanship severely. Meanwhile the Magyars are the backbone of the dual monarchy. Against the rising tides of Pan-Slavism they present a compact and unbending front. To- gether with the German empire they may be considered the outposts of Europe against Slav aggression ; and even in the domestic affairs of the monarchy their unbreakable unity as a political force has made their influence well- nigh decisive. The Aiisgleich of 1867, — the partnership agreement between the two halves of the realm, — prescribed that matters of com- mon concern, such as foreign affairs, diplo- matic representation, and naval and military matters, should be arranged by 60 delegates from each country, meeting twice a year. The Austrian delegation is made up of Germans, Czechs, Poles, Ruthenians, Italians, whose feuds make steady co-operation all but impossible. The Hungarian delegation, on the other hand, is composed of 55 Magyars and 5 Croatians, work- ing with the directness and harmony of a single man. The consequence is that in the long run the Hungarian view is fairly sure to carry the day. So far each renewal of the Aiisgleich has brought substantial modifications in favor of Hungary, and the centre of gravity has, in fact, shifted from Vienna to Budapest. The em- peror, when driven to it, might go against the German-speaking Austrians, but never against the Magyars ; and the Magyars, fully realizing their power, have extorted concession after con- cession from their unhappy partner ; have applied the screw so persistently, that it is be- coming a question whether they are not as un- popular among Austrian statesmen as the very Czechs themselves. The troubles of the dual monarchy are due to the failure of the Ger- mans to repeat in Austria the successes of the Magyars in Hungary. "You look after your hordes,*' said Count Beust to a Hungarian statesman when the Austrian empire became the dual monarchy, "and we'll look after ours.^' The Czechs of Bohemia have turned to ridicule the count's too valiant declaration. The Ger- mans of Vienna, one must remember, are very different from the Germans of Berlin. Of all the sections of the Teutonic race they appear to have the least robustness of intellect or charac- ter and the laxest grip on practical affairs. In- dolent, hypercritical, and self-satisfied, they are the emasculated editions of their northern kins- men. From whatever cause, some paralyzing blight of lassitude and ineffectiveness seems to have eaten its way into their energies. Against their cultured fecklessness the Czechs oppose the elemental force of racial ambition, the driv- ing power of a people that has the conscious- AUSTRIA ness of a great destiny before it and feels itself on the top of the rising wave. The Germans protest that they have educated themselves beyond the point where race is every- thing and cannot at this time of day be expected to return to first principles. It is of course tenable that the variety of parties into which the Germans are split up argues an advanced and broad political intelligence. At the same time it makes a poor barrier against the impact of a race that subordinates everything to a sin- gle practical end ; and unless the Germans are prepared to see a great part of their old ascen- dency pass away, they must be ready to drop "theorizing, >> take up the issue that has been forced upon them, and meet their antagonists with weapons not necessarily of their own choos- ing. In other words, they need simplifying if they are to combat the Czechs successfully. As it is, the Czechs for the last 30 years have been slowly driving them to the wall. City after city has fallen into their hands ; Prague and Pilsen, that only a quarter of a century ago were German in tongue and sentiment, are now Slavonized down to their very street names. And in politics and industry as well as music and literature and the lighter arts, the past hundred years have seen the Czechs advance in a quite wonderful fashion. They have long ceased to fear the Germans, and with the dis- appearance of fear comes naturally the claim to equality. Moreover, the Czechs have a strong historical case. Four hundred years ago what are now the crown-lands of Bohemia, Moravia, and Silesia formed the Czech kingdom of St. Vacslav ; and what is now Hungary was then the kingdom of St. Stephen. The Czechs of- fered their crown in 1526 to the Hapsburgs, at the same time, for the same reasons, and on the same conditions as the Magyars ; stipu- lating only that they should retain their old rights of self-government. This contract, to- gether with the Pragmatic Sanction, was the legal basis of the Hungarian rebellion of 1848. Th Czechs still use it to point the justice of their demands for a resurrection of St. Vac- slav's kingdom, maintaining that their case is on all fours with that of Hungary, rests on the same documents, and is supported by the same coronation oaths. The Hapsburgs never quite lived up to their side of the agreement. They allowed the Turks to overrun Hungary at will, and when the Reformation came and the Czechs gathered round John Huss. they stamped out the heresy in blood and established a strong German colony along the northern borders of Bohemia for the protection of the faith and the suppression of the natives. The Czechs have kept their native tongue alive, and just across their borders are their kinsmen of the Russian empire. The card of Russian sympathy is often played, and after every fresh frustration of their national hopes follows the spectacle of 5,500.000 Czechs cautiously sounding the Czar's "racial instinct.'^ It is this that lends color to the common charge that the Czechs are disloyal, but it is to be noticed that when the situation is reversed and the emperor makes even the shortest step toward Home Rule, the Germans at once adopt their opponents' tactics, throw themselves into the arms of their Prussian brethren, and vow that sooner than stay and be swamped by a hated and inferior race, they would willingly exchange the Hapsburgs for the Hohenzollerns and enroll themselves among Kaiser Wilhelm's subjects. The suspicion cannot be avoided that these dramatics are at bottom intended for home consumption, and that the tune would be quickly changed if the czar or kaiser were to listen too seriously. The whole history of the dual monarchy goes to show that real consolidation and unity can be effected only by the seemingly paradoxical method of allowing each nationality the widest possible freedom. Justice toward and equal treatment of all races is the only sure road to peace and perpianency. It is a hard one for the Germans to tread, for it means the over- throw of an ascendency once paramount in every corner of the realm ; but unless universal suffrage brings to the front an entirely new set of problems, trod it must be. The inter- play of these racial ambitions has been com- plicated, sometimes retarded and sometimes acutely emphasized by a hundred differences of religious, economic, and purely political inter- ests, all of which have representatives in the Reichsrath. They act upon one another under the shadow of the racial issues in a way that no foreigner can disentangle. The confusion of the country is worthily reproduced in the 15 distinct parties and the seven or eight lan- guages that crop up in the Vienna parliament. Austria-Hungary is a polyglot chaos in which even Austrians do not profess to see more than a half light. The prophecies of disruption may therefore appear at least plausible. But it is one of the many paradoxes of the dual mon- archy that it seems unable to break up. In part it is protected by the very diversity and num- ber of the antagonisms it is obliged to house. A more visible bond of union is the army, in which all must serve, which is of all races and creeds, and therefore of none, and the atmosphere of which is broadly and impressively imperial. What its actual effectiveness will prove to be like, should it ever be tested, is one of the most interesting military problems of the day. The only force with which it can be compared in the excellence of its units and the variety of its nationalities and tongues is the allied army that rescued the Pekin lega- tions; and the parallel is not altogether hope- ful. A polyglot army must of necessity be to some extent a disorganized army, and while the forces of the dual monarchy use German as the language of military command, the rank and file and the bulk of the officers retain their own speech for general purposes. The heteroge- neous character of its composition has had a steadying influence" on the internal struggles of the dual monarchy, however much it may hamper its efficiency on the battlefield. The army has kept itself largely aloof from poli- tics, and though the Czechs did once attempt to transfer the racial bitterness to the parade ground by answering the roll-call in their own tongue, a sharp rebuke from the emperor was enough to bring them to reason. A second and equally powerful bond of union is the monarchy. Not only is it accepted everywhere, but the idea of upsetting it in favor of any other form of government has never yet been broached. Even the Kossuth irreconcilables, who would like to see the Ausglcich abolished and Hungary direct her own fiscal policy, — a quite possible development, — and manage her own foreign affairs, still do AUSTRIA not propose to sever the personal tie that binds the two countries. And not only is the mon- archy secure in the affections of the people, but the dynasty is eaually popular. So long as there is a throne it is not conceivable that any one but a Hapsburg should occupy it. This two-fold devotion to monarchy and to the dynasty has been greatly strengthened of late years, partly by the breakdown of parliamentary government and the weariness which has made the people look to the throne as an escape from the turmoil and wranglings of small groups, and partly through the patience and wisdom, the sterling fair-mindedness and com- petency of the present emperor, as well as the ghastly tragedies of his private life. But it is a curious delusion to argue that just because Francis Joseph is so adequate and well be- loved, and comes so near to the ideal of what a constitutional monarch should be, therefore the empire must go to pieces when his mod- erating and persuasive influence is withdrawn. Such a reign as his is far more than a merely personal triumph ; it is the consecration of a system ; it exalts the monarchy as well as the monarch, and it smooths out the path for his successors by bequeathing to them an office made more illustrious by his example and memory, more powerful and more deeply based in the hearts of the people. So far from being a signal for dismemberment, the close of the present emperor's reign is more likely to wit- ness a splendid rally round the house and throne of the Hapsburgs. The general peace of Eu- rope would indeed be jeopardized in the event of a scramble for the fragments of the dual monarchy. But no such catastrophe is likely, for the reason that it is to no one's interest to bring it about. It is not for secession from, but for the fullest liberty within, the empire that "the numerous nationalities involved** are struggling. The only genuine secessionists are HerreH Wolf and Schonerer and their follow- •srs, who wish to incorporate German-speaking Austria with the German empire. It is possible that their wishes may ultimately be gratified, but not in our time, not till after the next Euro- pean war, if even then, and not till the clerical- ism of Austrian Germans has considerably toned down. What the Czechs and the other races Tvant, is the same independence as the Magyars poss^ess, and such independence is as incon- sistent with Russian as with German domina- tion. It is against their interests to break away from the Hapsburgs. The day of small states has gone by, and a lonely Czech kingdom could not exist for a year by the side of Russia. Army. — Military service is obligatory on all citizens capable of bearing arms who have at- tained the age of 20, and lasts up to the age of 42, either in the active army, in the landwehr, or the landsturm. The period of service in the active army is 12 years, of which three are passed in the line, seven in the reserve, and two in the landwehr. In 1900 the standing army numbered 361,693 men (including officers) on the peace footing, and 1,826,940 men and 45,238 officers on the war footing. Navy. — On account of the recent develop- ment of the Italian navy, Austria has found it necessary for her self-defense to have a fleet of her own, and the last ship of a new squadron was launched in 1904. The new ships are re- markable for their armament and speed, and will compare favorably with any equal number and size of ship in the world. Leaving out the ships constructed prior to 1887, the new fleet is composed of two battleships, the Erzherzog Friedrich and the Erzherzog Karl, of 10,600 and 10,100 tons respectively, and 19.25 knots speed. Each will carry four 9.45-inch Skoda guns of 40 calibres and twelve 7.48-inch of 42 calibres. The first will have in addition fourteen 2.75-inch and the other 2 of the same calibre, each being furnished with a full complement of small bore quickfirers. The 7.48-inch guns will fire four rounds a minute. The next division is composed of three ships of 8,300 tons each, named the Habsburg, Baben- berg and Arpad. Their speed is 18.5 knots, and the armaments three 9.4-inch and twelve 6-inch guns each, besides the usual complement of small calibre quickfirers. Then comes a division of three coast defence ships, the Monarch, Wien and Budapest, of 5,600 tons each and 17 knots speed. Their arma- ment of four 9.4-inch and six 5.9-inch each, with fourteen smaller calibre quickfirers, is extremely formidable for their size, and it is well disposed and protected, entitling them to be reckoned as battleships. The cruisers of the Austro-Hungarian navy are, in order of size, the Kaiser Karl VI., of 6,250 tons ; the Maria Theresa, of 5,370 ; and the Kaiser Franz Joseph I. and Kaiserin Elizabeth, of 4,060 tons each. Each carries two 9.4-inch guns ; the first two eight 6-inch quickfirers ; and the last two six 6-inch quickfirers each, with numerous small calibre pieces. Their speed is between 19 and 20 knots, and they hold a place between armored and protected cruisers. Two ships classed as battleships, launched in 1887, the Erzherzog Rudolf of 6,900 tons and the Erzherzogin Stefanie, of 5,100 tons, may be added to the effective squadron and would raise it to fourteen vessels. Their armament is suffi- ciently powerful, consisting of three and two 12- inch, six 4.7-inch and six 6-inch guns respec- tively, with two 2.75-inch pieces each. Their speed is 16 knots. There are three small cruisers of 2,306 tons each, the Zenta, Jaguar and Aspern ; and three torpedo cruisers, of 1,600 to 1,700 tons each, the Panther, Leopard and Tiger. The seven tor- pedo boat destroyers, range from 310 to 610 tons, of 21 knots speed, and there is a small torpedo boat flotilla, which is being increased. Experi- ments are also in progress with submarines. The personnel of the Austro-Hungarian navy is excellent, and should the squadron it can turn out ever be called on to act alone or as part of the naval force of an alliance, it can be relied on to give a good account of itself. Judiciary. — The courts of first instance com- prise 940 Bezirksgerichte, county courts, and 71 Landes und Kreisgerichte, provincial and district courts; Geschzvorenengerichte, or jury courts being connected with the latter. These courts act as courts of inquiry and have summary juris- diction. The courts of second instance, or courts of appeal from the lower courts, having the supervision of the criminal courts, comprise 9 Oberlandesgcriclifc or higher provincial courts. There are also special tribunals for military, revenue, shipping, and other matters, including four industrial courts and three commercial courts. The Oberste Gerichts und Kassations- hof, Supreme Court of Justice and Court of AUSTRIAN SUCCESSION— AUTOMATISM Cassation, at Vienna, is the final court of ap- peal. The High Court of Administrative Affairs decides differences between private individuals and public officials, and the Reichsgericht, or Court of the Empire, the conflicts of law and jurisdiction between different authorities. Bibliography. — Broglie, 'Frederick the Great and Maria Theresa' ; Coxe, * History of the House of Austria^ ; Gindely, * History of the Thirty Years' War' ; Leger, 'History of Aus- tro-Hungary' ; Lowell, 'Government and Par- ties in Continental Europe' ; Ranke, 'History of the Reformation in Germany* ; Slegnobos, 'Po- litical History of Europe since 1814' ; Whitman, 'The Realm of the Hapsburgs' ; Whitman and Mcllrath, 'Austria.' Austrian Succession. See Succession Wars. Au'thors, British Society of, an associa- tion of authors formed in London in 1883, for social and business purposes. It has a govern- ing committee of 30 members ; maintains an attractive club-room and publishes a periodical called 'The Author.' The late Lord Tennyson was its president till his death. Au'thors Club, an American organization founded in New York in 1882, and incorporated in 1887. It is governed by an executive com- mittee without a president. Any person who is the author of a published book proper to literature, or of creditable literary work equiva- lent to such a book, is eligible to membership. The club holds meetings semi-monthly, and gives Saturday receptions for ladies in the winter season. It has a library consisting of the publications of its members and another de- voted to literary biography. Au'thors, French Society of, an organiza- tion founded in Paris in 1837, for the protec- tion of authors in their rights, and open to any man of letters. It is governed by an elective committee of 24 members, and has a pension fund which provides for aid in work, for sick- ness and in old age. Besides publishing a jour- nal, the 'Chronique,' the society has collected a large sum of money from pirating publishers. Au'thors, American, Society of, an organi- zation founded in New York in 1892, and in- corporated in 1895, having for its objects the promotion of a professional spirit among au- thors and a better understanding between au- thors and their publishers, and, in general, the protection of literary property and the advance- ment of the interests of American authors and literature. All persons engaged in literary pur- suits are eligible to membership. The society has a pension fund for members who may be- come needy. Auto de fe, ow'to da fa (Spanish); Auto da Fe (Portuguese), lit. "act of faith." See Inquisition. Auto-intoxication, a poisoning of the body by its own products. In the complicated pro- cesses that make up the sum total of human metabolism many products are formed which if not modified in some manner would poison and kill the body. The simplest illustration of this is seen in the function of respiration, in which the carbon dioxid in the venous blood is oxidized m the lungs and thus eliminated. The urine contains a number of bodies which if prevented from leaving the body would cause its death. Thus auto-intoxication may result from the normal products elaborated in the body if these are not modified, or are prevented an outlet. But the problem of auto-intoxication is much more complicated in many of its manifestations. Sick-headache, gout, diabetes, many neuralgias, Addison's disease, myxedema, acromegaly and many other obscure diseased conditions are known to be due to some form of perversion of the normal processes of metabolism and are instanced as forms of auto-intoxication. The general organs of defense in the constant play of these factors may be divided into two general groups, (i) those that have the function of transforming by chemical means many of the poisonous products of the normal metabolism of the body, and (2) those organs that are chiefly concerned in the elimination of these products. To the first group belong the liver, the mucous membranes, the thyroid, lymphnodes, the adre- nal glands, the blood cells, the blood serum and the lymph. In the second group are the kid- neys, the lungs, the skin, and the intestines. Classification. — Auto-intoxication may re- sult (i) from the failure of functions of certain organs having a definite chemical function. Pancreatic diabetes, bronze diabetes, pernicious ansernia, myxedema, acromegaly, cachexia, stru- mipriva, Addison's disease, these all come in this class ; (2) by a faulty metabolism wherebv normal amounts of waste products are not thrown off. Gout, diabetes, oxaluria, are ex- amples of this type; (3) through retention of the normal physiological products in the -organs themselves. Carbon dioxid poi.soning is a type; (4) by means of excessive production of physio- logical or pathological products. Diabetic coma, cystinuria, acetonuria. uremia are types of this form. Such a classification is necessarily very inadequate and will be found to be of service only as a general framework on which a more exact systematization of knowledge may take place. Consult: Herter, 'Chemical Pathology' (1902) ; Vaughan and Novy, 'Cellulartoxins' (1902). See Animal Alkaloids; Metabolism; Ptomaine; Toxicology. Au'to Sugges'tion. See Hypnotism. Autocrat of the Breakfast Table, The, a noted work by Oliver Wendell Holmes, consist- ing of imaginary conversations around a board- ing-house table. The characters are introduced to the reader as the Autocrat, the Schoolmis- tress, the Old Gentleman Opposite, the Young Man Called John, The Landlady, the Landlady's Daughter, the Poor Relation, and the Divinity Student. It is the most popular of Dr. Holmes' books ; and in none of them are his ease of style, his wit, his humor, his kindly sympathy and love of humanity, more clearly shown. Automatic Telephony. See Telephony, Automatic. Autom'atism, in animals the powder of movement or of action without any stimulus independent of. that arising in the protoplasm of cells and tissues. Thus Descartes regarded ani- mals (other than man) as "automata," and declared that they act independently of any voli- tion, or instinctive or intellectual power or tac- ulty; in other words, that their so-called mental acts are involuntary and mechanical — that they AUTOMATON — AUTOMOBILE may be compared to machines. In physiology while automatism is apparently the result of the internal conditions of the living body, yet strict- ly speaking, says Loeb, no animal movements are exclusively determined by internal condi- tions. The co-ordinated character of automatic movements, he says, has often been explained by a "centre of co-ordination,** which is sup- posed to keep a kind of police watch on the dif- ferent elements and see that they move in the right order. "But," he adds, "observations on the lower animals show that the co-ordination of automatic movements is caused by the fact that the element which beats most quickly forces the others to beat in its own rhythm.** The swarm-spores of algas, which possess no gan- glion cells, show spontaneity equal to that of animals having ganglion-cells, and he concludes that automatism is due to a chemical cause ; that is, the pressure or absence of certain ions, or, in other words, to the chemical consti- tution of the protoplasm. Consult Loeb, ^Physiology of the Brain* (1901). Autom'aton, a mechanical contrivance whose actions are arranged to correspond to those of a human being. Friar Bacon had the reputation of having constructed a brazen head v/hich spoke, and Regiomontanus an iron fly, v/hich, after making the tour of the room, re- turned to its master. Albertus Magnus is said to have spent 30 years in constructing a human figure which advanced to the door when any- one knocked, opened it, and saluted the visitor. In the water-clock presented to Charlemagne by Harun al-Rashid, 12 doors in the dial opened respectively at the hour which they rep- resented ; they continued open till noon, when 12 knights issued out on horseback, paraded round the dial, and then returning shut them- selves in again. Camus constructed an in- genious toy for Louis XIV., consisting of a carriage drawn by two horses, containing a lit- tle figure of a lady with a coachman and at- tendants. The coachman cracked his whip, the horses moved their legs naturally, and when the carriage arrived opposite the king's seat it stopped ; the page stepped down and opened the door ; the lady alighted and presented a peti- tion to Louis. The flute-players, the tambour- player, and the wonderful duck of Vaucanson are celebrated for the astonishing ingenuity dis- played in their construction. Among the most remarkable automata are the whist-playing and other figures designed by Maskelyne. Automobile. The word denotes prima- rily : A vehicle designed mainly for transporta- tion of persons on highways or over unpre- pared ground, equipped with an internal com- bustion, hydrocarbon-vapor engine, which fur- nishes the motive power and forms a structural portion of the vehicle. Secondarily, it is used as synonymous with "motor vehicle,** denoting a vehicle moved by inanimate power of any de- scription, generated or stored within it, and intended for the transportation of either goods or persons on common highways. As an ad- jective the word denotes broadly some relation to mechanically-driven vehicles. Even certain railway cars used on short feeder lines in France, Austria, Germany and Italy are known as "automobile railway cars** because they are driven by means of engines of types first used m motor vehicles, and, having passenger or freight space, also form independent, self-con- tained transportation units. The automobile, in the more distinctive pri- mary sense of the word, consists of : (i) Fuel tank; (2) Carburetter; (3) Engine, with 3a, the Mechanism of the Cooling System, and 3b, the Ignition System; (4) Clutch Mech- anism; (5) Power Transmission Mechanism, with 5a, Change-Gear Mechanism, and 5b Dif- ferential Gear; (6) Vehicle Frame and Springs; (7) Running Gear; (8) Brake Mechanism; (9) Steering Mechanism; (10) Carriage Work; (11) Lubrication System, and (12) Operating System, including the devices by which the operation of the vehicle is brought under con- trol of hand or foot motions of the driver. These various portions of the automobile form an organic whole, being more or less interde- pendent, and sharp lines distinguishing one portion from another cannot always be drawn. The classification serves convenience in de- scription, however. 1. Fuel Tank. — The source of the power de- veloped by the automobile motor is a liquid hydrocarbon fuel (see Hydrocarbons), which may be benzine, benzol, gasolene, naphtha, kero- sene, crude oil, alcohol (pure or mixed with other hydrocarbons, or water), a solid hydro- carbon, such as naphthaline, that can be liquefied at a low temperature (79° C), or calcium car- bide (see Acetylene), throwing off hydrocar- bon gas (acetylene) when moistened. In order to be utilized, the liquid fuel must be trans- formed into vapor, the vapor mixed with oxy- gen or atmospheric air, and the mixture ignited. Aside from the process of generating an un- stable gas by vaporizing the fuel, the principle of the automobile motor is identical with that of the gas engine operated with illuminating gas (see Gas Engine). The fuel tank is usually made of sheet cop- per and is provided with internal bulkheads to obviate swashing of the liquid. It should have as few seams as practicable, the solder should contain no ingredient soluble in the liquid the tank is intended to contain, and it should be mounted on a rigid foundation to obviate torsion, from which leakage might result. In most gasolene tanks a small air vent in the screw cap by which the charging aperture is closed permits the liquid to be drawn off grad- ually by gravity through a pipe leading to the carburetter. But the same air vent, if left open, causes loss of fuel by evaporation. By a more modern arrangement a small quantity of ex- haust gas is piped into the tank at each ex- haust stroke, supplying sufficient pressure to feed the fuel, even if the tank is below the level of the carburetter. 2. Carburetter. — Early carburetters were spacious and situated at some distance from the motor, connected by a pipe often 12 to 18 inches long and containing a diaphragm of wire gauze to prevent a flame from accidentally striking back to the vapor and liquid contained in the carburetter. Air was let into the latter from the atmosphere and brought in contact with a considerable area of the liquid (then always benzine, gasolene or naphtha), from which vapor was absorbed either by simple surface evaporation, or by forcing the air through the liquid, or by passing the air at high velocity through a narrow channel containing a wick saturated with the liquid. In all cases the sue- AUTOMOBILE tion stroke of the motor piston caused the air current. The composition of the mixture drawn into the cylinder, to be fired, was regulated by an additional air channel leading direct from the atmosphere to the induction pipe. In warm and dry weather the duct leading through the car- buretter was contracted and the direct air ad- mission opening was enlarged, while in cold and damp weather this adjustment was re- versed. The object was to obtain an explosive charge of unvarying quantity and composition for a motor intended for constant speed and power development, all necessary changes in vehicle speed being effected through the power- transmission gearing. In raw weather ice (from atmospheric moisture precipitated on the metal cooled by the evaporation of the fuel) Fig. I. — Simple Modern Carburetter, with Auto- matic Adjustment According to Throttlk Opening. A, Floating plunger. B, Inspection screw to T. C, Cap carrying float feed adjijstment. EE', Lock nut to V. F, Gasoline admission pipe. J, Gasoline nozzle. M, Regulating lever having disks formed with two openings to accord with S and S', in wall of mixing thamber. P. Float. R, Float chamber. SS, Air inlets. T, Induction pipe, to engine. was frequently formed in the carburetter and induction pipe, clogging them. By degrees the method of heating the air, by passing it around the exhaust pipe, was learned, and all pipes were shortened. Still, starting a "cold" motor was an uncertain operation, often requiring pre- liminary heating of the metal, as it still does (1904) when the heavier oils are used as fuel. The evolution of the modern carburetter was brought about by the necessity of regulating the force of explosions by a throttling system, to relieve the operator of frequent mechanical gear changes. The steps in this evolution were many and irregular, the most important one consisting in the employment of a nozzle from which the liquid fuel is drawn off in a spray by air suction, to take the place of surface evap- oration. Thus the quantity of fuel introduced in each explosive charge is regulated by a me- chanical factor which is under control, namely, the air current created by the suction stroke, and not materially affected by temperature and atmospheric conditions. This system requires a modification, however, because an air current w^ill suck liquid gasolene from a nozzle placed in its path in proportion to the square of the velocity of the current (approximately), while the power developed is in simple proportion to the velocity of the piston. An automatic device is therefore required for reducing the air cur- rent which draws the spray of fuel, while in- creasing the current of atmospheric air when the motor speed is being raised, and vice versa. The difference in devices serving this purpose constitutes the main difference in carburetters. Vol. 2 — 9. 3- Engine. — In adapting the gas engine to the automobile the first requirement, after de- vising the carburetter, was the reduction of weight and bulk. The heavy foundation and heavy fly-wheel were undesirable. A small cyl- inder with a piston working at high speed was preferable to a larger cylinder working with low compression and small piston speed. When weight was cut down and compression of the explosive charge was increased, it was found that the rapid succession of explosions shook the engine and vehicle in a manner destructive to the mechanism and disagreeable to the occu- pants of the vehicle. By lightening recipro- cating parts of the engine, distributing the weight of rotary parts equably with relation to the axis of revolution, by building engines with two, three or four cylinders instead of one, and balancing the explosions in one cylinder against those in an opposed cylinder, but most of all by learning to graduate the volume of the ex- plosive charges according to the requirements for power, excessive shaking and vibration were in course of years considerably reduced. Equally good results have been obtained with cylinders lying horizontally and standing ver- tically, the former being more readily "bal- anced," the latter more easily inspected and re- paired. Automobile motor cylinders are made of cast iron, seldom of steel. The pistons are of the trunk pattern, fitting loosely in the cyl- inders. Circumferential grooves in the pistons contain split iron rings (usually two or three at the upper and one at the lower end) suffi- ■2ZZZZZZZZZ2t Fig. 2. — Complicated Modern Carburetter, with Automatic Adjustment According to Throttle Opening and Piston Speed. I, inlet to induction pipe J to cylinder. F, throttle Ciston (to uncover aperture I more or less) actuated y rod H to governor. D, gasoline spray nozzle com- municating through E with gasoline float chamber (not shown). A, air inlet. M, additional air ports more or less uncovered by piston K, held in normal position by spring N and diaphragm P, rigid, and Q, flexible S, pinhole vent, moderating action of spring N. ciently elastic to expand snugly against the cyl- inder wall. The high temperature produced in the cylinders by the successive explosions oi AUTOMOBILE charges compressed 75 to 100 pounds per square inch before ignition preclude the use of packed fits. Throttling of the explosive charge is ac- complished by obstructing the induction pipe between the inlet valve and the carburetter noz- zle by means of a butterfly valve, or in any other suitable manner. Excessive speed of the motor under light load or when running idle is obviated by a centrifugal governor acting usu- ally upon the throttle valve, but in some in- stances upon the exhaust valve. In small motors the inlet valve is usually automatic, opened by the suction in the cylinder against the resistance of a helical spring as in a gas engine ; in large motors the inlet valve is fre- quently actuated from the cam shaft, as is the exhaust valve when opening, and with this con- struction throttling of the motor is sometimes effected by shutting the inlet valve before the suction stroke is completed. In four-cylinder motors reduction of the MuMers. — When the burnt gases are ex- hausted from the cylinder they are still of high temperature and of high tension and their es- cape into the atmosphere is therefore accom- panied by a report-like noise. To subdue this noise a muffler is employed, consisting of an ex- pansion box through whicli the gases must pass and in which the current of the gas is par- tially obstructed and subdivided. One of the most efficient mufflers consists simply in a box filled with parallel plates turned edgewise against the current of gas. 3a. The Ignition System. — When the mix- ture of gasolene spray and air (usually heated by contact with the exhaust pipe) reaches the inlet valve of each cylinder, the fuel is partially or wholly vaporized and absorbed in the air cur- rent. Entering the cylinder, some recondensa- tion takes place if the cylinder walls and piston are cold (as at the start), but the next piston stroke compresses the charge to a small volume (usually J4 to H of the whole cylinder volume), Fig. 3. — Longitudinal Section Through Four-Cylinder Mo- tor AND Flywheel Clutch. power development was until 1902 commonly ef- fected, when required, by preventing ignition in one or two of the cylinders, and also by shutting the exhaust valve before the exhaust stroke was completed, thereby setting up inter- nal resistance and also reducing the volume of the next explosive charge, while changing its composition by mixing it with the remaining exhaust gases. These methods are now (1904) almost abandoned. The earliest means of re- ducing the effective power of the motor con- sisted in retarding the ignition, so that the combustion would not be finished when the ex- haust valve was opened. This method is still generally used, but only as an auxiliary to the throttling of the explosive charge. and thereby heats its and prepares it for igni- tion. The means employed for igniting the charge consisted at first altogether, and still occasionally, in a kerosene lamp (later pattern: an alcohol vapor lamp) over the flame of which (later: in the flame) a platinum tube was screwed into the upper end, or combustion chamber, of the cylinder. The outer- end of the tube was closed and brought to red heat or in- candescence by the flame. By the compression stroke a small portion of the charge was forced into the tube and fired back into the cylinder when it reached the hot portion of the tube. The ignition took place at the highest compression or slightly earlier or later, varying according to the piston speed, Copyright by the Scientitic American. AUTOMOBILE MOWING MACHINES. AUTOMOBILE but the variation was insufficient to give the highest power at the highest piston speed and yet not too early for low speed, because the whole charge should be aflame and expanding with maximum force shortly after the power stroke has begun and, when the piston moves with high velocity, this cannot be accomplished unless the ignition begins long before the com- pression is at its maximum, the time required for spreading the flame being almost constant for a vapor mixture of given composition. The method was also unadapted for a motor in which the new throttling system introduced Fig. 4. — Jump Spark Plug. variations in compression, and the open flame of the lamp was a source of danger in case of gasolene leaks or road accidents. So, when the throttled fuel admission came in vogue, "hot tube" ignition, despite its reliability, was grad- ually abandoned in favor of the electric spark, produced internally in the cylinder head by (i) a dry battery; (2) an induction coil (see In- duction), causing a high-tension current; (3) an interrupter or "trembler," and (4) a switch turning the current off and on at the proper time, operated from the same camshaft from which the exhaust valve is opened. A "spark plug" contains the two terminal wires, insulated by porcelain, lava or pressed mica within a hol- low metal screw plug, and is screwed into the cylinder head. The terminals are about 1-16 inch part, and this is the length of the "jump Fig, 5. — Diagram of Magneto System for Igniting Explosive Vapor Mixture by Primary Current Jump Spark. A, permanent field magnets; B, armature of H-sec- tion; C, armature coil wound in two sections, D and E, connected in series; F, wire to one terminal of circuit breaker G, worked by cam H; I, grounding wire from other terminal of G to metal of armature and thence on to metal work of motor and vehicle; J, condenser in parallel with G; K, spark plug, wired from E's outer terminal. spark." The metal mass of the vehicle frame serves to "ground'* the current. The wiring throughout is insulated. Instead of a jump spark a "hammer spark" or a "wipe spark" may be used. ' The main drawback to this arrangement arises from the fact that the life and potentiality ot dry batteries vary greatly, so that they often fail unexpectedly. Storage batteries are used m their place in many European automobiles, but these too, eventually give out and must be recharged. A dynamo, however, driven by the vapor engine, furnishes a current for ignition so long as the mechanism remains in order, ren- ^enng the ignition an automatic function. While the other methods remain in extensive use, the dynamo driven by belt or gear from the motor shaft, is fitted to most high-powered automobiles, especially in the form known as the magneto. In the further development it became cus- tomary to use both the magneto, either high tension or low tension, and a storage br.ttery, the latter being required for starting the engine from the seat by turning on the electric spark in that one of the cylinders in which an ignitable charge remained after the last stop. 3b. The Cooling System. — Part of the heat generated by the explosions is transformed into the work of driving the piston, but a large por- tion is absorbed as heat in the piston, cylinder walls, valves, etc. These, unless artificially cooled, become so hot as to ignite the lubricat- ing oil, and also the next explosive charge be- fore the piston is in position to receive a new impulse. Such premature ignition drives the piston back in the direction opposite that de- Fig. 6. — Horizontal, Two-Cylinder, Air-Cooled Auto- mobile Engine. sired and stops the motor. The burning of lubricating oil also leaves a deposit on walls and valves which soon interferes with piston travel, valve action and spark ignition. The means adopted to keep the motor sufficiently cool are in brief as follows : Small cylinders (up to 2 horse-power) may be ribbed externally, thereby increasing the metal surface, from which heat is lost by radia- tion and contact with the atomsphere. Rapid motion, constantly bringing fresh cool air to the heated metal, is essential to render this system efficacious. When the motor works at full charges while the vehicle is at rest or moving slowly, renewal of the air must be ef- fected by a blow fan or equivalent means. A few automobiles are operated with air-cooled motors ; some of them are now equipped with a fan, but until recently the motors were usu- ally shut down when the cars were at rest, and the vehicles are not adapted for heavy, slow AUTOMOBILE work. The smaller each cylinder, the more ac- ceptable the air-cooling method, because a small cylinder has more radiation surface in propor- tion to the volume of vapor burned than a large cylinder. Ordinarily the automobile cylinder is kept at the proper temperature by means of a *water jacket'^ surrounding cylinder and valve chamber, a water circulating pump (driven from the motor shaft) and a "radiator* consisting of a nest of coiled tubes. The latter are strung with metal fins, soldered on, to increase the radiation area. A water tank is coimected with this sys- tem. The order of circulation is from water jacket to radiator, thence to the tank through pump and back to the water jacket. The pump is usually of the centrifugal class, sometimes "rotary" (see Pumps), and in a few automo- biles is omitted, circulation in that case depend- ing solely upon the difference in temperature between the water in the jacket and that in the radiator, the latter being unusually large. By increasing the dimensions of the pump, to produce more rapid circulation, and reducing the diameter of radiating tubes while increasing their total radiation surface, the amount of water to be carried and the capacity of the tank, have been gradually diminished. With the so- called "honeycomb*^ coolers the water tank is almost dispensed with, consisting of only two small compartments framing a network of flat- tened tubes erected in front of the motor, through which air is drawn rapidly by means of an exhaust fan, usually forming the spokes of the engine fly-wheel. The air current in this case is defined within a closed motor hood. In other cases the hood is provided with slits. In the winter when water might freeze and burst water jacket, cylinder or radiator, calcium chloride or glycerine is admixed to lower the freezing point, or a special oil distilled from crude petroleum is used instead of water. The water jackets were up to 1903 com- monly cast integrally with the cylinders, cylin- der heads and valve chambers, but the difficult cored castings were often faulty, especially when only cylinder heads and valve chambers were jacketed. More recently sheet copper has been secured to flanges on the cylinders, etc., so as to form a jacket between the copper and the plain cylinder casting, and weight reduc- tion as well as some elasticity (afifording secur- ity against accidental freezing of the water) have been gained thereby, while the quality of castings has been improved. With reference to sheet copper jackets, it is now noted, however, that difficul- ties were experienced in securing the joints against eventual leakage and in 1906 only three or four firms continued to employ this method, while the art of producing sound cast- ings of complicated design and with integral jackets and cylinder heads had advanced greatly. 4. Clutch Mechanism. — A vapor engine, like the gas engine, must be started by hand power, or auxiliary power of some kind, as no power is stored in it while at rest. It cannot be started, therefore, under load without an in- convenient efifort, and every automobile vapor engine (excluding those used on motor bicy- cles and motor boats) is arranged to be started running idle to be subsequently connected with its load by a clutch. Often there is a separate clutch for each rate of gear reduction. In ear- lier automobiles this was the rule, while now (1904) it is the exception. AH the various forms of clutches used in other branches of mechanical engineering have been tried on auto- mobiles, all being more or less perfectly adapted to the requirements : That they shall grip a motor shaft revolving at high velocity without sudden seizure ; that they shall be automatic- ally self-adjusting to wear within a consider- able range and further adjustable by a screw or other convenient means ; that the clutch sur- face shall be large enough and smooth enough to obviate injurious heating when slipping, and that the release shall be positive, without re- quiring much physical effort. The clutch most commonly used in those automobiles having the motor shaft disposed longitudinally of the vehicle, consists of a male truncated cone (angle 10 to 12 degrees), en- gaging a corresponding female cone formed in or attached to the rim of the motor flywheel. The male cone is leather faced, and is secured, slidingly, to the transmission gear shaft, a strong helical spring pressing it forward (or, in later construction, drawing it back) into the female cone. To secure concentricity of the two cones the transmission gear shaft is usu- ally journaled in the end of the motor shaft (carrying the flywheel) by a ball bearing, and end thrust at this point is obviated in modem design. The engagement of the clutch is ef- fected by a clutch lever which releases the spring, permitting the cones to come together. The same action usually releases one set of brakes, which is intended to be used only when the motor is disengaeed from the driving p'ear. After disengaging the clutch it requires a further movement of this lever to set these brakes. During 1905 and 1906 the cone clutch yielded its popularity for high-class auto- mobiles to the internal expansion clutch, which consists of two segments expanded by toggle levers or similar means against the inside of a drum formed upon the flywheel, and to the multiple-disk clutch, consisting of many small disks secured to the clutch shaft, alternat- ing with an equal number of annular disks secured in the flvwheel ; both series of disks being keyed against rotation but free to slide. 5. Pozvcr Transmission Mechanism. — In starting a heavy car from a standstill by clutch- ing a rapidly revolving motor shaft, there would be danger of breaking the connections between the clutch and the rear wheels (which are the driving wheels in nearly all automobiles, so far), or of stopping the motor by the resistance, unless the latter were reduced by gearing per- mitting the vehicle to move slowly while the motor shaft revolves at high velocity. As motor power is proportional to motor speed, under a given load, the necessity for at least one gear reduction between motor shaft and driving wheels remains, even with modern motors capable of being throttled to low speed, the power of the higher speed being frequently required for overcoming the inertia of the ve- hicle — on hills, for example. As a matter of fact, most heavy automobiles have three geared driving connections and one AUTOMOBILES. GASOLINE TuLRiNG CARS. AUTOMOBILE direct connection for going ahead, and one geared connection for driving backward, while lighter vehicles have one gear reduction for going ahead and one for reverse, besides the direct drive ahead. In all cases the motor speed alone determines the power available at the moment, and the motor speed in conjunc- tion with the driving gear employed determines the vehicle speed. The art of driving an auto- mobile coneists largely in using the smallest gear reduction (the "highest gear") and the smallest moior speed that, combined, will pro- duce the desired vehicle speed. Before motors could be throttled to give a wide range of power development, the art of driving consisted largely in the manipulation of the levers by which the gear reduction was changed. The development has been from gear control of the vehicle to throttle control of the motor; under both meth- ods the brakes are freely used as an auxiliary, especially in congested traffic. Hundreds of transmission systems have been, and are, in use, and are described in text- books on the subject. The mechanical elements of which they are composed are mainly those well known in machine tool practice : the belt. principle is the ^^expansion pulley* belt trans- mission system, which also takes the place of all change-gear mechanism. Only one belt is used, which has broad chamfered edges and transverse reinforcing strips sufficiently rigid to permit the belt to ride mainly on the edges over V-pulleys of changeable diameter. When the driving pulley is expanded the driven pulley is correspondingly contracted. The gear ratio may in this manner be altered by insensible graduations. See Pulley. Fig. 9 shows one pattern of power trans- mission in a vehicle with a transverse motor shaft. Fig. 10 shows the system of bevel- gear transmission, through change-gear mech- anism, to a differential gear on a countershaft and sprocket-and-chain transmission from the ends of the latter to the rear wheels, the rear axle being fixed. Fig. ii shows the system of bevel-gear transmission, through change-gear, to a differential gear on a divided rear axle which revolves and turns the wheels keyed to it. In modern construction of this type the rear driving axle is relieved of the support of all weight, being contained within a tubular sup- porting axle, brazed or bolted to the differential =i^^^Ms?h~ Fig. 8. — Cone Clutch (to the right), Sliding Gear Mechanism AND Universal Joint (to the left) to Bevel-gear Shaft. spur wheel, bevel gear and shaft, the counter- shaft, sprocket wheel and chain. From i886 to 1902 belts were employed to transmit power from a transverse motor shaft to a parallel countershaft in automobiles evolved from the model first designed and built by Karl Benz, of Maniilieim, Germany, in 1886. By a series of stepped pulleys, any pair of which could Ije clutched and keyed to the shafts, respectively, this belt sj'stem served also as engagement clutch and change-gear device. In cornmercial competition with toothed-gear transmission, pat- terned after the vehicle designed by Gottlieb Daimler, of Cannstatt, German}', also in 1886, the belt system gradually lost favor, probably more by reason of the energy and ingenuity ap- plied to the general improvement of vehicles equipped with tooth-gear transrriission and change-gear devices, than owing to any intrin- sic superiority of the gear drive. For the present (1904) belt transmission is practically abandoned. A surviving adaptation of the gear casing, on the ends of which the wheels are mounted by ball or rolling bearings, while the driving-axle-ends are keyed to the external faces of the wheel hubs. 5a. Change-Gear Mechanism. — The primi- tive change-gear included a clutch or key for each gear ratio. With numerous variations, the general principle is as follows : To the trans- verse motor shaft, prolonged beyond the fly- wheel, are rigidly secured spur wheels of vary- ing diameter. On a parallel countershaft are mounted other spur-wheels meshing pairwise with those on the motor shaft, but free to ro- tate around their own shaft, instead of with it, unless clutched. To a small spur wheel on the motor shaft corresponds a large one on the countershaft, and this combination produces, of course, the low countershaft speed which can be still further reduced by transmitting the mo- tion from a small sprocket wheel at the end of the countershaft to a larger one on the rear wheel of the vehicle. AUTOMOBILE Suppose the speed is divided by five from motor to countershaft and further divided by three by the sprocket chain ratio, the total re- duction is then from 15 to i ; the wheel re- volves once for fifteen revolutions of the motor shaft. The vehicle speed will further depend upon the diameter of the rear wheels. If this is about 34 inches, making the circumference about 9 feet, and the motor shaft revolves 900 times per minute or 15 times per second, the rear wheels, revolving once per second, will advance the vehicle 9 feet per second or 540 feet per minute. In ten minutes the car will have traveled 5,400 feet, or somewhat more than a mile, corresponding to between 6 and 7 miles per hour. By throttling the vapor ad- mission the motor speed may be reduced to 200 revolutions per minute, reducing the vehicle time. Modern developments of this system are much simplified, mainly by the employment of epicyclic gears. The change-gear system which was developed when the engine was placed in the front portion of the vehicle with the motor shaft in the plane of the lengthwise axis, was designed to reduce noise, wear and waste of power, by having only one pair of spur wheels in mesh at one time. It is known as the clash-gear or sliding-gear system (see Fig. 8). The shaft carrying the cone clutch has a universal joint coupling it to a shaft in prolongation of it, the latter carrying spur wheels of different diameter rigidly secured. It is journaled in an oil-tight casing hung in the vehicle frame. Lower in the same casing is journaled a parallel squared shaft carrying a slidable sleeve with rigidly secured Fig. 9. — Plan View of American Automobile " Runabout " Mechanism. With Transverse Engine Shaft, Horizontal Single- Cylinder Engine, Change-Gear by Brake Clutches and Epicyclic Gears and Side-Spring Vehicle Frame. Steering wheel, pillar, and gear not shown. A Radiator. B Engine. C Gasoline tank, D Muffler. E Water pump. F-G Clutches. H Chain. I Starting crank. J-J Side springs. K Water tank. L Differential. speed to i^ miles per hour. In early automo- spur wheels so disposed that, in one position biles, where throttling was not so effective, the of the sleeve, none of these spur wheels is in brake served to redi:ce the motor speed by in- mesh with any of those in the fixed, upper shaft, creasing the resistance. _ But when a fulcrumed fork, acting against a While one pair of spur wheels drives, the flange of the sleeve causes the latter to slide a several other pairs are, with this system, in short distance, one pair of gears, say, the lowest mesh, but revolve idly. This accounted largely gear, are engaged. A further motion in the for the metallic neise of the earlier models, same or the opposite direction, releases the low One of the pairs of spur wheels was not gear and engages the second gear. A still strictly in mesh but a small intermediate pinion further motion releases the second and engages on a rock shaft transmitted the motion to the the third ; and in the same manner the fourth spur wheel on the countershaft, thereby re- and the reverse are engaged and released. A versing its direction and causing the vehicle to small pinion on a special rock shaft produces the be driven backwards when the clutch was ap- reverse, as in the older system. The edges of olied to this purpose. Clutch levers and change- the spur teeth are rounded to facilitate mesh- gear levers were identical, and were so inter- ing, and the cone clutch is automatically re- locked that only one clutch could be set at one leased while a change of gear is made; yet it American Touring Equipment. Car with Full Road 2. Automobile Used Sightseeing. for Excursions and AUTOMOBILE requires rapid and resolute manipulation of the change-gear lever (or levers) to avoid burring of the spur wheels. Ingenious arrangements are made in many cars to have consecutive motions of the gear lever produce a consecutive ^^ransition from the lower to the higher gear, and vice versa. In some cases the upper shaft is divided into two portions, the rear one of which, in its foremost position, grasps the front portion by a hollow square while all spur wheels are disengaged, thereby transmitting power direct from the motor shaft to the differential gear without speed reduction. The advantage is always bought at the cost of more gear complications for the lower speeds. 5b. Differential Gear. — This apportions mo- tion between the two rear wheels, permitting one to revolve faster than the other, as at turns, where the outer wheel describes a longer curve than the inner one. The dififerential gear used in automobiles was at first the same as used in other mechanical constructions (see Differ- machine portions of an automobile has been real- ized only by degrees. The small motors of early vehicles were mounted either in the wagon 'box at the rear of the seat (only one seat), with 'two radius rods running from the motoi shaft to the rear axle (so as to keep the sprocket chain at even tension), or on a rieid frame of angle iron or steel tubes extending from the rear to the front axle. The latter method sur- vived in a few instances up to 1900 and is now observed only in some heavy vehicles intended for slow hauling of goods, in which the absence of spring suspension for the motor mechanism is not so injurious as in fast-moving cars. Metal reaches between the two axles, serving merely to brace the construction, survived longer, but finally disappeared with the general adoption of a rigid steel frame supported by four semi-elliptical springs and carrying the entire mechanism as well" as the vehicle body. Some notable American exceptions to this rule have inverted elliptical springs transversely in front instead of the two semi-elliptical springs, Fig. 10. — Plan of Automobile "Chassis" of Type Common FOR " Touring Cars." With 3-cylinder engine, longitudinal shaft, cone clutch, clash change-gear, sprocket chain drive from countershaft to rear wheels. Steering wheel, pillar, and gear not shown. A Radiator. B Starting handle C Motor. D Flywheel. E Change gear case. F Counter-shaft. G-G Side chains. H Band brake. T-J Sides of frame K Gasoline tank. L Muffler. ENTiAL Ge.\r), consisting of two bevel-gear plates, of equal diameters, mounted on the con- tiguous end portions of the divided shaft, de- signed to be revolved, and four bevel-gear pin- ions journaled radially between the two gear plates and meshing with them. Motion trans- mitted to the ring holding the outer ends of the pinion shafts, cause both bevel-gear plates to revolve equally, unless one resists more than the other, in which case the small pinions re- volve and permit the plate which moves easier to move farther. In the United States a form of dififerential gear was developed in connection with automobiles, in which straight spur wheels and pinions took the place of bevel-gears. 6. Vehicle Frame and Springs. — The need of a special metal frame for supporting the giving the front axle more freedom to oscillate, as required when traveling over rough ground. Many popular small American automobiles form another exception, having the entire frame se- cured by clips to the inactive middle portions of two side leaf-springs, whose bent-down rear and front portions are secured to the rear and front axles, respectively (see Fig. 9). At first most frames were made of wood or drawn steel tubes brazed together (an adaptation from bicycle construction). Subsequently greater rigidity was attained bv armoring the wood with steel flitch plates, or by the use of structural iron or steel in various shapes, bolted and riveted together. This was convenient for experimental work, changes being easily effected. When the types of vehicles became more defi- AUTOMOBILE nilely accepted, frames pressed in one piece from larg-e blanks of sheet steel made their apoearance. P ns of sheet steel joined the side reaches forminfr a protection underneath against mud and dust and prevented oil drip. The springs used in automobiles are gen- erally common carriage leaf springs calculated for such weights as they are intended to sup- port. In course of time their length and weight have been gradually increased, with a view to combining strength with great flexibility. In case of side springs extending from axle to axle, as referred to above, this tendency influenced and modified the general design of the vehicles. 7. Running Gear. — In this division may be included axles, wheels and tires. Nearly all early automobiles (1890 to 1898) were equipped with wire-spoke wheels, the spokes laced tan- gentially to the hub on the suspension principle borrowed from bicycle construction. These wheels have given way to stout wood wheels, seldom more than 34 inches in diameter, built around a metal hub and enclosed in an iron ring to which a solid or inflated rubber tire is attached. The pneumatic or air-inflated rubber-covered canvas tire is used almost exclusively for pleas- selves readily to traction from one motive centre, but front wheels are sometimes arranged to re- volve in a slightly inclined (2°) plane, with a view to facilitating the steering operation by bringing the ground contact of the wheel directly under the pivot pin, a design of special value on rough ground where slanting impacts at the wheel rim w^ould otherwise tend to turn the wheel or strain the steering gear. The front axle of automobiles is stationary and frequently bowed down at the middle to permit a low position of the motor. To each end, just beyond the spring clips, is brazed a "knuckle* or fork, in which is journaled a pivot pin carrying at right angles, or slightly inclined, the rock shaft around which the front wheel revolves, usually on ball or roller bearings. The pivot pin is mounted in end-thrust ball bearings. Each pivot pin carries, besides the wheel shaft, a lever arm, projecting either forward and slightly outward, or rearward and slightly for- ward. The arms are connected by a rod, synchronizing the turning of the two wheels. The steering gear acts upon this rod or upon an additional arm on one of the pivot pins. The ''fifth wheeP^ device has never been generally Fig. II. — Side Elevation of Automobile Chassis. With bevel-gear driving shaft from change-gear to differential gear on special rear driving axle separate from the rear supporting axle of the vehicle. ure automobiles, and its maintenance involves from 25 per cent to 50 per cent of the cost of operating a vehicle. On the other hand, air-tires aff'ord a cushioning action, supplementary to that of the carriage springs, which protects machinery and wheels, especially against lateral shocks, in a manner for which no substitute has been found for vehicles intended for a speed above 15 or 20 miles per hour. At such and higher speeds the tire resiliency is characterized by the avoidance of vertical recoil. Autoinobile wheels are also made of steel tubing, locked and brazed in a steel hub; elastic wheels with S-shaped spokes of tempered metal leaves have been tried, as well as composite wheels involving a cushioning medium between the felloe and the hub. So far (1904) the wheels have not been dished (to gain strength), as inclined or «set» axle ends do not lend them- used in automobiles, being practical only when- steadied with the leverage of a long pole, as in horse-drawn vehicles. The bearings in automobile wheels were first plain ''parallel bearings,* then mostly ball bear- ings. Then followed a reaction favoring plain bearings. Lately ball bearings (in Europe) and roller bearings (in America) are usually fitted and, if well made and calculated for their loads, give satisfaction and reduce traction resistance, besides being more durable than parallel or coned shaft bearings. Rear axles are either stationary (solid, tubu- lar or H-shaped), carrying wheels revolved by sprocket wheels and chains, or rotary and di- vided near the middle by the difi'erential gear, the wheels keyed to the axle ends and the bear- ings clipped to the vehicle springs. It was early found, however, that an axle supporting the Type of European High-power Touring Car. 2. American Touring Car 1906, with Air- cooled 4-cylinder Engine and Dummy Radiator Front. AUTOMOBILE greater portion of the vehicle's weight should not be subjected to the alternating stresses re- sulting from rotation, unless it was made much stronger, theoretically, than a fixed axle. Grad- ually the divided and revolving axle was there- fore modified until a design was developed sep- arating motive power from support, as explained under Power Transmission. (8) Brake and (9) Steering mechanism, and also (10) Carriage work are essentially con- structed on the same principles in vapor engine automobiles as in motor vehicles in general and are referred to under Motor Vehicles. II. Lubricating System.— The lubrication of vapor engines presents certain difficulties caused by the very high temperature of pistons and cylinder walls, and the liability of fouling valves and spark points if an excess of lubricant is used. A thin oil of high flash and ignition test is required, but it is of still higher importance that the oil shall not "crack'^ ; that is, split into por- tions which burn completely when ignited and other portions which leave a residue. The mer- cantile method of placing different oils on the market under the same name, and the same oil under different names (allowing agents to name it), has obscured lubricating problems and re- FlG. 12. — Elev.'^tion of Automobile Front Axle with Knuckles, Steering Pivot Pins, and Inclined Wheel Shafts. A, Front Axle; BB, Knuckles; CC, Pivot pins; D, Rod connecting arms on pivot pins; E, connection from arms to steering gear (not shown J. tarded uniformity in practice. With vertical cylinders it is customary to place a quantity of oil in the crank casing and depend upon lubri- cating the cylinder and connecting rod by the oil splashed from the casing by the rotation of the crank. For horizontal cylinders sight feed drip lubricators regulated by hand have been extensively used, as they still are for steering gear, transmission gear and wheel bearings, but the most approved practice demands a force feed system operated from the cam shaft of the engine, so as to proportion the feed to the engine speed. It is common practice to stuff the change- gear box with grease (vaseline and graphite is a popular mixture) and to use cylinder oil for all other bearings. Mechanical oilers distribut- ing the oil from a central reservoir, often placed on the dashboard, through a svstem of canaliza- tion and by pressure derived from small positive plunger pumps within the reservoir, driven by gear or chain from the cam shaft, are gener- ally employed. 13. Operating System. — The devices by which the operator of an automobile controls the motor, clutch or clutches, the chan"^e-gear, brakes, steering wheel and the lubrication sys- tem have undergone many changes and remain much diversified. The starting device is nearly alwavs a detachable crank fitting the squared end of the motor shaft, either in front of the vehicle or at the side. The motor, when started, automatically releases the crank, the turning of the shaft pushing the crank out of engagement by a screw action supported bv a spring. In many automobiles a small lug prevents the in- sertion of the crank if the ignition device hap- pens to be adjusted to give an early spark which would start the piston in the wrong direction, and whereby the crank might be thrown vio- lently back, injuring the starter. The spark-timing handle and the throttle handle are generally placed close to the steer- ing wheel (or steering lever), while one band brake (usually acting on the circumferential ring of the differential gear), and the cone clutch are actuated by one or more pedals. The change- gear lever (sometimes two) and the brake lever (actuating band brakes contracting around, or expanding into, drums in the rear wheels) usually extend through slots in the footboards, or at the side of the vehicle within convenient reach of the operator's right hand. In a few cases the operating devices are at the left side, the operator's seat being there. Automobiles vary more, perhaps, in the arrangement of oper- ating devices than in any other feature of con- struction, and 1 brief general description cover- inp- established practice is therefore impossible. In the broadest definition of "automobile,* which is sanctioned by common usage, the word may be applied to any mechanically propelled vehicle, whether the source of power is a vapor engine, or steam engine, an electric accumulator or storage batterv. stored compressed air or any other form of primarv or secondary generator, but historically the word was not coined or ap- plied until (about 18S8, it seems) the appearance in France of benzine vapor engine vehicles, while steam cars for common highways antedate loco- motives, having been made, especially in Eng- land, before the railways were thought of. The development of electric vehicles also began inde- pendently of the vapor engine vehicle. If a dis- tinction should be made between automobiles and motor vehicles — and the distinction would be a convenience in nomenclature — the latter term should be the broader one, including all forms of power, while "automobile" should be reserved for motor vehicles equipped with a vapor-explosion engine and driven by purely mechanical transmission of power from the en- gine shaft. Recent Development. — From 1904 to 1906 the development of the automobile in America was marked by a very general adoption of four- cylinder engines, even for vehicles of small size, and by a wider use of the air-cooling system, both resulting in a remodeling of the "runabout" style, with its single-cylinder engine in the mid- dle portion of the frame. The single-chain drive to the rear axle was usually replaced by a bevel-gear shaft. The characteristics of the "runabout" were thereby removed ; it became simply a "small car" for two persons, often equipped with sliding gear transmission. The epicycle transmission gear, on the other hand, found extensive employment in delivery wagons and trucks, being more easily operated by inex- perienced drivers. Two-cylinder engines, of the AUTOMOBILE SPEED RECORDS —AUTREFOIS CONVICT horizontal, ^^double-opposed" type, were com- monly used for these business vehicles and were second to the four-cylinder engine in popularity for pleasure automobiles of medium size and power. In general, the development was toward greater refinement in all details of the vehicles, but at the same time the increased reliability of the gasoline engine was seized upon by some manufacturers as a signal for a return to the "gasoline buggy" type, a vehicle built as an ordi- nary buggy or surrey placed on a steel frame, however with a horizontal, two-cylinder engine underneath it and a very simple steel cable driv- ing device to pulleys on the .rear wheels ; the reverse being operated by a small sheave acting by direct frictional contact upon the solid tires of the large dished carriage wheels. In practically all automobiles the tread pedals, or piano pedals, used for control of clutch and brakes and sometimes for the throttle, as well, were replaced by pedals pushed forward by the ■foot instead of down. In accordance herewith, information in re- gard to steam and electric vehicles for common roads, as well as vehicles propelled through electric motors deriving their current from either a steam or a vapor engine, will be found, together with general information applying to all types, under Motor Vehicles. Marius C. Krarup, Formerly Editor of ^The Automobile? Automobile Speed Records. The most im- portant affairs in the world of automobiling, from the viewpoints of record-making and breaking, enthusiasm and excitement, are the Glidden Tour, the Auto Show, and the Vander- bilt Cup Race. This latter event, inaugurated in 1904, was, for that year, over a 30-mile tri- angular Long Island course. The records made and the big attendance, 50,000, stamped this cup race as certain to become a great national an- nual affair in the realm of outdoor sport. George Heath, an American, was the winner, in a French Panhard. Lytle, also an American, finished third in an American-made car, a 24- horse-power Pope-Toledo. The exact distance was 284.J miles ; time, 5 hours, 26 minutes, 45 seconds ; the average rate of speed being 52.2 miles. The second Vanderbilt Cup Race, held Octo- ber 14, 1905, resulted in the triumph of Hemery, a Frenchman, in a Darracq car. Heath's Panhard being second. The distance covered was 283 miles ; time, 4 hours. 36 minutes, 8 seconds, the average rate of speed Ijeing 61.51 miles per hour. The third Vanderbilt Cup Race, held on October 6, 1906, was won by Louis Wagner, a Frenchman. The distance covered was 297.1 miles ; time, 4 hours. 50 minutes, 10 seconds. The average rate of speed per hour being 61.43 miles. More than 250,000 people witnessed the event. Grand Prix, Sanhe Circuit (Prance), 766 miles, 12.14.07. Flono Cup Contest, Brescia Circuit (Italy), 311. 12 miles, 4.46.47. 1Q05 Ardennes, Ardennes Circuit, 372.8 miles, S-sS.- 3214. 1905 Bennett Cup, Auvergne Circuit, 341.4 miles, 7.10.00. 1906 Ardennes, Ardennes Circuit, 376 miles, 5.38.00. Auton'omy, the self-government of a state. This power may reside within limited bodies of the same people, such as parishes, corpora- tions, religious sects. These districts or com- munities may be autonomous, if not absolutely, yet within certain defined limits. They may be said to enjoy a partial, limited, or local auton- omy. Autonomy is often used to designate the characteristic of the political condition of ancient Greece, where every city or town com- munity claimed the right of independent sov- ereign action. Recently the word is more specifically used of territories or provinces, which, while subject in some matter to a higher sovereignty, are autonomous in other re- spects. Thus the Treaty of Berlin made eastern Rumelia an autonomous province ; though sub- ject to the direct political and military author- ity of the Sultan, it was to have administrative autonomy in all its internal affairs. Egypt pos- sesses a higher autonomy. The self-govern- ment enjoyed bv the British colonies may be de- scribed as a modified form of autonomy. Autoplate, a machine for making and fin- ishing curved stereotype printing plates for use in printing newspapers, invented by H. A. Wise Wood of New York, the first put into use upon the New York Herald. This machine, after a flexible papier-mache matrix, made from a type page, is inserted therein, proceeds to cast print- ing plates, weighing about 50 pounds each, at the rate of four a minute, and to dress their edges and inner surfaces and prepare them for attachment to the printing cylinders, and this is done automatically — all within the com- pass of one machine. Previous to the advent of the autoplate such work had been inva- riably done by hand-worked devices, with which the fastest rate of production attainable was at the rate of slightly less than one plate per minute. So great a change did this invention make in the work of stereotyping upon the la.ger newspapers, that not only was the machine generall" adopted, but in every case the hand apparatus were entirely dispensed with, and sole dependence placed upon the auto- plate. Autran, 6-tran', Joseph, French poet: b. Marseilles, June 1813 ; d. there, 6 March 1877. His verse is admired for its purity of form and refined sentiment. He attracted attention in 1832 v.-ith an ode to Lamartine, 'The Departure for the East.^ His works include 'The Sea,' poems (1835) ; 'Milianah,^ an epic (1842) ; 'Rural Life> (1856) ; and 'The Daughter of ^schylus,^ drama (1848), which won a prize from the French Academy. Autrefois Convict, 6'tr-fwa' kon-ve', in criminal pleading, a plea made by a defendant indicted for a crime or misdemeanor, that he has formerly been tried and convicted of the same. This plea is similar in form as the plea of autrefois acquit, and is based upon the same general principle, to wit: thj.t no man's life or liberty shall be twice put in jeopardy for the same offense. A plea of autrefois convict, which shows that the judgment on the former indictment has been reversed for error in the judgment, is not a good bar to another indict- ment for the same offense. But a prior convic- tion before a justice of the peace, and a per- formance of the sentence pursuant to the judgment, constitute a bar to an indictment for the same offense, although the complaint on which the judgment proceeded was so defective AUTUMN — AVA that his judgment might have been reversed for error. The New York Code of Criminal Pro- cedure, § 9, expressly prohibits a second prose- cution for the same crime. At common law it is necessary, according to the weight of authority in a majority of the United States, to specially plead former conviction or acquittal. In many of the States, however, by statute, the plea of autrefois acquit may be taken advantage of un- der the plea of not guilty. The statute adopted in New York is similar in its terms to that of many other States. It is provided by the New York Code of Criminal Procedure, § 322, that a plea of tormer judgment of conviction or ac- quittal of the crime charged may be pleaded with or without the plea of not guilty. Au'tumn, the season of the year w^hich follows summer and precedes winter. Astro- nomically, it is considered to extend from the autumnal equinox, 22 September, in which the sun enters Libra, to the winter solstice, 22 De- cember, in which he enters Capricorn. In popular speech it includes the months of Sep- tember, October, and November. Autun, 6-ten, France (ancient Bibracte), a town in the department of Saone et Loire, of considerable interest both from its antiquities and from its modern edifices. Of the former the more remarkable are two Roman gates of exquisite workmanship and in good preserva- tion, the ruins of an amphitheatre and of sev- eral temples ; of the latter the most conspicu- ous is the cathedral of St. Lazare, a Gothic structure of the nth century. Pop. (1896) 11,873. Autunite, a beautiful canary-yellow min- eral, occurring in thin, tabular crystals of ortho- rhombic symmetry, but closely approaching the tetragonal mineral torbernite in form. Both of these minerals are hydrous phosphates of uranium, but while calcium is an essential constituent of autunite, whose formula is Ca(U02)2P208 + 8H20, it is replaced by copper in torbernite, which is further distinguished by its green color. Autunite has eminent basal cleavage, resulting in a pearly lustre on the basal plane, while on the edges of the crystal the lustre approaches adamantine. It has a hardness of 2 to 2.5 and a specific gravity of about 3.12. Some autunite is beautifully fluor- escent. Its name is derived from its most noted locality, Autun, France, where it is found in closely aggregated masses of crystals. Other noteworthy occurrences are in Cornwall, Eng- land, in Saxony, North Carolina and South Dakota. Auvergne, ovarn'y, a province of central France, now included in the departments Cantal, Puy-de-D6me, and Haute Loire. The moun- tains of Auvergne are the highest in the interior of France, the highest of them, Puy-de-D6me, being 4.805 feet above the sea. It is entirely composed of volcanic matter, and has a regular crater 1,000 feet in circumference, and 300 feet deep. The whole of the cones present the same general character — well-defined craters en- closed by regular cones, on whose sides the lava currents may be traced as easily as on those of Vesuvius. Auvergne, Mountains of, a branch of the Cevennes, chiefly situated in the depart- ments of Puy-de-D6me and Cantal (France). The most important peaks are Puy-de-Sancy (6,185 feet), Plomb du Cantal, and Puy-de- Dome. Auwers, Arthur, German astronomer: b. Gottmgen 12 Sept. 1838. He became assistant m the observatory at Konigsberg in 1859, and at Gotha in 1862; in 1866 was made a member of the Berlin Academy and astronomer to it. In his capacity of president of the Astronomical Society he was conspicuously identified with the preparation of the great co-operative cata- logue of over 100,000 stars. For his services to astronomy he was made a foreign member of the Academy of Sciences at Washington, from which he also received the Watson gold rnedal. Among his works are (1882-8), and (1896). Aux Cayes, o-ka', a seaport town of Haiti, situated on the southwest coast of the island, about 85 miles west of Jacmel. It has an ex- cellent harbor, a good export trade, and is the seat of an American consular agent. Pop. about 25,000. Auxerre, 6-sar' (ancient Antissiodurum) , a town in France, 96 miles southeast of Paris. It is finely situated on a height above the Yonne, which here becomes navigable, but is very poorly built. Its principal edifices are its cathedral of St. Stephen, a splendid Gothic structure, with a finely proportioned interior, and windows containing most beautiful stained glass; the church of St. Germain, with some curious crypts; and a magnificent old episcopal palace, now converted into the Hotel de Prefecture. The manufactures consist of woolens, hats, wine casks, leather, red and yellow ochre, earthen- ware, and violin strings; and the trade is chiefly in wood and in the wines of the district Of these wines the most famous is the white Chablis. Pop. (1896) 15,082. Auxonne, 6-siin' (Latin Asona or Aus- soiia), a town in France, 18 miles east-south- east of Dijon, on the left bank of the Saone, here crossed by a beautiful bridge of 23 arches. Auxonne is well built, the seat of a court of commerce, and has a communal college, and a public library containing 4,000 volumes; a castle, an arsenal, and a cannon foundry. Pop. (1896) 6,700. Auzout, 6-zoo', Adrian, French mathe- matician: d. 1691, inventor of the micrometer, still in use among astronomers to measure the apparent diameter of celestial bodies. He was the first who thought of applying the telescope to the astronomical quadrant. Ava, a'va, or Aungwa, a town in Asia, the former capital of Ava or Birmah, on the Irra- waddy. It has a circuit of about five miles, and consists of an inner and an outer town, each surrounded by a brick wall. Pop. (1891) 39,477- A'va, Arva, Yava, or Kava (Piper methys- ticum), a plant of the natural order Piper- acecc, possessing narcotic properties. It is a shrubby plant, with heart-shaped acumi- nate leaves, and very short, solitary, axil- lary spikes of flowers. It is a native of many of the South Sea Islands, where AVADHUTA — AVALON the inhabitants intoxicate themselves with a fermented Hquor prepared from the upper por- tion of the root and the base of the stem. The rhizone is thick, woody, rugged, and aromatic. The intoxicating Uquor is prepared by macerat- ing it in water. The narcotic property is ascribed to an acrid resin, kazvine, present in the root. The taste is unpleasant to those un- accustomed to it, and has been likened to that of rhubarb and magnesia. The intoxication is not like that produced by ardent spirits, but rather a stupefaction like that caused by opium. It is succeeded by a copious perspiration. The habitual use of ava causes a whitish scurf on the skin, which, among the heathen Tahitians, v.'as reckoned a badge of nobility, the common people not having the means of indulgence re- quisite to produce it. Ava is, like cocaine, a local ansesthetic. Avadhuta, ii'va-d'-hoo'ta, a member of a mendican sect in southern India addicted to self-torture. Av'alanche, a mass of snow or ice which slides down steep mountain slopes. On lofty mountains snow would accumulate indefinitely if the excess were not removed by sudden falls or by glaciers which bring it into the valleys, where it melts. Avalanches may occur at any season of the year, but they are most frequent in early spring after the snow has begun to melt from the sun's rays. The water_ which collects beneath the snow bank loosens it from the ground, and the whole mass may then be precipitated to the base of the mountain. Such avalanches occur regularly in the Alps, where they are known as grundlazvinen. Another type (staublazvinen) occurring in the winter season is characterized by the dry and finely divided condition of the snow, and results from the overloading of the snow-fields. A third class is the ice-avalanche, occurring along the course of glaciers. Avalanches are often very destructive, sweeping away trees, houses and everything in their path. Their destructive ef- fects are greatly increased by the wind-blasts which accompany them. Those occurring in winter usually cause the greatest loss of life, as they develop suddenly and without warn- ing; those that take place in spring generally follow a definite path and are more or less regular in their occurrence. The planting of forests on the high slopes sometimes affords protection from avalanches, but when this is not feasible, stone structures are employed. Aval Islands. See Bahrein. Av'alon, Cal., a summer resort on Santa- Catalina Island, established for the purpose of supplying the comforts of life at a minimum cost. It is owned by a joint stock company, and was literally built to order when it was determined to build the town. The sight se- lected was a desert, with not a tree in sight and only a few shanties of fishermen along shore. Water was found in a neighboring caiion to the north and piped over the hills. The ground was leveled, the hollows filled, and small prominences cut down. The surveyor platted the tract, laid out streets, avenues, walks, and a central plaza or park with provision for fountains. This accomplished, the plumbers fol- lowed, and a system of sewerage and water pipes was introduced. The aid of the forester was next called into play, and the streets and avenues were planted with small Australian eucalyptus trees. A wharf was .built, a hotel or restaurant, several cottages for the superin- tendent, a number of tents erected, and what is known as the "tent city" was finished. The tent city is a feature peculiar all along the southern California coast, for the benefit of ranchers and others from the inland cities and towns who desire to escape the heat and enjoy life at the seashore at a minimum cost. What is known as the "tent city" is more or less peculiar to California, and the local papers, from the heart of the Sierras to the sands of the ocean, during the summer months, all con- tain glowing advertisements of the "tent city.*^ Such cities, with a population of several hun- dred, are found at many points on the Pacific coast. The equipment of the "tent city® con- stitutes a business in itself. At Avalon is a large circus tent which in winter contains fur- niture of every description. Here, in fact, the "tent city* was in winter quarters, everything being classified and arranged with order and system. In April or May a gang of workrrien descends upon the winter quarters, and like magic the vacant lots are filled, and in a day a city is reared as though by the touching of the proverbial button. Each tent is neatly and well furnished, and can be rented for a nominal cost, the owners of the island giving the ground rent and free water, each lot being sew- ered and perfect in its sanitary arrangement. The visitor can rent a tent for sleeping, a parlor and kitchen, or he can rent a single room. In the centre of the "tent city" is a store where every description of food, carefully prepared and cooked, can be obtained. Near by the Y. M. C. A. has opened a reading room and library. The questions of the physical and moral wel- fare of such a community would seem an im- portant and difficult one to manage, but all this and even the amusements are included in the plan, and we have a city where every door is open and where probably the jail is used hardly once in the season. On the borders of the city is a large amusement hall, and in the neighbor- ing grove is a band stand where the finest band in southern California gives an open-air con- cert from 7 until g, seats being provided for 1,200 people. No smoking is allowed with- in the area of the seats. At the end of the con- cert the band adjourns to the "pavilion," and a ball is given free to the inhabitants of the "tent city" and others. No policeman is in evidence in the town, though guardians of the peace are present in citizen's clothes. In fact, here is a summer municipality of large size, conducted by a corporation that attends to everything; keeps the town clean, provides amusement, sustains a health officer, adminis- ters justice through a justice of the peace, pro- vides the government with a post-office, and maintains two daily boats between the island and the mainland — an experiment in govern- ment worthy the attention of the pessimist wha affects to believe that communities cannot be run by machinery, as this virtually is, so well ar- ranged and systematized are the methods. It might be assumed that a series of stringent and excessive taxes would be imposed upon each resi- dent, but investigation shows that each resident of the tent city of Avalon pays but $2.75 per capita per season for the privileges, which is the AVALON — AVELLANED A •cost of round trip fare from Los Angeles to the island, a distance of 50 miles, more or less. This and the rent of tent constitute the sole tax. The winter population is generally less than 1,000, but in summer 75,000 persons are to be found at times living within the corporate limits. Av'alon, the legendary elysium of King Arthur, being his abode after disappearing from the haunts of men ; called also Avilion. The name is also identified with Glastonbury, and has been given to a peninsula of New- foundland. Avalos, a'va-los', the name of a noble Neapolitan family, which included Ferdinand D' Avalos, IMarquis de Pescara : b. Naples, 1490; d. 1525. He served with distinction in the army of Charles V., and was taken prisoner by the French at the battle of Ravenna in 15 12. He beguiled the hours of captivity by writing a * Dialogue of Love,^ which he dedicated to his wife, the beautiful and accomplished Vittoria Colonna. He soon recovered his libertj'^, and subsequently displayed extraordinary ability in the wars of Charles V. Avancini, Nicholas, an ascetic writer of the Society of Jesus : b. 1612 ; d. 1686. His lit- tle book of meditations on the life and doctrine of Jesus Christ which has been translated into several languages and is widely used to-day by members of clergy, first appeared in Vienna in 1665. By reason of its arrangement, its scrip- tural sources, its pithy suggestiveness, and its practical character. Cardinal Gibbons states that it has been his Vade Alecum, his book of meditations during all the years of his ministry. Avare, L', la-var' (The Miser), the title of one of the most famous of Moliere's prose comedies, first produced 9 Sept. 1668. It is founded on the 'Aulularia^ of Plautus, and was paraphrased by Fielding in his comedy of *Tlie Miser. ^ Harpagon is a sexagenarian miser who incarnates the spirit of avarice and has determined to marry a young woman named Mariane, but ultimately prefers his gold to matrimony. Avars, a'varz, or Avares, a nation of Mon- golian or Turkish origin, who at an early period migrated to the regions around the Don, the Caspian Sea, and the Volga. They served in Justinian's army, and later made themselves masters of Dalmatia, pressed into Thuringia and Italy, where they fought with the Franks and Lombards, and extended their dominion over the Slavonians dwelling on the Danube and farther north, as well as over the Bul- garians on the Black Sea. They were at length overcome by Charlemagne, and after 827 dis- appear from history ; but the valley of Erlav, a small tributary of the Danube in Lower Austria, was called the "land of the Avars" as late as the loth century. The name is also borne by a tribe estimated to number upward of 100.000, now living in the Caucasus Mountains, noted for their strug- gle with Russia, in which they were led by Schamyl (q.v.). See also Lesghians. Avatar, iv'a-tar', in Hindu mythology, an incarnation of the Deity. Ten avatars are pe- culiarly distinguished, and four of them are the subjects of Purdnas, or sacred poems. These ID are among the incarnations of Vishnu, the supreme God. The Matsya avatar was the de- scent of the Deity in the form of a fish ; Kach- yapa or Kurma, in that of a tortoise; Varaha, as a boar; Nara-sinha, as a monster, half man, half lion; Vamana, as a dwarf; Parasurama, as the son of Jamadagni. All these took place in the Satya Vuga, or golden age. The seventh incarnation was in the form of the four sons of King Dasaratha, under the names of Rama, Lakshmana, Bharata, and Satrughna, in order to destroy certain demons that infested tht earth. The achievements of Rama form the subject of the celebrated epic called the Rama- yana. The eighth avatar of Vishnu, in the form of Krishna, is the best known of all, from the fact that it forms the subject of the great Sanskrit epic poem, the Mahabharata. Its ob- ject was to relieve the earth from the Daityas, and the wicked men who oppressed it. The ninth was in the form of Buddha. The Kalki, or tenth avatar, is yet to come at the end of the Kali Yuga, or the iron age. See Vishnu. Avatcha, a-va'cha, a volcano and bay in. Kamchatka. The volcano, 9,000 feet high, was last active in 1855. The town of Petropavlovsk is situated on the bay. Ave Maria, a'va ma-re'a (Latin; hail Mary, frorn averre) ; among ithe Roman Catholics the beginning of a prayer to the Virgin, whence the whole prayer is called Ave Maria. It is the beginning of the salutation which the angel addressed to the Virgin, as he announced to her that she should be the mother of the Sa- viour (Luke i. 28; "Hail, highly favor»d, the Lord is with thee : blessed art thou among women."). See Rosary. Avebury, a'ber-T, Lord. See Lubboch, Sir John. Ave'bury, England, a village in Wiltshire, occupying the site of a so-called Druidical tem- ple, which originally consisted of a large outer circle of 100 stones, from 15 to 17 feet high, and about 40 feet in circumference, surrounded by a broad ditch and lofty rampart, and enclos- ing two smaller circles. On the neighboring downs are numerous barrows or tumuli, one of which, called Silbury Hill, rises to the height of 130 feet, with a circumference of 2,027 feet at the base, covering an area of more than five acres. Avellaneda, a-va'lya-na'da, Alfonso Fer- nandas de, the pseudonym of the writer of a sequel to *Don Quixote,^ issued prior to the sequel by Cervantes. See Don Quixote. Avel'lane'da, Nicholas, Argentine states- man: b. Tucuman, i Oct. 1836; d. 26 Dec. 1885. He was professor of political economy in the University of Buenos Ayres ; minister of pub- lic instruction in 1868-74, and president of the republic in 1874-86. He published several his- torical and economical works. Avellaneda y Arteaga, a-va'lya-na'da e ar'ta-a'ga. Gertrudis Gomez de, distinguished Spanish poet, dramatist and novelist: b. Puerto Principe, Cuba. 23 March 1814: d. Madrid. 2 Feb. 1873. Under the pseudonym Peregrina she contributed to Andalusian journals many 'Lyric Poems* (1851-54), and afterward wrote a series of spirited novels: 'Two Women,' 'The Baroness de Joux,' 'Dolores,* and others. She gained still higher distinction with the tragedies 'Alfonso Munio,* the hero AVELLINO — AVERNUS of which was her own ancestor, and /T^^ Prince of Vianna.^ Her later compositions had a tone of melancholy; among these are Biblical dramas, as *SauP and '^Balthasar' ; the spiritual song, ^At the Cross,' and ^The Last Ascent of My Harp' (1850). In the later years of her life she composed 16 plays which still have a place on the Spanish stage. Avellino, a'vel-le'no, a town in Italy, 29 miles east of Naples. It has a square adorned with an obelisk, and possesses several agreea- ble promenades. Pop. (1901) 23,700. Ave'na. See Oats. Avenarius, Richard, German philosopher: b. Paris 1843 ; d. Ziirich 1896. He studied phi- losophy at the universities of Ziirich, Berlin, and Leipsic, and from 1877 to his death was profes- sor of philosophy at Ziirich. He wrote on Spinoza's pantheism, published a theory of ex- perience and contributed many papers to maga- zines and reviews, upon philosophical subjects. Avenches, a-vansh', Switzerland, a town in the canton of Vaud, seven miles northwest of Fribourg. It is the ancient Aventicum, capital of Helvetia under Roman rule, and is noted for its Roman relics, notably the ruins of an amphitheatre, and a Corinthian column belonging to a temple of Apollo. In Roman times it was a city of 20,000 inhabitants. The population now is about 2,000. Av'enel, Mary, a character appearing in Scott's novels, ^The Monastery' and ^The Abbot.' Avenel, av-nel', Paul, a French poet and novelist: b. Chaumont 9 Oct. 1823. He was active in connection with several periodicals, and besides several vaudevilles, he wrote ^The Peasant Woman from the Abruzzi' (1861), a drama; *^The King of Paris' (i860), a histor- ical romance; (1887) ; and ^A Popular His- tory of the United States,^ now in progress of publication. Avery, Otis, American dentist: b. Bridge- water, Oneida County, N. Y., 19 Aug. 1808; d. Honesdale, Pa., 1904. He then took up the study of dentistry, and began the practice of his pro- fession at Honesdale, Pa., where he lived for the greater part of his life. For some years he was the only dentist between Honesdale and Utica, N. Y., and at the time of his death was the old- est practising dentist in the United States. A'very, Samuel Putnam, American mer- chant: b. New York, 17 March 1822; d. there 12 Aug. 1904. He became a copper-plate and wood engraver, and subsequently an art pub- lisher and dealer. He was a founder of the Metropolitan Museum of Art; life member of the American Museum of Natural History, American Geographical Society, American His- torical Society, American Zoological Society; president of the Grolier Club, and first presi- dent of the Sculpture Society. In 1891, with his wife, he created and endowed the Avery Architectural Library, in Columbia University, as a memorial of his deceased son; and in May 1900 presented to the trustees of the New York Public Library a collection of etchings, lithographs, and photographs, num- bermg more than 17,500 pieces, together with a number of large volumes illustrated bv '■he same arts. A'very, Waitstill, American lawyer: b. Nor\vich, Ct. ; d. North Carolina, 1821. He practised his profession successfully; wii appointed in 1777 attorney-general of North Caro- lina, and was at the time of his death the patri- arch of the bar of that State. He was promi- nent in the political affairs of the State, being a member of the State congress prior to the Revolution, and of the State legislature after the establishment of peace. In 1777 he was ap- pointed one of a commission to treat with the Cherokee Indians. A'very's Gores, the name of several tracts of land in Vermont, granted to Samuel Avery in 1791. One of them is in Addison County, nearly on the summit of the Green Mountains, now forming a part of Granville. Aves, a'vas, or Bird Islands, a group of small islands belonging to Venezuela, valuable for their deposits of guano. Aves, a'vez, the class of vertebrated ani- mals which contains the birds. They have been defined by Dr. Gadow as "oviparous, warm-blooded, amniotic vertebrates, which have their anterior extremities transformed in- to wings. '^ The metacarpus and fingers carry feathers or quills; there is an intertarsal joint, and the feet have not more than four toes, of which the first is the hallu.x. See Birds. Aves'ta, or Zend-Avesta, the Bible of Zoroaster, the sacred book of ancient Iran, ^nd holy scripture of the modern Parsis. The ex- act meaning of the name "Avesta*^ is not cer- tain ; it may perhaps signify "law,'^ "text,'^ or, more doubtfully, "wisdom,** "revelation." The modern familiar designation of the book as Zend-Avesta is not strictly accurate ; if used at all, it should rather be Avesta-Zend, like "Bible and Commentary," as zand signifies "explana- tion," "commentary," and Avcsta 11 Zand is em- ployed in some Persian allusions to the Zoro- astrian scriptures as a designation denoting the text of the Avesta accompanied by the Pahlavi version or interpretation. The story of the re- covery of the Avesta, or rather the discovery of the Avesta, by the enthusiastic young French scholar, Anquetil du Perron, who was the first to open to the western world the ancient rec- ords of Zoroastrianism, reads almost like a romance. Du Perron's own account of his de- parture for India in 1754, of his experiences with the dasturs (or priests) during a seven years' residence among them, of his various AVESTA difficulties and annoyances, setbacks, and suc- cesses, is entertainingly presented in the intro- ductory volume of his work ^Zend-Avesta, Ouvrage de Zoroastre^ {^77})- This was the first translation of the ancient Persian books published in a European language. Its appear- ance formed one of those epochs which are marked by an addition to the literary, religious, or philosophical wealth of our time ; a new con- tribution was added to the riches of the West from the treasures of the East. The field thus thrown open, although worked imperfectly at first, has yielded abundant harvests to the hands of later gleaners.. With the growth of know- ledge of the language of the sacred texts, we have now a clear idea also of the history of Zoroastrian literature, and of the changes and chances through which with varying fortunes the scriptures have passed. The original Zoro- astrian Avesta, according to tradition, was in it- self a literature of vast dimensions. Pliny, in his ^Natural History,' speaks of two million verses of Zoroaster ; to which may be added the Persian assertion that the original copy of the scriptures was written upon twelve thousand parchments, with gold illuminated letters, and was deposited in the library at Persepolis. But what was the fate of this archetype? Parsi tra- dition has an answer. Alexander the Great, — "the accursed Iskander,'' as he is called, — is re- sponsible for its destruction. At the request of the beautiful Thais, as the story goes, he al- lowed the palace of Persepolis to be burned, and the precious treasure perished in the flames. Whatever view we may take of the different sides of this story, one thing cannot be denied : the invasion of Alexander and the subjugation of Iran was indirectly or directly the cause of a certain religious decadence which followed up- on the disruption of the Persian empire, and was answerable for the fact that a great part of the scriptures was forgotten or fell into disuse. Persian tradition lays at the doors of the Greeks the loss of another copy of the origi- nal ancient texts, but does not explain in what manner this happened ; nor has it any account to give of copies of the prophet's works which Semitic writers say were translated into nearly a dozen different languages. One of these ver- sions was perhaps Greek, for it is generally ac- knowledged that in the 4th century B.C. the philosopher Theopompus spent much time in giving in his own tongue the contents of the sacred Magian books. Tradition is unanimous on one point at least: it is that the original Avesta comprised 21 Masks, or books, a statement which there is no good reason to doubt. The same tradition which was acquainted with the general charac- ter of those Nasks professes also to tell ex- actly how many of them survived the inroad of Alexander; for although the sacred text it- self was destroyed, its contents were lost only in part, the priests preserving large portions of the precious scriptures. These met with many vicissitudes in the five centuries that inter- vened between the conquest of Alexander and the great restoration of Zoroastrianism in the 3d century of our era, under the Sassanian dynasty. At this period all obtainable Zoro- astrian scriptures were collected, the compila- tion was codified, and a detailed notice made of the contents of each of the original Nasks compared with the portions then surviving. The original Avesta was, it would appear, a sort of encyclopaedic work ; not of religion alone, but of useful knowledge relating to law, to the arts, science, the professions, and to every-day life. If we may judge from the existing table of contents of these Nasks, the zealous Sassanians, even in the time of the collecting (226-380 a.d.), were able to restore but a fragment of the archet3'pe, perhaps a fourth part of the original Avesta. Nor was this remnant destined to es- cape misfortune. The Mohammedan invasion, in the 7th century of our era, added a final and crushing blow. Much of the religion that might otherwise have been handed dov/n to us, despite "the accursed Iskander's" conquest, now perished through the sword and the Koran. Its loss, we must remember, is in part compensated by the Pahlavi religious literature of Sassanian days. Fragmentary and disjointed as are the rem- nants of the Avesta, we are fortunate in pos- sessing even this moiety of the Bible of Zoro- aster, whose compass is about one tenth that of our own sacred book. A grouping of the existing texts is here presented: (i) Yasna (including Gathas) ; (2) Visperad; (3) Yashts ; (4) Minor Texts; (5) Vendidad; (6) Frag- ments. Even these texts no single manuscript in our time contains complete. The present col- lection is made by combining various Avestan codexes. In spite of the great antiquity of the literature, all the existing manuscripts are com- paratively young. None is older than the 13th century of our own era, while the direct his- tory of only one or two can be followed back to about the loth century. This mere external circumstance has of course no bearing on the actual early age of the Zoroastrian scriptures. It must be kept in mind that Zoroaster lived at least six centuries before the birth of Christ. Among the six divisions of our present Avesta, the Yasna, Visperad, and Vendidad are closely connected. They are employed in the daily ritual, and they are also accompanied by a version or interpretation in the Pahlavi lan- guage, which serves at the same time as a sort of commentary. The three divisions are often found combined into a sort of prayer-book, called Vendidad-Sadah (Vendidad Pure) ; that is, Avesta text without the Pahlavi rendering. The chapters in this case are arranged with special reference to liturgical usage. Some idea of the character of the Avesta as it now exists may be derived from the fol- lowing sketch of its contents and from the il- lustrative selections presented : I. Yasna (sacrifice, worship), the chief litur- gical work of the sacred canon. It consists mainly of ascriptions of praise and of prayer, and corresponds nearly to our idea of a prayer- book. The Yasna comprises 72 chapters ; these fall into three nearly equal parts. The greater part of the Yasna book is of a liturgic or ritualistic nature, and need not here be further described. Special mention, how- ever, must be made of the middle section made up by "the Five Gathas^' (hymns, psalms), a division containing the 17 sacred psalms, say- ings, sermons, or teachings of Zoroaster him- self. These Gathas form the oldest part of the entire canon of the Avesta. In them the prophet of the new faith is speaking with the fervor of the Psalmist of the Bible. In them we feel AVEYRON — AVIGNON the thrill of ardor that characterizes a new and struggling religious band ; we are warned by the burning zeal of the preacher of a Church militant. Now, however, comes a cry of de- spondency, a moment of faint-heartedness at the present triumph of evil, at the success of the wicked and the misery of the righteous ; but this gives way to a clarion burst of hopefulness, the trumpet note of a prophet filled with the promise of ultimate victory, the triumph of good over evil. The end of the world cannot te far away; the final overthrow of Ahriman (Anra Mainyu) by Ormazd (Ahura Mazda) is assured ; the establishment of a new order of things is certain ; at the founding of this "king- dom" the resurrection of the dead will take place and the life eternal will be entered upon. The Visperad (all the masters) is a short collection of prosaic invocations and laudations of sacred things. Its 24 sections form a supple- tnent to the Yasna. Whatever interest this di- version of the Avesta possesses lies entirely on the side of the ritual, and not in the field of literature. In this respect it differs widely from the book of the Yashts, which is next to be mentioned. Yashts (praises of worship) form a poetical book of 21 hymns, in which the angels of the religion, ^ Avranches, a-vransh' (ancient Abriticce), a town in France, about 3 miles from the Atlan- tic, and 30 miles east of St. IMalo. It is pleas- antly situated at the end of a long ride, the summit of which was crowned by a magnificent cathedral; built in the nth century, and de- stroyed at the revolution. In this cathedral Henry II. did penance before two of the Pope's legates for the murder of Thomas a Becket. One of its bishops was the celebrated Huet, au- thor of the 'Demonstratio Evangelica.^ The manufactures are chiefly lace, white thread, and wax candles, and there is some trade in agri- cultural produce. Pop. (1896) 7,600. Avul'sion (Latin, avulsion, a tearing oflf), a term denoting the sudden transfer by natural causes of a portion of one man's land to that of another, as when the course of a river is suddenly changed and former boundaries al- tered, it differs from accretion, which describes a gradual addition to the property of a riparian OA\ner by the action of the water. See Alluvi- on. Awaji, a-wa'je, one of the islands of Japan, situated between the main island and Sikokee. Its area is 218 square miles. Pop. 170,000. Award' is the judgment or decision of arbitrators or referees, on a matter submitted to them. The award should be consonant with and follow the submission, to be binding. It must be final and certain. It must be possible to be performed, and must not direct anything illegal to be done. At common law an award could be oral or written, but in some of the States an award to be valid must be in writing. The New York Code Civil Procedure provides that an award to be valid must be in writing. See Arbitration and Award. Awata (a-wa'ta) Ware, a yellow faience called "egg-ware" by the Japanese, manufactured in the village of Awata, a suburb of Kioto, and largelj' purchased in the United States. Awe, a, a narrow Scottish lake in Argyle- shire, about 28 miles long, and communicating by the Awe with Loch Etive. It is of great depth, has sloping and well-cultivated shores, terminated by ranges of lofty mountains, among which that of Ben Cruachan, rising to a height of 3.670 feet, at its northern extremity, is most conspicuous. A number of islets are scattered over its surface, and on two of them are some beautiful ruins. Axayacat, ax'a-ya-kat, or Axayacatl, a Mexican fly, the eggs of which, deposited abundantly on rushes and flags, are collected and sold as ?. species of caviare. The use of these as an article of diet was learned by the Spanish settlers from their predecessors, the native Indian Mexicans, who called the dish ahuauliti. Axayacatl, a'cha-ya-ka't'l, a ]\Iexican em- peror : d. about 1477. ' He was the father of Montezuma, whom Cortez conquered, and reigned 14 years. He was already famous as a warrior when he became emperor of the Aztecs, and in- augurated his reign by a successful expedition against Tehauntepec, and in 1467, conquered anew the cities of Cotasta and Tochtepec. A little later he repelled the tribes who strove to get possession of the Mexican capital, and maintained a vigorous warfare against his neighbors. The palace of Axayacatl, a gigan- tic pile of stone buildings, became the bar- racks of the Spaniards. His treasures were discovered by Cortez, within a concealed door, and the chronicler of the conquest e.xclaims that *it seemed as if all the riches in the world were in that room.* They consisted of gold and sil- ver in bars and in the ore, many jewels of value, and numerous rich and beautiful articles of curious workmanship, as imitations of birds, in- sects, or flowers. Axe (apparently an original Aryan word), a long-handled tool for wood-cutting. Its es- sential feature is the helve, though a certain shape is imposed by the nature of its service. The chipped flint of the oldest Stone Age was a tool of all work, to crush, dig, or cut (rather, bruise off), as occasion demanded, and was too heavy and shapeless to be used except by hand. As soon as one was shaped and sharpened to admit of tying a handle to it for a heavier stroke, the axe came into being, and was proba- bly the earliest implement thus dififerentiated. So natural a device was separately invented by each race early in its history, and made of the material at hand : flint in England and America ; whin- stone or granite in Ireland, and by the lake dwellers of the Continent ; bone by the Ameri- can Indians and Eskimos ; while stone axes are still used by some of the South Sea Islanders. In all these cases and until the use of metal, the handle was secured with a thong, as piercing with an eye was impracticable. The first cop- per and bronze "celts" were made in the same way. But when casting had become familiar, it was seen that there was no difficulty in cast- ing a hole to thrust the handle in, making a much surer and heavier stroke : and with this "eye" the modern axe appeared The bronze axe was lightened and better shaped, and in its turn displaced by iron, for which with the pro- gress of invention has been substituted an iron butt inset w'ith a steel cutting part. The old hand forges have for some generations been replaced by immense establishments with developed ma- chinery. The American process consists of cut- ting the butt from a piece of white-hot iron, punching the eye, then reheating and shaping it by pressure between concave dies : again heat- ing, cutting in the edge a groove, into which the arched steel edge-piece is set, then welding the two and drawing out the axe to a proper edge by trip-hammers at a white heat. The next process is hammering oflf the implement by a combination of hand and machine work, and re- storing the shape lost in drawing out. It is then ground to symmetry, hung on a revolving table in a furnace, and heated over a small AXEL — AXOLOTL coal fire, at a peculiar red heat, determined by the eye ; cooled in brine and then in fresh wa- ter, and removed to another furnace, where it receives the last temper. It is next polished to a finish that shows every flaw, and enables it to resist rust and enter wood easily; then stamped, the head painted to prevent rust, weighed, labeled, and packed for sale. The leading axe establishment of the world is the Collins Company, of Collinsville, Conn., whose processes are largely special inventions for the compan)^ It manufactures 5,000 axes and other edge tools daily, besides other miscel- laneous goods ; and consumes annually 3,500 tons of iron and 1,200 of steel, and ro,ooo tons of coal. Nearly 700 men are employed ; 13 water-wheels and four steam engines supply the motive power. Ax'el, or Absalon, Danish prelate, arch- bishop of Lund: b. near Soroe, Zealand, 1 128; d. 1201. His family name was Axel. In 11 57 he was chosen bishop of Roeskilde or Roths- child. In that age warlike pursuits were not deemed inconsistent with the clerical office, and Absalon was a renowned warrior by sea and land, as well as a zealous ecclesiastic, his avowed principle being that "both swords, the spiritual and the temporal, were intrusted to the clerg>\** To his exertions as statesman and soldier Waldemar was largely indebted for the independence and consolidation of his kingdom. Ax'elsen, a powerful Danish family who flourished in the latter half of the 15th century, and the members of which figured in the wars of Christian I. and John IV. of Denmark, and Karl Knutsen and Eric the Pomeranian, kings of Sweden. Peter Axelsek was the head of the family. Of his nine sons, the eldest, Olaf, made himself master of Gothland; the second, Iver, retained that possession, and became a corsair; the third, Eric, was governor of Stock- holm ; and the fourth Aage, became a Danish councilor of state. Axholme, an island in Lincolnshire. Eng- land, formed by the rivers Trent, Don, Idle, and Vicardyke. Epworth, the home of the Wesleys, is the principal parish. Its area is 47,000 acres. The soil is exceedingly fertile. Ax'il, in botany, the angle between the upper side of a leaf and the stem or branch from which it grows. Buds usually grow out from the stem in axils of leaves, and this posi- tion is naturally termed axillary. In anatomical terminology, the axilla is the armpit. Axim, a-sheng', or axTm, an Important station and port on the African Gold Coast, near the mouth of the Ancobrah River. In- land from Axim, in the basin of that river, and in_ the district between it and the Prah, gold- mining operations have been carried on on a large scale. It was ceded to the English by the Dutch in 1872. Ax'inite (Greek, <*like an axe''), a mineral usually occurring in broad, acute-edged triclinic crystals, suggestive, in shape, of an axe. It has a glassy lustre, brown or yellow in color, and is translucent and strongly pleochroic. It has a hardness of 6.5 to 7, and a specific gravity of about 3.28. Its exact composition is still doubtful, but it may be described as a calcium and aluminum borosilicate, containing also vary- ing amounts of manganese and iron. Its most important occurrences are in Dauphine, France, Mount Skopi, Switzerland, in Japan and at Franklin Furnace, N. J. Axin'oman'cy, a mode of divination much practised by the ancient Greeks, particularly with the view of discovering the perpetrators of great crimes. An axe poised upon a stake was supposed to move so as to indicate the guilty person ; or the names of suspected persons being pronounced, the motion of the axe at a particular name was accepted as a sign of guilt. Another method of axinomancy was by watching the movements of an agate placed upon a red-hot axe. Ax'iom (an assumption), a universal prop- osition, which the understanding must per- ceive to be true as soon as it perceives the meaning of the words, though it cannot be proved. It is, therefore, called a self-evident truth. In mathematics, axioms are those propo- sitions which are assumed without proof, as be- ing in themselves independent of proof, and which are made the basis of all the subsequent reasoning. Euclid has assumed 15 axioms as the basis of geometry. Among these are : *^The whole is greater than its part* ; "Things that are equal to the same thing are equal to one another'' ; "Magnitudes which coincide, that is, which exactly fill the same space, are equal to one another in every respect." Bacon calls axiom a general principle, obtained by experi- ment and observation, from which we may safely proceed to reason in all other instances ; and Newton gives the name of axiom to the laws of motion, which, of course, are ascertained by the investigation of nature ; he also terms axi- oms those general experimental truths or facts which form the groundwork of the science of optics. Ax'is (in crystallography). See Crystal. Ax'is (Latin, of unknown origin), a white- spotted deer (Axis axis) of India and the East Indies, known locally among the Hindus as "chitra," among the English as the "hog-deer.® It resembles the European fallow deer in size and color, and as it is easily domesticated, is a favorite in European parks. The slender, sharp- pointed horns are not palmated and only a little branched, while the female is hornless. It is timid and usually goes in small herds, in which females largely predominate. It lives in thick jungles near water, and usually feeds in the night. Colored plates, illustrating its varieties, are given in Lydekker's ^Deer of All Lands' (1898). Ax'minster, a market town in Devonshire, England, 24 miles east of Exeter, on the side of a hill that rises above the River Axe. The only public building worthy of notice is the parish church, a very ancient edifice, contain- ing some interesting antique monuments. Ax- minster was at one time celebrated for its woolen cloth, and carpet manufactures, and gave name to a special make of carpet having a thick, soft pile. Brushes are now made here, and there are flour and other mills. Pop. (1901) 4,100. Axolotl, ax'o-lofl (Mex., "play in the water"), a larval salamander regarded as edible. They are numerous in the lakes about the City of Mexico, are 6 to 10 inches long, and are prepared by either roasting or boiling, and eaten with vinegar or cayenne pepper. The AXON — AYESHA most extraordinary thing about them, however, is the fact that they are the young of a species of terrestrial salamander {Amblystoma tigri- nuni), well known over all the warmer parts of the United States and Mexico, which in these lakes never transform into adults, but remain permanently in the larval condition, yet become sexually mature when about six months old, so that they are able to breed. This astonishing fact was long unknown. The axolotl has bushy, external gills similar to those which perma- nently characterize the mud-puppy. It was re- garded as a distinct animal, and named Siredon lichenoides. The disco\-ery of the truth was made accidentally in Paris in 1865, when some axolotls in an aquarium in the Jardin des Plantes lost their gills and were transformed into perfected amblystomas. A lady, studying in the University of Freiburg, Frl. Marie von Chauvin, then undertook a series of careful ex- periments with other captives, and worked out the complete history of metamorphosis, which is dependent (at least in Europe) on a very narrow set of favorable circumstances, but differs in no essential degree from that of other salamanders (q.v.). Why the change never takes place in the Mexican lakes is unexplained. The theories in regard to it, and the detailed history of the observations above mentioned; are given by Ga- dow in 'Amphibia and Reptiles^ (1901), with many references to other books and periodicals. Ax'on, that part of the nerve cell that carries the nervous impulses, the axis cylinder process, or the nerve fibre proper. See Nerve Cell; Nerve Fibre. Axum, ax-oom', a town in Abyssinia, once the capital of a powerful kingdom, and at one time the great depot of the ivory trade in the Red Sea. The importance of this city and its kings was first made known to us by a stone (A.rumitic marble) with a Greek inscription, first explained by Salt, w^ho discovered it, and afterward by Buttmann and Niebuhr. The in- terest in this inscription was increased by the explanation which it afforded of the second half of the Adulian marble. Axum. the place where it was found, still exhibits many remains of its former greatness. Among its ruins are shown the royal throne, and groups of obelisks, origi- nally 55 in number, one of which Salt declared to be the most beautiful that he had seen. Pop. 5.000. See Bent, 'The Sacred City of the Ethi- opians^ (1893). Ayacucho, a'ya-koo'cho, the name of a de- partment of Peru and also of its capital. The department has an area of about 24,000 square miles, and is traversed by both chains of the Cordilleras and watered by numerous rivers. It produces coffee, sugar, cotton, etc. The capital, situated on the main road from Lima to Cuzco, has a cathedral and a university. It w^as found- ed by Pizarro in 1539, and long known as Hua- manga. A battle took place here, one of the most celebrated in the history of South Amer- ica, having been decisive of the independence of upper and lower Peru. See Ayacucho, Bat- tle OF. Pop. of town 22,000. Ayacucho, a'ya-koo'cho. The Battle of, a decisive engagement in the South American struggle for liberty; was fought on 9 Dec. 1824, at and near the Peruvian town of that name. On the one side was the Spanish viceroy of Peru with nearly all that remained of the Span- ish power in its last stronghold upon the con- tinent ; on the other Gen. Sucre, second in com- mand to Bolivar (the latter not being present), with Colombian troops, and Peruvians led by Gen. Lamar. The viceroy was taken prisoner; the utter defeat of his army made possible the independence of Bolivia (realized the following year), and strengthened the republican govern- ments in all the neighboring states. Ayala, a-ya'la, Adelardo Lopez de, a Spanish dramatist: b. Gaudalcanal, Badajoz, jMarch 1820; d. 30 Dec. 1879. After studying law in Seville, he went to Madrid, where he devoted himself entirely to poetry and speedily won national fame. His first drama, near the Summer School grounds. His published works are : ed-Din (gate of the faith), assumed by its founder, Alirza Ali Mohammed, a native of Shiraz, who, in 1843 undertook to establish a new religion from a mixture of Mohammedan, Christian, Jewish, and Parsee elements. His controversies with the mollahs shortly led to his confinement to his own house, where he formulated his doctrines, privately instructed his disciples, and increased his pretensions. The sect soon became numer- ous ; but on the accession of Nasir-ed-Din in 1848, apprehending persecution, they took up arms, proclaiming the advent of the Bab as uni- versal sovereign. The insurgents were reduced by famine, and most of them executed (i849r- 50). The Bab had held aloof from the revolt, but was arrested and put to death, after a long imprisonment, in 1850. His successor was rec- ognized in the youthful son of the governor of Teheran, who retired to Bagdad, where he af- terward lived quietly. An attempt of three be- lievers to assassinate the Shah, in 1852, led to a persecution of the sect ; numbers were tortured and burned, among them Gurred-ul-Ain. Bab- ism is at present widely diff^used in Persia ; its members live in apparent conformity to orthodox Mohammedanism, but privately holding the Bab's doctrines, which are contained in an Arabic treatise, 'Biyan* (the exposition), written by the founder himself. They form es.sentially a sys- tem of Pantheism, with Gnostic and Buddhistic additions. All beings are emanations from the Deity, by whom they will ultimately be reab- sorbed. Babism enjoins few prayers, and those only on fixed occasions; encourages hospitality and charity ; prohibits polygamy, concubinage, and divorce ; discourages asceticism and men- dicancy ; and directs women to discard the veil, and share as equals in the intercourse of social life. See Andreas, ^Die Babis in Persien* (1896) ; Browne, *A Traveler's Narrative Writ- ten to Illustrate the Episode of the Bab* (1892). Bab'ington, Anthony, English Roman Catholic gentleman : b. Dettrick, Derbyshire, 1561 ; d. 20 Sept. 1586. He associated with others of his own persuasion to deliver Mary, Queen of Scots, but the plot being discovered, the conspirators were executed. Bab'ington, Churchill, English philologist: b. Leicestershire. 1821 ; d. 13 Jan. 1889. He was educated at St. John's College, Cambridge, and was Disney professor of archaeology there in 1865-80. He was a voluminous writer on orni- thology, botany, archaeologj', numismatics, etc. ; and a contributor to Smith's ^Dictionary of Christian Antiquities.* Bab'ingtonite, a native, anhydrous silicate of calcium, iron and manganese, associated with an iron silicate having the composition Fe2(Si03)3. It is greenish-black in color, with a vitreous lustre, and crystallizes in the triclinic system. It occurs in Norway, Italy, and the British Isles, and in the United States has been found at Gouverneur. N. Y.. and perhaps also at Athol, Mass. Its hardness varies from 5.5 to 6, and it has a specific gravity of about 3.36. The mineral was named for Dr. William Bab- ington. Babirussa, bab'T-roo'sa, a wild hog of the East Indies, remarkable for the long, exposed, canine teeth of the male. The upper tusks, in- stead of growing downward in the usual vvay, turn and grow upward through the skin on each side of the snout and curve backward until, in old animals, they may be 8 or 10 inches long. BABISM — BABYLONIA and reach nearly to the eye. These hogs, which inhabit Celebes and Bouru, are almost hairless, long-legged, and active, and feed upon fallen fruits instead of rooting in the ground. One cannot see that the great tusks are of any pres- ent use, but Wallace suggests that they were useful to the ancestors of these pigs under dif- ferent conditions, and were then kept worn down by service. Babism, bab'izm. See Babi. Babe, ba'bo, Josef Marius von, German poet: b. Ehrenbreitstein, 14 Jan. 1756; d. 5 Feb. 1822. He was professor of fine arts at Munich in 1778, and of aesthetics at Mannheim, and later became director in the Munich Military Acad- emy, and superintendent of the theatre. He was the author of *Otto of Wittelsbach,* a tragedy (1781); 'Oda> (1782); wer— Mounds covering the Temple of Bel. BABYLONIAN EXILE : BACACAY great conqueror was followed bj' the Seleucid and Arsacid kings. Under the Parthians all that remained of Babylonian culture died out, when the knowledge of the language and writ- ing was entirely lost. Jews continued to live on some of the mounds of Babylonia until about looo A.D., when finally the country was given up to the Bedouin and the Arab. Bibliography. History. — Maspero: I. *The Dawn of Civilization^ ; II. "^The Struggle of Na- tions^ ; III. ^The Passing of the Empires.^ Rog- ers. 'History of Babylonia and Assyria* (1900). Explorations. — Hilprecht, 'Explorations in Bible Lands During the 19th Century* (1903) ; Kaulen, 'Assyrien und Babylonien nach den Neuesten Entdeckungen* (1899). Relation to Old Testament. — 'Die Keilin- schriften und das Alte Testament* (1902); Price, 'The Monuments and the Old Testament* (1900). Religion. — Zimmern, 'Die Keilinschriften und das Alte Testament* ('1902) ; Sayce, 'His- tory of the Babylonian and Egyptian Religion* (1902). Translations. — Schrader (editor), 'Keilin- schriftliche Bibliothek,* 6 vols. (1902) ; Harper (editor), 'Assvrian and Babvlonian Literature* (1901). A. T. Clay, Assistant Professor, Department of Archae- ology, University of Pennsylvania. Bab'ylo'nian Exile, or Captivity. It seems to have been part of the statecraft of the ancient Assyrians to remove the people of conquered nations and plant them in unoccupied parts of the dominion, as far distant as possible from the home country of the victims. This custom grew out of civil and geographical conditions. The degree of national intercourse requisite for main- taining a proper ascendency over the subjugated nation could not be maintained if they were al- lowed to remain in their own land. Conse- quently, deportation was necessary — a process which has come to be designated in our lan- guage by the word captivity. Anciently, deport- ed nations were not treated with that cruelty we are in the habit of associating with the captive. The captivity of the Jews, who are more especially to be treated in this article, demand the preceding remarks in order to aid in a proper understanding of the frequent no- tices we find in the Scriptures of the conse- quence to which these people attained in their foreign residences. There are two Babylonish captivities of the Jews, having their beginnings at different times, although their endings were synchronous. In the civil dissensions following the death of Saul, and culminating at the death of Solomon, the tribes north of the mountains of Ephraim, and those east of Jordan, separated from the rest, leaving Judah and Benjamin in the naturally fortified province of the south. To the north of the revolted tribes lay the king- dom of Syria, then powerful and extensive. Syria had an old feud with Israel, ever since David had made Damascus, the Syrian capital, tributary to himself. Rezon had regained the city under Solomon, but was "an adversary to Israel all the days of Solomon.** The attention of Syria was now turned to the defenseless condi- tion of the revolted tribes. They had no longer the fortifications and fastnesses from which David had sallied forth to the northern plains at the foot of the Anti-Lebanon. Judah had, meanwhile, made a treaty, in the reign of Asa her third king, with the Syrian power, who, by his counsel and stratagem, had been induced to break a former league with Israel (i Kings XV.). Judah also, fearing inroads from the north, had built two new fortifications in the passes of Benjamin (Geba and Mizpeh), and used all her arts to keep herself in favor with Syria, and on the other hand turned her pam- pered ally against the revolted and unprotected tribes at the north. Israel, tired at length of the continual exposures to Syrian invasion, and exasperated at the immunity and prosperity of the rival Judah, formed a conspiracy with Syria (during the reign of Pekah in Israel and Ahaz in Judah) against her southern antagonist. In the emergency Judah appealed to the Assyrian power, and Tiglath Pileser came against Israel, carried captive a portion of its inhabitants, and then marched upon Syria, slew its king, subdued its capital, and absorbed it into the Assyrian em.pire, from which it reappears only in the time of Alexander the Great. The successor of Pileser, exasperated by an attempted conspiracy of Hoshea with the king of Egypt, took Sa- maria, and subdued Israel to a tributary relation, taking away to Babylon the people whom Pileser had left in the first deportation. Thus was ac- complished the first captivity of the numerically most powerful branch of the divided house of Israel (721 B.C.). They were first in the subju- gation to foreign power from purely geographi- cal considerations. A little more than a hun- dred years after, Judah, from her mountain fastnesses, followed Israel into the Assyrian em- pire, in the second great Babylonish captivity. Disregarding some chronological differences. Ju- dah seems to have been progressively carried into captivity, like Israel, by at least two, and per- haps three successive deportations. The first was 598 B.C., and was probably made with the direct object of colonizing the city of Nineveh, which the Assyrian monarch was then endeavor- ing to restore. The second was in the reign of Zedekiah. Judah had for three successive reigns been heavily tributary to Assyria. Zedekiah rebelled against the tribute, and, like Israel, further exasperated her master by calling upon Egypt in her extremity. In revenge, Nebuchad- nezzar burnt the temple and city, put out the eyes of Zedekiah, and led away the people to Babylon, and so ended the Jewish kingdom (588 B.C.), never again to be restored to a national ex- iste^.ce ; for when, 70 years after the second cap- tivity, the permission to return was given, only a very small part of the Jewish people were in a condition to desire a removal, having become thoroughly naturalized in their foreign dwell- ings ; and even if they had desired it, it would have been only a return to a Medo-Persian satrapy, not to the glory of their ancient king- dom and temple-worship. They remained by the rivers of Babylon and wept. See Daniel; EzEKiEL ; Ezra ; Jews. The term "Babylonish Captivity** is frequent- ly applied by writers of Church history to the residence of the Popes at Avignon for nearly 70 years. Bibliography. — Ewald, 'The History of Is- rael,* translated by Martineau ; Piepenbring, 'History of the People of Israel.* Bacacay, ba-ka'kl, Philippines, a town in the province of Albay, Luzon Island. It is sit- uated on the Gulf of Albay. Pop. 10,550. BACALAO — BACCHUS Bacalao, ba'ka-la'o. See Cod. Bacara, ba-kar'ra, Philippines, a town of Luzon in the province of Ilocos Norte. Pop. 13,735- Baccanarists. See Jesuits. Baccarat, ba-ka-ra', a town of France, in the department of Meurthe-et-Moselle, having the most important plate glass works in France. Pop. (1900) 6,772. Baccarat', a game of Italian origin played with ordinary playing cards ; very simple in details and freer from complications than most games at cards. Any number of players may participate, and as many packs of cards may be used as necessary, the number being increased to correspond with the number of players. The member of the party selected to act as banker deals out the cards from a box, after they have been shuffled. The face cards each count 10, and the others according to the numbers of their spots. After the bets have been made, the banker deals two cards to each of the players, including himself, but the other play- ers must receive their cards before the banker is served. The aim of the players is to make the numbers 9, 19, 29, or as nearly those as possible, as 8, 18, and 28. Any player is at liberty either to "stand" or to be "content* with the two cards at first dealt, or to call for more, at the risk of exceeding 29, when his stake is forfeited to the dealer. If, after the first dis- tribution of two cards to each, any player has a " natural," — that is, a sum making 9, or next in value, 19, — he declares it wins, and the banker pays all who hold superior hands to his own, and claims from those holding inferior hands. The players stake their money separate- ly, there being, in fact, as many separate games in progress as there are players, and the spec- tators may wager their money on any one of them, all of which must be accepted by the banker. Prior to the banker making a start, he names the amount of the bank. Any one sit- ting down at the table has the right to call the whole of the bank, selecting the left or the right on which to pick up the cards. Previous to the banker dealing the cards, it is the duty of two croupiers, one on the right and the other on the left, to count up the stakes deposited on either side, and then make up the bank. Thus the banker knows, to the smallest coin, the exact amount of his liabilities. Bacchanalia, bak'ka-na'li-a, feasts in honor of Bacchus, or Dionysos, characterized by licen- tiousness and revelry, and celebrated in ancient Athens. In the processions were bands of Bac- chantes of both sexes, who wandered about rioting and dancing. They were clothed in fawn skins, crowned with ivy, and bore in their hsnds thyrsi, that is, spears entwined with i\^, or having a pine cone stuck on the point. These feasts passed from the Greeks to the Romans, who celebrated them with still greater dissolute- ness till the Senate abolished them, 186 B.C. Bacchante, bak-kan'te, a person taking part in revels in honor of Bacchus. Bacchiglione, bak'ke-lyo'ne, a river of northern Italy. It rises in the Alps, passes through the towns of Vicenza and Padua, and enters the Adriatic near Chioggia, after a course of about 90 miles. Bacchus, bak'kus, or Dionysos, the god of wine. His history is one of the most perplexing in the Greek mythology. Semele was pregnant with him by Zeus, but became a victim of the craft of Hera. Zeus hastened to save the un- born fruit of his embrace, and concealed it till mature in his own thigh. He afterward com- mitted the infant to Hermes, who carried him to the nymphs of Nysa in India, where he grew and prospered. His teacher was Silenus, after- ward his constant companion. In the vales of Nysa Bacchus invented the preparation of a beverage from grapes, and taught the planting of vines. To spread the knowledge of his invention he traveled over almost the whole known world, and received in every quarter divine honors. Drawn by lions he began his march, which resembled a triumphal pomp, with a great suite of men and women, Sileni, Satyrs, and Masnades. Inspired by the presence of the god, rejoicing, brandishing the thyrsus, and crowned with vines and ivy, they danced around him, shouting, ^'^Evoe! Eleleus!^^ over hill and valley, accompanied by the tones of Phrygian flutes and timbrels. The Thebans would not acknowledge his divinity, and Pen- theus armed himself against him. Bacchus re- solved to punish the crime, and inspired the women with a fury which drove them from their dwellings to wander on Mount Cithseron. Pen- theus himself was torn in pieces by his own mother and her sisters, to whom he appeared a wild beast. Bacchus punished the daughters of Mynias, who derided his feasts, with frenzy and transformation. At Naxos some Tuscan sail- ors attempted to carry him off to Italy, sup- posing him from his purple robe to be the son of a king. They fettered him ; but the fetters fell off, vines and ivy entwined the vessel, and kept it fixed in the midst cf the sea : the god trans- formed himself to a lion, and the seamen, seized with madness, leaped into the waves, where they were changed into dolphins. On the other hand, he rewarded such as received him hospitably and rendered him worship, as, for instance, Midas, who restored to him the faithful Silenus. His love was shared by several ; but Ariadne, whom he found deserted upon Naxos, alone was elevated to the dignity of a wife, and became a sharer of his immortality. To confer the same favor on his mother, Semele, he descended into the realms of Pluto, and conducted her to Olym- pus, where she was henceforth called Th3'one. In the dreadful war with the giants he fought heroically, and saved the gods from impending ruin. During the rejoicing for victory Zeus joyfully cried to him, ^^Evan, evoeP^ (Well done, my son!), with which words Bacchus was afterward usually saluted. We find him represented with the round, soft, and graceful form of a maiden rather than with that of a young man. An ornament peculiar to him is the tiara. His long waving hair is gathered behind in a knot, and wreathed with sprigs of ivy and vine leaves. He is usually naked ; sometimes he has an ample mantle hung negligently round his shoulders; sometimes a fawn skin hangs across his breast. The earlier bearded Bacchus is properly of Indian or Egyptian origin. His head is sometimes shown with small horns (the symbol of invincible force). In his hand is borne a thyrsus, or a drinking cup. The bull, panther, ass, and goat were symbolically asso- ciated with this god. BABYLON. />/'«r— Excavating around the Ziggurrat of the Temple of Bel to virgin soil, 6500 P.. C. o^er— Excavations in the Temple area. Pavement of Ur-Gur. 2700 B. C. Pre-Sargonic strata in the for Lower — Excavations in the Temple ground BACCHYLIDES — BACH The feasts consecrated to Bacchus were termed Bacchanalia, Dionysia, or in general Or- ^ia. They were celebrated with peculiar solem- nity in Athens, where the j'ears were universally reckoned by them, and during their continuance the least violence toward a citizen was a capital crime. The great Dionysia were celebrated in spring. The most important part of the cele- bration was a procession representing the tri- umph of Bacchus. This was composed of a train of Bacchantes of both sexes, who were masked, clothed in fawn skins, crowned with ivy, and bore in their hands drinking cups and rods entwined with ivy (thyrsi). Amidst this mad crowd marched in beautiful order the dele- gated bodies of the /'/u-a/n'a (corporations of citi- zens). They bore upon their heads consecrated baskets, which contained first-fruits of every kind, cakes of different shape, and various mys- terious symbols. This procession was usually in the night-time. The day was devoted to spectacles and other recreations. At a very early hour they went to the theatre of Bacchus, where musical or dramatical performances were exhibited. Thespis, known as the inventor of tragedj^ is said to have introduced into the Bacchic performance an actor who carried on a dialogue with the coryphaeus (leader) regard- ing the myths narrated of Bacchus or some other divinity. The chorus surrounding its leader, stood on the steps of the altar of Bacchus, while the actor occupied a table. Some regard this as the origin of the stage. The vintage festivals in rural districts were celebrated by Bacchic processions, ruder in form than those of Athens, but characterized by the same wild license and ribaldrj'. Coarse ridicule of individ- uals was a marked feature of these occasions. Bacchylides, bak-kil'i-dez, Greek poet who flourished about 470 B.C. ; a native of Julis, a town on the Island of Cos. He was a cousin of the still more famous lyric poet Simonides, with whom he remained for some time at the court of Hiero in Sicily. He traveled also in the Peloponnesus, and is said to have been a rival of Pindar. Until recently, this poet was known to the modern world only in fragments of beau- tiful versification. In 1895, however, a well-pre- served text was discovered and published, and Bacchylides has now taken permanent place as a master of Greek verse. An English translation of the poems appeared in 1897. Bacciocchi, ba-chok'ke, Felice Pasquale, Corsican captain : b. Corsica, 18 May 1762 ; d. Bologna, 27 April 18.41. In 1797 he married Maria Elisa Bonaparte. In 1805, when Napo- leon made his sister Princess of Lucca and Piom- bino, Bacciocchi was crowned with his wife. After the emperor's fall, he lived quietly and in reduced circumstances at Bologna. Bacciocchi, Maria Anna Elisa Bonaparte, the eldest sister of Napoleon Bonaparte : b. Ajac- cio, Corsica, 1777 : d. 7 Aug. 1820. She married Felice Bacciocchi, and was created by her brother, in 1805, Princess of Lucca, Piombino, Massa, and Carrara, and in 1809 Grand Duchess of Tus- cany She shared her brother's fall and spent her ia=.t years in Austria, dying on her estate near Trieste. Her only son died in 1833, and her only daughter, the Countess Camerata, in i86q. Bach, ban, Alexander von. Austrian statesman: b. Loosdorf, 4 Jan. 1813: d. 15 Nov. 1892. He was minister of justice in 1848, of the interior in 1849-59; and, subsequently, am- bassador to Rome. In 1855, he negotiated the concordat with the papacy which brought Aus- tria into submission to the Roman Church. Bach, Heinrich, German musician : b. 16 Sept, 1615; d. 10 July 1691. He was the father of Johann Christoph and Johann Michael Bach ; organist at Arnstadt. Bach, Johann Christian, German musi- cian : b. Erfurt, 1640, d. 1682. He was a son of Johannes Bach, the great uncle of Johann Sebastian Bach. Bach, Johann Christian, German musi- cian: b. Leipsic, 1735; d. 1782. He was a son of Johann Sebastian Bach, and was organist in the Cathedral of Milan 1754-9, and in London, I759~82, from which residences he was sur- named "the Milanese" and "the English." He composed operas, masses, Te Deums, etc. Bach, Johann Christoph Friedrich, Ger- man musician : b. Leipsic, 1732 ; d. 1795. He was a son of Johann Sebastian Bach, and was for a long period music master to Count Schaumburg at Biickeburg. Bach, Johann Michael, German com- poser and instrument maker: b. 1648; d. 1694. He was a son of Heinrich Bach and the father- in-law of Johann Sebastian Bach. Bach, Johann Sebastian, German musician and composer: b. Eisenach, 21 Mar. 1685; d. Leipsic, 28 July, 1750. Bach was the most pro- found and original musical thinker the world has ever seen. He is the master of masters; from him most of the great composers have drawn inspiration. When Mozart heard one of his pieces at Leipsic, in 1788, he exclaimed : "Thank Heaven ! here at last is something new that I can learn from." "Not Bach (brook) but ^Ocean^ should be his name." Beethoven ex- claimed. Mendelssohn made enthusiastic efforts to revive the interest in Bach. Schumann helped to found the Bach Society and urged students, if they would become thorough musi- cians, to make Bach their daily bread. Chopin confessed that before giving a concert he locked himself up a fortnight with nothing but Bach to play. Franz devoted a great part of his life to adapting this master's works for use in modern concert halls. Liszt and Rubinstein adored and played him. Wagner, as he grew older, played Bach miore and more; his vocal compositions he pronounced the most perfect ever written; and he said that the proper inter- pretation of them was the noblest task for con- temporary musicians. The only dissenting voice in this chorus of praise was that of Berlioz ; but, as Saint-Saens (one of the principal wor- shipers), has pointed out, this was due solely to the fact that Berlioz was not familiar with the works of Bach. His pre-eminence is the more remarkable when we remember that he was born as early as 1685 ; but it seems perhaps a trifle less astonishing when we bear in mind that Johann Sebastian inherited the accumulated musical gifts of a long line of ancestors. "Throughout six generations." says Foikei. "there were hardly two or three members of this family who did not inherit a natural talent BACH for music, and make the cultivation of this art the principal occupation of their life.** For more than a century there were so many repre- sentatives of this widely-scattered family that in one place, at any rate (Erfurt), town musi- cians came to be called *'Bachs," even when that family did not happen to be represented among them. After the culmination had been reached, however, in Johann Sebastian, the family-tree soon withered, although some of his sons play a quite considerable role in musical history. At the age of lo, Johann Sebastian was left an orphan, in care of his older brother, John Christoph, who appears to have been jealous of the boy's musical gifts. Christoph had got to- gether a collection of the best German organ music of the time, which Sebastian was very eager to get at and study. Denied access to it, he managed to smuggle it into the garret, where, for six months, he busied himself making a copy of it on moonlit nights. But the brother at last discovered his secret and took away from him both the copy and the original. This is only one instance of many showing how Sebastian was determined to educate himself in face of all obstacles. Several times he went on foot to Hamburg — a distance of twenty-five miles — to hear the famous organist Reinken ; subsequently he made a similar trip to hear the illustrious organist Buxtehude at Liibeck. This happened when he himself was already busy as organist and choirmaster at Arnstadt. Previ- ously to that he had, as a boy, helped to support himself by joining a choir of boys who sang at funerals and weddings, as well as in church and in the street. He missed no chance to practice on the violin^ the organ, and the piano — or, rather, the harpsichord and clavichord, which were the predecessors of the pianoforte. To these tasks, and to his efforts at composition, he often devoted whole nights. He got his first salaried position (as violinist) in 1703 at Wei- mar, but left this post after a few^ months for that of organist at Arnstadt. It was thence that he made the trip (a foot tour of over 200 miles) to Liibeck, already referred to, to hear Buxtehude. He had obtained a four weeks' leave of absence, but was so delighted with his opportunities for improvement at Lu- beck that he remained four months, until per- emptorily called back. The church consistory of Arnstadt took this occasion to reprimand him, not only for prolonging his leave cf ab- sence, but for neglecting rehearsals, going to a wine cellar during the sermon, allowing a strange rnaiden to make music in the choir, and for "having made extraordinary variations in the chorals, and intermixing many strange sounds, so that thereby the congregation were confounded." Yet, with all his faults, they loved him still and allowed him to remain at his post, till he left of his own accord, having secured a position as organist at Miihlhausen. Here, too, however, he did not remain long, as still better opportunities presented themselves to him at Weimar, where the Duke Wilhelm Ernst had his court. This duke was deeply interested in the religion of the German Protestant Church and was glad to avail himself of the services of Bach, who was destined to become the chief representative of the music of that church, as Palestrina was of the Catholic Church. Here Bach remained nine years, during which time he wrote many of his master works for organ and church choir. In 1717 he accepted a posi- tion in Kothen which involved a complete change in his activity. Instead of havmg an organ and a choir to occupy his time he had the duty, as Kapellmeister, of writing and rehears- ing works for the orchestra as a whole or for groups of orchestral instruments (chamber music). In 1720 he was a candidate for the post of organist at the Jacobi Kirche in Hamburg; but, although he was at this time already famous as an organist, he failed to get the place, an obscure j'oung man having secured it after pay- ing $1,000 for the office. Three years later Bach became the cantor of the Thomasschule at Leipsic and director of the music in the two principal churches ; this position he held twenty- seven years, till his death, 28 July 1750, at the age of 65. Bach was twice married and became the father of 20 children ; 5 sons and 5 daughters died before him, while 6 sons and 4 daughters survived him. His first wife was also a Bach — a cousin ; she died in 1820, while he was on a concert tour. Eighteen months after her death he married a girl of 21 who was also musical ; yet none of the 13 children by this second marriage attained as high a rank as some of the seven by the first wife. The sec- ond wife helped him copy his MSS. (which he was constantly revising) and in course of time her handwriting came to resemble his so closely that the two were hard to distinguish. In no way did Bach differ more widely from his great contemporary, Handel, than in his family life; Handel died a bachelor. There were times when Bach found it difficult to bear the mate- rial burden of his large family, but he was not so poor in his lifetime as is usually supposed. His income from various sources was, it is true, only about $500 at the best; but the purchas- ing power of that sum was equal to $3,000 in our day. It was after his death that the pinch of poverty was felt ; his widow died in an alms- house ; he himself was buried in a pauper's grave. For more than a century no one knew the exact place of this grave ; the circumstances of its discovery read like a detective story. Some years ago it became necessary to rebuild the old Johannis Church in Leipsic, and, in connection with this, to remove the bones from that part of the adjoining cemetery in which Bach was believed to have been buried. The director of the archives, Wustmann, took this opportunity to search for Bach's grave. He had found in the books of the Johannis Hospital an item stating that $4 had been paid for Johann Sebastian Bach's oak coffin, which gave him his principal clue, for oak coffins were seldom used in those days. Near the place where Bach was believed to have been buried he' found two oak coffins, one containing the remains of a j'oung woman, the other the bones of a man, whose skull was so unique as to arouse the suspicion at once that it was Bach's. It was placed in the hands of the famous anatomist. Prof. His, who, after a long series of compara- tive investigations, came to the conclusion that there could be no doubt whatever that the skull was Bach's. He embodied his argument in a brochure, "Forschungen iiber Bach's Grab- stette und Gebeine." The fact that Bach's con- BACH temporaries thus took no note of his burial place is disgraceful evidence that they never dreamed he was destined to rank as the greatest of all musical geniuses. Further evidence of this lies in the circumstance that he really brought about his death by his efforts to save some of his unappreciated MSS. from destruction by en- graving them on copper plates. This led to serious trouble with his eyes ; two operations by an English surgeon were followed by total blindness, which made it impossible for him to complete his great work^ "The Art of Fugue". He dictated for its final number a choral, "When we are overwhelmed by Woe,** and died not long afterward. The thematic catalogue of his works con- tains 1,110 instrumental and 1,936 vocal num- bers. All of them combined probably never brought him in as much as the $1,175 paid at a Berlin auction sale a few years ago for three ■of his MSS. Until 1829, when Mendelssohn, after overcoming a good deal of opposition, suc- ceeded in producing the wonderful 'Saint Mat- thew's Passion* in Berlin, for the first time since its composer's death, the great Leipsic Cantor was looked on, in INIendelssohn's words, as "a mere old-fashioned big-wig stuffed with learning.** That work opened the eyes of the musicians to their colossal stupidity, and from that year to the present time Bach's fame has been growing in a steady crescendo. In 185 1 a Bach Society was formed at Leipsic for the printing of a monumental edition of Bach's works by Breitkopf and Hartel. For nearly half a century (up to 1896) a huge folio vol- ume was issued every year, and after its com- pletion the Bach Society began to make efforts for multiplying performances of these works, the majority of which constitute even now an vmsurveyed Klondike. Bach himself does not appear to have been chagrined by the neglect of his works during his lifetime. "We find in him,** writes Abdy Williams, "little of that de- sire for applause, for recognition, which is usu- ally one of the strongest motives in an artist. He was content to labor as few men have la- bored, in a remote corner of Germany, simply for art and art alone.** To cite Bach's own words: "The sole object of all music should be the glory of God and pleasant recreation.** At the same time, it is obvious that he would have been gratified if he had won, as composer, some of the honors which fell to him abund- antly as player. Of the esteem in which he was held as organist and clavichordist, two anecdotes give the best illustration. In 1717. while on one of his concert tours, he happened to be in Dres- den at the same time as the famous French organist and harpsichord player Marchand. The Dresdeners thought this was a good chance for an international contest, and Bach was induced to offer the Frenchman a challenge. It was accepted, and all the details had been arranged; but when the hour arrived there was no Mar- chand. He had taken " French leave " that morning on the fast coach ! IMany years later, in 1747, Bach accepted a repeatedly given in- vitation to visit Frederick the Great at Pots- ■dam. The king was delighted to see him. With- out allowing him to take off his traveling clothes, he made him improvise on all his pianos and organs in his palace, and again and again he .exclaimed : "There is only one Bach !** It has been said of Bach that music owes almost as much to him as a religion does to its founder. This is true especially of two branches — the organ and choral music. Both as a writer for the organ and a player he has had no equal. The best account of this phase of his art is con- tained in Pirro's 'The Age of Bach and Handel' by Fuller ]\Iaitland. Henry T. Finck, Musical Critic ^Evening Post,* New York. Bach, Karl Philipp Emanuel, Germaa musician: b. Weimar, 14 March 1714; d- U Dec. 1788. He was the son of Johann Sebastian Bach and was court musician in the service of Frederick the Great in 1740-67. He wrote on the theory of piano playing and was a volumi- nous composer of piano music, oratories, etc. Bacharach, ban'a-raH, a town of Germany,, situated on the Rhine, 12 miles south of Coblenz. The vicinity produces excellent wine, which was once highly esteemed. The view from the ruins of the castle is one of the sublimest on the Rhine. Pop. (1900) 1,904. Bache, bach, Alexander Dallas, Ameri- can scientist : b. Philadelphia, Pa., 19 July 1806 ; d. 17 Feb. 1867. He was graduated from the United States Military Academy, at the head of his class, in 1825 ; became professor of natural philosophy and chemistry at the University of Pennsylvania in 1828; was the organizer and first president of Girard College, 1836, where he established a magnetical and meteorological ob- servatory, and was appointed superintendent of the United States Coast Survey, in 1843. In the last office he performed services of lasting and invaluable character. He was regent of the Smithsonian Institution in 1846-67; an active member of the United States Sanitary Commis- sion during the Civil War; and president of the: National Academy of Sciences in 1863. Besides a long series of notable annual reports of the United States Coast Survey, he published a report on 'Education in Europe' (1839), and 'Observations at the Magnetic and Meteorolog- ical Observatory at the Girard College' (3 vols. 1840-47). Bache, Benjamin Franklin, Aincrican surgeon: b. 1801 ; d. 1881. He was great grand- son of Benjamin Franklin. He established a laboratory in New York which during the Civil War was of great service to the Federal army. Bache, Franklin, American chemist : b. Philadelphia, 25 Oct. 1792; d. 19 March 1864. He was appointed professor of chemistry at the Philadelphia College of Pharmacy in 1831, and at the Jefferson Medical College in 1841. He published 'System of Chemistry for Students of Medicine' (1819), and was one of the authors of Wood & Bache's 'Dispensatory of the United States' (1833). Bache, George M., American naval offi- cer: b. in the District of Columbia, 12 Nov. 1840; d. II Feb. 1896. He was graduated at the United States Naval Academy, in i860, and com- manded the ironclad Cincinnati in the various engagements on the Mississippi River, until she was sunk by the Vicksburg batteries, 27 May 1863. He was highly commended by Admiral Porter, Gen. Sherman, and Secretary Welles for his conduct in the last engagement. Subse- quently, he took part in both attacks on Fort Fisher, and, in the second one, 15 Jan. 1865,. led the naval assault on the fort. He was re- tired with the rank of commander, 5 April 1875. Bache, Hartman, American military en- gineer: b. Philadelphia, Pa., 3 Sept. 1798; d. 8 Oct. 1S72. He entered the United States. BACHE — BACHIAN Topographical Corps ; and for 47 years was con- stantly employed on surveys and on works of hydrographic and civil engineering. On 13 March 1865 was appointed brigadier-general, and 7 March 1867 was retired. His most not- able achievements were the building of the Delaware breakwater and the application of iron- screw piles for the foundation of lighthouses upon sandy shoals and coral reefs. He retired from active service, 1867. Bache, Sarah, American philanthropist : b. Philadelphia, Pa., 11 Sept. 1744; d. 5 Oct. 1808. She was the only daughter of Benjamni Franklin, and the wife of Richard Bache. Dur- ing the Revolutionary War she organized and became chief of a band of patriotic ladies who made clothing for the soldiers, and in other ways relieved their sufferings, especially during the severe winter of 1780. Bache, Walter, English pianist : b. Birming- ham, 19 June 1842 ; d. London, 26 March 1888. In 1S58 he studied music in the Leipzig Conser- vatorium under Hauptmann, Richter, Plaidy, and Moscheles. In 1862 he went to Rome, and from that time till 1865, when he returned to London, studied with Liszt, of whose style and compositions he became an ardent admirer and advocate. Upon his return to London he insti- tuted annual concerts, at which he put forward Liszt's music, and lived long enough to see the indifference of the public toward his master change to open admiration. For several years prior to his death Bache was professor of the pianoforte at the Royal Academy of Music, and it was mainly due to his efforts that the Liszt scholarship was established in that institution. Bachelder, Nahum Josiah, American statesman ; b. Andover, N. H., 3 Sept. 1854. Educated at Franklin Academj-, Taunton Hill School, Andover; and became prominent farmer. Was nominated by the Republicans and elected governor of New Hampshire in 1902. Bacheller, Addison Irving:, America nov- elist : b. Pierpont, Saint Lawrence co., N. Y., 26 Sept. 1859. He was graduated at the Saint Lawrence University in 1882, from 1882-3 ^vas a member of the staff of the Daily Hotel Re- porter of New York city, and in 1884 became a reporter for the Brooklyn Times. In the lat- ter year he established the Bacheller Syndicate for the purpose of supplying literary matter to periodicals, and for 14 years was a director of that syndicate. He was for a short time editor of The Pocket Magazine, and subsequently joined the editorial staff of the Nczv York World, but remained in that capacity for a short time only. His novels, the scenes of which are laid in northern New York, include: ^The Master of Silence^ (1890) ; 'The Still House of O'Darrow' (1894) ; 'The Unbidden Guest;' ; Vallery-Radot, ^Life of Pasteur' ; Russell, < Outlines of Dairy Bacteriol- ogy' (1899); Tyndall, ^Essays on the Floating Matter of the Air.' A. C. Abbott, Bacteriologist, University of Pennsylvania. Bacteriolytic, an agent cap. ble of destroy- ing bacteria and usually applied to some product of the human body, or of an animal body, nota- bly blood serum, which when injected into an animal is capable of destroying some form of micro-organism in that animal. The produc- tion of specific bacteriolytic sera is one of the great advances in modern medicine and its ex- tension promises much hope for the future treatment of many of the bacterial diseases. Bacteriolytic sera have been made for a num- ber of micro-organisms. See Immunity. Bacterium, a genus of bacteria of the fam- ily Bacillariacece, characterized by rod-shaped forms and absence of flagella. They are thus non-motile. A large number of pathogenic bac- teria belong to this genus. See Bacteria; Ba- cillus. Bac'tria. See Bactriana. Bactriana, bak-tri-a'na, or Bactria, a coun- try of the ancient Persian empire, lying north of the Hindu Kush Mountains, on the Upper Oxus. It corresponded pretty nearly with the modern Balkh. Here many scholars locate the original home of the Aryan or Indo-European family of nations. Its capital, Bactra, or Zariaspa, was also the cradle of the Zoroastrian religion. Originally a powerful kingdom, it maintained its independence until its subjugation by Cyrus about 540 B.C., when it became a satrapy of the Persian empire. It was included in the con- quests of Alexander, and formed a part of the kingdom of the Seleucidse until the foundation, about 256 B.C., by Diodotus, of the Greek king- dom of Bactria, which extended to the Indus, and which, after a long struggle, was over- thrown by the Parthians. Numerous coins with Greek legends have been found in the topes or burial places to the northeast of Kabul. Bac'trian Cam'el. See Camel. Bac'tris, a genus of American palms, numbering more than 50 species. The genus is of commercial importance, a tough thread used for net weaving, being made from the fibres of Bactris acanthocarpa, and walking-sticks are manufactured from the long slender stems of Bactris maraja. The fruit of the latter is con- sidered a delicacy. Bactrites, bak-tri'tez, a genus of fossil ammonites, with a straight shell, and indented, but not ramified septa. The genus ranges from the lower Silurian to the Devonian. Bac'trus, the ancient name of a river in the province of Balkh, central Asia, upon which Bactria was situated. Baculites, bak'u-li'tez, a genus of fossil ammonites, characteristic of chalk formations, having a straight, tapering shell. Bacup, bak'iip, England, a town of Lanca- shire, 18 miles north from Manchester. There are a number of churches, chapels, and schools, a mechanics' institute, court-house, market-hall, large co-operative stores, etc. The chief manu- facturing establishments are connected with cot- ton spinning, and power-loom weaving; there are also iron and brass foundries and machine- shops, dye-works, etc., and in the neighborhood coal-pits and vast stone quarries. Its charter of incorporation was granted in 1882. Pop. (1901) 22,505. Baczko, bats'ko, Ludwig von, German historian and scholar : b. Lick, Prussia, 8 June 1756; d. 27 March 1823; was educated at Konigsberg, studying philosophy, medicine, and law, but became blind in 1777, through an at- tack of small-pox. In 1816, he was appointed director of the Institute for the Blind at Konigsberg. He is the author of 'A History of Prussia,' a ^History of the French Revolu- tion,' and ^Concerning Myself and My Com- panions in Misfortune, the Blind' (1807). Bad Lands, a name applied to the arid re- gions of the west, where are districts present- ing wide areas of hills and ridges of moderate height, bare of sod and intricately broken by numerous gullies and ravines. The principal areas are in the western Dakotas and cen- tral Wyoming, and smaller examples of bad-land topography are of frequent occurrence in the arid regions in various portions of the world. In the Big Bad Lands of western South Dakota, east of the Black Hills, there is an area of about 2,000 square miles, which consists largely of bad lands occupying extensive basins cut in a plateau along the White and Cheyenne rivers. They present wonderfully weird scenery, but are rarely visited by the average sight-seer. An extensive area in the valley of the Little Missouri River is crossed by the Northern P. R.R. in the vicinity of Medora, and many bad- land features are visible near the railroad. Typi- cal bad lands present ridges and mesas from 200 to 400 feet high in greater part, eroded into fantastic shapes and cut by ravines and gullies into an endless variety of rugged buttresses and pinnacles. The materials are mainly light- colored, sandy clays, and soft sandstones in nearly horizontal strata, and their bare slopes are dazzling in the bright sunlight. Most bad land regions were table-lands originally, and areas of the old surface remain in level-topped, grass-covered mesas of various sizes, with bad land slopes extending to flat-bottomed valleys of greater or less width. Bad lands exhibit clearly the close relations of topographic form to rock texture, tjie homogeneous clays being carved into regular slopes, in which sandstone layers give rise to benches, or protect columns and pinnacles of clay. Bad lands are developed in soft rocks where a region has been so uplifted that there is rapid erosion, under arid or semi- arid climatic conditions. The occasional rains cut gullies which eventually are deepened into ravines, and, as the rocks are soft, the erosion progresses more rapidly than vegetation can establish itself. In regions of abundant rainfall, vegetation is so vigorous that it usually forms a protective mantle on all but the steeper slopes, but in arid lands, a thin sod is the principal growth, and it is quickly removed by the rapid run-off of the torrential rains. The Big Bad BADLANDS. Typical views in Big Badlands of South Dakota, showing pinnacles of hard clay capped by sandstone, the sodless slopes, and in the distance a remnant of the original plateau out of which the Badlands are eroded. B ADAGRI — BADEN Lands of South Dakota have yielded large num- bers of fossil animals of late Eocene age, which have made the region famous as a collecting ground. N. H. Darton, U. S. Geological Sitn'ey. Badagri, ba'da-gre, or Badagry, a British seaport on the Bight of Benin, in the extreme southwest corner of the British Niger Territory, Africa. Early in its history it was a noted slave mart ; contained important manufactories ; and had a population of 10,000. It was from this place that, in 1825, Clapperton and Lander started to explore the African interior. Badajoz, ba'da-hoth', the capital of the Spanish province of Badajoz, on the left bank of the Guadiana, which is crossed by a stone bridge of 28 arches. It is a bishop's see, and has an interesting cathedral. During the Peninsular war, Badajoz was besieged by Alarshal Soult, and taken in March 181 1. It was twice attempt- ed by the English, on 5 and 29 May 181 1; was besieged by Wellington on 16 March, and taken 6 April 1812. Pop. 22,860. Badakhshan, ba'dakh-shan', a territory of central Asia, tributary to the ameer of Afghan- istan. It has the Oxus on the north and the Hindu Kush on the south ; and has lofty moun- tains and fertile valleys ; the chief town is Faiza- bad. The inhabitants profess MohammedanisiTU Pop. 100,000. Badalona, ba'da-lo'na, a seaport of Spain, on the Mediterranean, five miles from Barce- lona. Pop. 19,200. Baddeck', a fishing village and summer resort on Cape Breton Island. Bad'derlocks (alaria esculenta), an olive- colored sea weed which grows on rocks in deep water on the shores of Europe and Iceland. It has a short cylindrical stem with lateral spore- bearing process, and a membranous olive-green frond of 2 to 12 feet long, with a stout midrib. This midrib, together with the fruits, is eaten by the inhabitants of the sea coasts of Iceland, Denmark, Scotland, Ireland, etc., and is said to be the best of the esculent algae. The name is supposed to be a corruption of balder-locks. Badeau, ba-d5', Adam, American military officer: b. New York, 29 Dec. 1831 ; d. 19 March 1895 ; was educated at private schools. He served with gallantry in the Union army during the Civil War ; was on the staff of Gen. Sherman in 1862-3, and secretary to Gen. Grant in 1864-9 ; and in the latter year was retired with the rank of captain in the regular army and of brevet brigadier-general of volun- teers, and was appointed secretary of legation in London. He was consul-general in London, 1870-81, and during this period was given leave of absence to accompany Gen. Grant on his tour around the world (1877-8). In 1882-4 he was consul-general in Havana. After the death of Gen. Grant he brought suit against his heirs for payment of services rendered in the preparation of Gen. Grant's < Memoirs, > which was satis- factorily settled out of court. His publications include: ^The Vagabond^ (New York 1889); < Military History of Ulysses S. Grant' (3 vols. 1867-81) ; ^Conspiracy; A Cuban Romance' (18185) ; < Aristocracy in England^ (1886) ; and (1892) ; etc. He was a member of Parliament from Liverpool from 1885 till his death. Ba'den-Pow'ell, Robert Stevenson Smyth, British military officer ; b. London, 22 Feb. 1857 ; was educated at the Charterhouse School ; joined the 13th Hussars in 1876; was adjutant in India, Afghanistan, and South Africa; As- sistant Military Secretary on the staff in South Africa in 1887-9; took part in the operations in Zululand, for which he was highly com- mended, in 1888; assistant military secretary in Malta in 1890-3 ; on special service in Ashanti, commanding the native levies, 1895, for which he was brevetted lieutenant-colonel ; chief staff officer in the Matabeleland campaign, for which he was brevetted colonel, and became lieutenant- colonel, commanding the 5th Dragoon Guards, in 1897. In the war in South Africa in 1899- 1900, he signally distinguished himself by his grand defense of Mafeking, Cape Colony, hold- ing the town with a small force against repeated attacks, under an almost continuous bombard- ment, from 15 Oct. 1899, to 16 May 1900. Three relief columns were started, the last only being successful. In recognition of this heroic de- fense, the queen promoted Baden-Powell to be a major-general. Gen. Baden- Powell has pub- lished several works, including 'Reconnaissance and Scouting' (1890) ; 'Vedette' (1890) ; 'Cav- alry Instruction' (1895); 'The Downfall of Prempeh' (1896) ; 'The Matebele Campaign* (1896), etc. Baden-bei-Wien, ba'den-bi-ven, a watering place of lower Austria, about 15 miles south- southwest of Vienna. It was the Aquae Pan- nonise, or Cethise of the Romans, and is still famous for its warm mineral springs, which are frequented during the season by from 12,000 to 15,000 persons, chiefly from the Austrian cap- ital. Season from July to September. Pop. (1900) 17,700. Badeni, ba'den-e. Count Cassimir Felix, Austrian statesman: b. Poland, 14 Oct. 1846. His father, though poor, was a man of in- tellect, and was made a count by the king of Poland just before the birth of Cassimir. He also fell heir to a fortune, and his two sons re- ceived a university education. Cassimir entered the Austrian civil service; became district chief at Zolkiew in 1871 ; minister of the interior in 1873; governor of Galicia in 1888; and prime minister of Austria-Hungary, 15 Sept. 1895. In April 1897, because of inability to maintain a Liberal majority in the newly elected Reichs- rath, he resigned with his cabinet, but the em- peror declined to accept his resignation, and he remained in office until 28 November, when he again resigned and a new cabinet was organized. The principal feature of his administration and the one which not only caused his fall, but a long period of political agitation, was his intro- duction of what is known as the "language ordi- nance," which allowed the official use of the Czech language in Bohemia and Mcravia. This measure alienated the Germans and provoked a racial conflict of a most bitter character be- tween them and the Czechs. Badenweiler, ba'den-vi-ler, a watering place in the grand duchy of Baden, near Miill- heim. Its mineral springs are now rated among the indifferent waters, and it is of interest chief- ly for the ruins of Roman baths that were dis- covered in 1847. The foundation of the town is referred to the time of Hadrian, and the re- m.ains of the vapor baths, of which there are excellent specimens, are supposed to be of the same period. The ruins show a division for men and for women, each having a large outer court opening into a dressing-room ; there is the hot-air bath, the warm bath, and the cold bath. The walls and steps are in their original position. The whole structure is 318 feet by 90 feet. Badge, a distinctive device, emblem, mark, honorary decoration, or special .cognizance, used originally to identify a knight or distin- guish his followers, now worn as a sign of office or licensed employment, as a token of membership in some society, or generally as a mark showing the relation of the wearer to any person, occupation,, or order. Badg'er, George Edmund, American states- man : b. Newbern, N. C, 13 April 1795; d. 13 April 1866; was graduated at Yale College in 1813; became a lawyer at Raleigh; and was judge of the North Carolina Superior court BADGER — BADGLEY in 1820-5. He was appointed secretary of the the dry plains, where it is still numerous al- navy, 14 March 1841, resigning after the death though not often seen, because it rarely comes of President Harrison, and was elected to the abroad except in the night. It dwells in deep United States Senate in 1846 and 1848. In burrows which it digs for itself and feeds 1853 he was nominated for justice of the United upon gophers, ground-squirrels, such ground- States supreme court, but was not confirmed, building birds and their eggs and young as it He serv'ed in the State convention called to pass is able to catch, and, in times of scarcity, upon on the question of secession, although opposed small reptiles and insects. Badgers abound in to such measure, and after making a strong the vicinity of prairie-dog towns, whose under- speech in defense of the Union, was afterward ground homes they can enter or dig out with- known as a member of the Conservative party, out difficulty. This species is found as far Badg'er, Joseph, American clergyman, one north as Hudson Bay and south to central of the earliest missionaries to the country Mexico, where the local variety is called northwest of the Ohio River: b. Wilbraham, ^'tejon.» When by rare chance a badger is sur- Mass., 28 Feb. 1757; d. 5 May 1846. He re- pnsed durmg the day too far away from his ceived his early instruction chiefly from his hole to escape mto it before being observed, parents, and at the age of 18 joined the "^ squats down, withdrawing nose and feet Revolutionary army. He remained in service beneath his body, and remains absolutely still, for four years, then determined to obtain an when his grizzled back looks so much like a education and engage in the Christian minis- mere hillock of earth that he is likely to escape try. Entered Yale College in 1781, where he being seen altogether. The extraordinary maintained himself and his scholarship by al- breadth and fatness of his form is one of his ternately studying and teaching. He remained strongest characteristics. During the coldest a few years in Connecticut, then in 1800 was P^rt of the winter he retires to his den and selected by the missionary society of that State passes the time when no food is to be had to visit the unsettled parts of Ohio. His work ^ deep sleep The best account of this am- .1, V- r __i.^i i i_ -_..i.i t _ri, mal IQ tn np fniinH in Dr Pmipc'c < TTnrKoarinfr more rivers w'iVhouVbddgesT^ Duririg"Vhr War of }^97)- The European badger (Meles taxus) 1812 he was appointed by Gen. Harrison chap- '-s very similar in general appearance but dif- lain to the army in that district, and his lers m anatomical details. Its general habits knowledge of the countrv was of great service and food are like those of the American badger to that commander-in-chief ; but he resumed except that in the absence of open plains it his missionary fun-tions at the close of the dwells in wooded regions and has a fondness war and continued them till 1835, when he re- for honey, digging it out of the nests of bum- tired and lived with his onlv daughter. Dur- b'ebees and others which make their homes in ing the latter years of his 'life he received a pe ground This is the animal formerly used pension from the United States. |" ,the cruel sport of badger-baiting. A captive ■r, J r r\ T \ ■ 1 cc badgcr was placed in an overturned barrel or K ^^^^r^fu' ^^""^r ' ^"^^'"'^1" naval officer: ^^^^ similar place, and dogs were set upon it b. Windham, Conn., 12 Aug. 1823 ; d. for the amusement of seeing the fighting that 20 June 1899; entered the United States navy, resulted. It required a powerful and active 9 Sept. 1841; became lieutenant-commander, dog to overcome the little animal. Frequently, 16 July 1862; commander, 2, July 1866; cap- however, the badger was given no fair chance tain, 25 Nov. 1872; commodore. 15 Nov. 1881 ; ^ut was compelled to face in the open two o; and was retired 12 Aug. 1885. He served on ^^ree dogs. From this unmanly sport is de- the steamer Mississippi during the Mexican ^.-^^^^ ^^e verb «to badger.» Many references war taking part in the attack on Alvarado ^^^ ^^ ^ ^^^^^^ -^ ^^^] ^ ^^^^ literature to 1846; led the party that attacked and destroyed ^^is amusement, and to the animal itself under the village of "V utia, Fiji Islands while on the ^j^e old terms «grey» and «brock.» the latter soop John Adams 1855-6; and m he Civil ,^5,1 -^ common use in northern England and War commanded the Anacostia, of the Poto- Scotland. Various closely related species and mac flotilla, 1861-2 and the ironclads Patapsco ^^j-ieties of the badger are to be found in and Montauk, in the operations in Charleston northern Asia, and other relatives exist in In- harbor in 1863 : and was acting fleet cap am on . ^ ^ ^ ^ ^^ ^^^.^^ P^^ ^^^^^ ^^^ the flagship Weehawken in the attack on Fort s^^j^.^^oger ; Honey Badger; Ratel; Teledu; Sumter, i Sept. 1863. Zorilla Bad'ger a stout burrow-ing carnivorous Bad'ger State, a nickname given to the mammal of the fur-bearing family AUisteliace, state of Wisconsin related to the skunks and weasels, species of -n ■,,•,,- > • , c which inhabit various parts of the northern Badghis, bad-gez , a region north of hemisphere. Badgers have short legs, elongat- Herat, comprising the cpuntry between the Mur- ed feet with powerful toes adapted to digging, gjab and the Harirud rivers, as far north as the heavv jaws with big teeth, and great strength, edge of the desert It lies J"st to the south of courkge, and cunning. They wear coats of the boundary line between Afghanistan and the thick fur usually grizzled in brown and gray, Russian territories, as defined in 1887. the face is striped and the paws are blackish. Badg'ley, Sidney Rose, Canadian archi- The fur is of considerable value. The Amer- tect : b. near Kingston, Ont.. 28 May 1850. He ican badger (Taxidea amcricana) was formerly studied architecture in Toronto, and, after prac- distributed all over the western part of the tising some time in St. Catharines, established United States from the prairie districts of himself in Cleveland, O. He has made a special- Ohio and Wisconsin to the Pacific coast, but ty of the architecture of churches and public has been exterminated by civilization east of buildings, and has planned and erected churches BADHAM — BAER in almost all parts of Canada and the United States, and, among other structures, the Massey Music Hall, Toronto; the Slocum Library and Perkins Observatory, in Ohio; Wesleyan Uni- versity, in Delaware, and the Medical College, Cleveland. He published an ^Architectural Souvenir' (1896). Badham, bad'am, Charles, English educa- tor: b. Ludlow, 18 July 1813; d. 26 Feb. 1884; was considered one of the most eminent classical scholars of his day ; and after serving for sev- eral years as head master of King Edward VL's Grammar School at Louth, he became professor of classics and logic in the University of Sydney, Australia, 1867. While in Sydney he established a system of teaching by correspond- ence, similar to the present university exten- sion scheme. He published a number of works on Greek classics, and 'Criticism Applied to Shakespeare^ (1846). Badia y Leblich, ba-de'a e la-blech', Domingo, Spanish traveler: b. 1766; d. 1818; he visited in 1803 and the four following years the Mohammedan countries bordering on the Mediterranean. During the whole of his tour he professed to be a Mussulman, and traveled under the denomination of "AH Bey el Abbassi.'' He was so skilful in carrying out his part that he deceived Moslem rulers and scholars, and was at one time in great favor in the court of Morocco. It is now admitted that he was em- ployed as a political agent by the Prince of Peace, at the instigation of Napoleon. His pe- culiar situation and religious profession gave him opportunities for making many observations which could not occur to other travelers, and he published an account of his travels, with the title 'Voyages d' AH Bei en Afrique et en Asie.^ Badinguet, ba'daii-ga', afterward Radot, a Moor, as whom Napoleon HL masqueraded to escape from the fortress of Ham in 1846; after- ward a nickname for Napoleon HL He died in 1883. Badius, ba'de-us, French printer and writ- er: b. 1462; d. 1535. About 1500 he founded his printing establishment at Paris, and publish- ed a number of the classics. He annotated these himself and wrote also a life of 'Thomas a Kempis.* Bad'lam, Stephen, American military offi- cer: b. Milton, Mass., 25 March 1748; d. 24 Aug. 181 5; entered the Revolutionary army in 1775; became commander of the artillery in the Department of Canada. On the announcement of the adoption of the Declaration of Independ- ence, he took possession of the heights oppo- site Ticonderoga and named the place Mt. In- dependence. Subsequently he rendered good service at Fort Stanwix, and in 1799 was made brigadier-general. Bad'man, The Life and Death of Mr., an allegory by John Bunyan, published in 1680. It gives a vivid picture of the life of the common people during the time of Charles II. Bad'minton. The game now called Bad- minton is in reality a modification of the very ancient game of battledore and shuttlecock ; but it is played on a court 44 feet long by 20 wide over a net strung across the centre not less than 18 mches deep, with its lower edge five feet from the ground. The bat is strong, like a racquet bat, and weighs about five ounces. The shuttle- cock is feathered after the old fashion. The service line is drawn six and one half feet from the net on either side. A line drawn down the centre, joining the service and base lines, forms two courts at each end. The game can be played by two or four, six or eight players. Each striker scores, or is penalized, according to the result of the rules. See 'The Ency- clopcedia of Sport> (N. Y. 1898). Bad'minton, a special, sweetened claret, named for the Duke of Beaufort (of Badmin- ton). As he was a patron of pugilists, the term came to mean, in the prize ring, blood, for which claret was previously a slang term. ' Badoc, ba-dok', Philippine Islands, a town of the province of IHcos Notre, on the Island of Luzon. Pop. 11,000. Badoura, ba-doo'ra, the daughter of the king of China, who falls in love with the sleep- ing prince in the story of Prince Camaralzaman, in the 'Arabian Nights' Entertainment.^ Badrinath, ba'dri-nath', a peak of the main Himalayan range, in Garhwal district. North- western Provinces, India; 23,210 feet above the sea. On one of its shoulders, at an elevation of 10,400 feet, stands a celebrated temple of Vishnu, w^hich some years attracts as many as 50,000 pilgrims. Badrulbudar, ba-drool'boo-door', the wife of Aladdin, in the 'Arabian Nights' Entertain- ment,^ story of Aladdin and the lamp. Baebia Gens, be'bi-a jenz, a plebeian clan of ancient Rome. The first member of the fam- ily to obtain the consulship w^as Cn. Baebius Tamphilus (182 b.c.). The other distinguished ones are known under their family names. Dives, Herennius, Sulca. etc. Baedeker, bad'e-ker, Karl, German pub- lisher: b. 1801 : d. 1859; originator of a cele- brated series of guide-books for travelers. Baele, ba-a'le, an African tribe dwelling northeast of Lake Tchad. It is nomadic, half heathen and half Mohammedan, and owns large herds of cattle, camels, goats, and sheep. Baena, ba-ya'na, Antonio, Portuguese- Brazilian historian and geographer : b. Portugal about 1795; d. 28 March 1850; waa an officer in the Portuguese, afterward in the Brazilian, army. He studied the geography and history of the Amazon valley. His principal works were 'The Ages of Para (1838). a historic compend stop- ping in 1823, and 'Chorographic Essay on the Province of Para' (1839), a geographical and statistical work, giving the details of explora- tions made by himself. The.^e are still standard authorities on that region. Bae'na, Spain, a town in province of An- dalusia, 24 miles south-southeast from Cordova, on the Marbella. It has two principal and two smaller squares, four parish churches, a town- and court-house, several well-attended schools, two hospitals, a prison, numerous convents, and manufactures of linen, woolen and cotton fab- rics. Large quantities of grain ^nd oil are ex- ported to Malaga Pop. (1897) 11,994. Baer, bar, Karl Ernst von, Russian natu- ralist: b. Piep, Esthonia, 28 Feb. 1792; d. 28 Nov. 1876 ; was professor of zoology at Ko- nigsberg (1819), and librarian of the Academy of Sciences at St. Petersburg (1834). His princi- pal works were 'History of the E)evelopment of BAER — BAFFIN BAY Animals^ (2 vols. 1828-37), and 'Researches Bae'yer, Johann Jakob, Prussian geometri- Into the Development of Fishes* (1835). The cian : b. Muggelsheim, 5 Nov. 1794; d- 10 Sept. writings of Baer are distinguished for their 1885 ; was an army volunteer in the campaigns philosophical teachings. of 1813 and 1814; joined the army in 1815; Baer, William Jacob, artist: b. Cincin- a"d became a lieutenant-general in 1858. He nati, 29 Jan. i860. He studied at the Munich ^ad charge of a number of geodetic surveys: Royal Academy, 188(^4, receiving four medals was elected president of the Geodetic Institute there, and one of his works being purchased '" ^erlm in 1870; and was the author of nu- by the Academy. Between 1885 and 1892 he "^^^""^ treatises on the refraction of light m painted portraits and pictures, the latter chiefly the atmosphere, the size and form of the earth, in the genre style. He then devoted himself ^ '~' almost exclusively to miniature painting, of Baez, ba'ath, Buenaventura, Dominican which he became a pioneer of the modern statesman: b. Azua, Haiti, about 1810; d. 21 school. ^A.urora,> and 'The Madonna with the Auburn Dominican Republic; was its president in 1849- Hair> are among his best-known miniatures. 53; was then expelled by Santa Ana and went Baert, ba-ar', Alexandre Balthazar Fran- to New York; was recalled in 1856 on the 5ois de Paule, Baron de, French writer: b expulsion ot Santa Ana, and again elected Dunkirk about 1750; d. 23 ^larch 1825; became president; and was re-elected president in 1865 a deputy in the General Assembly of 1789. and 1868. During his last term he signed When the Revolution became the Reign of Ter- treaties with the United States (29 Nov. 1869) ror, he fled to the United States, remaining for the annexation of Santo Domingo to the there some years. He returned to France in United States, and for the cession of Samana 181 5, and once more became deputy, maintaining Bay. The treaties failed of ratification in the his old position as a moderate reformer. He United States Senate, and caused the downfall published two historical works, one on Great of Baez. Britain and her colonies, the other 6n the Baeza, ba-a'tha, Spain, a towm of Andalu- country between the Black and Caspian seas. sia, 22 miles east-northeast from Jaen. It is Baert', or Bart, Jean, French sailor: b. pleasantly situated on a height amid rich and Dunkirk. 1650; d. 1702. He raised himself, un- well-watered plains, and from a distance pre- der Louis XIV., to the rank of commodore, and sents a very striking appearance wth its old made the French navy what it was, at that time, walls, churches, and steep-roofed houses. It The Dutch, English, and Spanish called him the has several good streets and three squares, one «French Devil.» Bart brought into port a num- of which is lined by a range of porticoes. I he ber of Dutch and English vessels, burned others, principal edihces are the cathedral the old landed at Newcastle, and laid waste the neigh- Aliatares tower, the town-hall with a fine fagade, boring country. In 1694, when there was a and an old monastery, now a theatre. Fop. scarcity of corn in France, he succeeded several (1902) about 14,300. times, notwithstanding the watchfulness of the Baffa, baf'fa, a seaport on the southwest English, in bringing into the harbor of Dunkirk coast of Cyprus. It occupies the site of New ships loaded with this article. Once he delivered Paphos, which, under the Romans, was full of a number of such vessels, in the boldest manner, beautiful temples and other public buildings, from the Dutch, into whose hands they had fall- Baffin, William, English navigator: b. en, and received, m consequence, letters of nobil- about 1584; d. 23 May 1622. He visited west ity In 1695 he was taken prisoner by the Eng- Greenland as a pilot in 1612, again in 1615, and hsh and brought to Plymouth, but managed to j^^je voyages to Soitzbergen in 1613 and 1614. make his escape. In 1696 he met the Dutch j^ 1616 he ascertained the limits of that vast fleet froni the Baltic and captured the escort inlet of the sea since distinguished by the ap- with 40 ships ; but on his return to Dunkirk 13 pellation of Baffin Bay, and also discovered Dutch ships of the line appeared, and to avoid g^d named Smith's Sound, Lancaster Sound, a very unequal combat he was obliged to burn ^^^ j^ 1617-22 he was in the emplovment of the greater part of his captures. From the ^^e East India Companv, and on board vessels Peace of Ryswick to the breaking out of the belonging to them in the Indian seas. He was war of the Spanish succession he lived at Dun- j^jUg^i ^^ the siege of Ormuz, on the Persian ^irk. _ G,,lf. Baetica, be'ti-ka, the central division of Baffin's Bay, an inland sea or gulf in North ancient Spain under Roman rule, famed for its America, between Greenland and the lands or fertility, its mines of iron, gold, and silver, and islands north of Hudson Bay, extending from Its delightful climate. These advantages gave 68° to 78° N., and 55° to 80° W. It communi- rise to a number of fabulous stories, which ^ates with the Atlantic Ocean by Davis Strait made it the home of Geryon, an assailant of o^ the south, with the Arctic Ocean by Lancas- Hercules, and placed there the Elysian Fields, ter Sound and Jones Sound on the west, and It passed into the hands of the Vandals, and ^ith the Polar Sea by Smith Sound and Robe- it was the first province conquered by the son Channel on the north. Depth, 200 to 1,050 Moors. fathoms. The tides do not rise more than 10 Baeyer, ba'yer, Adolf von, German chem- feet. The surface of the sea is covered with ist: b. Berlin, 31 Oct. 1835; son of Johann ice during the greater part of the year, which Jakob Baeyer; became professor of chemistry extends from shore to shore in winter, though at Strasburg in 1872, and at Munich, in 1875, possessing a slow, southward movement. In succeeding Liebig at the latter. He made many spring and summer, the great mass, knov.-n as important discoveries in organic chemistry, es- the middle ice, begins to move less slowly pecially cerulein, eosin, and indol. southward, leaving navigable passages on th,e BAFFIN LAND — BAGDAD side of Greenland and America, and occasional channels, or crossings, between these coasts. The coasts are mountainous, barren, and deeply indented with gulfs. Whale and seal fishing is followed. This sea was discovered by the Eng- lish navigator, Baffin (q.v.), in 1616, while in search of a passage to the Pacific. Baffin Land, an island in the Arctic re- gions west of Greenland. Its area is not exactly known. Bafulabe, ba'fii-lab, a town of the French Sudan, at the junction of two head-streams of the Senegal, connected by railway with Kayes on that river. Bagamoyo, ba'ga-mo'yo, a seaport and commercial centre of German East Africa op- posite Zanzibar, and north of Dar-es-Salaam. Though it has no harbor, and its coast is often swept by hurricanes, it has a considerable trade in ivory, copra, caoutchouc, etc. It has a fort, government house, custom-house, post-office and telegraph building, station of the German East African Association, government school, etc. The climate is unhealthy for Europeans. Fop. about 18,000. Bagasse, ba-gas', the name given to sugar cane in its dry, crushed state, as delivered from the mill, and after the main portion of its juice has been expressed ; used as fuel in the sugar factory, and called also cane trash. Bagatelle, bag'a-tel', a table ball game of the class of billiards, played on a table semi- circular at the top end. The tables vary from 6 to 7 feet in length and are usually about 3 feet 6 inches wide. The game is played by two or more, one against the other. There are nine balls, eight white and one black, and nine holes sunk in the far end' of the table in a diamond shape, numbered respectively I, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9. The black ball is placed on a spot * in front of the foremost hole. The player then takes one of the white balls, and placing it within a balk line at the lower end of the table, strikes it with the cue in such a manner that it strikes the black ball ; both balls go on their courses and fall, or not, into one or other of the open cups. Whichever cup the black ball falls into counts double the number of points normally allotted to it. Then the player, in like manner, plays the remaining seven balls up the table. For so many cups as he fills he counts up his dots, and that is his score. The highest wins. Bagau'dae, or Bagaudi, a body of Gallic insurrectionists of the rural class, who revolted against the Romans 270 a.d., headed by one Victoria, called by the soldiers Mother of Le- gions. Claudius temporarily quelled them, and Aurelian, by a remission of their taxes in ar- rears, and by granting them a general amnesty, made peace with them. Under Diocletian, 280 A.D., they rose again, and their two leaders as- sumed the title of emperor ; but they were soon compelled to capitulate, though they retreated to an island formed by the confluence of the Marne and Seine, and made a desperate stand for the victory. The place of this sanguinar contest was long known as the Fosses do, Bagaudcs. From this period, the Bagaudse may be considered as gradually transforming their activity into a kind of brigandage, which in- fested the forests and fastnesses of Gaul until the end of the Western Empire. Bag'by, George William, American physi- cian and humorist : b. Buckingham County, Va., 13 Aug. 1828 ; d. 29 Nov. 1883 ; educated at Delaware College ; wrote under the pseudonym, Mozis Addums. He was editor of the Lynch- burg Express (1853), and ^Southern Literary Messenger* (1859); State Librarian of Vir- ginia (1870-8), and contributor to various magazines. He wrote ^John M. Daniel's Latch- key > (1868) ; prefixed to 'Literarv Studies,' and 'Dictionary of National Biography'). William T Brewster, Professor of English, Columbia University. Bag'gage, probably from the old French word baguc. meaning bundle. As ordinarily used it includes trunks, valises, portmanteaus, etc., which a traveler carries with him on a J0urne3^ In a military sense the word includes tents, furniture, utensils, etc. Baggara, biig'ga-ra, an Arabic-speaking Hamitic tribe of the Upper Nile valley. They occupy this valley as far east as the territory of their neighboring negro tribesmen, the Shil- luk. They are nomads, Egyptian soldiers, hunters, etc. Baggesen, Jens, Danish poet, who also wrote much in German: b. Korsor, 15 Feb. 1764; d. Hamburg, 3 Oct. 1826. He traveled exten- sively in Europe, and on his return received an appointment from the Danish government. He possessed great sensibility and imagination, and his works are said to present a singular mixture of contradictory qualities. His best productions are his smaller poems and songs, several of which are very popular with his countrymen. His 'Seasons' in Danish, are much esteemed. The 'Labyrinth' is his most famous work. Baghelkhand, ba-gel-kund', a tract ot country in central India, occupied by a collection of native states (Rewah being the chief, under the governor-general's agent for central India) ; area, 11,323 square miles; pop. 1,512,595. Bagheria, ba'ga-re'a, or Bagaria, a town of Sicily, eight miles east by south of Palermo by rail. It is beautifully situated at the base of the isthmus which separates the Bay of Palermo from that of Termini and is surround- ed by groups of palatial villas of the Sicilian nobility. Pop. 12,650. Bagimont's (baj'i-monts) Roll, a rent-roll of Scotland, made up in 1275 by Baiamund or Boiamond de Vicci, vulgarly called Bagimont who was sent from Rome by the Pope, in the reign of Alexander III., to collect the tithe of all the Church livings in Scotland for an expe- dition to the Holy Land. It remained the statu- tory valuation, according to which the benefices were taxed, till the Reformation. A copy of it, as it existed in the reign of James V., is in the Advocates' Library, Edinburgh. Bagirmi, ba-ger'me, a Mohammedan ne- gro state in central Africa, situated partly be- tween Bornu and Wadai, to the southeast of Lake Chad, and watered by the Shari, which falls into Lake Chad, and by its tributaries. It has an area of about 65,000 square miles, and about 1,500,000 inhabitants ; but both its area and population fluctuate according as it encroaches on or is encroached on by its neighbors. The whole country is a plain 900 feet above the level of the sea, well suited for the cultivation of sorghum, which is accordingly the principal breadstuff. Sesame, beans, cotton, and indigo are also cultivated. The government is an abso- lute monarchy, but the ruler pays tribute to Wadai. Bagirmi was formerly included in one state with Bornu and Wadai. An inexhaustible supply of slaves is found in the heathen negro states to the south, at the expense of whom also Bagirmi, when pressed by its Mohamme- dan neighbors, extends its territory. The cap- ital is Masena, situated about the centre of the state. By Great Britain and Germany Bagirmi has latterly been recognized as within the French sphere of influence, and in 1897 a treaty was concluded between the French government and the Sultan. There is a French resident in the capital. Bag'ley, "Worth, American naval officer: b. Raleigh, N. C, 6 April 1874; d. 11 May 1898. He was graduated at the United States Naval Academy in 1895 ; promoted to ensign, i July 1897, and was detailed as inspector to the new torpedo-boat, Winslow, in November fol- lowing. This boat went into commission the next month, and he was appointed her execu- tive officer. In April 1898 the Winslow was assigned to the American fleet off the coast of Cuba, and on 9 May, while on blockading duty at the harbor of Cardenas, with the Wilmington and Hudson, drew the fire of several Spanish coast-guard vessels. All the American vessels escaped untouched. Two days afterward the three vessels undertook to force an entrance into the harbor, when they were fired on by Spanish gunboats. The Winslow was disabled, and with difficulty was drawn out of the range of the enemy's guns. The Wilmington then silenced the Spanish fire, and as the action closed, Ensign Bagley and four sailors on the BAGLIONI — BAGOT Winslow were instantly killed by a shell, he being the first American naval officer to fall in the war with Spain. Baglioni, ba-lyo'ne, a historical family of Perugia in Italy. Perugia contained two parties — an aristocratic and a democratic one. The Baglioni belonged to the former. In the 12th century Ludovico Baglioni was appointed im- perial vicar of Perugia by Frederic Barbarossa, who styles Baglioni his relative, as coming, like himself, from the ducal house of Swabia. In I393> 70 Perugian gentlemen, and among them tn-o Baglionis, were killed in a street fight by the populace, and the whole aristocratic party was expelled from the city. Braccio Baglioni, in the service of the Pope, defeated Francesco Sforza. near Lodi, in 1453, and was made lord of Spello by Sixtus IV. Gian Paolo Baglioni began life as a condottiere; then availing him- self of the dissensions of his native state he ob- tained supreme power over it and made alliance with Pandolfo Petrucci, ruler of Sienna. He was driven out of Perugia by Csesar Borgia in 1502. Returning in 1503, after the death of Alexander VI., he was banished again, in 1506, by Julius II. He then entered the service of the Venetians in the war of the league of Cambray. He resumed his old position as ruler of Perugia in 1513. Here he created so much scandal that Leo X., who at first passed over his usurpa- tion, summoned him to Rome, threw him into the castle of St. Angelo, had him tried, and he was beheaded at Rome in 1520. Malatesta and Orazio, his sons, recovered possession of Peru- gia after the death of Leo. Orazio turned con- dottiere in the seivice of France, and was killed in the Neapolitan expedition of 1528. Ma- latesta remained in Perugia until 1529, when he was driven out by the papal and imperial troops. He died at Perugia in December 1531. In the i6th century Astorre Baglioni served Charles V. in Italy and on the coast of Tunis, and rose high in the favor of Pope Paul III., who re- stored to him his paternal estates. He then entered the Venetian service, and was governor of Famagosta in Cyprus when the Turks be- sieged it in 1570. After a brave defense he was obliged to capitulate on condition of being sent home to Venice with his garrison. But Musta- pha Pasha, disregarding the terms, caused Bag- lioni and the other Venetian officers to be be- headed. Baglivi, ba-lye-ve, Giorgio, Italian phy- sician: b. Ragusa, Sicily, 1669; d. Rome, 1707. He became a disciple of the celebrated physiol- ogist and anatomist, Malpighi ; was appointed professor of medicine in the College de Sapien- za, Rome, by Pope Clement XL, and afterward became professor there of anatomy. In op- position to the system known as Galenism, in medicine, he founded that of solidism, which locates all disease in the solid portions of the human anatomy. His principal writings were published under the title of ^ Opera Omnia Med- :co-Practica et Anatomica^ (1704). Bagnacavallo, ba'nya-ka-val'lo, Bartolom- meo Ramenghi, Italian painter: b. 1484; d. 1542; called Bagnacavallo from the village where he was born. At Rome he was a pupil of Raphael and assisted in decorating the gallery of .the Vatican. His best works are: ^Dispu- tation of St. Augustine^ and ^A Madonna and Child,' both in Bologna. Bagnferes de Bigorre, ba'nyar' de be-gor' anciently Aquensis Vicus, Aqucs Bigerronum), a celebrated watering-place of France, in the de- partrnent of Hautes Pyrenees, capital of the ar- rondissement of the same name, at the entrance of the valley of Campan, on the left bank of the Adour, 13 miles south-southeast from Tarbes. Its site is one of the most romantic in the Pj'- renees. Well-cultivated slopes surround it on all sides, and are terminated in the distance by a mountain range, the most conspicuous summit in which is the Pic du Midi. The town is well built and contains several good squares and numerous spacious, handsome streets. Bagneres owes its chief celebrity to its baths, which are sulphurous and saline. The bathing establish- m.ent, called Fracasti, is very complete, and is the largest and most handsome building of the town. It stands at one of its extremities, imme- diately under Mount Olivet, and is approached by a long avenue of poplars winding through a verdant valley. The inhabitants depend chiefly on the baths, almost every house receiving lodgers ; but the manufactures are of some im- portance. The chief of these are a kind of crape and a fine woolen gauze woven into shawls and scarfs. The springs here were known to and used by the Romans, and various ancient remains are still in existence. Pop. 6,907. Bagneres de Luchon, ba'nyar' de lU-shoh', a town of France, in the department of Haute- Garonne, one of the principal watering-places of the Pyrenees, having sulphurous thermal waters said to be beneficial in rheumatic and gouty complaints, nervous ailments, skin diseases, etc., and used chiefly as baths. The town is situated in the picturesque valley of Luchon, surrounded by hills covered with wood. The main street forms a splendid avenue, at the west end of which the large bathing establishment is placed. There is also a large and splendid casino build- ing of recent erection, comprising a theatre, concert and ball rooms, etc., and containing a large-scale model of the Pyrenees, giving an excellent idea of the configuration of the range. The neighborhood exhibits some of the most interesting scenery of the Pyrenees. Visitors number from 30,000 to 40,000 annually, and are most numerous in the months of July and August. Resident pop. 4,000. Bagni, ba'nye (Italian for "baths*), a name in Italy for various places which possess natural baths or thermal springs, distinctive ap- pellations being appended to mark the particu- lar locality. Thus there are Bagni San Giu- liano, in the province of Pisa, and some four miles northeast of the citj' of that name; and Bagni di Lucca, in the province of Lucca, and about 13 miles northeast of the city of Lucca, one of the most frequented of the bathing places of Italy. Bagot, Sir Charles, British diplomatist: b. 23 Sept. 1781 ; d. Kingston, Canada, 18 May 1843. He was the second son of William, first Lord Bagot. In 1807 1 •. was appointed under- secretarj' of state for foreign affairs in the Canning administration ; in 1814, minister to France ; in 1820, ambassador at St. Petersburg ; and in 1824. ambassador in Ho"and. On the death of Lord Sydenham he was made governor- general of the Canadas, which office he held till his demise. BAGOT — BAHAMA BANK Bagot, Richard, English bishop, brother of the preceding: b. 22 Nov. 1782; d. 15 May 1854. In 1829 he was made bishop of Oxford, and in 1845 he was promoted to the bishopric of Bath and Wells. During the Tractarian con- troversj' he was violently assailed for his Pusey- ite predilections, and for his induction of the Rev. M. Bennett into the living of Frome. This had such an effect on Bishop Bagot that his in- tellect became disturbed. Bag'pipe, a well-known wind instrument, of high antiquity among various nations, and so long a favorite with the natives of the High- lands of Scotland that it may now be considered as their national instrument. The peculiarity of the bagpipe consists in the fact that the air producing the music is collected into a leathern bag, from which it is forcibly pressed into the pipes by the arm of the performer. The chanter, a pipe into which is inserted a reed for the production of the sounds by the action of the air from the bag, is perforated with holes like the German flute, which are stopped with the fingers. The other parts of the instrument, in the common Highland form, are three tubes or drones, which are also furnished with reeds. Two of the drones are in unison with D on the chanter, which corresponds with the lowest note of the German flute. The third drone, which is the longest, is an octave lower. The tuning of the bagpipe is accomplished by lengthening or shortening the tubes or drones, as may be required. Its compass is from the G of the treble stave to the A above it, but its scale is imperfect. The Highland bagpipe is a power- ful instrument, and calls for great exertion of the lungs, the air being forced into the bag by a pipe held between the lips. The Irish bagpipe is smaller, softer in its notes, and is always played with bellows that force the air into the bag. It has a number of keys on the chanter and drones, and is a much more perfect instru- ment musically than the Highland. A Low- land Scotch form of the bagpipe is also played with bellows. It is not known when the bagpipe first found its way into Scotland, but it is prob- able that the Norsemen first introduced it into the Hebrides, which islands the}-^ long possessed. In England it was common from Anglo-Saxon times, and is familiarly referred to by Chaucer and Shakespeare. The bagpipe is indeed of very ancient origin, as representations of it are to be found on Grecian and Roman sculptures ; and it has long been well known among various east- ern nations. In Italy to this day, or at least in certain parts of it, the bagpipe is still a popu- lar instrument among the peasantry, but the Italian form of it is more simple than the Highland and Irish. Bagratidae, bag-ra'ti-de, or Bagratians, a line of kings and princes of Armenia that ruled in that country from the year 885 to the nth century. After the seizure of Asia Minor by the Seijuks, some of the princes retained power as independent lords, holding the possession of mountain fastnesses. The dynasty ended with Leo IV., who was assassinated in 1342. Bagration, ba-gra'te-6n', Peter, Prince, Russian general, of the Georgian Bagradite family: b. about the year 1762; d. 7 Oct. 1812. He entered the Russian army in 1782 as a com- mon soldier; and in a long military career rose to the highest grades, and gained a place among those Russian generals the most celebrated for their stubborn, unyielding bravery. Having been created a lieutenant-general, he commanded the vanguard of the Austrian army at Austerlitz, under Prince Lichtenstein. In the Prussian campaign of 1807, his resistance made the battle of Eylau so terrible that even Napoleon shud- dered at its bloody results. The same is said of him at the battle of Friedland. In 1808 he overran Finland, western Bothnia, and the Aland isles ; in 1809 he fought at Silistria, and destroyed the Turkish force brought up from Adrianople to relieve that fortress. In 1812 he fought an unsuccessful battle with Davoust at Mohileff, but succeeded, nevertheless, in join- ing the Russian main army. He was mortally wounded at the battle of ]\Ioja'isk or Borodino, 7 Sept. 1812, just a month before he died. Bag'shaw, Edward, English author: date of birth unknown; d. 1G62. He espoused at first the cause of the Puritans, but later be- came a Royalist, and sat in the parliament that Charles I. convened at Oxford ; was taken prisoner by the Parliamentary army, and, during his detention, composed various books, the most important of which is *The Right of the Crown of England as Established by Law.' Bagshot Heath, a level tract in England, now -used as a field for military manoeuvres. It is famous as the site of many highway rob- beries in the i8th century. Bag'stock, Major Joe, an apoplectic, glut- tonous character in Dickens' novel, ^Dombey and Son.' Bagworm, or Basketworm, a common caterpillar of a moth (Thyriadopteryx ephe- merccforniis) , found in large numbers through- out the northern part of the LTnited States. The male has a dark body and light wings, but the egg-laying female is wingless. The larva lies head downward in a sac or case covered with bits of leaves (so that it looks like a bas- ket), where it finally transforms, the worm-like female remaining in its case, while the male flies sluggishly about, and may be known by its hairy body and small transparent wings. When the young hatch (in May), they crawl on a leaf, gnawing little bits from the surface and fastening them together with a thread. They present a comical sight when the baskets are partly completed, walking about, tail in the air, with the body hidden in the case. As they grow older the body is entirely protected by the sac, which they drag about when in motion. These insects frequent the trees in city parks, especially junipers, in great numbers, and are apt to be detrimental to foliage unless destroyed by scraping off the cocoons. Certain small spe- cies occur on the orange in Florida, and others in the tropics. See Faggotworm. Bahadur, ba-ha'door, the last Great Mogul from the house of Tamerlane: b. 1767; d. 1862. When the British captured Delhi, he was taken prisoner, and sent to Rangoon. He was also a poet and wrote a number of songs. Baha'ma Bank, Great and Little, shoals among the West India Islands; the former be- tween 22° and 26° N., 75° and 79° W., having south and west the Bahama old and new chan- nels. On it are the islands of Providence, An- dros, and Exuma. The Little Bank, northwest of the foregoing, between 26° and 27° N., 77° BAHAMA CHANNEL ; BAHAMAS and 79° W., has on it the Great Bahama and Abaco Islands. Baha'ma Channel, Old and New, two channels of the West Indies ; the former sep- arates the Great Bahama Bank and Cuba ; the latter, also called the Gulf of Florida, is be- tween the Great and Little Bahama Banks and Florida, and forms a part of the channel of the great Gulf Stream, which tiows here at the r^te of from two to five miles an hour. Bahamas, The, or The Bahama Islands, ■were formerly known as the Lucayos, from the name of a tribe of aborigines inhabiting them at the time of their discovery by Colum- bus in 1492. The scene of the first landing was an island on the outer or Atlantic side of this group to which Columbus gave the name San Salvador. By the natives that island was called Guanahani, and it is now known as Wa-t- ling Island. The total habitable area of the is- lands is small, but the extent of the group, in- cluding cays and rocks rising from banks near the surface of the water, is very great — nearly six degrees of latitude, and more than six de- grees of longitude. Stretching through a total distance of 780 miles, these islands and banks form a barrier between the Atlantic and the eastern entrance to the Gulf of Mexico. To reach the Florida Strait, a large vessel must follow one of three channels : the Old Bahama, north of Cuba ; the Florida, and the Providence. The last passes through the group above Nas- sau, the capital and only important city, an attractive place with about 10,000 inhabitants. The researches of Prof. Agassiz have shown that the Bahamas are essentially different in geological formation from the Greater and Less- er Antilles, being ^Svind-blown piles of shell and coral sand, — once much more extensive than now, — whose areas have been restricted by a general regional subsidence of some 300 feet, so that much of their former surface now oc- curs as shallow banks beneath the water. Mr. Robert T. Hill says : <*The islands are merely the exposed tips of a great submerged ridge, having an outline and configuration which would be crudely comparable to the island of Cuba if the latter were so submerged that its highest points merely reached the surface.'' The Indian population having been carried away to the pearl fisheries of Panama, or to labor in the fields and mines of other Spanish colonies, the Bahamas remained deserted un- til, in 1629, an English settlement was begun in the island of New Provide.ice. Twelve years Ikter, Spain asserted her claim, based upon discovery without occupation. The English were expelled, but again attempted colonization ; and Charles II., in 1680, actually granted the islands to six English noblemen and gen- tlemen. Early in the i8th century New Prov- idence was twice raided by French and Spanish forces ; and again it became a desert. Buccaneers of all nations made themselves at home, and held undisputed possession, until another English settlement was planted in 1718, and British troops assigned to its defense. Tory emigrants from the English colonies on the mainland at the time of the Revolution intro- duced slave labor and the cultivation of cotton — v/hich did not thrive. New Providence was captured and held for a short time by the Amer- \'ol. 2 13. icans under Commodore Hopkins in 1776; six years later it fell into the hands of the gov- ernor of Cuba, but was retaken by the loyalist Col. Deveaux before 12 months had passed. The rights of the old lord proprietors were pur- chased in 1787, the Bahamas becoming a pos- session of the British Crown, administered by a colonial government. During the Civil War in the United States an enormous blockade-running trade swelled the imports of the islands from a little more than $1,000,000 to upward of $26,000,000; the ex- ports from about $800,000 to more than $23,000,000 — a period of prosperity both brief and unique. Violent storms and droughts have more than once brought ruin to the natural in- dustries ; the cultivation of small fruits, vege- tables, oranges, pineapples, cocoanuts, etc., has been carried on at a disadvantage, owing to the tariff laws of the United States, and the re- moteness of other market-s. Other forms of agriculture have been attempted, with moderate success. Sponge-fishing is carried on extensive- ly. At the eastern end of the group are the Turks and Caicos islands, which were sep- arated politically from the Bahamas, and made a dependency of Jamaica in 1848. Grand Turk is the capital, and there the chief executive of- ficer, or commissioner, resides. From these is- lands 1,500,000 bushels of salt are exported annually, and a large number of sponges are also gathered and exported. The total value of imports to all the islands is about $825,000, the United States supplying nearly three fourths of that amount. Besides Turks and Caicos, the principal inhabited islands are : New Provi- dence, with about 15,000 inhabitants; Abaco, Harbor Island, Eleuthera, Mayaguana, Ragged Island, Rum Key, Exuma. Long Island, Long Key, the Biminis, Great Bahama, Crooked, Ack- lin. Cat, Watling. Berry, and the Andros Is- lands. The inhabitants of Great Abaco are chiefly descendants of the American Tories, re- ferred to above. Harbor Island has about 2,000 Inhabitants, who are descendants of the buc- caneers. Largest and most densely wooded are the Andros Islands. From November to May the temperature ranges between 60° and 75° F. ; in the summer months it varies from 75° to 85°. The cli- mate, though subject to greater extremes of heat and cold than that of other groups in the West Indies, is agreeable and health-giving; and Nassau is a favorite resort for tourists in winter. The population (about 54,000), includes a large proportion of negroes, the natural in- crease among the descendants of former slaves being greater than among the descendants of the white settlers. There is little immigration. Good schools are maintained by the govern- ment, and by the Church of England. The ad- ministration of the islands is conducted by a governor, and an executive council. Members of the representative assembly, 29 in number, are elected by suffrage. There is a legislative council. From Nassau cables run to Florida and the Bermudas. A line of steamers connects the capital with London, and there is regular mail connection with New York and Florida. _ Authorities. — Xuba and Porto Rico, with the Other Islands of the West Indies,^ by Robert T. Hill; 'Amerika,> by Rudolf Cronau. M.\RRioN Wilcox, Authority on Latin-America. BAHAR — BAHRAICH Bahar, ba-har', province in India. See Behar. Bahar, ba-har', or Barre, the name of cer- tain weights used in several places in the East Indies. They have been distinguished as the great bahar, with which are weighed pepper, cloves, nutmegs, ginger, etc. ; and the little bahar, with which are weighed quicksilver, ver- milion, ivory, silk, etc. But this weight varies much in different parts of the East, being in some places not much above 400 pounds, in others considerably over 500. Bahawalpur, ba-ha'wal-poor', India, town and capital of a state of the same name in the Punjab, two miles from the Sutlej. It is sur- rounded by a mud wall and contains the exten- sive palace of the Nawab, a vast square pile with towers at the corners. It has under- ground rooms, which afford a more comfortable temperature in the warm season than the upper rooms. Silk goods are manufactured. Pop. about 14,000. The state has an area of 17,285 square miles, of which 10,000 is desert, the only cultivated lands lying along the Indus and Sutlej. Cultivation largely depends upon irriga- tion, which has been considerably extended in recent times, with a great increase to the state revenue. The chief crops are cereals, cotton, and indigo. The political relations between the British government and the state are regulated by a treaty concluded in 1838. No tribute is exacted from the Nawab. Pop. 720,700. Bahia, ba-e'a, or Sao Salvador da Bahia, so named because it is situated on a large har- bor or bay, ranks, in population and importance among the cities of Brazil, next to Rio de Ja- neiro. It lies about 740 miles north of Rio, in lat. 13° i' S., and Ion. 38° 32' W. Amerigo Vespucci visited this port on his voyage of ex- ploration in 1503. Before 1763 Bahia was the capital of Brazil, and in the i6th century it was the scene of frequent conflicts between the Portuguese and the forces of other European nations (see Brazil). At present it is the capital of the state of Bahia, which has great natural resources in its mines and for- ests, as well as in fertile lands devoted largely to the cultivation of sugar-cane. The location of the city is picturesque, its upper portion being built on high ground several hundred feet above the sea-level. On the upper terraces stand churches, the cathedral, convents, a great the- atre, the mint, and the governor's palace. Be- low, bordering the port, which has a fine light- house and is defended by several forts, are docks and warehouses where the products of the country, — coffee, sugar, cotton, dye-woods, tobacco, rum, hides, horns, and tallow, — are collected, to be shipped to all parts of the world. Bahia has an excellent public library, which was founded in 181 1; its manufactures have received attention in recent years, and formerly it was the headquarters of the diamond trade before the mines of South Africa and southern Brazil were developed. The population is somewhat more than 200,000, with an annual increase of nearly 6,000. Marrion Wilcox. Bahia Blanca, ba-e'a blan'ka, Argentina, an important seaport town in the state of Buenos • Ayres. The town has an excellent harbor and is the seat of a considerable foreign trade. The United States is represented by a consular agent. Pop. (1903) 11,600. Bahia Honda, ba-e'a on'da, a seaport of Cuba, on the coast of the Gulf of Mexico, and lying' on a small bay, bearing the same name, which affords one of the best harbors on the island. The town and bay are about 50 miles west of Havana, being commanded by a small fort. There are mines of coal and copper in the vicinity. A short distance to the south are the sulphur springs of Aguacate. Bahr, bar, Johann Christian Felix, Ger- man philologist: b. Darmstadt, 13 June 1798; d. 29 Nov. 1872; educated at Heidelberg Gym- nasium and University, of which last he became ordinary professor of classical philology in 1823. His chief work is his 'History of Ro- man Literature^ (1828; 4th ed. 1868-70), which is noted for its clearness and comnrehensive- ness. Three supplements to this work deal with the 'Christian Poets and Historians of Rome* (1836) ; the 'Christian-Roman Theology^ (1837) ; and the 'History of Roman Literature in the Carlovingian Period' (1840). His edi- tion of 'Herodotus' (2d ed. 1855-61) is also noteworthy. Bahr, bar, an Arabic word signifying sea or large river ; as in Bahr-el-Huleh, the Lake Merom in Palestine ; Bahr-el-Abiad, the White Nile, Bahr-el-Azrek, the Blue Nile, which to- gether unite at Khartum. Bahr-el-Ghazal, bar'el-ga-zal', name of two rivers in central Africa: one flows from Lake Chad through a desert region ; the other is formed by the union of several streams near the Congo Free State, and flows eastward through a very swampy region, an^ shortly after leav- ing Lake No unites with the Bahr-el-Jebel to form the White Nile. Its banks are apt to be very indefinite owing to inundations. In 1869 Schweinfurth explored the greater part of its basin. The head of steam navigation on the river is Meshra-er-Rek. The basin of these two rivers is a province of the same name. A set- tled government was established there on behalf of Egypt in 1878, but the Mahdist rebellion temporarily severed its connection with that country. Since the reconquest of the Egyptian Sudan by the British and Egyptian forces un- der Kitchener, however, the Bahr-el-Ghazal has been again brought under a settled administra- tion. It is said to be rich in ivory, rubber, and timber, and suited for cotton growing. The Ubangi district of the French Congo lies to the west of the Bahr-el-Ghazal. Bahr Yusuf, bar yoo'suf, or Bahr el Yusuf, an artificial irrigation channel from the left bank of the Nile below Sint, to the Fayum ; 270 miles long. According to Coptic traditions it was constructed during Joseph's administration. Bahraich, ba-rlch', a town of Hindustan, capital of Bahraich district, Faizabad division, Oudh. The town is in a flourishing state ; it is drained and lighted, and carries on a good local trade. The chief edifice of interest is the shrine of Musand, a warrior and saint of the nth century, which attracts both Hindu and Moham- medan pilgrims to the number of 150,000 an- nually. The American Methodist mission has a station and a school here. Pop. about 24,000. BAHRAL — BAIKIE Bahral, ba'ral, or Burrel, a wild sheep (Ovis naliura) of the high plains of Tibet, which resembles a goat in appearance, although it has no beard. The rams carry large flattened and nearly smooth horns, which curve outward and backward, but do not curl. The general color is brown, becoming gray in winter, while the abdomen and insides of the legs and tail are white ; a stripe along the sides and on each side of the face, the throat, and the front of the legs, are black, interrupted by white patches at the knees and above the hoofs. The fe- males are plainer and have small horns. This animal, which is a favorite object of sport in Tibet, passes its whole time above the limit of forest growth, and clambers about the rocks in the manner of a goat rather than of a sheep. It is believed that these animals, which are of- ten kept captive by the mountaineers, have in- fluenced the Asiatic races of domestic sheep. Consult Lydekker, ^Roval Natural History,^ Vol. II. (London 1895)'. Bahrdt, bart, Karl Friedrich, German theologian : b. Bischofswerda, Saxony, 25 Aug. 1741 ; d. Halle, 22, April 1792; studied in Schul- pforte and Leipsic, where he first showed his great talents. In 1762 he was appointed professor in the University of Leipsic. His works and his talents as a preacher pro- cured him many admirers, but in consequence of immoral conduct he was obliged to quit that city in 1768. From this time he led an un- settled life. He was successively professor of theolog}^ and preacher in Erfurt (where he was made doctor of theolog>-), in Giessen, Switzer- land, and in Diirkheim, but was obliged to leave each of these places on account of his severe attacks on the clergy and the heterodox views manifested in his writings and sermons, as well as on account of his irregular life. The Aulic Council declared him disqualified to preach or to publish unless he would revoke the religious principles advanced in his works. In 1779 he went to Halle, where he published his creed. It is thoroughly deistical. denying the miracles, and not insisting on the immortality of the soul. He lectured in Halle, but soon became involved in difficulties with the clerg}^ ; upon which he left the city, and established, in a neighboring vineyard, a public-house, where he had many customers, whose vitiated tastes and depraved habits he made no scruple of gratify- ing. Ultimately, in consequence of two works which he wrote, the patience of government was exhausted. He was brought to trial, con- demned, and confined in the fortress of Magde- burg. Here he wrote his life. At the end of a year, having regained his liberty, he again opened his public-house at Halle, where he died. Bahrein, ba-ran', or Aval Islands, a group of islands lying on the south side of the Persian Gulf, since 1867 under British protec- tion. The principal island, usually called Bah- rein, is about 27 miles in length and 10 in breadth. It is in general very flat and low, a mere shoal hardly 20 feet above sea-level ; though in the centre there are hills 400 feet high. The soil is not fertile except in some places, and is often cultivated by means of ir- rigation. Excellent dates are produced. Fish- ing is an important industry, and the pearl- fishery here is famous. The inhabitants are a mixed race. The principal town is ]\Ianameh or Manama ; pop. 25,000. The island of Moharrek. separated from Bahrein by a strait two miles broad and only about three feet deep at ebb, is much smaller than it ; but contains a town called also Moharrek, w-hich is the present seat of gov- ernment, and has a population of 22,000. The islands are governed by a sheikh. The total population is estimated at 70,000. Baiae, bi-e, iiaiy, a piace where wealthy Romans had their summer homes, the favorite abode of the dancing-girls and the buffoons. It is now deserted, and mteresting to the stranger only for the ruins of old baths, which are shown as temples, and for the remains of former palaces, visible beneath the waves of the sea. Baiae owes its fame to its hot baths, and its situation on a most charming bay, secured by surrounding hills from the violence of the winds. The life of the Romans 'there was particularly luxurious and dissolute. It has now entirely lost its ancient position of importance. Baidyabati, bad'ya-ba'te, a town of Ben- gal, situated on the river Hugli, about 15 miles from Calcutta, with an important market for jute and other produce. Pop. about 18,400. Baif, ba-e, Jean Antoine de, French poet: b. 1532; d. 1589; one of the literary league known as the * Pleiade,^ and the chief advocate of its plan of reducing French poetry to the metres of the classic tongues ; also a spelling reformer, in favor of the phonetic system. His most meritorious works were translations of Greek and Roman dramas. Baikal, bl-kal', a lake of Siberia, 360 miles long from southwest to northeast, and from 20 to 53 in breadth, interspersed with islands ; Ion. 104° to 110° E. ; lat. 51° 20' to 55° 20' N. It contains seals and many fish, particularly stur- geons and pikes. In the environs are several sulphurous springs, and in one part, near the mouth of the river Barguzin, it discharges a kind of pitch which the inhabitants purify. The water is sweet, transparent, and appears at a distance green, like the sea. It receives the waters of the Upper Angara, Selinga, Barguzin, and other rivers ; but the Lower Angara is the only one by which it seems to discharge its waters. It is enclosed by rugged mountains, and the scenery is unusually magnificent. In summer the lake is navigated by steamboats, but it is frozen from November to April, and trade is carried on over the ice. Baikie, ba'ki, William Balfour, English naturalist and traveler: b. Kirkwall, Orkney, 1825 ; d. 12 Dec. 1864. He studied medicine at Edinburgh, and after receiving his degree entered the royal navy as assistant surgeon. He served in the Mediterranean, was assist- ant surgeon at Haslar Hospital in 1851-4, and was then appointed surgeon and naturalist to the Niger expedition, w-hich was about to start for the exploration of this river. The death of the captain of the exploring vessel the Pleiad, left him in chief command, and he suc- ceeded in reaching a point 250 miles higher up the river than had previously been attained. On a second expedition he was able to establish a settlement at the confluence of the Niger and Benue. and in a few years did much to spread civilization among the natives of the neighbor ing regions. He was author of 'Observations on the Haussa and Fufulde Languages,^ and joint author with R. Heddle of 'Mammalia and Birds Observed on the Orkney Islands.^ B AIKTASHI — BAILEY Baiktashi, bik-ta'she. See Dervishes. Bail, in law, is the delivery of a person to another for keeping, and is generally used in reference to one arrested, or committed to prison, upon a criminal process, such person being said to be bailed when he is delivered to another (or is supposed to be so, but is simply set free from custody), who becomes his surety (to a greater or less amount according to the crime with which he is charged) for his appearance at court to take his trial. The person who thus be- comes surety is said to become bail, and the amount itself is also called bail. Bail may gen- erally be granted except in the case of treason. The word is not used as a plural. When the punishment by the law of the United States is death, bail can be taken only by the supreme or circuit court, or by a judge of a district court of the United States. The proceedings attendant on giving bail are sub- stantially the same in England and in all States of the United States. An application is made to the proper officer, and the bond or the names of the bail proposed filed in the proper office, and notice is given to the opposite party, who must except within a limited time, or the bail justify and are approved. If exception is taken, notice is given, a hearing takes place, the bail must justify, and will then be approved unless the other party oppose successfully ; in which case other bail must be added or substituted. A formal application is in many cases dispensed with, but a notification is given at the time of filing to the opposite party, and unless excep- tions are made and notice given within a limited time, the bail justify and are approved. Bail'ey, Gamaliel, American journalist: b. Mount Holly, N. J., 3 Dec. 1807; d- 5 June 1859; was editor of the Methodist Protestant at Baltimore ; with J. G. Birney founded the anti-slavery journal, the ^Cincinnati Philanthro- pist^ (1836), the office of which was destroyed by a mob, though it continued to be published till 1847 : after 1843 was also editor of a daily paper, The Herald. He established the well- known newspaper, the Washington National Era (1847), in which the famous novel, ^Uncle Tom's Cabin, ^ appeared first. Bail'ey, Jacob Whitman, American scien- tist : b. Auburn, Mass., 29 April 181 1; d. 26 Feb. 1857 ; was graduated at the United States Military Academy in 1832 ; and from 1834 till his death was professor of chemistry, mineralogy and geology at the Military Academy. He was the inventor of the Bailey indicator and of many improvements in the microscope, in the use of which he achieved high distinction ; and he is regarded as the pioneer in microscopic in- vestigation. He was president of the American Association for the Advancement of Science in 1857 ; and was author of numerous papers on the results of his researches. Bail'ey, James Montgomery, American humorist: b. Albany, N. Y., 25 Sept. 1841 ; d. 4 March 1894; served in the 17th Connecticut regiment during the Civil War; returned to Danbury, founded the Danbury News in 1870. He wrote 'Life in Danbury^ (Boston 1873) ; < Danbury News Man's Almanac* (1873) ; 'They All Do It> (1877); 'The Danbury Boom> (1880) ; etc. Bail'ey, Joseph, American military offi- cer : b. Salem, O., 28 April 1827 ; d. 21 March 1867 ; entered the Union army as a private in 1861, and signally distinguished himself in the Red River campaign under Gen. N. P. Banks, in 1864 by building a dam and deepening the water in the channel, which enabled Admiral Porter's Mississippi flotilla to pass the Red River rapids in safety and so escape the perilous situation. For this engineering feat, Bailey, who before entering the army was a plain farmer, was brevetted brigadier-general, pro- moted colonel, voted the thanks of Congress, and presented by the officers of the fleet with a sword and a purse of $3,000. Subsequently, he was promoted to full brigadier-general, and was engaged on engineering duty till his resig- nation 7 July 1865. Bailey, Joseph Weldon, United States senator for Texas : b. Copish County, Mo., 6 Oct. 1863. He studied for the legal profession, graduated as a lawyer in 1883, and, entering politics, in 1884 served as a district elector on the Cleveland and Hendricks ticket. The fol- lowing year he removed to Gainesville, Texas, and in 1888 served as elector for the State at large on the Democratic ticket. He was elected to the Fifty-second, Fifty-third, Fifty-fourth, Fifty-fifth, and Fifty-sixth Congresses, and was the Democratic nominee for speaker of the House of Representatives on the organization of the Fifty-fifth Congress, 15 March 1897. He was chosen to succeed the Hon. Horace Chilton as United States senator for Texas, 23 Jan. 1901, and was re-elected 22 Jan. 1907. Bail'ey, Liberty Hyde, American horti- culturist: b. South Haven, Mich., 15 March 1858; graduated at the Michigan Agricultural College in 1882 ; was associate to Dr. Asa Gray at Harvard University in 1882-3 ; professor of horticulture and landscape gardening in the Michigan Agricultural College in 1883-8 ; in the last year became professor of horticulture in Cornell University ; and in 1903 was appointed director of the College of Agriculture at Cor- nell. He was an associate editor of the revised edition of 'Johnson's Universal Cyclopaedia* (1892-6), and editor of 'American Gardening.* . He has published a large number of technical works, including 'Annals of Horticulture,* 'Evolution of Our Native Fruits,* 'Text-book of Agriculture,* etc. Bail'ey, Loring Woart, chemist and geolo- gist: b. West Point, N. Y., 28 Sept. 1839. He graduated at Harvard in 1859, and in 1861 was appointed professor of chemistry and natural history in the University of New Brunswick, Fredericton, N. B., since which date he has also been connected with the geological survey of Canada. Besides his official reports he has published: 'New Species of Microscopical Or- ganism from the Para River, South America* (1861); 'Mines and Minerals of New Bruns- wick* (1864) ; 'Geology of Southern New Brunswick* (1865) ; 'Elementary Natural His- tory* (1887). Bail'ey, Nathaniel (or Nathan), English lexicographer: d. 1742. He was the author of an English dictionary, the best before that of Dr. Johnson. The first edition appeared in 1721 under the title of 'An Universal Etymo- logical English Dictionary,* by N. Bailey; and BAILEY — BAILIWICK it was soon republished in an enlarged form. Altogether some thirty editions of it appeared up to 1802. Dr. Johnson made use of an inter- leaved copy of it when drawing up his own dictionary. Bailey also published a spelling- book: 'All the Familiar Colloquies of Erasmus, Translated^ ; 'The Antiquities of London and V estminster' ; 'Dictionarium Domesticum,^ etc. Bail'ey, Philip James, English poet: b. Nottingham, 22 April 1816; d. 6 Sept. 1902. He was educated first in his native city and after- ward at Glasgow University ; was called to the bar, but never practised. His best known poem, *Festus,^ was first published in 1839, and has passed through a very large number of editions, both in Great Britain and the United States. He is author of a few other poems and of one prose work; among the former are 'The Age' (1858), a satire, and 'The Angel World> (1850), now incorporated with 'Festus.' Bail'ey, Samuel, English banker and writer on political and mental philosophy : b. Shef- field 1791 ; d. 18 Jan. 1870. His first work was a volume of 'Essays on the Formation and Publication of Opinions' (1821), in which he ably defended the proposition that a man's opin- ions are independent of his will. His 'Essays on the Pursuit of Truth and on the Progress of Knowledge' (1829) are only less valuable. His many controversial books on questions of political economy are already almost forgotten, though these, as well as his pamphlets and treatises on political representation, primogeni- ture, and the like, are characterized alike by terse exposition and vigorous style. Not less interesting are his 'Review of Berkeley's The- ory of "Vision' (1842) ; 'Theory of Reasoning' (1851) ; and 'Letters on the Philosophy of the Human Mind' (1855-63). The third series of the last contains an able defense of utilitarian- ism, in which the author avows himself a thor- ough determinist. Bail'ey, Solon Irving, astronomer: b. Lisbon, N. H., 29 Dec. 1854. He graduated from Boston University, 1881 ; and Harvard (A.M.), 1887. In 1889 he was sent to Peru to determine the best location for a southern station of the Harvard Observatory. Arequipa was selected, an observatory was built, and as associate professor of astronomy Prof. Bailey has had charge of the work there for eight years. In 1893 he established a meteorological station on the summit of El Misti, by far the highest scientific station in the world. His scientific writings have been issued in the 'Annals of Harvard College Observatory.' Bail'ey, Theodorus, American naval of- ficer: b. Chateauguay, N. Y., 12 April 1805; d. ID Feb. 1877; entered the navy in 1818; served on the western coast of Mexico during the Mexican war ; commanded the frigate Colo- rado, of the western Gulf blocking squadron, m 1861-2; and in the last year commanded the right column of Admiral Farragut's squadron in the passage of forts St. Philip and Jackson, and led the fleet at the capture of the Chalmette batteries and the city of New Or- leans. In 1862-5 he commanded the east Gulf blockading squadron. He was commissioned rear-admiral and retired in 1866. Bail'ey, Vernon, American scientist: b. Manchester, Mich., 21 June 1863 ; received a university education and in 1900 was chief field naturalist of the United States Biological Sur- vey. Among his publications are 'Spermophiles of Mississippi Valley,' 'Revision of Voles of the Genus Evotomys,' 'Mammals of District of Columbia,' etc. Bail'ey, William Whitney, American bot- anist: b. West Point, N. Y., 22 Feb. 1843. He was educated at Brown and Harvard, having been a pupil of Prof. Asa Gray. In 1867 he was botanist of the United States Geological Survey of the 40th parallel ; in 1867-9 assistant librarian of the Providence Athenaeum. He was appointed instructor in botany at Brown Uni- versity in 1877, and became professor there in 1881. He has published 'Bot.mical Collector's Handbook' (1881), and contributed to several periodicals. Bailey, Willis T., American statesman: b. Carroll County, 111., 12 Oct. 1854. He was edu- cated at the University of Illinois. In 1873 he removed to Nemaha County, Kan., and engaged in farming and stock-raising. In 1888 he was elected to the State legislature and was sent to Congress in 1899. He was elected governor of Kansas on the Republican ticket in 1903. Bail'ie, or Baillie, a municipal officer or magistrate in Scotland whose jurisdiction ex- tends to breaches of the peace, drunkenness, petty thefts, and like offenses. They sit and vote in the city councils, like other members, and are subject to the ordinary rules of retirement. Bail'iff, a name which was introduced into England with William I., and came to be ap- plied to various officials representing or acting for the king. He is essentially a person in- trusted by a superior with power of superin- tendence. In the United States the word bailiff has no precise meaning. The term is most fre- quently used to denote a court officer whose duty it is to take charge of juries and wait upon the court. In England: an officer appointed for the administration of justice in a certain baili- wick or district. The sheriff is the Icing's bail- iff, whose business it is to preserve the rights of the king within his "bailiwick" or county, (i) The governor of a castle belonging to the king. (2) A sheriff's officer. Bailiffs are either bailiffs of hundreds or special bailiffs, (a) Bailiffs of hundreds are officers appointed by the sheriff over the districts so called, to col- lect fines, summon juries, to attend the judges and justices at the assizes and quarter sessions, and to execute writs and process, (b) Special bailiffs are men appomted for their adroitness and dexterity in hunting and seizing persons lia- ble to arrest. They assist the bailiffs of hun- dreds in important work for which the latter have no natural aptitude or acquired skill. Special bailiffs being compelled to enter into an obligation for the proper discharge of their duty are sometimes called bound bailiffs, a term which the common people have corrupted into a more homely appellation. (Blackstone's 'Commentaries,' book I., chapter ix.) Bail'iwick, the jurisdiction of a bailiff, from bailie and nnck (vicus), a town or vil- lage. In the United States it generally referr, to a county, or in a jocular way is applied to any territory or place in which a person has au- thority. BAILLAIRGE — BAILIE Baillairge, ba-yarzh', Charles P., Cana- dian architect and civil engineer : b. Quebec, 27 Sept. 1826. Among his best known works as an architect are the Laval University, the asylum and churches of the Sisters of Charity and Good Shepherd, the Music Hall, the new jail, Dufferin Terrace, the aqueduct bridge over the St. Charles, and the Monument aux Braves de 1760, all in the city of Quebec. In 1863-5 he was joint architect and engineer with Messrs. Fuller and Page, of the parliamentary and de- partmental buildings in Ottawa. He is a mem- ber of the Royal Academy of Arts, Fellow of the Royal Society of Canada, and a past president of the Quebec Association of Arch- itects. He has received many honors and di- plomas from his own and other governments, and has published a large number of important works, including ^ Plane and Spherical Geome- try and Trigonometry^ (1863) ; *Key to the Stereometrical Tableau^ (1870) ; ^Homonymes Francais^ (1891) ; ^English Homonyms' (1891), etc. Baillarger, ba'yar-zha', Jules Gabriel, French physician: b. 1809; d. 1891. He made a specialty of mental and nervous diseases and in 1843 joined with Longet and Cerise to es- tablish a review especially devoted to these sub- jects, known as the ^Annales Medico-psycholog- iques du Systeme Nerveux.' In 1849 he received the medal of the Legion of Honor; in 1842 he received a prize from the Academy of Music for his essay on ^Des Hallucinations.' Baillet, ba-ya', Adrien, French writer: b. Neuville, 13 June 1649; d. 21 Jan. 1706. He was ordained priest in 1675, and his love for learning was so intense that after discharging for five years the duties of a parish priest, he accepted the position of librarian to Lamoignon, president of Parliament. His first publication was entitled ^Judgments of the Learned upon the Principal Works of Authors,' a book of criticism which taught better rules than it illus- trated. He also produced a book on ^Devotion to the Holy Virgin,' the lives of the saints, which extended to four volumes, and a life of Descartes. Bailleul, ba-yel', a French town, in the department of the Nord, near the Belgian fron- tier, about 19 miles west of Lille. It has man- ufactures of woolen and cotton stuffs, lace, leather, etc. Population, about 13,600. A vil- lage of the same name in the department of Orne gave its name to the Baliol family. Bail'lie, Lady Grizel, Scotch poet: b. Red- braes Castle, 25 Dec. 1665; d. 6 Dec. 1746; daughter of the first Earl of Marchmont ; mar- ried George Baillie in 1692; published a large number of songs in Ramsay's < Miscellany,' and other collections; the best known is ^Werena My Heart Licht, Isvad Dee.' Bail'lie, Harry, the proprietor of the Tabard Inn, who acts as chairman of the meet- ing of the pilgrims in Chaucer's < Canterbury Tales.' Bail'lie, Joanna, Scotch author: b. Both- well, near Glasgow, 11 Sept. 1762; d. 23 Feb. 1851. She removed in early life to London, where in 1798 she published the first volume u- u Y^""^"own < Plays on the Passions,' in which she attempted to delineate the stronger passions by making each passion the subject of a tragedy and a comedy. These plays were not well adapted for the stage, but gave Miss Baillie a very extended reputation. Her first volume was followed by a second in 1802, a third (of miscellaneous plays) in 1804, and a fourth in 1812. Other plays appeared in 1836, and a complete edition of her whole dra- matic works in 1850. The only plays per- formed on the stage were a tragedy entitled the ^Family Legend,' which was brought out at the Edinburgh Theatre in 1810 under the patron- age of Sir Walter Scott, and had a run of 14 nights, and one of the plays on the passions en- titled *De Montfort,' which was brought out by John Kemble, and played for 11 nights, though an attempt to revive it at a later period failed. Miss Baillie also wrote songs and mis- cellaneous poems. All her productions are full of genius. The language is simple and forcible, the female portraits are particularly beautiful, and great knowledge of the human heart is dis- played in the delineations of character. She was an intimate friend of Sir Walter Scott, who greatly admired her writings, and her home was frequented by many of the prominent au- thors of the day. Bail'lie, Matthew, Scotch physician and anatomist : b. Lanarkshire, Scotland, 2"] Oct. 1761; d. 23 Sept. 1823; brother of Joanna Baillie ; educated at the University of Glas- gow and Oxford. While at Oxford he be- gan his medical and anatomical studies under his maternal uncles, the celebrated William and John Hunter, then lecturers in London. In 1787 he was elected one of the physicians of St. George's Hospital, and held that office for 13 years. In 1789 he took the degree of M.D., and was admitted a fellow of the College of Physicians. He very soon stood at the head of his profession, and in 1810 was made physi- cian to the king by George III. He published •^The Morbid Anatomy of Some of the Most Important Parts of the Human Body' ; also wrote II essays in the ^^Transactions of the So- ciety for the Promotion of Medical and Chirur- gical Knowledge," and 7 papers in the Medical Transactions, published by the London College of Physicians. Bail'lie, Robert, Scotch Presbyterian cler- gyman : b. Glasgow, 1599; d. 1622; educated at the University of Glasgow. In 1638 he sat in that famous general assembly which met in Glasgow to protest against the thrusting of Episcopacy on an unwilling people. In 1649 he was chosen hy the Church to proceed to Holland, and to invite Charles II. to accept the covenant and crown of Scotland. He performed his mission skilfully; and, after the Restora- tion, through Lauderdale's influence, he was made principal of Glasgow University. Bail'lie, Robert, of Jerviswood,. Scotch patriot of the reign of Charles II. : d. 24 Dec. 1684. He first came into notice in 1676 through his rescue of a brother-in-law, the Rev. Mr. Kirkton, from the clutches of Archbishop Sharp's principal informer. In 1683 he took a prominent part in a scheme of emigration to South Carolina, as he saw no other refuge from the degrading tyranny of the govern- ment. About the same time he corresponded with Monmouth's supporters in London, Rus- sell and Sidney, and subsequently repaired there to concert measures for securing ade- BAILLIE OF JERVISWOOD — BAIN quate reforms. On the discovery of the Rye- house plot, he was arrested and sent to Scotland. Accused of conspiring against the king's Hfe, and of hostihty to monarchical gov- ■ernnient, he was tried at Edinburgh and con- demned to death upon evidence at once insig- nificant and illegal. The sentence was carried into execution on the very day that it was passed. Bail'lie of Jerviswood. See Baillie, Robert. Baillot, ba-y5', Pierre Marie Frangois de Sales, French violinist: b. Passy, 1771; d. 15 Sept. 1842. He was a professor in the conservatory ; traveled in Russia, Belgium, Hol- land, and England, and was considered without a rival. His style was severely classical, as ■distinguished from that introduced by Paganini. Baillou, ba-yo', Guillaume de, French physician: b. 1538; d. 1616; became physician to the Dauphin in 1601 ; was author of several "works, including ^Adversaria Medicinalia,^ and is considered the first exponent of the nature of croup. Bailly, ba-ye', Antoine Nicolas, French architect: b. 6 June 1810; d. i Jan. 1892; was appointed to an office under the city government of Paris in 1834; in 1844 was made architect to the French government, and received the cross of the Legion of Honor in 1853. The Moliere Fountain and the Tribunal of Com- merce in Paris, and the reconstruction of the Cathedral of Digne, are his work. Bailly, ba-j-e'. Jean Sylvain, French as- tronomer, statesman, and historian : b. Paris, 15 Sept. 1736; d. 12 Nov. 1793. Leaving the art of painting, to which he was educated, he pur- such poetry and belles-lettres, until his acquaint- ance with La Caille, when he turned his atten- tion to astronomy, and calculated the orbit of the comet of 1759. In 1763 he was admitted to the Academy of Sciences; in 1766 he published his treatise on Jupiter's satelites, which also con- tains a history of that section of astronomy. In 1771 he published a valuable and interest- ing treatise on the light of the satellites. Later he wrote also a history of astronomy. In 1784 lie was chosen secretary of the academy, also admitted to the French academy, and the next year admitted to the Academy of Inscriptions ; a rare thing for one person to belong to the three academies. He espoused the democratic cause in the Revolution, was elected from Paris, in 1789, first deputy of the tiersctat, and was chosen president of the assembly. In July 1789 he was chosen mayor of Paris and discharged liis duties during 26 months of a most trying and dangerous period with great firmness and wisdom. Losing his popularity by repressing riots and defending the queen, he gave up pub- lic life, and lived in retirement, till seized by the Jacobins and brought to Paris, where he was condemned as a conspirator and executed. Several posthumous works of his have appeared ; the most noted are an ^ Essay on the Origin of Fables and Ancient Religions,^ and his < Me- moirs of an Eye-witness from April to October 1789.^ Bailly, ba-ye', Joseph A., French sculp- tor: b. Paris, 1825; d. 15 June 1883; removed to Philadelphia, Pa., in 18.^0; and produced "*Adam and Eve,' ^Eve and Her Two Children,' and the marble monument of Washington in front of the State house (1869). Bail'ment, in law, is the delivery of a chat- tel or thing to another to keep, either for the use of the bailor or person delivering, or for that of the bailee or person to whom it is da- livered. A bailment always supposes the sub- ject to be delivered only for a limited time, at the expiration of which it must be redelivered to the bailor ; and the material inquiries in cases of bailment, relate to the degree of responsi- bility of the bailee in regard to the safe-keeping and redelivery of the subject of the bailment. This responsibility will depend, in some degree, upon the contract on which the bailment is made. If a thing is delivered to the bailee to keep without any advantage or use to himself, or any compensation, but merely for the benefit of the bailor, he is answerable only for gross negligence; but if the bailment is for the mu- tual benefit of both parties, the thing must be kept with the ordinary and usual care which a prudent man takes of his own goods; but if it be delivered for the benefit of the bailee only, he must exercise .strict care in keeping it, and will be answerable for slight negligence. A special agreement is made in many cases of borrowing or hiring, specifying the risks as- sumed by the borrower or hirer; and in such case his obligations will be determined by his stipulations. Bail'y, Edward Hodges, English sculp- tor: b. Bristol, 10 March 1788; d. 22 May 1877. He was brought up with a view to a mercantile career; but ere long gained considerable suc- cess as a modeler in wax. He became a pupil of Flaxman in 1807. gained the academy gold medal in 181 1 for his < Hercules Ilestoring Al- cestis to Admetus,' and was elected a member of the Royal Academy in 1821. His principal works are ^Eve at the Fountain' ; Eve Listening to the Voice'; Maternal Affection'; (1879) ; ^The Huguenots and Henry of Navarre> (1886); and (1895) ; ^Theodore Bcza, the Counsellor of the French Reformation' (1899). Baird, Julian William, American chem- ist : b. Battle Creek, Mich., 14 Feb. 1859. He was graduated from the University of Michigan in 1882; was instructor in chemistry and in charge of the qualitative analysis and assaying in Lehigh University, 1883-6; and became pro- fessor of analytical and organic chemistry in the Massachusetts College of Pharmacy, Bos- ton, in 1886, and its dean, in 1887. Baird, Robert, American historian, b. Fay- ette County, Pa., 6 Oct. 1798; d. Yonkers, N. Y., 15 March 1863. He was graduated from Jefferson College; and published 'History of the Waldenses, Albigenses, and Vaudois,^ ^History of the Temperance Societies' (1836) ; ^Religion in America' (1844) ; < Protestantism in Italy' (1845) ; etc. He was corresponding secretary of the American and Foreign Chris- tian Union (1849-55, 1861-3). Baird, Spencer Fullerton, distinguished American naturalist: b. Reading, Pa., 3 Feb. 1823 ; d. 19 Aug. 1887. He became professor of natural sciences at Dickinson College, Carlisle, Pa., 184s ; assistant secretary Smithsonian In- stitution, 1850; United States commissioner of fish and fisheries, 1871 ; secretary of the Smith- sonian Institution, 1878; and founder of the Na- tional Museum. Among his more important works are a ^Catalogue of North American Rep- tiles' (1853) ; 'Birds of North America' (with Cassin and Lawrence, i860) ; 'Mammals of North America' (1858); 'History of North American Birds'' (with Brewer and Ridgeway, 1874-84), etc. His work had a beneficent influ- ence on natural history in the United States. Baireuth, bl-roit. or Bayreuth, a city of Bavaria, on the Red Main, 41 miles northeast of Nuremberg. The principal edifices are the old palace now occupied by public offices, the new palace, with garden and park open to the pub- lic ; the opera house, a gymnasium, and the na- tional theatre, constructed after the design oi the composer Wagner, and opened in 1876 with a grand performance of his 'Ring of the Nibelungen.' Baireuth fell to the burgrave of Nuremberg in 1248, and after many vicissitudes was ceded to Bavaria in 1810. The chief indus- tries are cotton-spinning, and weaving, sugar- refining, brewing, etc. Pop. (1900) 29,000. Baiter, bi'ter, Johann Georg, Swiss philol- ogist: b. Zurich, 31 May 1801 ; d. 10 Oct. 1877. He was professor in the University of Zurich, and from 1849 to 1865, director in the gymna- sium there. He published, alone and with oth- ers, various editions of the classics, 'Panegyrics of Socrates,' 'Ciceronis Scholistae,' 'The Attic Oratoris' (1839-50), etc. Ba'ius, or De Bay Michael: b. 15 13, at Melin, near Ath, in Hamaut ; educated at Lou- vain, in 1551 ; made professor of Scripture at this university in 1563, sent by the king of Spain to the Council of Trent, was one of the greatest theologians of the Roman Catholic Church in the i6th century. He founded systematic the- ology directly upon the Bible and the Christian fathers, leaving the scholastic method. He studied specially the writings of St. Augustine and had his own interpretations of that father. The doctrines that the human will, when left to itself, could only sin ; that even the mother of Jesus was not free from hereditary and ac- tual sin ; that every action which did not pro- ceed from pure love of God was sinful ; and that no penance was effectual for the justification of the sinner, but everything was to be attrib- uted solely to the grace of God, through Christ, caused the superior of the Franciscan Order in Belgium to submit 18 of his propositions to the Sorbonne in Paris. The Sorbonne fac- ulty condemned 3 of the propositions as false and 13 as contrary to Catholic teach- ing. Baius disavowed the condemned sen- tences, claiming that some of them had not been taught by him and that others had been presented incorrectly. After his return from Trent, he published theses which contained doc- trines that were rejected by the Spanish and Italian universities to which they had been submitted. Finally 76 sentences taken from his works were condemned by Pius V. in 1567 and some dispute arising about the mean- ing of this bull, it was confirmed by Gregory XIII. and entrusted to the Jesuit Cardinal To- letus to deliver to Baius. Baius submitted ; yet the opposition still continued, as did also his defense of some of his interpretations of Augus- tine in his lectures ; and as the theological fac- ulty at Louvain was entirely in his favor, he not only remained in the quiet possession of his dignities, but was also appointed dean of St. Peter's in 1575, and in 1578 chancellor of the university. He died in 1589, and left the rep- utation of great learning, pure morals, and a rare modesty. His interpretations of Augus- tine, which were called Baianism, were adopted by the Jansenists and were defended by them against their Jesuit opponents. His doctrine of pure undivided love to God has also been adopted by the Quietists. His writings, mostly polemical, were published at Cologne (4to 1696). Bibliography. — Duchesne, 'Historic du Bay- anism.' ; Linsenmann, 'Bayus und die Grundle- gung des Jansenismus.' Baja, bo'yo, a Hungarian market town situated on the Danube, 90 miles south of Buda- pest. It has important manufactures of alcohol and shoes and is celebrated for its annual swine fair, and its trade in grain and wine. Pop. (1890) 19,500. Bajada Del Parana, ba-ha'da del pa'ra-na'. See Parana. Baj'azet' I., or Bayazid I., a Turkish sul- tan: b. 1347; d. 1403. In 1389 he succeeded his father, Murad of Amurath, who fell in the bat- tle of Kossova against the Servians, and caused his brother Jacob, his rival for the throne, to be strangled. He made great and rapid con- quests, in three years conquering Bulgaria, part BAJAZEl — BAKER of Servia, Macedonia, Thessaly, and subjecting the states of Asia Minor. In order to save Constantinople, King Sigismund of Hungary (afterward emperor of Germany) assembled a great army, but Bajazet met them at Nicopolis and obtained a decisive victory over the allied Hungarians, Poles, and French in 1396. He would probably have now overturned the whole Greek empire if Timur had not overrun Asia Minor in 1400 and defeated him in a battle at Angora. He himself fell into the power of the conqueror and died in Timur's camp, in Cara- mania. His successor was Soliman I. Bajazet n., b. 1447; d. 1512, succeeded his father, Mo- hammed II., Sultan of the Turks, in 1481. He increased the Turkish empire by conquests on the northwest, and in the east, took Lepanto, !Modon, and Durazzo, in a war against the Ve- netians, and ravaged the coasts of the Christian states on the ]\Iediterranean, to revenge the ex- pulsion of the Moors from Spain. At home he had to contend against his rebellious son Selim, to whom he at last resigned the empire. It has been supposed that he was put to death by the order of his son. He was a man of great tal- ents, and did much for the improvement of his empire and the promotion of the sciences. Baj'azet', the title of a tragedy by Racine, in which the chief character is Bajazet, the brother of the Sultan Amurath, whose choice between the throne and the woman he loves forms the theme of the drama. Baj'azet', Mosque of, a mosque at Con- stantinople, built in 1505 by Bajazet II. It is one of the finest specimens of Mohammedan architecture, and displays excellent proportions and great richness of detail in decoration. There are four Persian doorways and an octag- onal foundation in the centre of the court. Baj'imonts' Roll. See Bagimonts' Roll. Bajocco, bayok'ko, or Baiocco, a papal state copper coin, whose value is about one cent. A Neapolitan coin, value about 83 cents, was also called Bajocco in Sicily. Baj'ree. See Guinea Corn. Bajura, ba-joo'ra, the banner of Moham- med. Bajza, boi'zo, Joseph, Hungarian poet and critic : b. 1804 ; d. 1858. He devoted him- self to history, and edited a ^Historical Li- brary^ (1843-5) and the *^New Plutarch^ (1845-7). He was also editor of two critical journals, which exerted a strong influence on Hungarian literature. From 1831 he was a member of the Hungarian Academy, and from 1836 of the Kisfaludy Society. He ranks among the best lyric poets of Hungary. His ^Po- ems' appeared in 1835, and his ^Collected Works > in 1861. Bakacs, bd'koch, Thomas, Hungarian statesman, son of a peasant : b. about the middle of the 15th century; d. 1521. He held several bishoprics in succession, became chan- cellor of the kingdom, and finally archbishop and cardinal. He preached a crusade against the Turks ; but his army of peasants and vaga- bonds turned their arms against the nobility, and a fierce civil war ensued. Bakairi, ba-ka-T-re, or Baccahiry, a Carib- bean tribe of central Brazil, remarkable for their light complexion. The men have assembly houses, where they spend most of their time, which women are forbidden to enter. Bakarganj, bak'ar-ganj, an English dis- trict in India, under the lieutenant-governor of Bengal. It contains 3,649 square miles, is fer- tile, and is watered by the lower streams of the Ganges and the Brahmaputra. In the south of the district are the forest tracts of the Sun- derbunds. Barisal, the headquarters, on the west bank of Barisal River, is the only town with more than 5,000 inhabitants. Bakarganj. the former capital, situated near the junction of the Krishnakati and Khairabad rivers, is now in ruins. Pop. 2,153,695. Bake, ba'ke, Jan, Dutch philologist: b. Leyden, i Sept. 1787; d. 28 March 1864. In 1817 he became professor of Greek and Roman lit- erature at the University of Leyden, holding the position till 1857. Here he edited and published valuable editions of Posidonius, and of the as- tronomer Cleomedes, and assisted in the large and original work entitled 'Bibliotheca Critica Nova.^ He published a series of philological articles, edited some of the works of Cicero, and wrote an excellent essay upon the Greek tragedians. Baker, David Augustine, Benedictine ascet- ical writer; b. 1575; d. 1641. The most original and ablest spiritual writer among English Cath- olics during the first half of the 17th centurj'. Having finished his studies at Oxford, he de- voted himself to law at Clifford's Inn, and later at Inner Temple. In his 40th year he became a convert to the Catholic faith, and a few years later was ordained priest and was subsequently received into the Benedictine Order. Dugdale and Dodsworth are indebted to his historical l^ibors for much of the data found in their monumental works. It was Father Baker who discovered that the old English Benedictine monastery of Saint Peter at Westminster was legally continued in the person of an old priest, Dom Sigebert Buckley. By this sole survivor David Baker was professed into the monastery of Westminster, and thus became the connecting link between the old and the new congregation in England. It was as spiritual director at Douai and Cambrai that he composed his ad- mirable treatises on the spiritual life. Consult: Wood, 'Athense Oxoniensis' : Taunton, ^Eng- lish Black Monks of Saint Benedict.^ Baker, Sir Benjamin, English engineer: b. near Bath, 1840 ; d. Pangbourne, Berkshire, 19 ]\Iay 1907. In 1877 he superintended the re- moval of Cleopatra's Needle from Egv-pt to Lon- don and was consulting engineer on the As- souan dam. In conjunction with Sir John Fowler he planned the bridge over the Firth of Forth. He wrote *Long Span Iron Bridges*: 'Suspen- sion Versus Cantilever Bridges* , (1874); 'Don Juan de Serravalle' (5th ed. 1875), etc. Balahissar, ba'-la-his-sar', a village in the southwestern part of the province of Angora, Asia Minor. It is on the site of the ancient Pessinus, famous for its worship of Cybele. Among fragments of marble columns, friezes, etc., rise the ruins of her gorgeous temple, and remains of a theatre in partial preservation, a castle, and a circus. Balakireff, ba-la'ke-rygf. Mill Alexeyevich, Russian composer: b. Nizhni-Novgorod, 1837; he is ranked as the founder of the young Russian school of music. At 18 he is said to have known by heart nearly all of the musical classics. With other musical enthusiasts he strove to impart a flavor of nationalism into music, his especial works in this direction being 'Songs' (1858-60) : three overtures on Russian themes; three on Chekh themes (1867); 'Forty National Songs' (1866) ; 'Islamey,' a fantasy (1869). His most important compositions are 'Tamora,' a fantasy for orchestra and a sym- phony in C major. His extended works illus- trate programme music of the Berlioz Liszt school. See Cui, 'La Musique en Russie' (1880) ; Pongin, 'Essai Historique sur la Mu- sique en Russie' (1897). Balaklava, ba-la-kla'va, or Balaclava, a small seaport of Russia, in the Crimea, eight miles south-southeast of Sebastopol. It con- sists for the most part of houses perched upon heights, and it has an old castle, built by the Genoese. The harbor has a very narrow en- trance, and, though deep, is not capacious. In 1854 Balaklava became the principal landing- place of the British after the battle of the Alma. The battle of Balaklava fought 25 Oct. 1854, when the Russians in overwhelming force were repulsed by a small body of British troops, is one of the most heroic achievements of modern times, the "charge of the light brigade" being the most glorious incident in the conflict. (Kinglake, 'Invasion of the Crimea' ; Paget, 'The Light Cavalry Brigade in the Crimea.') BALAMBAN — BALANCE Balamban, ba-lam'ban, a small town on the west coast of Cebu, on Tanon Strait, Phil- ippines. It was occupied by a garrison of Unit- ed States infantry after a battle with Filipino insurgents early in January igoo. It has a na- tive population of some thousands, and a public school in which English is taught. Balan, ba-liih. (i) A French poem, an early version of *Fierabras.' of which there was also an English version, "^The Sowdan of Babylon. > (2) The brother of Balin, in Arthurian legends. Bal'ance (Latin, bis, ^^ twice," and lanx, a <'dish-," or "pan''), an instrument for determin- ing the mass of a body by comparison with a series of other bodies (called "weights") whose masses are known. The term is often applied, though somewhat incorrectly, to the familiar in- struments in which the weight of a body is determined by observing the extension that it can produce when acting upon a spring whose extensibility has been previously determined by direct experiments with known weights. The "spring balance" is useful in the ordinary affairs of life, where high precision is not essential ; but it is seldom employed in accurate scientific work, since it is liable to errors that cannot be eliminated or allowed for — errors that are small enough to be neglected in commercial transactions, but quite intolerable in refined laboratory work. The "lever balance* consists essentially of a lever (q.v.) having arms of known lengths. The mass to be determined is suspended at the extremity of one of the arms, and the known masses (or weights) are suspended from the extremity of the other one, their number and size being varied until, after repeated trials, a perfect equilibrium, or "balance,* is attained. If the two arms of the lever are equal, the mass of the body under examination is then equal to the sum of the masses of the weights that are balanced against it. In many cases (for example, in the familiar "platform scales") the arms of the lever are intentionally made very unequal, the object to be weighed being sus- pended from the short arm of the lever, while the weights are suspended from the long arm. To determine the mass of the object it is then necessary to multiply the sum of the masses of the weights by the ratio of the long arm to the short one ; but in practical work this cal- culation does not need to be performed, because the instrument is graduated by the maker so that all necessary allowance for the difference in the arms has been made, and the readings give the corrected mass directly. In many cases the bal- ances (or "scales") used in commerce are con- structed so that equilibrium is attained by vary- ing the length of the lever-arm rather than by varying the load at the extremity of that arm ; but the fundamental principles involved are the same in all cases, and are set forth in detail in the article Lever (q.v.). In the "precision balance* of the chemist and physicist, the lever (called the "beam") con- sists of a light but strong and rigid framework, usually made of brass or bronze, and having a shape somewhat like that shown in Fig. i. It is supported by means of a wedge-shaped piece of steel, technically known as a "knife-edge," which is hardened and ground to a sharp and ac- curately straight edge, and which rests, when the balance is in use, upon a fiat slab of agate, or other hard, smooth substance, in such a manner as to leave the beam free to tip one way or the other, with practically no frictional Fig. I resistance. (The agate slab is suggested by the dotted contour, k, in the figure ; the pillar that supports k being omitted for the sake of clear- ness.) Knife-edges similar to the central one, but with their edges directed upward instead of downward, are provided at the respective ends of the beam (as shown at A and B) for the support of the pans (only one of which is shown) in which the masses to be compared are placed. The three knife-edges. A, B, and C, must be made with great care, and must be set in position so that they shall be accurately parallel to one another. They must, moreover, have their edges all in the same plane, so that a straight line joming any two points in the edges of A and B will likewise pass through the edge of C. The two arms of the beam should also be precisely equal, so that C is exactly half way between A and B. P is a pointer whose free end travels over a graduated scale, so as to indicate the extent of the oscillations of the beam as it swings to and fro on the central knife-edge C. When the beam is horizontal, its centre of gravity (G in Fig. 2) should lie in a. E= y.-.- ^ 7^ Fig. 2 the same vertical line, ab, with the central knife-edge. Whether this condition is fulfilled or not is easily shown by removing the scale- pans and allowing the beam to come to rest. It can only be in equilibrium when its centre of gravity is directly below the knife-edge C; so that if it comes to rest in a horizontal posi- tion it is evident that the condition specified above is sensibly realized. If. on the other hand, the beam, when freed from the pans, comes to rest with its right-hand end lower than the left-hand one, it is evident that the centre of gravity of the beam is too far to the right, as is indicated by the point g. The better makes of balance are provided with an adjustment to correct an error of this sort. This adjustment may take the form of a fine screw-thread carry- BALANCE ing a nut, as suggested at E. If the nut be caused to approach B, the centre of gravity of the beam (considering the nut as a part of the beam) will thereby be shifted toward the left, ■and after a number of trials the point g may be made to coincide with G, so that the beam, when free from the pans, comes to rest in a perfectly horizontal position. If it does not re- main horizontal when the pans are suspended in their proper places, then it follows that one of the pans is heavier than the other ; this defect is easily remedied by the use of a light counter- poise in connection with the lighter pan, or by removing a small portion of the material of the heavier one. The centre of gravity of the beam being properly adjusted, and the equality of the two pans being assured, it is evident that the beam •will set itself in a horizontal position when the pans are empty. The balance may still be de- fective, however, through the arms not being of precisely equal length. The equality of the arms may be tested in the following manner : Let a mass, P, be placed in one of the pans, and suppose that w is the mas? that has to be placed in the other pan in order to secure a perfect balance. Let L be the length of the arm from which P is suspended, and / be the length of the arm from which w is suspended, as indicated in '\V Fig. 3 Fig. 3. Then, by the principle of the lever, v/e have — PXL = 'wXl. Next, let P be placed in the other pan, con- nected with the arm whose length is /, and yet IV be the mass that must be suspended from the arm of length L, in order to secure a perfect balance. We then have the equation — PXI = JV XL Now, if P be eliminated between these two equations, we have the relation — and since W and zu are both known, it follows that the ratio of the two arms of the balance is also known. If this ratio does not come out sensibly equal to unity, its value may be care- full}'- determined, and allowance made for the inequality of the arms after a v/eighing has been performed. The effect of inequality in the arms may also be eliminated by a double weighing, such as has been supposed to be performed, above. For if we eliminate L (instead of P) from the foregoing equations, we find — P=V IV Xw; that is, the true weight is the geometric mean between IV and w. In practice the arms of a good balance are so nearly equal that the simple arithmetic mean of JV and w is a sufficiently close approximation to the geometric mean re- quired by theory. The sensitiveness of a balance depends large- ly upon the position of the centre of gravity of \'ol. 2 14. the beam relatively to the central knife edge. Thus, if the arms of the balance are precisely equal, and the beam hangs perfectly horizontal with a weight P in each pan, the angle, x, through which the beam turns when the weight in the left-hand pan is increased to P + p, may be taken as a measure of the sensitiveness of the balance. Let S be the weight of the beam itself, and let the centre of gravity of the beam be at a distance, /;, below the central knife-edge when the beam is horizontal. Then, if x is the angle that the beam makes with the horizontal when it comes to rest with P + p in the left-hand pan and P in the right-hand pan, the theory of the lever gives the equation (see Fig. 4) — (P + p).L.cos x^=P.L.cos x-\-h.S3m x, from which we easily obtain — LXp tan X = . hXS Fig. 4 It is evident that x will be increased as h is decreased, so that the sensitiveness of the bal- ance becomes greater the nearer the centre of gravity of the beam is caused to approach to the centre of support. The balance should be provided with a thread and nut, D (see Fig. l), to facilitate the vertical adjustment of the centre of gravity, in the same way that E is used in adjusting the horizontal position of that point. The centre of gravity of the beam must always remain below the centre of support, because when it is above that point the beam is unstable, and when it coincides with the centre of support the instrument will remain in equilibrium in any position. When a balance is made very sensi- tive, by bringing the centre of gravity close to the point of support or by increasing the length of the arms of the beam, the period of oscil- lation of the beam grows very long, so that the instrument is tedious to use. The experi- enced chemist or physicist therefore selects a balance whose sensitiveness and period of os- cillation can be best adapted to the work he has in hand. The ^'precision balance^' is a delicate instru- ment, and should be kept in a glass case, for protection, when not in actual use. The weigh- ings are also performed wnth the balance en- closed in like manner, in order to avoid error from the effect of air-currents upon the beam. The knife-edges should be kept away from their bearings, and provision is always made for rais- ing the pans from the ends of the beam, and the beam itself from the central support, by means of a system of stops and levers (not here shown) actuated by a conveniently situated lever or wheel. The beam and pans should always BALANCE OF POWER be raised in this manner when changing the weights in the pans, in order to avoid giving the least shock to the knife-edges; for when these are dulled or otherwise injured the accuracy and sensitiveness of the balance are materially les- sened. Weighings may be eiTected by two general methods. In the first method the position of the pointer, P (in Fig. i), is noted on the scale at its extremity when the balance is at rest with the pans empty. The position so recorded is called the "zero'^ of the balance. The object to be weighed is then placed in one of the pans, and weights are added to the other pan until the balance will come to rest with its pointer at the same spot, or zero, as before. The weighing is then complete. In the second method of conducting the ex- periment (known as the ^'method by oscilla- tions") the balance is not brought to rest at all, the necessary readings being taken while the beam is oscillating. The zero reading of the pointer is first obtained (with the pans empty) in the following manner : The empty balance is allowed to oscillate freely for a short time, and then the position attained by the pointer at one of its extreme positions toward the right is noted. The reading of the next following ex- treme position to the left is then taken, and so on, observing the positions attained at the alter- nate right and left swings, just as the pointer pauses and begins to return toward the mean position. The last reading is taken on the same side as the first, so that there is an odd num- ber of observations on one side of the zero, and an even number on the other side. The read- ings on the right are then averaged together, and those on the left are also averaged in the same way ; after which the mean reading on the right is averaged with the mean reading on the left, and the result is taken as the position of the zero of the balance. The object to be weighed is then placed in one pan, and the weights in the other, the process of guess and trial being followed here just as in the preceding method until an almost exact balance has been attained. The- method of oscillations, with al- ternate readings to the right and left, is next repeated in precisely the same manner as when the pans were empty, and the reading obtained by the final averaging of tliese observations is taken as the reading of the balance for the loads that are in the pans at the time. A very small weight is next added to one of the pans, and the oscillations are again observed, under the new conditions, precisely as before. The weight of the object under examination can then be determined by simple proportion. Thus, sup- pose that the original zero reading of the point- er, with the pans empty, was 11.6. The object to be weighed being placed in one pan, and weights having a combined mass of W in the other, let the reading of the pointer (as deduced from the oscillations) be 10.4. The small mass, %v, being then added to W , let the final reading of the pointer be 12.2. The following facts are now known : With empty pans the pointer reads 11.6. With the unknown mass (which may be denoted by F) in one pan, and a mass, W\ in the other, the pointer reads 10.4. Finally, with P in one pan and W + w in the other, the pointer reads 12.2. The mass zv has dis- placed the reading of the pointer by 1.8 divi- sions. If it be assumed that a mass x, when added to W, would have made the read.iig of the pointer precisely 11.6, as it was with the empty pans, we have the additional fact that a mass X would alter the reading of the pointer by 1.2 divisions. Hence the simple proportion — - X : w : : 1.2 : 1.8; 2W whence .r = , and therefore the concluded 3 2W mass of P is IV -] . 3 The method of oscillations is favored by many physicists, in the belief that a better value of the zero of the balance can be obtained by studying the free swings in this way than by allowing the instrument to come to rest. In- stead of adding very small weights to secure the last adjustments, the "rider*' is often used. This consists of a tiny weight made of wire, and suspended on the beam of the balance, as. indicated at R in Fig. i. The beam is gradu- ated when a rider is to be used, and the final step in the weighing consists in observing what position the rider must have in order to make the balance perfect. The effect of moving the rider one division on the beam being known by previous experiment, the correction to be ap- plied for any given position of the rider is easily calculated. Obviously the rider can be used with equal advantage whether the weighing is conducted by the method of oscillations or not. The weights used in connection with preci- sion balances must be accurately compared among themselves if refined work is to be done, and a table of corrections prepared, by means of which the proper allowances may be readily found, for any minute inconsistencies that may exist among them. Reference must be made to the standard works on experimental phycics for the details of the process by which these cor- rections are obtained. Crookes' classical paper on the atomic weight of thallium ^Philosophical Transactions,^ (1873, p. 277) may also be con- sulted with advantage, as it contains full de- tails on this point, as well as on many others in connection with accurate weighing. (For fur- ther information on the theory and use of the precision balance, see Stewart & Gee, ^Lessons on Elementary Practical Physics,^ Vol. I, and Glazebrook & Shaw, ^Practical Physics.' Much advanced information may also be had in the ^Travaux et Memoires' of the International Bu- reau of Weights and Measures.) See also Chronometer; Induction B.'s.lance; Torsion Balance. Balance of Power, is the system by which greater states are withheld from absorbing- smaller ones. Vattel, in *Law of Nations,' thus defines it : "By this balance is to be understood such a disposition of things, as that no one potentate or state shall be able absolutely to pre- dominate and prescribe to the others.'' The sys- tem of the balance of power is entirely the out- growth of the modern political system of Europe, as it began to shape itself in the 15th century; not that it was entirely unknown to the ancients before the irresistible progress of Roman arms put any idea of balance out of the question, but these early efforts after the balance of power were not sustained for a suffi- ciently long period, from generation to genera- BALANCE OF POWER tion, from century to century ; were too transi- tory and casual to entitle them to be elevated into a system. They must be regarded as ap- proaches and tentatives, interesting, but in the end fugitive and unsuccessful. During the latest centuries of the Middle Ages, the kings of France and the emperors of Germany were too much engaged in their domestic struggles with their great vassals, to spare the concentrated attention and energy upon international affairs necessary to originate and sustain a system of balance in Christian Europe. In Italy, then so for m advance of the rest of Europe in intel- lectual, social, and political development, the princes, podestas, and republics of that penin- sula, from an early period of the 15th century, had built up the institution of an equilibrium for their mutual regulation. But this was too local and on too small a scale to be deemed the parent of our modern system. Not until Louis XL of France had repressed the Dukes of Bur- gundy and Brittany, not until Ferdinand of Castile and Aragon had united almost the whole of modern Spain under his sway, not until Max- imilian in Germany, and Henry VII. in England and Ireland had consolidated the monarchical au- thority, was the time ripe for the application of this idea. The invasion of Italy by Charles VIII. of France, and his claim to the kingdom of Naples, in 1494, gave rise to the first great European combination of otherwise hostile pow- ers for the repression of the ambition of one. Almost all the Italian states, Maximilian, the German emperor, and Ferdinand of Aragon, sus- pended their animosities, and drove the French out of Italy. The Emperor Charles V. of Ger- many, Spain, Burgundy, the Netherlands, and a vast transatlantic empire, 1519-56, caused the jealousy of Europe. Francis I. of France, ac- tually went so far as to ally himself with the sultan, Solyman the Magnificent, against Charles. The Turks at one end of Europe, the kings of France and England at the other, and the opposition of the Protestant princes in the centre, prevented Charles from realizing his ambitious schemes. The misfortunes of Philip IL, the son of Charles V., in the Dutch Nether- lands and in the expeditions against England and the English power in Ireland, effectually dissipated the fears Europe entertained con- cerning the overgrown power of the Spanish branch of the house of Llapsburg. The idea of a European equilibrium had now become suf- ficiently definite for Henry IV. of France to propose to Elizabeth of England, at the com- mencement of the 17th century, a scheme for a federative congress, whose purpose it should be to maintain the peace of Europe in the same manner as the great powers do now. The idea was impracticable in those days, and was entirely abandoned even as a project, on the assassination of that liberal and high-minded prince. The next potentate whose power gave general alarm and caused a coalition against him in the general interest, was the emperor Ferdinand II. of Germany (reigned 1619-37). Gustavus Adolphus, of Sweden, appealing to the Protestant princes of Germany, subsidized by Richelieu, the French minister, and supplied with men by England and the united provinces of the Netherlands, achieved the task of hum- bling the power of the house of Austria. After the death of Gustavus, Oxenstiern of Sweden, and Richelieu of France, together forced upon the German emperor the celebrated Treaty of Westphalia (1648), which relieved Europe froir the fear of the house of Austria, and put ar end to the Thirty Years' war. The next gen eral danger came from France. The invasion by Louis of the Dutch Netherlands (1672), brought about a coalition of Holland, the em- peror of Germany, the elector of Brandenburg, and the king of Spain, against the French king. William, prince of Orange, was the hero of this war; but the Peace of Nimeguen (1678) sealed the supremacy of Louis XIV. The will of the king of Spain nominating the second son of the French dauphin as his successor (1700), thu^ putting the powerful monarchies of France and Spain into the same hands and utterly destroying the European equilibrium, created the grand al- liance and the war of the Spanish succession. The emperor of Germany, the Duke of Savoy, the king of England, and the states-general of the United Provinces, united in this grand al- liance. The king of Portugal afterward joined the anti-French confederacy. Marlborough and Prince Eugene of Savoy were the great mili- tary leaders in behalf of the balance of power. The Peace of Utrecht (1713), by which the union of the French and Spanish crowns was prevented, and the territorial conquests of France almost wholly surrendered, re-established the influence of the equilibrium doctrine, and se- cured Europe from danger on this side until the era of the French republic. The Empress Eliza- beth, of Russia, was the first Russian potentate who took part in wars in which she had only a remote general interest. Prussia and Russia, celebrated their entry into the rank of first-class powers by dealing the most terrible blow to the balance of power which it has ever suffered. The first partition of Poland (1771-72) is ad- mitted by every writer on this subject to be at war with the fundamental principles on which the equilibrium rests. The achievement of American independence (1783), though not gen- erally reckoned by European writers as belong- ing to the history of the international balance, may well be included therein, inasmuch as it put an end to the overgrowth of British colonial power and British naval preponderance. At the Congress of Vienna (1814-15), it was the leading wish of Lord Castlereagh, the British plenipotentiary, to restore the kingdom of Po- land, as included in the European equilibrium, in which he was seconded by Metternich for Austria, and Talleyrand for the French legiti- mate sovereign, but opposed by the representa- tives of the Russian and Prussian monarchies. The return of Napoleon from Elba put an end to this difference, and in the renewed conferences after the battle of Waterloo, the western pow- ers did not insist upon the point. From 1815 to 1853, the world was substantially preserved from any war of importance by the five great powers who then presided over the destinies of Europe, namely, France, Great Britain, Russia, Austria, and Prussia. In 1853. the invasion of the trans- Danubian provinces of the Turkish empire by a Russian army was declared by a congress of the great powers at Vienna to be a breach of the political equilibrium. In this declaration France, Great Britain, Austria, and Prussia agreed. An Anglo-French alliance was made (1854) to repel the aggression, and the confederation of Turkey, Great Britain, and France, was reinforced by the king of Sardinia in the spring of the year BALANCE OF TRADE — BALANOGLOSSUS 1855. After a war of three campaigns, the Treaty of Paris was signed (30 March 1856), by which Russia abandoned her claims, and the principle of the balance of power was anew vindicated. The Congress of Berlin in 1878, act- ing in the interests of the balance of power, deprived Russia of many benefits gained through the Treaty of San Stefano. Within a genera- tion, the principle of nationalism has arisen in opposition to that of the balance of power. This is exhibited in United Italy, United Ger- many, and the spread of Pan-Slavism in Russia, but as a set-off to this may be mentioned the ex- tension of European influence in Asia and Afri- ca as regards colonization and trade. Thus the balance of power has become a world question and such nations as Germany and Italy are de- sirOuS of acquiring colonies to balance the colo- nial possessions of Russia and England. At present the balance of power in Europe is held by the six nations of Great Britain, France, Germany, Austria, Russia, and Italy. Balance of Trade. The so-called balance of trade is a theory arising from the apparent relation of exports to imports. The protection- ist school of political economy holds that ex- cess of exports over imports constitutes what is termed a ^favorable balance,^' which rnust be returned to us in gold and silver, this being the profit to the nation on its foreign trade. Ac- cording to this theory the one desirable thing in foreign commerce is the exportation of mer- chandise. It should be said that all protection- ists do not share in a belief in this theory. In a great measure, and in its more exag- gerated form, this doctrine is a survival of the old mercantile theory, which down to the time of Adam Smith controlled most of the legisla- tion relating to commerce, and which held that gold and silver were the only wealth. It still retains a firm hold on the popular mind, but it may be said that the full weight of the teachings of orthodox political economy is against the notion that excess of exports constitutes a favorable balance. The argument of the latter is that if the theory is true there cannot be too great an ex- cess of exports, and that our imports should therefore consist only of gold and silver. In this "reduction to absurdity^^ (since a country has no more need of an excessive supply of the metals than of any other commodity) the free- trade school of political economy rejects the con- clusions based upon the apparent excess of ex- ports over imports. Opponents of the theory hold that such trade as exists between two countries, exclusive of what is paid as interest, rent, or tribute, must show a mutual profit, and represent to each a corresponding excess of the value of importa- tion. For illustration : A commodity costing in one country $75 will be bought in another for $T00, in exchange for a commodity costing $75 in the country of its exportation and $100 in the importing country, such difference rep- resenting the degree of desirability of these par- ticular commodities to each country. It will be observed that this precisely reverses the "balance of trade'^ theory. Countries may be able to show a favorable balance from two causes, neither of which con- tributes to their prosperity. It may result from an actual drain, as in the case of Ireland, which is being sapped of its wealth by absentee land- lords, and in India, where the same phenomenon is caused by a similar drain in the form of tribute, official salaries spent outside the coun- try, pensions, etc. But in these instances it is clear that there is a condition unprofitable to both countries. Or, on the other hand, it may result, as in the United States, which has the same favorable balance, by reason of the large sums annually paid as interest on loans that en- tered originally into railroad building, indus- trial improvements, etc. Most of the royal fam- ilies of Europe, not to mention less exalted individuals, draw large dividends from Ameri- can investments. Money spent by American tourists abroad helps to swell this favorable balance. For proof that this theory has no such rela- tion to national prosperity as its friends con- ceive, its opponents point to England, whose commercial greatness is rivalled by this country alone, and which has a prevailing '^unfavorable*^ balance, because she has been the money-lender of the world, and her excess of imports repre- sents the return received by her people for moneys invested in foreign lands. It is impossible to account for the growing increase of our own export balance wholly on the explanation that such excess is rent or interest upon loans. Much of such excess is indeed fictitious, and is to be accounted for by under- valuation of imports and overvaluation of ex- ports. In the latter case there is a strong in- ducement to overvalue, in order to conceal the fact that many of our exporters are selling goods cheaper abroad than at home. The in- ducement to undervalue imports is quite as strong. In short, customs statistics, with every desire on the part of the treasui^y department to be accurate, are of necessity unreliable. Balanga, ba-lan'ga, Philippines, in the province of Bataan, on the western coast of Manila Bay, in the Island of Luzon. It has a post-office and telegraph station. Pop. about 9,000. Balani'tis, an inflammation of the mucous m.embrane of the foreskin. It is a common condition and is due to uncleanliness. Quacks and charlatans magnify its importance, declare it to be a fearful malady, and promise miracu- lous cures. Ordinary cleanliness will cause a balantis to disappear in a few days. This can- not happen if the local trouble is of a venereal nature. Balanoglos'sus, a worm-like marine ani- mal, the chief representative of the most primi- tive class of chordate animals, Enteropneusta or Adelocephala. This remarkable creature, the type of its class, combines characters peculiar to itself, with features reminding us of the nemer- tcans, annelids, tunicates, and the vertebrate om- phioxus, while its free-swimming larva was originally supposed to be a young echinoderm. From the fact that the central nervous system lies above a notochord, Bateson placed it next to the vertebrates. One American species, Balanoglossus auran- tiacus, is a long, cylindrical, soft, fleshy worm, footless, without bristles, but with a large, soft, whitish, tongue-shaped proboscis in front aris- ing dorsally within the edge of the collar sur- rounding the mouth. The surface of the body is ciliated. At the beginning of the digestive BALANTIDIUM — BALAWAT canal is a series of sac-like folds of which the upper or dorsal portion is respiratory and sep- arated by a constriction from the lower, which is digestive, and leads directly to the intestine behind This pharj'ngeal respiratory portion of the digesL^.e canal has on each side, in each seg- ment, a dorsal sac, the two communicating along the median line of the body. The dorsal respira- tory sacs each bear in their walls a delicate chitinous gill-support or -arch. Between the gill- arches, forming numerous lamellae, are a series of slitS; leading on each side to openings (spira- cles), situated dorsallj'. The water passes through the mouth into each gill-sac, and out by the spiracles. The nervous system lies above a short sac regarded as a notochord. There is a dorsal blood vessel, which sends branches to the respiratory sacs, and a ventral vessel. The worm lives in sand at low-water mark from Cape Ann to Charleston, S. C, also in the Mediterranean. The life-history of this worm is most inter- esting. The young, originally described under the name of Tornaria, was supposed to be an echinoderm larva, though it resembles the lar- val Gephyrca and Annelida. It is a transparent, surface-swimming, minute, ciliated, slender, somewhat bell-shaped form, with black eye- specks. When transforming to the worm con- dition, a pair of gills arise on sac-like outgrowths of the oesophagus, and afterward three additional pairs, with their external slits, arise, somewhat as in ascidians. The entire Tornaria directly transforms into the \vorm, the transitional pe- riod being very short. The body lengthens, the collar and proboscis develop, afterward the body lengthens, the end tapering and becoming much coiled. Consult: A. Agassiz, ^The History of Ba- lanoglossus and Tornaria^ (* Memoirs of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences,^ Vol. IX, Boston, 187,3) : ^The Later Stages in the Development of Balanoglossus Kowalevskii, etc.-* ('Quarterly Journal of the Microscopical Soci- ety,^ London, 1885-6.) Balantidium, bal-an-tid'i-um, a genus of Infusoria, some members of which, notably B. coli have been found in the large intestine, where they cause sj-mptoms of intestinal derangement, anaemia, peevishness, and other symptoms of an intestinal parasite. The diagnosis is made by means of the microscope. Quinine enemas, five grains to the pint, are usually curative. See Intestine — Intestinal Parasites. Bal'anus ("acorn-shells^O, a genus of ses- sile cirripeds, family Balanidcc, of which col- onies are to be found on rocks at low water, on submerged timbers, crustaceans, shells of mol- lusks, etc. They differ from barnacles in hav- ing a symmetrical shell and being destitute of a flexible stalk. The shell consists of six plates with an operculum of four valves. They pass through a larval state in which they are not fi.xed, moving by means of swimming-feet which disappear in the final state. All the Balanidce are hermaphrodites. A South American species (5. psittacus) is eaten on the coast of Chile, the B. tintinnahidum by the Chinese. The old Roman epicures esteemed the larger species. Balao, ba-la'6, a West Indian name, among Spanish-speaking fishermen, for the half-beaks (q.v.). Balard, ba-lar, Antoine Jerome, Brench chemist: b. Montpellier, 30 Sept. 1802; d. Paris, 31 March 1876. He was professor of chemistry at the College de France, Paris, and discoverer of bromine; also of a process of extracting sul- phate of soda directly from sea-water. In 1868" he was made Inspector-General of Superior Instruction. Balas Ruby, a variety of ruby spinel. Balashov, bal-a-shof, a Russian town in the government of Saratov, situated on the Don, 170 miles west of the city of Saratov. It has a considerable export trade of grain, etc. Pop. about 13,000. Balasore, bal-a-s6r', a city of Bengal, British India, capital of the district of Balasore. It is situated near the coast and has dry docks and a considerable coasting trade. Pop. about 20,000. Bal'ata, bal'a-ta, a rubber-like exudate de- rived from the milky juice of Mimusops balata and M. schombiirgkii. The gum is used widely in the arts, and is sometimes confused with gum chicle, from which much of the chewing-gum of commerce is derived. Balate, ba-la'ta, the Philippine name for a kind of trepang (Holotliuria atra). Balatka, ba'lat-ka, Hans, musician: b. Hoffnungsthal, Moravia, 1828. After studying music in Vienna he settled in Milwaukee, Wis., where he founded the Musikverein in 1851, which he conducted for nine j'ears. He then removed to Chicago, where he organized the Liederkranz. the Mozart Club, and conducted the Philharmonic Society and the Symphony Soci- ety. Balaton, bo'lo-ton, or Flatten See, a lake in the southwest of Hungary, extending from lat. 46° 45' to 47° 5' N., and from Ion. 17° 14' to 18° 10' E. ; area about no square miles, or, including the marshy shores, about 138 square miles. It receives the waters of more than 30 small streams. It discharges through the Sio, which empties into the Sarviz, an affluent of the Danube. The Balaton is constantly in a state of motion, sufficient to cause waves. Its waters are perfectly transparent and abound with fine fish, notably one called fogas. frequently 20 pounds in weight, and with delicious flesh of snowy whiteness. Another kind, resembling the herring, swarm in the lake during the winter in such shoals that fishermen sometimes haul 50 cartloads from under the ice in a single day. Balauang, ba-low-ang', Philippines, a town in the province of La Union, Luzon, north of San Fernando. Pop. about 25,000. Balau'stion's Adven'tures, a poem by Rob- ert Browning, describing a Greek girl of Rhodes. 'Aristophanes' Apology^ is a continuation of this poem. Balawat, ba-la-wat', a ruined city of Asia- tic Turkey, 10 miles from Nimrud. Excavations there have resulted in the finding of the ruins of the palace of Shalmaneser II. The bronze gates that opened into the vestibule of this palace are especially interesting and valuable, and have been placed in the British Museum. BALAYAN — BALBOA Balayan, ba-Ia'yan, Philippines, a town of Batangas province, Luzon, situated on the Gulf of Balayan, northwest of the town of Batangas. Pop. about 25,000. Bal'bec. See Baalbek. Balbi, bal'be, Adriano, famous geogra- pher: b. Venice, 25 April 1782; d. Padua, 14 March 1848. In 1808 his first work on geog- raphy procured his appointment as professor of that science in the College of San Michele, at Murano, and in 181 1 he became professor of natural philosophj^ in the Lyceum at Fermo. Having married an actress, he went in 1820 to Portugal, where he became acquainted with the leading scholars and statesmen. He had free access to the government archives, and from the documents he collected, composed two inter- esting works entitled *Essai Statistique sur le Royaume de Portugal et d'Algarve, Compare aux Autres fitats de TEurope,* and ^Varietes Politiques et Statistiques de la Monarchie Por- tugaise,* which he published at Paris in 1822. He followed his scientific pursuits in that me- tropolis, and four years later produced the first part of his ^ Atlas Ethnographique du Globe, ou Classification des Peuples Anciens et Modernes d'apres leurs Langues,' a work of superior arrangement, in which he spread before the French public the result of the researches and disquisitions of the German philologists. He published afterward, in concert with several sci- entific men, statistical tables of Russia, France, the Netherlands, etc. He now gave all his at- tention to his ^Abrege de Geographic Redige sur un Plan Nouveau,^ a summary of geographi- cal science which appeared in 1832 and has been translated into nearly all the European lan- guages. Then he retired to Padua, where he published, in 1835, his ^Essai sur les Biblio- theques de Vienne.^ Beside the works above- cited mention may be made of ^La Monarchie Frangaise Comparee aux Principaux fitats de I'Europe^ (Paris, 1828) ; "^Balance Politique du Globe^ (1828) ; ^L'Empire Russe Compare aux Principaux Etats du Monde' (1829) ; ^The World Compared with the British Empire' (1830) ; *^Statisque Comparee de I'lnstruction et du Nombre des Crimes' (1829). Balbi was also a contributor to many important publications, 'L'Encyclopedie de^ Gens du Monde' and ^Le Dictionnaire de la Conversation.' His works show a great amount of knowledge, thorough research, and skilful arrangement of material ; but, being utterly deficient in style, they are heavy and of difficult reading; however, they may always be advantageously and safely con- sulted. Bal'bi, Gasparo, Venetian dealer in pre- cious stones, who lived in i6th century. He traveled first to Aleppo and thence down the Euphrates and Tigris to the Malabar coast, sailing finally for Pegu, where he remained two years. His a/- ctis, the Italian balcone, also balco or palco, the Turkish bala-khaneh, the German balcon. The use of balconies is comparatively modern, al- though there is no doubt about their existence in times of antiquity. Winckelmann, the great German writer upon art, refers to the fact that in Greece every private dwelling-house had con- trivances which, although then designated un- der diff'erent terms, would be called balconies in our day. In Spain, Italy, and South Amer- ica, they are used for sitting, walking, chat- ting, and flirting, in warm summer evenings; but they are less common in northern countries, where the nature of the climate does not call for such romantic contrivances. They are, how- ever, often used as miniature gardens for potted plants. Upon Boccaccio and Bandello, the great Italian novelists of the i6th century, the poetical utility of balconies was not lost, and entertain- BALD CYPRESS — BALDUNG ing balcony scenes abound in their stories. Shakespeare took his plot of Romeo and Juliet from one of Bandello's novels, and the balcony scene exhibits, with that power of genius of which the great English dramatist alone was capable, the beauty of a balcony when two young lovers like Juliet and Romeo make it the witness of their passion. In modern theatres the term is applied to the first or second gallery or tier of seats above the pit. Bald Cypress. See Cypress. Bald Eagle, the American white-headed eagle. See E.\gle. Bald Mountain, the name of several emi- nences in the United States, of which the fol- lowing are the principal: (i) In Colorado, height, 11,493 feet; (2) in California, 8.295 feet; (3) in Utah, 11,975 feet; (4) in Wyo- ming, in the Wind River Range, 10,760 feet; and, (5) in North Carolina, 5,550 feet. The last named was the cause of much excitement in May 1878, because of inexplicable rumblings which lasted for about two weeks. The moun- tain shook as if in the throes of an earthquake, immense trees and rocks were hurled down its sides, and for a time fears were entertained lest a volcanic eruption should follow. A subse- quent examination showed that a large section of the mountain had been split asunder, but no further disturbance occurred. Baldachin, bal'da-chin. See Altar. Balde, Jakob, bal'da, ya'cdb, German Latin poet: b. Ensisheim, Alsace, 1604; d. Neu- burg, on the Danube, 1668. He was court- chaplain to the prince electoral of Bavaria, and distinguished himself by the excellence of his Latin poetry. Herder called attention to the beauty and genius of his lyrical productions, many of which he translated. Balder, bal'der, or Baldur, in Norse myth- ology a divinity, represented as the son of Odin and Frigga, beautiful, wise, amiable, and be- loved by all the gods. His mother took an oath from every creature, and even from every in- animate object, that they would not harm Balder, but omitted the mistletoe. Balder was therefore deemed invulnerable, and the other gods in sport flung stones and shot arrows at him without harming him. But the evil god, Loki, fashioned an arrow from the mistletoe and got Balder's blind brother Hoder to shoot it, himself guiding his aim. Balder fell dead, pierced to the heart, to the deep grief of all the gods. He is believed to be a personification of the brightness and beneficence of the sun. Balderstone, bal'der-ston, Caleb, the old butler of the master of Ravenswood, in Scott's * Bride of Lammermoor.^ Baldi, bal'de, Benardino, Italian scholar and poet: b. I553; d. 1617. He was an accom- plished linguist and a very prolific writer, and was abbot of Guastalla for 25 years. Among his numerous works are "^Cronica dei Mate- matici^ ; ^La Nautica,^ a poem on navigation; an Arabic grammar ; and a translation of the *Targum of Onkelos.^ Baldness. Under the title Alopecia the general types of baldness have been considered. Premature alopecia, or the general afiFection of the young and middle-aged, deserves greater consideration. Alopecia presenilis, or prema- ture baldness, is recognized as of two distinct varieties, the idiopathic and the symptomatic. In the idiopathic variety that occurs before the age of 45 there does not seem to be any disease of the scalp or of the general nutrition to ex- plain it. It is a gradual and progressive loss of hair, thinner and thinner hairs replacing those that have fallen out, until the follicle will not produce hair. It is usually symmetrical,, beginning at the tonsure or running back from the temples. The skin is usually left thin and hard. In the symptomatic form some general dis- order, or a definite disease of the scalp is the cause. This latter is usually a scaly dandruff ; the general causes may be syphilis, tuberculosis, fevers or local destructive conditions. Dan- druff (q.v.) is the most frequent accompaniment and cause of baldness. Dandruff is really at least three different diseases of the skin, but the general character is that of a general seborrheal dermatitis ; that is, a mild inflamma- tion with excessive fatty secretions. This is frequently due to digestive disturbances, and is closely dependent upon the general health of the entire body. The hair falls out as in the idiopathic form. The dandruff usually con- tinues until the hair is gone, and then ceases. Treatment should be begun early, particu- larly in those whose families have tended to baldness. The details of treatment require pro- fessional advice. The large number of hair- tonics in the market speaks well for the general inutility of all of them. Cleanliness, frequent dry-brushings, and shampoos once in every two or three weeks, are safe measures, and tend to keep up the general hygiene of the scalp. Con- sult Jackson, ^Diseases of the Skin^ (1900). See Dandruff. Baldo, Monte, a mountain in Lombardy, Italy, near Lake Garda, with an elevation at its highest peak of 7,275 feet. Baldovinetti, bal'do-ve-net'te, Alessio» Florentine artist : b. 1422 ; d. 1499. Few of his works remain except a ^ Nativity^ in the Church of the Annunziato, and two altar-pieces in the gallery of the Uffizi and the Academy of Arts, Florence. Baldpate, or Baldhead, the name of sev- eral different birds having a white head, as an eagle, one of the widgeons, a kind of domestic pigeon, a West Indian dove, a fruit-crow, etc. Baldric, bal'drik, a belt or sash worn over the right or left shoulder diagonally across the body, often highly decorated and enriched with gems, and used not only to sustain the sword, dagger, or horn, but also for purposes of orna- ment and as a military or heraldic symbol. The fashion of wearing a baldric appears to have reached its height in the 15th century. In the United States it now forms a part of the imi- form of Knights Templar and other fraternal organizations. Balducci, bal-do'che, Francesco, leading^ Italian Anacreontic poet : b. Palermo ; d. Rome, 1642. He wrote ^Sicilian Songs^ in the Sicilian dialect, etc. Baldung, bal'dung, Hans, or Hans Griin^ German painter and wood engraver : b. Suabia, 1470; d. Strasburg, 1522. His work, though inferior to Durer's, possessed many of the came BALDWIN characteristics, and on this account he has been sometimes considered a pupil of the Nurem- berg master. His principal paintings are the series of panels (of the date of 1516) over the altar in Freiburg Cathedral ; others of his works are to be found at Berlin, Colmar, and Basel. His numerous and often fantastic engravings have the monogram H. and B., with a small G. in the centre of the H. Bald'win I., king of Jerusalem. He was the son of Eustace. Count of Bouillon, and ac- companied his brother Godfrey of Bouillon into Palestine, where he gained the sovereignty of the state of Edessa. He succeeded his brother on the throne of Jerusalem in iioo, and for 18 years waged war against the Turks, the x^rabs, ^he Persians, and the Saracens. He took many iowns and secured for the Christians the coast of Syria from the Gulf of Issus to the confines of Eg3'pt. He died at Laris, in the desert in ni8, and was buried on Mount Calvary. In the first canto of Tasso's 'Gerusalemme Liber- ata,^ the poet has depicted the character of this monarch as well as that of his brother, Godfrey. Bald'win I., the first Latin emperor of Constantinople, son of Baldwin VIII., Count of Flanders and Hainault : b. Valenciennes, 1170. In 1200 he joined the crusaders with his brother, Thierry, and in 1202 aided the Venetians in their attack upon Constantinople, of which city he was crowned emperor 16 May 1204. In the next year Baldwin was taken prisoner by the king of Bulgaria, and, it is said, died in cap- tivity in 1206. He was much esteemed by the Greeks for his charity, temperance, and justice. Bald'win II., king of Jerusalem, son of Hugh, Count of Rethel. He was crowned in 1 1 18, after Eustace, brother of Baldwin I., had renounced all claim to the vacant throne. In 1 120 he gained a great victory over the Sara- cens, but in 1 124 he was taken prisoner by them, and was ransomed only by giving up the city of Tyre. In 1131 he abdicated in favor of his son-in-law, Foulques of Anjou, and retired to a monastery, where he died in the same year. The military and religious order of the Tem- plars, for the defense of the Holy Land, was instituted, it is thought, in the reign of this monarch. Bald'win IL, the last Frank emperor of Constantinople: b. 1217; d. 1273. He was the son of Pierre de Courtenay, and succeeded his brother Robert in 1228. He was twice besieged in his imperial city, and, being too weak to de- fend his dominions, repaired to Italy to seek aid from the Pope. At the court of France Baldwin was favorably received by the king, St. Louis, to whom he presented a crown of thorns which was held by all Christendom to be the genuine relic. Baldwin, in 1239, set out for Constantinople with a body of crusaders, who, however, soon quitted him and took the route to Palestine. He succeeded, ultimately, in rais- ing new forces in the West, and regained his capital ; but in 1261 Michael Paleologus in- vested it and entered Constantinople on the 29th of July. Baldwin fled to Sicily, where he died in obscurity. Bald'win III., king of Jerusalem: b. 1130; d. Antioch, 11 62. He was son of Foulques of .Aniou, whom -he succeeded in 1142 under the guardianship of his mother. He took Ascalon and other places ; but under his reign the Chris- tians lost Edessa. He was succeeded by his brother, Amaury I. Bald'win IV., king of Jerusalem: d. 1185. He was son of Amaury, and succeeded to the throne on the death of his father in 1174; but as he was leprous, Raymond, Count of Tripoli, governed the kingdom for him. He afterward resigned the throne to his nephew, Baldwin V., in 1 183. Baldwin V., king of Jerusalem: b. 1178; d. 1186. He was son of Sibylla, sister of Bald- win IV., and was called to the throne when five years old. He died of poison, supposed to have been administered by his mother in order that her second husband, Guy de Lusignan, might enjoy the throne. The following year, 1 187, the Christians lost Jerusalem, which was taken by Saladin. Baldwin, Abraham, American statesman: b. Guilford, Ct., 6 Nov. 1754; d. 1807. He was graduated at Yale in 1772, and was tutor there, '^77~)~79- Durmg the American Revolution he was a chaplain in the army, and. at the sugges- tion of General Greene, settled in Savannah, Ga., 1784, where he was admitted to the bar. His efforts as a member of the legislature se- cured a charter and endowment for the Uni- versity of Georgia, which was established ac- cording to his own plans and ideas, and of which he became president. He took part in the Constitutional Convention of 1787; was a delegate to the Continental Congress 1785-88; member of the House of Representatives 1789- 99 ; United States senator 1799, until his death. Baldwin, Charles H., American naval oflS- cer : b. New York city, 3 Sept. 1822; d. 17 Nov. 1888. He entered the navy as a midship- man in 1839. Serving on the frigate Congress during the war with Mexico, he figured in sev- eral sharp encounters near Mazatlan. He com- manded the steamer Clifton at the passage of Forts Jackson and St. Philip in 1862. and at the first attack on Vicksburg. He became rear- admiral in 1883, receiving the command of the Mediterranean squadron, and was retired in 1884. Baldwin, Evelyn Briggs, arctic explorer: b. Springfield, Mo., 22 July 1862. He was graduated from Northwestern College, Naper- ville, 111., and engaged chiefly in teaching until 1892, when he entered the United States Weath- er Bureau service. He is now an inspector-at- large of the signal corps of the United States army. He accompanied, as meteorologist, Peary's North Greenland expedition, 1893-4; joined the Wellman Polar expedition. 1898-99, as second in command, built Fort McKinley, and discovered Graham Bell Land. Securing the co-operation of Mr. William Zieglcr of New York he organized and commanded the Baldwin-Ziegler expedition of 1901. He has written 'The Search for the North Pole,* < Auroral Observations, Franz-Joseph Land,^ 'Meteorological Reports of the North Green- land Expedition* (1893-4). and meteorological publications in government reports. Bald'win, Frank D., American military officer: b. Michigan, 26 June 1842. He entered the volunteer army in 1861 and the regular army in 1866; became colonel of the 4th United BALDWIN 'States Infantry, 26 July 1901 ; and was pro- moted brigadier-general, United States army, 9 June 1902. He was awarded a Congressional medal of honor for service at the battle of Pine Tree Creek, Ga., 20 July 1864, and another for gallantry in an action against Indians in Texas. He greatly distinguished himself in the Philip- pines in the early part of 1902. Bald'win, Henry, American jurist and author : b. New Haven, Conn., 14 Jan. 1780; d. Phila- delphia. Pa., 21 April 1844. A graduate from Yale College in 1797, he studied law, became a barrister, and settled in Pittsburg, Pa. In 1817, and twice subsequently, he was elected a Fed- eral member of Congress. He was appointed justice of the United States Supreme Court in 1830, and in the same year received the de- gree of LL.D. from his alina mater. He wrote *A General View of the Origin and Nature of the United States' (1837). Baldwin, Henry Porter, American politi- cian : b. Coventry, R. I., 22 Feb. 1814 : d. De- troit. Mich., 31 Dec. 1892. He went to Michigan in his youth and from 1869 to 1873 was governor of the' State. From 1879 to 1881 he sat in the United States Senate. He was very prorn- inent in the affairs of the Episcopal Church in Michigan. Baldwin, James, American author : b. Hamilton County, Ind., 15 Dec. 1841. Very largely self-taught, he was engaged in teaching from 1865 to 1887. He filled an editorial posi- tion with Harper & Bros. 1887-93, when he became editor of school books for the American Book Co. He has written: ^Storv of Sieg- fried> ri882); Bal'four, Francis Maitland, embryologist: brother of the foregoing, b. 1851. He studied at Harrow and Trinity College, Cambridge. Articles on his special study gained him a high reputation while still an undergraduate, and after further work at Naples he published in 1874, in conjunction with Dr. M. Foster. 'Ele- ments of Embryology, a valuable contribution to the literature of biology. He was elected a fellow of his college; fellow and member of council of the Royal Society ; lecturer on, and finally, in 1882, professor of, animal morphology at Cambridge, a chair specially instituted for him. The promise of his chief work, 'Com- parative Embryology' (1880-1) was- unfulfilled, as 19 July 1882 he was killed by a fall on Mont Blanc. Balfour, Right Hon. Gerald William, Eng- lish statesman : b. 1853 (brother to the two pre- ceding). He was educated at Eton and Trinity College, Cambridge, entered Parliament in 1885, and was chief secretary for Ireland in the Unionist ministry from 1895-1900; and President of the Board of Trade, 1900-1905. He piloted the Irish Local Government Bill o£ 1898 through the House of Commons. ARTHUR T. BALFOUR. BALFOUR — BALILING Balfour, Isaac Bayley, Scottish botanist: b. Edinburgh, 31 March 1853. He was profes- sor of botany in the University of Glasgow 1879-84. at Oxford University 1884-88, and since 1888 at the University of Edinburgh. He explored the island of Socotra in 1880, in behalf of the British Association and of the Royal Society of Edinburgh. He is Kiag's botanist in Scotland and keeper of the Royal Botanic Garden in Edinburgh. Balfour, Sir James, Scottish lawyer, ana a conspicuous actor in the civil wars which ■ended in the dethronement of Mary, Queen of Scots : b. Fifeshire, Scotland, about the begin- ning of the i6th century; d. 1583. Originally brought up in the Roman Catholic Church, he had espoused the Protestant cause, and in 1547, for his share in the conspiracy against Cardinal Beaton, he was, with Knox and other reformers condemned to the galleys. After his escape and return to Scotland, the cause of Protestant- ism was apparently declining, and Balfour ab- jured his heresies and returned to his former faith. His abilities and tact gained him ap- pointments and he was high in office on the arrival of Mary in Scotland, and was with the queen at Holyrood on the night of Rizzio's assassination. Popular rumor assigned to Bal- four a prominent share in the murder of Lord Darnley, Mary's husband, but he contrived to outlive all suspicion. In 1567 he was appointed captain of Edinburgh castle. A change in Bal- four's convictions was forced upon him, for he saw that a powerful party had been formed against Mary and the policy of an alliance with them overcame all scruples. He held the castle of Edinburgh against the queen, and was the means of delivering up Mary's letters into the hands of her enemies. He afterward sur- rendered the castle for various considerations. On the breaking out of the civil war Balfour sided with the regent Murray, but after Mary's imprisonment in England he took part in con- spiracies for her restoration, although at the time professing adherence to the regents Mur- ray and Morton. His last public act was fur- nishing the evidence of Morton's guilt in the murder of Darnley, for which Morton was con- demned and executed. The ^Practicks of Scots Law^ attributed to him, continued to be used and consulted in manuscript for nearly a century until it was supplanted by the ^Insti- tutes of Lord Stair.* Balfour, James, Canadian architect: b. Hamilton, Ont., 1852. He acquired his educa- tion in Canada and Edinburgh and began the practice of his profession in his native city. Among notable buildings of his designing are the Boys' Home and City Hall, in Hamilton; Alma Ladies' College, St. Thomas ; and the Museum of Art, Detroit, Mich. Balfour, John (of Kinlock, or of Bur- ley), one of the chief actors in the assassination •of Archbishop Sharp in 1679, for which his es- tate was forfeited and a price set on his head. He fought at Drumclog and Both well Bridge, and is said afterward to have escaped to Hol- land. According to one account he died on a homeward voyage to Scotland ; by another he never left the country, but settled in the parish of Roseneath, Dumbartonshire. He is described by Scott in Balfour of Kin- lock is quite a difterent personage from Lord Balfour of Burleigh, who succeeded to the title in 1663, spent his youth in France, and died in 1C88. Balfour, John Hutton, Scotch botanist: b. Edinburgh, 15 Sept. 1808; d. 11 Feb. 1884. He graduated at Edinburgh University in arts and in medicine; in 1841-5 was professor of botany in Glasgow University ; and in the latter year removed to Edinburgh to occupy a similar post, resigning his chair in 1879. He wrote valuable botanical text-books, including 'Elements,* 'Outlines,* 'Manual,* and 'Class-book,* beside various other works. Balfour, Nesbit, British military officer: b. Dunbog, Scotland, 1743; d. same place, Oc- tober 1823. He was promoted lieutenant-gen- eral 1798 and general 1803; distinguished him- self during the American Revolution ; was wounded in the battle of Bunker Hill; fought at the battles of Elizabethtown, Brandywine, Germantown, and Long Island ; and was pres- ent at the capture of New York. He was ap- pointed commandant at Charlestown in 1779. Balfrush, bal-froosh', or Barfurush ("mart of burdens"), a town in the Persian province of Mazanderan, on the river Bhawal, 12 miles from the Caspian Sea. Balfrush is a centre of trade between Russia and Persia, exporting large quantities of silk, rice, and cotton, while the Russians supply iron and naphtha. It has excellent bazaars, numerous caravanserais, and several Mohammedan colleges. Pop. about 50,000. Balg, balg, Gerhard Hubert, philologist: b. Scandinavia, about 1850. He graduated at the University of Wisconsin, and resides at May- ville, in that State. He has translated W. Braune's 'Gothic Grammar, with Selections and Glossary* (1883) ; edited 'The First Germanic Bible, and Other Remains of the Gothic Lan- guage with Introduction and Glossary* (1891); and compiled 'A Comparative Glossary of the Gothic Language, with Especial Reference to English and German* (1887-9). Bali, ba'le, or Bally, an island of the Indian Archipelago, belonging to Holland, and lying east of Java. Its greatest length is 85 miles ; breadth, 55 miles ; area, about 2,260 square miles. It consists chiefly of a series of volcanic mountains, of which the loftiest, Agoong (11,326 feet), became active in 1843 after a long period of quiescence. Principal products, rice, cocoa, coffee, indigo, cotton, etc. The people are akin to those of Java and are mostly Brahmins in religion. It is divided into eight provinces under native rajahs, and forms one colony with Lombok, the united population being estimated, in 1807. at 1.044,757. Balikesri, ba-le-kes're, Balu-kissar, or Balik-Shehr, a town of Anatolia, 75 miles southwest from Brusa. It is built of unburnt bricks and contains the tomb of a celebrated Mohammedan saint and a manufactory of felt cloth for military clothing. It has considerable trade in silk fabrics. Pop. over 12,000. Ba'liling, a principality of the island of Bali ; pop. 130.000. The exports are rice and bullocks, and the chief trade is with the Bughis of Celebes. In 1847 the Dutch were signally defeated in an attack upon the fort of Djaga Raga in this principality. BALINAG — BALKAN PENINSULA Balinag, ba-le-nag', Philippines, a town of the province of Bulacan, Luzon. Pop. (i8g8) 14,122. Baliol, ba'li-61, Edward, a king of Scot- land, son of John Baliol of Scotland ; d. Don- caster, 1363. In 1322 he made a successful in- vasion of Scotland and on 24 September of that year was crowned king of Scotland at Scone. Having privately rendered homage to Edward III. of England, he was routed by a party of Scottish nobles and dispossessed of his crown after a reign of three months. He regained it the next year, but was henceforth an instrument of Edward. Baliol, or Balliol, John, king of Scot- land: b. about 1249; d. 1315. On the death of Princess Margaret of N.)rway, grandchild of Alexander III., in 1290, Baliol claimed the vacant throne by virtue of his descent from David, Earl of Huntington, brother to William the Lion, king of Scotland. Robert Bruce (grandfather of the king) opposed Baliol ; but Edward I.'s decision was in favor of Baliol, who did homage to him for the kingdom, 20 Nov. 1292. Irritated by Edward's harsh exer- cise of authority, Baliol concluded a treaty with France, then at war with England ; but, after the defeat at Dunbar, he surrendered his crown into the hands of the English monarch. He was sent with his son to the Tower, but, by the intercession of the Pope in 1297, obtained liberty to retire to his Norman estates, where he died. Baliol, or Balliol, John, father of King John Baliol, an English baron in the reign of Henry III. : d. 1269. In 1263 he laid the foun- dation of Balliol College (q.v.), Oxford, which was completed by his widow, Devorguila or Devorgilla. She was daughter and co-heiress of Allan of Galloway, a great baron of Scot- land, by Margaret, eldest daughter of David, Earl of Huntington, brother of William the Lion. It was on the strength of this genealogy that his son, John Baliol, became temporary king of Scotland. Baliol, Martha Bethune, the imaginary narrator of several of Sir Walter Scott's * Chronicles of the Canongate.^ Baliol College. See Balliol College. Balisarda, ba-le-sar'da, a magic sword in Ariosto's ^Orlando Furio'so,' stolen from Or- lando by Brunello, and afterward given to Rogero. Balisaur, bal-T-sa'oor (Hindu, halloo- soor), the sand-badger of India, called by Hin- dus the pig-like badger or «sand-hog,» on ac- count of its long snout. See Sand-Badger. Balis'ta, or Ballista, a machine used in military operations by the ancients for hurling heavy missiles, thus serving in some degree the purpose of the modern cannon. The motive power appears to have been obtained bv the torsion_ of ropes, fibres, catgut, or hair. They are said to have sometimes had an effective range of a quarter of a mile, and to have thrown stones weighing as much as 300 pounds. Balis- tce differed from catapults, m that the latter were used for throwing darts. Balize, ba-lez'. See Belize. Balkan bfil-kiin', or bal'kan, Mountains, (anciently called Hccmus), a lofty and rugged mountain range, extending from Cape Em- ineh Burum on the Black Sea. in eastern Roumelia, in a westerly direction to the borders of Servia, and forming the south- ern boundary of the basin of the Dan- ube. In the west it is connected with the much ramified mountain-system of the south- eastern peninsula of Europe. Its length is over 200 miles ; the average elevation is about 3,000 feet, but the group of the Khoja Balkans in the west have a mean height of 6,500 feet. The highest summit is Jumrukchal, 7,786 feet. The Balkan forms the watershed between the streams flowing northward into the Danube, and these flowing southward to the ^Egean. The chief of the latter is the Maritza. The range, which has a gradual descent on the north, pre- sents on the south a somewhat steep escarp- ment, and has always been considered the great- est natural bulwark of the Ottoman empire against enemies on the European frontiers. Yet in the Russo-Turkish war of 1877-8 the Russian troops managed to cross it without any great difficulty, although they had to en- counter a stubborn resistance at Shipka Pass (4,370 feet). Here a Turkish army of 32,000 men surrendered to the Russians. The range now forms the southern frontier of Bulgaria, dividing it from eastern Rumelia. The whole of the southeastern peninsula of Europe is known as the Balkan Peninsula. Balkan Peninsula, a region thus named after the Balkan (Turkish "high ridge"), the ancient Hasnius (Greek 6 AI/jlos) an import- ant mountain range in southeastern Europe. It is the southeasternmost of the three great southern peninsulas of Europe, each of which is named after the central mountain system form- ing its backbone ; namely, the Tyrenean, the Apennine, and the Balkan peninsulas. The northern boundary of the latter is not as clearly defined as that of the other two great peninsulas separated from central Europe by the gigantic mountain barriers of the Pyrenees and the Alps. Assuming that rivers also form a natural bound- ary, the Balkan Peninsula ends on the right bank of the Danube and her tributaries, the Save and the Una ; it is bounded on the west by the Adriatic and the Ionian seas, on the east by the Black or Euxine and the ^^igean. In a broader designation, however, the northern boundary is assumed to be the parallel of 45° N., adding to the peninsula more than one half of Rumania (Wallachia and Dobrudja) and a part of Austria (Dalmatia and a section of Croatia). Excluding the territory between 45° N. and the Danube, the peninsula comprises an area of about 175,000 square miles, which contains Eu- ropean Turkey proper with Novibazar, a Turk- ish district under Austrian military control. Bos- nia, and Herzegovina (temporarily occupied by Austria ; Montenegro, Servia, Bulgaria, an au- tonomous and tributary principality, with east- ern Rumelia, under the suzerainty of Turkey and Greece. No other country in Europe is so richly provided with gulfs and excellent har- bors of commercial and naval strategic value. An archipelago of numberless islands, the Cy- clades and Sporades of ancient fame, forms a continuous bridge between the Balkan Peninsula and Asia Minor. The Black Sea is connected with the Sea of Marmora through the Bosporus, BALKH a channel about 20 miles long, and so narrow that Constantinople, at the southwest extremity of the Thracian Bosporus, is but one mile dis- tant from the Asiatic city of Scutari, eastward across the Bosporus. The Sea of Marmora is linked with the yEgean by the Dardanelles with an average width between three and four miles. The Balkan Mountains, a continuation of the Carpathian Mountain system, extend in a varied formation from the Adriatic to the Euxine, breaking up in their advance eastward into sev- eral parallel chains with many more or less, strong spurs north and south ; several ranges extend southward almost to the ^gean : the Perim Dagh and the ancient Rhodope Moun- tains or Despoto Dagh. They are frequently broken by defiles or passes of a different de- grees of serviceableness as routes. The princi- pal passes are the Nadir-Derbend, Karnabad, the Basardshik-Sophia, the Trajan, Rosalitha, and Shipka, the latter famed by the heroic struggles between the Russians and Turks in 1877. The principal range of the Balkans is thus divided into several sections, like the Etropol, Kodja, and Shipka Balkans, and forms the boundary between Bulgaria and Rumelia. The main elevation of the chain is from 4,000 to 5,000 feet, but it rises much higher in various parts, the loftiest elevation of 9,700 feet above sea-level being reached by Mount Scargus in the Char Dagh. The Balkans are rich in minerals, especially rock salt, lead, iron-ore, copper, sil- ver, but the treasures of the soil are yet very imperfectly known in spite of the geological re- searches, undertaken by German, French, and other travelers and scientists. The mountains are mostly of a granite formation, but the mountain system is very complicated, and its geologic and geostratic connections are hard to determine. There are numerous thermal and sulphurous springs, some of which are renowned and utilized as sanitary watering places. The mountains form the watershed separating the tributaries of the lower Danube and those of the Vardar and Maritza rivers, or, in other words, the watershed between the Black Sea and the ./Egean. On account of the broken and irregu- lar character of the peninsula the rivers are short and little navigable. The westernmost section of Turkey, Albania, separated from Montenegro and Novibazar by the North Al- banian Alps, is a mass of parallel mountain ranges, irregularly traversed by the winding rivers, Boyana, Drin, Loum, Vo'iutza, and Arta, which flow into the Adriatic and Ionian seas. In the Turkish provinces of Scutari, Monastir. and Saloniki, there are a number of large and deep lakes, pre-eminently those of Scutari, Ochrida, Janina, Prespa, and Kastoria. The climate of the peninsula is exceedingly varied ; it is rigorous with heavy snowfalls in the north and in the central plateau between Serajevo (Bosnia) and Sofia (Bulgaria), and the table- land of Janina, but becomes mild and sunny toward the south and east, tempered by the breezes of the ^gean. There is hardly any country in the world inhabited by such a num- ber of different peoples as the Balkan Peninsula. Surviving there are all the races recorded at the beginning of history, with their national lan- guages and distinct racial consciousness. They do not form, however, the whole people or even the great majority of their particular race in any one district, but are intermingled and live side by side, without ever blending together, so that the process of disentangling their various and conflicting aspirations, tendencies, and racial as well as religious distinction.s, is well-nigh im- possible. In eastern Rumelia (ancient Tlirace) and Macedonia, there may be found a Greek, a Bulgarian, a Turkish, an Albanian village side by side. The Greeks or Byzantines, the Daco- Rumanians, who speak a distinctly Romance or neo-Latin language, and proudly derive their origin from the legionaries of Emperor Tra- janus stationed in Dacia, yet undoubtedly from Dacian or Thracian mothers, — and the Al- banians of Illyrian stock are the most ancient historic races of the Balkans. The Slavs are late-comers by migration and conquest. They became neither Greek nor Roman in speech or customs, political character or na- tional proclivities, but remained distinctive in language and racial characteristics. At periods historically well determined, after the Gothic invaders in those regions had been defeated or absorbed or started on their world-stirring ca- reer, after the Turanian Avars had lost their overwhelming power, the Slavic tribes moved in great numbers into central and southeastern Europe. About 630 a.d. the Croats began to occupy the present Croatia, Slavonia, northern Bosnia. In 640 the Servians of the same race and language conquered the Avars and peopled Servia, South Bosnia, Dalmatia, Montenegro, v/hose inhabitants are pure Serbs in blood and language, only deriving their name from their national hero, Ivo the Black (Tsernoi), who gave the name of Tsernogora (Montenegro) to those desert rocks, a safe retreat to the Servians, after their defeat at Kossovo in 1389 inflicted by the Turks. The ethnic situation of to-day dates from that epoch. The origin of the Bul- garians is not quite clear. They appear to be of Finnish-Ugrian stock, and therefore related to the Turks and the Hungarians, but were Slavic- ized early in history. The great apostles of the Slavs, Methodius and Cyrillus, themselves Bul- garians, even brought Byzantine culture and the Greek-orthodox religion to the other Slavic races on the peninsula. The battle of Kossovo, already mentioned, made an end to the independ- ence of the highly developed Slavic States, and with the fall of Constantinople in 1453, the last bulwark of the crumbling Byzantine empire, the Turkish sway over the entire Balkan Peninsula became a reality. Four centuries of racial strife between the Turkish conquerors and the various Greek, Rumanian, and Slavic races under their sway ended in the formation of the Danube States and the Hellenic kingdom, more or less according to races and nationalities, so far as this was possible at all in the case of peoples which are at least as far removed in sympathy and political aspirations from one another as they are from the Turks. The racial antago- nisms are grievously accentuated in the at- tempted solutions of racial, political, and re- ligious problems. Herm.a.nn Schoenfeld, Columbian University, IVasliington, D. C. Balkh, brilkh, a district of Afghan Turke- stan. It corresponds to ancient Bactria, and is bounded on the north by the river Oxus, on the east by Badakhshan. on the south by the Hindu Kush, and west by the desert. Its length is 250 miles ; its breadth, 120. Its situation was once important during the overland commerce be- tween Indian and eastern Europe before the BALKH — BALL BEARING sea route by the Cape of Good Hope was fol- lowed. The soil has the general characteristics of a desert land ; only a few parts are made fer- tile by artificial irrigation ; and such are the vicissitudes of climate that where grapes and apricots ripen in summer, and the mulberry- tree permits the cultivation of silk, in winter the frost is intense and the snow lies deep on the ground. The natives are Uzbegs, whose character differs in different districts. Balkh, the capital of the district of the same name, situated in a district intersected by canals and ditches. It is surrounded by a mud wall ; but though bearing the imposing title of ^Mother of Cities," it has not in recent times had any of the grandeur of ancient Bactra, on the site of which it is built. It was twice de- stroyed by Genghis Khan and Timur. A ter- rible outbreak of cholera in 1877 caused the capital of Afghanistan Turkestan to be trans- ferred to Mazar, west of Balkh ; since which Balkh has been an insignificant village. Balkhash, bal-kash', a great inland lake, near the eastern border of Russian Central Asia. Lying about 780 feet above sea-level, it extends 323 miles west-southwest ; its breadth at the west end is 50 miles ; at the east from 9 to 4 miles ; the area is 8.400 square miles. The water is clear but intensely salt. Its prin- cipal feeder is the river Hi. It has no outlet. The northern edge is well defined ; but the south shores of the lake are labyrinths of islands, peninsulas, low sandhills, and strips of shallow water. Here grow masses of enormously tall reeds in which wild swine shelter. To the south, stretching toward the base of the Ala- tau Mountains, is a vast steppe almost devoid of vegetation. Balkhash seems to have at one time included in its immense area the smaller lakes Sossik-kul and Ala-kul, now far to the southeast. Bal'kis, the Arabian name of the queen of Sheba who visited Solomon. She is the central figure of innumerable Eastern legends and tales. Ball, Ephraim, American inventor : b. Greentown, O., 12 Aug. 1812; d. Canton, O., i Jan. 1872. He was brought up as a carpenter, but in 1840 he established a foundry for making plow castings ; invented a plow, a turn-top stove, the Ohio mower, the World mower and reaper, and the New American harvester ; and for many years before his death was president of an extensive manufacturing plant at Canton, Ohio. Ball, John, English priest of the 14th century. He was a disciple of Wycliffe. upon whose religious doctrines he engrafted some political theories resembling the ^'liberty, equal- ity, and fraternity" of later ages. He was inti- rnately concerned in the Wat Tyler insurrec- tion of 1381. and for his part in the affair was executed at St. Albans, 15 July 1381. See Mor- ns, *The Dream of John Ball.' Ball, Sir Robert Stawell, distinguished English astronomer: b. Dublin, i July 1840. In 1865 he was appointed Lord Rosse's astrono- mer at Parsonstown. He has held many posts in connection with astronomy and mathematics, including those of professor of applied mathe- matics and mechanism at the Royal College of Science for Ireland; Andrews professor of as- tronomy in the University of Dublin ; astrono- mer-royal of Ireland ; and Lowdean professor of astronomy and geometry in the University of Cambridge, and director of the Cambridge ob- servatory since 1892. The Royal Society elected him a Fellow in 1873, and in 1886 he was knighted. His numerous works include : 'The Story of the Heavens' (1885) ; *Time and Tide* (1889) ; 'Star- Land' (1889) ; 'The Story of the Sun' (1893); 'Great Astronomers' (1895); 'A Treatise on the Theory of Screws' (1900) ; 'The Earth's Beginning' (1901) ; 'Popular Guide to the Heavens' (1905) ; etc. Ball, Thomas, American sculptor : b. Charlestown, Mass., 3 June 1819. He studied in Italy; engaged in painting, 1840-52; adopted sculpture exclusively in 185 1 ; resided in Flor- ence, Italy, 1865-97 ; and afterward in Montclair, N. J. His best-known works are the equestrian statue of Washington in Boston ; the Web- .ster statue in Central Park, New York; and 'Emancipation' in Washington, D. C. He pub- lished 'My Threescore Years and Ten, an Autobiography' (1891). Ball, as an article of ammunition, see Gun- nery ; Ordnance; Projectiles; Shot. In connection with sports and games the ball in various sizes has been in universal usage since ancient times. The Greeks regarded ball- games as of much value in adding grace to the figure and giving elasticity to the muscles of the body, and the Romans also played a game of ball in connection with their baths for the same purpose. Several of the games then played resembled modern handball, football, and polo. Modern tennis and rackets undoubtedly had their beginnings in the jeu-de-paume of the Middle Ages, and lacrosse was originally played by the North American Indians, though the historical data concerning these and other games are meagre and new customs and rules have so changed games that their true history cannot be told with exactness. Of varieties of balls for use in the different sports there are many. The baseball is made of a sphere of rubber, 2^2 ounces in weight, which is wound with yarn and covered with leather. The basket-ball is an in- flated rubber ball, enclosed in leather and from 30 to 32 inches in diameter. The tennis ball is of rubber covered with white flannel, about 2V2 inches in diameter and 2 ounces in weight. The lacrosse ball is made of india-rubber and is 8 or 9 inches in diameter. The polo ball is of wood and 4 or 5 inches in diameter. The foot- ball is a prolate spheroid in shape and consists of a rubber bladder encased in a leather cover. Billiard balls are of ivory and from 2yV to 2f^ inches in size. See Baseball ; Football ; Basket-ball; Lawn Tennis; Rackets; Cricket ; Handball ; Lacrosse ; Polo ; Bil- liards ; etc. Ball and Socket, a joint used in machinery and piping. It consists of a spherical end of a rod or pipe fitting into a hollow sphere of the same size on a like piece. The object of this joint is to provide a close, movable connection, and to prevent leakage in pipes. Ball Bearing, a mechanical bearing, con- sisting of a cup against the inner circumference of which steel balls are placed. A cone fitted to the steel bears against these balls. It is used BALL CLAY — BALLAD to a great extent in bicycles and light carriage wheels, and to a less extent in light machinery and wagon bearings. Its object is to reduce friction and the use of lubricants. Ball Clay. See Clay. Ball Cock, a self-acting stop-cock, opened and shut by means of a hollow metallic sphere attached to the end of a lever connected with the cock. Its use is principally to regulate the supply of water to cisterns. The ball floats by reason of its buoyancy, and rising and sink- ing as the water rises and sinks, shuts off the water in the one case and lets it on in the other. Ball Flower, an architectural ornament resembling a ball placed in a circular flower, the three petals of which form a cup around it ; usually inserted in a hollow molding, and gen- erally characteristic of the Decorated Gothic style of the 14th century. Ball Nozzle. See Hydrodynamics. Ballad, a short narrative poem in stanzas, originally intended for singing. The name, which is derived from the Latin ballarc, to dance, is frequently used very loosely, and ap- plied to a variety of songs and verse-tales with no real bond of association. But in the stricter sense it belongs to a comparatively small body of anonymous traditional poetry, the production of which has practically ceased in English- speaking countries, though literary imitations of the type are still composed. Its most character- istic quality is impersonality. Not only is the author unknown, but in the pure ballad there is no trace of his individuality. The material of the poem is usually popular in origin, and the sentiment and point of view are those, not of a single person, but of the whole people. ^'Peo- ple.'' in the sense here used, has reference not to the lower classes but to society in a period when in the matter of culture the community was homogeneous. Thus the origins of the kind of poetry of which the ballad is a survival are to be looked for in a comparatively primitive stage of society, before the ^'poetry of art*^ came into existence, when the tribal community could still express itself in simultaneous utterances ac- companying the rhythmic movements of dance or march. This view of the origin of ballad poetry is not universally accepted. Over against it there is placed the apparently simpler theory that the ballads are the production of minstrels, from the fifteenth century down, who derived from romances and other sources in artificial litera- ture stories which they threw into crude stanzas, to chant sometimes in the houses of the great, sometimes at fairs and other popular gatherings. But the objections to this view are serious. First, minstrel ballads such as are here described were manufactured and still exist in abundant broadsides and chap-books, but they are uni- versally lacking in precisely those qualities of impersonality and unconsciousness which con- stitute at once the mark and the charm of the true popular ballad. Second, the minstrel theory ignores the existence of a large mass of ethnological evidence, showing the indubitable and well-nigh universal existence of the prac- tice of communal song, and the development in this song of a narrative element. Third, it is a matter of definite proof that the genuine ballads Vol. 2 — IS. which have been collected during the last two centuries have come, with rare exceptions, not from the mouths or wallets of minstrels, but from humble unprofessional people, "the spin- sters and the knitters in the sun," who have in so many branches of folk-lore proved the best conservators of the heritage of the people. A minstrel's addition to his stock of an occasional piece of more or less degraded popular verse in no wise overthrows the significance of this fact. There is no reason to believe that, in the cen- turies before ballad-collecting began, the medium of transmission was substantially different. The argument on the other side has already been partly indicated. First, there exists the evidence of the wide-spread practice of accom- panying communal activity — in labor, ceremonial, or festal dance — with rhythmic utterances ; the gradual growth of these utterances in definite- ness of form ; the practice of making them the medium of narrating some episode known to all — e. g., the story of some great deed accom- plished by the hero whose death is being la- mented, or the manner of the victory which is being celebrated, or some ludicrous incident in the season's labor happily finished, — the contri- bution of a new line or stanza now by this, now by that member of the dancing throng ; the recurrent refrain sung by all ; the final creation of a narrative song for which no one individual is responsible, but which is the expression of the thought and feeling of all. Second, the un- individual element is intensified by the method of transmission. Before any extant ballad came into the form in which we find it, it had been handed down from mouth to mouth through many generations, modified endlessly in detail, but by this very process losing whatever indi- vidual elements might at any stage appear in it, and keeping, with whatever change of matter or modernization of dialect, just those qualities of impersonality and unconsciousness of literary effect which have been noted as its characteristic traits. Third, the theory suggested by these facts receives corroboration from the refrain and from the characteristic narrative method of the ballad, the so-called "incremental repetition. '> The phrase is used to describe the method of telling a story by the repetition in a set of stanzas of the same words with just enough change to advance the narration one step. Thus the motive for the murder of the Bonnie Earl of Murray is gradually insinuated by this method in these stanzas : He was a braw gallant. And he rid at the ring; And the bonny Earl of Murray, Oh he might have been a king! He was a braw gallant, And he played at the ba; And the bonny Earl of Murray Was the flower amang them a'. He was a braw gallant. And he played at the glove: And the bonny Earl of Murray, Oh he was the Queen's love! A moment's reflection will show how suitable such a device is to communal improvisation, and how naturally it is derived from it. As for the refrain, the part played by the crowd in the singing of it does not need to be argued. It is not implied that all ballads showing incremental repetition and preserving refrains were thus composed by a throng. For most, BALLAD perhaps for all, of our extant ballads it is probably safe to assume a single original author, whose name and circumstances are now hope- lessly lost, but who first gave each ballad a definite form. But even when making this as- sumption, we must bear in mind the fact that he worked after models which went back ultimately to communal products, that he worked in a period when it was still possible to compose in the communal spirit, that he used for the most part popular material, and, finally, that his product has been transmitted orally through generations who altered and modified till what- ever of personal existed in the first form has been obliterated. Thus if the famous phrase, "das Volk dichtet,* can not be used of the ballads we read to-day in the sense in which it was true of the earliest communal chants, it still holds to this extent that, in so far as a given specimen approaches the pure ballad type, it fails to exhibit the marks of any handiwork but that of the folk. The ballad thus stands at the remote end of that line of development at the hither end of which we find the modern subjective lyric such as the sonnet. The curve which lies between shows the tendency running through the history of poetry to have been to emphasize more and more the individuality of the author, to relegate the people more and more to the place of mere audience. We are prepared to find, then, many features in the history of ballads highly dis- similar and even contradictory to those of modern literature. Thus the life of a modern poem begins when it is committed to paper: a ballad then begins to die. It lives only while it is still being transmitted orally from generation to generation, receiving from each its stamp. A modern poem has one authentic text : a ballad may have many texts, varying in number with the extent of territory over which it was sung, but no single authoritative text. A modern poem avoids explicit borrowing: the ballad ab- sorbs and assimilates freely numbers of **com- monplaces,'' — phrases, lines, and even sets of stanzas that appear with equal appropriateness in half a dozen different ballads, and are the exclusive property of none. Such are the formulas for sending a messenger, O whaur will I get a bonny boy, etc.; for ordering a horse, O saddle me the black, the black, O saddle me the brown; for describing a journey, They hadna' gaen a mile, a mile, A mile but barely three; for concluding a romantic tragedy. The tane was buried in .Mary's kirk, The tither in Mary's quire, And out of the ane there grew a birk, And out of the ither a brier, etc. A modern poet seeks novelty of epithet : the ballad clings to the traditional description ; the gold is red, the lady is fair, her dress is grass- green, her hair is yellow, her tears are salt, the moon's light is clear, the porter is proud, brothers are bold, a bower is «bigly,» and so on. Equally characteristic is the treatment of incident and plot in the ballad. There is seldom any introduction : we plunge at once into the midst of the action. The stanzas leap from peak to peak of the narrative, with no attempt to supply the less important links, yet seldom with any real sacrifice of clearness. The events in the imcontaminated ballad are unmoralized and imsentimentalized ; the bald fact is left without comment or criticism from the singer. Con- scious figures of speech are rare, and the back- ground is seldom filled in. Thus the general result is that of rapidity of motion, directness and unconsciousness of effect, an absence of artistic suggestion. Whenever we find a moral drawn, or a dwelling on the pathetic, interpola- tion by a modern would-be artist is to be sus- pected. From what has been said of origins, it is clear that little can be guessed as to the date of com- position of ballads. Some, notably those simple, highly typical stories like 'The Twa Sisters,' written in a two-line stanza with a refrain, with stress upon situation rather than upon succes- sion of events, may in some form be of almost any age. Others have an upper limit of date fixed by the historical event which occasionally forms the basis of the plot. The dates of ballad manuscripts, which are, of course, an entirely dif- ferent thing, and a date of death rather than of birth, are more easily fixed. The earliest is 'Judas' (No. 23 in Child's collection) from a 13th century MS.; the next, 'Riddles Wisely Expounded' (Child, i) about 1445; a little later, 'Robin Hood and the Monk' (Child, 119), 'St. Stephen and Herod' (Child, 22), and 'Robyn and Gandelyn' (Child, 115) ; two exist in copies of about 1500; two others about 1550. Less than a dozen are preserved in MSS. before 1600. The most important single MS. is the Folio which Bishop Percy used as a basis for his famous "Reliques of Ancient English Poetry," and it is in a handwriting of about 1650. A few appear in early printed forms. *A Lytell Geste of Robyn Hode' was printed about 1500, and broadside versions, usually in very degraded form, appeared frequently in the 17th and i8th centuries. The most important sources after the Percy Folio are the collections made directly from the mouths of the people, such as those of David Herd (1776), Mrs. Brown of Falkland (1783-1801), Sir Walter Scott (1783-1830), C. K. Sharpe (c. 1823). Motherwell (1825-7), Kin- loch (1826), Buchan (1828), MacMath and Child (second half of the igth century). Ballads on historical occurrences apart, most of the plots belong to the mass of folk-tale which is the exclusive possession of no one nation or language. Many ballads tell stories versions of which are found in almost every known tongue. The explanation of this world- wide diffusion of story-material is one of the standing problems of folk-lore ; but whatever theory of its cause be adopted, the fact that it is largely from this international treasury that the ballads derive their plots, is a strong reason for regarding them as essentially "popular" in mat- ter as well as in manner. Turning now to the nature of these stories, we find that by far the largest class is concerned with romantic love and its consequences. Many are tragic, the interference of fathers, mothers, or brothers being perhaps the commonest cause of the fatal issue. Both in these and in the romantic ballads with happy endings the .sympathy of the audience with the lovers is in general assumed, and in cases of illicit love no moral judgment is passed or suggested. Some of the best are ballads of war by land or sea ; BALLADE — BALLANTINE and the irregular warfare of the Borderland between England and Scotland has given birth to a number justly famous. The largest group connected with a single personality is that of the Robin Hood ballads. Of these, some like *A Lytell Geste' and 'Robin Hood and the Monk' represent not only the finest of the outlaw group, but rank with the best of all ballads. The later members of this group, however, show serious deterioration, and they finally sink into the degradation of broadsides manufactured by printers' hacks. The 'Geste' itself is of especial interest as showing a significant stage in the process by which ballads are combined in the formation of the popular epic. In it four or more distinguishable ballad plots are woven to- gether to form a miniature epic, the interweav- ing being clearly the work of a conscious artist who at the same time was in full sympathy with the popular .spirit. The supernatural also plays an important part in the ballads, and it is possi- ble to gather from them much information as to popular belief on such themes as fairies, witches, the return of the dead, transformation by en- chantment, and the like. The number of extant ballads in English may be gathered from the great final collection of Professor Child. Here, ignoring variants, we have three hundred and five, most of which are popular in the sense which has been defined, i. e. they fulfil these conditions, that even if written each by an individual author, that author belonged to the people, drew his material from the common stock of folk-tales, wrote in the popular spirit, and used the traditional method, had his product accepted by the folk and passed on and modified by them through centuries of oral transmission. Some few such as 'The Boy and the Mantle,' 'King Arthur and King Corn- wall,' and 'The Marriage of Sir Gawain,' are closely associated with metrical romances, and are usually regarded as written by minstrels for more courtly audiences, but are yet enough in the popular style to justify their inclusion as ballads. More are traditional ballads corrupted for the printing press and represented by broad- side versions because no purer form has sur- vived. And in the case of almost every ballad surviving in several versions, some versions show a higher degree of purity from literary editing than others. The localities from which the ballads have been gathered are widely scattered, versions of several having been picked up in America. But Scotland claims about two-thirds of the whole. Bibliography. — The completion of F. J. Child's exhaustive 'English and Scottish Popular Ballads' {5 vols., Boston 1882-98), with its bibliographies and full account of the sources, makes unnecessary a list of previous less com- prehensive collections. Every known version of every extant ballad in any English dialect was intended to be included by the editor, and little or nothing has escaped him. The introductions give an account of parallels and analogues throughout the world. An abridged collection has been edited by H. C. Sargent and G. L. Kittredge (i vol., Boston 1904). On the ques- tion of origins, consult F. B. Gummere. 'Old English Ballads' (Boston 1894), 'The Begin- nings of Poetry' (New York 1904), 'The Popular Ballad' (Boston 1907) ; T. F. Hender- son's edition of Scott's 'Minstrelsy of the Scottish Border* (Edinburgh 1902), and his * Scottish Vernacular Literature,' chap, xi (London 1898) ; and vol. i of Courthope's 'His- tory of English Poetry.' An excellent con- densed statement of the whole matter by G. L. Kittredge forms the introduction to the one- volume edition of Child's collection. William A. Neilson, Professor of English, Harvard University. Ballade, ba-lad' the earlier and modern French spelling of "ballad," but now limited in its use to a distinct verse-form introduced into English literature of late years from the French and chiefly used by writers of vers de societe. It consists of three stanzas of eight lines each, with an "envoy" or closing stanza of four lines. The rhymes, which are not more than three, follow each other in the stanzas, thus : a, b, a, b ; b, c, b, c, and in the envoy, b, c, b, c ; and the same line serves as a refrain to each of the stanzas and to the envoy. There are other va- rieties, but this may be regarded as the strictest, according to the precedent of Villon and IMarot. Ballagi, bol'lo-ge, Maurice, or Moritz, Bloch, a Hungarian philologist and Protestant theological author, most widely known for his grammars and dictionaries of the Hungarian language : b. Inocz, of Jewish parents. 18 March 1815; d. I Sept. 1891. He was educated at Budapest and Paris ; was converted to Protes- tantism in 1843 ; studied theology at Tiibingen ; and was professor of theology at Szarvas from 1844 to 1848 and from 1851 to 1855, and at Buda- pest from 1855 to 1878. His first large work was the translation of the Bible into the Hungarian language for the purpose of Magyarizing the Jews, but of this work only the Pentateuch and the Book of Joshua were published (Budapest 1840-43). The most important of his philo- logical works are : 'Ausfiihrliche theoretisch- praktische Grammatik der ungarischen Sprache' (1843; 8th ed. 1881); 'VoUstandiges Worter- buch der ungarischen und deulschen Sprache' (2 vols., 1854-7; 6th ed. 1890); 'Sammlung der magvarischen Sprichworter' (2 vols., 1850; 2d ed. i855). Ballanche, ba-lansh', Pierre Simon, French philosopher: b. Lyons, 4 Aug. 1776; d. 12 June 1847. His great work is the 'Palingenesie Sociale' (1828), in which he seeks to illustrate the workings of God in history and sketch how human society may and will be reconstructed so as to attain its highest development. His works are a strange mi.xture of mysticisrn, socialism, and the philosophy of history. His 'Vision d'Hebal* (1832) is a prophetic forecast of the world's history, Hebel being a second- sighted chief of a Scottish clan. He also wrote 'Le vieillard et le jeune homme' (1819) ; etc. Bal'lantine, James, Scottish artist and poet : b. Edinburgh. 11 June 1808; d. 18 Dec. 1877. He was brought up as a house-painter, but afterward learned drawing under Sir William Allen and was one of the first to revive the art of glass-painting. He was commissioned to execute the stained-glass windows for the House of Lords, and in 1845 published a treatise on glass-staining, which was translated into German. Two prose volumes, 'The Gaberlun- zie's Wallet' (1843). and 'The IMiller of Dean- haugh' (1845), contain some of his best-known songs and ballads. He was author of 'Poems' BALLANTINE — BALLESTEROS (1856 and 1865) ; ^One Hundred Songs with Music* (1865) ; (1866) ; and i:hing but the straight party ticket, and should not be hindered in their choice, much less deprived of it. In concession to this useful element of citizenship, most of the States group the names and offices by parties. In general there is a blanket ballot with all parties on it, but each party given a column by itself, with some conspicuous device, like an eagle or a star, at its head, which the illiterate can be taught to recognize; the voter, in order to vote the straight ticket, making a cross in the circle under the emblem, while for a scattered or split vote he makes the cross in the space before the desired name. In New York and New Jersey this is carried further still, each party having a separate ticket and pasters being allowed ; which is in fact the old-fashioned sort, the modifications having taken all the dis- tinctive features out of the system, except the State supply. A newer feature of ballot reforrn is the sub- stitution for the ballot paper, which is folded and deposited by hand, of voting-machines, which are contrivances that both record the votes and count them, enabling the inspectors to see at any moment how many votes have been cast, and for whom. Several States have authorized the use of machines, and others are consider- ing the matter. Three varieties of the voting- machine have been legally sanctioned: (i) The Myers, in which the single ballot is placed in a frame having a push-knob for each candidate, the voter indicating his choice by pushing the knob opposite his candidate's name, when the machine indicates the vote on a dial at the back of the frame, and locks the knobs of all other candidates for the same office (before a second voter is ready, all knobs are unlocked) ; (2) the McTammany, which contains on its face a slot for each office, beneath which is a card bearing the names of the candidates for the office seen through the slot, the voter's choice being indicated by turning a wheel till the name of his candidate appears, when he pushes a knob which punctures the tally-sheet; and (3) the Rhines, in which the names are arranged as in the Myers, by parties and offices. Slip names are inserted in the push buttons; and separate tally-sheets for each candidate, with vertical serial numbers, are placed beneath the face, the voter pushing a button which places a punch in such a position for each name that when the lid of the machine is closed the next number on each tally-sheet is punctured. See United St.\tes, Beginnings of P.\rty Organiz.\tion IN THE. Ballou', Hosea, American clergyman and author: b. Richmond. N. H., 30 April 1771 ; d. Boston, Mass., 7 June 1852. His boyhood was spent in the greatest poverty, but at 21 he began to preach, having adopted the Universalist doctrines. He was successively pastor of con- gregations in Dana, Mass. ; Barnard, Vt. ; Ports- BALLOU — BALMEZ mouth. N. H., and Boston, Mass., in which lat- ter place he held his pastorate for more than 35 years. He founded the ^Universalist Maga- zine,^ subsequently called ^The Universalist Expositor,' and again the Mount Royal avenue. It has been most liber- ally endowed by the Jenkins family of Balti- more, and Andrew Carnegie. The Academy of Sciences, located in the fine old mansion of ex- Governor and ex-Senator Thomas Swann, on West Franklin street, contains a large collection of the bird life of this country, and a large col- lection of Indian remains. The Peabody Insti- tute (q.v.), a white marble building standing within the shadow of the Washington monu- ment, is a donation from the philanthropist George Peabody (q.v.). It contains a large reference library, an academy of music and a gallery of art. The entire building is 170 by 150 feet. The library room accommodates about 300,000 volumes. The Walters Art Gallery, located within 100 yards of the last named institution, contains the finest private collection of paintings and cerain- ics in the United States, and also a special col- lection of ancient arms and armor and lacqr.er BALTIMORE work of the Japanese. In the same block, south- east of the original gallery and on the corner of Centre street and Washington place, is now- being erected an art gallery for the Walters Collection of Old Masters, recently purchased by Air. Harry Walters, at a cost of $1,000,000. The Enoch Pratt Free Libraries, of which the city has six, were the free gift of Enoch Pratt (q.v.). The central library is located on West Mulberry street, near the centre of the city. It has six branch libraries and some sub- stations. Other libraries are the Maryland His- torical, the Peabody reference library, those of the Maryland Institute, the Maryland Episcopal Diocese, the Bar Association, the Archbishop's, Odd Fellows, New Mercantile, Baltimore & Ohio Employees' Free Circulating, and others. The Johns Hopkins University (q.v.) makes no pretensions in the way of architecture, Mc- Coy hall being possibly the most imposing edi- fice so far erected. The new home of this great school will leave nothing to be desired. Placed at an elevation of some 300 feet and occupying the estate of one of the Carroll family, known as *'Homewood Park,*^ it overlooks the city and harbor. On North Broadway, facing the west, stands the group of buildings known as the Johns Hopkins Hospital. The architectural ap- pearance of the central group of buildings is ma- jestic, standing 114 feet above tide. The cost of the original buildings was $2,250,000, which has been very largely added to since the founding. Other medical schools are those of the Univer- sity of Maryland (1807), the College of Physi- cians and Surgeons, and the Baltimore Medical College. The oldest dental college in the world is the Baltimore College of Dentistry and Sur- gery, chartered 1839. The chief law school is that of the University of Maryland. The W^ Oman's College (Methodist Episcopal, 1888) is another institution of which the citizens are proud. The buildings are throughout in the Romanesque style, of the Lombard variety, with adaptations from that order to which Vitruvius gave the name Tuscan. They are built of dark undressed granite and are surmounted by roofs of Roman-red tiles. The church is the most southern member of the group of buildings, its massive tower the most conspicuous object in the northern part of the city. This tower is al- most an exact counterpart of a campanile to be seen just outside of the city of Ravenna, Italy. There are also many other colleges and prepar- atory schools of good rank, making the city a leading educational centre. Among these are Morgan College (Methodist Episcopal, 1876) ; Baltimore City College; Bryn Mawr School {1885) ; and four Roman Catholic institutions— St. Mary's (Seminary of St. Sulpice, 1791); Loyola (1852), under Jesuit management; Notre Dame of Maryland (1873) ; St. Joseph's (1888). The public school system has about 118 schools, 1.750 teachers, and 75,000 pupils, and about $1,- 200.000 is annually expended in its support. The first manual-training schools for white or col- ored pupils were established here. There is also a State Normal School and an institution for training colored teachers. Parks and Cemeteries. — The beautiful Druid Hill Park consists of 671.2 acres. Other parks are: Clifton Park, 252.07 acres; Clifton Lake, 44 acres; Patterson Park, 106 acres; Car- roll Park, 83 acres; Riverside Park, 17.02 acres; Federal Hill Park, 8.02 acres; Wyman Park, 132.08 acres; Swann Park, 11.03 acres; Latrobe Park, 10.05 acres; Gwynn's Falls, 57 acres, besides 32 small squares dispersed all over the city, containing 58.12 acres, making a grand total of about 1,450 acres. In natural beauty Druid Hill Park is unsurpassed by any in the world. It is filled with springs of pure water, some of which are medicnial. A great artificial lake, a part of the city's waterworks, with a depth of more than 80 feet, occupies many acres, and around it has been constructed a fine drive. Near the head of this lake on the driveway stands the colossal statue of the Scot- tish hero. Sir William Wallace. In the rear of this is the full-length marble statue of W^ash- ington, executed by Bartholomew. A short dis- tance from the latter is a costly and graceful pedestal surmounted by a life-size figure of Christopher Columbus, by Achille Canessa. Patterson Park, on the eastern rim of the city, contains 106 acres, overlooks the harbor and still retains some of the earthworks thrown up by the American Army in the defence of the city 1812-14, some of the guns being still in po- sition. The various churches maintain 62 cemeteries, many of them on the outskirts of the city proper, but on various lines of electric car serv- ice. Nine of these cemeteries are Hebrew and four negro. The largest is Baltimore cemetery, in the extreme northeast near Clifton Park; the most beautiful are Greenmount in the north centre, containing the McDonough monument, and Loudon Park in the extreme west. Near the latter is Mount Olivet. Saint Peter's (Ro- man Catholic) is on the northwest. Churches. — There are some 489 church build- ings in the city, many of great beauty both ex- ternally and internally ; notably the First Pres- byterian church on Madison street, with its wonderful Gothic spire 300 feet high ; the Mount Vernon Alethodist Episcopal church within the shadow of the Washington monument, and the Roman Catholic cathedral commenced in 1800. The style and decorations of the last named are of the Grecian-Ionic order. The great dome is 207 feet in circumference internally, and 231 feet externally. The side aisles in the church are terminated by two pictures. That on the right is the "Descent from the Cross, ^^ painted by Pauline Guerin — a present from Louis XVI. to the archbishop — and that on the left, *'St. Louis Burying his Officers and Soldiers Slain Before Acre,^' the work of Steuben, and pre- sented by King Charles X. of France. There are also the stately Methodist church described with the Woman's College ; the beautiful white marble synagogue, Oheb Shalom, on Eutaw Place, oriental in style, and a short distance away the great Har Sinai temple on Bolton street, and the Byzantine temple on Madison avenue. The Episcopalians have many fine churches, among them Saint Paul's on (Zharles street, and Grace church on Monument street. The following is a list of the churches of the various denominations: Baptist, 59; Chris- tian Science, 2; Congregational, 4; Disciples of Christ. 7; Evangelical Ass'n, 4; Evangelical Lutheran, 57; Friends, 2; Orthodox, 2; Inde- pendent Roman Catholics, i ; Independent Ger- BALTIMORE. BALTIMORE man, i ; Jewish Synagogues, 22 ; Methodists of various kinds and color. 119; New Jerusalem, I ; Ark of the Covenant, i ; Presbyterian, ^,2) ; Protestant Episcopal, 45; Reformed Church, 14; Reformed Episcopal, 43 ; Roman Catholic, 55 ; Seventh Day Adventists, 2 ; Swedenborgian, 3 ; Union Evangelical, 3 ; Unitarian, i ; United Brethren in Christ, 7; Universalist, i; total 489. Clubs. — Baltimore cannot be called a club city; however, the time-honored Maryland Club is a great social organization occupying a su- perb new building on Charles and Eager streets. There are also the younger Baltimore Club, on Charles street, opposite, composed largely of the sons of members of the Maryland Club ; the Catholic Club; the Charcoal Club; Ger- mania Club, for German merchants ; the Mer- chants' Club and the Phoenix Club, a refined Jewish organization. Charitable Institutions. — The city has a body of gentlemen, known as Supervisors of City Charities, who serve without pay, and who look into every form of charity and direct to a large extent its distribution. There is also a State Board of Charities, non-paid. Among the insti- tutions to aid suffering humanity are Johns Hopkins Hospital (alreadj^ mentioned). Mary- land Hospital for the Insane ; Female House of Refuge; Springfield State Hospital; House of Refuge (male) ; Aged Men's Home; All Saints Home for Children ; Augusburg Home ; Balti- more Association for the Improvement of the Condition of the Children of the Poor; Balti- more Orphan Asylum (more than 100 years old); Boys' Home Society; Briska Help Asso- ciation; Charity Organization Society; Chris- tian Tribune Home for Young Ladies ; Dolan Children's Aid Society ; Egenton Female Or- phan Asylum and School ; Female Christian Home ; and Free Summer Excursion Society. The various charitable institutions are too numerous to mention all by name, but among them are the blind asylum, a fine white marble building; and the city almshouse, accommo- dating 1.300 inmates. Water and Fire Departments. — The city owns its waterworks system, which is self-sustain- ing. There are 645 miles of water mains in the city. The water comes from two sources: (i) the Big Gunpowder River, average daily flow 170.000.000 gallons; (2) Jones' Falls, 35,000,000 gallons. The service has two impounding reser- voirs — Loch Raven on the Gunpowder River, capacity 410.000,000 gallons, and Lake Roland in the bed of Jones' Falls, capacity 400.000,000 gallons. The department has two stand pipes with a maximum capacity of 300.000 gallons. The expenses of the fire department are about $600,000 per annum. Equipment : 29 engine companies, 14 hook and ladder companies (one of the engine companies is double — two engines and one tower; one is a powerful fireboat). Transportation.-T-'Ediitimort has a very mod- ern and excellent street car service; it can boast of the fact that it had the first electric sreet railway and the first electric elevated railway in the world. The street railways have about 400 miles of rails now being operated on the streets and suburban points within the ra- dius of its operations. More are contemplated. The Delaware and Chesapeake ship canal, across the narrow strip of Delaware, gives it a direct Vol. 2—16. water outlet to Philadelphia. The Baltimore & Ohio Railroad system (q.v.) follows almost without change the route of the old national pike, which extended from Baltimore to Saint Louis; it was the first road to the Atlantic sea- coast and the corner stone was laid 4 July 1828. The facilities provided by this road are the great terminals located at Locust Point, consist- mg of freight sheds, elevators, and the proper loading docks with a depth of 30 feet in 1906 but now being enlarged to 35 feet, connecting with the ship channel to the sea of the same depth Within the last two years they have erected an emigration pier and necessary build- ings. The terminals of the Pennsylvania Railroad ?/"^ °n the opposite side of the harbor from the B. & O. terminals, or, in other words, the east- ern side. They have the same depth of water in the freight shps and have direct communica- tion with the 35-foot channel. The principal road of this system passing through this city is the Philadelphia, Baltimore & Washington Rail- road, and Its branches. Running a little west of south from this city is still another import- ant feeder, the Baltimore & Potomac Railroad, which passes through Washington, terminates at Quantico, Va., branching at Bowie, Md. The Board of Trade had much to do with the intro- duction of another great railway svstem into this city, in the matter of the sale of the city's interest in the Western Maryland Railroad to what was known as the "Fuller Syndicate" to- gether with the purchase of the Pittsburg and West Virginia Central and the acquisition of the Wabash system. The Baltimore & Potomac has a tunnel 7.400 feet long through the west side of the city ; the Northern Central one 3,500 feet long through the northeast; the Baltimore & Ohio one i 2-3 miles long through the city north to south. The Baltimore & Ohio road draws its trains through by electric motors. Twentj'-one steamship lines use the docks and piers of the Baltimore & Ohio Railroad or the Pennsylvania Railroad Co. These lines run to Europe and South America and other ports. Besides these there are steamship lines to Bos- ton, Halifax, Providence, New York, Wilming- ton, N. C, Charleston, Savannah, New Orleans, etc. ; and steamboat lines to Philadelphia, W'ash- ington, Norfolk, Richmond, and other points on the "bay and its tributaries. There are 8 or 10 coasting lines on the bay alone, chief of them the Old Bay Line to Norfolk. Commerce. — The report of R. L. Hoxie, L'nited States engineer in charge of the harbor improvements, speaking of the year 1905, says that there was an increase of imports over the year previous of $852,440, and that 249,376 tons of grain, 266,109 tons of coal, 272.421 tons of iron and steel, and 120,000 tons of oils were ex- ported. Exports from the port of Baltimore during the fiscal year from i July 1904 to 30 June 1905, were valued at $91,172,888; during the fiscal year from i July 1905 to 30 June 1906. $109,801,118. Imports for the same period 1905, free, $12,488,992; dutiable $8,692,247; total $21,- 181,239; 1906, free $14,318,075; dutiable $16,336,- 942; total $30,655,017; total increase $9.473-778. Baltimore is the foremost corn-exporting port in the country, handling an average of 40,- 000,000 bushels a year, with 20,000,000 of other BALTIMORE grain; one of the first in flour, handling about 3,500,000 barrels ; it also sends out enormous amounts of other provisions, live stock, tobacco, boots and shoes, coal, naphtha, drain-pipe, cop- per, etc. Its imports are copper (mainly to be re-exported), iron and manganese ores, cotton, coffee. West India products, etc. During the year 1905 there were 80 sailing vessels of 42,502 tons, and 638 steam vessels of 1,182,458 tons entered at the port, and the clear- ances comprised 63 sailing vessels of 27,228 tons and 627 steam vessels of 1,222,470 tons. Manufactures. — The ofilicial figures for Bal- timore in 1905 were as follows : total number of establishments, 2,162; capital, $148,106,726; num- ber of salaried officials, clerks, etc., 6,766; sal- aries, $7,001,232; number of wage-earners, 65,- 013 ; wages, $25,548,343 ; miscellaneous expenses, $18,855,372; cost of materials used, $80,184,704; value of products, including custom work and repairing, $150,248,021. Among the numerous industries in which the city stands in the front line of the big cities of the United States, the ready-made clothing business shows one of the greatest increases since the big fire of 1904. The business has increased, according to promi- nent manufacturers, at least 25 per cent, and is now worth about $18,000,000 to the city. There are about 40 factories in Baltimore manufacturing men and youth's clothing. They employ from 10,000 to 12,000 hands, and pay out in salaries j'early from $5,000,000 to $6,coo,ooo. Other im- portant industries are besides bread, shirts, car- penter and mason work, etc., tobacco products, canning of fruits and vegetables, canning of oysters, foundry and machine-shop work, slaugh- tering and meat-packing, fertilizers, malt liquors, furniture, confectionery, lumber and planing-mill products, etc. Finances, Ba>iking, etc. — The estimated basis of taxation for 1906 was $548,522,063; addi- tional real estate assessments involving ease- ments, $23,350,000. The funded debt of the city I Jan. 1906 was $43,313,182.95; productive assets, $25.^86,690.45; unproductive assets, $20,- 000,000. T!ie clearing house transactions aver- age about $1,200,000,000, the total for 1905 being $1,249,411,909. On 18 June 1906 there were 18 National banks, with a capital of $12,590,700, surplus $6,510,800, undivided profits $2,204,- 426.85, and total deposits of $74,404,338.37. There are also a large number of state and pri- vate banks and loan and trust companies. Bal- timore is the great United States centre of the fidelity and security business ; its trust, bond- ing and surety companies have an aggregate capital of $15,531,250, surplus and undivided profits of nearly $25,000,000 and deposits of about the same amount. Government. — The charter provides that "the executive power of the mayor and city council of Baltimore shall be vested in the mayor, the departments, sub-departments, and municipal officers not embraced in a department herein provided for, and such special commissioners or boards as may hereafter be provided for by laws, or ordinances not inconsistent with this article. ^^ The mayor holds office for four years ; he has a veto which can be overridden by a three-fourths vote of the council, which is com- posed of two branches ; the lower, of 22 mem- bers, one from each ward; the upper, of 11 members, each from two contiguous wards. The bulk of the city officers are appointed by the mayor with the consent of the higher branch. The council has the right to appoint the city register and public printer ; and the comptroller and surveyor are elected by popular vote. The principal city officials are the comptrol- ler (head of department of finance) ; city regis- ter ; board of estimates ; commissioners of finance ; city collector ; collector of water rents and licenses. The chief departments are public safety (fire, health, buildings, and street clean- ing), public improvements, parks, and squares, education, charities, and corrections, and review and assessments. Population. — The city stands sixth in popula- tion among the cities of the United States, the growth being as follows: (1775) 5,934; (1790 first U. S. census) 15,530; (1800) 26,514; (1810) 46,454; (1820) 62,738; (1830) 80,620; (1840) 102,513; (1850) 169,054; (i860) 212,- 418; (1870) 262,854; (1880) 332,313; (1890) 434,439; (1900) 508,957. The police census of March 1906 makes the population 543,034, with two large cities only separated by a curb line on the eastern boundary, containing about 50,- 000 inhabitants. They cannot, however, be counted because they are part of Baltimore county. History. — The first settlement of land in- cluded in the present site of Baltimore was made in 1662. Charles II. was King of Eng- land, and Charles Calvert Governor of the province. The English people had been making history very fast, and among their most bril- liant achievements was the planting of success- ful colonies in various parts of the world, no- tably the Virginia colony, the Massachusetts plantations and the province of Maryland, founded in 1634. So that the first actual settle- ment on land, within the present city limits, was made only 28 years after the landing of the first colonists at Saint Mary's. During the 17th century we find statute books burdened with many laws creating town after town on paper, as many as 33 having been cre- ated, three of them being within the boundary of what was then called Baltimore county. By the act of the General Assembly of 1706 a town was to be established on Whetstone Neck on the Patapsco river. No name was given to the town in the act. Another town, called Bal- timore, was located near the mouth of Bnsh river on its eastern side. This town is shown in the map made by Augustus Herrman, the Bo- hemian, in 1670, and some 14 years after the actual founding of the present city, the Gen- eral Assembly ordered another Baltimore to be laid out on Indian river in Worcester county. Nothing was ever done in regard to this last town, the county surveyor refusing to proceed with the work. Then came the true founding of the city of Baltimore, by the passage of an act entitled "An act for erecting a town on the north side of Patapsco, in Baltimore county, and for lay- ing out in lots of 60 acres of land in and about the place where one John Flemming now lives.* (1729, chapter 12.) About two years after the founding of Baltimore town an act was passed entitled ".\n act for erecting a town on a creek, divided on the east from the town lately BALTIMORE. 1. Washington Monument. 2. Johns Hopkins Hospital. BALTIMORE laid out in Baltimore county, called ^Baltimore Town/ on the land whereon Edward Fell keeps a store. >^ (1732, c. 14.) The next step for the enlargement of the original town was the passage by the General Assembly of the act of 1745, c. 9, 15 years after the founding. This act was passed on the joint petition of the inhabitants of Baltimore and Jones's Town, that the two towns be incorpo- rated into one entire town, and for the future to be called and known by the name Baltimore Town and by no other name. The town was again enlarged two years later by the act of 1747, c. 21, on petition of the inhabitants by the addition of 18 acres, which were not in- cluded in Jones's Town nor in Baltimore Town. In 1765 another addition to the town was made on petition of Cornelius Howard and other per- sons, consisting of 35 acres on the west and south sides of the town. The town was again enlarged by the act of June 1773, by the addi- tion of 80 acres on the east and southeast. The Revolution brought it prosperity by crippling its rivals, and it was a great seat of privateering. For a couple of months in 1776-7 Congress held session in one of its taverns, having fled from Philadelphia in fear of the English. About this period the energy and re- sources of a couple of immigrant Scotch-Irish- men, the brothers John and Henry Stevenson, began to push the place forward ; new stage and packet lines were established, the roads im- proved and turnpikes laid out, and Jones's Falls diked and part of its course filled in. The Eu- ropean wars of the French Revolution and later threw a large part of the world's carrying-trade, till Napoleon's downfall, into American hands ; the "Baltimore clippers" were famous every- where. In 1792 a large body of French refu- gees from Haiti came in. On 31 Dec. 1796 the old settlement of Fells' Point w-as united with it, and it received a city charter, it having previously been governed from Annapolis. In the War of 1812 it again became a seat of pri- vateers, in revenge for which the British at- tempted its capture in 1814. but the attack was repulsed 12 Sept. To it we ow^e the "Star- Spangled Banner'^ (see Key, Francis Scott) and the Battle Monument. The end of the Napoleonic wars in 1815, restoring to England her old carrving trade, was a heavy blow^ to Baltimore. In 1828 the public-school system was established. In i860 all three anti-Republi- can parties held their national conventions there: and on the outbreak of the Civil War the Union troops passing through there were mobbed by the citizens, and the first blood of the war was shed in its streets, 19 April 1861. On 23 May Federal Hill was occupied by a Union force, and the city remained under mar- tial law till the end of the war. The conven- tion of 1864, which renominated Lincoln, was held here. In 1888 "The Annex* was annexed to the city, extending its limits two rniles north and west, and nearly doubling its size. Since 1890 Roland Park and Walbrook have also been annexed. The greatest disaster which Baltirnore has experienced was the conflagration which com- menced on Sunday 7 Feb. 1904. and continued to burn until the 9th. Some fire was not ex- tinguished for a year. It commenced in the largest wholesale dry goods establishment in the city— Messrs. John E. Hurst & Co.— the buildnig having three fronts. According to the statement of the Baltimore Sun "A strong wind was blowing from the southwest, and within about an hour, eight or ten buildmgs on Hop- kins Place in the neighborhood were in flames. Ihe fire spread to the north and east, rapidly devourmg block after block of buildings. As many as ten blocks were in flames by nightfafl, notwithstanding the extreme exertions of the firemen. By 8 o'clock the wind shifted and blew the fire, which had at that time acquired a volume of its own, straight down Lombard, German, Baltimore, and Fayette streets. In the effort to stay the progress of the flames, dyna- mite was used in ten places, or more, but the blowing up of houses had no good effect. Land- mark after landmark went down. The lofty ^sky-scrapers' on Charles, Saint Paul, Calvert, and Baltimore streets and the solid brick struc- ture, the B. & O. Central building, and the Equitable and Calvert buildings burned like great torches high up in the air. A fortunate change of the wind about midnight, helped to save the magnificent row of public buildings on the north side of Fayette street, from Saint Paul street to Holliday street — the court-house, the post-office and the city hall, but before the change occurred flying embers set fire to blocks on the south side of Baltimore street below Gay street, and to the Maryland Institute and the Marsh Market. The change carried the flames towards the water and the docks on the south, while on Baltimore street the fire stopped at Jones' Falls." The loss was estimated at about $70,000,000. Throughout the whole period of acute dis- tress there was no looting and no undue excite- ment ; perfect order was maintained and the business firms and companies resumed opera- tions in temporary quarters with comparatively little or no interruption, while the city and State governments addressed themselves, active- ly and intelligently, to the ways and means of speedy rehabilitation. In addition to the local fire-fighting force, companies from other cities came to their aid as follows : Washington, D. C, 5 ; Baltimore Co., 4; Sparrows Point, i; Annapolis, i; Phila- delphia, 7; York, Pa., 2; Harrisburg, Pa., i; Chester Pa., i ; Altoona, Pa., i ; New York City 10; Wilmington, Del., 4. There was thus engaged in fighting the Baltimore fire an aver- age of 62 well equipped modern fire organiza- tions and they all had abundant water from the city's sources of supply. In the banking and financial centres of the fire-swept area the greatest anxiety prevailed for several days in regard to the safety of the securities and books in the vaults of these in- stitutions. Time locks prevented the opening of the vault doors on Sunday night and the next morning when the bank buildings were in ruins it was known that in ten of the National banks and in one other, there were values of $53,000,- 000 including loans and discounts, securities, clearing-house exchanges, and cash. These banks represented about $50,000,000 of deposits. In addition to this, the Savings Bank of Balti- more, at the corner of Gay and Second streets, had in its vaults in jeopardy about $25,000,000; BALTIMORE AND OHIO RAILROAD The Hopkins Savings Bank $6,000,000, and others equally large sums. But the vaults stood the fire te'st for which in part they were designed. As one by one they were opened it was found that their contents were preserved and this fortu- nate circumstance encouraged them all around, and enabled them to give the necessary aid in the great work of rehabilitation plans which were immediately begun. There were also a number of private banking houses and many brokers involved in the fire, but in all cases it is believed the fire did not reach their valuables. There were thousands of depositors in the sav- ings banks, and financial anxiety extended to nearly every home in the city until the glad news was spread abroad that the bank vaults held good. This was also the case with many safes in commercial and business houses, though for weeks after the fire the streets were strewn with wrecks that failed in the fire and were valueless even as scrap-iron. Consult Love, 'Baltimore: The Old Town and the Modern City^ (Baltimore 1895) ; Scharf, 'The Chroni- cles of Baltimore^ (Baltimore 1874) ; Thomas, 'The City Government of Baltimore,) in 'Johns Hopkins University Studies, Historical and Po- litical Science ) (1896). William H. Love, Secretary of the Board of Trade. Baltimore Councils. See Catholic Church. Baltimore and Ohio Railroad, The. His- tory. — The fact that the only use of rails for locomotion in 1827 on either side of the Atlan- tic was for coal carrying, renders the more remarkable the action of the coterie of merchants and bankers of Baltimore, gathering at Philip Thomas' house on the evening of 18 February of that year, in deciding to proceed forthwith to build a railroad for general purposes. The Ohio, at Wheeling, was made the objective point; the intervening Blue Ridge and Alleghany mountains evidently suggesting no difficulties that could not be surmounted. But a week elapsed from the time of the initial meeting to the second, at which the committee appointed at the first reported the resolution, namely : "That immediate application be made to the Legislature of Maryland for an act incorporating a joint stock company, to be styled the Baltimore and Ohio Railroad Company, and clothing such company with all powers necessary for the con- struction of a railroad with two or more sets of rails from the City of Baltimore to the Ohio River.)) The capital stock was fixed at $5,000,000. The Baltimore and Ohio's charter, granted of date 28 Feb. 1827, was the first anywhere coming into existence defining and authorizing procedure to completion. Under it the Balti- more and Ohio Railroad Company is still acting, being the only enactment of the character of the pioneer days of the railroad in this country or Europe remaining fully operative ; the B. & O. being the single railroad company of those times yet retaining, unchanged, its original name and organization. On 23 April 1827 the Baltimore and Ohio Railroad Company was formally organized, Philip E. Thomas elected president, and George Brown treasurer. Preparations were immediately inaugurated to secure a survey of the proposed line, the measures to which end were begun on 2 July. In this the United States governmental authorities were induced to co-operate to the extent of relieving Colonel Stephen H. Long, of the Topographical Corps, from his regular duties, who, with Jonathan Knight, a Quaker civil engineer of repute, forth- with proceeded with the actual work, the date of its formal commencement being 20 Novem- ber. On 5 April 1828 they submitted the result of their labor to that period ; and the line west to the Patapsco and thence via its valley to Point of Rocks on the Potomac was decided upon as the first section to be undertaken. But persistent, bitter, and vehement opposi- tion by the canal authorities was encountered and this was even carried to legislative cham- bers and the courts, but despite this trouble and a few adverse decisions by the courts, the Baltimore and Ohio pushed on from Baltimore west, and three miles were completed and ex- perimented upon early in 1829. On 22 May 1830 the first section of the Baltimore and Ohio • — that from Baltimore to Ellicott City, a dis- tance of 14 males — was formally opened for public use. Horse-power was the standard means of locomotion pending development of the locomotive to a more assuring stage than then reached anywhere from whence reliable information could be obtained. (See Locomo- tive, The.) "Brigades of cars') were an- nounced to run three times each way daily, the fare named at 25 cents and business commenced in earnest. This was four months in advance of the formal opening of the Liverpool and Manchester, the first railway abroad for general purposes, its date being 15 Sept. 1830. Many difficult problems in the mechanics of railroading were decisively solved. Car wheels were first made with the flange on the inside edge, but their causing so many derailments and so frequently breaking led to the change of the flange to the outer edge. But this in- creased the difficulty on the curves and the conical flange was invented. The anti-friction box on the axles and the practice of placing on the outside instead of the inside of the wheels were both first introduced by Winans ; as was also the eight-wheel car. When the main line of the Baltimore and Ohio was completed its roadbed embodied the highest engineering skill of the period in the traversing of mountain ranges ; was the longest continuous railroad in the world, with the greatest bridges, trestles and tunnels. Its track construction throughout, and especially its manner of meeting the curvature and providing against slides from the environing mountain sides were lessons in line construction and operation the whole world availed oi. The Baltimore and Ohio was completed to Frederick, 61 miles, i Dec. 1831 ; to Point of Rocks, 69 miles, i April 1832; and to Harper's Ferry, 81 miles, i Dec. 1834. The initial move toward Washington was the letting of the con- tract in May 1833, for the construction of the Thomas Viaduct spanning the Patapsco at Relay. This remarkable granite structure, designed and erected under the personal supervision of Ben- jamin H. Latrobe. was built for the carrying of six to seven ton engines drawing from 15 to 20 ton trains, and meets with equal safety the demand of 170 ton locomotives at the head of 12 to 15 hundred ton trains. It was the marvel in the world's railway circles when con- BALTIMORE AND OHIO RAILROAD structed. The longest, higliest, and generally rnost imposing railroad crossing known, it was the first on a curve and regarded, therefore, as the boldest of departures from the rule. Two years were required to complete the Washington branch, and it was not until 25 Aug. 1835 that the echoes of the national cap- ital resounded back the locomotive's shrill awakening. With the opening of the branch, the railway postal service came into being, its earliest form the boardcd-up end of a baggage car, the two keys to which were held by the postmasters of Washington and Baltimore. The declaration of the first railroad dividend in history, a semi-annual of the Baltimore and Ohio, was made simultaneously with the open- ing of the Washington branch, and the securities of the latter were the first of American railway issue marketed abroad. The greatest of eventualities, however, with which the Washington branch's history is linked was the birth of the telegraph. "What Hath God Wrought," the first four words transmitted by wire over a public line, were sent from Bal- timore to Washington via the roadbed of the Baltimore and Ohio branch. Hancock, 123 miles from Baltimore, was reached by the Baltimore and Ohio on i June 1842; Cumberland, 178 miles, on 5 Nov. 1842; Piedmont, 206 miles, on 21 July 1851 ; Fairmont, 302 miles, on 22 June 1852; and the last spike, finishing the great undertaking from Baltimore to Wlieeling, 379 miles, was driven on 24 Dec. 1852. The formal opening of the road was marked by a notable demonstration 10 Jan. 1853. There being no rail connection beyond, and the prospects bright for Cincinnati and Louisville business in the one direction and Pittsburg in the other, a company was organized and a daily steamboat service established, "superior to any- thing floating upon western waters.^^ With the completion of the Parkersburg branch from Grafton — or the mouth of Three Forks, as it was then known — to Parkersburg, I May 1857, the Ohio was reached at another point, and a very important one, as through rail connection had been perfected thence to Cin- cinnati, 10 days before, 20 April. The opening, of the Parkersburg bridge, 7 Jan. 1871, was the last link in the continuous rail from the Chesapeake to the Mississippi. The old Marietta and Cincinnati, the Ohio and Mississippi and other railways, jonce sep- arately conducted companies, long since became component parts of the Baltimore and Ohio System, which, with the finishing of the Chicago division, 10 Nov. 1874, has been of the foremost in the metropolis of the northwest, as, through being the pioneer into Cincinnati and Saint Louis from the east, it has ever been in those centres of the southwest. At Pittsburg, as well, the Baltimore and Ohio's position is a commanding one. Reaching the great central point from Cumberland in July i860, later building and acquisitions led to radi- ating lines to Cleveland, Chicag'o, Cincinnati, Wheeling, and other points of traffic concentra- tion. Eastward from Baltimore the construction of the extension to Philadelphia and its opening, 19 Sept. 1886, together with security holdings in lines through to New York, assured important place among the railways centring in the coun- try's leading city. Mileage— On 30 June 1905 the Baltimore and Ohio Railroad proper consisted of the fol- lowing' lines: DIVISION MILES Baltimore and New York 5.34 Main Line System (excluding Valley Railroad of Virginia) 1,052.18 Wheeling System (excluding Wheeling Termi- nal and Valley and Branches; Cleveland, Lorain _& Wheeling and I?ranchcs; Ohio & Little Kanawha; and Ravenswood, Spencer & Glenville) 75::. 60 Pittsburg System 947-73 Chicago Division 282.47 Baltimore & Ohio Southwestern System 985.66 4,025.98 The lines controlled by or affiliated in interest with the Baltimore and Ohio System were as follows : MILES. Valley Railroad of Virginia 62.12 Ravenswood, Spencer & Glenville Railway 32-40 Cleveland Terminal & Valley Railroad 92.72 Cleveland, Lorain & Wheeling Railway 194.28 Ohio & Little Kanawha Railroad 74-26 455-78 Making a total of 4,481.76 miles for the en- tire S3'stem. By divisions this mileage is as follows : miles total Grand Division — New York 5.34 New York Division 5.34 Main Lixe System 1,114.3a Philadelphia Division 125.14 Baltimore Division 227.98 Cumberland Division 257.42 Shenandoah Division 1 12.55 Monogah Division 391.21 Wheeling System 1,146.3^ W'heeling Division 143.39 Ohio River Division 326.14 Cleveland Division 244.68 Newark Division 432.05 Pittsburg System 947-2-^ Connellsville Division 308.01 Pittsburg Division 356.93 New Castle Division 282.79 Grand Division — Chicago 282.47 Chicago Division 282.47 B. & O. Southwestern System 985.66 Ohio Division 336.40 Indiana Division 254.53 Illinois Division 394-73 Grand total for entire B. & O. System.. 4,481.76 Equipment. — The total equipment for the entire system, valued at $50,662,723.98, as of 30 June 1905 was as follows: rolling stock Locomotives and Spare Tenders 1,798 Passenger Cars 1,206 Freight Cars 80,338 Service Cars i,950 marine Steam Lighters and Tugs 12 Barges, Floats and Scows 106 Pile Drivers 3 Wharf Boat i Traffic Statistics. — For the year ending 30 June 1905 the total number of tons of freight carried by the B. & O. System was 56,322,085, divided as follows: B. & O. lines, 47,285,183, and affiliated lines 9,036,902. The total ton mileage was 9,637,865,455. The number of passengers carried was 16,581,666, or 728,748,125 passengers one mile, divided as follows : B. & O. lines, 15,518,372, and affiliated lines 1,063,294. The freight earnings for the B. & O. lines were $50,607,087.44 and the passenger earnings were $i3.8i7,i4i-.38. Finances. — The general income account of the B. & O. Railroad Company (including the BALTIMORE ORIOLE — BALUCKI B. & O. S. W. R.R.) for the year ending 30 June 1905, was as follows : Gross earnings $67,689,997.13 Operating expenses 44,710,603.58 Net earnings from operations $22>979. 393-55 Other income 2,976,998.44 $25,956,391-99 Total payments 20,289,197.74 Surplus $ 5,667,194.25 The operating results of the lines controlled or affiliated in interest with the B. & O. Sys- tem were as follows : Gross earnings $4,849,449-03 Operating expenses 3,729,191.43 Net earnings $1,120,257.60 The capital stock (preferred and common) outstanding on 30 June 1905 was $184,258,524.31 ; the funded debt was $234,395,430; and the capital liabilities assumed were $11,211,043.83; making the total capital liabilities $429,864,998.14. The capital assets of the company were $373,325,909.03, consisting of the following: Cost of road, $144,974,687.40; bonds and stocks held by trus- tees, $164,662,516.29; real estate, $12,315,832.78; gas and electric plants, $710,148.58; equipment, $50,662,723.98. The company also owned bonds and stocks of railroad and other corporations to the value of $43,548,658.87. Baltimore Oriole. See Oriole. Baltimore, Woman's College of. See Woman's College of Baltimore. Baltistan, bal-te-stan', or Little Tibet, an elevated plateau through which the upper Indus flows. It lies below the Kara-Korum Moun- tains and the Himalayas, with a mean elevation of 11,000 feet, and contains the nameless peak marked K", 28,278 feet high, next to Everest, the highest on the globe. It is politically a part of Kashmir. Baluchi, ba-loo'che, the language of Balu- chistan, one of the Iranian group of languages. There are two dialects, the North Baluchi, and the South Baluchi, or Maprani • the latter shows more ancient features. Baluchistan, ba-loo'che-stan', a country in the south of Asia, lying between Persia and the valley of the Indus, having the former on the west, Afghanistan on the north, Scinde on the east, and the Arabian Sea on the south ; area, about 134.000 square miles. It is wholly under British influence and partly under British rule, while the Khan of Kelat is ruler of a consider- able portion, and certain tribes are independent. The general surface of Baluchistan is rugged and mountainous, with some extensive intervals of barren sandy deserts. In the case of the principal ranges, the general parallelism and uniformity of their formation are somewhat re- markable, one system having an inclination from north to south, another from east to west. ]\Ta.ny of these mountains are of great height and are covered with snow. There are several broad and high table-lands, extremely cold in winter and extremely hot in summer. Mekran in the south, the ancient Gedrosia, is one of the hottest regions of the globe. Some of the mountain chains are of compact limestone, en- closing marine shells and corals identical with similar objects picked up on the sea-shores at this day. Excepting fragments of quartz fourd in Lus, primary formations have not been ob- served in any part of the Baluchistan Moun- tains. The mineral wealth of the country is believed to be considerable, including gold, sil- ver, lead, iron, copper, many kinds of mineral salts, and saltpetre. Throughout Baluchistan there is a great deficiency of water, particularly in summer. In the northeast part are the rivers Bolan and IMula, the courses of which form the celebrated passes bearing their names, lead- ing from the valley of the Indus to Baluchistan and Afghanistan. The soil js not in general fertile, but by patient industry the plains and valleys can be made productive in wheat, bar- ley, and millet. The other chief crops are mad- der, cotton, particularly in Cutch Gundava, rice, indigo, and tobacco. Vegetables are abundant, and excellent fruits are produced in the gardens and orchards in the neighborhood of the towns. Fine camels are bred in large numbers. The inhabitants are divided into two great branches, the Baluchis and the Brahuis, differ- ent in their languages, figures, and manners, and each subdivided into a number of minor tribes. The Brahuis have greater physical strength than the Baluchis, and are less addicted to predatory violence. Both races are hospita- ble, brave, and capable of enduring much fa- tigue. Many of them live in rude tents made of black felt or coarse cloth of goat's or camel's hair stretched over a frame of wickerwork. Both Baluchis and Brahuis are very ignorant but zealous Mohammedans. The Baluchi lan- guage resembles the modern Persian, the Bra- hui presents many points of agreement with the Hindu. The manufactures are mostly confined to coarse fabrics and a few matchlocks and other weapons, and the trade is unimportant. The khan, so far as his rule extends, has unlim- ited power over life, person., and property. He usually resides at Kelat, and his rule is almost confined to the country around it. Quetta is the largest town. It is occupied by a British garrison and strongly fortified. About the middle of the i8th century Balu- chistan was made tributary by Nadir Shah, who bestowed it, with the title of bcglerbeg, or com- mander-in-chief, on Nasir Khan, who proved himself the ablest ruler that ever governed the country. On his death in 1795 he left the coun- try in a comparatively prosperous condition, but it has since suffered greatly from intestine wars, and its boundaries have been curtailed. During the Afghan war in 1839 a British force was detached to assault Kelat, which was taken by storm after a siege of a few hours, 13 Novem- ber the same year. The British again occupied it in 1840, but in the following year they left the country. Latterly a British protectorate over the whole of Baluchistan has been established, and the town of Quetta (which is now reached by railway from India) and a part of the coun- try have been absolutely annexed. The khan receives an annual subsidy from India. The population is estimated at about 800,000. Balucki, ba-loots'ke, Michael. Polish au- thor, known under the pseudonym Elipiron : b. Cracow, 29 Sept. 1837. He is most popular as a story-teller of satirical tendency, ridiculing the shortcomings and prejudices of Polish so- ciety Of his novels may be mentioned *^The Awakened' (1864;) (1870); (1844-1845). 'La Cousine Bette (1846), 'Le Cousin Pons' (1847). Between 1830 and 1842 he wrote no less than 79 novels, besides much other literar}'- work. After that date his literary activity slackened some- what as his health began to fail. But during a considerable number of years, for long inter- vals together, he never worked less than 12 hours each day, often worked for 15 hours, or even for 20 at a stretch, supporting himself on a lean diet in which fruit was always an import- ant element, and drinking as much coffee as the philosopher Kant. But he was never out of harness, even during his frequent absences from Paris — whether staying with friends in the French provinces, or art collecting in the north of Italy, or mine-prospecting in Sardinia (one of his most extraordinary ventures), or visiting Mme. Hanska at Geneva, Vienna, Berlin, or Saint Petersburg. These travels, a short-lived journalistic enterprise — 'La Chronique de Pa- ris' — several excursions into drama, more than one attempt to force the doors of the French Academy, and many quarrels with the press — a lawsuit with the 'Revue de Paris' made some stir in 1836 — are the chief outward events of Balzac's maturity. Throughout his career the money question is distressingly prominent, and the history of Balzac's liabilities is long and queer and complicated. The sums he made by his pen were very considerable ; but his op- timism was at least as great as his acquisitive faculty. No man was more capable of penuri- ous living; none loved luxury better; but decent comfort and regularity were beneath or beyond him. Spells of asceticism were succeeded by fits of extravagance ; the story of his suburban property Les Jardies, of his famous walking- stick, of the financier Goujon's house in the Rue Fortunee (now the Rue Balzac), which he bought for his future wife and spent half a million in filling with works of art — the very works described in 'Le Cousin Pons' — balances the story of his sacrifices, privations, and his games of hide-and-seek with creditors. He was a born speculator; he was also the most gener- ous of men, and sometimes unfortimate in the objects of his generosity. The strain entailed by Balzac's way of living and by his constant mental agitation was such as no constitution — and his was extraordinarily robust — could resist very long. From 1842, or HONORE DE BALZAC. BALZAC thereabouts, he began to suffer from time to time with heart and lung troubles, and from 1845 onward he was rarely well. It was during his second stay at Vierzschovnian, Mme. Han- ska's property in the Ukraine, that his health be- gan to give serious anxiety. For a time he im- proved ; but the climate, the uncertainty in which he was kept as to the reward of his long devo- tion, certain material obstacles to his marriage, the necessity of conducting his literary and other transactions by proxy, the anxieties of the politi- cal situation in France, misunderstandings with members of his own family, and the effort to force himself to work when work was beyond his failing physical powers, all hastened his end His marriage was solemnized at last in March 1850, at Berditchef, in Poland ; rather more than two months later, Balzac arrived in Paris with his bride. He was a dying man, though he clung almost to the last to the hope of living to finish *^The Human Comedy, > and extinguish what was left of his debts. Victor Hugo was among those who visited his deathbed, and the same great poet it was who paid a splendid tribute to his friend and peer at the graveside in Pere Lachaise. Occurring in the midst of a grave political crisis, his death was less noticed than might have been expected ; but though widely read and fervently admired among his contemporaries — more especially perhaps in foreign countries — it wanted at least another generation to assure his fame; nor (thanks to a combative spirit and an ingenuous vanity) did he lack enemies ; though the mere dedications of his novels are enough to show that his friends were among the elect of his age, and it is im- possible to read his correspondence without a feeling of respect, and even of affection, for a personality so rich, so valiant, so tenacious, and so kindly. It is best, in so slight an estimate of Balzac's colossal achievement as can be attempted here, to leave out of account not only the worthless fiction of his nonage but also his plays, of which only one, *Mercadet,^ first called ^Le Faiseur,* and produced with considerable changes after its author's death, can be said to have won or deserved success. An exceptional place belongs to the ^Alerry Tales, > not so much in virtue of .their notorious, guileless, and jovial salacity as because, while the form is more essential there than in anything else he wrote, they are among the very few skilful pastiches in literature — for the lapses they con- tain from either the language or the atmosphere of the early French Renaissance are astonish- ingly few — in which the mere erudition does not replace or overshadow other merits. They are memorable for their genuine zest, inventive vigor, and shrewd humanitv. Balzac's glory, of course, is that unfinished series of masterpieces called 'The Human Comedy,' which it is necessary to consider as one work in order to appreciate the audacity and breadth and steadiness of aim which are essential titles to his rank, not merely as the father of the modern novel and the supreme master of the craft, but as a genius of the uni- versal order. In its most obvious bearing, it is an imaginative reconstruction of French society in every part and aspect, with all the vicissitudes and variations that afifected it between the Revolution and the middle of Louis Philippe's reign : an heroical design, less comprehensive in regard to time and space than that of the Waverley novels, but more consistently and co- herently executed out of more copious material. The picturesque, however, was subordinate to the philosophical interest, as he conceived it, of Balzac's undertaking. He intended his work for nothing less than a natural history of civilized man, which should illustrate the war between the passions of the individual and the social instinct or the common interest, the differentia- tion of types by the action of gregarious life, the reflection of personality in matter, and the stamp of habits and calling upon character. The theory outlined by Buffon and bequeathed by Geoffroy Saint Hilaie to the first evolutionists, which supposes a single original pattern of organic creation varied by the mere effects of environment, fascinated Balzac by a partly chimerical but, at any rate, suggestive analogy, with human existence. "Does not society," he asked in his general preface of 1842, "make of man, according to the sphere in which his activ- ity develops, as many different men as there are species in zoology?** This conception is enough to explain one great characteristic of his novels — the importance attributed in them to atmosphere, to local influences, to material conditions, to all that the elder novelists had re- garded as accidental and accessory. It is Balzac who set the example of bestowing as much care upon things as upon moi in works of fiction. The description of streets, houses, furniture and works of art, of implements and equipages, of dress and pastimes, of customs and offices, busi- ness and procedure and, in particular, of all that pertains to money, is, throughout 'The Human Comedy,* not only exact and elaborate (sometimes to the point of tediousness and dis- proportion), but above all significant. Sechard's printing-press and Gaudissart's advertisements, the laboratory of Balthazar Claes, the aroma of Maman Vauquer's dining-room, ar° part and parcel of those famous personages. The French imagination had tended for some time to desert that psychology in abstracto which had been at once the glory and the limitation of the great classical authors, and to pay more at- tention to the setting and the background of fictitious characters. Diderot particularly, who on several grounds might be called a herald of Balzac (and resembled him in vitality, variety of knowledge, fertility, hasty and unequal exe- cution), had done much to carry into pure litera- ture a spirit of curiosity about the common things of life, a new multiplicity of interests and concern for reality, and some of the results of natural science. But the romantic contempor- aries of Balzac, most of whom were irresistibly allured by the prestige of the old and the dis- tant, used the extension of imaginative matter to enhance the picturesque value of descriptions, rather than to enrich the definition of human types ; for their interest in characters is gener- ally insuflficient. being dependent upon an intro- spection distorted as often as not by a morbid vanity. Balzac is unique in this, that with a searching modernity of outlook which omits none of the sensible elements of life from his imaginary world, he is yet essentially the re- storer of the old. patient, constructive psychol- ogy and of the drama of internal action. It is remarkable how much of the spirit of the BALZAC grand siccie survives in his work; how much of La Bruyere in the brilliant pages of moral analysis, of Corneille in some of his heroes of the will of Moliere in the smiling sanity of his attitude toward a necessarily imperfect society, of Racine in the sympathetic presentment of absolute passions and their victims ! Balzac's personages — even the secondary figures — are at once individuals and types. They live with the intense life of living men and women; and we accept them as great moral symbols. They are highly differentiated, particularized with an unsurpassable sureness of detail ; but they are also, one and all, informed by an idea — so that, though there is only one Goriot, he sums up all the tragedy of a primal affection run to seed and despitefully entreated ; and there is only one Baron Hulot, but he contains all the shame of elderly profligacy, bringing disaster on whole families ; and Cesar Birotteau is inimitable, but lie stands for all that is sterling as well as all that is ridiculous in the middle class. In the vitality of his creatures Balzac is not inferior to Shakespeare himself. But we be- lieve not only in the people he made, but in the whole world of 'The Human Comedy,^ and ac- cept it as a rival of reality. This mastery of illusion, the very highest virtue in a writer of fiction, does not depend upon veracity or exacti- tude of detail (a test which upon the whole he sustains triumphantly), but is simply the power to imagine strongly. It is true that in this case a system of composition which discarded chap- ters, or rather made of each novel (by the con- tinual reappearance of old friends among the characters) a chapter in the whole work, is a powerful help to illusion ; so of course are the accumulation of circumstances, and especially perhaps the variety and distribution of interests, in which Balzac's astonishing invention seems to play the part of chance. The work of Balzac displays at one view the whole capacity of the form of literature called fiction, its scope and possibility of content. The ordinary tone of the French novel had once been heroic and pastoral ; then it had tended to caricature and to the parodying of court mem- oirs ; and later the ideal had been to amuse one class by showing the manners of another. The picturesque romance had been succeeded by ^'realistic" satires upon society and, with the advent of the philosophes, the novel became a pamphlet, a vehicle of moral or political doc- trines. Perhaps all these phases are repre- sented in -r)othesis : it is Balzac's weakest side that, while he sinks what we call his personality al- most always, he frequently obtrudes fallible opinions — matter for argument — into the do- main of the imagination. His royalism is an interesting fact, but in his novels it is irrele- vant; the same is true of. many of his political prophecies. It should be added that he seldom intervenes directly in the discussion of scien- tific theories (which hold a somewhat important place in his novels), though with characteristic credulity he identifies himself expressly with the speculations of the phrenologists ! There was a mj'Stic in Balzac, and that section of his work, 'Philosophical Studies, > which deals with the solitary adventures of the mind in regions be- yond the world of sense, is strangely original and fascinating. He was, in some degree reluctantly, an artist — a prodigious though an imperfect artist. His defects of form have been exagger- ated. His style, like Saint-Simon's, is vigorous and vivid in default of correctness, and full of fortunate phrases ; but he was wanting in the sense of idiom, and the effort to condense his thought often produced a clumsy syntax and obscurity. Haste no doubt accounts for some base coinage, repetition, and inadequate expres- sions. As of other writers of his stature it may be said of him that his fecundity was necessarily wasteful, so that a part of his work is greater than the whole. This exuberance, a certain w-or- ship of the excessive, a stupendous confidence for which no design is too large, and a prefer- ence for the expressive over the symmetrical, for colour over draughtsmanship, are character- istics which he shares with several great French- men of his generation — the generation con- ceived in camps and lulled by the guns of Aus- terlitz, which grew up haunted by a vision of heroical accomplishment. Honore de Balzac stands beside Victor Hugo and Jules Michelet and Hector Berlioz and Eugene Delacroix — a giant among giants, a perennial force among the intellectual forces of the world. Bib'iography. — The best edition of the com- plete works of H. de Balzac is the 'Edition Di- finitive^ in 24 volumes (Paris, \SCg-76). TJni- form with it are the letters to Mme. Hanska, 'Lettres a I'Etrangere,' posthumously published in 1899. There exist numerous English trans- lations of insulated novels. Prof. G. Saints- bury in the general edition of a complete Eng- lish translation of a 'Human Comedy,^ by vari- ous hands, in JO volumes (London, 1895-98). The letters to Mme. Hanska have been trans- lated by D. F. Hannigan — 'Love Letters of Balzac^ (London, 1901). Among biographical and critical studies of Balzac the more valuable are the following: L. Gozlau. 'Balzac chez lui^ (1862); E. Bire, 'Balzac' (1897); Le Breton, 'Balzac, I'homme et I'oeuvre' (1905) ; F. Bru- netiere, 'H. de Balzac' ; Vicomte Spoelberch de Lovenjoul, 'Histoire de3 oeuvres de Balzac' (1880) ; 'La Genese d'un roman de Bal- zac' — 'Les Pavsans' (1901) ; 'Un pays per- du d'H. de Balzac' (1003). The short life of her brother by Mme. Surville (Laure de Bal- zac), first published in 1858. is included in the volume of the 'Edition definitive' containing Balzac's general correspondence. In English Mr. Frederick Wadmore has written a 'Life of Balzac' ; and a better-informed study by Miss M. F. Sandars appeared in 1904. F. Y. EccLES. BALZAC — BAMBOO Balzac, Jean Louis Guez de, French essay- ist and letter writer : b. Angouleme, 1597 ; d. 18 Feb. 1654. In his youth he was secretary to Cardinal La Valette at Rome. He returned to Paris, devoted himself to literature, and under Richelieu became councilor, and historiographer of France, and was one of the most influential members of the Academy from its foundation, likewise a sort of oracle of the Hotel Rambouil- let. Flis influence on French prose is ranked with that of Malherbe on poetry. Besides his ' edition in six volumes, upon which he had spent a solid year in re- vision. Again in 1883-5 he published what he termed the "author's last revision" in six vol- umes large octavo. In this he made consider- able changes in arrangement and the subdivi- sions, all tending to a better ordering of the narrative. There were frequent omissions and condensations, and many repetitions and re- dundancies were cast out. These final changes have, in the judgment of good scholars, better fitted the work for permanent favor. It will remain necessary to the student until another historian, with equal or better facilities, shall rewrite the story in a way to gain wider sym- pathy. Present tendencies and methods in his- torical study and writing give little evidence that such another will soon arise. His lesser w-orks include 'Poems' (1823); 'Literary and Historical Miscellanies' (1855) ; 'Memorial Ad- dress on the Life of Lincoln' (1866) ; 'Joseph Reed: a Historical Essay' (1867); 'A Plea for the Constitution of the United States Wounded in the House of Its Guardians' (1886) ; 'Ne- cessity, Reality, and Promise of the Progress of the Human Race' (1854) ; 'Oration, 4 July 1826, Northampton, Mass.' ; 'Oration Before the Democracy of Springfield, Mass., 4 July 1836' ; 'Address at Hartford, Conn., 18 Feb. 1840' ; 'History of the Formation of the Constitutioa of the United States' (1882) ; 'Oration Deliv- ered at the Commemoration, in Washington, of the Death of Andrew Jackson, 27 June 1845.^ To the American Encyclopaedia he contributed the article on Jonathan Edwards. See Green, 'George Bancroft' (1891) ; Wallis, 'Mr. Ban- croft as a Historian' (1896) ; West, 'George- Bancroft' (1900). Bancroft, Hubert Howe, American histo- rian : b. Granville, Ohio, 5 May 1832. In 1852 he went to California to establish a book busi- ness, and began to collect documents, maps, books and MSS. for a complete 'History of the Pacific States' from Mexico to Alaska. Ir> 1893 this library num.bered 60,000 volumes, to- which many additions have been made. His his- tories are still in preparation. 'Literary In- dustries' (Vol. XL., San Francisco, 1890) de- scribes his work. Bancroft, Marie Effie Wilton, English ac- tress, wife of Sir Squire Bancroft fq.v.). She appeared on the stage when a child, and acted in several places before making her London de- but. In London she won great popularity in several plays, particularly in 'The Maid and the Magpie' at the Strand. In 1865 she became a partner in the management of the Prince of Wales' Theatre, and obtained Squire Bancroft (afterward her husband) as leading man. Since then she has been associated with him as man- ager and actress. Bancroft, Richard, English archbishop: b. Farnworth, Lancashire, 1544; d. 1610. He studied at Cambridge, entered the Church, and rose rapidly during the reign of Elizabeth till he obtained the see of London in 1597. After her death James I. made him archbishop of ^ Canterbury on the death of Whitgift. He pos- * sessed good talents, and was distinguished as a. controversialist, a preacher, and a politician. The greatest blot on his memory is the rigor with which he treated the Puritans. Bancroft, Sir Squire, English actor: b. 1841. He began his career in Birmingham in 1861, and played at Dublin and Liverpool. In 186; he made his first appearance at the Prince of \Vales' Theatre, and continued there several years as leading man in a series of comedies de- picting modern life, among which are: 'So- cietv' : 'Caste' ; 'Play' ; 'School' ; and 'M. P.> In "1880 he moved with his wife to the Hay- market Theatre, where he continued presenting^ the same line of plays. Since 1885 he has ap- BANCROFT — BAND SAW BLADES peared but little, though he took part in ' Diplo- macy > at the Garrick Theatre in 1893. Bancroft, Wilder Dwight, American chem- ist: b. 1867. He was educated at Harvard and abroad, and obtained the degree of Ph.D. at Leipsic. He was instructor of chemistry at Harvard 1894-5; '^^'as appointed assistant pro- fessor of chemistry at Cornell in 1895. In the same year he founded the ^Journal of Physical Chemistry' and became its editor. Bancroft, William Amos, American rail- way president: b. Groton, Mass., 26 April 1865. He was graduated from Harvard University 1878, Harvard Law School 1881, and was ad- mitted to the Suffolk bar 1881. He was elected mayor of Cambridge in 1893 and has occupied many positions of political importance. He is also director in many educational and financial institutions. Band, in music, a number of trained mu- sicians in a regiment, intended to march in front of the soldiers and play instruments, so as to enable them to keep step as they move forward; also any similarly organized company of musi- cians, though unconnected with the army; an orchestra. The word is also applied to the subdivisions of an orchestra, as string-band, wind-band, etc. In architecture, any flat fascia or ornament which is continued horizontally along a wall, or by which a building is encircled. Bands often consist of foliage, quatrefoils, or of simple bricks. Band of a shaft is the molding or suits of moldings by which the pillars and shafts are encircled in Gothic architecture. Several bands are often placed at equal distances on the body of the shaft, when it is long, in which case they are known as shaft-rings. As vestment, bands are linen pendants from the neck, forming part of clerical, legal, and academic costume. It is a moot question whether they are a survival of the amice, or immediate descendants of the wide falling collar which was a part of the ordinary civilian dress in the reign of James I. In the Anglican Church they are seldom worn, except by ultra-low Churchmen ; but they are in common use with Presbyterian ministers (ordained ministers as distinguished from licentiates). Foreign Cath- olic ecclesiastics wear black bands with a nar- row white border. Band-fish, a genus in the family Cepolidce, having the body much elongated and compressed, and is covered by very small scales. The dorsal fin is very long, and consists like the anal of soft rays. The tail vertebrae are very numerous, and the whole structure of the body exhibits unusual delicacy, so that specimens are seldom obtained in an uninjured state. All the species inhabit quiet depths, and are unable to contend with waves and currents. The snake- like form and the beauty of their colors make them objects of great interest. One species, the red band-fish (C. rubescens) , not uncommon in the Mediterranean, is occasionally cast ashore by storms on the British coasts. It is about 15 inches long. Its brilliant appearance, when seen moving in the water, has suggested the names of fire-flame and red ribbon, by which it is known at Nice. The home of the genus is in Japanese waters. See Oar-fish. Band of Hope Union, an association of the children's temperance societies of Great Britain, having upward of 15,000 allied associa- tions, with a membership of 2,000,000. Band Saw Blades. Owing to the increased value of timber in America more and more at- tention has been paid to the economical conver- sion thereof into the sawn product ready for market. The methods in use a few years ago were found to be wasteful and usually crude, and the product turned out of but an indifferent quality so far as sawing was concerned. The attention of the operator being directed to band saw blades, these have come into quite general use for various purposes. A test of the band saw blade has proven its advantages to be so great that it has displaced not only the small scroll or ^"^jig* saws for bracket sawing and ornamental scroll and curved work, but has also displaced reciprocating saws and circular saws for heavier work. A band saw consists of a thin band or ribbon of steel with teeth cut in one edge, and when in use it is mounted on two wheels like a belt and made to travel at a rapid rate of speed by re- volving the wheels. For scroll work its advan- tage over the reciprocating and jig saw lies mainly in the increased and uniform speed at which the saw blade travels which enables the operator to better control the work in hand and to feed the material toward the saw constantly, and thus to turn out more and better work than would be possible with a reciprocating saw cutting on the downward stroke only. In sawing logs the advantage of a band saw as compared with a reciprocating saw may be judged when we state that the band saw blade travels at a rate of from 8,000 to 10,000 feet per minute, whereas, a reciprocating saw making 200 strokes of 18 inches to the minute, would only have a cutting speed of 300 feet per minute. The band saw traveling more than 20 times as fast as the reciprocating saw, will naturally per- form nearly or quite as much work as 20 recip- rocating saws. The single reciprocating saw, which evidently was the primitive saw mill, because of its limited capacity was succeeded by what is termed in the United States a gang, in Europe, a log frame, and in Canada a gate. The gang saw mill for log sawing consists of a sufficient number of reciprocating saws placed side by side in a frame to saw completely at the one operation an entire log. The advantage of the band log mill over the gang lies in its adapt- ability to the sawing of each log to the best ad- vantage ; as but one cut is made at a time, and as the face of the log is exposed to the view of the sawyer, he can judge through what portion of the log the next cut should be made to yield the best results. Another form of saw mill is that known as the rotary mill or circular saw mill. Both the circular and band log mills are provided with traveling carriages on which the log is placed, secured and fed past the saw. The circular saw has possibly as great a capacity as the band, but it is very wasteful, because a circular saw large enough to saw plank from the side of a log of medium size needs be of such large diam- eter that in order to support it in the cut the saw is made very thick, and thus removes an immense saw kerf. Not only this, but it has been found impossible to saw with this kind of mill with sufficient accuracy to meet the pres- BANDA — BANDAGE ^nt market requirements. The circular saw while popular in the past is known to have wasted nearly or quite 25 per cent of the product of the log in saw kerf and poorly sawn timber. The band saw, on the other hand, combines the accuracy of the reciprocating saw with the capacity of the circular saw. The success of the band saw is due : first, to the acquired skill of the saw maker in turning out saw blades of suit- able temper to retain a good cutting edge and at the same time flexible enough to pass over the wheels without cracking; second, to the skill of the saw filer in fitting his saws. Band saws re- quire to be ^^tensioned" from time to time when in use. By the word tension is meant the ex- panding of the central portion of the saw blade either by the use of a hammer and anvil or by the use of what is termed stretching rolls. The use of the band saw has also brought forth an extensive line of saw fitting tools such as saw "swages" which are designed to expand the points of the teeth, "pressure side dressers*^ or "tooth formers" or "shapers" which are in- tended to give form to the swaged points of the teeth, automatic saw sharpeners, etc. With the use of these improved appliances it was found that thinner and thinner banci saw blades could be used, and hence the band saw has come into general use for "resawing purposes," that is, the sawing of planks and boards into two or more thinner pieces. For this purpose it is well adapted. The plank or boards to be resawn are fed to the saw by means of rollers. Saws as thin as .02 of an inch in thickness are success- fully used. Such saws remove a saw kerf of practically one thirty-secondth of an inch. The advantage of the band resaw lies in the fact that it is practical to use the thinnest and most deli- cate saw of this type and still have it of prac- tical use and service as a tool. Edward C. IMershon', Of JV. B. Mershon & Company, Saginaw, Mich. Ban'da, a town of India, in the northwest provinces, capital of a district of the same name, on an undulating plain near the Ken River, 95 miles southwest of Allahabad. It is a strag- gling, ill-built place, but with clean streets, and contains a large number of mosques and temples. It was formerly an important cotton market. There are cantonments about a mile distant from the town. Pop. (1900) 29,000. Banda Islands, a group belonging to Hol- land, in the Indian Archipelago, south of Ceram ; the largest, Great Banda, being 12 miles long by 2 broad, while Goenong Api is an active volcano nearly 8,000 feet high. They have a rich soil admirably adapted for the cultivation of the nutmeg, which is their chief product, others being cocoanuts and sago. The total area )f the group is about 19 square miles and the :apital of the group is Banda, the seat of the assistant resident. Tatti wood is grown on the island of Rosingen. Pop. about 8,000, of whom less than 600 are Europeans. Banda Oriental, a state of South America, originally settled by Spaniards from Buenos Ayres, claimed by Brazil, but, after a war, made in 1825 into the independent State of Banda Oriental del Uruguay — that is Eastern Bank of the Uruguay, now usually called simply Uru- guav (q.v.). \'ol. 2 17. Bandage, a surgical wrapper applied to some part of the body. Bandages are employed for a variety of purposes. One of their chief uses is to secure dressings or splints. Another is to give support to a limb or to restrain its movements, or to e'xert pressure upon it so as to aid in restraining bleeding at some point; or a bandage may be used to promote healing, as in the case of ulcers, or to aid in the removal of swelling. In these latter cases the bandage must be applied with a considerable degree of tight- ness, and great care must be exercised that it be evenly put on, and that the tightness with which it is drawn does not give rise to disturb- ances of the circulation by undue and irregular pressure. Suppose, for instance, the arm is being bandaged from the hand well up over the upper arm. The arteries which carry the blood down the limb are for the most part deeply seated and well protected by muscles, so that they are practically unaffected by any ordinary degree of pressure on the surface. But many of the veins which carry the blood back to the heart up the limb run immediately under the skin, and will be pressed upon considerably by a bandage applied round the arm. If the ban- dage is made too tight at the elbow, say, the veins will be compressed and the blood will flow less easily along them at that point than it does lower down where the pressure is less. The consequence will be that the blood will be hin- dered in passing up from the hand ; and as blood is all the time being carried down to the hand in the arteries, which are unaffected, the veins in the forearm and hand will become swollen and gorged with blood. The pressure of blood in the veins will become so great that fluid will be pressed out of the finer vessels into the surrounding tissues, and the hand will be- come swollen, puffy, and dropsical, while much pain will be experienced. If the tight turns of the bandage are now loosened, the veins will again offer a free passage to the blood, and the swelling and pain will gradually subside. The proper method in such a case is not neces- sarily to bandage loosely, but to bandage uni- formly, beginning with "the requisite degree of tightness at the ■very extremity of the limb, and continuing evenly and regularly upward. A general rule in bandaging a limb, then, is : never let the bandage be tighter up the limb than it is at the extremity ; apply it firmly and evenly at the extremity and carry it up uniformly. To this may be added, as a second rule, that if a bandage requires to be tightly applied in the course of a limb it must be begun at the extrem- ity. It is specially necessary to follow these rules when the oandage is applied to secure a splint, since it must be tight enough to keep the splint in accurate position, or to keep a pad firmly applied over a wound for the arrest of bleeding. Bandages usually consist of strips of unbleached or bleached calico, linen, flannel, muslin, etc. Elastic bandages and india-rubber bandages are also in use for particular cases. The material should be torn into strips of the requisite breadth, and the bandages should have no hem or edging, as this would prevent them stretching equally in all directions. The strips should be rolled up for use into firm rollers, a roller bandage being usually 6 yards long, though often more. They are of different breadth, most commonly 2i/4 or 3!/^ inches. For the chest and abdomen the breadth should be 4^ inches; for BANDAI-SAN — BANDICOOT the fingers three-quarters of an inch. The tri- angular bandage is of all others the one made use of for rendering temporary aid in cases of accident, and, through the training aiforded by "first aid to the injured*^ .associations, is now familiar to almost everyone. The bandage is made of a square yard of linen or calico halved diagonally, each half having of course two sides 36 inches each in length, with a base of fully 50 inches. When it is desired to exert very con- siderable pressure upon a part for a length of time, or when it is desired to keep a limb or a joint motionless for some time, this may be done without the use of splints by stiffening the ban- dage with starch or plaster of Paris. Bandai-San, ban'di-san', Japan, a volcano on the island of Nippon, 140 miles north of To- kio. Its summit consists of several peaks, the highest of which is 6,035 feet above the ocean and 4,000 feet above the surrounding plain. On 15 July 1888 there was a terrible explosion of steam which blew out a side of the mountain, making a crater more than a mile in width, and having precipitous walls on three sides. The debris of broken rock and dust poured down the slope and over an area of 27 square miles, killing 461 persons and covering a number of villages. Bandajan', a pass over a range of the Himalayas, in Cashmere, 14,854 feet above sea- level. Bandan'a, a cotton handkerchief, having a dark ground of Turkey-red, blue, or purple, variegated with simple patterns of white or bright yellow, their bright colors making them a favorite head-covering for southern negro women. These handkerchiefs were originally manufactured in the East Indies ; but the beauty and durability of their colors caused such a demand that the manufacture of them was es- tablished elsewhere. The process is first to dye the cloth of a dark color, commonly Turkey-red, which serves as a ground. The white spots con- stituting the pattern are afterward produced by discharging the color with a solution of chlo- rine. In order to confine the discharging fluid to the exact points to be operated upon, the pattern is cut out in leaden plates, upon which the fluid will not act, and as many handker- chiefs or pieces of cloth as are to be operated upon are enclosed between pairs of these pat- terns, and subjected to enormous pressure, the discharging fluid being run in at the top and prevented by the pressure from spreading, so that the pattern is brought out clean on the spots subjected to the action of the fluid. Bande Noire, baiid nwar, an appellation given during the French Revolution to com- panies of capitalists and speculators who bought up the forfeited estates of the Church and no- bility. They were considered by many as hordes of Vandals bound to destroy the monu- ments which kings, nobles, and religious orders had erected all over France ; and thence the scornful denomination, which was continued nearly up to 1830. But while the Bande Noire removed some castles and monasteries which ought to have been preserved as relics of art and religion, they did much toward the prosperity of the country by improving unproductive lands and disseminating among the people landed property which previously was concentrated in '.he hands of privileged classes. The term was originally applied to a body of German soldiers who were employed in the Italian wars by Louis XII. of France, and who received the name from carrying black colors after the death of a favorite commander. The appellation was also assumed for the same cause by different Italian and French troops in the i6th century. Ban'ded Peak, or Mt. Hesperus, a summit of the San Juan Mountains, in southern Colo- rado ; altitude, 12,860 feet. Bandel, ban'del, Ernst von, Bavarian sculptor: b. Ansbach, 1800; d. near Donaworth, 25 Sept. 1876. He studied art at Munich, Nur- emberg, and Rome; and from 1834 lived chiefly at Hanover, engaged off "and on, for 40 years, on his great monument of Arminius, near Detmold, 90 feet high, which was unveiled by the Emperor Wilhelm 16 Aug. 1875. Bandelier, ban-de-ler, Adolph Francis Al- phonse, Swiss-American archaeologist: b. Berne, 6 Aug. 1840 ; settled early in the United States, where he has done important work under the direction of the Arch?eological Institute of America. His studies have been chiefly among the Indians of New Mexico and Arizona, Cen- tral America, and Mexico. He has published many papers on the subject. He is also the au- thor of *Art of War and Mode of Warfare' (1877) ; ^Social Organization and Government of Ancient Mexicans* (1878) ; ^Tenure of Lands and Inheritances of Ancient Mexicans* (1878) ; ^An Archaeological Tour into Mexico* (1885) ; a novel of Pueblo Indian life, ^The Delight Mak- ers* ; etc. Bandello, ban-del'o, Matteo, Italian novel- ist: b. about 1480; d. 1561. He studied at Rome and Naples and applied himself almost exclu- sively to polite literature. In his youth, he was a Dominican monk, and was entrusted with the education of the celebrated Lucrezia Gonzaga. After the battle of Pavia he was banished from Italy as a partisan of the French, and Henry II. of France gave him in 1550 the bishopric of Agen. He left the administration of his diocese to the Bishop of Grasse, and employed himself, at the advanced age of 70, in the completion of his novels, of which he published three volumes in 1554; a fourth was published in 1573, after his death, which took place in 1561. He also published some poems. His novels are in the style of Boccaccio and are characterized by even greater license. Ban'deras, Rio de, a river of Mexico, on the east coast; so called (river of flags) because, when discovered in 1518 by Juan de Grijalva, the natives waved white flags at the end of their spears in token of friendship. Bandettini, ban-det-te'ne, Teresa, Italian poet: b. Lucca, 12 Aug. 1763; d. 1837. Begin- ning life as a danseuse, she discovered her poetic talent as if by accident, and came to be known and honored in most parts of her country. She was especially gifted in improvising verse. She was called the Amarilla Etrusca. Of her fin- ished poems there remain *La Morte de Ada- noide* ; 'II Polidoro* ; 'La Rosmunda* ; and some shorter pieces. Ban'dicoot. i. A large dark-colored rat (Nesokia bandicota) of southern India and Cey- lon, where it is known as the "pig-rat'*_ on ac- count of the taste of its flesh, which is a fa- vorite article of food among the natives of the BANDIERA — BANFFSHIRE dry, hilly districts it frequents. As its food is chiefly grain and roots it does much harm to gardens ; and it is also destructive to poultry. It has the habit of storing rice in its under- ground nests against the famine of the dry sea- son. 2. In Australia, a small marsupial with a long, narrow head and muzzle belonging to the family PcramclidcE. Many species are scattered throughout Australasia. They live in warm nests underground, and feed upon insects, worms, and vegetable food. The hare-like marsupials ot the closely allied genus Perogale are known as rabbit-bandicoots, and. like the other, frequently injure vegetable gardens. Con- sult Gould, ^Mammals of Australia* (London 1863). Bandiera, ban-di-a'ra, Attilio and Emilio, two brothers of a Venetian family, lieutenants in the Austrian navy, who attempted a rising in favor of Italian independence in 1843. The at- tempt was a failure, and they fled to Corfu ; but, misled by false information, they ventured to land in Calabria with 20 companions, believing that their appearance would be the signal for a general insurrection. One of their accomplices had betrayed them, and the party was captured at once by the Neapolitan police. Attilio and Emilio were shot, along with seven of their com- rades, in the public square of Cosenza, 25 July 1844. Bandinelli, ban-de-nel'-le, Baccio, Italian sculptor : b. Florence, 1493, the son of a goldsmith; d. 1560. He learned his art under the sculptor Rustici, but modeled his style after that of Michael Angelo, whom he vainly at- tempted to rival and whom he hated with life- long hatred. He was patronized by the Medici, and in honor of the presence of Leo X. in Flor- ence he executed the model of a colossal statue of Hercules which was intended to surpass the David of Michael Angelo. Another work of his was an inferior copy of the Laocoon group for Francis I. He produced also Hercules and Cacus (at Florence), a somewhat heavy work, 88 figures of apostles, prophets, and saints in the choir of the cathedral at Florence, a Bacchus, an Adam and Eve, etc. Ban'dit (It. bandito), originally an exile, banished man, or outlaw ; and hence, as persons outlawed frequently adopted the profession of brigand or highwayman, the word came to be synonymous with brigand. Of all European countries Italy has perhaps been most infested with banditti. They used to form a kind of so- ciety of themselves, subjected to strict laws, and living in open or secret war with the civil au- thorities. Peter the Calabrian, the most terrible among these robbers, in 1812 named himself, in imitation of the titles of Napoleon, "emperor of the mountains,** *' king of the woods,** "protector of the conscribed,** and "mediator of the high- ways from Florence to Naples.**, The govern- ment of Ferdinand I. was compelled to make a compact with this bandit. One of the robbers entered the royal service as a captain in 1818 and engaged to take captive his former comrades. Subsequently adventurers of all kinds united with them. The Austrian troops which occupied Naples were obliged to send large detachments to repress them. The bandits used to exact from strangers and natives a sum of money for protection, and give them in return a letter of security. In Sicily the Prince of Villa Franca declared himself, from political and other views, the protector of bandits; he gave them a livery and treated them with much confidence, which they never abused. Banditti are still active in Italy, Sicily, Turkey, and elsewhere. Bandolier', a large leathern belt or bald- rick, to which were attached a bag for balls and a number of pipes or cases of wood or metal covered with leather, each containing a charge of gunpowder. It was worn by ancient musket- eers, and hung from the left shoulder under the right arm with the ball bag at the lower extremity, and the pipes suspended on either side. The name is now given to a similar belt by which a number of cartridges are convenient- ly carried. Bandon, a river of Ireland which rises in the Carberry Mountains, and at its mouth forms the harbor of Kinsale. Spenser describes it as "the pleasant Bandon, crowned by many a wood.** It has a course of 40 miles, for 15 of which it is navigable to Innishannon, four miles below Bandon. Bandtke, bant-ke, or Bandtkie, Jerzy Sam- uel, Polish historian: b. Lublin, 24 Nov. 1768; d. Cracow 11 June 1835. He was author of < History of the Polish Nation> (1820), and pro- fessor in the University of Cracow, 181 1-35. Bane'berry. See Act.t£a. Baner, ba-nar', Johan Gustafsson, Swed- ish general in the Thirty Years' war: b. 1596; d. 1641. He made his first campaigns in Poland and Russia, and accompanied Gustavus Adol- phus, who held him in high esteem, to Germany. After the death of Gustavus in 1632 he had the chief command of the Swedish army, and in 1634 invaded Bohemia, defeated the Saxons at Wittstock, 24 Sept. 1636, and took Torgau. He ravaged Saxony again in 1639, gained another victory at Chemnitz, and in 1640 defeated Pic- colomini. In January 1641 he very nearly took Ratisbon by surprise. Banez, Dominic, theologian: b. 1528 in the Spanish province of Biscaya ; d. 1604 at Medina del Campo. He made rapid progress in philos- ophy and theology at the University of Sala- manca, where he had as teachers the famous Melchior Cano and Peter and Dominic Soto. In 1 581 he was appointed professor in this uni- versity, which was then dividing the honors and prestige of the Sorbonne. He was recog- nized as one of the clearest and most acute in- terpreters of the 'Summa* of Saint Thomas, and his chief works were commentaries on the same. He took a prominent part in the contro- versy on Divine Grace, predestination, etc., in which he opposed the theories of Molina. For several years he acted as confessor to Saint Theresa, and at his command she wrote her spiritual treatise, ^Camino de Perfeccion.^ Banffshire, Scotland, a county in the north, bounded on the north by the Moray Firth, on the west by the county of Moray and part of Inverness, on the south and east by the county of Aberdeen. The soil is for the rnost part a rich loam or deep clay. The principal rivers are the Spey and Deveron, with the Isla, a tributary of the former, and the Avon and Fiddich of the latter : besides which there are many other main and tributary streams. Ihe BANG — BANGKOK mountains rise in altitude as they recede from the sea, the most celebrated being Cairngorm, which is 4,095 feet high. The principal crops are barley, oats, turnips, and potatoes, little wheat being raised. Special attention is paid to the cultivation of turnips, the chief object of the farmer being the rearing and feeding of cattle. The total area of Banffshire is 410,000 acres. Nearly two fifths of the total surface is under cultivation, and about one fifth is occupied by woods and plantations. Since about the middle of the 19th century large tracts of formerly waste land have been reclaimed. Fishing is a staple industry. The salmon caught in the Spey and Deveron constitute an important article of traffic, the valued rental of the Duke of Rich- mond's salmon fishings in the former being over $60,000 a year. Banffshire possesses several woolen factories, tanneries, rope and sail works, ship-building yards, breweries, lime-works, and many distilleries, the whiskey being generally known under the name of Glenlivet, after a glen in the county. Among the natural productions limestone is the most prevalent. Serpentine also abounds in several places, especially at Portsoy, where it is known as ^^Portsoy mar- ble*^ ; it is wrought into vases and other orna- ments. Ironstone and manganese also occur, and Scotch topazes or cairngorm stones are found on the mountains in the south of the county. Pop. (1901) 61,439. Bang, bang, Hermann Joachim, Danish novelist : b. 1857. He came into notice about 1879, since which time he has published a num- ber of novels and some poems. 'Hopeless Gen- erations^ (Haablose Sloegter) ; 'Eccentric Tales^ (Excentriske Noveller) ; ^Under the Yoke> (Under Aaget) ; ^Ten Years^ (Ti Aar) ; and 'By the Roadside^ (Ved Veien), are the titles of some of them. The last named is con- sidered the masterpiece. Bang, a drink. See Bangue. Bangalore, ban-ga-lor', a town of Hindu- stan, capital of Mysoer, 70 miles northeast of Seringapatam. It stands on a plateau 3,000 feet above sea-level, and is divided into two parts, the old native town and the cantonments. The chief buildings are the government house (where the British resident lives), the new public offices, the palace of the maharajah, the central jail, etc. There is a fine public pleasure-garden. In the old town stands the fort, reconstructed by Hy- der Ali in 1761, and captured by Lord Corn- wallis in 1791. Latterly the town has greatly prospered. There are manufactures of silks, cotton cloth, carpets, etc. Bangalore is noted for its salubrity. Pop. (1901) about 160,000. Bange, banzh, Valerand de, French artil- lery colonel : b. Balignicourt, 1833. In 1873 he reconstructed both the light and heavy field pieces of the day, and his models were adopted by the French army in 1879. In 1884 he was the successful competitor with Krupp for the con- tract to supply field pieces to the Servian gov- ernment. His gun has been preferred also by England, Sweden, and Italy. He was the first to employ effectively the screw principle in the mechanism of the breech block. See Hennebert, with F. D. Sherman (1887); much as he owed to save his freedom by re- BANKRUPTCY LAWS signing his property; and many years afterward the legislation of Julius Caesar established the cessio bonorum as an available remedy for all honest insolvents. The bankrupt law was slow- ly developed in England. The first English statute on bankruptcy (34 and 35 Henry VIII., c. 4.) was directed against fraudulent debtors, and gave power to the lord chancellor and oth- er high officers to seize their estates and divide them among their creditors. In England, before 1841, only a tradesman could be a bankrupt. This distinction was then abolished. It was abolished in the United States in i86g. In the United States, Congress alone has power to pass a bankrupt law which shall have authority throughout the countr)\ The several States may enact such statutes when there is no law of Congress in operation. The first general bank- rupt act in the United States was passed in 1800 and was repealed in 1803. In 1841 an- other law was put in operation, with a special view of meeting the urgent needs of debtors who had been ruined by the commercial revul- sion of 1837-8, and who could receive no ef- fectual relief from local laws. This act was repealed in 13 months, but in the meantime a large number of cases had been disposed of, amounting to 3,250 in Massachusetts alone. An- other bankrupt law was passed which took ef- fect I June 1867. It was framed with great care by a committee of the House of Represen- tatives, of which Mr. Jenckes was the chairman and chief working member. Its authors hoped that it would form a permanent addition to the jurisprudence of the country, but it was re- pealed within a few years. An act ^'to establish a uniform system of bankruptcy throughout the United States,'' was passed by both Houses of the 55th Congress, and by the approval of President McKinley be- came a law on i July 1898. The question had been brought before Congress for several years, the issue not being between the political par- ties, but on the method of legislation, one side favoring the creditor and the other the debtor class. The Nelson bankruptcy bill, which at the first, or special, session of the 55th Congress, passed the Senate, failed to receive the consent of the House. The new law was a compromise jetween the Nelson bill, calculated chiefly to benefit debtors, and the Torrey bill, designed to guard the interests of both creditors and debtors. The adoption of the bill which be- came a law was mainly through the long-con- tinued efforts of Senator Hoar (Rep., Mass.), aided especially by Senator Nelson (Rep., Minn.), and Representative George W. Ray (Rep., N. Y.). A conference between the two Houses was held, which reached an agreement on 15 June, the report being adopted by the House, 28 June, by a vote of 133 to 53 ; present and not voting, 24. All the votes against the bill came from the South and the far West. The provisions under which a man can be thrown into bankruptcy against his will are as follows: (i) where a man has disposed of his property with intent to defraud ; (2) where he has disposed of his property to one or more creditors tc give a preference to them; (3) where he has given a preference through legal proceedings; (4) where a man has made a voluntary assignment for the benefit of his creditors generally: (5) where a man admits \n vritinj? that he is a bankrupt. The last two provisions are practically voluntary proceed- ings. Under the common law a man is con- sidered insolvent when he cannot pay his debts when they are due ; under the new law he is deemed insolvent only when his property, fairly valued, is insufficient to pay his debts. Only two offenses are cited under the new law ; one when property is hidden away after proceedings in bankruptcy have been begun, and the other when perjury is discovered. Discharges are to be denied in only two cases ; one, in which either of the offenses detailed has been com- mitted, and the other, when it is shown that fraudulent books have been kept. The term of imprisonment for either of these offenses is not to exceed two years. The law provides a complete system through- out the United States, and for its administra- tion by the United States covirts in place of the different systems formerly in existence in the various States administered by State courts. In bankruptcy proceedings a bankrupt debtor may turn over all his property to the court, to be administered for the benefit of his creditors, and then get a complete discharge from his debts. A bankrupt may of his own motion offer to surrender his property to the administration of the United States court and ask for his discharge in voluntary bankruptcy, or creditors may apply to the court to compel a bankrupt to turn over his property to be administered un- der the act for the benefit of the creditors in in- voluntary bankruptcy. The bankrupt who has turned over all his property and conformed to the provisions of the acts is entitled to a judgment of court discharging him from any future liability to his creditors. Extended powers are given by the law for the taking possession and the administration of the assets, among others, to allow and dis- allow all claims against bankrupt estates ; ap- point receivers and take the necessary measures for the preservation and charge of the property of a bankrupt ; to arraign, try, and punish bank- rupts, officers, and other persons, and the agents, officers, and members of the board of directors or trustee, or other similar bodies or corpo- rations for violation of the act ; to authorize the business of the bankrupt to be conducted for limited periods ; to cause the assets to be col- lected and reduced to money and distributed, and substantially determine all controversies in relation thereto ; to enforce obedience to lawful orders by fine or imprisonment ; and to extra- dite bankrupts from one district to another. As all questions, both of law and fact, in rela- tion to the property of the rights of the various parties, must be decided in the bankruptcy pro- ceeding, it is provided that referees be appoint- ed, who are charged with the duty of hearing the allegations and testimony of all parties, and deciding all such questions as may arise. Each case, as it comes up, is assigned to some ref- eree, whose duty it is to adjudicate and pass upon all such questions arising therein m the first instance, the right being reserved to any par- ties to appeal from the decision of the referee to the United States district court. The duties of the referee are substantially of a judicial character, and he occupies much the position of a judge of primary resort, subject to an ap- peal to the court, and is required to take the same oath of office as that prescribed for judges of the United States courts. BANKS Provision is made in the act for allowing bankrupts to compromise or settle with their creditors by a proceeding known as composi- tion proceedings, whereby, if a bankrupt and a majority of his creditors agree upon some basis of settlement, the same, if approved by the court, shall become binding upon all creditors. The decision of the question as to the approval of compositions and granting discharges to a bankrupt from his debts is specifically reserved by the act to the judges of the United States courts ; but the court, by virtue of its general powers, may refer such matters to the referee to take testimony and report to the court his opinion thereon. The aim of the act has been to make the expense of the proceedings depend largely upon the amount of the property in- volved, and the compensation of the referee is fixed substantially at one per cent on the amount distributed to the creditors in ordi- nary cases, where the assets are distributed by the court, and one half of one per cent in composition cases, and the trustees who have charge of the actual management of the bank- rupt's property receive as compensation such ■commissions on accounts paid out by them as dividends as the court may allow, not to ex- ceed, however, three per cent on the first $5,000, two per cent on the second $5,000, and one per cent on all sums in excess of $10,000. Banks, Mrs. Isabella (Varlev), English poet and novelist : b. Manchester, England. 25 March 1821 ; d. London, 5 May 1897. After teaching school for some years in Manchester, she married the journalist. George Linnaeus Banks in 1846 and with him published a volume of verse, * Daisies in the Grass* (1865). Her first novel, 'God's Providence House* (1865), made her widely known, and among other popu- lar novels by her are: 'Stung to the Quick' (1867); 'The Manchester Man* (1872); ■* Wooers and Winners* (1880) ; 'Forbidden to Wed* (1883) : 'In His Own Hand* (1885) ; -Geoffrey Oliphant's Folly* (1886). She pub- lished several volumes of poems also and she and her husband were the authors of many pop- ular songs. Banks, Sir Joseph, English naturalist: b. London, 4 Jan. 1743; d. Islesworth, 19 June 1820. While in Oxford he began to manifest a strong love of botany and other branches of natural history, to which his attention had al- ready been turned from about the age of 14. He formed a volunteer class in the university and brought Mr. Lyons from Cambridge to teach it. In May 1766 he was chosen a mem- ber of the Royal Society, and in the following summer he went to Newfoundland and pro- ceeded to Hudson Bay to collect plants. In 1768 he. with Dr. Solander. a pupil of Linnaeus and assistant librarian at the British Museum, accompanied Cook on his voyage of discovery, Banks being appointed naturalist to the expedi- tion. In an expedition into the interior of the desolate Tierra del Fuego, for the purpose of ■examining the country, the two naturalists nar- rowlj' escaped perishing with cold. Banks pro- cured the introduction of the bread-fruit tree into the West Indies, and he wrote the botani- cal observations in the account of Cook's voy- ages. In 1772 he visited Iceland with Dr. Solan- der, in order to make himself acquainted with its natural productions. During this voyage the Vol. 2 — 18. Hebrides were examined, and the columnar stratification of the rocks surrounding the caves of Staffa was made known to naturalists for the first time. After the resignation of Sir John Pringle in 1777 Banks was chosen presi- dent of the Royal Society. In 1781 he was made a baronet. The French chose him a mem- ber of the National Institute in 1802, because to his intercession they owed the recovery of the papers of La Peyrouse relating to his voyage, which had fallen into the hands of the British. His library and his collections in natural his- tory are celebrated. Besides some essays, peri- odical publications, and some contributions to the transactions of learned societies, he wrote nothing but 'A Short Account of the Causes of the Blight, the Mildew, and the Rust in Corn* (1805). In accordance with a contingent be- quest his collections were added to the British Museum. The genus Banksia, of the natural order Protcacea, was named in honor of him by the younger Linnaeus. Banks, Nathaniel Prentiss, American sol- dier and statesman : b. Waltham, Mass., 30 Jan, 1816; d. there i Sept. 1894. Entirely self- taught, he worked himself up from the position of bobbin-boy in a cotton factory to the editor- ship of a weekly newspaper. He read law, was admitted to the bar, and began to practise, but soon became active in politics. Elected to the Massachusetts legislature in 1849, he became speaker in 1851-2. In 1853 he was president of the Massachusetts Constitutional Convention, and the same year was elected to Congress as a Coalition Democrat. The session which be- gan 3 Dec. 1855, was memorable for its bitter speakership contest, the candidates being Banks and William Aiken, a large slaveholder of South Carolina. The contest lasted two months, the President's message being withheld, and all legislative business blocked. The ser- geant-at-arms borrowed $20,000 from a Phila- delphia bank in order to make advances to needy members of both parties. On the 133d ballot, 2 Feb. 1856, Mr. Banks was elected. None of his decisions while speaker were ever reversed by the House. He was governor of Massachusetts, 1857-9. In 1861 President Lin- coln appointed him major-general of volunteers. He conducted active operations in the Shenan- doah valley and fought with credit at Win- chester and Cedar Mountain. In co-operation with Admirals Farragut and Porter he in- vested Port Hudson and unsuccessfully at- tempted to carry it by assault. In 1864, much against his judgment, he was placed in com- mand of the Red River Expedition, which re- sulted most disastrously for the Federal forces. Banks was widely censured and soon relieved of his command. Gen. Grant, years later, in his 'Memoirs* furnished a full vindication of Banks by giving the name of the superior officer responsible for the expedition. From 1866 to 1876 Gen. Banks represented his old district in Congress, and was prominent as chairman of the Committee on Foreign Relations. He was United States marshal for Massachusetts, 1879-88. In i8gi Congress bestowed on him an annual pension of $1,200. a severe mentai disorder having come upon him. Banks, Thomas, English sculptor: b. Lam« beth, 29 Dec. 1735 : d. 2 Feb. 1805. He studied sculpture in the Royal Academy, and was sent, BANKS — BANKS AND BANKING as one of its students, to Italy. Here he exe- cuted several excellent pieces, particularly a bas-relief representing Caractacus and his fam- ily before Claudius, and a Cupid catching a but- terfly. Among other works executed by him was a colossal statue showing Achilles enraged for the loss of Briseis, now in the entrance hall of the Royal Academy. He was also the sculptor of the admired monument of Sir Eyre Coote in Westminster Abbey, and of those of Dr. Watts and Woollett. He was elected a member of the Royal Academy in 1785. Banks, a nautical term applied to shelving elevations in the sea or the bed of a river, ris- ing to or near the surface, composed of sand, mud, or gravel. When tolerably smooth at the top they constitute shallows, shoals, and flats ; but when rocky become reefs, ridges, keys, etc. A good chart always defines them, indicating whether they are sands or rocky. Banks Land, an island in the Arctic Ocean, discovered by Parry in 1819, explored by AlcClure in 1850, and named by him Baring Island. It is separated by Banks Strait from Melville Island, lying to the northwest, and by Prince of Wales Strait from Prince Albert Land, lying eastward. Banks and Banking. In specific relation to his customer the banker occupies the position of debtor to creditor, holding money which the customer may demand at any time in whole or in part by means of a check payable at sight on presentation during banking hours. For the refusal to cash a check from the erroneous sup- position that he has no funds of his customer's in his hands, or for misleading statements re- specting the position in which the bank stands, the banker is legally responsible. Moreover, the law regards him as bound to know his cus- tomer's signature, and the loss falls upon him in event of his cashing a forged check. In their relations to the community, the chief services rendered by banks are the following: By receiving deposits of money, and massing in sums efficient for extensive enterprises the smaller savings of individuals, they are the means of keeping fully and constantly employed a large portion of the capital of the community which, but for their agency, would be unpro- ductive; they are the means by which the surplus capital of one part of a country is transferred to another; where it may be ad- vantageously employed in stimulating industry; they enable vast and numerous money transac- tions to be carried on without the intervention of coin or notes at all, thus obviating trouble, risk and expense. The mechanism by which the last of these benefits is secured is to be found in perfection in the clearing-house system. History. — Although banking operations on a considerable scale appear to have been conduct- ed by the ancients, modern banking must be regarded as having had an independent origin in the reviving civilization of the Middle Ages. In the I2th century almost the whole trade of Europe was in the hands of the Italian cities, and in these the need of bankers was first ^ felt. The earliest public bank, that of Venice, established in 1171, and existing down to the dissolution of the republic in 1797, was for some time a bank of deposit only, the government being responsible for the de- posits, and the whole capital being in effect a public loan. In the early periods of the opera- tions of this bank deposits could not be with- drawn, but the depositor had a credit at the bank to the amount deposited, this credit being transferable to another person in place of money payment. Subsequently deposits were allowed to be withdrawn, the original system proving inconvenient outside the Venetian Ijoundaries. It was, however, less from the Bank of Venice than from the Florentine bank- ers of the 13th and 14th centuries that modern banking especially dates, the magnitude of their operations being indicated by the fact that be- tween 1430 and 1433, 76 bankers of Florence issued on loan nearly 5,000,000 gold florins. The Bank of St. George at Genoa also furnished a striking chapter in financial history. The im- portant Bank of Amsterdam, taken by Adam Smith as a type of the older banks, was estab- lished in 1609, and owed its origin to the fluc- tuation and uncertainty induced by the clipped and worn currency. The object of the insti- tution (established under guarantee of the city) was to give a certain and unquestionable value to a bill on Amsterdam ; and for this purpose the various coins were received in deposit at the bank at their real value in standard coin, less a small charge for recoinage and expense of management. For the amount deposited a credit was opened on the books of the bank, by the transfer of which payments could be made, this so-called bank money being of uniform value as representing money at the mint standard. It bore, therefore, an agio or premium above the worn coin currency, and it was legally compulsory to make all payments of 600 guilders and upward in bank money. The deposits were supposed to remain in the coffers of the bank, but were secretly traded with in the i8th century till the collapse of the bank in 1790. Banks of similar character were established at Nuremberg and other towns, the most important being the Bank of Hamburg, founded in 1619. In England there was no corresponding institution, the London mer- chants being in the habit of lodging their money at the Mint in the Tower, until Charles I. ap- propriated the whole of it (£200,000) in 1640. Thenceforth they lodged it with the goldsmiths, who began to do banking business in a small way, encouraging deposits by allowing interest (4d. a day) for their use, lending money for short periods, discounting bills, etc. The bank- note was first invented and issued in 1690 by the Bank of Sweden, founded by Palmstruck in 1688, and one of the most successful of bank- ing establishments. About the same time the banks of England and Scotland began to take shape, opening up a new era in the financing of commerce and industry. Bank of England. — The Bank of England, the most important banking establishment in the world, was projected by William Paterson, afterward the promoter of the disastrous Darien scheme. It was the first public bank in the United Kingdom, and was chartered in 1694 by an act which, among other things, secured certain recompenses to such persons as should advance the sum of £1,500,000 toward carrying BANKS AND BANKING on the war against France. Subscribers to the loan became, under the act, stockholders, to the amount of their respective subscriptions, in the capital stock of a corporation denominated the Governor and Company of the Bank of England. The company thus formed advanced to the government i 1,200,000 at an interest of 8 per cent — the government making an additional bonus or allowance to the bank of £4,000 annual- ly for the management of this loan (which, in fact, constituted the capital of the bank), and for settling the interest and making transfers, etc., among the various stockholders. This bank, like that of Venice, was thus originally an engine of the government, and not a mere commercial establishment. Its capital has been added to from time to time, the original capital of ii,200,ooo having increased to £14,553,000, in 1816, since which no further augmentation has taken place. There exists besides, however, a variable **rest'^ of over £3,000,000. The char- ter of the bank was originally granted for 11 years certain, or till a j-ear's notice after i Aug. 1705. It was subsequently renewed for various periods in 1697, 1708, 1713, 1742, 1764, 1781, 1800, 1833, and 1844, certain conditions which the bank had to fulfill being specified at each renewal. On this last occasion it was continued till 12 months' notice from 1855. At the same time the issue department of the bank was established as distinct from the general banking department, the sole business entrusted to the former being the issue of notes. By this ar- rangement the bank was authorized to issue notes to the value of £14,000,000 upon securities especially set apart, the most important of the securities being the sum of £11,015,100 due to the bank by the government, together with so much of the coin and bullion then held by the bank as was not required by the banking de- partment. The bank has since been permitted to increase its issue on securities to £15,750,000, but for every note that the issue department may issue beyond the total sum of £15,750,000 an equivalent amount of coin or bullion must be paid into the coffers of the bank. The Bank of England notes are, therefore, really equiva- lent to, and at any time convertible into, gold, IS it is in the utmost degree improbable that my drain on the treasure in the bank will reduce the outstanding notes below £15,750,000. They are (like all English bank-notes) of the value of £5 and upward, and are legal tender throughout England. Notes once issued by the bank and returned to it are not reissued but destroyed — a system adopted in order to fa- cilitate the keeping of an account of the num- bers of the notes in circulation, and so prevent forgery. In compliance also with the act of 1844 the bank is compelled to publish a weekly account. The following shows the condition of the bank on 21 Jan. 1903 : Issue department : notes is- sued, £49,666.245; securities, £18,175,000; gold, coin, and bullion, £31,491,245. Banking depart- ment: capital and "rest,*^ £18,103,048; deposits and post bills, £50,670,747 ; securities, £45,438,969; notes in the reserve, £21,314,325 ; and gold and silver coin, £2,020,501. The total of the notes given out by the issue department is called the issue circulation, the portion of it in the hands of the public being the active circulation, and that still in the banking department being the note reserve. This note reserve represents really the amount of bullion in the issue department available for the use of the banking department. Of the other iterns in the account it may be noted that the proprietors' "rest" is a varying surplus in- creased always by accumulated profits up to 5 April and 10 October, when the bank divi- dends are paid to the shareholders ; and that the public deposits, which include sums lodged on account of the customs, inland revenue, etc., increase through revenue receipts until the divi- dend terms in January, April, July, and Octo- ber. The other or private deposits comprise those of bankers, merchants, and other persons. An increase in these private deposits indicates an increase of monetary ease, while a decrease informs us that bankers, merchants, and traders have calls upon them for money. A better in- dication of the demand for money is furnished, however, by the advances on commercial se- curities, and it is by this and the condition of the reserve that the bank rate of discount is regulated. When the reserve is high and the advances moderate the discount rate is lov.-, and it is raised according as the reserve falls and advances are more in request, especially during an adverse foreign exchange and drain of gold. Gold is thus restrained from going abroad, and its influx into the country is en- couraged. In addition to the profits which the bank may make by ordinary banking business, it receives an allowance for the management of the national debt, etc., at the rate of £300 per million on £6,000,000, and £150 per million on all debt above that sum. It also derives a profit from the foreign coin and bullion brought to it, for which it pays £3 17s. 9d., or ij/2d. per ounce less than the real value. The management of the bank is in the hands of a governor, deputy-governor and 24 directors, elected by stockholders who have held £500 of stock for six months previous to the election. A director is required to hold £2,000, a deputy- governor £3,000, and a governor £4,000 of the stock. The court or board of directors meets every Thursday, when the weekly account is presented. Bank of France. — The Bank of France is second in importance only to the Bank of Eng- land. It was established in 1800, at first with a capital of 45,000,000 francs, and with the ex- clusive privilege in Paris of issuing notes pay- able to bearer, a privilege which was extended in 1848 to cover the whole of France. It has numerous branches in the larger towns, a num- ber of these having been acquired in 1848, when certain joint-stock banks of issue were by gov- ernment decree incorporated with the Bank of France, the capital of which was then increased to 91,250,000 francs, in 91,250 shares of i.ooo francs each. In 1857 the capital was doubled, and, besides this, it has a large surplus capital or <'rest.*^ Like the Bank of England, it is a bank of deposit, discount, and circulation, and is a large creditor of the stafe. The govern- ment appoints the governor and two deputy governors, who are all required to be stock- holders. There is also a body of 15 directors and 3 censors, nominated by the shareholders. The capital stock of the Bank of France is 182,500,000 francs. As shown by statement of resources and liabilities dated 22 Jan. 1903 the surplus and other profits of the bank amounted to 42,515,000 francs, and its outstanding circula- BA'NKS AND BANKING tion to 4,431,801.910. The total assets of the bank were 5,262.099,592. of which 3,601,126,067 consisted of specie divided as follows : Gold, 2,508,805,839; silver, 1,092,320,228. National Banks of the United States. — The table below, compiled from the report of the comptroller of the currency (30 Jan. 1905), gives a comprehensive view of the development of the national banking sj'stem in recent years. On II Jan. 1905, 5,528 national banking asso- ciations filed reports of condition with the comp- troller of the currency. The paid-in capital stock of the reporting banks was $776,916,147; surplus funds and other undivided profits, $406,- 177-675 and $183,994,737, respectively. The out- standing circulating notes of the reporting banks amounted to $424,345,433 and their individual deposits to $3,612,499,599. The aggregate re- sources of the associations were $7,117,800,553, an increase since 22 Jan. 1904 of $540,922,390. Against deposit liabilities of $4,416,877,711, a reserve was held aggregating $1,008,064,321. The volume of the exchanges of the 98 clearing houses of the United States for the year ended 30 Sept. 1904 amounted to $102,150,- 313,982, against $113,963,298,913 for the year ended 30 Sept. 1903, the net decrease being $11,812,984,931. See Banks and Banking, American, and Banks, United States Na- tional. Recent Rapid Grozvth. — From 14 March 1900 to 31 March 1903 — 3 years and 17 days — 1,442 new banks were organized. They were capitalized and distributed as follows : State State No. Capital Bonds Deposited 16 6 5 19 20 3 2 6 22 2 9 80 49 $ 777,500 205,000 200,000 4,205,000 1,065,000 100,000 50,000 410,000 1,365,000 525,000 250,000 5,710,000 3,030,000 $ 205,000 549,000 286,750 35,500 25,000 117,500 319,250 56,500 62,550 1,544,050 839,300 Connecticut Delaware Florida Indiana Indian Territory. Iowa Kansas Kentucky Louisiana Maine Maryland Massachusetts . .. Michigan Minnesota Mississippi Missouri Montana Nebraska New Hampshire. . New Jersey New Mexico New York North Carolina. . . North Dakota... Ohio Oklahoma Oregon Pennsylvania . . . Porto Rico Rhode Island. . . . South Carolina. .. South Dakota. . .. Tennessee Texas Utah Vermont Virginia Washington West Virginia. . . Wisconsin Wyoming No. 64 73 38 24 3 35 3 23 43 85 7 169 5 30 13 166 3 I 26 7 31 28 5 Capital 1,970.000 2,445,000 1,490,000 2,620,000 875,000 250,000 1,107.000 2,150,000 2,565,000 3,406,000 725,000 1,855,000 305,000 960,000 225,000 1,070,000 225,000 6,570,000 330,000 5,945,000 2,065,000 175.000 14,407,000 100,000 500,000 260,000 800,000 480,000 6,318,000 105,000 25,000 1,130,000 380,000 1,335,000 1,795,000 175,000 Bonds Deposited 524,40a 807,250 479.750 498,300 194,000 69,500 286,450 175,000 242,300 988,900 235,000 385,250 64,000 295,800 60,000 299,800 67,550 1,205,300 106,250 367,500 1,573,450 644,300 51,750 2,830,350 50,000 50,000 70,750 242,300 139,500 1,778,450 30,000 25,000 343,000 101,250 420,000 462,200 68,750 Number of new banks i ,442 Capital $86,135,500 Bonds deposited 20,375,500 Nine hundred and fifty-seven of these took advantage of the law of 14 March 1900, permit- ting the establishment of $25,000 banks. The remaining 485 were banks of $50,000 and over capital. These figures include 622 converted State and private banks. During March 1903, 56 banks were organized, distributed as follows : Middle States Western States Southern States.... Eastern States Pacific Territories. . . 22 banks 13 banks, 12 banks, 8 banks, I bank, Number of new banks in one month. Capital $700,000 capital 405,000 capital 640,000 capital 400,000 capital 25,000 capital S6 $2,170,000 THE NATIONAL BANKS OF THE UNITED STATES. Year Ending Sept. 1 1882. 1883. 1884. 1890. 1891. 1892. 1893- 1894. 1895. 1896. 1897. 1898. 1S99. 1900. 1901 . 1902. 1903. 1904. No. of Banks 2,197 2,350 .^,582 2,665 2,784 3,049 3,093 3,170 3,353 3,577 3,701 3,759 3,755 3,716 3,682 3,620 3,581 3,561 3,632 4,030 4,306 4,805 5.244 Capital 473,947,715 494,640,140 518,605,725 524,599,602 532,459,921 578,462,765 583,539,145 596,302,518 625,089,645 660,108.261 679.076,650 684,342,024 672,951,450 660,287,065 652,725.750 638,173.805 6i=i,8i8,725 608,674,895 613,053,69s 639.043,080 667.354,275 735.314.217 765.948,330 Surplus 133,570 131,232 147,721 146,903 155,030 173.913 184.416 194.818 208.707 222,766 237.761 246,918 246,001 247,466 248,235 249,044 244,281 247.930 250,914 271,432 305.21 1 362,497 398,299 931.00 187.00 475.00 495.00 884.00 440.97 990.92 192.19 786.00 668.00 865.23 .673-11 328.00 002.00 .323-00 948.00 .S79.00 970.00 856.00 304.00 716.00 ,812.00 071.00 Total Dividends 40,791 40,678 41,254 40,656 42,412 44,152 46,531 46,618 51,158 50,795 50,400 49.633 45,333 45,969 45,525 42,394 44,291 46,691 47.995 52,616 68,199 63.565 75.588 ,928.00 678.00 473.00 ,121.00 ,803.00 407.92 ,657-89 060.27 883.33 ,01 1. 00 713-93 195-99 270.00 ,663.00 947.00 ,241.00 ,971.00 ,502.00 ,024.00 .778.00 .494-00 ,847.00 890.00 Total Net Earnings 53-321 54.007 52,362 43,6 _ 55.165 64,506, 65,360 69,618 72,055 75.763 66,658 68,750 41.955 46.866 49.742 44.273 50.03 54.346 87.293 81.853 106,581 109. S81 112,936 ,234-00 ,148.00 :, 783-00 ,497-00 .385.00 ,869.66 ,486.73 ,265.07 .563-52 .614.00 1O15.27 1952-09 .248.00 .557-00 ,318.00 ,314-00 .972.00 1,692.00 .485.00 ,795.00 ,477-00 ,530-00 ,427.00 Ratio Ratio of Divi- of Divi- dends dends to Cap- to ital and Capital Surplus 8.73 6.81 8.30 6.50 8.00 6.20 7.80 6.00 7.96 6.17 7.98 6.12 8.02 6.10 7.82 5-89 8.19 6.14 7-70 5.76 7.42 5-50 7-25 S-33 6.07 4-09 6.96 5-06 6.97 S-05 6.64 4.78 7.17 5.1s 7-67 5-45 7.89 5-5 7 8.28 5-82 10.10 6.98 8.80 5-91 9-93 6.57 Ratio ofEarn- ings to Capital and Surplus 8.00 8.00 6.50 8.02 8.95 8.57 8.80 8.6s 8.60 7.27 7.38 4- 05 5-15 5-52 4-99 5.82 6.34 10.14 9.06 10.92 10.21 9.81 BANKS AND BANKING The number of new banks in the manufactur- ing States is very marked. Ohio, 85 ; Indiana, 49; Illinois, 80; Pennsylvania, 169; New York, 55. The agricultural States also show up well, with 166 for Texas, 95 for i^linnesota, 69 for Oklahoma, and 64 for Indian Territory. By groups of States the showing is : New England States Eastern States. . . . Southern States... Middle States Western States. . . . Pacific States Islands Xo. 269 346 440 315 51 3 Capital $ 3,250,000 23,204,000 16,825,500 26,751,000 io,:6o,ooo 5,320,000 625,000 Bonds Deposited $ 415.500 4,646,900 4.477,250 6,842,700 3,041,100 846,050 106,500 The $20,375,500 of bonds deposited against circulation is a fraction less than 24 per cent of the capital, the latter being the measure of the maximum amount of circulation issu?ble. Our total national bank figures for 31 March 1903 were : Number of banks. . . . Capital Bonds on deposit.... Circulation secured by bonds Circulation secured by lawful money 4,869 $739,178,695 342,160,770 338,349.814 44,169,444 Increase since 14 March, 1900 1,252 $122,870,600 97.549.200 128,116,528 UNITED STATES CURRENCY CIRCULATION. Fiscal Year 1870. 1872. 1873. 1874. 1875- 1876. 1877. 1878. 1879- 1880. 1881. 1882. 1883. 1884. 1885. 1886, 1887, 1888, 1889 1890. 1891 1892 1893 1894 1895 1896 1897 1898 1899 1900 1901 1902 1903 1904 Amount in circulation 675 738 751 776 754, 727 T22 729 81S, 973. ,114 .174 ,230 ,243 ,292 ,252 ,317, .372, ,380, .429. .497, .601, .596, ,660, ,601. ,506, ,640, .837. .904, .055. .I75. ,249. .367, .519 212,704 309.549 881,809 083,031 947 609,338 314.883 132,634 631.793 382,228 238,419 290,419 305.696 925.969 568,615 700,525 539.143 170,870 361,649 251,270 440,707 347,187 701,245 808,708 968.473 631,026 808,946 859.89 071,881 150,998 .387.277 390,551 692,169 ,142,860 Circulation per capita 17-50 18.19 18.04 18.13 18.16 16.12 15-58 15-32 16.7s 19.41 21.70 22.90 22.65 23.02 21.82 22.45 22.88 22.52 22.82 23-41 24.44 23-85 24.28 22.93 21.10 22.49 24.66 25-45 26.94 27.98 28.43 29.42 30.77 Currency Act of 1900. — On 14 ^larch 1900 President McKinley approved a new currency act, which, among other things, established the gold dollar as the standard unit of value, and placed at a parity with that standard all forms of money issued or coined by the United States. The bill also made a number of important changes in the regulations governing national banks. The new law permits national banks with $25,000 capital to be organized in places of 3,000 inhabitants or less, whereas the mini- mum capital previously was $50,000. It also permits banks to issue circulation on all classes of bonds deposited up to the par value of the bonds, instead of 90 per cent of their face, as before. This act also reduces the semi-annual duty on national bank circulation secured by 2 per cent consols of 1930 to one fourth of i per cent. As a result of this legislation the out- standing circulation of national banks increased over $100,000,000 between the date of passage of the act and 31 Oct. 1901. From 14 March 1900 to 31 Oct. 1904 there v;ere organized 2,196 national banking associa- tions, with an authorized capital aggregating $125,512,300, and with bonds as security for cir- culation of $31,331,250. Of this total number, there were 1,437 banks with an aggregate cap- ital of $37,459,500, whose individual capital was less than $50,000, the average but slightly in excess of the minimum, namely, $25,000. The number of banking institutions in the country, by reason of these organizations, was only in- creased to the number of 1,230, as 250 of the associations were conversions of State banks, and 716 reorganizations of State or private banks liquidated for the purpose. During the existence of the national banking system, up to 31 Oct. 1904, there were organized 7,460 national banking associations, of which number 1,548 were placed in liquidation either by vote of stockholders or by expiration of charters, and 417 in charge of receivers, leaving in active operation on the date mentioned 5.495 banks, with capital stock of $781,126,335. These associations had on deposit with the treasurer of the United States, in trust, as security for circulation, bonds to the amount of $426,544,790, on which circulation had been issued (on that date) to the amount of $424,530,581. In addi- tion to circulation secured by bonds there were outstanding notes to the amount of $32,750,919, secured by the deposits of lawful money. The increase of national bank circulation from 14 March 1900 to 31 Oct. 1904 was, in round num- bers, 202.9 million dollars. On 12 April 1902 the act was approved, au- thorizing the extension, for a period of 20 years, of the charter of national banking associations which had been extended under the act of 12 July 1882. From the date of the passage of the extension act of 1902 to 31 Oct. 1904 the cor- porate existence of 315 banks, with a capital of $88,310,300, was extended for a second time. O. P. Austin, United States Treasury Department. Banks and Banking, American. The his- tory of banking in America opens in those trying days of the Revolutionary War, when the new republic, trembling on the verge of disaster, groped out so blindly in search of some adequate means of financial relief. At that moment, however, there were some master minds that were found capable of meeting such an emergency, and it requires no stretch of the imagination to discover that the aid given by their advice was of in- calculable importance at this critical period in the nation's history. Of course, it is true that banking methods in America have undergone many radical changes since the days of the country's BANKS AND BANKING infancy, and yet, as we review the past, it is impossible not to admit that the systems in vogue in tht United States have always been more or less sound. They have changed be- cause conditions have changed, and not so much because they were based upon mis- taken ideas. Adapted to the needs of the times they served, they remained in opera- tion until altered conditions had made them obsolete, but then, just as promptly as neces- sity required, they were altered to meet the ef^077-357, while the aggregate of their loans was $i,534.- 114,618, of which sum all but a very small amount was secured by real estate. In 1905 there were 1,028 private banks in operation throughout the country. At this time their total resources were $165,233,295 ; capital stock, $22,518,193; surplus, $6,872^18; undivided profits, $2,958,278; their individual deposits were $127,937,098, and their loans and discounts were $107,098,805. The number of loan and trust companies in existence at the close of this fiscal year, 1904-5, was 683. In spite of the fact that this is the smallest branch of the banking system, considered from a numerical point of view, the total resources of these institutions showed an aggregate of $2,865,976,479; capital stock, $243,133,622; their surplus was $281,289,- 339; undivided profits, $82,226,383; their loans and discounts amounted to $1,549,633,063, of which sum only $144,394,593 was on real estate, and their total deposits were $1^980,856,737. From this array of figures it may easily be computed that there were no less than 16,499 banks of all descriptions engaged in business operations throughout the United States in 1905. The total amount of their capital was $1,471,469,378; their surplus amounted to $1,057,942,556, and undivided profits, $386,594,467, certainly a record of a stupendous achievement when we re- member that it was not more than 125 years ago that the American banking system had its origin in a little Philadelphia bank which Robert Morris established upon a capital of only $400,000. See Bank Bills ; Banks and Banking; Finance; Trust Companies; Coin- age; Money; Monetary Systems of the World; Canada, Financial System. The grand aggregate of resources of all these banks reached the stupendous sum of $17,062,- 751.887; the individual deposits, $11,387,762,535, and loans and discounts, $9,126,176,149. Levi Parsons Morton. Banks, Savings, in their inception, were primarily benevolent institutions, organized for the benefit of the working, thrifty citizen, who desirous of safeguarding the future of himself, and of those dependent upon him, saved small sums from his daily or weekly earnings ; com- mercial and financial banks could not and would not attend to these small accounts, and there- fore, the lawmakers, urged by public-spirited citizens, incorporated institutions, wherein the savings of the frugal-minded, industrious and thrifty, whose savings were too small to invest BANKS, SAVINGS in public or private securities, or who were not educated to make such investments, could be deposited with absolute safety, and at the same time earn some interest for them. They may rightly be considered as a benevo- lence from the State, who thus endeavors to protect itself against the carelessness of its citizens, and to minimize mendicity, destitution, and pauperism, by offering to its people safe depositaries for their surplus earnings; the theory is that many will prefer independence from honest industry to beggarly dependence, the result of idleness OT self-indulgence, and that the poor should be helped to help them- selves, and to receive the reward for their industry and self-denial. To further foster this spirit, the savings banks are in many communi- ties practically freed from taxation, in the same manner as churches, schools, hospitals, etc. ; this enables them to return to their depositors all their earnings, save onl}- the necessary expenses of conducting the business. Savings institutions are the outgrowth of a better social structure, making for order, temperance, virtue, industry, and thrift, as well as upholding pul)lic credit and fostering good citizenship; they create self- respect and independence, and may well be considered as among the greatest civilized forces working for the betterment of the condition of mankind. Savings banks, however, are by no means charitable institutions. He who by careful liv- ing has a surplus, however small, over and above his daily needs, is in no sense a subject for charity; as a matter of fact, he is a small capitalist ; he, together with many others, by depositing their savings in the savings banks, not only help themselves and encourage thrift in others, but these savings, amounting in the aggregate to enormous sums, instead of being locked up and hidden away, as in the past, are employed to further public and private enter- prises, furnishing capital for building water- works, railroads, State and city and private institutions, and thus this money finds its way back into the pockets of the laborer and ine- chanic, in the shape of work and wages, a true endless chain. They are of comparatively modern origin, and it is only towards the end of the eighteenth century that we find any mention of them. Small beginnings were made in 1778 in Ham- burg, Germany, and 1787 in Berne, Switzerland ; these associations, however, simply cared for the spare cash of servants, mechanics, and la- borers, and as a rule did not allow withdrawals, but granted annuities ; being different from the English idea of savings banks. In England the matter was suggested, it is said, by Jeremy Bentham, in 1797, in his system of frugality banks, but the first known attempt in that direc- tion was made in 1798 by the Rev. Joseph Smith of Wendover. who offered his parishion- ers to take care of their savings during the sum- mer months and to repay them at Christmas with a bounty of one third additional : about the same time the "Friendly Society for the Benefit of Womtn and Children* was estab- lished at Tottenham High Cross, by Mrs. Pris- cilla Wakefield, and this society became regu- larly organized in 1804 ; Malthus also suggested, in 1803, the idea of county banks for the labor- ing classes. The first regular organization brought before the public was in 1810, when the Rev. Henry Dunkin of Ruthwell, Dumfrie- shire, Scotland, started a self-sustaining insti- tution, receiving deposits from the general pub- lic ; during the first year of this ^'Parish Bank" the receipts amounted to ii5i, and in four years increased to £922. In 1814 the Edinburgh Savings Bank was established on the basis of Mr. Dunkin's plan. In London the first sav- ings bank was opened in 1816 and was recog- nized by Act of Parliament in 181 7. Generally speaking it may be said that be- cause of the fact that the paternal governments of Europe have large functions, thereby exerting a powerful influence in the economic life of the nation, and also partly owing to the lack of initiative in private benevolent enterprises, savings banks were started there as national enterprises, usually managed through the post- office department ; the investments of such banks being mainly confined to government securities. In the United States the functions of the government are more limited, and are usually restricted to formulating general legislation, or granting charters to savings institutions under the laws of the different States, and also exert- ing some supervision over them, by means of periodical examinations by the State bank su- perintendent or commissioner. Under our system of government we are apt to consider that our citizens are fully able to attend themselves to their banking business, in the same manner as the banks of deposit and discount, and it is a good American practice, that does not allow the State to interfere with the private business of its citizens, and restricts it to its own functions, as well defined in the Constitu- tion. In the United States there is no permanent or perpetual debt, thus making this form of investment impracticable, as it certainly would be injudicious for our savings banks, who are usually looked upon as local institutions, the money which they receive on deposit being loaned out, whenever practicable, in the vicinity of the bank itself. We may trace the first savings bank in the United States to the organization in 1816 of the Philadelphia Savings Fund Society, in Philadelphia, Pa., a private association which was afterwards incorporated by the legislature of Pennsylvania in 1819. The Provident Institution for Savings in the town of Boston, Mass., was incorporated in 1816, and the Savings. Bank of Baltimore, Md.. in 1818. In New York the first organized savings bank was the Bank for Savings. Efforts had been made for several years by public-spirited citizens of that city, to get a charter from the legislature for such bank, acting on a sugges- tion received from Patrick Colquhoun, a magis- trate in London, by his correspondent in New York. Thomas Eddy: but the then existing hostility to banks rendered this very difficult, and it was not without much work and con- siderable delay that at last, in 1819. a bill incorporating the Bank for Savings was passed by the legislature and approved by the council of revision. The organizers named in the cer- tificate were nearly all members of the Society for the Prevention of Pauperism, founded in 1817. The trustees (three in rotation) attended for one month each, as a committee, doing the work of the bank: they received no compensa- tion for their services, and were restricted in investing their deposits to government securi- ties and public stocks, issued under the lawf BANKS, SAVINGS of the United States and of this State. Since then many savings institutions have been organ- ized both in New York and in the other States of the Union. The primary savings bank being wholly philanthropic, the services of the trustees are usually gratuitous, and on this basis there have been built, in the Eastern States of the United States, a large number of flourishing institu- tions, answering perfectly to the demands that gave them birth. Criticisms have been made at times, and were echoed in the legislature, disapproving of the requirement of the gratuity of the trustee's services, and arguing that men are sure to become careless in their supervision when not paid for their services ; partly because of this contention, the plan of mutual savings banks has not been adopted in the Western and Southern States, where the savings bank business is done by financial institutions furnish- ing their capital and surplus as a guarantee for the reoayment of deposits, and where the direc- tors and stockholders are directly and financially interested in the success of the bank. Another reason to be considered also, was that condi- t\ons in these States differ vastly from those existing in the Eastern States. It was generally believed that purely mutual savings banks would not receive sufficient support, and could not succeed in the more sparsely settled parts of our country, and therefore they were instituted as adjuncts, or departments, of regular com- mercial banks of deposit. A few large and successful mutual savings banks, based on the eastern idea, and flourishing in the Western and far Western States, seem, however, to prove that this reason does not always apply. There is no doubt that mutual savings institutions, pro- tected by wise legislation, strictly restricted as to first class investments and practically freed from taxation, are as safe depositaries of the savings of the nation, as may well be devised ; and no institutions created with that object in view can possibly be made too safe. A pro- posal for postal savings banks has been fre- quently before the public, but has never met with success. The main arguments against them consist in the difficulty which would be found in investing these large amounts by a body of constantly changing officeholders, and also that the functions of the State should not be increased, but rather diminished. The average rate of interest paid to savings bank depositors in the United States is about 3/^ per cent per annum. In England the savings banks are both governmental and trustee banks. Tlie trustee banks are based on a plan somewhat similar to our mutual banks in the United States. They have some 2.300,000 depositors, with about $300,- 000,000, to their credit. The governmental banks are called postal savings banks. Deposits and withdrawals are made through the numerous post-offices in Great Britain, and the deposits, as is mainly the case with trustee banks, are invested in government securities through the commissioners of the public debt. These post- office savings banks have about 8,800,000 deposi- tors, with aggregate deposits of about $700,- 000,000. The interest paid is about 2-14 per cent per annum. A short summary of the law of the State of New York, which is considered by many the best savings bank law in the United State.s, is as follows : Trustees. — Thirteen or more, to receive no remuneration as such, nor to borrow money from the bank. Investments. — Government bonds, bonds of States not having deraulted for 10 years, munici- pal bonds in New York State and several other named cities, railroad bonds as named, bonds and mortgages on real estate in the State for not over 65 per cent of deposits, nor for above 60 per cent of value, if improved, or 40 per cent if unimproved. No loans on personal security. To hold no real property, except banking house, and that acquired under foreclosure, which is to be sold within five years. Deposits limited to $3,000 for each depositor; interest not over 5 per cent per annum; surplus fund, not over 15 per cent of deposits ; examina- tion every two years by bank superintendent. Savings bank statistics form a very uncertain basis for comparisons and for drawing conclu- sions, as conditions dift'er vastly in different countries. In the United States, in addition to the deposits in the savings banks, there is a large ac- cumulation of savings in the life insurance com- panies ($2,000,000,000), in the building and loan associations ($600,000,000), and in school sav- ings banks ($500,000), not to speak of the sav- ings invested in homesteads and land. In Eng- land, where landlordism prevails, nearly all the savings are in the savings banks and life insur- ance companies. In France, where the land is di- vided into small holdings, some of the savings of its people are in the savings banks, but they are mainly invested in stocks and in the irre- deemable government bonds held by its people direct. In Germany and Switzerland, many communes and cantons have established munici- pal institutions, doing much the same work as our own savings banks in the United States. In Russia the government takes charge of all savings. In Austria both government postal banks and private banks are organized. In Sweden the post-office banks invest their funds in government bonds, bank stocks, and municipal public stocks. The following table shows the number of depositors and amount of deposits in savings banks in the different countries of the world, where statistics are obtainable. Countries Number of Depositors Total deposits Austria-Hungary British Colonies 6,663,822 2,782,572 2,088,448 1,203,120 11,298,474 15,432,211 11,093,469 1,330,275 6,740.138 7.467.452 718,823 145.507 5. 177. 501 1,892,586 1,300,000 7.305.433 $1,309,752,448 330,858,520 141,851,419 236,170,057 847,224,910 2,273,406,226 966.854,253 Holland 72,738,817 Italy 482,263,472 40.887.186 89,633.481 7.426,031 466,1 59,229 151,480,442 193,000,000 3,060,178,611 Total 82,639-831 $10,669,885,102 The above figures show average deposits in the savings banks in the world of $101.01 for BANKS, UNITED STATES NATIONAL — BANNERET each depositor, or $ii.oo per capita. The de- posits in the United States average $418.89 for each depositor, or $37.38 per capita of popula- tion. The following table shows the growth of the savings banks in the United States : Year 1820 1830 1840 1850 i860 1870 1880 1890 1900 1904 Total deposits $1,138,576 6,973,304 14,051,520 43,431,130 149,277,504 549,874.358 819,106,973 1,524,844,506 2,449,547,88s 3,060,178,611 In several States of the Union associations of savings banks have been formed for mutual benefit, and for the purpose of watching over proposed legislation in regard to savings banks so as to protect the interests of their depositors. In 1901 a national union of savings banks was organized as the savings bank section of the American Bankers' Association. This section includes in its membership a majority of the savings banks in the United States, and conven- tions are held yearly where members from all parts of the United States meet to discuss the many subjects of particular interest to savings banks and to their depositors. William Han hart, Secretary '^^Saz'ings Bank Section''^ The Ameri- can Bankers' Association, New York. Banks, United States National. The na- tional Bank of the United States owes its ex- istence to the necessities that were occasioned as the direct result of the outbreak of the Civil War. Prior to 1861 the paper currency of the country had been furnished by some 1,600 pri- vate corporations, each organized under its re- spective State laws. When Congress met in extraordinary session on 4 July 1861, it was confronted by a serious financial situation. With estimates showing a probable expenditure of $1,000,000 a day, the treasury was empty and the nation was already deeply in debt. At the sug- gestion of Secretary Chase, therefore, the govern- ment was empowered to raise $320,000,000, all but $80,000,000 of which should be by loan, and, in anticipation of the revenue, to issue $50,000,000 of treasury notes, redeemable on de- mand. At the invitation of Secretary Chase the banks in the larger cities soon negotiated the requisite loan, but, while this relieved the tem- porary necessities of the treasury, the secretary realized that a safer financial policy must be adopted if the nation was to remain upon a secure foundation. When Congress reassembled in December, therefore, Mr. Chase was pre- pared to suggest a plan to meet these require- ments. He explained that while the ordinary revenues of the country might be sufficient to meet the ordinary expenditures, for the extra- ordinary expenses of the war it was necessary to depend upon loans, and he suggested that the time had come when the government might properly claim a part, at least, of the advan- tage of the paper circulation then constituting a loan without interest from the people to the banks. He believed that the best way to accom- plish this result was to provide a national cur- rency, to be issued by the banks, but secured by the pledge of United States bonds. Before Congress could consider the secre- tary's recommendations the suspension of specie payment, 28 Dec. 1861, completely changed the aspect of the situation. To provide for the pressing needs for cash, Congress was com- pelled to authorize the issue of more demand notes and so matters continued until December 1862, by which time the war had reached such a magnitude as to exhaust even the enormous re- sources provided by Congress. The disburse- ments in November had amounted to nearly two million dollars a day, while unpaid requisitions had reached the extent of $46,000,000, and the annual statement of receipts and expenditures showed a deficit of $277,000,000 to be provided for. To meet this situation Secretary Chase recommended an increase in the amount author- ized to be borrowed on the last 5-20 bonds, but, in order to create a market for these bonds, he again advised the creation of a series of banking associations under a national law that should require them to secure their circulation by a deposit of government securities. Although strongly advocated and introduced in a bill by Mr. Hooper, 7 Jan. 1863, the suggestion met with so little favor that the bill was adversely reported by the Committee on Ways and Means, but on 25 January, after President Lincoln had sent a special message to the House warning Congress that its present financial policy would soon produce disastrous consequences, Senator Sherman introduced another bill providing for a national currency. This measure differed somewhat from Mr. Hooper's bill, which had failed in the committee room, and, as some of the features which had proved objectionable in the former measure had been eliminated in the Senate bill, it met with less opposition, although- it was so closely contested that it passed the Senate, 12 Feb. 1863, by a vote of 23 to 21 only. The House concurred in its passage on the 20th by a vote of 78 to 64, and, on the 25th, the measure received the signature of the Presi- dent, and it was this act which has been pro- ductive of the magnificent national bank system of the United States of to-day. See Sumner, < History of American Currency' : Richardson, ariety of foods sufficient to satisfy almost any appetite. As an example of a feast given in those days one may take the following menu which was served at a pontifical banquet long before the advent of the golden days of Im- perial Rome : The first course, which was intended to merely whet the appetite, consisted of conger eels, oysters, two kinds of mussels, thrushes served on asparagus, fat fowls, a ragout of oysters and other shell fish, with black and white marrons. The second course included a variety of shell fish and other marine animals, becaficos, haunches of venison, a wild boar, and a pasty of becaficos and other birds. The third, and principal course, comprised the udder of swine, boar's head, a fricassee of fish, a fricassee of sow's udder, ducks of various kinds, roast fowl, with pastry and Picentine bread. As the years passed Rome experienced no deterioration in its love for the good things of the table. In fact, on the other hand, this pontifical menu was really a meagre bill of fare as compared to those which were afterward prepared by the Roman cooks for the delectation of the later Caesars. As an illustration the fol- lowing description of a banquet in the time of Nero, which is taken from Dean Farrar's ^Darkness and Dawn,^ is admitted by students to be a vivid but not exaggerated picture of a feast in the da5'S of Imperial Rome. At this banquet, which was prepared under the direc- tions of Otho, Nero entertained eight guests. The walls of the room ^Svere inlaid with mother- of-pearl and slabs of ivory. . . . The table was of cedar-wood, and it sparkled with goblets of gold and silver. . . . among which were scattered amber cups. . . . Although it was winter, garlands of exotic roses were provided for every guest, and none but the most youthful and beautiful of Otho's slaves were permitted to wait upon them. The supper was no supper of Trimalchio, with its coarse and heavy glut- tonies. . . . The oysters were from Rich- borough ; the lampreys were from the fishponds of a senator who was said to have flung into them more than one slave who had oft'ended him ; the mullet came from Tauromenos ; the milk cheese from Sarsina. There were two tiny dishes which represented the last and most ex- travagant devices of Roman gourmets, the one composed of the tongues of nightingales, the other of the brains of Samian peacocks and African flamingoes, of which the iridescent and crimson feathers adorned the silver plates on which they laj-. Sea and land had been swept with mad prodigality to furnish every luxury. The wines were of the rarest vintages, and whereas four kinds of wine were thought extrav- agant in the days of Julius Caesar, Otho set 80 different sorts before his guests. . . . Hot mushrooms alternated with bits of ice.* Per- fumes were sprinkled on the hair and feet of the guests, and the amusements that were pro- vided were dancing b}" Andalusian girls, dice and gambling. Offerings to the gods were not forgotten, however, and these were thrown into the hearth. If this was a dainty repast, however, Rome was not always so dainty for the wealthy gour- mands were not satisfied with eating well. They wanted to gluttonize, to eat of ever>1:hing im- moderately until they found it impossible to eat any more, when, by resorting to the ever-con- venient feather, they were able to return to the BANQUETS feast and stuff themselves once more to reple- tion. On such occasions the more distinguished the company, the earlier began the banquet and the later it lasted. Nor did the Roman table ever go dry for the want of rare and choice wines. In Greece the juice of the grape was almost invariably mixed with water, but Rome wanted no dilution of its revelling. Wildly extravagant and prodigal in everything, the Romans made no exception in the case of their drink. The wines that they used were preserved in jars or bottles of baked clay, and, as they were prized in proportion to their age, each receptacle bore a label on which it was distinctly stated in what consulship the beverage had been made. Many of these wines came from Italy, the Campania being considered the best, but the wines of Greece were also there, side by side with all the drinks that time or money could gather from every part of the world. The fact that civilization and cookery go hand in hand was never more strikingly illus- trated than in the case of the ancient Britons, for, in the earlier days of their history their cuisine was marked by all the limitations of primitive simplicity. The Roman conquest, however, appears to have applied to the kitchens of the country as thoroughly as to the govern- ment, for as the Roman conquerors were un- willing to eat the crude culinary preparations of the native Briton they proceeded to teach the conquered how to cook for them. Then, too, at about the same time, the appearance of the German immigrants, with their own more wholesome cookery, was not without its good effect, and the transformation in Mme. Britan- nica's methods of cooking may be said to have been almost as wise as it was radical. The centuries which succeeded the fall of the Roman Empire, and which comprised the greater part of the Middle Ages, was as dark a period for gastronomy as it was for all other arts. For a time it seemed as if man had forgotten how to cook ; as if he had lost his taste for the well seasoned dishes which had once been his chief delight, and that he had no desire to get it back again. Even Charlemagne, who, according to his Capitularies, took a warm personal interest in his table, was a novice both in the art of cooking and in that of service, for his banquets were barbaric affairs composed of huge roasts of meat dripping from the spit, and other crude features that would have put the ancient Roman gourmets to the blush. Per- sonally, too, the great Emperor of the West was extremely abstemious and seldom, even at dinner, permitted himself to be served with more than fo'jr dishes. The reading of the description of Prince John's banquet in Sir Walter Scott's 705,953 members. The English Baptists may be traced back through the Continental Anabap- tists, the Waldensians, Petrobrusians, and va- rious other sects, to the nth century. None of these bodies regularly practised immersion, so far as we know, but they agreed in holding the fundamental Baptist principle of a regen- erate Church and rejected the baptism of infants as an unauthorized and post-apostolic practice. Baptists in Amer'ica. (i) From the first settlements to the Great Aivakcning. — There were a few Baptists (or, as they were then usu- ally called. Anabaptists) among the early settlers of the colonies, especially Massachusetts, but the first Baptist church was of independent origin. Roger Williams, a graduate of the University of Cambridge, a Puritan unable to conform to the Church of England, emigrated to the Massachu- setts colony and landed in Boston in 1631. Here he soon developed theories that made him ob- noxious, and he was therefore banished by the General Court, 8 Oct. 1635. The chief count against him was that he denied the authority of the civil magistrate to punish religious offenses. He made his way to Rhode Island, purchased land from the Narragansett Indians, and founded the colony of Providence on the principle of complete separation between civil and religious affairs. His study of the Scriptures led him to reject infant baptism, and others having come to his opinion a church of 12 members was consti- tuted. Williams was baptized by one of them, Ezekiel Holliman, and he then baptized the others. As there is no indication of subsequent change in the method of baptism, here or else- where, it is reasonable to conclude that American Baptists have practised immersion from the be- ginning. Not long after this a church was estab- lished in the colony at Newport under the leader- ship of John Clarke, an English physician. A Welsh Baptist church emigrated bodily to Massa- chusetts in 1633 and ultimately settled at Swan- sea in 1667. This church was not greatly dis- turbed, but in Boston the Baptists experienced severe persecution. John Clarke and Obadiah Holmes, of the Newport church, visited the col- ony to comfort and confirm in the faith the few scattered brethren there, and were arrested for holding a religious service in a private house in Lynn. They were sentenced to be fined heavily, and in default to be *well whipped.'* This sen- tence was executed upon Holmes, in the streets of Boston, 6 Sept. 1661. Clarke's fine was paid by a friend, and he escaped. In 1665 a Baptist church was formed in Boston, consisting of nine members. Thomas Goold, its leading member and first minister, was so continuously impris- oned and ill-treated that his health was shat- tered, and he died in 1675. Other members suffered in like manner. A small meeting-house was built in 1678. whereupon the doors were nailed up by order of the court. The new charter of the colony, in 1691, granted ''liberty of conscience to all Christians except Papists,** but Baptists were still taxed for the support of the churches of the "standing order.** Even when the heavy hand of the Puritan official was restrained, progress did not become much more rapid, for prior to 1740 there were but eight Baptist churches in Massachusetts. In the other New England colonics growth was proportion- ally slow. The first church in Connecticut was that at Groton, established in 1705, probably by Baptists from Rhode Island. The most marked progress of Baptists was in the group of colonies afterward known as the Middle States. The centre of this growth was the town of Philadelphia. In the near-by village of Pennepek or Lower Dublin (now incorporat- ed in the city) a church was founded in 1688, mainly of Baptists from Great Britain, and a preaching-station was appointed in Philadelphia, which was not formally recognized as a separate church until 1746. The Welsh Tract Church was formed in 1701 in a place now in the State of Delaware. In the neighboring colony of New Jersey a simultaneous beginning had been made. The church at Middietown had been formed in 1688, and the following year a church that had been organized at Dover^ N. H., emi- grated in a body and became the Piscataway Church. Churches at Cohansey (1690), Cape May (1712), and Hopewell (1715) followed. In the New York colony the first church was established at Oyster Bay, L. I., about 1700. and in 1714 a second church was formed in New York city — both organized through the labors of some Rhode Island Baptists. After 1730 the New York church ceased to exist, and it was not until 1745 that another attempt was made to found a Baptist church there ; and so feeble was this that it did not attempt an independent existence until 1762. The oldest church in the southern colonies was first constituted in Maine, then a part of the Massachusetts settlement. A few pe'ople at Kittery were baptized in Boston and organized a church, but they were so much disturbed by persecutions that they decided to emigrate to Charleston, S. C, and became the First Baptist Church of that city in 1684. Some General Baptists settled in the Virginia colony in 17 14. and other churches were rapidly formed. From 1727 onward Baptist churches were founded in North Carolina, and a church was established in Maryland in 1772. The Carolina churches proved to be especially fruitful. From these feeble and unpromising beginnings there result- ed a great growth during the remaining years of the i8th century. The division that from the first existed among the English Baptists seemed likely to be perpetuated in America. In New England the majority of the earliest churches were or became Arminian in theolog}'. and the first churches in the colony of New York appear also to have been of that order, together with several of the New Jersey congregations. But the Phila- delphia group and part of the New Jersey churches were strongly Calvinistic, and gradu- ally they took the lead and became the control- ling force. This result was promoted, if not caused, by the formation of the Philadelphia Association. The five oldest and nearest churches (Pennepek, Welsh Tract. IMiddletown, Piscataway, Cohan- sey) from the beginning cultivated close rela- tions with one another, and were accustomed to hold "general meetings** with the various BAPTISTS IN AMERICA churches in turn, at which members of all the others attended as far as possible. These meet- ings were at first annual, and then came to be held twice a year, in IMay and September. As the churches grew, such mass-meetings became less practicable, and m September 1707, when the meeting was held in Philadelphia, the other churches sent delegates. The practice continued thenceforth without interruption, and so the first association of Baptist churches was formed. Such associations differ from the synods and conferences of other denominations in that they have no legislative or judicial authority over the churches, which retain their complete in- dependence. The association has advisory pow- ers only, and considers questions of common interest to the churches composing it, especially measures for the more effective spread of the gospel. It thus becomes a missionary and evan- gelic institution, and as such has been one of the most powerful agencies in the growth of Baptist churches in America. The Philadelphia Association gradually drew to its membership not only all the Baptist churches of the middle colonies, but those far- ther south, and at its most flourishing early period had 31 churches on its roll, extending from New York to Virginia. By 1742, seeming- ly before, this association adopted a Calvinistic confession of faith, — in large part identical with the Westminster Confession, — and this Philadelphia Confession soon became by com- mon consent the standard of faith and practice among American Baptist churches, and still holds that position over large regions. It ought to be added, however, that among Baptists no confession has any real authority, such docu- ments being regarded as only convenient state- ments of what the Scriptures are believed to teach; and among Baptists it is to the Scrip- tures, and not to any confession, that appeal is always made. 2. From the Great Azvakening to the Found- ing of the General Convention. — The spiritual movement known as the Great Awakening (q.v.), judged by its results, was the most im- portant single event in the history of American Christianity. On no religious body did it have more happ}% far-reaching and permanent results than upon the Baptists. The new spiritual life into which they were quickened is shown by the rapid advance made by them in all the colonies after 1740. In 40 years the churches increased in Alassachusetts from 8 to 73, and the mem- bers from about 200 to over 3,000. This means, of coitrse, that not only were many new churches constituted in the colonies already named, but that the other colonies were entered. From 1750, churches were organized in New Hampshire, and from 1780 in Vermont. In Maine the planting of churches began again in 1768. In 1784 there were in New England 151 churches with 4.783 members — an enormous increase, nearly 10 times the number of churches and quite 10 times the number of members that existed a generation before. In the South the increase was even more rapid, especially in Virginia and the Carolinas. In Virginia the Baptists were rigorously perse- cuted, their preachers being imprisoned and fined with great severity, but even in prison they preached the gospel and made converts. The Kehukee Association, organized in 1765 in Vir- ginia, and the Ketockton, in 1766 in North Car- olina, testify to the rapid progress made in these regions. By a series of statutes passed between 1776 and 1798 Virginia repealed ail her punitive and incorporating laws, and placed all forms of religious behef on an equal footing before the law. The progress of the Revolution so broadened men's ideas that the other colonies followed her example, although New England lagged behind, and Massachusetts did not fully banish intolerance from her laws until 1833. This principle of separation of Church and State, long advocated by Baptists and at length made the fundamental law of the United States and of each several State, is recognized by for- eign jurists as the most important contribution to political philosophy and the science of gov- ernment yet made by America. The war of the Revolution naturally caused a serious check to religious progress in the colonies, but less to the Baptists than to most other bodies. The Episcopal Church was badly disorganized, and almost destroyed, because her ministers were mostly Tories and were driven from their parishes ; but the Baptist ministers were patriots, with but a single known excep- tion. The Methodists were greatly embarrassed in a similar way — their preachers were nearly all from England, and John Wesley was a vio- lent writer against the cause of the colonies and their ^'wicked rebellion.® Except where actual hostilities prevailed, the Baptist churches suf- fered little, and as a whole were stronger at the close of the war than at the beginning, ready for an immediate advance and a rapid growth, since they could take advantage of every favorable opportunity. And one of the greatest opportunities ever offered any religious body was theirs at the close of the war. The settlement of the great West began actively at once. Two great tides of immigration set westward : the one from New England, by the fertile valleys of central New York toward Ohio, and Illinois; the other from Virginia, Maryland, and Pennsylvania, over the mountains by the old Indian trail to Pittsburg, and thence into Ohio or down the river to Kentucky and Tennessee. Among the earh' settlers of these new regions were not a few Baptists ; and the churches and associations in the older regions sent out missionary preach- ers to visit the new settlements and organize churches wherever possible. It thus came to pass that Baptist churches were often the first, always among the first, to be formed in the new communities of the West, and their growth was rapid. By the year 1800 the denomination had increased to 1,200 churches, and their mem- bers to more than 100,000. The formation of associations had kept pace with the growth of churches ; prior to 1800 there were 48 such bodies formed, nearly all of which carried on active missionary operations for the planting of new churches and the aiding of those newly planted to sustain themselves. This missionary activity of the associations is the distinctive feature of the period, and more than any other thing explains that unexampled growth, far out- stripping that of the population. 3. From the Formation of the General Convention to Its Division in 1845. — The most important forward step of American Baptists was their engaging in the work of foreign missions. This was done through no plan of their own. but in obedience to the leadings of Divine Providence. BAPTISTS IN AMERICA Some young men of New England Congrega- tional churches, while students at Williams Col- lege and later at the Andover Theological Sem- inary, became deeply interested in the giving of the gospel to the heathen, and in consequence the American Board of Commissioners for For- eign Missions was constituted in June 1810. Three of the first missionaries sent out, — Adon- iram Judson, his wife, and Luther Rice, — be- came convinced from independent study of the Scriptures that only believers should be baptized, and that immersion was the sole apostolic bap- tism. Accordingly they were baptized by Eng- lish Baptist missionaries at Calcutta shortly after their arrival, and by consequence severed their relations with the Board that had sent them out. Mr. Rice returned to America to tell the story and enlist the Baptist churches in the support of these missionaries. This was com- paratively easy, but by his tour among them the churches had become so aroused to their unfulfilled duty toward the heathen that they were not content merely to support the Judsons. Local missionary societies were formed in sev- eral States, and at length delegates from churches throughout the country met at Phila- delphia in May 1814, and organized the "Gen- eral Convention of the Baptist Denomination in the United States for Foreign Missions.^* This furnished the churches what they greatly needed, — a common cause, a rallying-point, — and at once the Convention and its work became a strongly unifying influence. The missionary work thus begun was prosecuted with zeal, lib- erality, and success. The Judsons went to Rangoon and began a mission among the Bur- mans in 1813; the Karens were reached in 1828; and missions followed among the Chinese (1833), Telugus (1836), and Assamese (1836). For a time it seemed that all Baptist churches would unite in the support of this work, but after some years opposition began to develop among the churches that held to an extreme form of the Calvinistic theology. This opposi- tion finally became directed against ministerial education, Sunday-schools, and all organization for evangelic effort, as well as against the Con- vention. The agitation of these extreme views finally led to a withdrawal of a part of the churches from all fellowship with the others, and those thus withdrawing became known as Old School, or Primitive Baptists, since they claimed to be faithful to the original principles of the body, from which the others had depart- ed. The agitation was most bitter in the central Atlantic States, but the Primitive Baptists be- came most numerous in some of the southern States, especially Tennessee and Georgia, where, among the mountain districts, they are still very numerous. They are popularly known as "Hard Shells." The Convention, in addition to its foreign missionarj' enterprise, also for a time conducted some home-mission operations, and local socie- ties in several States were organized for this work. All of these agencies proved insufficient, and in 1832 the American Baptist Home Mis- sion Society was formed in New York to take special charge of this enterprise, setting free the General Convention to devote its whole atten- tion to foreign missions. But this was not the end of organization. The efficient conduct of home missions was found to demand further subdivision of effort, and after the second decade of the century State conventions were rapidly formed in the various States for the super- vision of missionary work in the older commu- nities, leaving the national society to overlook the newer regions of the great West. The rise of Sunday-schools was synchronous with this development of missionary eiTort, and called into being new forms of organization. Among Baptists It gave new life to a tract society that had been formed in 1824 in Washington, and caused its removal to Philadelphia and its growth into the American Baptist Publication Society, which, since 1840, has given a great share of its capital and effort to the publication and circulation of Sunday-school literature. The work of foreign missions led to the making and printing of versions in the various languages of the mission fields. Some of these were print- ed by aid from the American Bible Society, formed in 1816 by representatives of the chief evangelical denominations ; but after a time Bap- tists were denied equal rights in this body, and in April 1837 a convention held at Philadelphia formed the American and Foreign Bible Society for doing this work. This was the period, not only of perfecting organization, but of controversies that resulted in great loss to Baptists. The rise of the body now known as Disciples of Christ, led by Alex- ander Campbell and others, from 1815 to 1835, caused great disturbance and loss to Baptists in the middle West and South. Mr. Campbell had been a Baptist preacher, and many Baptist churches went bodily into the new movement. In the Middle and Eastern States, during the same period, William Miller led many astray by his predictions regarding the speedy "end of the world, and the ultimate result of his teaching was the formation of the Second Advent bod}', into which many Baptist churches and members went. At nearly the same time and in the same region the famous anti-Masonry agitation (q.v. ) also convulsed the churches and hindered their progress, where it did not actually deplete their numbers. But this was also a period of great revivals and rapid numerical growth, not pe- culiar to any one part of the country. Begin- ning the century with some 1,200 churches and 100,000 members. Baptists had grown to 8,406 churches and 686,807 members in 1845, about one Baptist to each 32 persons of the population. The greatest controversy of the period, and that which had most lasting results, was that caused by the institution of slavery. After about 1825 anti-slavery sentiment rapidly grew strong in the northern States, and among the Baptist churches of that region the opinion gen- erally prevailed that a Christian man could not consistently be the owner of slaves. The Gen- eral Convention had been organized on the principles of the Federal Constitution — of giv- ing equal rights to slaveholders and non-slave- holders ; but as in the State, so in the Church, this compromise proved unworkable after a time. For several years fierce debates were held on the subject at the meetings of the Conven- tion, and the feelings of both sections grew more embittered. At length the Executive Board declared that they could not appoint a slaveholder as a missionary, and the southern churches felt this to be a denial of their consti- tutional rights. Accordingly in May 1845 a con- vention met at Augusta, Ga., and formed the Southern Baptist Convention. The mission BAPTISTS IN AMERICA work, home and foreign, of the southern Bap- tist churches has been done since that time through this body, under the supervision of v'arious boards appointed for the purpose. This work was necessarily interrupted by the Civil War, but was resumed with new vigor at the conclusion of that struggle, and has been prose- cuted with increasing liberality and success. The Convention is a strictly delegated body. 4. The Last Half Century. — The last 50 years have been a time of great increase in numbers and wealth. At the close of the 19th century there were 43,959 churches and 4,181,686 members, about one person in 18 of the population. The rate of progress has there- fore been almost double that of the population, marvelous as the latter has been, and a very small percentage of this had been gained by immigration. The valuation of church property in 1900 was $86,648,982, the expenditure for public worship $9,622,166, the contributions for missions $1,123,839, and for all other purposes $12,348,527. Corresponding facts for i850_ and earlier years are not ascertainable, but it _ is certain that the wealth of the churches has in- creased fully twice as fast as the membership, and within the last 15 years the contributions have doubled, showing a commensurate growth of liberality. But in this last half century the most marked feature of denominational progress has been in educational work. Very early in their history Baptists began to found colleges and other in- stitutions of higher learning. Brown University was established in 1764, and was followed by Colby (1818), Colgate (1819), Columbian (1821), and Lewisburg (1846). Two theologi- cal seminaries were early founded : Hamilton (1817) and Newton (1825). In the West and South 16 other institutions that still survive were established before 1850, not to mention a few academies. The combined endowments of all these schools in 1850 would probably not have exceeded $500,000. In 1900 there were 7 seminaries, 31 colleges, 32 schools for women only, 46 academies, and 17 schools for negroes and Indians. These schools had over 38,000 students enrolled, and in them has been invest- ed over $44,000,000, of which fully half is pro- ductive endowment. Two thirds of the Baptists of the United .States are in the south, and of these far more than half are negroes. The separate organiza- tion of the colored Baptists dates, of course, from the Civil War. The first of their State conventions was formed in 1866 in North Caro- lina, and like societies have been organized in 15 States. In the North a large part of their churches are members of the regular associa- tions. The National Baptist Convention was organized in 1880, and was expected to perform an office for their churches similar to that of the Southern Baptist Convention for the white churches. But there have developed ambitious leaders among them, and divided counsels have resulted, and there has been in consequence a multiplying of organizations very confusing to those who attempt to follow their history and v/ork. Owing to the lack of education among them, reports of meetings are defective and sta- tistics untrustworthy, and no definite state- ments of their work can be attempted. Besides what are often called the *^regular'* Baptists, — those in full fellowship with each other and enumerated above, — there are nu- merous other bodies, aggregating 500.000 mem- bers, that hold substantially the same princi- ples. The Freewill Baptists are perhaps the largest of these. The name describes two dif- ferent .groups of churches : one originating in North Carolina about 1729, and having its representatives mainly in the South ; the other arising in New Hampshire about 1780. The for- mer are known as Original Freewill Baptists, and practise feet-washing and anointing the sick with oil as gospel ordinances. The latter have of late adopted the name Free Baptists, are Arminian in theology, and practise "open" com- munion. They are strongest in New England and the Middle West. A general conference was organized in 1827, a Foreign Mission Society in 1834, a"d an Education Society m 1840. They now have about 85,000 members, and the southern churches may have i2,00O' more. The Six-Principle and Seventh-Day Baptists also originated in New England. The former began in Rhode Island, where several of the earliest churches came to be known by this name. The churches of this order mostly held Arminian views, but differed from other Baptist churches mainly in insisting on the lay- ing on of hands immediately after baptism, believing this to be one of the six principles enu- merated in Heb. vi. i, 2. The first Seventh- Day church was formed in Newport in 1671 ; their distinctive principle is indicated by their name. The German Seventh-Day Baptists had a separate origin in Pennsylvania about 1728, from the Dunkards or Tunkers, who settled in Germantown from 1719 and onward. They are- sometimes called German Baptists, but that name is more properly applied to German con- gregations of the "regular" Baptists. The Church of God, or Winnebrennerians. the River Brethren, and one branch of the IMennonites. also agree in the main with the principles and practices of Baptists. Besides the United States, Baptists are rep- resented in all parts of North America, es- pecially in Canada. Since 1778, Baptist churches have existed in Nova Scotia and New Bruns- wick, and about 1794 began a like movement in lower Canada, near the Vermont line. The organization of the Maritime churches came first, beginning with an association formed in 1800, and extending until a convention for gen- eral missionary purposes united several earlier societies in 1846. Churches were planted m Ontario after 1803, and organization proceeded along the usual lines. In 1888 all previously existing societies were consolidated by act of the Dominion Parliament into the Baptist Con- vention of Ontario and Quebec, which con- ducts its work through five executive boards. The Canadian Baptists have now grown to over 1,000 churches and 100,000 members. In Mexico and the West Indies the Baptist churches are of recent missionary origin. The chief exception is in Jamaica, where English Baptists began operations nearly a century ago, the first church having been formed in 1816. The Southern Baptist Convention has taken Cuba as its special field, while Northern Bap- tists have established a mission in Porto Rico, In the West Indies, Mexico, and Central Amer- ica there are now not far from 50,000 Baptists. ^ Henry Cl.w Vedder, Croser Theological Seminary. BAR — BAR-SUR-AUBE Bar, Karl Ludwig von, German jurist: b. Hanover, 1830. He was trained in the universi- ties of Gottingen and Berlin, and sat in the Reichstag 1890-3. He has been a strong advo- cate of publicity as well as of more humane procedure in all criminal trials. Important works b}" him are: *Das Internationale Privat- «nd Strafrecht* (1862) ; ^Die Redefreiheit der Mitgleider gezetzgebender Versammlungen' (1868) ; 'Die Lehre vom Kausalzusammen- Tiange in Rechte (.1871) ; *Das Deutsche Reichs- gericht' (1875); ^Staat und Katholische Kirche in Preussen' (1883). Bar-Cochba, Simon, celebrated Jewish impostor of the 2d century a.d., who pretended to be the Messiah. He called himself, or was called by his followers, Bar-Cochba, meaning Son of the Star, and applied to himself Balaam's prophecy, "There shall come a star out of Jacob,' etc. He obtained the support of the celebrated Rabbi Akiba, and availing himself of the general dissatisfaction produced among the Jews b}' Hadrian's attempt to erect a tem- ple to Jupiter on the site of the temple of Je- rusalem, raised the standard of revolt, and scon mustered numerous followers. After car- rying on a kind of guerilla warfare, he made "himself master of Jerusalem about 132, and :gained possession of about 50 fortified places. Hadrian, who had at first despised the insur- rection, now saw the necessity of acting more A-igorously, and sent to Britain for Julius Severus, one of his ablest generals, who, avoid- ing a general engagement, gradually made him- self master of the different forts which the rebels possessed, and then, though not withotit great loss, took and destroyed Jerusalem. Bar- cochba retired to a mountain fortress, and perished in the assault of it by the Romans three years after, about 135. Bar, Russia, a town in the government of Podolia : so called after the birth-place of its foundress. Bona Sforza, the wife of King Sigis- mund I. of Poland. It is famous as the place where a confederation of the Polish people was held with a view to combating the Russian influ- ence and the adherents of Russia in Poland. 29 Feb. 1768. The Russians took Bar by storm on the following 28 May, together with 1,400 men and ^0 pieces of cannon. Eleven fairs are annually held here. Leather-dressing, distillery, and brick-making are carried on. Pop. (1900) 13 000. Bar. In heraldry, one of the charges known as ordinaries. It is formed by two horizontal lines passing over the shield and occupying one fifth of the surface. In hydrography, a barrier of sand in the channel of a river or along the seacoa.st. Riv- ers are constantly engaged in the transporta- tion of sediment seaward, and whenever the current is checked the suspended material sinks and accumulates along the bottom. Bars thus formed may disappear during periods of floods when the water gains increased velocity, and they frequenth' change their position with slight alterations in the course of the current. Sand laars are also common at the mouths of rivers Avhcre the flow of the water, and therefore its transporting power, is lessened before enter- ing the sea. The precipitation of the sediment is assisted in this case bj' the mingling of the fresh and saline water. The formation of such bars does not differ from that of a delta (q.v.). The transporting action of currents and waves sometimes builds up a long line of bars or reefs along the seacoast, as is seen on the Atlantic and Gulf shores of the United States. See Reef. In law, a word having several meanings; thus, it is the term used to signify an enclosure or fixed place in a court of justice where law- years may plead. In English superior courts queen's coun.sel are admitted within the bar; other members of the bar sit or stand outside. A railed-off space within the Houses of Lords and Commons is similarly called the bar. The dock, or enclosed space where accused persons stand or sit during their trial is also called the bar ; hence the expression "prisoner at the bar." It has also a general meaning in legal pro- cedure, signifying something by way of stop- page or prevention. There is also a trial at bar — that is, a trial before the judges of "- particular court, who sit together for that pur- pose in banc (q.v.). The term is used both in England and the United States as a syno- nym for the legal profession. In music, a line drawn vertically across the staff, for the purpose of dividing the music into equal measures of time. The term is very often improperly applied to measures themselves. The quantity of time included between two bars varies as the time is triple or common, the former being equivalent to three crotchets and the latter to four. The thick bar at the end of a piece of music is called the double bar. Bars were first used about the middle of the 15th century. See Measure. Bar Har'bor, ^le., a popular summer re- sort in Hancock County, Me. ; on the east shore of Mount Desert Island. It derives its name from a sandj' bar which connects Mount Desert with the largest of the Porcupine group. The surrounding scenery is very pleasing, and with- in a short distance are many points of interest readily accessible to the tourist. Among these are the summit of Green Mountain, Eagle Lake, Mount Newport. Kebo, The Ovens, Great and Schooner Heads, Spouting Horn, Thunder Cave, and Eagle Cliff. Pop. (1900) 1,600. Bar Shot, a double-headed shot, made of two half-balls connected by a bar, and formerly used in naval battles for cutting awa}' the masts and rigging of the enemy's ship. Bar-le-Duc, bar-le-diik, or Bar-sur-Ornian, bar-siir-ornaii. France, capital of the depart- ment of Meuse. 125 miles east by south from Paris. It consists of an upper and a lower town, the former of which commands a fine view. The lower town extends into the valley traversed by the Ornain, here crossed by three stone bridges. It is a busy active place, with many shops, manufactories, and w^arehouses. The streets are wide and well laid out. but the public buildings are inferior. The chief manu- factures are cotton yarn, cotton, and woolen stuffs, printed calicoes, and colored handker- chiefs. The preserved fruits and confectionery, as w^ell as the wines of Bar-le-duc, are in re- pute. Pop. (1896) 18,249. Bar-sur-Aube, bar-siir-6b. France, a town 30 miles east of Troyes, notable as the scene of a victory of the allied forces commanded by Schwarzenberg over the French, commanded by Macdonald and Oudinot, 27 Feb. 1814. The BAR-SUR-SEINE — BARANOFF council which decided the plan of campaign of the allies was held here the day before the battle. Pop. (1896) 4,548. Bar-sur-Seine, bar-siir-san, France, an an- cient town in the department of Aube, notable as the scene of a victory of the allied forces over the French, in March 1814. Pop. (1896) 3.157. Bara, bii'ra, Jules, Belgian statesman: b. Toiirnai, 1835 ; d. Brussels, 26 June 1900. He early displayed oratorical gifts, and soon after beginning the practice of law was appointed professor of law in the University of Brus- sels. He entered the House of Deputies in 1862 as a Liberal, and was appointed minister of justice in 1865. For the remainder of his ca- reer he was prominent in the Liberal ranks whether in the Cabinet or as a member of the House of Deputies, his power of scathing in- vective being instrumental in causing the resig- nation of the clerical ministry of d'Anethen in 1871 and the fall of that of Malou in 1878. Baraba, ba-ra-ba', a steppe of Siberia, in the government of Tomsk, occupying more than 100,000 square miles. Covered with salt lakes and marshes, it was colonized in 1767 by the Russians, who have since cultivated parts of it. Pop. 250,000. Barabas, ba-rab'as, the principal person- age in Marlowe's tragedy, *The Jew of Malta.' Barab'bas, the robber released by Pilate at the Passover when Jesus was condemned to death. It was a custom of the Roman govern- ment, for the sake of conciliating the Jews, to release one Jewish prisoner, whom they might choose, at the j'early Passover. Pilate desired thus to release Jesus, but the Jews demanded Barabbas (Matt, xxvii. 16-26). (2) The title of a novel by Aiarie Corelli, having him as the central figure. Barabbas: A Dream of the World's Tragedy, a romance by Marie Corelli. It is the story of the last days of Christ, his be- traj'al, crucifixion, and resurrection. The story is dramatically told, but the style is florid and meretricious, appealing more to the emotions than to the reason. Barabins'ki, a Tartar tribe living on the banks of the river Irtish, and engaged in pas- toral and agricultural pursuits. Their religion is Shamanistic, but Christianity has made some progress among them. Baraboo, bar'a-boo. Wis., a city and coun- ty-seat of Sauk County, on the Baraboo River, and the Chicago & N. W. R.R. ; 40 miles north- west of Madison and 3 miles from Devil's Lake. It is an agricultural region ; has important man- ufacturing interests, which are promoted by an excellent water power ; is a noted fruit centre ; and has a national bank, city hall, water works, electric light, gas works, daily, weekly, and monthly periodicals. It is governed by a mayor, elected biennially, and a municipal council. Pop. (1900) 5,751. Barabra, ba-ra'bra, a Nubian people living on both sides of the Nile, from VVady Haifa to Assouan. They are about 40,000 in number, and are believed to belong to the same stock as the ancient Egyptians. Baracoa, ba-ra-ko'a, Cuba, a seaport near the eastern end of the island, and its capital, 1518-22. The town was founded in 1512. Near it is the mountain noted as the "Anvil of Bara- coa.^' In the vicinity Maceo and his men be- gan in 1895 the struggle for Cuban independ- ence. Pop. (1899) 4,937- Barada, ba-ra'da, the Abana of the Bible, a river of Syria, rising in the Anti-Libanus and. flowing across the plain to the east past Da- mascus. It loses itself in a lake called Bahret- el-Ateibeh. Around Damascus its waters are used for irrigation by means of canals. Baraga, bar'a-ga, Frederic, Austrian Ro- man Catholic prelate and missionary : b. Treffen,. Carniola, 29 June 1797; d. Marquette. Mich., 19 Jan. 1868. He came to the United States in 1830 and spent the rest of his life among the Chippewa and Ottawa Indians in Michigan. His Chippewa grammar (1851) and Chippewa dictionary (1851-3) are of philological impor- tance, and he was also the author of a work in German on the ^Historj^, Character, Man- ners, and Habits of the North American In- dians' (1837). Baraguay d'Hilliers, ba-ra-ga-de-ya,. Achille, Count, marshal of France: b. Paris, 1795; d. 1878. He was the son of Louis Para- guay d'Hilliers (q.v.). In 1830 he took part in the expedition to Algeria, in which his success- gained liim the confidence of the government, which created him a lieutenant-general. In 1841 he was made governor-general of Algeria. On the fall of Louis Philippe in the revolution of 1848 the provisional government appointed him to the command of the military division of Besangon. He replaced Changarnier in the command of the Army of Paris, and concurred in the accomplishment of the coup d'etat on 2 Dec. 1851. In the war with Russia in 1854 Baraguay d'Hilliers was commander-in-chief of the Baltic expedition, and for his ser^'ices re- ceived the dignity of marshal of France, and later was nominated a senator. He took an active part in the campaign of 1859, when France leagued with Sardinia to free Italy from Austrian domination. Baraguey d'Hilliers, Louis, French gen- eral: b. Paris, 1764; d. Berlin, 6 Jan. 1813. Re- ceiving an appointment in the army of Italy from Napoleon, he shared all the success of the campaign of 1796-7. Made general of division and commandant of Venice, in 1798 he accom- panied the expedition to Egypt ; and afterward successively held appointments on the Rhine, in the Tyrol, and in Catalonia. He commanded a division in the Russian campaign of 1812, but during the retreat incurred the displeasure of Napoleon and appears to have died from cha- grin and disappointment. Baralt, ba-ralt', Rafael Maria, Venezuelan poet and historian : b. Maracaibo, Venezuela, 2 July 1814; d. ]\Iadrid, Spain, 2 Jan. i860. He was educated in Bogota and at Caracas ; served in the Venezuelan army, and went to Spain in 1843, where he held posts of honor and attained literary fame. He wrote ^Ancient and iModern History of Venezuela' (1841) ; and ^Odes to Columbus and to Spain.' BaranoflF, ba-ra'nof, Alexander Andrevich, Russian trader: b. 1746; d. 1819. He founded a trading colony on Bering Strait (1796) and established commercial relations with the Unit- ed States, China, and Hawaii. He was the first governor of Russian America. BARANOFF ISLAND — BARBADOS Baranoff Island, the most important of development of his intellectual faculties brought the Alexander Islands, Alaska. It is about 75 about a languid malady, and at the age of 19 miles long. On its northwest coast is the he died. town of Sitka. The island derives its name Baratynski, bii-ra-tin'ske, Jevgeni Abramo- from the Russian trader, Baranoff (q.v.), who vich, Russian poetr'b. within the government m 1799 took possession of it. of Tambov, 1800; d. Naples, 1844. He enlisted Barante, ba-riint, Aimable Guillaume Pros- as a private soldier at 18. and by 7 years' per Brugiere, Baron de, French historian and service in Finland fought his way to the rank statesman: b. Riom. Auvergne, 10 June 1782; of an officer, which, however, he soon resigned d. 23 Nov. 1866. After filling some subordinate to devote himself to a literary life. His first offices he was appointed in 1809 prefect of La poem, 'Tableau de la Litterature Francais au XVIIIe Barb, a horse of the Barbary breed, in- Siecle,^ of which Goethe has said that it troduced by the Moors into Spain, and of great contains neither a word too little nor a word speed, endurance, and docilitj'. This breed is too much. In 1815 Louis XVIII. made Barante said to be a variety of the Arabian, and most secretary of the ^linistry of the Interior, and of the progenitors of the present thoroughbred about the same time he took his seat in the horse were of the same strain. Chamber of Deputies, where he voted with the Bar'bacan, or Barbican, a projecting Moderate Liberals. In 1819 he \yas raised to ^^.^^ch tower or other advanced work before the the Chamber of Peers. His principal work, g^^g of ^ castle or fortified town. The term Barbacena, bar-ba-sa-'na. a flourishing town 1855); ^Etudes Historiques et Biographiques>; ^^ g^^^jj -^^ ^j^^ gtate of Minas Geraes. 125 (1858). ^jj^g northwest of Rio de Janeiro. It is situat- Consult also < Souvenirs du Baron de Barante> ^^ -^ ^^e Mantiqueira Mountains, about 3,500 (1690-9;. £ggj. above the sea. Pop. 5.000. Baran'ya, Hungary a province of, border- Barba'dos, an island of the West Indies, mg upon the Danube River, haymg an area 9f ^ ■ jj, ^he Atlantic Ocean more than 100 miles 1,966 square miles and a population of 361,743 m ^^g^ ^f ^^e nearest members of the chain of ^900. ^ Lesser Antilles. (See Antilles.) No other Barasingha, bar-a-sin'ga. See Swamp-Deer, country, with the possible exception of some of Barata'ria Bay, a body of water in the the provinces of China, is more densely popu- southeastern part of Louisiana, extending north lated, the inhabitants (about 20,000 white per- from the Gulf of Mexico, between the parishes sons, and approximately 169.000 negroes 1 av- of Jefferson and Plaquemine. It is about 15 eraging 1.120 to the square mile The entire miles long by 6 wide, and it and the lagoons area of the island available for the purpose- branching out of it were rendered notorious or 100,000 acres out of a total acreage of about the years 1810-12 as being both the head- 106,470.-15 under cultivation. Some of the quarters and rendezvous of the celebrated La- white inhabitants are of the best English stock, fitte and his buccaneers. being descendants of early settlers who were ■n ^ > • -Tf . c „c „.,«- closelv allied by the bond of blood or ties 01 Bara ana. Pirates of, a company of out- f^end^hip with the colonists of Virginia. The laws imder the eadership of a notorious bandit J ^^^^^ ^^ ^ Jean Lafitte, who established their rendezvous ^y^^^^- ^^^ ,,4 i,, ^73,. when he visited this in the Bay of Barataria 40 miles south of New f company with his invalid brother, Orleans. They committed great depredations Lawrence. The rainfall is abundant, and the on English and Spanish shipping b"t heir agreeable, thanks to trade-winds blow- colony was broken up in 1814 by a United States J ^^^^^^ ^,^^ Atlantic. Barbados is naval force. Lafitte and some of his men subse- -^j Jf England, with its own governor, quently served under Jackson in the battle of j^gigiatifre. etc. In addition to many lesser New Orleans. educational institutions the island has Codring- Bar'athron, the name of a deep gorge near ^on College, which is affiliated with the Univer- Athens, into which criminals condemned to gity of Durham. England. Its principal city, death were thrown. It was originally a quarr>% Bridgetown, headquarters of the Royal Mail but was enlarged in order to serve for purposes Steamship Company, is an attractive place of of punishment. Usually persons were thrown residence and a favorite resort of tourists. It into it after execution, but occasionally while jg also the see of the bishop of Barbados, living. There is one narrow-gauge railway, and the Baratier, ba-ra-ter', Johann Philipp, Ger- highways are excellent The chief and almost man litterateur, remarkable for the precocity the sole industry is the cultivation of sugar- of his intellect: b. Schwabach. 1721 ; d. Halle, cane, to which the soil ,s peculiarly adapted. ^ Sept. 1740. At the age of 7 he understood Food supplies are imported largely from the Greek and Hebrew, and 2 vears later he com- United States, to which country- nearly the en- piled a Hebrew dictionary. He was 13 when he tire sugar product is sent. The value ot the translated the qtinerary of Beniamin of Tu- annual exports is about $3.600.000 : of the aver- dela.> Excess of work and perhaps a too rapid age annual imports about $o,ooo,oCK). Like BARBADOS CEDAR — BARBAROUX Guadeloupe and its dependencies, and Desirade and Maria Gaiante, Barbados is a coral island. Its length is 21 miles, and its width 15 miles. It is situated in lat. 13° 4' N., and Ion. 59° 2,-' W. Consult Stark, < History and Guide to Barbados.^ IMarrion Wilcox, Authority on Latin-America. Barba'dos Cedar, a cedar or juniper (Juiiipcnis barbadcusis). It is found in Florida and the other warm parts of America. Barbados Cherry, a West Indian shrub or small tree (MalpigJiia glabra) of the natural order Malpigliiacca, with handsome crimson ax- illarj' flowers, cultivated to some extent in warm countries for its acid fruit, inferior to but re- sembling a white cherrj'. M. nrcns also bears an edible but smaller fruit, and is sometimes also called Barbados cherrj'. Barbados Flower Fence, or Barbados Pride, the beautiful plant Poinciana pulclierri- nui. It belongs to the leguminous order, and the sub order Cccsalpiiiiccc. It is a low, spiny tree with an odor like savin. It is a native of the tropics of both hemispheres, and in Barbados especialh- it is used for fence purposes. Barbados Goose'berry, Blad Apple, or Lemon Vine (Pcrcskia aciileata), a shrubby, slender, tropical American cactus which bears lemon-j^ellow, smooth, edible pear- or egg-shaped fruits as large as olives. The species is widely used in greenhouses as a stock on which to graft other species of cacti. Its more sturdy relative, P. blco, is similarly used for larger species of cacti. Barbados Leg, a name frequently applied to the disease called elephantiasis. It is common in Barbados, and is endemic in many tropical and semi-tropical countries. See Elephan- tiasis. Barbados Lil'y, t\i& Amaryllis eqiicstris,r\o\v called Hippeastrum cqucstre, an ornamental plant from the West Indies. Bar'bara, Saint, virgin and martyr much honored in the Greek and Roman Catholic Churches who is supposed to have flourished in the 2>^ or early part of the 4th century. Her his- tory has been related by various chroniclers, but with so many discrepancies that it is difH- cult to ascertain either the events of her life or the circumstances of her martyrdom. Ac- cording to Jacobus de Voragme, the author of the 'Aurea Legenda,* she was born at Heliopo- lis, in Egypt, of pagan parents. On arriving at the age of womanhood she was very beautiful, and her father, fearing lest she should be taken from him., confined her in a tower, and in the pictures of this saint the tower is therefore one of her most frequent attributes. In her seclusion she heard of the preaching of Origen, and wrote to him begging for instruction, whereupon he sent one of his disciples, who taught and baptized her. On learning this her father was so in- censed that he put her to death. Metaphrastes and Mombritius inform us that she was mar- tyred at Heliopolis in the reign of Galerius, and their account agrees with the Emperor Basil's Menology and with the Greek Synaxary. Others again hold that she suffered at Nico- media, in 235, under Maximian I. Her festival occurs 4 December, Barbara Allen's Cruelty, an old English ballad preserved in Percy's "^Reliques.^ While Barbara's lover. Jemmy Groves, was on his death-bed, her only remark to him was, "Young man, I think j'ou're dying." For this unnatural composure she subsequently endured the pangs of remorse. Barbara Frietch'ie, the title of a noted poem by Whittier (1863) founded upon an in- cident reported to have occurred in Frederick, Md., in the Civil War. Recent investigations have thrown some doubt upon the authenticity of the account. A play upon this them.e has been written by the dramatist Clyde Fitch. Bar'bara's History, a novel by Amelia Blandford Edwards, published in 1864. It is the romance of a pretty girl, clever and capa- ble, who, passing through some vexations and serious troubles, settles down to an unclouded future. Barbarelli, Giorgio. See Giorgione. Barba'rian, a term used by the Greeks to designate a foreigner ; one who could not speak Greek. At first the Romans were included by the Greeks under the term barbarian ; but as the inhabitants of the great Italian city gradually gained imperial power, and, moreover, began to consider the Greek lan- guage a desirable if not even an indispen- sable part of a liberal education, they were no longer placed in the category of bar- barians, nor was their speech deemed barba- rous. When the Greeks became the most civ- ilized people in the world, the term barbarian came to be used with some reproach, but less so than among ourselves now. Barbaros'sa, Arooj, or Horuk, corsair chieftain, styled "^'Barbarossa" from his red beard. He was the son of a Greek at Alitylene, and in 1516 assisted Selim, king of Algiers, in driving the Spaniards out of that countr^^ Having taken possession of the capital he put Selim to death and mounted the throne himself. He died in 1518. Barbarossa, Khair-ed-Din, the younger brother and successor of the preceding. He surrendered the sovereignty of Algiers to Selim I., Sultan of Turke}^ in exchange for a force of 2,000 janissaries and the title of dey. He was afterward appointed ^'captain pasha^^ or high admiral of the Turkish fleet, conquered Tunis, and in 1538 gained a victory over the imperial fleet luider the command of Andreas Doria in the Bay of Ambracia. He died in 1546. Barbaros'sa.- See Frederick B.\rb.\rossa. Barbaroux, bar-ba-roo, Charles Jean Marie, celebrated French revolutionist of the Girondin party: b. Marseilles. 6 March 1767; d. Bordeaux, 25 June 1794. At first an advocate and journalist at jMarseilles, he was sent by that city to the Constituent Assembly at Paris. There he opposed the Court party and took part with the minister, Roland, then out of favor. After the events of 10 Aug. 1792 he re- turned to his native town, where he was received with enthusiasm, and was soon after chosen delegate to the convention. In the convention he adhered to the Girondists, and belonged to the party who at the trial of the king voted for an appeal to the people. He boldly opposed the party of Marat and Robespierre, and even di- rectlv accused the latter of aiming at the dic« BARBARY — BARBARY APE tatorship; he was, consequently, in May 1793 proscribed as a royalist and an enemy of the republic. He fled to Calvados, and thence with a few friends to the Gironde, where he wan- dered about the country, hiding himself as best he could for about 13 months. At last, on the point of being taken, he tried to shoot him- self; but the shot miscarried, and he was guil- lotined at Bordeaux. He was one of the great spirits of the Revolution. There was no loftier- minded dreamer in the Girondist ranks; hardly a nobler head than his fell in that reign of terror. Barbary, a general name for the most northerly portion of Africa, extending about 2,600 miles from Eg>'pt to the Atlantic, with a breadth varying from about 140 to 550 miles ; comprising Morocco, Fez, Algeria, Tunis, and Tripoli (including Barca and Fezzan). Bor- dered by the Mediterranean on the north, and by the Sahara on the south, the temperature of this region is generally moderate and remarka- bly uniform, seldom descending to the freezing- point, and seldom coming up to sultry. From March to September is the dry season, when the ground is frequently so parched as to render walking upon it impracticable. From Septem- ber to March is the wet season, but the rains are moderate, and almost every day affords a respite of sunshine. The soil is fertile, though sandy and light on the coast, the climate healthy, and agricultural productions are various and abun- dant. The range of production gives a com- bination of both tropical and temperate fruits. Agriculture is, nevertheless, greatly neglected. For three centuries the inhabitants of the Bar- bary states have rendered themselves the pest of human society by their depredations upon the commerce of the seas. Anciently, all Africa was comprehended under two divisions — Egypt and Libya — while Libya was subdivided into northern and southern Libya. North Libya comprised mainly what is now known as the Barbary states. Herodotus says that in his day northern Libya was inhabited by the in- digenous race of Libyans and by the foreign Phoenicians and Greeks. These latter settled at various points, from Egypt to Carthage, while the indigenous Libyans occupied from the east to the west, throughout the entire extent. Of the origin of the Libyans, whom Herodotus calls indigenous, we have no trace. Arabian tradition says they colonized Libya from Yemen. The Phcenicians early settled Carthage (869 B.C.) and perhaps the still more western coasts of Mauritania, — at least it appears that Carthage was a powerful state at the invasion of Greece by Xerxes. The Cyrenians, who were Greeks, had colonized at Cyrene, just east of the bay of the Mediterranean called Syrtis Major (Gulf of Sidra), in what is now known as Barca. West of Carthage lay Numidia and Mauritania, even to the Pillars of Hercules; east of Cyrene was Egypt ; while between these two foreign col- onies stretched the narrow coast line, from the Major to the Minor Syrtis. known as Emporia. The rapidly growing Carthaginian power soon extended colonies along the entire coast from the Pillars of Hercules to Grecian Cyrene. The jealousy of Rome was not long in being awak- ened against so threatening a rival. The history of the' Punic wars is well known. At the end of IT7 years the Carthaginian power was e.xtin- guished. Carthage herself in ruins, and Africa Vol. 2 — 20. a Roman province from Mauritania to Cyre- naica. The more complete subjugation of Nu- midia was accomplished in the Jugurthine war, and that of Mauritania in the reign of Claudius. Thus the territory of the Barbary states, from independent native sovereignties and foreign colonies, had come into the hands of Rome. About 400 A.D. several Teutonic tribes, over- running Gaul and crossing the Pyrenees, settled in Spain. When, in 428, Boniface revolted against Honorius, the Vandals crossed the Fre- tum Gaditanum into Africa, led by Genseric, drove out the inhabitants, utterly e.xpelled the Roman power from upper Libya, and reigned 100 years. Then came the struggle under Jus- tinian for the re-establishment of the Roman ascendency. By Belisarius it was conducted to a successful issue, and northern Africa w?s united to the eastern empire. For over 300 years this relation continued until about the middle of the 7th century ; the Saracens over- ran Numidia and Mauritania to the Atlantic, and, notwithstanding the disastrous death of their leader Okba, the sceptre of upper Libya passed again from the hands of Rome into that of Arabia. Fifty years later the conquests of Musa and Tarik were pushed across the straits, and a Saracenic empire established in Spain. But the revolution which brought the Abbasides to the caliphate of Arabia and drove the only surviving caliph of the Ommiades into Spain, prepared the way for the independence of the western colonies, and Africa began to throw oflf the Saracenic yoke (788). A succession of for- tunes now attended the states of upper Libya. For eight centuries they were alternately trib- utary and independent, passing from hand to hand, like the stakes of a faro bank, till in the i6th century the two brothers Barbarossa con- quered the whole territory of Numidia and Carthage, and erected the regencies of Algiers and Tunis. A few years later the Turkish Sul- tan, whose supremacy the j'ounger Barbarossa had acknowledged, erected the pashalic of Tri- poli over the ancient Cyrenaica, while in the west there was a gradual consolidation of power into the hands of Mohammed ben Hamed, and his son, who finally established the dynasty of Sherifs in the empire of Morocco, while the French erected, between Morocco and the pos- sessions of the Porte, the regency of Algeria. The religion of the Barbary states is generally Islamism. The European settlers are of course Christians, or Jews, while the blacks, who are slaves, are pagans. There seem to be at pres- ent six races or tribes of men inhabiting the Barbary States: (i) The Moors. (2) The Arabs. (3) The Berbers, who are indigenous, and from whom the states probably received the appellation Barbary. (4) The Jews. (5) The Turks, who are the military of the country. (6) The Blacks. The Arabs call the Barbary states Moghreb (west). The language of the people inland differs from that of Arabia and Syria, though not so much as on the coast. See Algeria; Barca; Fezzan; Morocco; Tri- poli ; Tunis. Bar'bary Ape, or Magot, a small species of ape of the genus Macacus. interesting as be- ing the only animal of the monkey kind in Europe. It is found on the rock of Gibraltar, where the individuals are few in niimber; whence it has been concluded by M. de Blain- ville that they have sprung from domesticated BARBARY POWERS apes escaped from confinement in the houses of Gibraltar. The Barbary magot is a small tail- less monkey completely covered with greenish- brown hair. In its wild state it is lively and intelligent, but becomes sullen and intractable in captivity. Barbary Powers, U. S. Treaties and Wars with the. The four JNIohammedan states of Morocco, Algiers, Tunis, and Tripoli, though either independent or nominally tributary to Turkey, were for some three centuries a com- mon foe to Mediterranean commerce and travel. Almost their entire subsistence was on the produce of piracy : either the avails of captured stores, the ransoms for prisoners held in slavery, or the blackmail paid by other powers for immunity. The large states paid them a regular annual tribute, — though by joining forces they could have stopped the piracy at any time, — on the express ground that it gave them the monopoly of Mediterranean trade against the small ones which could not afford it; and England, which paid about $280,000 a year, deliberately put the price high to pre- vents others from bidding up to it. Even these sums bought only temporary truce, as the pirate state lived on depredations, and the tribute had to be supplemented with constant presents and concessions. A part of this tribute was always demanded in armed vessels, ammunition and naval stores, so that the civilized powers fur- nished the means for plundering themselves. The ransom of captives from them was a lead- ing object of public and private charity, and collections were taken up in churches for this end. In 1786 there were 2,200 Christian cap- tives in Algiers alone. When the United States began to send vessels to the Mediterranean no longer protected by tb.e English flag, the pi- rates at once assailed them ; and in July 1785, the Algerines captured 2 vessels and 21 men. Congress appropriated $80,000 in 1784 to buy immunity after the European model ; but it seemed likely to cost nearer $1,000,000, and, reversing their usual parts, John Adams pre- ferred to pay as a cheaper resort than fighting, while Jefferson considered fighting both cheaper, more honorable, and the preparation for a bet- ter future. Morocco, for some reason much the most amenable, signed in 1787 a 50-year s' peace without tribute, though with the under- standing of some presents to the Sultan, and kept it, save for a short time in 1803. The Dey of Algiers asked $59,496 for his captives, or over $2,800 each, though the last French cap- tives ransomed had only cost $300, or with costs, $500; and the matter hung fire for several years, 11 of the 21 dying before the final ran- som of 1795. In 1793, by the carelessness or bad faith of an English consul, the Algerine corsairs gained entrance to the open sea be- yond the Strait of Gibraltar, and captured 10 United States vessels at a blow, the number of our captives in their hands in November being 115. Negotiations v/ere set on foot, and on 5 Sept. 1795 Congress paid Algiers $992,463.25 for peace and the ransom of all our prisoners — this sum including a 36-gun frigate costing $99,727, and about $100,000 worth of stores and ammunition. It also engaged to pay $21,600 a year thereafter in naval stores, $20,000 on pre- sentation of a consul, biennial presents of $17,000, and other regular and incidental gifts. In 1798 it sent four armed vessels as arrear."!- A treaty was made with Tripoli in November 1796, on much the same terms save that there were no ransoms; and one with Tunis, in 1799. for $107,000. The cost of immunities and ran- soms in 1802 had been over $2,000,000; and of course even this bought nothing permanent. The pasha of Tripoli broke the treaty in three years and a half, demanding $225,000 with $25,000 annually, and on refusal declared war, 14 May 1801. A squadron under Commodore Dale was sent to the Mediterranean and blockaded Tri- poli, also forcing Algiers and Tunis to think better of their threatened alliance with it and to renew their treaties. Morris succeeded hirn, but was soon recalled. Preble, who took his place, 1803-4, forced Morocco, which had joined Tripoli, to withdraw from the alliance and renew its treaties ; carried on a vigorous lalockade; and bombarded Tripoli five times. Barron succeeded Preble, but in the middle of 1805 turned over the command to Rodgers, who at once prepared for a grand bombardment and assault. The scale was turned, however, by William Eaton (q.v.), who took up the cause of the pasha's elder brother, Hamet Caramelli, driven from the throne some years before, or- ganized at Alexandria a singular rabble of cos- mopolites, and after a desperate six weeks' march across the desert, captured, with the aid of the navy, the seaport of Derne in Barca, sev- eral hundred miles east of Tripoli. The pasha feared an insurrection as well as Rodgers' at- tack; and hastily signed on 3 June 1805, with Tobias Lear, United States consul-general at Algiers, who had come to Tripoli on purpose, a treaty by which the United States paid $60,000 ransom for the prisoners, left Hamet's support- ers to the pasha's vengeance and Hamet himself to beg the United States for a pension, and al- lowed the pasha four years to deliver up Hamet's wife and children. The need and honor of this abject surrender of our govern- ment belongs to historical polemics. The em- bargo of 1807 prevented further trouble for some years by annihilating our commerce; but after its removal in 1810 the depredations were renewed, and in 181 2 Algiers was ready for more gratifications. The dey had received from us $378,363, but made out a case for $27,000 arrears, forced the United States consul to borrow it at usurious rates, and then ordering him out of the country, declared war. The War of 1812, however, having denuded the Med- iterranean of our trading-vessels, he captured only I brig and 11 persons; and after the war our naval force under Decatur was turned against Algiers. He found its entire fleet at sea ; captured two and cut off the rest from port ; entered the city 30 June 1815, 41 days after sail- ing; and forced the dey to sign within three hours, without gift or present, on pain of having his city destroyed and his fleet cap- tured, a treaty abolishing all tribute or presents of any sort thereafter from the United States, delivering up all his captives and agreeing that henceforth prisoners of war should not be made slaves, and paying indemnity for the captured brig. Tunis and Tripoli having allowed Eng- lish ships to seize American prizes in their har- bors, Decatur proceeded to both places and forced their rulers to make similar treaties, pay indemnities, and release all their Christian pris' oners of whatever nations. This magnificent ac- tion of the United States induced the English BARBASTRO —BARBEL government to take similar steps the next year, but Tunis and Tripoli did not abandon piracy till 1819, and Algiers was not finally reduced till 1829 by France. It was the United States which first lifted this incubus of "Algerine" (as the entire system was compendiously called) piracy and slavery from the Christian world. See Schuyler, ^American Diplomacy^ (1886) ; Henry Adsms, ^History of the United States,^ Vols. I., II.. IX. (1889-90); Felton, in Sparks, 'American Biography. > See Treaties ; United States — Diplomacy of the. Barbastro, bar-ba'stro, Spain, a city of Arragon, 30 miles east-southeast of Huesca. The city has straight, well-made, and paved streets, a cathedral with paintings by Galeran, parish church, college, Latin and three other schools, town-house, session-house, ecclesiasti- cal court-house, extensive hospital, two prisons, several convents with churches attached, two palaces, a theatre, and bull-ring. It also pos- sesses philosophical, agricultural, commercial, and other literary and beneficent associations. The manufactures of Barbastro have greatly de- clined, consisting only of hats, hardware, cut- lery, shoes, and ropes ; while a little trade is car- ried on in cattle, horses, and mules. Pop. (1901) 8,300. Bar'bauld, Anna Letitia, English writer, daughter of the Rev. John Aikin: b. Kib- worth, Leicestershire, 20 June 1743 ; d. 9 March 1825. She received from her fa- ther a classical education, and early showed a disposition for poetry. Her earliest pro- duction was a small volume of miscellaneous poems, printed in 1772, which in the year fol- lowing was succeeded by a collection of pieces in prose, published in conjunction with her brother, Dr. John Aikin, of Stoke-Newington. In 1774 she married the Rev. Rochemont Barbauld. Her * Early Lessons and Hymns for Children,^ and various essays and poems, have secured for her a permanent reputation. In 1812 appeared the last of her separate publica- tions, entitled "^Eighteen Hundred and Eleven,^ a poem of considerable merit; previous to which she had edited a collection of English novels, with critical and biographical notices. A simi- lar selection followed from the best British essayists of the reign of Anne, and another from Richardson's manuscript corresponder.ce, with a memoir and critical essay on his life and writ- ings. She will be longest remembered by her beautiful and much quoted lyric beginning: 'Life, we have been long together.^ See Aikin, 'Works of A. L. Barbauld' ; Mrs. Thackery- Ritchie, 'Book of Sibyls^ (1883). Barbazan, bar-ba-z6h, Arnauld Guilhem, Sire de, French captain, distinguished by Charles VI. with the title of "Chevalier Sans Reproche,*' and by Charles VIII. with that of "Restaurateur du Royaume et de la Couronne de France' : b. about the end of the 14th cen- tury : killed at Bullegneville, 1432. He earned the former of his titles, while yet young, by his successful defense of the national honor in a combat fought in 1404 between six French and six English knights, before the Castle of Mon- tendre ; and the latter designation he acquired by his extraordinary exertions on the side of the Dauphin, at a time when the cause of na- tive royalty, powerless in presence of the Anglo- Burgundian league, boasted few adherents. Barbe-Marbois, bar-ba-mar-bwa, Frangois, Marquis de, French statesman: b. Metz, 3 Jan. 1745 ; d. 14 Jan. 1837. After fulfilling dip- lomatic offices at several German courts he was sent to the United States as consul-general of France. He organized all the French consulates in this country, in which he resided 10 years, and married the daughter of William Moore, governor of Pennsylvania. In 1785 he was ap- pomted by Louis XVI. superintendent of St. Domingo, and introduced many reforms into the administration of justice and of finance in that island. He returned to France in 179a and was again employed in German diplomacy. During the excitement of the Revolution he was exiled to Guiana as a friend of royalty, but being recalled in 1801 he was made director of the treasury, a title which he soon exchanged for that of minister. In 1803 he was appointed to cede Louisiana to the United States for $10,000,000, but had the skill to obtain the price of $16,000,000, a piece of diplomacy for which he was liberally rewarded by Napoleon. In 1813 he entered the Senate, and the next year voted for the forfeiture of the emperor and the re- establishment of the Bourbon dynasty. He was well received by Louis XVIII. , appointed a peer of France and honorary counsellor of the uni- versity, and confirmed in the office of first president of the court of accounts, which he had formerly held. He was an object of the indignation of Napoleon after his return to France from Elba, and was ordered to leave Paris. He resumed his offices after the return of the Bourbons, but, moderate in his prin- ciples, and an enemy of all reaction, he was not in harmony with the majority of those with whom he associated ; and in the Chamber of Peers he succeeded with difficulty in effecting the substitution of banishment for death as a penalty for political offenders. After the rev- olution of July he exercised the same adulation and took the same oaths of fidelity to Louis Philippe which he had formerly given to Na- poleon and the Bourbon princes. The desire to die first President, which had been the motive of all his flexibility, proved at last a vain one, and in 1834 he was succeeded in his office, and as a consolation received the portrait of the king, accompanied by an autograph letter. His numerous works contain curious details concern- ing St. Domingo, Louisiana, and Guiana, which he studied in his exile, and he wrote also upon the treason of Arnold. Bar'becue, a large gathering of people, generally in the open air, for a social entertain- ment or a political rally, the leading feature of which is the roasting of animals whole to fur- nish the members of the party with food. The word is said to have been employed in Virginia prior to 1700, and the institution of the barbecue is of southern origin. Barbel (Barbus), a genus of fresh-water abdominal malacapterygious fishes, of the family Cyprinidce, or carps, distinguished by the short- ness of the dorsal and anal fins, a strong spine replacing the second or third ray of the dorsal, and four fleshy filaments growing from the lips, two at the nose and one at each corner of the mouth, and forming the kind of beard to which the genus owes its name. Of the several spe- cies, generally named after the country or river where they are found, the European one, com' BARBER — BARBERRY mon in most of the rivers of its temperate climates, and hence called B. vulgaris, is most deserving of notice. _ Its average length is from 12 to i8 inches, but individuals have been taken measuring 3 feet, and weighing from 15 to 18 pounds. The head is smooth and oblong, and the upper jaw is much longer than the lower. Its dorsal spine, which is strong and serrated, often inflicts severe wounds on the fishermen and damages their nets. It lives on small fishes, and also on aquatic plants, worms, and in- sects, which it obtains by boring with its barbels into the banks of the stream and turning up the loose soil. Its flesh is very coarse and unpala- table, and at the time of spawning, the roe is dangerous to eat. Another species, common in the Nile, is described as weighing upward of 70 pounds, and has a flesh which is fine, delicate, and well-flavored. When caught, the fisherman puts an iron through its jaw and fastens it by a short cord to the bank of the river, where it remains alive till required. Barber, Edward Atlee, American archae- ologist: b. Baltimore, Md., 13 Aug. 1851. He was graduated at Williston Seminary in 1869, and was assistant naturalist in the U. S. Geo- logical Survey in 1874-5. Subsequently he was engaged in gold-dredging. His writings include a history of the ancient Pueblos ; a large num- ber of magazine articles on ceramics; * Pottery and Porcelain of the United States^ ; ^Manual for Collectors of Blue China^ ; ^Genealogies of the Barber and Atlee Families,' etc. Barber, Francis, American soldier: b. Princeton, N. J., 1751 ; d. Newburg, N. Y.. 11 Feb. 1783. He graduated at Princeton in 1767, and became principal of a school in Elizabeth- town, where Alexander Hamilton was one of his pupils. He was successively major and lieu- tenant-colonel of the 3d New Jersey artillery, and assistant inspector-general under Baron Steuben. He took part in the battles of Tren- ton, Princeton, Brandywine, and Germantown, and was severely wounded at Monmouth and in Sullivan's Indian expedition, 1779. He was of the greatest service to Washington in securing intelligence of the enemy's movements and in putting down the mutiny of New Jersey and Pennsylvania troops. In 1781 he commanded a battalion of infantry in Lafayette's Virginia campaign, and was present at Yorktown. He was killed by a falling tree at the close of the war. Barber, John Warner, American author: b. Windsor, Conn., 1798; d. 1885. He wrote a ^History of New Haven' (1831) ; ^Incidents of American History' (1847) ; < Elements of Gen- eral History' (1844) ; and ^Our Whole Coun- try' (1861), etc.; and assisted in compiling the historical collections of New York, New Jer- sey, Virginia, and Ohio. Barber, one who shaves beards and dresses hair. The occupation of barber is an institution of civilized life, and is only known among those nations that have made a certain progress in civilization. It is referred to by the prophet Ezekiel : "And thou, son of man, take thee a barber's razor, and cause it to pass upon thine head and upon thy beard." (Ezek. V. I.) We do not read of a barber at Rome till about the year 454 of the city; but there, as elsewhere, when once introduced, they be- came men of great notoriety, and their shops were the resort of all the loungers and news- mongers in the city. Hence they are alluded to by Horace as most accurately informed in all the minute history, both of families and of the state. But in early times the operations of the barber were not confined, as now, to shaving, hair-dressing, and the making of wigs ; but in- cluded the dressing of wounds, blood-letting, and other surgical operations. It seems that in all countries the art of surgerj'' and the art of shaving went hand in hand. The title of barber- chirurgeon, or barber-surgeon, was generally applied to barbers. The barbers of London were first incorporated by Edward IV. in 1461, and at that time were the only persons who practised surgery. The barbers and the surgeons were separated, and made two distinct corporations — in France, in the time of Louis XIV., and in England in 1745. The sign of the barber-chi- rurgeon consisted of a striped pole from which was suspended a basin ; the fillet round the pole indicating the riband or bandage twisted round the arm previous to blood-letting, and the basin the vessel for receiving the blood. This sign has been generally retained by the modern bar- ber. In the United States, however, it is only occasionally that the basin may be seen hang- ing at the dogr of a barber's shop. The character of the barber is amusingly illustrated in one of the tales of the "^Arabian Nights En- tertainments,' and has been immortalized by Beaumarchais, Mozart, and Rossini, under the name of ^ Figaro.' Barber-fish. See Surgeon-Fish. Bar'ber Poet, The. See Jasmin, Jacques. Bar'ber of Seville, The, a five-act comedy by Pierre Augustin^ Caron (who later assumed the noni de guerre 'Beaumarchais). It is the first of the Figaro trilogy, the later plays being the ^Marriage of Figaro' and the ^Guilty Moth- er.' Upon it have been founded ^11 Barbiere di Liviglia,' an opera by Paisiello (1780), and ^11 Barbiere di Liviglia,' an opera by Rossini, first presented in 1816 and ever since extremely popu- lar. Barberini, bar-bar-re'ne, celebrated Flor- entine family which became powerful through Cardinal Maffeo Barberini, who was elected Pope in 1623 as Urban VIII. Few of the Popes have carried nepotism so far as Urban, who, during his reign of 21 years, seemed intent on only one object, the aggrandizement of his three nephews. Two of them were appointed cardinals, and the third became Prince of Pales- trina. The principality of Palestrina continued in the possession of the Colonna branch of the family until 1889, becoming extinct in the male line in that year. Barberini Faun, a famous piece of Greek sculpture, so called from its having once been in the possession of the Roman family of Bar- berini. It is now in the Glyptothek at Mimich. Barberini Palace, the residence of the Barberini family in Rome, begun by Pope Ur- ban VIII. , its most distinguished member, but not finished till 1640. It contains a famous picture-gallery and a library with over 10,000 volumes and 10,000 MSS. Bar'berry (Berberis), a genus of about 100 species of low ornamental shrubs of the natural order Berheridacece, natives of temperate cli- mates, sometimes subdivided into species with BARBERRY BLIGHT — BARBIE DU BOCAGE simple deciduous leaves (Bcrberis) and species with pinnate persistent leaves (Mahonia, q.v.). The yellow flowers are succeeded by red, dark- blue, or black fruit which in some species is used for making jellies of beautiful color and dis- tinct flavor ; that of some other species is dried and used like raisins. The yellow roots and sometimes the stems of several species are used in dj'eing, and the bark of some in tanning. Many of the species are used for ornament and for hedges, but in wheat-growing sections they should not be planted, because they are host- plants for the ascidium stage of wheat-rust (Puc- cinia graminis), which, however, has been known to develop in localities remote from barberry bushes. B. vulgaris and its varieties and B. thunbergii (considered by some botanists a form of vulgaris) are probably the most common and valuable simple-leaved species planted in America. The former, an American species, is a rather erect shrub about lo feet tall, with large leaves and racemes of flowers which are followed by red fruits that persist during the winter and even well into the second summer ; the latter, a Japanese species, is a low, spreading, graceful shrub with dainty little leaves which become brilliant red in autumn, and with solitary yellow flowers followed by orange-red persistent fruits. The stamens, which in many if not all species are sensitive, spring up when touched. Propa- gation is usually efifected by means of seeds or cuttings of green wood, but sometimes by grafts and layers. For description of species cultivated for ornament in America, consult Bailey and Miller, 'Q^clopedia of American Horticulture^ (1900-2). Barberry Blight or Rust. See Rusts. Barbers' Itch. Two distinct diseases of the skin are known by this name — one of a parasitic nature, the other not parasitic. In the latter there is an inflammation of the hair follicles characterized by the formation of papules and pustules pierced by hairs. It affects the hairy part of the face and runs a chronic course. It is more inclined to affect the upper lip and upper parts of the face. The more important disease is the Tinea barbce, or parasitic disease. Here the hair follicles are infected by a fungus, the triclwphyton. It is a form of ringworm of the beard. It affects the lower part of the face and neck, causing itching, scaly eruptions that secrete a thick mucus and spread out ring-like from the centre. The disease is always con- tracted from another person or sometimes from lower animals. Uncleanly barbers' implements are the chief agents in its spread. In the early stages — the parasitic form — it is readily cura- ble, but in the chronic stages it may prove very difficult to treat successfully. Bar'berton, Ohio, city in Summit County, 7 miles from Akron, and 39 miles from Cleveland; on the Erie, the Baltimore & Ohio, and the Pennsylvania Railroads. The town was founded in 1893 by O. C. Barber, president of the Dia- mond Match Company, whose works are lo- cated here. It is known as the " magic city * having acquired a population of 7,000 in less than 10 years. It is a progressive manufactur- ing centre having sewer-pipe mills, rubber works, potteries, iron works, paint mills, salt wells, strawboard works, and other industries. The city is governed lay a mayor and city council elected biennially. Barbes, Armand, bar-bes, ar-mon, French politician and revolutionist: b. Island of Guada- loupe, 1810; d. 1870. At an early age he was taken to France, and in 1830 went to Paris to attend the law classes, where he had an oppor- tunity of manifesting his political opinions at that period of public excitement. During the whole reign of Louis Philippe he was constantly engaged in conspiracies. In consequence of an unsuccessful attempt to overthrow the govern- ment he was condemned to death, a sentence which was commuted to perpetual confinement. The revolution of 1848 restored Barbes to lib- erty. He then founded a club, which took his name, in which the doctrines of socialism were superadded to republicanism. After the insur- rection of May 1849, Barbes was sentenced to deportation. In 1854 he was again set at liberty, and left France, a voluntary exile. Bar'bet, any of the tropical South Ameri- can birds of the families Capitonidce and Buc- conida, both of which are characterized by prominent bristles about the mouth, which as- sist them in catching flying insects. The birds of the former family are more usually called ^^ thickheads,'^ and those o\ the latter '^ puff- birds*' (qq.v.). Barbette, bar-bet', the platform or eleva- tion of earth behind the breastwork of a forti- fication or an intrenchment, from which artillery may be fired over the parapet. An ascent leads from the interior of the intrenchment to the bar- bette. When the garrison has much heavy ord- nance, or the enemy has opened his trenches, or when it is determined to cannonade the intrench- ments of a given point, — as, for example, a bridge or pass, — and the direction of the cannon is not to be materially changed, it is usual, in- stead of making a barbette, to cut embrasures in the parapet ; on the contrary, firing from the barbette is expedient when one expects to be at- tacked only by infantry, or wishes to cannonade the whole surrounding country. See Fortifi- cation. Barbette Gun. See Ordnance. Barbette Turret. See Turret. Barbey d'Aurevilly, bar-ba-do-re-ve-ye, Jules, French critic and novelist: b. Saint- Sauveur-le-Vicomte, Manche, 2 Nov. 1808; d. Paris, 24 April 1889. As a contributor to the Pays in Paris he created a sensation by the un- reserved tone and peculiar style of his literary criticisms. He wrote *0n Dandyism and G. BrummeP (1845) ; (1887); 'Grettis the Outlaw> (1890) ; 'The Broom Squire^ (1896) ; 'Guavas the Tinner^ (1897); 'Bladys (1897); 'Domitia> C1898) ; 'Pabo the Priest^ (1899); 'A Book of the West> (1899) ; 'Furze-Bloom' (1899) ; 'The Crock of Gold' (1899); 'Winefred' (1900); 'A Book of Dartmoor' (1900) ; 'In a Quiet Village' (1900) : 'Virgin Saints and Martyrs' (1900) ; 'The Frobishers' ; 'A Book of Brit- tany' (1901) ; 'Royal Georgie' (1901) ; 'Miss Quillet'; 'Nebo the Nailer' (1902). Baring Island, an island in the Arctic Archipelago. The name is also given to a bay and strait. They were named for Sir Francis Baring, who was first lord of the admiralty at the time of their discovery. Baringo, a lake in East Africa, northeast of the Victoria Nyanza, about 20 miles long. 200 square miles in area, and between 3.000 and 4.000 feet above sea-level. Though fed by many streams, it has no visible outlet. It contains several small islands and was discovered by Thomson in 1883. Barite, ba'rit (Greek, "heavy," in allusion to its high specific gravity), a mineral having the formula BaSO^, and crystallizing in the orthorhombic system, but also occurring mass- ive, and in granular, earthy, and stalactitic forms. It is usually white or nearly so, and has a hardness of from 2.5 to 3.5. Its specific gravity ranges from 4.3 to 4.6, and from this circumstance the mineral is often called "heavy- spar." Barite was first examined (in 1602) by Casciorolus, a shoemaker of Bologna, who discovered that it becomes phosphorescent when heated with combustible matter, and gave it the name lapis solis, or "sun stone." Barite occurs in many parts of the world, and in large quan- tities. In the United States it is found abun- dantly in many States, notably in Virginia, North Carolina, and Missouri, and in the Lake Superior region. It constitutes an important source of barium compounds, and was mined m the United States to the extent of about 61,000 tons in 1902. See also B.\rium. Baritone, or Barytone, a male voice, whose compass partakes of those of the common bass and the tenor, but does not extend so far down- ward as the one nor to an equal height with the other. Its best tones are from the lower A of the bass clef to the lower E or F in the treble; yet we find Verdi and Meyerbeer exact- ing G and even A flat from it. This name is also given to the smaller bass saxhorn in B flat or C, used in reed and brass bands. Ba'rium, a metallic element, strongly re- sembling calcium in its chemical properties. The mineral barite (q.v.) was the first com- pound of barium to be examined. In 1750 Marggraf showed that barite contains sulphu- ric acid, and the subsequent labors of Scheele and Gahn proved that it also contains a pre- viously unrecognized earth, which Bergmann called terra ponderosiim, or "heavy earth." In 1779 Guyton de Morveau proposed the name "barote" (Greek, "heavy") for this earth, and Lavoisier modified the word to "baryta," in which form it still survives. Subsequently ba- rj'ta was found to be the oxid of a new metal, which was isolated by electrolysis in 1808 by Berzelius and Pontin, and afterward by Davy, and named "barium." The properties of metal- lic barium are not yet satisfactorily ascertained, for it is probable that the metal has never been obtained in a state of even approximate purity. Thus, Davy says it is a silver white metal; Clarke ascribes to it the color and lustre of iron ; Bunsen and Matthiessen describe it as golden yellow ; and Donath states that its true color is that of bronze. It oxidizes rapidly in the air, and decomposes water readily. It is ductile and somewhat malleable. Its atomic weight is 137.4 (0^16), and its chemical sym- bol is Ba. It melts at about the same tempera- ture as cast iron, and its specific gravity ap- pears to be between 3.75 and 4.00. The most common sources of barium compounds are the carbonate and sulphate, which occur native as Witherite and Barite (qq.v.), respectively. The nitrate is prepared by acting upon the native carbonate with nitric acid. It is a solu- ble salt, with the formula Ba(N03):. The nitrate decomposes upon being strongly heated, the nitric acid being expelled, while barium monoxid (or baryta), BaO, is left behind as a gray, porous mass, strongly caustic and alka- line. When gently heated in air, barium mo- noxid takes up another molecule of oxygen and forms the dioxid. BaO:; and on being more strongly heated, the dioxid gives up the extra atom of oxygen again, and returns to the mo- noxid. It was long ago proposed to make use of BARK — BARK-BEETLES this curious property for isolating pure oxygen from the air, by alternately heating the dioxid at a high temperature, and collecting the oxygen given off as it returns to the monoxid, and then submitting it, at a lower temperature, to the action of a current of air until it has again passed into the state of dioxid. It was found, however, that the process would work only for a short 'time, after which a fresh supply of baryta was required. Recent investigations have gone far toward discovering the cause of this loss of activity, and it is now likely that oxygen will soon be made on a commercial scale by this most ingenious process. Baryta absorbs water with considerable evolution of heat and the formation of a hydrate, Ba(0H)2, which crystallizes with eight molecules of water. Barium hydrate is also made, in large quanti- ties and at a low price, at Niagara Falls, by the electrolysis of soluble salts of barium. The hydrate is used in refining sugar, being much superior to lime for this purpose. With cane sugar it forms an insoluble compound from which the sugar may afterward be set free by a current of carbon dioxid gas. The hydrate is also likely to be of great use, in the near future, for preventing the formation of boiler scale, by precipitating the carbonates and sul- phates in the feed water, in the form of in- soluble barium compounds. The value of ba- rium hydrate for this purpose has long been known, but until the development of the elec- trolytic method of manufacturing it, the ex- pense involved was prohibitive. Barium sul- phate (barite) is thrown down as a precipitate whenever a soluble barium compound is added to a solution of any sulphate ; and for this reason soluble barium salts are much used by the chemist in testing for sulphuric acid and sulphates. The chloride (BaCl^) is the salt most commonly employed as a reagent for this purpose. Barium sulphate is one of the most insoluble salts known. The native sulphate, when ground up, is used to adulterate white lead. The artificial sulphate is also used for this purpose, and is itself used as a paint, under the name of "permanent white,^' or blanc fixe. The artificial sulphate is said to be superior to the natural mineral for use as a paint, as it has more "body.^^ When barium sulphate is heated with coal it loses its oxygen, and be- comes reduced to the sulphid, BaS, a salt which is highly phosphorescent, and is known as Bologna phosphorus. After exposure to sun- light or to a strong artificial light, barium sul- phid shines for hours with a bright, orange color. Barium is readily recognized by the spectroscope, by a number of characteristic green lines. Its volatile salts communicate a green color to non-luminous flames, and are used (especially the nitrate) in pyrotechny. In poisoning by the barium salts the symp- toms resemble those seen in poisoning by other metals. In the acute forms there is pain and burning in the mouth and stomach, nausea, vomiting, and chills. These are followed by diarrhoea, dizziness, and chilly feelings. The pulse is slowed, at first large and full, later small and scarcely recognizable. Muscle paral- ysis supervenes with dyspnoea, loss of conscious- ness, convulsions, and death. In the treatment prompt washing of the stomach with a solution of Glauber's salts is advisable. This forms an insoluble barium sulphate. Bark, the more or less easily separable layers of tissue surrounding the woody cylinder of trees and shrubs, also, by extension, the analogous part (cortex) of textile plants such as hemp, jute, ramie, flax, etc., and other annual stems. The layers are divided into three groups which may be readily seen in a yearling stem ; (i) The phloem, bast, the inner food-conducting tissue annually thickened from the cambium (q.v.) layer which separates it from the wood; (2) the green zone which generally does not increase in thickness but which in young twigs assists in food elaboration (see Photosyn- thesis) ; (3) the epidermis or external layer with contiguous cork cells which increase from the phellogen, or cork cambium, a layer of epidermal or cortical cells. These cork cells which develop mainly at right angles to the direction of the stem, die and become more or less weather-beaten and seamed from cracking and give the characteristic appearance to tree trunks. Many trees can be identified by their bark alone. The bark of many trees and shrubs is of economic use mainly in tanning, dyeing, medi- cine, and cookery. In tanning (q.v.) such barks as are rich in tannic acid are most in demand; oak, hemlock, and chestnut (qq.v.) are general favorites in America and Europe ; eucalyptus and acacia in Australia. Larch and willow bark are used for special work. To obtain these barks the trees are felled after the sap has started to flow in the spring, the rough exterior laj^ers removed, the bark of the trunk and main limbs peeled off in lengths of about two feet with specially made tools ; the bark of the smaller branches, in equal lengths, is loosened with mallets and slipped off^. After removal the bark is loosely piled in open sheds to dr}'- or stacked on end in the open air, the larger pieces being placed on the outside to protect the smaller inner ones from rain and sun, which together with mildew are the im- portant agencies that may injure the quality of the product. The barks used in medicine, cookery, etc., are treated under individual titles. See Cascarilla, Cinchona, and Cinnamon ; also Cork. Bark, or Barque, a three-masted vessel whose foremast and mainmast are square- rigged, but whose mizzenmast has fore-and-aft sails only. The distinction between a bark and a barkentine is that the latter has but one mast square-rigged, the main and mizzen being both rigged fore-and-aft. Bark-beetles, members of the family Scolytidcc, and allied to the weevils. They are of an elongate C3'^lindrical form, truncated be- fore and behind. They mine under the bark of trees, running their winding galleries in every direction, but rarely attack living healthy trees. They are usually brown or black in color. The rounded head does not end in a snout and is deeply sunken in the thorax ; the clavate anten- nae are somewhat elbowed, while the palpi are very short ; the elytra are often hollowed at the end, and the short stout legs are toothed on the under side of the femora, and the tarsi are slender and narrow. The eggs are laid in the bark, whence the larvae on being hatched bore straight into the sap wood, or mine between the bark and the sap wood. They are fleshy, cylin- drical, footless larvae, wrinkled on the back. BARK-LOUSE — BARKER When fully grown in the autumn they gnaw an exit for the beetle, taking care to leave a little space closed in front of their burrow to con- ceal the pupa. The various species of Scolytus, Tomicus, and Xyloterus give rise to a disease similar to fireblight, by their ravages beneath the twigs of fruit trees, causing the bark to shrivel and peal off as if a fire had run through the orchard. Xyloterus ftiscatus has been found to bore into empty wine casks and spoil them for use. The spruce forests of Maine and other parts of northern New England have, since 1818, been devastated by Dcndrocotoniis piccaperda of Hopkins. It attacks and kills vigorous trees in perfect health, the largest and best stands of limber suffering most from its ravages. The estimated number of adults which under favor- able conditions may emerge from an average- sized tree is from 5,000 to 7,000. Hopkins esti- mates that an average of three pairs of beetles to the square foot of bark on 10 to 15 feet of the trunk of an average-sized tree are sufficient to kill it, and that 6,000 beetles breeding in one tree may be sufficient to kill from 20 to 25 more trees. Two other beetles (Polygraphiis sufipcn- nis and Tcfropium ciniiauioptcnim) also aid the Deudrocotonus in killing the spruce. Consult : Packard, 'Report on the Insects Injurious to Forest and Shade Trees^ (1890) ; Hopkins, * Insect Enemies of the Spruce in the North- east^ (Bull. No. 28, Division of Entomology, U. S. Dept. Agriculture, 1891). Bark-louse, a hemipterous insect of the scale family (Coccidce). The bark-lice are very small insects, whose females are wingless, their bodies resembling scales. The females sting the bark of trees with a long slender beak, sucking in the sap, and, when very numerous, injure or kill the tree. The males have two wings but no beak, and take no food. The apple bark-louse (Mytilaspis pomonim) is de- structive to young apple-trees, while in Florida M. gloi'cri is a pest of the orange, as is also the San Jose scale-insect (q.v.). The cochineal, the mealy-bug of hot-houses, and various other coccid insects, belong to this group. See Scale- insects, and the names of various species. Bark, Peruvian. A bark obtained from several trees belonging to the genus Cinchona, which grow spontaneously in many parts of South America, but more particularly of Peru. The trees somewhat resemble a cherry-tree in appearance, and have white or pink flowers. This valuable medicine was formerly called Jesuit's Bark, from having been introduced into Europe by the members of that Order settled in South America. They were instruct- ed in its use by the natives of Peru, and it con- tinued for many years a source of profit to the Order. Its bontanical name was derived from that of the Countess del Chinchon, the lady of a Spanish viceroy, who had been cured by it. The tree from which it is obtained grows abun- dantly in the forests of Quito and Peru, and the bark is cut by the natives in the months of September, October, and November, during which alone the weather is free from rain. The bark is of three kinds — red, yellow, and pale, of which the yellow and pale barks are the stronger in their febrifuge properties. The crown-bark, as the highest-priced is termed, is of a pale yellowish-red. The pale is the original Peruvi"^n cinchona, and is produced by several varieties of the Cinchona oMcimlis. The red is obtained from the C. sticcirubra, which grows chiefly in the forests of Ecuador around Chim- borazo. The yellow sort is produced by the C calisaya, and grows in Bolivia and Peru. The uses of the bark in medicine are too well known to need description; but the chem- ical discoveries in relation to it are deserving of more particular mention. Its medicinal prop- erties were found to depend upon the presence of a substance called quinine. This exists, more or less, in all kinds of Peruvian bark, but in quantities very unequal in the various kinds. See QuixiNE. Barkal, or Jcbel Barkal, an isolated sand- stone rock, 400 feet high, in Nubia, near the Fourth Cataract of the Nile. It is nearly per- pendicular on all sides, but fully so on the side nearest the Nile. There are some remark- able ruins in the vicinity. Excavations here have revealed inscriptions and archaeological remains of great interest and value, an account of which may be found in Lepsius's 'Denk- miiler,^ Vol. V. Bark'entine. See Bark or Barque. Barker, Albert Smith, American naval offi- cer : b. Massachusetts, March 1843. He was graduated at the United States Naval Academy in 1859; served on the frigate Mississippi in the operations to open the Mississippi River in 1861-3, taking part in the bombardment and passage of forts Jackson and St. Philip and the Chalmette batteries, the capture of New Orleans, and the attempted passage of Port Hudson, where his vessel was destroyed. He became captain 5 May 1892; commanded the cruiser Newark during the war with Spain ; subsequently succeeded to the command of the battleship Oregon, which he took to Manila; became a rear-admiral, and was placed in com- mand of the Norfolk Navy Yard in 1899; and in July 1900 succeeded the late Rear-Admiral Philip as commandant of the Brooklyn Navy Yard. Barker, Edmund Henry, English philolo- gist: b. Hollym, Yorkshire, December 1788; d. London, 21 March 1839. He undertook the labor of reprinting the 'Thesaurus Grsecus-" of H. Stephens, upon which was expended an im- mense amount of time and money, but owing tc severe adverse criticisms, the work did not appear in the form which was originally in- tended, or under his name. His first work, 'Classical Recreations,' appeared in London, 1812; one volume only was published. He also wrote several dissertations, essays, etc., for re- views ; a work upon the claims of Sir Philip Francis to the authorship of the Junius letters ; a Greek and English dictionar3% etc. In the latter part of his life he became so reduced that he was at one time confined in a debtors' prison, and finally died in an obscure lodging- house in extreme want. Barker, Fordyce, American physician: b. Wilton, Franklin County, Me., 2 May 1819; d. 3a May 1891. He entered upon the practice of his profession in Norwich, Conn., in 1845, and made a specialty of obstetrics and diseases of women. After serving as professor of mid- wifery at Bowdoin, he removed to New York in 1850. He was an incorporator of the New York Medical College and obstetricaT BARKER — B ARLAAM surgeon to Bellevue Hospital, besides acting as consulting physician in leading hospitals. He wrote VPuerperal Diseases* (1872); and <0n Seasickness.' Barker, George Frederick, American physicist: b. Charlestown, Mass., 14 July 1835. He was graduated from Sheffield Scientific School, 1858, and Albany Medical College, 1863, and from 1859 to 1872 taught at Harvard, Yale, Wheaton College (111.), and Western Univer- sity of Pennsylvania. Since 1873 he has been professor of physics in the University of Penn- sj^lvania. He was a United States commis- sioner at the International Electrical Exhibition at Paris, 1881, where he received the Legion of Honor decoration, with rank of commander. He has frequently served as an expert in patent and other cases, notably as a government expert in the suit against the American Bell Telephone Company, and in the Lydia Sherman poisoning case in 1872. His publications have chiefly ap- peared in the ^American Journal of Science,' ^American Chemist,' and "^Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society.' Others are, besides text-books on chemistry: ^Nitrous-Ox- ide' (1866) ; *^ Correlation of Vital and Physical Forces' (1871) ; ^Progress in Physics.' For several years he contributed to the Smithsonian reports. Barker, Jacob, American financier: b. Swan Island, Me., 7 Dec. 1779; d. Philadelphia, 26 Dec. 1871. He early developed remarkable business ability, settled in New York, and before he was 21 owned five trading vessels and controlled a large credit. In 1801 he met with heavy reverses, but obtaining a government con- tract for supplying oil, made up his losses, and at the outbreak of the War of 1812, undertook the raising of a loan of $5,000,000 for the gov- ernment. He was a founder of Tammany Hall, and a State senator, and established a bank in Wall Street in 1815 which failed in 1819. His financial methods aroused intense opposition and he was once indicted for fraud and con- victed, but a new trial quashed the indictment. Removing to New Orleans in 1834, he was ad- mitted to the bar and accumulated a large for- tune that was mostly lost during the Civil War. During the latter part of his life he lived in Philadelphia with his son, Wharton Barker. See ^Incidents in the Life of Jacob Barker, 1800-1855^ (1855). Barker, James Nelson, American author: b. Philadelphia, 17 June 1784; d. Washington, March 1858. He served wnth distinction in the War of 1812, but subsequently entered civil life, becoming mayor of his native city in 1820. He was collector of customs at Philadelphia 1829-38 and during the ensuing 20 years was comptrol- ler of the United States Treasury. His dra- matic works, especially ^Marmion,' ^The In- dian Princess,' and ^Smiles and Tears,' were popular. Barker, Lewellys Franklin, Canadian- American anatomist: b. Norwich, Ont., 1867. He was a professor of anatomy at Johns Hop- kins University 1894-1900, and from 1900 has been at the head of the department of anatomy in the Rush Medical College of University of Chicago. He is author of ^The Nervous Sys- tem and Its Constituent Neurones' (1899). Barker, Matthew Henry, English novelist: b. Deptford, 1790; d. London, 29 June 1846. He followed the sea, and under the name of "The Old Sailor," wrote spirited sea tales, very popular in their day. They include 'Land and Sea Tales' (1836); 'Life of Nelson' (1836); 'Topsailsheet Blocks' (1838; new ed. 1881); and 'The Victory, or the Wardroom Mess' (1844). Barker's Mill, a form of waterwheel de- vised by Dr. Barker, some 300 years ago. It turns about a vertical axis, down which the water that is to operate it flows. At the lower extremity of the vertical axis two or more hollow arms project horizontally, like the spokes of a wheel. Water is discharged tangentially from the ends of these hollow arms, and by its reaction causes the wheel to rotate. Barker's mill is now used only as a toy, although a modification of it, invented by Whitelaw, is still used, to some extent, as a source of power in Great Britain, where it is known as the Scotch turbine. See Turbine. Barking, England, a town in Essex, on the left bank of the Roding, about two miles above its junction with the Thames, and seven miles northeast from London. The houses are mostly of brick and generally well built. It has a parish church, a handsome structure, with a lofty tower, and some fine public buildings. There are also the ruins of Barking Abbey, at one time among the wealthiest nunneries of England. There are several important indus- trial works, the largest being a gas works em- ploying many hands. Pop. (1901) 21,500. Con- sult 'Barking Town' (1897). Barking Wolf, a name in early American books for the prairie wolf or coyote, on account of the greater resemblance in its voice to the barking of a dog than to the howl of the wolf. See Coyote. • Bar'kis, a rustic figure in Dickens' 'David Copperfield.' He proposes to David's nurse, Peggotty, in the since famous phrase "Barkis is willin'." Barks'dale, William, American statesman and military officer: b. Rutherford County, Tenn., 21 Aug. 1821 ; d. 2 July 1863. He was admitted to the bar when under 21, and rapidly achieved eminence in law and politics, editing the Columbus Democrat, and serving in the Mexican war. He entered Congress in 1853, but resigned his seat when his State seceded, and took command of a regiment of Mississippi volunteers. He was made a Confederate brig- adier-general after a campaign in Virginia, and was killed at Gettysburg. Barlaam, bar'la-am, Italian theologian: b. Seminaria, Calabria ; d. about 1348. He was a monk of St. Basil, noted for his learning, and particularly for his thorough knowledge of the Greek language. In 1327 he visited Con- stantinople, and in 1331 he was appointed abbot of the convent of St. Salvator. In 1339 the kings of France and Sicily sent Barlaam in vain to Pope Benedict XII. at Avignon, for the purpose of obtaining assistance against the Mo- hammedans, and of arranging a union between the Greek and Latin Churches. Henceforth he was engaged in various religious controversies, and was defeated in them all. He finally en- BARLAAM AND JOSAPHAT — BARLEY tered the Roman Catholic Church, and through the influence of his friend, Petrarch, received from Pope Clement VI. the bishopric of Geraci. Barlaam and Josaphat, one of the most popular of early niediccval romances, supposed to have been written by St. John of Damascus, — or Damascenus, as he is sometimes called, — a Syrian monk born about the end of the 7th century. The name of Barlaam and Josaphat appear in both the Greek and Roman lists of saints. According to the narrative of Damas- cenus, Josaphat was the son of a king of India brought up in magnificent seclusion, to the end that he might know nothing of human misery. Despite his father's care, the knowledge of sickness, poverty, and death cannot be hidden from him; he is oppressed by the mystery of existence. A Christian hermit, Barlaam, finds his way to him at the risk of life, and succeeds in converting him to Christianity. The prince uses his influence to promote the new faith among his people. When he has raised his kingdom to high prosperity, he leaves it to spend the remainder of his days as a holy hermit. Professor Max Miiller traces a very close connection between the legend of Bar- laam and Josaphat, and the Indian legends of the Buddha as related in the Sanskrit of the Lalita Vistara. This connection was first noticed, according to Prof. Miiller, by AI. Laboulaye in the ^Journal des Debats' (July 1859). A year later, Dr. Felix Liebrecht made an elaborate treatment of the subject. The compilers of the ^Gesta Romanorum,^ Boccac- cio, Gower, and Shakespeare have all drawn materials from this romance. Barlaeus, bar-le'us, or Baerle, Kaspar van, Dutch historian and learned writer: b. Antwerp, 12 Feb. 1584; d. Amsterdam, 14 Jan. 1648. His ^Poems,^ mostly Latin, are not forcible, but his * History of Brazil under Maurice of Nassau^ is decidedly so; and he composed also numerous fine orations, the influence he ex- ercised upon contemporary thought bemg very considerable. Barletta, bar-let'ta, Gabriello, Italian monk : b. perhaps at Barletta, in the kingdom of Naples, in the 15th century. He became celebrated at Naples on account of his sermons, in which he mixed sarcasm and the ludicrous with the sacred ; quoting, now Virgil, now Moses ; placing David at the side of Hercules ; and commencing a sentence in Italian to con- tinue it in Latin, and end it in Greek. Some- times he forgot himself so far as to use ex- pressions of which he had not considered the signification, as when he asked by what signs the Samaritan knew Jesus was a Jew. Very serious authors, Niceron and others, have given the response of the preacher ; but it cannot be reproduced here. There is under his name a collection of Latin sermons, which have gone through more than 20 editions. Barletta, Italy, a seaport town on the west shore of the Adriatic, 23 miles northwest of Bari. In the market-place is a colossal bronze statue, about 18 feet high, supposed to represent the Emperor Heraclius. A statue of the statesman Massimo d' Azeglio, who died in 1866, adorns another square. The cathedral is a fine Byzantine edifice, the nave of which is supported by antique granite columns. There are several other churches, convents for both Vol. 2 — 21. sexes, an orphan institution, a colli^ge founded by Ferdinand IV., and a theatre. The harbor is formed by a mole running out from the shore. It admits of small vessels only, but good anchorage-ground is found in the road- stead. Barletta has a considerable trade in grain, wine, almonds, and the other productions of the country, which are exported to the differ- ent ports of the Adriatic. Pop. (1901) 42,022. Barley (A. S. baccrlic, from here, barley -\- leac, a leek, plant) ; genus Hordeum; our fourth most important cereal. It belongs to the natural order Graminea or grass family, and is one of the oldest of the cultivated mem- bers of this family. It was cultivated in ancient Egypt (Exod. ix. 31), by the Greeks and Ro- mans. Pliny regarded it as the most ancient food of mankind. It has been found in the lake dwellings of Switzerland in deposits be- longing to the Stone Age. Ears of barley are represented plaited in the hair of the goddess Ceres, and are also shown on ancient coins. One of the sacred books of the Chinese claims that it was grown in China 2000 B.C. It grows wild in western Asia, and some authorities re- gard this as its original home. It is adapted to both warm and cold climates, has a wider range of distribution than any other cereal, being grown all over the region embraced in the temperate zones, from Alaska, Iceland, and Norway in the north to Algeria, Egypt, India, and other sub-tropical countries. The Nepaul or Himalaya barley is very hardy, producing good crops at an elevation of 14,000 feet above the sea. In Chile and Switzerland it thrives at 5,000 feet, but on the plateaus of Peru it rarely ripens. This species is divided into several types, of which the following are recognized: Two- rowed barley, Hordeum distichon; four-rowed barley, H. vulgare, the common barley, here or bigg; six-rowed barley, H. hexasticlwn; naked barley, H. distichon nudum, the flowering glume and pale not adhering to the grain as in other types; fan, spratt, or Battledore barley, H. zeo- criton, two-rowed with wide-spreading awns; this is valued in Germany and is sometimes called German rice. These types are further subdivided into varieties, the most popular for malting belonging to the two-rowed type. The best known is the Chevalier, which originated in Suffolk, England, in 1819. This variety and selections from it constitute the high-priced bar- ley of California. In Europe the two-rowed type predominates. In this country the six- rowed is more common. The four-rowed vari- eties were formerly used for malting; they are hardy and productive but coarse, and are being replaced by the two-rowed. In northern lati- tudes well-drained and fertile medium or rather light soils, particularly those of a calcareous nature are best. Strong loams, hea\'y' clays, and soils rich in humus, produce heavy crops, but of inferior quality. In southern latitudes medium to heavy loams are best. Climate and season are of more importance than soil in de- termining whether the barley will be a good malting variety or not. A rather dry climate suits well. The climate of eastern and south- eastern England produces the best malting bar- ley. It may be sown broadcast or drilled, but the latter method is more satisfactory. Fall- sown varieties are handled like fall-sown wheat, but it is generally sown in the spring after BARLEY BREAK — BARLOW spring-wheat sowing is over. The amount sown varies from two to three bushels per acre. It germinates quickly, and late spring frosts may injure it. Fertilizers when applied must be evenly distributed or an uneven growth will result. It ripens before spring wheat, and should be fully ripe before it is cut. The color and value of the grain is easily injured by damp weather. From 30 to 40 bushels of grain and 1,500 to 2,200 pounds of straw is a good yield. Sometimes this yield of grain is doubled. A good malting variety must have quick, high, and even germinating power ; the grains must be plump, heavy, thin-husked, and uniform in size ; of good bright color, not "steely*^ or bleached, indicating immaturity when cut, nor musty ; must contain a high percentage of starch, mealy not flinty, showing that the starch can be readily transformed during malting. Barley IS sometimes attacked by rust and smut, but less so than wheat. (See Rusts; Wheat.) Wireworms are sometimes troublesome. The production of barley in the United States is in- creasing. In 1866, 7,916,342 bushels were grown on 492,532 acres. In 1905, 136,651,020 bushels en 5,095,528 acres. The four leading States in 1904 were Minnesota, 32,123,041 bushels; Cali- fornia, 28,091,999 bushels; North Dakota. 17,518,- 074; Wisconsin, 14,941,290 bushels. The aver- age yield for the 10 years 1895-1904 was 25.02 bushels per acre. The average farm value 40.48c per bushel. In 1904 only Russia grew more barley than the United States. Feeding Value and Uses. — The average per- centage composition of barley is, water, 10.9; proteids, 12.4; nitrogen-free extract, chiefly starch, 69.8; ether extract, 1.8; crude fibre, 2.7; ash, 2.4. Digestion experiments with pigs showed that 80 per cent of the dry matter, 81 per cent of the protein, 87 per cent of the nitro- gen-free extract, and 57 per cent of the ether extract were digestible. Barley is chiefly used for malting, for the preparation of spirits, beer, and malted foods. It is also employed in do- mestic cookery as *pot or hulled barley^^ in which only the husks are removed; "pearl bar- ley^' is the grain deprived of husk and pellicle, then ground to a round form and polished ; "patent barley" is flour obtained by grinding pearl barley. It is used in soups, for making demulcent and emollient drinks for invalids and other purposes. Barley bread is darker in color and less nutritious than that from wheat flour; it does not contain gluten, but is fairly rich in other proteids. Barley, or decoctions of it, are used to modify cows' milk for feeding to infants. Bar- ley meal and the by-products, barley bean, bar- ley feed (from pearled barley) screenings, malt combs, and brewers' grains are used as stock feeds. Its use for horse feed in the United States is confined to the Pacific coast. For other stock its use is more general. It may be fed alone or with other grain. Barley hay is grown, the crop being cut before the grain is mature. As a forage crop or pasture it may be grown alone or with peas, vetches, or other quick-growing legumes. Barley straw is usually considered as not worth feeding, but may be used as bedding. See Malt. Barley Break, a game once common, and often mentioned by old English writers. It was played by six young people, three of either sex, formed into couples, a young man and a young woman in each, it being decided by lot which individuals were to be paired together. A piece of ground was then divided into three spaces, of which the central one was profanely termed hell. This was assigned to a couple as their appropriate place. The couples who occu- pied the other spaces then advanced as near as they dared to the central one to tempt the doomed pair, who, with one of their hands locked in that of their partner, endeavored with the other to grasp them and draw them into the central space. If they succeeded, they were then allowed themselves to emerge from it, the couple caught taking their places. That the game might not be too speedily finished, leave was given to the couple in danger of being taken to break hands and individually try to escape, while no such liberty was accorded to those at- tempting to seize them. Barleycorn, John, a personification of the spirit of barley, or malt liquor. It is commonly used jocularly, and in humorous verse. Dr. Murray's ^ Dictionary^ quotes a title in the Pepy- sian Library, about 1620, "A pleasant new bal- lad ... of the bloody murther of Sir John Bar- leycorn.® Burns' ballad on John Barleycorn, 'There was Three Kings into the East,^ is well known. Barlow, Francis Channing, American mil- itary officer: b. Brooklyn, N. Y., 9 Oct. 1834; d. II Jan. 1896. He studied law in New York, and practised there, but in 1861 enlisted as a private in the 12th Regiment, New York State National Guard, which was among the first troops at the front. He was promoted lieuten- ant after three months of service ; colonel dur- ing the siege of Yorktown ; distinguished himself in the battle of Fair Oaks, or Seven Pines, for which he was promoted brigadier-general, and fought in almost every subsequent battle of the Army of the Potomac. He was severely wound- ed at Chancellorsville and at Gettysburg, and was mustered out of the service with the rank of major-general of volunteers. In 1866-8 he was secretary of State of New York; in 1871 became attorney-general ; and in 1873 resumed law practice in New York. Barlow, James William, Irish historian: b. 21 Oct. 1826. He was professor of modern history in Trinity College, Dublin, from 1861, and has published 'Lectures on Mediaeval Italy' ; 'The Normans in Italy' ; 'Eternal Punishment or Eternal Death' ; 'The Ultimatum of Pessi- mism.' Barlow, Jane, popular Irish novelist: b. Clontarf, Ireland, 17 Oct. i860. The literary quality is a marked characteristic of all her writing. Her published works include 'Bog- land Studies,' verse (1892) ; 'Irish Idylls' (1892) ; 'Kerrigan's Qualitv' (1893) >' ^The End of Elfintown' (1894) ; 'The Battle of the Frogs and Mice' (1894) ; 'Maureen's Fairing' (1895); 'Strangers at LisconneP (1895); 'Mrs. Martin's Company' (1896) ; 'Creel of Irish Stories' (1897) ; ^ From the East Unto the West' (1898); 'From the Land of the Sham- rock' (1900) ; 'Ghost-bereft and Other Stories' (1902) ; 'The Founding of Fortunes' (1902). Barlow, Joel, American poet and diploma- tist : b. Redding, Conn., 24 March 1754 ; d. near Cracow, Poland, 24 Dec. 1812. In 1774 he was placed at Dartmouth College, New Hampshire BARLOW — BARMOTE COURT and after a short residence entered Yale Col- lege, New Haven, where he displayed a talent for versification, which gained him the friend- ship of Dr. Dwight, then a tutor there. Bar- low, more than once during the vacations of the college, served as a volunteer in the army of the Revolution. In 1778 he applied himself to the study of the law, but soon after accepted the position of chaplain in the army, which he held till the close of the war (1783). During this period his songs and addresses were said to have animated and encouraged the soldiers; at this time, too, he planned and partly com- posed his 'Vision of Columbus.* He went to Hartford, where he started a weekly newspaper, continuing at same time the preparation of his poem for the press. It was published in 1787, and some months after in London. To pro- mote the sale of his poem, and that of a new edition of the Psalms adapted by him. Barlow gave up the newspaper and became a bookseller. In 1788 we find him in France as agent for a number of speculators in land, called the Ohio Company. The Revolution was then in pro- gress, and Barlow went about lecturing and or- ganizing societies in its favor. He went to England in 1791, and was deputed in the follow- ing year by the London Constitutional Society to present an address to the French Convention. In 1795 he was appointed American consul at Algiers, a post he only held for two years. Returning to Paris he made some successful com.mercial speculations and acquired a consid- erable fortune. He returned, after an absence of 17 years, to his native country (1805). In 1811 he was appointed minister-plenipotentiary to France. In the following year, owing to the fatigues and privations of a journey to Wilna to hold a conference with Napoleon, he died at an obscure village near Cracow. His princi- pal poem, the 'Columbiad,'' has never been popular ; it is defective in plan and execution, overloaded with philosophical discussions and political tirades; and disfigured by pedantic and uncouth words of his own coinage. His prose writings bear the stamp of an active and ener- getic intellect, but want that ripeness of judg- ment required by the complex nature of the subjects he examines. See Todd, 'Life and Letters of Joel Barlow^ (iS Barlow, Peter, English physicist and mathematician: b. Norwich, October 1776; d. i March 1862. He was professor of mathematics in the Royal Military Academy at Woolwich for a period of 40 years. His greatest work is the 'Mathematical and Philosophical Diction- ary.' He was also the author of an elaborate work on the 'Machinery and Manufactures of Great Britain' (1837) ; of a treatise on the 'Force and Rapidity of Locomotives' (1838) ; and of an 'Essay on Magnetic Attraction,' one of the first works in which the phenomena of magnetism were distinctly enunciated. He in- vented the Barlow lens. Barlow, William Henry, English engineer: b. ID May 1812; d. 14 Nov. 1902. He was edu- cated for the engineering profession, and among his most notable achievements are the St. Pan- eras terminal station in London and the Tay Bridge, constructed 1880-7. In 1876 he visited the United States as one of the judges of the Centennial Commission. He published 'Illurn- ination of Lighthouses' ; 'Diurnal Electric Tides and Storms > ; 'The Resistance of Flexure in Beams'; 'The Logograph.' Barlowe, Arthur, English navigator: b. about 1550; d. about 1620. In 1584 he was sent with Philip Amidas to select a suitable loca- tion for Raleigh's proposed American colony. They explored the coast of North Carolina and on their return to England Barlowe wrote an enthusiastic description of the attractions of the land they had visited. Barlows Disease. See Scurvy. Barm. See Yeast. Bar'mecides, a celebrated Persian family, whose virtues and splendor form a favorite sub- ject for Mohammedan poets and historians. Two eminent members were Khaledben-Barmek, prime minister of Caliph Abul Abbas Al-Saffah, and tutor of the celebrated Haroun al-Raschid, and his son Yahya, grand vizier of Haroun. The expression Barmecides' Feast, meaning a visionary banquet or make-believe entertain- ment, originates from a story in the Arabian Nights' Entertainments, of a wealthy Barmecide, to whom a poor man, Schacabac, had applied for charity. On the latter informing him that he was starving, the Barmecide invited him to dinner; and calling for a succession of the most sumptuous viands, although none were provided, urged his guest to fall to and enjoy himself, praising the merits of each dish as it was pre- tended to arrive on the table. Schacabac, though suffering all the pangs of hunger, en- tered into the eccentric humor of his host, de- clared his infinite enjoyment of everything set before him, and by his patience so won the heart of his eccentric entertainer, that the lat- ter not only provided for him immediately an actual and plenteous repast, but likewise took him into his house and intrusted him with the management of his affairs. Barmecides' Feast. See Barmecides. Bar'men, a city on the Wupper, in Rhenish Prussia. The town of Barmen is formed by the union of seven villages contained in the valley of Barmen, from which it takes its name, and its western border adjoins the city of Elberfeld. It is the seat of the Rhen- ish Missionary Society, which has here a large seminary. The valley is remarkable for natural beauty. The United States has a resident con- sul. Barmen contains the principal ribbon manufactories on the Continent, and its ribbons are sent into all parts of the world. Next to ribbons the most important textile manufactures are zanellas or Indian cloths, satin for lining, and lace. Barmen also possesses numerous large dye-works, besides manufactures of chem- icals, plated and other metal wares, buttons, yarns, iron, machines, pianos, organs, soap, etc. The city has six railway stations, and one of its remarkable features is the electric swinging railway over and along the line of the Wupper between Barmen and Sonnborn. Pop. (1900) 142,000. Bar'mote Court (from hcrg, hill, and mote, meeting), a name given to local courts held in the lead-mining portions of Derbyshire, Eng- land. Their purpose is the definition of the ancient rights of the inhabitants, and the set- tlement of disputes connected therewith. They are of ancient origin, but their scope has been much restricted during the Victorian period. BARN — BARN SWALLOW See Bainbridge, (Central Park), and 'The Hewer.> His studio is in New York. Barnard, Henry, American educator: b. Hartford, Conn., 24 Jan. 181 1; d. 5 July 1900. He was president of the University of Wiscon- sin (1856-9), and St. John's College, Annapolis, Md. (1865-6) ; founded the 'American Journal of Education' (1855) ; was the first United States commissioner of education (1867-70). Among his numerous writings are: 'Hints and Methods for Teachers' (1857) : 'Pestalozzi and Pestalozzianism' (1861) ; 'German Educational Reformers' (1862) ; etc. In 1886 he began to publish the 'American Library of Schools and Education,' a collection of 800 of his own writ- ings, reports, etc. Barnard, John, American Congregational clergyman : b. Boston, 6 Nov. 1681 ; d. 24 Jan. 1770. He was one of the earliest New England dissenters from Calvinism. Ordained colleague minister of Marblehead (1716) ; he took great interest in the local fisheries and commerce. He wrote 'History of the Strange Adventures of Philip Ashton' (1725), etc. Barnard, John Gross, American military engineer: b. Sheffield, Mass., 19 May 1815; d. 14 May 1882; brother of F. A. P. Barnard (q.v.). He was graduated at the United States Military Academy in 1833 ; served from 1835 to 1852 on the coast of the Gulf of Mexico ; and was brevetted major in the Mexican war. He subsequently had charge of the fortifications of San Francisco and New York harbors. Barnard, Joseph Folger, American jurist: b. Poughkeepsie, N. Y., 1823; d. there 6 Jan, 1904. He was graduated from Yale University in 1841 ; admitted to the New York bar 1844; was elected justice of the State supreme court in 1862, and was re-elected, holding the office until his death, Barnard College, an educational institution for women in New York, affiliated with Co- lumbia University (q.v.), and founded in 1889. The admission of women to Columbia on the same terms as men had been warmly urged for some years by President F. A. P. Barnard (q.v.), when in 1882 the trustees consented to allow their attendance at the lectures, but de- clined to grant matriculation or examination. This being found contrary to the statutes of Columbia, on 8 June 1883 a collegiate course duplicating that for the men was opened to women outside the college, but taught by the same instructors, with the same examinations, and rewarded with a degree. The plan was abandoned after five years' trial, and in March 1888 a proposal was made to establish a wo- man's annex, to be separately financed, but man- aged under the approval of the trustees of Co- lumbia; the women to pursue the same courses under the same instructors, in such wise as not to interfere with the men's classes. Columbia to appoint the examiners and confer the degrees. This was accepted, and in 1889 the institution was opened under the name of Barnard Col- lege, with seven students. Later the rule of common instructors was so far relaxed that the professors in Barnard were only required to have the approval of Columbia, and since then the deans and some professors have been wo- men ; still later, each institution assumed the support of three professorships in the other. After a time certain classes of the senior year and many post-graduate classes were opened to women, subject in all cases to the consent of each professor. The growth of Barnard College rendered these provisional arrangements unsat- isfactory, and they were modified by making Barnard formally a part of the Columbia system, 19 Jan. 1900. At present the president of Co- lumbia is ex officio president and a trustee of Barnard, while the dean of Barnard controls its internal management and has a vote in the council of Columbia. Barnard, however, re- mains a distinct institution, separately financed, with its own trustees, and supports a complete undergraduate course. Columbia grants all Barnard degrees as its own, and the Columbia library is free to Barnard students, and certain post-graduate courses are open to members of both institutions. Barnard College received 32 new students during its first year, had doubled the number three years later, and 16 years from its foundation, in 1905, had 57 professors and 366 students, and had graduated 455 in all. The productive funds are $28,333 and income $119,157. Bcirnard was started without further resources than a few four-years subscriptions, but speedily attracted donations and endowments which have enabled it to keep pace with its rap- idly growing demands. Up to March 1902, it had an endowment of $250,000; in that month an equal amount was added by John D. Rocke- feller, and another $250,000 was the result of lesser gifts. In March 1903, a gift of $i,ooo,oco was made to the college by Mrs. Elizabeth Mil- bank Anderson, who had previously given Mil- bank Hall to the institution. Among its build- ings are Biinkerhoff Hall, chiefly built from gifts by Mrs. Van Wyck Brinkerhoff; Fiske Hall, given by Mrs. Josiah M. Fiske; and Mil- bank Hall, given by Mrs. Abram A. Anderson. ' The first dean of Barnard was Miss Emily James Smith (who subsequently became the wife o" George Haven Putnam, the New York publisher), and in looi she was succeeded by Miss Laura Drake Gill. Barnar'do, Thomas John, English philan- thropist: b. Ireland, 1845; d. London. Eng., 19 Sept. 1905. He founded the Barnardo Homes for homeless children, his attention being turned in this direction by the condition of a boy in a ragged school in east London in 1866 Following up the subject, he began to rescue children who had found their only shelter at night under archways, or in courts and alleys. These were introduced to his homes, where they received an industrial training, were saved from a possible career of crime, and enabled to achieve an honorable position in life. In 1899 over 36.000 boys and girls had passed through the homes : at the same time Dr. Barnardo had under his direction in the Ilnited Kingdom and the colonies 24 mission branches and 86 distinct homes dealing with every age and class _ of needy and destitute childhood, including an im- migration depot in Ontario, an industrial farm in Manitoba, a home for babies, and a hospital for sick children. Up to 1899 the number of trained and tested boys and girls who had been placed' in colonial situations exceeded 10,000. BARNATO — BARNES Barna'to, Barney, or Barnett, South Afri- can speculator, whose real name is believed to have been Bernard Isaac : b. London, England, about 1845, of Hebrew parents; d. 14 June 1897. He began business as a dealer in diamonds, and in five years earned enough to buy shares in the Kimberley diamond mines. He established a partnership with Cecil Rhodes, and, when, in 1886, gold was discovered, secured possession of the greater part of the region. He committed suicide by jumping from the deck of the steamer Scot, bound from Cape Town to Southampton. See Isaac's ^Life of Barnett Barnato^ (1897). Barnaul, bar-nowl', a mining town of Siberia, in the government of Tomsk, and 230 miles southwest of the town of that name, on the Barnaulski, near its junction with the Obi. It is well built, and the streets are regular and spacious. The chief edifices are of wood. There is a mining-school, an observatory, a public library, a museum, etc. Lead is smelted from the mines in the neighborhood ; there are lime and brick kilns, a mint for copper coins, and manufactories. Pop. (1897) 29,408. Barnave, bar-nav, Antoine Pierre Joseph Marie, French orator: b. Grenoble, 1761 ; d. Paris, 29 Nov. 1793. He was chosen a deputy of the tiers ctat to the assembly of the states- general, and showed himself an open enemy to the court. The Constituent Assembly appointed him their president in January 1791. After the flight of the king he defended Lafayette against the charge of being privy to this step, and, upon the arrest of the royal family, was sent, with Petion and Latour-Maubourg, to meet them, and to conduct them to Paris. When the corre- spondence of the court fell into the hands of the victorious party, 10 Aug. 1792, they pretended to have found documents which showed him to have been secretly connected with it, and he was guillotined. See Salvandy, *Life of Barnave^ ; Lamartine, ^History of the Girondists.' Barnburners, a nickname for the progress- ive section of the New York State Democracy from about 1844 to 1852, which retaliated by call- ing the other party "Hunkers.^' They were essen- tially the same party which from 1835 onward had favored extension of the canal system, while their opponents were the same who wished it restricted to immediately profitable canals ; but under these names the division was on the slav- ery question (see Free-Soil Party), in which the Barnburners were the Van Buren or Free- Soil wing. They also stood for the local con- trol by the ^'Albany Regency,'^ as against the Polk "machine" which the new administration was trying to build up in New York, and which favored the extension of slavery into the Terri- tories. About 1852 the nicknames changed into ^^Softs'^ and "Hards,'' corresponding with new issues to the later "Half-breeds" and "Stal- warts." The origin of the name is usually de- rived from the familiar campaign story of the man who burned his barn to free it from rats. Barnby, Joseph, Sir, English composer and organist : b. York, 12 Aug. 1838 ; d. London, 28 Jan. 1896. He was chorister in York Min- ster; organist St. Andrew's, Wells Street, Lon- don, 1863-71 ; precentor and choir-master St. Ann's, Soho, 1871 ; precentor and director of musical instruction in Eton College, 1875, and head of the Guildhall School of Music ip Lon- don from 1892. His cantatas of "Rebekah," a sacred idyll, and "The Lord Is King" ; numer- ous highly interesting services and anthems (such as "King All Glorious"), for the Church, as well as several secular choruses and songs, rendered him famous both in England and the United Stales. He was knighted in 1892. Bar'negat Bay, a bay on the east coast of New Jersey, about 25 miles in length, and sepa- rated from the ocean by Squan and Island beaches. Barnegat Inlet connects it with the Atlantic. On the south side of the inlet is a lighthouse 150 feet high. Barnes, Albert, American theologian: b. Rome, I Dec. 1798; d. Philadelphia, 24 Dec. 1870. Until the age of 17 he was employed by his father, who was a tanner, in his own occupa- tion. At the age of 22 he graduated at Hamil- ton College, and after studying theology at Princeton was licensed to preach in 1824, and ordained pastor to the Presb3'terian Church of Morristown, N. J., in February 1825. In 1830 he was removed to the pastoral charge of the First Presbyterian Church in Philadelphia, where he remained till his death. He is chiefly known by his *^ Notes on the New Testament,' published in 11 volumes between 1832 and 1848; and his < Notes on the Old Testament,' com- pleted in 1870, which are favorite works with Sunday-school teachers and others engaged in biblical tuition. Other works of his are: ^The Church and Slavery' (1857) ; ^The Atonement in Its Relations to Law and Moral Government' (1859) ; "^Evidences of Christianity' (1868) ; ^Life at Threescore and Ten' (1869). He was tried for heresy on account of his belief in un- limited atonement, and though acquitted, the eventual result of the trial was to divide the Presbyterian body in the United States into the Old and New School branches in 1837. Barnes, Alfred Smith, American publisher: b. New Haven, Conn., 28 Jan. 1817; d. Brook- lyn, N. Y., 17 Feb. 18S8. He began his career in the book store of D. F. Robinson & Company in Hartford, Conn., removing to New York with the firm. At the age of 21 he formed a connection with Prof. Charles F. Davies and began publish- ing the latter's mathematical works, personally canvassing for them every State in the coun- try. In 1840 he removed his business to Phila- delphia, but returned to New York in 1855. He confined his publications almost exclusively to school text-books. Retiring from active man- agement in 1880 he left five sons to continue the business. At his death he left large be- quests to charities and educational institutions. Barnes, Barnabe, English poet: b. York- shire, about 1569; d. Durham, England, De- cember 1609. He was the son of a bishop of Durham ; was educated at Oxford ; and went to Normandy in 1591 with the Earl of Essex. Flis fame rests on a collection of sonnets, madrigals, and odes, called "^Parthenophil and Parthenope' (about 1593). Other books of his are: ^A Di- vine Century of Spiritual Sonnets' (1595) >' arid ^The Devil's Charter,' a tragedy (1607). Barnes, Charles Reid, American botanist: b. Madison, Ind., 7 Sept. 1858. He was edu- cated at Hanover (Ind.) College, 1877, and pur- sued graduate studies at Harvard. He held professorships in Purdue University and the University of Wisconsin, 1880-98, and since 1898 has been professor of plant physiology in the University of Chicago. He is the author of BARNES — BARNEVELDT ^Outlines of Plant Life^ (1900) ; joint author of ^ Plant Dissection^ ; and *^Keys to the Genera and Species of North American Mosses' (i8go). He has contributed many papers to the ^Botani- cal Gazette,' of which he has been an editor since 1883. Barnes, Dame Juliana. See Eerners,Daaie Juliana. Barnes, James^ American soldier: b. Bos- ton, Mass. 1806; d. Springfield, Mass., 12 Feb. 1869. Appointed to West Point from Massa- chusetts, he graduated there in 1829, standing fifth in a class which included R. E. Lee, J. E. Johnston, and a number of others who after- ward became distinguished. Resigning from the army after seven years' service, he became a vailroad engineer and built, either wholly or in part, the Rome & W., Sacketts' H. & E., the Bufifalo, C. & N. Y., the Terre Haute, A. & St. L., and the Potsdam & W. R.R.'s, between 1848 and 1857. During the Civil War he was col- onel of the i8th Massachusetts Volunteers 1861-2, and brigadier-general of United States Volun- teers 1862-5. He was present at the battles of Antietam, Fredericksburg, Chancellorsville, and Gettysburg, where he was severely wounded. Exposure and wounds so impaired his constitu- tion that he was unable to engage activel}^ in his profession after the War. Barnes, James, American author: b. An- napolis, Md., 19 Sept. 1866. He was graduated from Princeton University in 1891, and has been connected in an editorial capacity with "^Scrib- ner's Magazine' and *■ Harpers' Weekly.' Dur- ing the Boer war he acted as a correspondent in the field for the ^Outlook.' His books are: * Naval Actions of 1812' ; *For King or Coun- try' ; ^Yankee Ships and Yankee Sailors' ; ^A Loyal Traitor'; *The Hero of Erie' (1898); *A Princetonian' ; "^David G. Farragut' (1899) ; ^ Drake and His Yeomen' (1899); < Great War Trek with the British Army on the Veldt' (1901) ; "^With the Flag in the Channel' (1902). Barnes, Joseph K., American surgeon: b. Philadelphia, 21 July 1817; d. Washington, D. C, 5 April 1883. He was educated in the medi- cal department of the University of Pennsyl- vania ; became assistant surgeon in the army in 1840, and served at various posts through the Mexican war. At the beginning of the Civil War he was summoned from Oregon and as- signed to duty in the office of the surgeon- general. In 1863 he was appointed a medical inspector, with the rank of colonel, and in Sep- tember of the same year was promoted to brigadier-general. In 1865 he was brevetled major-general. United States Army. He was surgeon-general of the army from 1864 till 1882, when he was retired. Barnes, William, English dialect poet and philologist: b. Rushay, Dorsetshire, in 1800; d. 7 Oct. 1886. Of humble birth, he first entered a solicitor's office, then taught a school in Dor- chester, and having taken orders became rector of Winterbourne Came in his native county, and died there. He acquired a knowledge of many languages, and published ^An Anglo-Saxon De- lectus' ; (1854), he published (1869). Barnum, William H., American politician: b. Boston Corners, N. Y., 17 Sept. 1818; d. 30 April 1889. He received a public school educa- tion and amassed large wealth in manufacturing; was a member of Congress from Connecticut in 1866-76, when he was elected United States Senator to complete the term of Orris Ferry (deceased). In 1880 and 1884 he was chairman of the Democratic National Committee. Barn'well, Robert Woodward, American statesman : b. Beaufort, S. C, 10 Aug. 1801 ; d. 25 Nov. 1882. He was graduated from Harvard University in 182 1 ; became a lawyer; was a member of Congress from South Carolina in 1829-33; a United States senator from that State, 1850-1 ; commissioner from South Caro- lina to confer with the Federal government re- garding the proposed secession of the State in i860; member of the Provisional Confederate Congress, 1861-2; a Confederate senator in 1862-6; and then president of the University of South Carolina (an office he had held in 1835-41) till 1873. Barnwell, Robert Woodward, American bishop of the Episcopal Church : b. Beaufort, S. C, 27 Dec. 1849; d. Selma, Ala., 24 July 1902. He prepared for the Episcopal ministry at the General Theological Seminary in New York, and was rector of Trinity Church, Demopo- lis, Ala., 1876-80; and of St. Paul's, Selma, Ala., 1890-1900. In 1900 he was consecrated Bishop of Alabama. Baroccio, ba-roch'6, or Barocci, Fiori Federigo, Italian painter: b. Urbino, 1528; d. there 31 Sept. 1612. In his youth he studied the works of Titian, and, in 1560 he was en- trusted by Pius IV. with the decoration of the Belvedere palace. Some of the Roman painters, envious of his genius, invited him to a banquet, where they gave him poison. For four years he was not able to touch his pencil, and afterward could only work two hours a day. His later pictures are in the style of Correggio. His 'Last Supper,* 'Descent from the Cross,* 'St. Francis Stigmatized,* 'Christ and Magdalen,* and 'An- nunciation,* are among his best productions. Baroche, ba-rosh, Pierre Jules, French statesman: b. Paris, 1802; d. Jersey, 1870. In 1847 he was elected member of the Chamber of Deputies for the department of Charente- Inferieure, where he steadily opposed the minis- try of Guizot. He signed the Acte d' Accusa- tion, drawn up by Odillon Barrot 23 Feb. 1848, in which they were accused of violating the rights of citizens, and of systematic corruption. On 2 Dec. 1851, Baroche was nominated presi- dent of the Council of State; an office in which he exhibited much ability and tact, and subse- quently filled the offices of minister of foreign affairs (i860), and minister of justice (1863). He was made a senator in 1864. Baro'da, a city of Hindustan, in the prov- ince of Gujerat, capital of the native state of Baroda, 240 miles north of Bombay, on the left bank of the Viswamitra, here spanned by four stone bridges. The city proper is surrounded by a wall, outside of which are large suburbs. The houses in general are very mean, but there are several palaces, some handsome houses belonging to the wealthy inhabitants, government offices, BAROMETER a high school, and numerous temples. It is a place of considerable trade, and the seat of a British resident. Pop. (1901) 103,800. The state of Baroda, which has been tributary to Great Britain from 1802, has an area of 8,100 square miles and a population (1901) of 1,953,000. Barometer (Greek, ^'weigM-measure'^), an instrument invented by the Italian physicist Torricelli, and used for determining the pres- sure of the atmosphere. (For an account of its early history see Atmosphere.) In its sim- plest form the mercurial barometer consists essen- tially of a vertical glass tube about a yard in length, closed at the top and open at the bottom, and partially filled with mercury, into a vessel of which its lower end also dips. In preparing the in- strument for use, the tube is first completely filled with mercury; but as soon as it is free to do so the column of mercury in the tube sinks (leaving a vacuous space at. the top of the tube) until it stands at a height (usually about 30 inches) such that the pressure of the col- umn exactly balances that of the atmosphere. A graduated scale of metal or glass is provided, by means of which the differ- ence in level between the of the column and the ."lurface of mercury in the open vessel (called the top the ^'cistern") at the bottom can be measured with precision. In the Fortin instrument (the de- sign commonly adopted for all but the most re- fined work) the cistern is closed below by a piece of flexible leather, which can be raised or lowered by means of a screw, in order to bring the surface of the mercury in the cistern to a certain fixed level, before the reading is taken. A pointed index, k, preferably of ivory, projects downward into the cistern from the upper cover, the position of its tip, with respect to the scale on the barometer tube above, being known. The mercury in the cistern being first brought ac- curately into contact with the extremity of k, the position of the upper end of the barometric column is read from the scale. The ^'apparent'^ height of the barometer is then known; but in order to deduce the "true^* height, certain cor- rections must be applied. The most important of these is the correction for. temperature. The scale from which the height of the column is read is longer when the temperature is high than when the temperature is low; and the mercury in the column is also less dense at higher tem- peratures than at lower ones. These two sources of error partially compensate each other ; for at a high temperature the reduced density of the mercury tends to make the column stand too high, while the greater length of the scale at such a temperature tends to make the reading too small. The compensation is not perfect, however, and when the coefficient of expansion of the scale is known^ a table of temperature corrections must be calculated, to reduce the direct reading to what it would have been if it had been taken at some fixed standard tempera- ture. The temperature of meltnig ice is adopted, by universal consent, as the standard to which the ^'apparent" reading is to be reduced. An- other important correction must be applied in order to allow for the variations of gravity with the latitude and elevation of the place of observation. Where gravity is relatively weak, a longer column of mercury will be required to balance a given atmospheric pressure than would be required to balance the same pressure in a region where gravity is stronger. All the barometric readings taken at the International Bureau of Weights and Measures, near Paris, are reduced to the values they would have if made at the level of the sea, in latitude 45° ; and this practice is growing in favor among physicists generally. To reduce a barometric reading to sea-level and to latitude 45°, it is merely necessary to multiply the observed height of the column (after applying the correction for temperature) by the expression (i — .00259 cos L) (i — .00000006 H), where L is the latitude of the place of observation, and H is its height above the sea, in feet. Several secondary cor- rections have also to be considered, when great refinement is desired. Prominent among these is the correction for "capillarity,'' which is made necessary by the fact that the mercury does not stand as high in a small barometric tube as it does in a larger one, on account of the surface tension (q.v.) of the liquid. No simple formula for this correction can be given, and it varies somewhat according as the barometer is rising or falling at the time of the observation. Tables for finding the capillary correction are given in Guyot's meteorological and physical tables, pub- lished under the direction of the Smithsonian Institution at Washington. An excellent table is also given in Guillaume's ^Thermometrie de Precision,^ where the elaborate precautions taken in filling the modern precision barometer are also described. The barometer is a simple instrument, and of the greatest use in all kinds of scientific work. The greatest fault of the mercurial in- strument is the difficulty of transporting it with- out breakage and without destroying the vacuum in the upper part of the tube by the admission of air laubbles. Instruments like the Fortin type may be transported by screwing up the leather bottom until both the cistern and the tube are completely filled with mercury, then reversing the barometer, and carrying it to its destination bottom side up. The ^^aneroid* barometer, although not nearly so accurate as the mercurial instrument, possesses the advan- tage of portability, since, as its name signifies, it does not contain any liquid; and it is there- fore used to a considerable extent in the deter- mination of the heights of places above the sea. (See Hypsometry.) Various forms of the aneroid exist. One of these consists of a cylindrical metal box. exhausted of air, and having a lid of thin, corrugated metal. The lid, which is highly elastic, jdelds to every chan.ge of atmospheric pressure, and delicate multiply- ing levers transmit its motions to an index that moves over a graduated scale, whose divisions are marked on the dial empirically, by compari- son with a mercurial barometer. For further information concerning the barometer and its BAROMETER. *, * TorricelU's Experiment with tube full of .Mercury. ' Barometer in its simplest form. * Barometer with bent tube and scale. ^, '' Fortin's portable Barometer — structural details. ' Common Wheel-Barometer or Weather- Glass. ' Internal structure of same. ' Aneroid Barometer. ' ' Internal Mechanism of Aneroid. BAROMETRIC LIGHT — BARONY use. consult Stewart and Gee, ^Elementary Prac- tical Physics^; Glazebrook and Shaw, 'Prac- tical Physics^ ; Abbe, 'Meteorological Apparatus and Methods' ; Guillaume, 'Thermometrie de Precision.' See also Meteorology. Barometric Light, a name sometimes given to the faint glow (first observed by Jean Picard in 1675) produced in the vacuous space of a mercurial barometer when the instrument is agitated. The light is given oflf by the mer- curial vapor (or other highly attenuated gas) that is present, under the influence of the elec- tricity generated by the friction of the mercury against the glass. Advantage has been taken of this phenomenon in the construction of "self- acting* Geissler tubes, the electricity required to excite them being generated, when they are inverted or shaken, by the friction of a small quantity of mercury introduced before the ex- haustion. No very brilliant results can be obtained in this way, however. Baron, ba-ron, Michel, or Boyron, French comedian : b. 1653. and long attached to Mo- liere's companJ^ For nearly 30 years he played with great success, and retired from the stage in 1691 without any apparent reason. In 1720. however, he again returned, and was received with immense enthusiasm, playing, with great success, even the most youthful parts. In 1729 he was taken ill while on the boards, and died shortly after. Baron. In the feudal system of the Middle Ages, at first, the immediate tenant of any superior was called his Baron. In old rec- ords the citizens of London are so styled, and the members of the House of Commons, elected by the Cinque-Ports, were called barons. This title was introduced into England by William the Conqueror to signify an immediate vassal of the Crown, who had a seat and vote in the royal court and tribunals, and subsequently in the House of Peers. It was the second rank of nobility, until dukes and marquises were introduced and placed above the earls, and vis- counts also set above the barons. It is now the lowest rank of the peerage, and is held by prescription, patent, or tenure. The barons were anciently divided into greater barons, or such as held their lands of the king in capite; and lesser barons, such as held their lands of the greater barons by military service. In Ger- many the ancient barons of the empire were the immediate vassals of the Crown. They ap- peared in the imperial court and diet, and be- longed to the high nobility. But these ancient feudatories were early elevated to the rank of counts or princes. A baron has the title of *right honorable lord," etc., and should be ad- dressed as ''my lord*' or "your lordship." His wife claims also the title of "right honorable," and may be addressed as "madam," or "your ladyship." The coronation robes of a baron differ from those of the other peers in having but two rows of spots on the mantle ; and the parliamentary robes, in having but two guards of white fur, with rows of gold lace. The right of wearing a coronet was first conferred on barons by Charles II. It is adorned with six pearls, set at equal distances, of which four are usually shown. In England, the four puisne judges of the court of exchequer bear the title of baron, and the chief judge that of Lord Chief Baron of the Exchequer. They are addressed as My Lord, but have no seat in the House of Lords, unless by being previously made a member of the peerage. See also Peer. Baronet, a hereditary dignity in Great Britain and Ireland next in rank to the peerage, originally instituted by James I., 22 May 161 1. The first person to receive the honor was Sir Nicholas Bacon of Redgrave, whose successors in the title have ever since held the rank of premier baronet of the kingdom. Baronets are created by letters-patent, under the great seal, and the honor is generally given to the gran- tee and the heirs male of his body lawfully begotten, though sometimes it is entailed on collaterals. The order was created nominally to assist in the plantation of Ulster, but really in order to raise money for the king, and each baronet, on his creation, was obliged to pay into the treasury a sum amounting to a little less than $5,500. According to the terms of its foundation the dignity could be conferred only on those who had the right by inheritance from at least a grandfather to wear coat-armor, and whose income from lands was not less than $5,000 per annum. In 1622 there were 200 baro- nets in England, this being the number to which the order was originally limited. Charles I. and subsequent sovereigns disregarded alto- gether the original limitation of the number. Precedence is given to baronets before all knights, except those of the Garter, bannerets created on the field, and privy-councilors. An order of Baronets of Ireland was also instituted by James I., for the same purpose and with the same privileges as the baronets of England. Since the union, in 1801, none have been created otherwise than as baronets of the United King- dom. Charles I. instituted an order of Baronets of Scotland and Nova Scotia in 1625, for the purpose of advancing the plantation of Nova Scotia, in which the king granted a certain por- tion of land to each member of the order. Since the union the power of the Crown to create new baronets specially connected with Scotland is held to have ceased. Baro'nius, Caesar, Italian ecclesiastical historian: b. Sora, 1538; d. 30 June 1607. He was educated at Naples; in 1557 went to Rome; was one of the first pupils of St. Philip of Neri, and member of the oratory founded by him ; afterward cardinal and librarian of the Vatican Library. He owed these dignities to the ser- vices which he rendered the Church by his edition of the Roman Martyrology, 'Ecclesiasti- cal Annals,' in reply to the Protestant 'Magde- burg Centuries,' comprising valuable docu- ments from the papal archives, on which he labored from the year 1580 until his death. They were continued, though with less power, by other writers, of whom Raynaldus takes the first rank. Barons' War, the war carried on for sev- eral years by Simon de Montfort and other barons of Henry III. against the king, begin- ning in 1263. See also Montfort, Simon de. Barony, the lordship or fee of a baron, either temporal or spiritual. Originally every peer of superior rank had also a barony an- nexed to his other titles. But now the rule is not universal. Baronies in their first crea- tion emanated from the king. Baronies apper- tain also to bishops, as formerly to abbots. William the Conqueror having changed the BAROTSE — BARRACKPUR spiritual tenure of frank-almoyn, or free alms, by which they held their lands under the Saxon government, to the Norman or feudal tenure by barony. It was in virtue of this that they obtained seats in the House of Lords. The word is commonly applied in Ireland to a sub- division of a county. Barotse, ba-rot'se, a South African people inhabiting a region in the west of Rhodesia, extending from the Chobe River northward to the Kabompo. They are a branch of the Bechuanas who have migrated northward, and it would appear that they were long subject to a Basuto tribe called the Makololo. About i860, however, they threw off the yoke of their oppressors and almost exterminated them, but they still speak the language of the Makololos. Their country is a treeless, alluvial plain, over 150,000 square miles in extent. From 1890 King Lawanika acknowledged the virtual supremacy of Great Britain, and in 1898 the British South African Company obtained complete administra- tive powers. Barou'che, a four-wheeled carriage virith a falling top. There are usually two inside seats in which four persons can sit. Barquesimeto, bar-ke-se-ma-to, a city of Venezuela, capital of the state of Lara ; is sit- uated in a high plain, on the Barquesimeto River. It was founded by the Spaniards in 1552. The soil of the neighborhood is very fertile. Coffee of excellent quality is grown here. The town is well built, and has wide streets, and among its prominent buildings are the government palace, barracks, market and Cathedral. Pop. (1899) about 40,000. Previous to the earthquake of 1812 it contained 15,000 persons, but that calamity destroyed 1,500 lives, and left scarcely a house standing. Barr, Amelia Edith, (Huddleston), Anglo- American novelist : b. Ulverstone, Lancashire, England, 29 March 1831. She was the daugh- ter of the Rev. William Huddleston, and in 1850 married Robert Barr. She came to the United States in 1854, and lived for some years in Texas; but after her husband's death (1867) removed to New York, where her first book, 'Romance and Reality.* was published in 1872. She is a prolific writer, and her more than 30 novels are very pooular. Among them are ^Jan Vedder's Wife> (1885) ; (1886); *A Border Shepherdess* (1887) ; 'Friend Olivia* (1890) ; (1861) ; ^Representation de Colonies de la Boheme dans le Bassin Silurien du nordouest de la France^ (1853) ; ^Cephalapodes, Etudes Generales.^ Barran'dite, a mineral occurring in rounded concretions exhibiting a concentric structure as well as indistinct radial fibres. It is gray, usually with tinges of color, and has a hardness of 4.5 and a specific gravity of 2.58. Its composition is ( Al,Fe) P0« + 2H2O, the iron and aluminum being present in the ratio of about 4 to 3. It is found mainly at Cer- hovic in Bohemia. Barranquilla, bar-ran-ke'lya, the chief commercial centre of Colombia, some 15 miles from the mouth of the Magdalena. The bar at the mouth of the river has been improved so as to enable sea-going vessels to pass up to Barranquilla, which possesses excellent wharfage accommodation. The inland traffic by river steamers is important. The trade is mainly in the hands of Germans. It is the seat of a United States consulate. Pop. about 40,000. Barrantes y Moreno, bar-ran'ta-se-mo-ra'- no, Vicente, Spanish writer: b. Badajoz, 24 March 1829. He first studied theology, but in 1848 settled in Madrid to pursue literature; held responsible government offices ; became a mem- ber of the Academy in 1872. Among his works are the stories ^Always Late' (i8tI); ^The Widow of Padilla.> and a series of historical studies, dealing with strictly local Philippine and Estremaduran topics. His ^Tales and Legends' are well chosen and well written ; but a work on ' The Defects and Dangers of Universal SuflFragc? partly fiction and partly satire, is ineffective. Barras, ba-ras, Paul Frangois Jean Nico- las, Comte de, French statesman: b. Fox- Amphoux (Var), 30 June 1755; d. January 1829. When the Revolution broke out he im- mediately showed himself an opponent of the court, and had a seat in the tiers-etat. while his brother was sitting among the nobility. He took part in the attacks upon the Bastile and the Tuileries. was elected a juryman at the tribunal of Orleans, and in September a mem- ber of the national convention, where he voted for the death of Louis XVI. Although he had established his reputation as a patriot, yet he displeased Robespierre, who resolved to involve him in the great proscription which he then meditated. Barras therefore joined those de- termined to overthrow Robespierre, and took an important part in the events of the 9th Ther- midor (27 July 1794). He was entrusted with the chief command of the forces of his party, repelled the troops of Henriot. and made him- self master of Robespierre. On 4 Feb. 1795 he was elected president of the convention. The 13th Vendemiaire (5 Oct. I795). when the troops of the sections which favored the royal cause approached the convention. Barras for a second time received the chief command of the troops of the convention, and the battalion of the patriots, who hastened to their assistance. On this occasion he employed Gen. Bonaparte. In his report he attributed the victory to ibis young general, and procured for him the chief command of the army of the interior. His im- portant services promoted him to the Directory. BARRASS — BARREL Barras soon perceived that Bonaparte would give a decisive superiority to him who should obtain an influence over him; and therefore he displaced Carnot from the War Department and took possession of it himself. This sepa- rated them, and Carnot for some time took part with the council, where a party had been formed to restrain the power of the Directory, and particularly that of Barras. The rupture could only terminate with the ruin of one of the parties: that of the council fell by the events of the i8th Fructidor (4 Sept. I797), in which Barras took a leading part. From this period he governed absolutely until 13 June 1799, when Sieyes entered the Directory. Never- theless Barras succeeded in preserving his seat, but he became a victim of the i8th Brumaire (9 Nov. 1799). In a letter which he sent to St. Cloud he resigned his office, and received a passport to his estate. He afterward retired to Brussels, where he lived for several years; but finally received permission to repair to the south of France. His memoirs were published in French and English (1895-6). Barrass, Edward, Canadian clergyman: b. Durham, England, 22 July 1821. He entered the ministry in 1840, and removed to Toronto in 1853. He became the assistant editor of the Christian Guardian, and published, among other works, *-A Gallery of Deceased Ministers^ (1853) ; ^Class Meetings: Their Origin and Ad- vantages^ (1865) ; ^A Gallery of Distinguished Men^ (1870); and ^Smiles and Tears: or, Sketches from Real Life^ (1879). Bar'ratry, a law term applied to (i) the oft'ense committed by the master of a vessel of embezzling or injuring goods committed to his charge for a voyage. Barratry has also been defined to be an unlawful or fraudulent act, or very gross or culpable negligence, of the master or mariners of a vessel in violation of their duty as such, and directly prejudicial to the owner, and without his consent ; (2) the offense of frequently exciting and stirring up law suits or quarrels among one's neighbors or in society generally. An indictment for this offense must charge the offender with being a common bar- rator, and the proof must show at least three instances of offending. An attorney is not liable to indictment for maintaining another in a groundless action. In New York, and some other States, barratry is defined to be the prac- tice of exciting groundless judicial proceedings, and is a misdemeanor. Barre, bar, Antoine le Fevre de la, French naval officer : b. about 1600 ; d. 4 May 1688. He was appointed governor of Guiana in 1663, and re-took Cayenne from the Dutch. In 1667 he defeated the English in the Antilles, forcing them to raise the blockade of St. Chris- topher. In 1682 he was appointed to the gov- ernorship of Canada, taking the place of the Count de Frontenac. He was, however, re- called in 1684, for having by his irresolution caused the failure of the expedition to treat with the savages. Barre, Isaac, British officer: b. Dublin, 1726; d. London, 20 July 1802. He was wound- ed at Quebec, was beside Wolfe when he fell, and figures in West's picture of *^The Death of Wolfe. ^ He entered parliament in 1761, and held office successively under Lord Butte, Pitt, Rockingham, and Lord Shelburne. In Pitt's second administration he exposed the corrup- tions of the ministry, was a strong opponent of Lord North's ministry, and opposed the taxation of America. The town of Barre, Mass., was named in his honor. Barre, bar'ra, a group of Arawakan tribes dwelling along the Upper Rio Negro in north- western Brazil and the adjoining districts of Venezuela. They are extremely aggressive, and their language is extending rapidly throughout that region. Barre, bar're, Mass, a town in Worcester County, on the Ware River, 21 miles north- west of Worcester. An institute for feeble- minded children is established here, and there are cotton, woolen, and straw factories. It was named for Col. Isaac Barre (q.v.). Pop. (1900) 2,059. Barre, Vt., a city in Washington County, on the Central V., the Barre, and the Montpelier & W. R. R.R.'s ; six miles southeast of Mont- pelier. Barre received a city charter in 1894; and has a reputation as one of the most im- portant seats of the granite industry in the United States. It contains, besides granite quarries, several industrial plants connected therewith ; a national and two savings banks ; a public library; opera house, Goddard Seminary; a home school for young men and women, with four courses of study ; Spaulding High School ; daily and weekly newspapers ; an assessed prop- erty valuation exceeding $2,500,000, and a total debt of about $150,000. It was incorporated in 1894. Pop. (1900) 8,448. Barreiro, ba-ra'e-ro, Juan Baptista Her- nandez, Cuban lawyer: b. Havana, about 1842. He acquired a liberal education, and amassed large wealth in the practice of his pro- fession. He was professor of Roman law in the University of Havana for 30 years ; and more recently was dean of the law faculty in the university. In February 1900, while acting as first assistant mayor of Havana, he was ap- pointed a member of the new Cuban Civil Cab- inet, and given the portfolio of public education. Barrel, a hollow vessel made of staves, set on end, arranged around a circle, and bound together with hoops. By each stave being made wider in the middle and tapering a little toward the ends, the barrel is of larger diameter, or bulges, in the middle. The bevelled edges of the staves cause them to fit closely together, making a tight joint along their length. The ends are closed by circular heads, the edges made thin to fit into a groove cut to receive them near the ends of the staves, in which they are held fast by driving the hoops upon the swell of the barrel. The construction of the barrel is ingeniously adapted for combining great strength with lightness. It resists pres- sure from without by the arched arrangement of the staves ; and the hoops secure it from the expansive force of gases often generated in its contents. Its form is the most convenient for transportation, admitting of the vessel being rolled or rapidly swung by hooks placed under the chine or ends of the staves. In the form of kegs, firkins, liquor casks, butts, hogsheads, etc., they are met with everywhere. Yet the Chinese, with all their ingenuity, it is said, have never made a barrel. Formerly barrels were con- structed entirely by hand, the cooper shaving the staves with the draw knife, and shaping them BARREN GROUNDS — BARRETT ■by clamps. But machines are now applied to this purpose, by which the work is done much more expeditiously. See Cooper.age. As a measure of capacity, the barrel is of variable dimensions, differing in size with the materials it is designed to hold. In wine mea- sure the barrel must contain 31J/2 gallons. A barrel of beer in England is equal to 361^ im- perial gallons. In the United States a barrel of flour must contain 196 pounds ; and a barrel of beef or pork, 200 pounds. The measure of ca- pacity called barrel bulk is five cubic feet. Bar- rel is also used to express any thing long and hollow, as a gun-barrel. It is also applied to the cylinder in a watch, about which the spring is coiled ; and in anatomy, to the "cavity of the tympanum^^ of the ear. Barren Grounds, the name given to a large tract in the Northwest Territories of Can- ada, extending northward to the Arctic Ocean between Great Bear and Great Slave lakes and Hudson Bay. It consists largely of swamps, lakes, and bare rock, and a comparatively small part of it is yet well known. The vegetation ■chiefly consists of dwarf birches and willows, mosses and lichens. The animals include the reindeer, musk-ox, beaver, polar bear, wolves, foxes, etc. Barren Island, a volcanic island in the Andaman Sea, about lat. 12° 15' N. ; Ion. 93° 54' E. Its diameter is about two miles, with submarine slopes plunging rapidly to a depth ■of more than 800 fathoms. There is an ancient crater over a mile in diameter, from the centre of which a newer cone rises to a height of 1,015 feet. The volcano was active in 1789 and 1803, but is now dormant. A small island near Coney Island, New York, is also known as Barren Island. Barren Measures, the name given to cer- tain groups of strata associated with the coal measures, but which contain no workable de- posits. . In the United States there are two so-called barren stages, a lower intervening between the lower productive and the upper pro- ductive measures, and an upper lying at the base of the Permian System. Barres, ba-res, Maurice, French novelist: b. Charms-sur-Moselle, 1862. His earlier writ- ing as exemplified in his ^Sous I'oeil des Bar- bares> (1888) ; ^Un Homme Libre^ (1889) ; and (1888) and a Window in Thrums^ (i88g), which first made him widely known: 'An Edinburgh Eleven' (1890) . 'My Lady Nicotine,' humorous essays on smoking (1890) ; 'The Little Minister' (1891) ; 'Sentimental Tommy' (1896); 'Mar garet Ogilvy' (1896). a biography of his mother; 'Tommy and GrizeP (1900) ; 'The Lit- tle White Bird' (1902), etc. He has also written nuiTierous short sketches, and the following dra- matic works : 'Walker, London' (1892); 'Jane Annie' (1893) ; and 'The Professor's Love Story' (1895). *The Little Minister' was dram- atized in 1897. and was played with success in the United States. See Hammerton, 'James Matthew Barrie and His Books' (1900). Barrie, Canada, town and county-seat of Simcoe County, Ontario ; on the Grand Trunk Railway, at the western extremity of Lake Sim- coe ; 64 miles north-northwest of Toronto. Barrie was founded in 1832 and incorporated in 1871. It is a popular and beautiful summer re- sort, and the starting point of the Lake Simcoe steamers. The chief industrial establishments are planing and grist mills, carriage works, breweries, brick-yards, engine and boiler works, and wicker works. The waterworks and electric light plant are owned by the corporation. There are 10 churches, a collegiate institute and busi- ness college. In 1896 Allandale, a railway cen- tre, was annexed to the town, and the Grand Trunk Railway has here a large roundhouse, machine shops, etc. A United States consular agent is stationed here. Pop. (1901) 5,949. Barrier Reef, The Great, a coral reef or line ot reefs extending for 1,260 miles off the northeast coast of Australia, at a mean distance from land of 30 miles. It rises precipitously from a great depth, no bottom having been found at some places with a line of 285 fathoms. Barrier Treaty. When, by the Peace of Utrecht, the Spanish Netherlands were ceded to Austria, 1715, this cession was agreed to by the Dutch, who had conquered these provinces in alliance with England, only on condition that they should have the right (in order to secure their borders and give them a barrier against their powerful nei,ghbor, France) to garrison several fortresses of the countrj', and that Aus- tria should engage to pay yearly to Holland 350,000 dollars for the support of these garri- sons. The treaty which was concluded between Austria, England, and Holland was called the Barrier Treaty, In 1781 the Emperor Joseph II. declared it void. Barriere, ba-ryar, Jean Frangois, French historical writer: b. Paris, 12 May 1786; d. there, 22 Aug. 1868. His energies were first directed to periodical literature ; but he subse- quently produced 'The Court and the City Un- der Louis XIV., Louis XV., and Louis XVI.,' besides editing a numerous series of memoirs of personages connected with the Grand Monarch. Barriere, Theodore, French dramatist: b. Paris, 1823; d. there, 16 Oct. 1877. In col- laboration with others he supplied the French stage with a great number of dramas and come- dies, some of which met with much favor, es- pecially 'Bohemian Life' (1848, with Murger) ; 'The Maids of Marble' (1S53, with Thibou.st), a counterpart to Dumas' 'The Camelia Lady,' and 'The Spurious Men of Honor' (1856, with Capendu), a scathing satire, and his master- piece. Barriers, Battle of The, an engagement between the French and the Allies in front of Paris, March 1814, in which the former were defeated. Its immediate result was the abdi- cation of Napoleon. Barrili, bar-re'le, Antonio Giulio, Italian novelist: b. Savona, 14 Dec. 1836. Engaging in journalism u'hen only 18, he assumed the man- agement of // Movimento in i860, and became proprietor and editor of // Caffaio in Genoa in 1872. He had taken part in the campaigns of 1859 and 18G6 (with Garibaldi in Tyrol) and in the Roman expedition of 1867, and sat in the Chamber of Deputies in 1876-9. He is one of the most prolific writers of modern Italy, and among his numerous stories are 'Elm Tree and Ivy' (1868) ; 'The Vale of Olives' (1871) ; 'As in a Dream,' 'The Devil's Portrait' (1882); 'The Eleventh Commandment,' 'A Whimsical Wooing.' He has published several volumes of criticism, among which may be named: ^Ilrinnovamento Letterario Italiano' (1890). Barring-out, a practice once common in some English schools and rendered familiar to many from forming the subject of one of the tales in Miss Edgeworth's 'Parent's Assistant.' It generally took place a few days before the holidays, when the boys barred the doors of the school and defied the masters from the win- dows. It was commonly understood that the pupils might dictate terms as to holidays for the ensuing year if they could prevent the masters' entrance for three successive days. The origin of the practice is not known ; but its observance is enjoined in the statutes of Witton School, Cheshire, founded in 1588, by Sir John Deanc. Bar'ringer, Daniel Moreau, American statesman : b. in the county of Cabarrus, N, C, 1807 ; d. White Sulphur Springs, Va., i Sept. 1873, He graduated at the University of North Carolina in 1826, established himself in the practice of law in 1829, and, after gaining distinction as a lawyer, was, in 1843, elected a representative to the National Congress, He was twice re-elected, and was minister to Spain, 1849-53, He was a delegate to the National U^nion Convention in Philadelphia in 1866. Barringer, Rufus, American lawyer and soldier: b, Cabarrus County, N. C, 2 Dec. 1821 ; d. Charlotte, N, C, 3 Feb. 1805. lie graduated from the University of North Carolina, 1842, and settled in the practice of law at Concord, though a strong Union man he followed his State into the Confederacy, raised a company of cavalry, and by June 1864, had risen to the rank of brigadier-general. He was in 76 actions, and was severely wounded on several occasions. At the close of the war he returned to the practice of law, advocated the acceptance of the recon- struction acts, and took a prominent part in State politics until his retirement in 1884. Bar'rington, Daines, English lawyer, anti- quary, and naturalist : b. 1727 ; d. March 1800. After preparatory studies at Oxford and the HARRINGTON — BARRIOS Inner Temple, he was called to the bar, and held several offices previous to his being ap- pointed a Welsh judge in 1757. He was subse- quently second justice of Chester till 1785, when he resigned that post, and thenceforward lived in retirement, chiefly at his chambers in the Inner Temple, where he died. His publications were numerous, but his name is now best known as a correspondent of White of Selborne, whose famous letters on natural history he is said to have suggested. He was an eager, curious anti- quary, uncritical and the subject of many hoaxes. Barrington, George, Irishman, noted au- thor and notorious thief: b. 1755; d. about 1840. His most notable act of thieving was the robbing of a Russian prince in Covent Garden Theatre. He took from him a gold snuff-box said to be worth $150,000; but, as the prince refused to prosecute, he was dismissed from trial. In 1790 he was sentenced to seven years' penal servitude at Botany Bay ; but having given information of an intended mutiny of the other convicts on the voyage, at the end of two years he was dis- charged, on the first warrant of emancipation ever issued. He was made superintendent of convicts, and later high constable at Paramatta. He was a wit, and of some literary genius : one couplet in a prologue he wrote for Young's play ^Revenge,^ produced by the convicts on the opening of the Sydney Theatre, remains an en- during classic: " True patriots we; for be it understood, We left our country for our country's good." He wrote also 'Voyage to Botany Bay* (1801), 'History of New South Wales' (1802), 'History of New Holland, > i. e. Australia (1808). Barrington, John Shute, English lawyer and theologian: b. London, 1678; d. Becket, Berkshire, 14 Dec. 1734. He w-as created first Viscount Barrington in 1720. He was a disciple and friend of Locke, a friendship which is thought to have been brought about by the pub- lication of his (Barrington's) work, 'The In- terest of England,* etc. He was devoted to theology and wrote extensively in that science. His chief works have been collected under the title 'The Theological Works of the First Vis- count Barrington.-* Barrington, Sir Jonah, Irish jurist: b. County Queens in 1760; d. Versailles, France, 3 April 1834. He became judge in the Court of Admiralty, and was a steady opponent of the Act of Union in 1800. As the result of several peculations, upon petition of both Parliamentary houses, he was deprived of his office, and in 1830 left England. He was the author of 'Per- sonal Sketches* (1827) ; 'Historic Memoirs of Ireland* (1832) ; 'The Rise and Fall of the Irish Nation* (1833), etc. Barrington, William Wildman, English statesman, second Viscount Barrington: b. 15 Jan. 1717; d. I Feb. 1793. He was sworn a member of the privy council in 1755, and in the same year accepted the office of secretary of war. In 1761 he was appointed chancellor of the exchequer, but in 1765 reassumed the post of secretary of war, which he held till 1778, w^hen, in consideration of long public and personal services, he was retired. Barrington, Can., a seaport of Nova Scotia in Shelburne County, 173 miles west of Halifax by rail. Its industries are ship-building. fishing, and the shipping trade. A United States consul resides here. Barrington Pas- sage is a small fishing suburb. Pop. 1,900. Barrios, bar're-6s, Gerardo, Central Amer^ ican statesman: b. about 1810; d. 1865. He be- came president of Salvador in i860. During his administration, education, commerce, and public works progressed remarkably, his presidential management being unusually liberal. He was deposed by Duenas as the outcome of the war with Guatemala, and, while endeavoring to bring about a revolution in order to become president again, was captured and executed. Barrios, Justo Rufino, Guatemalan states- man, of Spanish-Indian blood : b. San Lorenzo, Guatemala, 17 July 1835; d. Chalchuapa, 2 April 1885. He was educated for the law, but the political punishment of his father led him to become a guerrilla revolutionist, and finally chief lieutenant of Garcia Granados, who by his help ousted Vicente Cerna (the decisive battle being fought 29 June 1871) and became presi- dent. Barrios being commander-in-chief. The revolution w^as a democratic and anti-clerical one, and the new government began by expell- ing the Jesuits ; to which Barrios added the sup- pression of religious orders during an acting presidency, and after he had, on 4 June 1873, succeeded Granados as president. There had been incessant revolts of the reactionists, which shortly after his accession he quelled once for all, establishing a system of terrorism and es- pionage which at least gave the country quiet and enabled him to carry out his wonderful re- forms and improvements. He maintained in- ternal peace, and supremacy in Central America, by a thorough system of militia drill for all but the pure-blooded Indians; keeping an army of some 30,000 men in constant reserve, with 3,000 to 4,000 in the capital, which he made one of the best ordered cities of Spanish America. He reorganized the postal and organized the tele- graphic service also on the reports of men sent to examine the United States systems. He built the first telegraph and the first railroad in Guatemala, and started a line to the coast, compelling every citizen earning over $8 a month to hold stock in it ; constructed street railway lines in the capital ; improved the roads and built solid bridges. He remodeled the educa- tional system, established collegiate institutes, normal and industrial schools, and made knowledge of French and English a condition of license to practise law or medicine. He built two modern penitentiaries. In a word, he transformed Guatemala into one of the most habitable and progressive countries south of the United States. But the foremost purpose of his life was to form Central America into one united state, for power and prosperity and the ending of the miserable wars that wasted its vitality. On 15 Jan. 1876 he assembled a diet from all the states in Guatemala city to frame a plan of consolidation ; but as it could not agree upon one, he therefore determined to set up governments in the other states favorable to his plans. Honduras was racked by a civil war and offered no difficulties, Salvador was too small to resist the union of the two, and thence- forward till 1884 Barrios disposed of the re- sources of all three republics. On i March 1880, the first constitution of Guatemala went into operation, and Barrios was re-elected for a BARRISTER — BARROSA six-year term. On 24 Feb. 1883 he issued a circular to the hberal party, pledging himself to effect the unification only by peaceful means and with the consent of all the republics. In March 1884 he called a meeting of five delegates from each republic, but Costa Rica and Nica- ragua still held back. Finally, on 28 Feb. 1885, he with his assembly, issued a decree proclaim- ing the union of the five states, relying on Hon- duras and Salvador to help him put down resistance in the others. But the president of Salvador refused to employ force, and on Barrios persisting, joined Nicaragua and Costa Rica in a league to resist him, appealing to Mexico and the United States for help. President Diaz of Mexico remonstrated with Barrios, and the United States viewed the movement with dis- favor ; but on the Salvador troops, which ex- pected Mexican help, invading Guatemala, Bar- rios drove them back into Salvador, and while entering Chalchuapa w^as struck down by a sharpshooter's bullet. His widow removed to New York, and his son became a cadet in the United States army. Bar'rister, in England, an advocate or pleader, who has been admitted by one of the Inns of Court, namely, the Inner Temple, Mid- dle Temple, Lincoln's Inn, or Gray's Inn, to plead at the bar. Before a student can be ad- mitted to the bar he must have been a member of one of those societies, and have kept 12 terms there by dining sufficiently often in the hall of the society to which he belongs, and must also pass a public examination. The ex- aminations, which had dwindled into mere forms, have in recent years been made more stringent. Barristers are sometimes called ut- ter or outer barristers, to distinguish them from queen's (or king's) counsel, who sit within the bar in the courts, and are distinguished by a silk gown. Barristers are also spoken of as counsel, as in the phrase opinion of counsel, that is, a written opinion obtained from a bar- rister before whom the facts of a case have been laid. The duties of a barrister are hon- orary, and he can maintain no action for his fees. It is the barristers who speak before all the higher courts, being instructed in regard to the facts of the case they have in hand by means of the brief which they receive from the solicitor engaging their services. In the United States there is no distinct order of counsel corresponding to the English barrister, the same person performing the duties of attorney, solici- tor, counsel, or advocate. See also Advocate. Barron, James, American naval officer: b. Virginia, 1769; d. 21 April 1851. He entered the navy in 1798, and commanded the Chesapeake in 1807, when it was attacked by the British ship Leopard as a result of his refusal to allow the Chesapeake to be searched for deserters. The Chesapeake, which w-as quite unprepared, discharged one gun previous to striking her colors. She was captured and three alleged deserters were found. Barron was court-mar- tialed for neglect of duty, though only par- tially to blame for the surrender of his vessel, and suspended for five years. The court closed its finding on the subject of the personal con- duct of the accused, in the following language: *No transposition of the specifications, or any other modification of the charges themselves, would alter the opinion of the court as to the firmness and courage of the accused ; the evi- dence on this point is clear and satisfactory.'^ Such was the fate of Commodore Barron, but it is more than probable that under the state of public feeling, demanding a victim, those who were really responsible for the efficiency of the Chesapeake, escaped unpunished. Upon his res- toration, as the outcome of a long correspond- ence with his personal enemy, Commodore Decatur, a duel was fought and Decatur was killed. Barron became senior officer in the navy in 1839, though never again in active service and never regained full public esteem. See Chesa- peake AND Leopard. Barron, Samuel, American naval officer: b. Hampton, \'a., 1763; d. 29 Oct. 1810. In 1805 he commanded a squadron of 10 vessels in the expedition against Tripoli. On his return to the United States he was appointed commandant of the Gosport Navy Yard, but died immediately afterward. Barros, bar-ros, Arana Diego, Chilean scholar and historian : b. Santiago, 16 Aug. 1830. Ill health obliging him to give up legal studies, he early devoted himself entirely to his- torical and literary pursuits, and soon became an authority on the history of his native coun- try. The favor with which his historical sketch of the campaigns of 1818-21 was received encouraged him to begin an extensive ^History of Chilean Independence' (1854-8). He spent several years investigating the government archives and private libraries of South America and Europe in search of material bearing on the history of South America. His chief works in addition to the above are: "^Vida y Viajes de Hernando de Magallanes^ (1864) ; ^Histoire de la Guerre du Pacifique^ (1881), written by order of the government ; and his monumental ^Historia General de Chile' (12 vols. 1884-93). In Simancas he discovered the manuscript of the ^Puren Indomito.' an historical poem on the Araucanian war, and published an edition of it at Leipsic in i860. Barros, Joao de, eminent Portuguese historian: b. Viseu, 1496; d. Pombal, 1570. His first work, an historical romance, entitled the ^Emperor Clarimond,' appeared in 1520. Bar- ros presented it to the king, who urged him to undertake the history of the Portuguese in In- dia, which was issued 1552-62. King John III. appointed Barros governor of the Portuguese settlements in Guinea, and afterward general agent for these colonies. In 1530 he presented Barros with the province of Maranham in Bra- zil for the purpose of colonization. Barros lost a great part of his fortune by the enterprise, and returned the province to the king, who indern- nified him for his losses. His work ^L'Azia Portugueza,^ is much admired for its style and erudition. He wrote besides a moral dialogue, ^Rhopicancuma,^ in which he shows the per- nicious consequences of accommodating prin- ciples to circumstances; but this work was prohibited by the Inquisition. He w^rote also a dialogue on false modesty, and a Portuguese grammar, the first ever published. Barro'sa, or Borosa, a village in Spain, near the southwest coast of Andalusia, 16 miles south-southeast of Cadiz. On a knoll to the east of it a battle was fought in 181 1, in which the British under Gen. Graham, when aban- doned by the Spaniards, defeated a superior BARROT — BARROW French force under Victor. No decisive results were obtained from the battle, however. Barret, ba-ro, Camille Hyacinthe Odllon, French statesman : b. Villefort, Lozere, 19 July 1791 ; d. Bougival, near Paris, 6 Aug. 1873. At 19 he pleaded before the ordinary tribunals, and at 23, by a special dispensation, before the Court of Cassation, Paris, and early acquired a high reputation for eloquence. In the politi- cal arena his oratory soon made him one of the most influential leaders of the liberal opposition. He became president of the "Aide-toi" Society in 1830, and at the July revolution in that year was one of three commissioners appointed to conduct the dethroned Charles X. to Cherbourg, on his way to England. Returning he was ap- pointed prefect of the department of the Seine and member of the Council of State, but in a few months resigned his offices to lead the opposition to Casimir Perier and the reactionary ministers who followed him. He supported Thiers from his accession to office in March 1840, to his fall in October, when he resumed his opposition to the ministry of Guizot. He took a conspicuous part in the reform movement of 1847, and spoke eloquently at several of the provincial reform banquets which led to the revolution of February 1848. Made president by Thiers in his short-lived ministry, he ad- vised the king to withdraw his troops and thus remove the last obstacle to the downfall of his throne. In the last sitting of the Chamber of Deputies he supported the claim of the Count de Paris to the throne and the regency of the Duchess of Orleans. The February revolution considerably abated his ardor for public liberty. He held office for some time under the presi- dency of Louis Napoleon, but retired from active political life after the coup d'etat, 2 Dec. 1851, and accepted no office under the Second Empire. In July 1872 he was made a councilor of state and vice-president of the council, 6 Aug. 1873. His *^Memoires Posthumes' appeared at Paris (1875-6). Barrow, Frances Elizabeth, American author : b. Charleston, S. C, 22 Feb. 1822 ; d. 7 May 1894. She was educated in New York, where she was married to James Barsow. She wrote, under the name of Aunt Fanny, nu- merous books for children; among them *^Six Nightcaps,^ which has been translated into French, German, and Swedish. Another, ^The Letter G-* (1864), was widely known and very popular. She also wrote a novel, "^The Wife's Stratagem.^ Barrow, or Borrowe, Henry, English ecclesiastical reformer, often considered as one of the founders of Congregationalism : d. 1593. He was a member of Gray's Inn, London, in 1576 and there became interested in the writings of Thomas Browne, the founder of the Brown- ists. On account of his advocacy of Church reform he was imprisoned and with his co- reformer, Greenwood, was hanged at Tyburn. He was the author of "^ Brief Discourse of the False Church^ (1590). See Dexter, < Congre- gationalism of the Last Three Hundred Years' (1880). Barrow, Isaac, eminent English mathema- tician and theologian : b. London, 1630 ; d. May 1677. At the Charterhouse, where he was edu- cated, he was chiefly remarkable for fighting and neglect of study, but being removed to a school at Felsted, in Essex, he began to show some earnest of his future great reputation. He was subsequently entered a pensioner of Trinity College, Cambridge, in 1645, of which he was chosen a scholar in 1647. The ejection of his uncle, the Bishop of St. Asaph, from his fellow- ship of Peterhouse, in consequence of his ad- herence to the royal party, and the great losses sustained by his father in the same cause, left him largely unprovided for. His good dis- position and great attainments, however, so won upon his superiors that, although he re- fused to subscribe to the Covenant, he was very highly regarded. Finding that opinions in church and state opposite to his own now pre- vailed, he proceeded some length in the study of anatomy, botany, and chemistry, with a view to the medical profession. He, however, changed his mind, and to the study of divinity joined that of mathematics and astronomy. In 1652 he graduated M.A. at Oxford, and being disappointed in his endeavor to obtain the Greek professorship at Cambridge, engaged in a scheme of foreign travel. He set out in 1655, and during his absence his first work, an edi- tion of Euclid's * Elements,' was published at Cambridge. He visited France and Italy, where he embarked for Smyrna, and from Smyrna he proceeded to Constantinople, returning in 1659 by way of Germany and Holland, and was soon after episcopally ordained by Bishop Brown- rigg. In 1660 he was elected Greek professor at the University of Cambridge, without a com- petitor. The following year he received the de- gree of B.D. He was in 1662 chosen professor of geometry in Gresham College, and in 1663 the Royal Society elected him a member of that body in the first choice after their incorpora- tion. The same year he was appointed the first Lucasian professor of mathematics at Cam- bridge, on which occasion he delivered an excel- lent prefatory lecture on the utility of mathe- matical science In 1669, on a conscientious principle of duty, he determined to give up mathematics and adhere exclusively to divinity. Accordingly, after publishing his celebrated 'Lectiones Opticas,' he resigned his chair to the great Newton. In 1670 he was created D.D. by mandate, and in 1672 the king nominated him to the mastership of Trinity College, observing that he had bestowed it on the best scholar in Eng- land. He had before this refused a living, given him with a view I0 secure his services as a tutor to the son of the gentleman who had it to bestow, because he deemed such a contract simoniacal ; and he now, with similar consci- entiousness, had a clause in his patent of mas- ter allowing him to marry, erased, because in- compatible with the intentions of the founder. In 1675 he was chosen vice-chancellor of the University of Cambridge ; but the credit and utility expected from his labors were frustrated by his untimely death. The works of Barrow, both mathematical and theological, are of the highest class. Of the former the following are the principal : ^Euclidis Elementa' (1655) ; (1831). Biarry, James, Irish painter and writer on his art: b. Cork, 11 Oct. 1741 ; d. 12 Feb. 1806. By one of his first paintings in oil, ^The Con- version of St. Patrick,* exhibited at Dublin, he attracted the attention of Burke, who carried him, in his 23d year, to London. The brothers Burke provided him with the means for visit- ing Paris and Rome, whence he went to Flor- ence, Bologna, and Naples. He remained about four years in Italy, returning in 1770. Having exhibited some important pictures he was elect- ed an associate of the Royal Academy in 1772, and a full academician the following year. In 1777-83 he executed his chief work, the paint- ings which adorn the great hall of the Society of Arts. In 1775 he published *An Inquiry into the Real or Imaginary Obstructions to the In- crease of the Arts in England.^ He was ap- pointed professor of painting to the Academy in 1782; but in 1799, after he had alienated the respect of his fellow-academicians by his pe- culiar manners, and by his savage attacks upon them, he was expelled on the occasion of a vio- lent pamphlet issued by him under the title of a * Letter to the Society of Dilettanti.^ He was distinguished more by vigor of conception than by accuracy of execution, and his paintings have not maintained their reputation. Barry, John, the first American commo- dore: b. Wexford, Ireland, 1745; d. Philadel- phia, 13 Sept. 1803. He early displayed a great partiality for the sea, ' and at the age of II adopted America as his home, and made a num- ber of voyages in merchant ships, until the commencement of the Revolution. He at once embraced the cause of the colonies, offered his services, and was one of the first officers com- missioned by Congress in the naval service. After a successful cruise in the I^xington, he was transferred, in the latter part of 1776, to the Effingham, one of three large frigates built in Philadelphia. When the American vessels of war were lying near Whitehill, whither they had been sent when the city and the forts of the river had fallen into the power of the British, Commodore Barry conceived the dar- ing plan of annoying the enemy by means of small boats, properly armed, which being sta- tioned down the river and bay might intercept supplies, and in case of danger take refuge in the creeks. He accordingly manned the boats of the frigates, descended the river with muffled oars under cover of the night, and appeared un- expectedly before the city. He effected his ob- ject by intercepting a large stock of provisions, and capturing several vessels laden with mili- tary munitions and valuable stores for the Brit- ish officers. He was afterward transferred to the Alliance, a frigate of 36 guns, which was placed under his orders. 25 December 1781 the Alliance sailed from Boston with the Marquis de la Fayette and Count de Noailles on board, who were proceeding to France on public busi- ness. During the rest of the war Barry served with credit to himself and benefit to his coun- try, and after the cessation of hostilities, was appointed to superintend the building of the fri- gate United States in Philadelphia, which was designed for his command. He retained the command of the United States until she was laid up in ordinary. Barry, John Arthur, Australian journalist: b. 1850. He led a roving life for many years, but finally settled in Sydney, N. S. W. His writings include: * Steve Brown's Bunyip' (1893); 'The Great Deep> (1895); 'The Lack of the Native Born^ (1898); (1899) ; 'Old and New Sydney^ (1901); 'Red Lion and Blue Star^ (1902). Barry, John Daniel, American novelist: b. Boston, Mass., 31 Dec. 1866. He has written *A Daughter of Thespis* ; (1887) ; ^The Place of Dreams> (1894) ; ^The Two Standards^ (1898) ; (1900); (1867) ; Landelle. (1855) ; < Letters on Egypt^ (1856); Le Bouddha et sa Religion' (1862) ; < Mahomet et le Coran> (1865); ^De la Metaphysique> (1879); ^L'lnde Anglaise* (1887) ; T-v A 4. T.t c t. vited the old Coligny, the support of the Bartholomews Day, 24 Augtist. It was first Huguenots, to his couri and honored him as a established in the reign of Henry I., and was ^^^^^^ ^^^ ^-^^^^ ^^ ^^^ j.; ^^^ ^^^^-^^ ^^ originally devoted mainly to the purposes of ^j^^ p^-^^^ ^^ ^-^^^ (^g ^ ) ^^■. business and traffic. It was finally abolished in ^^-^^ ^^^^^^^ ^p ^ ^^j^ ^^^ ^jf^ most distin- ^°^5- . , _ J guished Huguenots in Paris. Meanwhile the Bartholomew, Saint, one of the Leeward ^^^^^^ ^^d allied herself to the Guise family. Islands, in the West Indies. 120 miles to the and jealous of the influence of Coligny with northwest of Guadeloupe, belonging to France the king, determined to have him assassinated, (to which It was transferred by Sweden m Qn 22 August a shot from a window wounded 1877), about 8 square miles in area, and rising the admiral. The king hastened to visit him, to the height of about 1,000 feet. It produces and swore to punish the author of the villainy; tobacco, sugar, cotton, indigo, cassava, drugs, but on the same day he was induced by his etc., with some excellent woods (including lig- mother to believe that the admiral had designs num vitas"), and limestone. All the fresh water on his life. < (1892). prince and the admiral by stratagem, but was , , ..^ . , « • j: 1 disappointed, and hostilities were renewed in Bartholomews Hospital, baint, formerly 1565. and still again after the Peace of Lonju- the priory of St. Bartholomew, and made_ a meau, 1568, this time with greater cruelty than hospital by Henry VIII. in 1547. It contains ever In the battle of Jarnac, 1569, Conde was 676 beds, and. on an average. 6,000 patients are made prisoner and shot by Capt. de Monte- annually admitted to the hospital, -while about sqiiie'i. Coligny collected the remains of the 100,000 out-patients are relieved by it. BARTHOLOMITES — BARTLETT Barthol'omites. See Basilians. Bar'tizan, a battlement on the top of a house or castle ; a small overhanging turret pro- jecting from the angle on the top of a tower, or from the parapet or other parts of a build- ing ; or, the battlement surrounding a spire or steeple, or the roof of a cathedral or church. Bartlett, Elisha, American physician and author: b. Smithfield, R. I., 1805; d. there, 18 July 1855. He graduated from the medical de- partment of Brown University in 1826, and de- livered the course of lectures on pathological anatomy at the Berkshire medical institute in Pittsfield, Mass., in 1832. In 1836 or 1837 he was elected the first mayor of Lowell. He sub- sequently lectured at Dartmouth College, and in Transylvania University and the universi- ties of Maryland and New York. In 1851 he became professor of materia medica and medi- cal jurisprudence in the College of Physicians and Surgeons in New York, which place he held until his death. He published ^ Essay on the Philosophy of Medical Science^ (1844) ; ^Fevers of the United States^ (1850) ; and a volume of poems, entitled ^Simple Settings in Verse for Portraits and Pictures in Mr. Dick- ens' Gallery^ (1855). Bartlett, Edwin Julius, American chemist: b. Hudson, O., 16 Feb. 1851. He was graduated at Dartmouth College in 1872, and at Rush Medical College in 1879; made associate pro- fessor of chemistry in Dartmouth in 1879, and full professor in 1883. He is a member of the American Chemical Society, and the New York Medico-Legal Society, and an honorary mem- ber of the New Hampshire Medical Society. He is the author of many papers on chemical subjects. Bartlett, Sir Ellis Ashmead. See Ash- mead-Bartlett. Bartlett, Homer Newton, American com- poser : b. Olive, N. Y., 28 Dec. 1846. He began his public career when 9 years of age, and at ID composed violin music, piano duos, songs, and vocal duets. He has written a large num- ber of anthems, quartets, and glees for vocal rendering, and pieces for the flute, stringed instruments, and military bands and orchestras. His best compositions include a three-act opera, 'La Valliere* ; a cantata, ^The Last Chieftain ' ; an oratorio, ^Samuel,' etc. Bartlett, Ichabod, American lawyer: b. Salisbury, N. H., 1786; d. 19 Oct. 1853. He graduated at Dartmouth College in 1808, com- menced the practice of the law in Durham, but soon removed to Portsmouth, where his skill and ability soon commanded success. He is celebrated as an opponent of Webster and Ma- son. He was frequently a member of the State legislature, and of the United States House of Representatives for three terms, 1823-9. Bartlett, John, American author and pub- lisher : b. Plymouth, Mass., 14 June 1820; d. Cambridge, Mass., 3 Dec. 1905. He entered the university book-store, became a publisher in Cam- bridge in 1836, and senior partner in the house of Little, Brown & Company, in 1878. His works include: < Familiar Quotations' (1854; 9th ed. 1891); (1882); 'Catalogue of Books on Angling, In- cluding Ichthyology, Pisciculture, etc' (1882); 'The Complete Concordance to Shakespeare's Dramatic Works' C1894); and afterward recited a poem, entitled the 'New Bartlett, William Francis, American mili- Vicar of Bray,' which obtained considerable tary officer : b. Haverhill, Mass., 6 Jan. 1840 ; d. celebrity. He next attempted the practice of 17 Dec. 1876. He was a student at Har- law and of politics in Maine, was elected to yard University at the outbreak of the Civil the State legislature, and nearly secured an \Var, but left to enter the army. He was election to Congress by his active exertions as wounded in the battle of Ball's Blufif, suffering a speaker and newspaper writer. He then prac- the loss of a leg ; but continued in the service ; tised law at Portsmouth, N. H., and finally ^as twice wounded at Port Hudson ; and in the closed his improvident life, a burden to his battles of the Wilderness, while leading the friends, at Boston. See Duyckmck's etian Academy, is ; and Parsons, 'Studies in Church History.^ Basel, Treaties of Peace at, 5 April and 22 July 1795, between Prussia, Spain, and France, in which Prussia and Spain separated themselves from the coalition against France and acknowledged the republic. France re- tained the Prussian provinces on the left bank of the Rhine until the general peace, and ac- cepted the mediation of Prussia, when any Ger- man princes wished to conclude separate treaties of peace with it. A secret article was inserted in the treaty, the object of which was to secure compensation to Prussia in case the left bank of the Rhine should remain with France at the general peace. The landgrave of Hesse-Cassel afterward concluded a treaty with the French republic at Basel, 28 Aug. 1795, by which the latter retained possession of the territories of Hesse-Cassel on the left bank of the Rhine until the general peace. By the Peace of Basel all the conquests of France beyond the Pyrenees were restored to Spain, in exchange for which that country ceded to France the Spanish part of the island of St. Domingo. Basel, University of, an institution opened in 1460. After the Reformation it became strongly Protestant and exerted a widespread influence in behalf of the new faith. .Among its professors were Erasmus, CEcolampadius, Euler, and the Bernoullis. It is at present the princi- pal theological school in Switzerland, with de- partments of medicine, law, and philosophy. Its library contains 230,000 volumes and i,i^oo MSS. Basel'la, or Malabar Nightshade, a mono- tj'pic but very variable genus of tropical herbs of the natural order Chcnopodiacece. B. rubra, a twining annual or biennial plant, native of India, where it is cultivated as a pot herb, is often raised in Europe, and has been introduced into the United States as a substitute for spin- ach, which it succeeds in season (July until frost). It is decidedly mucilaginous when cooked. Sometimes it is used as a greenhouse climber. One variety bears edible tubers, and another furnishes a purple dye. Basement, in architecture, the base or lowest story of a building. It should have ex- ternally an appearance of strength, but its height BASEY — BASIL and proportion to the rest of the edifice are very various, depending on the character of the apartments on the ground floor. Basey, ba'sa, Philippines, a town in Samar, with a population in 1898 of 13,756. Bashahr', one of the Punjab hill states, on the lower slopes of the Himalayas, traversed from east to west by the Sutlej ; area, 3,320 square miles. The rajah and upper classes in the southern parts are Rajputs, and the people generally are of the Hindu race, but their ob- servance of Hinduism is very partial. The rajah pays tribute to the British government, for which he is required to raise troops in time of war, and by which his sentences of death must be confirmed. Pop. JSJ^j. Bashan, ba'shan or ba-shan' (meaning un- certain, perhaps "soft, rich soiP')> the name in Scripture for a singularly rich tract of country lying beyond the Jordan, between Mount Her- mon and the land of Gilead. These two re- gions, Bashan and Gilead, attracted the atten- tion of those tribes that desired to continue the pastoral life to which they and their fathers had been accustomed ; and Gilead was accord- ingly divided between Reuben and Gad, while Bashan was given to the half-tribe of Manasseh. Its forests contain magnificent oaks, and the ^'strong bulls of Bashan*^ of ancient times are still represented by vast herds of black cattle. Bashan had been the kingdom of the Canaanite giant Og, whom Moses destroyed ; and one dis- trict of the country, Argob, had at that time 60 fenced cities, with walls, gates, and bars, besides many unwalled towns, remains of which are yet to be seen. Among the cities of this region were Edrei, Kenath, Golan, and Bozrah. After the captivity it is mentioned as divided into Trachonitis (the ancient Argob), Gaulanitis (Golan), Auranitis (Hauran, mentioned by Ezekiel), and Batansa, or Bashan proper. Bashford, James Whitford, American clergyman: b. Fayette, Wis., 27 May 1849. He was graduated at the University of Wisconsin in 1873, and at the Theological School of Bos- ton University in 1876 ; became instructor of Greek at the University of Wisconsin in 1874, and president of the Wesleyan University of Ohio in 1889. His works include ^Science of Religion,^ numerous pviblished sermons, and contributions to periodical literature. Bashi-Bazouks', irregular troops in the pay of the Turkish Sultan. They are a wild, turbulent body of men, mostly from Turkey in Asia, and in the duties with which they are en- trusted resemble the Cossacks in the Russian army. In the spring of 1876 the Bashi-Bazouks were guilty of great atrocities in checking a threatened insurrection in the district around Philippopolis in eastern Rumelia. Bashi' Islands. See B.\tan Islands. Bashkirs', or Bashkeers', a tribe of half- civilized people subject to Russia, and inhabit- ing the banks of the Ural and Volga. They are probably descended from the Nogay Tartars and resemble them in their manners. They formerly roamed about, under their own princes, in southern Siberia. To avoid the Si- berian khans they settled in their present terri- tory, extended themselves along the Volga and the Ural, and submitted to the khan of Khasan. At the time when this state was overthrown by Ivan II. they voluntarily took refuge under the Russian sceptre ; but their frequent revolts long prevented their increase and kept them in a weak condition. They number about 500,000, and inhabit chiefly the governments of Oren- burg, Perm, and Samara. They are Moham- medans, and live chiefly by hunting, the breed- ing of cattle and horses, and keeping of bees. They prepare from mare's and camel's milk a fermented beverage, koumiss (q.v.), which is their favorite drink. They furnish the Russian army with a body of irregular cavalry. Bashkirtseff, bash-kert'sef, Marie, Russian author: b. Russia, i860; d. Paris, 1884. She came of a noble and wealthy family, went to Italy to study singing, and to Paris to study art. Her fame rests on her private *Jour- nal,^ which seems to have been written with ultimate publication in view. It begins with her 13th year and continues through her later life. According to her own words, it was in- tended to be "the transcript of a woman's life." It appeared in Paris in 1885, and was abridged and translated into English in 1889, and was called by Gladstone "a book without a parallel." Like Rousseau's *■ Confessions,^ it claims to be an absolutely candid expression of individual experience. From the age of three years she cherished inordinate ambition, and felt herself destined to become great as singer, writer, artist, or queen of society. Admiration was es- sential to her, and she records compliments to her beauty or her erudition with equal pleasure. Her life was a curious mixture of the interests of an attractive society girl with those of a serious student. Her chronic discontent was due to the disproportion between her aspirations and her achievements. She was never unself- conscious, and her book reveals her longings, her petty vanities, and her childish crudities, as well as her versatile and brilliant talents. Basic Slag, the slag of refuse matter which is obtained in making basic steel, and which, from the phosphate of lime it contains, is a valuable fertilizer. Basic Steel. See Steel Manufacture. Basil, ba'zil or baz'Tl, Saint, surnamed The Great, Bishop of C?esarea, Cappadocia : b. about 326 ; d. 380. He was studying in Athens in 355, and there became the friend of Gregory, afterward Bishop of Nazianzen. He was baptized in 357, and after extensive travels retired to the desert of Pontus and there founded an order of monks named Basilians. He succeeded Eusebius in the see of Cjesarea in 370, and by his opposition to Arian doctrines greatly oflended the Emperor Valens. The liturgy of St. Basil is still used in the Eastern Church. Basil I., emperor of Constantinople: b. Macedon, of poor parents, about the beginning of the 9th century ; d. 886, from a blow given him by a stag while hunting. In his 25th year he made his way to Constantinople, and gained the favor of an archimandrite, who procured him service with an officer of the court of the Emperor Michael III. Later he was appointed head-chamberlain to the emperor. Despite in- trigues against him he advanced so rapidly in the emperor's favor that he was adopted as his colleague. He murdered his chief rival, Bardus, and knowing that Michael had rendered himself odious by his cruelty and debauchery, he headed BASIL — BASILICA a body of conspirators and murdered him in his bed in 867, and assumed sole occupancy of the throne. Notwithstanding his criminal acts, he proved an able and equitable sovereign ; paid equal attention to the internal administration and the foreign relations of the empire, and, not overlooking even its religious interests, sent an archbishop into Russia and laid the founda- tion of that ascendency which the Greek Church has so long possessed in that country. He com- piled a body of laws called the Basilica, which, augmented by his son and successor, Leo the Philosopher, were in force till the fall of the empire. Basil I. deprived Photius of the see of Constantinople, and restored Ignatius ; but on the death of the latter he recalled Photius. He successfully carried on war with the Sara- cens. The versatility, if not the depth of his intellect, is strikingly displa3'ed in his exhorta- tions to his son Leo, which are still extant. Basil II., emperor of the East: d. 1025. On the death of his father, the Emperor Ro- : nanus the Younger, in 963, he was kept out of the succession for 12 years by two usurpers ; the first, Nicephorus II. (Phocus), who died in 969, and the second, Johannes (John) Zimis- ces, who associated Basil and his brother Constantine with him in the empire in 975, and died the following year, leaving the whole power to Basil although Constantine was still his colleague in name. His reign was almost a continuous warfare, in which the con- tending parties seemed to vie with each other in committing deeds of cruelty. In 1014, after a great victory over the Bulgarians, in which he had taken 15,000 prisoners, he had 99 out of every 100 deprived of their eyes and thus sent home. This horrible cruelty caused the death of Samuel, king of the Bulgarians. The war ended in 1019 by the complete conquest of Bulgaria. Basil (Ooimum), a genus of fragrant an- nual herbs of the natural order Labiatcc, natives of warm climates, cultivated for culinary pur- poses and for ornament. The species generally raised are sweet basil (0. basilicuni), bush or dwarf basil, (O. tninijiium) , (considered by some botanists a form of O. basiliciim) , and tree basil (O. gratissimuin) . The name basil is also applied to certain species of several other related genera ; for instance, Pycnanthetnum and Calainintha. For culture and uses, see Herbs (Culinary.) Basilan, ba-se'liin, Philippines, the largest island of the Sulu Archipelago. It is of ob- long form, about 36 miles long and situated south of Mindanao, from which it is separated by a strait nine miles wide. The island is very mountainous, and most of it is covered by vir- gin forests. The soil is extremely rich and produces a variety of valuable crops, including cotton, cofifee, sugar, chocolate, tobacco, indigo, and spices of all sorts. Basilan has about 15.000 inhabitants and three excellent harbors. The name is also applied to the whole group of 34 adjacent islets. The leading port is Isabela, on Basilan Strait. Basil'ean Manuscripts, two manuscripts of the Greek New Testament, now in the library of Basel: (i) a nearly complete uncial copy of the Gospels of the 8th century; (2) a cursive copy of the whole New Testament except the Apocalypse, of the loth century. Basil'ian Liturgy, that form for celebrat- ing the eucharist drawn up, toward the close of the 4th century, by Basil the Great, still used in the Greek Church. Basilian Monks, a monastic order, chiefly belonging to the Greek Church, which strictly follow the rules of St. Basil (q.v.), who, after visiting the monasteries of Egypt, Syria, and Palestine, induced many to enter and even to found convents. His rule was cotifirmed by Pope Liberius in 363. In 379 there were at least 80,000 in the Eastern monasteries. Many convents were dispersed in the 8th century, during the Iconoclast persecutions, and all be- gan to languish about the time of the Eastern schism. The order comprises priests, lay- brothers, cenobites living in community, ancho- rites in cells, and hermits in solitudes. They are governed by an archimandrite who has sev- eral convents under his jurisdiction, and by exarchs deputed by the archimandrite to visit the convents. The order has developed more extensively in Russia than in other countries. In Austria, Poland, and Hungary there are many communities, known as Ruthenians, in union with Rome. In Italy also they had con- vents in Calabria. Sicily, and Naples. In Spain they flourished for nearly two centuries until 1835. The communities of Sisters of this name were founded by St. Maerina, sister of St. Basil. Other communities following the rule of St. Basil are the Melchites. with about 600 houses in Libanus ; the Bartholomites of the Armenian rites, so called because, after taking refuge in Genoa in 1307, they had possession of St. Bartholomew's church there until 1659. This name is likewise given to a community of secu- lar priests founded by Bartholomew Holzhauser in Germany in 1640, and once propagated in Hungary, Poland, and Spain, but now extinct. There are but six Basilians in the United States (in Chicago) affiliated to the provincial house in Toronto, Canada. Basil'ica (literally, a royal hall, originally the hall occupied by the archon basileus or *'king archon" among the ancient Athenians), the name of buildings belonging to classical an- tiquity, which acquired their characteristic form among the Romans. In the first centuries of the Christian era the Roman basilicas were splendid public buildings, of an oblong shape, commonly adorned with columns and statues, w^here the citizens collected to consult for their common welfare, the merchants exposed their wares, young orators exerci.sed themselves in declamation, etc. Constantine the Great gave some basilicas to the Christians in Rome for their worship. Thence it happened that the first Christian churches obtained the name of basiliccc. But in the 4th century after Christ the ancient form of the basilica began to be modified and developed. (See Christi.an Architecture.) The chief changes that from that time onward were gradually made in its construction con- sisted in the raising of the nave above the rest of the building, the introduction of upper win- dows, the addition of the transepts, and the decoration of the interior with works of mosaic. At a later time towers were introduced, and still later vaulted roofs instead of the flat tim- ber roofs with which they were formerly pro- vided. The original church on the site of which St. Peter's is built was a basilica, and hence the BASILICA — BASILISK name is often applied to the present church, which is not, strictly speaking, a basilica. Basilica, a code of laws founded on the code of Justinian, supposed to have been named after the Greek emperor Basihus I., in whose reign its compilation was begun. It was fin- ished by Leo the Philosopher, and revised by order of his son Constantine Porphyrogeni- tus in 945. It consisted of 60 books, but we no longer possess them in a complete form. The principal editions are those of Fabrot (7 vols., Paris, 1647), and Heimbach (Vols. I-V, Leip- sic, 1833-50). Basilicata, bii-zil-e-ca'ta, the ancient Luca- nia, in southern Italy, composed solely of the province of Potenza ; so called after the Em- peror Basilius II., who reconquered it from the Saracens and Lombards in the nth century. It is mountainous, several peaks rising to up- ward of 4,500 feet (Monte Pollino, 7,375 feet). The Apennines here divide into two parts, which branch off to the east and west. From these the rivers Bradano, Basento, Salandrella, Agri, and Sinni take their source, and, after draining this fertile district, fall into the Gulf of Taranto in the Ionian Sea. There are also many lakes, some of volcanic origin. The chief are Mon- ticchio, Pesole, Maorno, and Santa Palagina. The bulk of the people are poor and ignorant, and talk a dialect called basiiisco. Its coast Ime being for the most part marshy, and, as a consequence, unhealthful, the province derives next to no commercial benefit from it. The orange and lemon grow well near the coast. Other products are cotton, flax, silk, honey, wax, licorice, dried fruit, saffron, tobacco, etc. Mineral springs are many, chiefly sulphur- ous. There are marble quarries at Avig- liano, Latronico, Muro, Lucano, and Picerno ; chalk at Mauro Forte and Montemuro ; trans- parent quartz at Lagonegro ; tufa at Matera ; and excellent lignite at San Chirico Raparo and Rotonda. Area, 3,845 square miles; pop. (1901) 490,000. Basilicon, ba-zil'i-kon, a name of several ointments, the chief ingredients of which are wax, pitch, resin, and olive oil. Basilicon Do'ron (the royal gift), the title of a book written by King James I. in 1599, and printed in Edinburgh in 1603, con- taining a collection of precepts on the art of government, and maintaining the claim of the king to be sole head of the Church. Basilides, ba-sTl'i-dez, founder of one of the most remarkable sects of ancient Alexan- dria. He lived under the reigns of Trajan, Adrian, and Antoninus, but the place of his birth, supposed to be in Persia, Syria, or Egypt, is unknown. He was well acquainted with Christianity, but, under the pretense of freeing it from corruption, corrupted it still more by mixing it up with the wildest dreams of the Gnostics and peopling the earth and the air with multitudes of aeons. He had numerous followers, who spread from Syria and Egypt into Italy, and even as far as France, but they suddenly sank into obscurity and are scarcely heard of after the 4th century. Basil'io da Gama, ga'ma, Jose, a Brazilian poet: b. San Jose, 1740; d. Lisbon, 1795. His principal poem gives a picturesque and roman- tic account of the bloody wars which the Por- tuguese waged, in 1756, against the natives of Paraguay. He was a protege of the Brazilian minister Pombal, who gave him employment in his Cabinet. He shared Pombal's exile, and also dedicated verses to him in token of his gratitude. On his return to Rio de Janeiro he was favorably received by the authorities and the literary notabilities, and with their co-opera- tion he became one of the founders of the first Brazilian academy. In 1790 he again had to resort to flight, and he succeeded in escaping to Lisbon. He was the author of many lyrical pieces and sonnets, and of a poem, 'Quitubia,* written on an African chieftain whose devo- tion to Portugal engaged the poet's sympathy ; but the most abiding monument of his genius is his ^ Uruguay,^ which is still popular wher- ever the Portuguese language is known. Basilis'cus, brother of Verina, wife of Leo, emperor of the East : d. 477. In his youth he obtained some successes against the Scythians, and in 468, through the influence of his sister, was appointed to command the immense arma- ment fitted out at Constantinople against Gen- seric, king of the«Vandals in Africa. This ex- pedition consisted of upward of 1,100 vessels, conveying soldiers and sailors to the number of more than 100,000 men, and its equipment is said to have cost about $25,000,000. But this vast fleet, after reaching the coast of Africa in safety, was altogether destroyed or dispersed by Genseric, through the incapacity or treachery of its leader. Basiliscus escaped to Constantinople, and obtained the pardon of the emperor only by the earnest inter- cession of the empress. After the death of Leo, and of his successor, Leo II., in 474, Basiliscus usurped the imperial throne. But he was imable to sustain himself in this position, and was not long after overthrown and put to death by Zeno, the legitimate heir. Basilisk, baz'T-lTsk, according to Pliny (lib. viii. c. 21), a kind of serpent found in the African deserts, named basiliskos. or little king, because its body was marked with bright spots, and those on the head had the appearance of a crown or diadem. It had a very pointed head, with fiery eyes, and was of a dark color, verging to blackness. All other snakes were said to fly from the sound of its hissing; and instead of trailing along like other serpents the basilisk raised its body nearly erect, and, as it passed along, killed the herbs and fruits by its touch, and even by its breath. Yet this monster was destroyed by weasels. If these fables had ref- erence to any real animal, it is probable that it was a species somewhat similar to the cobra de capello, or the asp viper. Both are accus- tomed to erect a very considerable part of the body, though not to move forward in this way. It is highly probable that the basilisk of the ancients was merely a creature of fiction. The name is now applied to one of the Cen- tral and South American lizards of the family Iguanidce and genus Basiliscus, remarkable for the high and erectile crests which are devel- oped along the back and tail of the males. They have long legs and long flexible toes, enabling them to climb trees with great activity. They prefer such trees as overhang the water, into which they plunge at any sign of danger. They feed entirely upon vegetable matter. The best- kfiown species is Basiliscus americanus, which BASILOSAURUS — BASKET lias a length of nearly three feet, three fifths of which is tail. In color the basilisks are green and brown, with dark cross-bars on the back, and the crest of the males is red. In early spring they lay about a dozen eggs in a hole among the roots of a tree. See also Iguana. Basilosaurus. See Zeuglodon. Ba'sin, in physical geography, the whole tract of country drained by a river and its tributaries. The line dividing one river basin from another is the watershed, and by tracing the various watersheds each country is divided into its constituent basins. The basin of a lake or sea comprises as well all the territory drained by the rivers which run into it. Such hydrographic basins owe their origin either to erosive action or to a depression of the earth's crust. When rivers become established upon a new land surface they proceed to deepen and widen their channels, and in course of time may appreciably lower the level of the drainage area. Glaciers are also important agents in the establishment of hydrographic basins, as is il- lustrated by the numerous rock basins (now occupied by lakes) that were hollowed out by the great ice-sheets that once invaded northern North America and Europe. Other depres- sions have been formed by vertical movements of the strata comprising the earth's crust. The Great Basin lying between the Rocky Moun- tains and the coast ranges, and many of the lake basins of central Africa, originated in this way. In geology a basin is the synclinal arrangement of strata so that they dip or are inclined toward a common centre. The Paris Basin and the London Basin are familiar in- stances. See River ; Lake ; Valley ; etc. Bas'ingstoke, England, a town and parish of Hampshire, situated near the source of the Loddon, i8 miles north-northeast from Win- chester. Its streets are well built, payed, and lighted, and the town is amply supplied with water. It has a town-hall, containing a spacious corn-market and ball-room. It has also a fine Gothic church, erected in the time of Henry VIII. ; several other places of wprship ; a me- chanics' institute, with good library; and numer- ous charities. A considerable trade is carried on in corn and malt. Population of municipal borough (1901) 9,810. Bas'kerville, John, English printer and artist: b. Wolverley, Worcestershire, 1706; d. 1775. Inheriting a small estate, he was brought up to no profession, but, acquiring great skill in penmanship and carving letters on stone, at the age of 20 he settled at Birmingham as a writing-master. He subsequently engaged in the manufacture of japanned works, and in 1750 entered upon his great career as printer and typefounder, in which he displayed extraor- dinary ability, as well as in the manufacture of the ink and paper used in his productions. His first great work was an edition of Virgil, in royal quarto, 1756, which was followed by many of the Latin classics, and some English ones, in quarto and smaller sizes. After his death his types and matrices were sold to Beaumarchais at Paris for £3,700. Basket, a vessel made of osier twigs or other flexible materials, as rushes, strips of wood, splits of bamboo, rattan, etc., and used for holding and carrying all sorts of commodi- ties. The word is of Brilanno-Celtic origin and still subsists in the Welsh language in the form Basgazvd, from Basg, plaiting, net-work : it was adopted into the Latin language in the ist cen- tury with form little altered — Bascauda. The baskets made in Britain were highly prized by the Romans, and the poets Juvenal and Martial make mention of them as articles of no trifling value. They were evidently regarded as rare exotic curios in Juvenal's day, for the poet, in drawing an exaggerated picture of the ship- wreck in which his friend Catullus threw over- board his most cherished possessions, couples Bascaudse (ba.skcts) with articles of chased silver wrought by famous artists (Sat. xii.). And Martial (xiv. 99) makes the British bas- ket say of itself: — Barbara de pictis veni bascauda Britannis, Sed me jam mavult dicere Roma suam — " The Basket Barbaric, I'm come from the painted Britanni, But Rome now would choose rather to title me Roman." In primeval times basket-making was a branch of the art of weaving, and both of these arts grew out of the still more primi- tive one of wattling, first employed in mak- ing enclosures. Tylor ('Early History of in making enclosures. Tylor ('Early Hist, of Mankind' ) notes the existence of wicker- weaving among primitive tribes throughout the world. This is the first step in the art of weav- ing textile fabrics. It is practised, or rather was practised, by the natives of New Zealand and of northwestern America, and as late as i856by an Indian tribe living northwest of Lake Huron. In the lake habitations of Switzer- land have been found specimens of wicker- weaving work consisting of strands of un- twisted fibre, probably hemp, bound together by transverse strands wattled in among them ; and in the same localities have been found speci- mens of the same kind of weaving but of a progressively higher and finer type. There is even a genetic relation between the arts of basket-making and pottery, proved by speci- mens of rude pottery found in all quarters of the world: in these are seen the impresses of the basket-work on which the clay was molded and which was burnt away in the kiln. Even after the art of molding the clay without the basket-work frame was invented, the potters seem to have imitated the markings left by it. Among the Indians of the Mississippi valley along the gulf, all pottery vessels of large size used to be modeled in baskets of willow or splints, which, being burnt off, their markings remained. Shields of basket-work covered with hide were in use among the Briions at the time of Caesar's invasion, and similar shields are still employed by primitive peoples wherever they live in savage isolation. Boats, too, of basket-work, with a covering of hide (coracles), were used by the ancient Britons, and boats of the same type were seen by Herodotus (I. 194) navigating the Euphrates. These were of round form, without distinction of bow and stern, and similar boats are still in use on some rivers in India. On account of its lightness, combined with strength and durability, basket-work is pre- ferred to joinerj- in the manufacture of various commodities, as window-screens, pony-carriage bodies, chairs, tables, etc. In South America the natives weave of rushes baskets capable of holding liquids, and those of Tasmania, now BASKET-BALL — BASKET-FISH extinct, used to weave of leaves water-tight vessels. The material most commonly em- ployed in basket-making is the willow or ozier twig, and the production of this material is an important industry in France, Germany, Bel- gium, Holland, and Britain. The product of France and Britain is the most highly esteemed for firmness, toughness, and evenness ; that of Germany is reputed inferior to the French ; the Dutch product is in least esteem, being soft and pithy. Besides ozier twigs, a great variety of other materials are employed in basket- making. In this country coarse, strong baskets are made of shavings or long broad splits of various tough woods. In China and Japan the usual materials are bamboo and rattan, and the Chinese and Japanese excel in the manufacture of wares of these materials, their products be- ing unrivaled for fineness, elegance, and finish; and some of their work, as in the encasing of the egg-shell porcelain of the Japanese is mar- velous for the delicacy of the manipulation : even the examples seen in our marts, of com- mon little porcelain saucers so encased in basket-work, are worthy of admiration for painstaking workmanship. The fronds of the Palmyra palm, originally employed in India in making *Cajan" baskets, now afford a staple material for use in the art throughout the world. So, too, Phormium tciiax, native of New Zea- land, which yielded to the natives of that coun- try their peculiar basket-making material, is now employed in all countries for the same purpose. Basket-making is one of the simplest of the mechanic arts ; and the workman, in making baskets designed for use, not for ornament or to please the fancy, has no absolute need of tools or apparatus beyond those requisite for cutting the rods and interlacing them — a knife and a bodkin, with a mallet to beat them into place. The process can be learned in principle by inspection of a basket-maker at work in fashioning a basket from the foundation to the rim. Having provided a sufficient quantity of rods or splints of much greater length than the proposed dimensions of the finished work, he lays a number of them on the floor in paral- lel pairs at small intervals in the direction of the longer diameter of the basket : this is the woof, so to speak. Then these are crossed at right angles by two of the largest osiers, with their thick ends toward the workman, who sets his foot upon them ; next, each of these is woven alternately over and under the length- wise parallel pieces, and thus the parallel pieces are held fast; this is the ^"^slath,'' — the founda- tion. Now the end of one of the two transverse rods is woven over and under the lengthwise rods all round the bottom till that whole rod is worked in ; and the same is done with the other transverse rod, and then additional long oziers are woven in till the bottom is of the required size. The bottom is now finished and work begins on the superstructure by driving the sharpened large ends of a sufficient number of long, stout oziers between the rods at the bottom from the edge toward the centre: these are the ribs or skeleton, being set up in the di- rection of the sides ; between these ribs other rods are woven in till the structure reaches the desired height. To finish the edge the ends of the ribs are turned down over each other and thus compactly united. A handle is added by forcing two or three sharpened rods of the requisite length down through the weav- ing of the sides, close together, and pinning them fast a little below the brim ; the rods are then either bound or plaited in any way the workman chooses. Our North American Indians were once among the most expert basket-weavers in the world. Now only the older Indians know the art, and certain tribes whose work was incom- parably fine and beautiful have already lost it. After much pauperizing under the abominable reservation system, it was decided that the In- dians needed an industry to save them from sinking still lower. Lace-making, after Brus- sels and French patterns, was first superim- posed on a Minnesota reservation, whence it has spread. Now, lace-making, which has been de- veloped by the European woman, fits her like a glove ; and quite as truly, basket-making fits the Indian like a moccasin. Yet the Indians have succeeded at making lace, for they have remarkable skill with the fingers. An enlight- ened administrator of Indian affairs has taken up the task of human development in the right way and has made plans to revive basket- making by introducing it into the Government Indian schools, where the children, who now know nothing of this beautiful art, may learn from the only masters capable of teaching them — their own people, directed by white teachers who know the needs of the constantly widen- ing market. Hundreds of thousands of dollars' worth of baskets are imported from Japan and Germany every year • — money which by every right should be earned 'by our capable and needy Indians ; and better than the money they will earn is the satisfaction of doing what they do with surpassing skill. Basket-ball, a distinctly American gami». Its history begins in i8gi, when a lecturer in psychology at the Young Men's Christian Asso- ciation Training School in Springfield, Mass., suggested, as an exercise of inventiveness, a game that would comply with certain condi- tions. One of his pupils, James Naismith, tak- ing" note of the hypothetical conditions indoors, — limited area, limited number of contestants, equally applicable to either sex, etc., — applied his mind to meet those conditions, and invented « basket-ball.» It is played on a marked oblong square con- taining not more than 3.500 feet of actual playing-space, by teams of five each, known respectively as centre, left, and right forwards, and left and right backs. The ball is round and inflated, not less than 30 nor more than 32 inches in circumference, and very like that with which "Association* foot-ball is played. The goals are hammock nets of cord, suspended from metal rings 18 inches in diameter, and placed 10 feet from the ground, in the centre of the ends of the playing-space. The time of playing, for seniors, is two halves of 20 minutes, with an interval of 10 minutes; and for juniors, two halves of 15 minutes, with a similar inter- val. No kicking of the ball with the foot, or hitting with the fists, is permitted ; the ball must be held by the hands only. For rules, and much other necessary informa- tion for actual plaving. consult Hepbion's ^Of- ficial Basket-Bail Rules.> Basket-fish, a name given about 1670 by John Winthrop, governor of Connecticut, to the Astrophyton agassisii. It belongs to the BASKET-WORM — BASS group Euryalida, and is allied to the sand-stars, but differs in the arms being much branched and ending in long slender tendrils which are so much interlaced as to suggest basket-work. It is very large, the disk being two inches across, and the entire animal often a foot in diameter. It lives off the coast of New Eng- land in from lo to lOO fathoms of water. Other names are "Medusa's-head," and *Sea-basket." Basket-worm. See Bag-worm. Baskett, James Newton, American zoolo- gist : b. Kentucky, i Nov. 1849. He was grad- uated at the Missouri State University in 1872. He has devoted himself to the study of compara- tive vertebrate anatomy, with ornithology as a specialty. In 1893 he presented a paper on 'Some Hints at the Kmship of Birds as Shown by Their Eggs^ at the World's Congress of Ornitholo- gists in Chicago. Among his publications are 'The Story of the Birds' ; 'The Story of the Fishes' ; 'The Story of the Amphibians and Reptiles'; 'The Story of the Mammals'; 'At You-All's House' (a novel) ; 'As the Light Led' (a novel), etc. Basking-fish, or Basking-shark. See Shark. Basle. See Basel. Basnage, ba-nazh, a family of French Protestants, remarkable for the number of able men and eminent writers whom it has pro- duced. 1. Nicolas, who, having espoused the doc- trines of the Reformation, was compelled by persecution to take refuge in England, where he became the minister of a congregation at Norwich. When, by the accession of Henry IV., a better era began to dawn, he returned to his country and officiated, till his death, as minister of a church at Carentan. 2. Benjaman, son of the former: b. 1850; d. 1652. He succeeded his father in his charge, and held it for the long period of 51 years. He long held a prominent place among the re- formers of France : presided in the assembly held at Rochelle in 1622 ; undertook the dan- gerous task of negotiating for English aid; traveled into Scotland to arouse the Protestant feeling in that country ; and on his return took the lead in the important synods held at Char- enton in 1623 and 1631, and at Alengon, in 1637. flis principal work, entitled, 'Treatise on the Church,' is a good specimen of his talents. 3. Henry de Franouenay : b. 1615; d. 1695. He was the youngest son of Benjamin, studied for the bar, and as a provincial advocate in Rouen long stood at the head of his profes- sion. His eloquence, learning, and unsullied in- tegrity secured him the esteem, not only of the Protestants, whose views he held, but even of those most violently opposed to him. His com- plete works, confined to juridical subjects, were published at Rouen in 2 vols, folio in 1778. • 4. Jacques, eldest son of Henri : b. Rouen, 1653; d. 1723. He is the best-known and per- haps the ablest member of the family. He studied theology at Geneva and Sedan, and in 1676 became minister of the Protestant Church at Rouen. In 1685 his church having been closed by decree of Louis XTV., he removed to Holland and officiated as minister, first at Rot- terdam, and then permanently at The Hague. Among his works mav be mentioned 'History of the Church,' 2 vols, folio; 'History of the Jews,' 15 vols. 12 mo.; 'Annals of the United Provinces,' 2 vols, folio; and 'The Holy Com- munion.' Basques, basks, or Biscayans, in their own language, Euscaldunac; a remarkable race of people dwelling in the southwest corner of France, and in the north of Spain, on both sides of the Pyrenees. They are probably de- scendants of the ancient Iberi, who occupied Spain before the Celts. The French Basques (Gascons) settled, at the end of the 6U1 century, on the north side of the Pyrenees, between those mountains and the Garonne. After long strug- gles they submitted to the kings of the Franks. Under the Carlovingian race they elected their own dukes, but after the extinction of that fam- ily they fell under the dominion of Aquitania in the nth century, and with it under that of France in 1453. The Basques preserve their ancient language, former manners, and their na- tional dances, and make admirable soldiers,, especially in guerrilla warfare, to which their na- tive temperament inclines, and their frequent expeditions in carrying on the smuggling, to \vhich they are much addicted, inure them. They are good seamen, and were the first Euro- peans who engaged in the whale-fishery, which they have, however, long since relinquished. They occupy, in Spain, the provinces of Biscay,. Guipuzcoa, and Alava ; in France, the depart- ments of the Upper and Lower Pyrenees, Ariege and Upper Garonne. See Biscay. Basrah. See Bassora. Bass, Edward, first Protestant Episcopal bishop of Massachusetts : b. Dorchester, Mass.,. 23 Nov. 1726; d. Newburyport, Mass., 10 Sept. 1803. He was graduated at Harvard in 1744; was ordained in England in 1752; and later be- came pastor of the church at Newburyport,. Mass. During the Revolution he omitted from the church service all reference to the royal family and the British government. For this he was expelled from the Society for the Prop- agation of the Gospel. In 1797 he was conse- crated bishop of Massachusetts, and finally also of New Hampshire and Rhode Island. Bass, Michael Thomas, English brewer: b. 1799 ; d. 1884. He became head of the Bur- ton brewing firm of Bass & Company upon the death of his father, and was a member of Par- liament from 1848 to 1883. His benefactions were very numerous, and included the building and endowing of St. Paul's Church. Burton (the total expenditure on the parish being about $500,000) ; and the establishment of recreation grounds, a free library, and swimming baths for Derby, at a cost of $185,000. Of simple tastes, he more than once declined a baronetcy and a peerage. Bass, the name of various trimly shaped, active, gamy fishes of both fresh and salt water, mostly in northern regions. The term was originally applied to the Moronc labra.v of the west coast of Europe, and was thence trans- ferred to many other fishes having a real or fancied likeness to this in appearance and quali- ties. This fish repre.sents the sea-perch family, Scrranidcc. is perch-like in form, usually 12 to 18 inches long, and frequents the shoal shore- waters in great numbers, being noted for its fierceness and voracity. Its flesh is excellent. The same family and genius are represented in North America by many species, of which the BASS — BASS ROCK nearest relative is the yellow bass (M. inter- rupta) of the southern Mississippi valley. It is a brass3--yello\v with seven very distinct black longitudinal lines, those below the lateral line being interrupted posteriorly, the posterior parts alternating with the anterior. Its body is oblong-ovate with the back much arched. The dorsal fin and anal spines are stout. It is a light fish for its length, ordinarily weighing one to two pounds, but often measuring 12 to 18 inches, and weighing five pounds. It is very gamy, and is esteemed by some anglers the equal of the black bass in this respect. In the same family falls the well-known striped bass or <'rock fish" (Rocciis lincatiis), of the northeastern Atlantic, which approaches the coast and enters fresh water only at spawn- ing-time, when its ascends the rivers. It was absent from the Pacific coast until planted there artificially, since which it has multiplied from Puget Sound to lower California. The largest fish are to be found in Chesapeake Bay, where they average from 30 to 50 pounds in weight, and occasionally reach double that. In color they are brassy-olive, the fins and sides rather pale, and the latter marked with seven or eight blackish stripes. The favorite waj' of fishing for the striped bass is by casting a ^'squid" through the surf, using as a bait .pieces of clam, shrimp, or crab ; but they will rise to a fly ; and on the Pacific coast are easily lured by a shin- ing spoon-bait. The white bass {R. chrysops) is a near relative of the striped bass, and inhabits the Great Lakes from the St. Lawrence to Mani- toba, and southward in the Mississippi valley to Arkansas. Its preference is for still waters, and it is even lighter in weight for length than the yellow bass. It is generall}^ taken with bait, though it will rise to the fly. It is silvery in its color, tinged with golden below, with dusky lines along the sides. The most important of the American fresh- water bass are the black bass — two species of percoid game fishes of the distinctly American family Centrarchidce, which also contains the various sunfish (q.v.). One is the "big- mouthed" and the other the ^^small-mouthed" black bass. Both were originally confined to the waters of the upper Mississippi valley, and Great Lakes region, but in 1853 they were in- troduced into the head waters of the Potomac River, whence they have spread into all the rivers that empty into Chesapeake Bay. More recently bass have been introduced into New England and into many of the far western States ; as well as transported into England, France, Germany, and other countries. The body is oblong, compressed, the back not much elevated, head oblong-conic, lower jaw promi- nent, teeth on jaws, vomer and platines in broad villiform bands, the inner depressible, usually no teeth on tongue. Black bass vary greatly in size in different waters. The small- mouthed, however, seldom exceeds six pounds in weight, while the large-mouthed, especially in the South, is larger, running as high as 14 pounds. In color both are dull golden-green with a bronze lustre, the scales on the cheeks are more minute than those on the body, and the dor.sal fin is deeply notched. In the small- mouthed species (Micropterus dolomieu) the maxillary does not extend beyond the eye. and the scales on the cheek are arranged in 17 rows. In the large-mouthed {M. sahnoides) the max- illary extends beyond the eye and there are but 10 rows of scales on the cheeks. The lateral line in both is nearly straight, passing from the upper edge of the gill-cover to the centre of the base of the caudal fin. The small-mouthed has the wider range, extending from the Red River of the North to Texas and Mexico. Both va- rieties are free, but capricious, biters, and both are game fighters. They are taken with artificial flies, such as the " Rube Wood," * Seth Green," " silver doctor," and "Parmachenee bell," as well as by casting with a wide range of natural baits, such as crayfish, minnows, worms, and small frogs ; or they may be taken by troll- ing from a boat, using a stiff rod, especially in lakes, with any standard silver or golden spoon-bait. In some districts the large-mouthed bass is called ''straw" bass ; in others " slough," '' lake," '' marsh," or "Oswego" bass, or "green trout," " welchman," etc. Another species deserving mention is the "rock-bass," one of the sunfish (Ambloplites rupesfris) , found in practically every lake, pond, and stream east of the dry plains. It does not usually attain more than half a pound in weight, is easily caught, and is the least persistent fighter of any of the family. In color it is mottled- olive or brassy-green. Consult: Henshall, 'Book of the Bass' (1889) ; ^ricl Jordan and Evermann, 'American Food and Game Fishes' (New York 1902). Bass^ bas (It. basso, deep, low), the lowest part in the harmony of a musical composition. It is the most important of all the parts, the foundation of the harmony, and the support of the whole composition. Different forms of bass are: Basso concertante, or Basso recitante, the bass of the little chorus ; the bass which ac- companies the softer parts of a composition, as well as those which employ the whole power of the band. This part is generally taken by the violoncellos. Bass-counter or contra-bass, the under bass ; that part which, when there are two basses in a composition, is performed by the double basses, the violoncellos taking the upper bass or basso concertante. Basso repieno (Ital.), the bass of the grand chorus; that bass which joins in the full parts of a composition, and, by its depth of tone and energy of stroke, affords a powerful contrast to the lighter and softer passages or movements. Figured bass, a. bass which, while a certain chord or harmony is continued by the parts above, moves in notes of the same harmony. Fundamental bass, that bass which forms the tone or natural foundation of the harmony, and from which that harmony is derived. Ground bass, a bass which starts with some subject of its own, and continues to be repeated throughout the movement, while the upper part or parts pursue a separate air and supply the harmony. Tlwrough bass, the sj'Stem in which words are denoted by placing figures 'over the bass note. Bass clef, the character put at the beginning of the stave, in which the bass or lower notes of the composition are placed, and serving to determine the pitch and names of those notes. Bass (bas) Rock, a remarkable trap-rock island, at the mouth of the Firth of Forth, three miles from North Berwick. It is of circular shape, about a mile in circumference, and rises precipitously to a height of 420 feet. It is inac- BASS, BAT FISH. BALLOOX FISH, ETC. 1. Bellows Fish (Centriscus scolopax) 2. Cave Fish (Amblyopsis spelaeus). 3 Bill Fish (Lepid^sleus osseus) 4. Falloon Fish (Tetrodon fuhaka). 5. Fat Fish (Malthe vespc-rtilio). 6. Skeleton of a Bass (Perca fluviatilis). BASS STRAIT — BASSET cessible except on one flat shelving point on the southeast. Its summit is estimated at about seven acres, and this supports a few sheep, the mutton of which is considered a great dehcacy. Solan geese and other sea-fowl in myriads cover its rocks, and fly around it in clouds. The surrounding water is of great depth on the northeast, but shallow on the south. Among the historical ruins on the island are the remains of a fortalice commanding the landing-place, capable of accommodating upward of lOO men, formerly accessible only by ladders or buckets and chains ; and the ruins of a chapel about halfway up the acclivity. The Bass was pur- chased by the English government in 1671, and its castle, long since demolished, was converted into a state prison in which several eminent Covenanters were confined. It was the last place in Britain that held out against William III., its small band of gallant defenders yielding only to starvation. The island anciently be- longed to a family of the name of Lauder, whose head was stj'led Lauder of the Bass. Bass (has) Strait, a channel beset with islands, which separates Australia from Tas- mania, 120 miles broad, discovered by George Bass, a surgeon in the British navy, in 1798. Bass (bas) Viol, a stringed instrument re- sembling the violin in form, but much larger. It has four strings and eight stops, which are subdivided into semi-stops, and is played with a bow. See Viol. Bas'sa, Africa, a district on the west coast forming part of the negro state of Liberia (q.v.). Bassanio, ba-sa'ne-6, the lover of Portia in Shakespeare's *^ Merchant of Venice.^ Bassano, bas-sa'no, Hugues Bernard Maret, Due de, French publicist and states- man: b. Dijon, 1763; d. 1839. On the first out- burst of the French Revolution he enthusiastical- ly embraced its principles, published the Bulletin de I' Assemblee, and soon after was appointed editor of the Moniteur. He became acquainted with Bonaparte, and was made by him chief of division in the ministry of foreign affairs. In 181 1 he was created Duke of Bassano and ap- pointed minister of foreign affairs ; and in 1812 he conducted and signed the treaties be- tween France, Austria, and Prussia, preparatorj' to the fatal expedition to Russia. When the emperor was sent to Elba in 1814, Bassano re- tired from public life ; but immediately after Napoleon's return he joined him, and was very nearly taken prisoner at Waterloo. On the em- peror's final overthrow Bassano was banished from France, but at the Revolution of July 1830 he was recalled and restored to all his honors. In 1838 he was made minister of the interior and president of the council, but the ministry of which he formed a part survived only three days. Bassano, Jacopo, (real name Giacomo da Ponte), Italian painter: b. Bassano (whence his surname), 1510; d. 1592. He painted historical pieces, landscapes, flowers, and portraits ; among the latter those of the Doge of Venice, of Ari- osto, Tasso, and other persons of eminence. Several of his best works are in the churches of Bassano, Venice. Vicenza, and other towns of Italy. He left four sons, all painters, of whom Francesco was the most distinguished. Vol. 2 — 24. Bassano, Italy, a city in the province of Vicenza, on the Brenta (Ion. 11° 43' E. , lat. 45° 46' N.J. Its 30 churches contain beautiful paint- ings. A stone bridge, 182 feet long, unites the town with the large village Vincantino. Vines and olives are cultivated in the vicinity and there is considerable trade in silk, cloth, and leather. Its principal manufactures are straw hats, por- celain, and wax. Napoleon made Bassano a duchy, with 50,000 francs yearly income, and granted it to his minister of foreign affairs, Maret (see Bassano, Hugues). Near Bas- sano, 8 Sept. 1796, Bonaparte defeated the Aus- trian general Wurmser. Bassona was the birth- place of the famous printer Mauritius, as well as of the historical painter Giacomo da Ponte (see Bassano, Jacopo), and a short distance away lies the village of Possagus, the birthplace of Canova. Pop. (1902) 15,443. Bassein, bas-san', India, a decayed town m the presidency of Bombay, at the south end of a small island of the same name, 28 miles north of Bombay, and separated from the Island of Salsette by a narrow channel. It was fortified by the Portuguese in 1536, and remained in their possession until captured by the Mahrattas in 1739. During this period it rose to be a fine and wealthy city of over 60,000 inhabitants, with many stately buildings, including a cathedral, 5 convents, 13 churches, and handsome private residences. Pop. (1901) about 11,000. Bassein, Burma, a town in the Irrawaddy division on the left bank of the Bassein River, one of the mouths of the Irrawaddy. with a su- burb on the right bank; lat. 16° 46' N. ; Ion. 94° 48' E. The English fort with the court-houses, treasury, police-office, etc., are on the left bank. In the suburb on the right bank are the rice- mills and store-yards of the principal merchants. The river is navigable up to the town for ships of the largest burden, and Bassein is now a place of considerable trade, exporting large quan- tities of rice, and importing coal, salt, cottons, etc. It is the seat of a consul of the United States. Pop. about 30,000. Basselin, bas-laii, or Bachelin, bash-Ian, Oliver, French poet: b. Val-de-Vire, Norman- dy, about 1350 ; d. about 1419. It has been asserted that the vocabulary of theatrical and poetical lit- erature is indebted to him for the word "vaude- ville.'^ He seems to have been a cloth-fuller or presser, much given to versified narration and iteration of convivial themes in rhymed frag- ments dubbed van.r-de-vire in honor of the poet's birthplace. In the 'Book of New Songs and Vaux-de-Vire' (1610) appears a collection of these bacchanalian stanzas, the most touch- ing of which is addressed by the sipger 1875; 1884). Other of his writings are: ^Among the Turco- mans' (contributed to the ^Leisure Hour,' 1879-80); Bates, Edward, American lawyer : b. Bel- mont, Va., 4 Sept. 1793 ; d. 25 March 1869. Having settled in Missouri, he served in the legislature and constitutional convention, and in Congress in 1827-9. He was attorney-general of the United States in Lincoln's first adminis- tration ; and had been a candidate for the presi- dential nomination in i860. Bates, Harriet Leonora (Vose), better known as Eleanor Putnam, American story writer, wife of Arlo Bates: b. 1856; d. 1886. She wrote 'A Woodland Wooing' ; 'Old Salem' (1886) ; with her husband, 'Prince Vance,' etc. Bates, John Coalter, American military officer: b. St. Charles County, Mo., 26 Aug. 1842. He entered the regular army as a lieu- tenant in the nth United States infantry, 14 May 1861 ; served on the staff of General Meade from the battle of Gettysburg to the close of the war. On 4 May 1898 he was ap- pointed a brigadier-general of volunteers ; on 8 July was promoted to major-general for his services in the Santiago campaign. In February 1899 he was appointed military governor of the province of Santa Clara, Cuba, and in April fol- lowing, was ordered to duty in the Philippines. In March 1900 he was assigned to the command of the department of southern Luzon, and for liis eminent services there and on the Sulu group was promoted major-general, 9 June 1902. Bates, Joshua, American financier : b. Wey- mouth, Mass., 1788; d. 24 Sept. 1864. In 1828 he became a member of the house of Baring Brothers & Company, in London, and subsequent- ly its senior partner. In 1854 he was appointed umpire to the joint British and American Com- mission for the settlement of claims arising from the War of 1812. He was the principal founder of the Boston Public Library, and in 1852, the first year of its existence, he made it a gift of $50,000, and later gave it 30,000 volumes. Its main reading room is named ''Bates Hall" in his honor. Bates, Katharine Lee, American story writer, poet, and educator : b. Falmouth, Mass., 12 Aug. 1859. She was called to the chair of English literature in Wellesley College in 1891 ; and has edited collections of ballads, etc. ; and written juvenile stories, including 'Rose and Thorn' (1889); also 'The English Religious Drama' (1893) ; and 'The College Beautiful (1887) ; 'History of American Literature' ^1898); 'Spanish Highways and Byways' (1900). Bates, Samuel Penniman, American histo- rian : b. Mendon, Mass., 29 Jan. 1827. He has been principal of Meadville Academy, Pa. : su- perintendent of schools in Crawford County, Pa., 1857-60; deputy state superintendent of schools, 1860-6; and State historian. 1866-73. Among his publications are the 'Lives of the Governors of Pennsylvania' (1873); 'Lectures on Mental and Moral Culture' (1859) ; 'History of the Battle of Gettysburg' (1878); 'History of , the Battle of Chancellorsville' (1882). Bate's Case, an English historical incident of much significance as marking the opening of the struggle of Parliament with the Stuart kings. John Bate, a London merchant, having refused to pay certain duties levied without consent of Parliament, was sent to prison by the royal officers. The Commons supported Bate, but the king's authority to levy imposi- tions on exports and imports was sustained by the Court of Exchequer. Bates College, Lewiston, Me., was opened in 1863 and chartered in 1864. It grew out of Maine State Seminary, a secondary school opened in 1857. The college was founded by its first president. Rev. Oren Burbank Cheney, D.D. (1863-94), and bears the name of its chief benefactor, Benjamin Edward Bates, a merchant of Boston, and one of the founders of the city of Lewiston. Bates was the first eastern college to afford collegiate education to women, and her first woman graduate (1869) became a professor in Vassar College. Established in the interest of the Free Baptist denomination, she has been notably free from sectarianism — her faculty having been drawn from seven religious denomi- nations and her students representing Protes- tants, Catholics, and Hebrews. Bates places primary stress upon character, does not tolerate hazing and makes abstinence from intoxicating drinks a condition of student membership. Her courses of instruction cover the range of under- graduate studies as pursued in progressive col- leges of to-day. The unusual excellence of her courses in English, including argumentation, is indicated by her eleven victories in twelve inter- collegiate debates held with five colleges and universities. To these results her three flourish- ing literary societies are believed to have con- tributed. Alone among New England colleges. Bates has no secret fraternities. She has chemi- cal, physical, and biological laboratories, libra- ries containing 28,000 volumes, and a spacious athletic field. Her campus of 50 acres is of rare natural beauty, and with her nine buildings, has a value of $350,000. Her invested funds amount to upwards of $400,000. Of her 1097 graduates 475 have become educators, 60 of them teachers in colleges and vmiversities. For the last 15 years the number of her graduates at the head of city high schools in New England is believed to have exceeded those of any other college. Bates has 71 scholarships, affording free tui- tion to their recipients, and she so shapes her entire policy as to help students of small means to meet their own expenses. The college has 22 officers and instructors, and 353 students — an increase of more than too per cent, during the last decade. Cobb Divinity School is a department of Bates College, having its own building, faculty, and administration. George C. Chase, President. Batesville, Ark., a town and county-seat of Independence County : situated on the White River and on a branch of the St. Louis, I. M. & S. R.R. It is the seat of Arkansas College, a Presbyterian institution. The river is navigable for steamboats to this point and the LTniced States government is providing a sj'Stem of locks and dams to insure navigation for 100 miles above the town. It contains immense BATFISH — BATH AND BATHING quarries of marble and other stone, and there are woolen mills, flouring mills, furniture fac- tories, etc. Pop. (1900) 2,2,27. Batfish, a sea-fish (Malthe vespertilio) of low organization, constituting the family Mal- theida, allied to the goosefishes {LophiidcE), which creeps about the bottom like a huge toad and feeds upon whatever comes w^ithin its reach. It is numerous in all warm seas, and some related forms inhabit the deeper parts of the ocean. See Goosefish. Bath, England, a citj' in Somersetshire, 107 miles west of London. It is beautifully situated on the Avon, in a narrow valley bounded on the northeast and southwest by hills, and widening on the northwest into rich and extensive meadows. The Avon is navigable from Bath to Bristol. Bath is noted for its places of amusement, its fine streets, and the magnificence of its public buildings. The houses are of superior construction, built of freestone, obtained from the hills about the town. The Abbey Church ranks as one of the finest specimens of perpendicular Gothic architecture. Bath is remarkable for its medicinal waters, the four principal springs yielding no less than 184,000 gallons of water a day ; and the baths are both elegant and commodious. The tem- perature of the springs varies from 109° to 117° F. They contain carbonic acid, chloride of sodium and of magnesium, sulphate of soda, carbonate and sulphate of lime, etc. Bath was founded by the Romans, and called by them Aquw Soils (waters of the sun). Among the Roman remains discovered here have been some fine baths. The height of its prosperity was reached, however, in the i8th century, when Beau Nash was leader of the fashion and master of its ceremonies. Since then, although it still attracts large numbers of visit- ors, it has become the resort of valetudinarians chiefly. Jointly with Wells it is the head of a diocese, and returns two members to the House of Commons. Pop. (1901) 49,817. Bath, Me., city, port of entry, and county- seat of Sagadahoc County, on the Kennebec River, and the Maine C. R.R. ; 12 miles from the ocean and 30 miles south of Augusta and 36 miles northeast of Portland. It is admirably situated as a commercial port ; has regular steamboat connections with Boston and Port- land ; is principal!}' engaged in shipbuilding, both wood and iron ; and has manufactories of brass and iron goods, oil cloth, shoes, and lumber. The Bath Iron Works have built the gun-boats Machias and Castine, the ram Katahdin, and several of the modern torpedo boats for the United States navy. Bath has a large coastwise and foreign trade in ice, coal, lumber, hay, iron, and steel ; and contains four national banks, pub- lic library, a costly system of waterworks, and property valued at $7,000,000. Pop. (1900) 10,477. Bath, N. Y., town and county-seat of Steuben County, on the Cohocton Creek, 36 miles west of Elmira, on the Buffalo branch of the Erie, and the Delaware, L. & W. R.R.'s. It is the seat of the New York State Soldiers and Sailors' Home, the Davenport Home for Or- phan Girls, and Haverling Academy; is prin- cipally engaged in agriculture ; and has manu- factories of shoes, sash and blinds, harness, etc. It is governed by a mayor, annually elected, and a town council. Pop. (1900) 4,994- Bath and Bathing. The use of the bath is primarily for purposes of cleanliness, but it also subserves various other useful ends. Bathing undoubtedly took place first in rivers and in the sea, but men soon learned to en- joy this pleasure in their own houses. Even Homer inentions the use of the bath as an old custom. When Ulysses enters the palace of Circe, a bath is prepared for him, after which he is anointed with costly perfumes, and dressed in rich garments. In later times, rooms, both public and private, were built ex- pressly for the purpose of bathing. The pub- lic baths of the Greeks were mostly connected with the gymnasia, because a bath was taken immediately after the athletic exercises. The Romans imitated the Greeks in this matter, and built magnificent baths in which both males and females could bathe (in separate divisions), and warm or cold baths could be taken ; such establishments, indeed, were so ex- tensive that even their ruins excite admira- tion. The Cold Bath. — The first efifect of the cold bath (at a temperature say from 50° to 70°) is to produce a shock to the nerves of the ckin. In the case of the cold bath as ordina- rilv used, the application is short, and the more near to the temperature of 50° F. the water is the shorter it should be. Following the first action is reaction, during which the blood re- turns to the skin, the blood vessels of which relax, and a pleasant sensation of glow, spread- ing rapidly over the surface, is experienced. This reaction is aided by rapid friction of the skin, as by towels, and if, after drying, the body is quickly clothed and exercise engaged in, the total effect of the bath is stimulating, inducing a feeling not only of warmth but also of vigor. The length of time the cold may be applied without interfering with the setting in of a proper reaction depends on the individual. A mere instant's immersion is sufficient for some, others can bear several minutes, while some could not bear complete immersion of the body at all, a feeling of coldness and shiver- ing lasting for hours after it. Obviously for such persons the full cold bath is not suitable, and the cold wet towel, cold wet sponge, wet sheet, etc., may be used instead, and may grad- ually lead up to the full cold plunge, which may thus be made tolerable and enjoyable. The cold bath is not usually suitable for the old and the delicate. The action of the cold water may be intensified by showering it or spraying it on the body by means of various arrangements of pipes, etc. The morning or early part of the day is the suitable time for all such kinds of baths. Persons who are thus hjjbituated to the use of cold wate^ are less susceptible to the influence of cold and can stand longer exposure than others. Tepid Baths, "(temperature 85° to 95°) pro- duce neither depression nor excitement, and are therefore suited for all. They are the best when prolonged immersion is desired, as in the treatment of chronic skin and nervous dis- eases. The Warm Bath (temperature 96° to 104°) is particularly serviceable in removing feelings of fatigue. It should quicken only slightly BATH AND BATHING the circulation, and bring an additional quan- 212°. Not only the activity of the skin, but tity of blood to the skin. It is by this means the action of the heart and of breathing are that it removes the tired feeling from ex- greatly increased. It is thus not suited for hausted muscles, for it promotes the removal everyone, certainly not in its full form for any- from the tissues of the waste products, which one with weak heart or vessels, and for very have accumulated during the period of activ- full-blooded persons. ity, and whose presence in the muscles is the The Ttirkish Bath. — The hot-air bath is cause of the feeling of weariness. After pro- usually obtained with other accessories in the longed labor, or a long fatiguing walk, or form of the Turkish bath. This bath was prolonged exposure to damp and cold, or after, adopted by the Turks from the Romans, who for example, the exertion of much dancing, derived it from the Greeks. The bather enters nothing is so restorative and refreshing as a the dressing-room (Rom. vestiariuvi) which warm bath. When employed for such pur- is heated to an ordinarily comfortalale tem- poses, the person should end with a spray or perature. Beyond this room there are, in the douche, or simple sponge of tepid water (70°) fully-equipped Turkish baths, three rooms, if he is about to go to bed, or with a warm separated from the dressing-room by well- spray, quickly reduced to cold, before dressing padded doors. The first of these corresponds to go out. Warm baths are largely employed to the Roman tepidarium, the warm room, in in feverish aflfeclions of children for promot- which the temperature is from 115° to 120°; ing the action of the skin ; and they are a safe beyond this and separated from it by heavy resort in the convulsions of children, cold be- curtains is the hot room, or calidarium. in ing at the same time applied to the head. which the temperature ranges from 120° to The hot bath (temperature 102° to 110°) 140°; and still beyond is the hottest room, acts in a more pronounced way upon the heart called also the flue room, corresponding to the and nervous system than the merely warm Roman laconicum. Here the temperature is bath. If very hot it powerfully excites the not below 150°, usually 175° to 180°, but may heart, whose action, indeed, it may stimulate be 200° and upward. Every Turkish bath has to violence. The brain is also influenced by at least two rooms beyond the dressing-room, the more copious flow of blood through it, due one in which the temperature may readily be to the vigorous action of the heart. These ef- raised to 140° or thereby, and one beyond it fects, however, are largely counterbalanced by in which the highest temperatures may be ob- the increased flow of blood to the skin. But tained. the prolonged use of hot baths is weakening. When a full Turkish bath is taken the fol- and the temporary strain thrown upon the lowing is the usual course : The bather un- heart and blood-vessels and brain would be dresses in one of the curtained recesses of the hurtful to many. The bather should be im- dressing-room, girds a towel or similar cloth mersed to the chin ; the hair is damped with round his loins, and carrying a bath-towel over cold water, and a thin cold cloth is wrapped the arm passes into the warm room. Here he about the head. Cold water may be drunk if stays only long enough to wet the hair with desired. The bath should last 20 minutes, or cold water, and perhaps drink of it, and then less if oppression is felt. It should conclude, passes on through the hot room, into the hot- as directed for warm bath, with tepid douche test room. Spreading his towel over a chair or sponging, or with warm spray quickly he reclines on it, wets his head with cold wa- reduced to cold. The hot bath should not be ter, and drinks at his pleasure, but not too used in the morning or early part of the day, copiously, of cold water, which the attendant or at any time except before going to bed, un- will bring him. Here he remains 5 or 10 less the person is properly cooled down before minutes. By this time the whole body will be dressing and going out. bedewed with perspiration ; and the bather The Hot-air Bath is one of the most power- passes out into the room next in temperature, ful ways of stimulating the activity of the the hot room, \yhere he reclines for another 10 skin. The person, unclothed, is placed in an or 15 minutes. Then he passes to the warm apartment which is heated by means of fur- room, lower in temperature than the former, naces, the air being dry. In a longer or and here he reclines till the attendant is ready shorter time, according to the heat of the air for him, when he proceeds to the washing and the condition of the bather, the perspira- room. Here he lies on a table and the attend- tion bursts out upon the skin, becoming very ant goes over the whole body, rubbing the sur- copious, so that the whole body is bathed in face, and thus removing all loose effete skin, sweat. A very high temperature may be borne grasping and kneading the muscles, bending so long as the air is quite dry, for the sweat joints and so on. He is then rubbed over passes rapidly off irom the body in the form with soap, scrubbed and washed down, and of vapor, removing a large quantity of heat, lastly douched with warm and then tepid and and thus the temperature of the body does not cold water. From this room the bather passes rise, unless the air is very hot, when the heat out quickly, plunges through a cold bath, and of the body usually increases by two or three regains the dressing-room, where he is quickly degrees. The same high temperature could not dried down with warm dry towels. He is then be borne if the air were moist, as in the case enveloped in a dry bath-towel, and so attired of a vapor bath, for then the air is saturated he lies down on his couch in the dressing- or nearly so with moisture and cannot take up room, covered over with a light rug or blanket, more, or can take up very little. Marked op- till his skin assumes its natural degree of pre^sion. difficultv of breathing, fullness in the warmth. When the skin is cool and dry, usu- head. faintness, etc., would then speedilv arise, ally in 15 or 20 minutes, the bather dresses When the air is quite dry, however, a high deliberately, and may then go out. The or- temperature, for examnle, that of 180° F., can dinary duration of the full bath, from the flue usually be endured with ease, and even above room to the washing room., is from 40 minutes BATH BRICK to an hour. The full bath, however, is suited chiefly for those accustomed to it, for the healthy and robust. The vapor bath acts upon the body much as the hot-water bath does, but it acts more powerfully, though the effect of the heat is not so quick since vapbr is a slower conductor of heat than water. This bath can. therefore, be borne hotter than a water bath, but the high temperature cannot be borne long, for the vapor does not permit of the loss of heat from the body as hot air does. The temperature of the vapor bath cannot be comfortably endured above 120° F. The vapor bath is characteris- tic of the Russian baths. It is taken in a chamber filled with vapor, which is thus not only applied to the surface of the body but also inhaled. This makes it still more oppres- sive. It may be used, however, in a simple form, in which the vapor is not breathed, by the person sitting on a chair, surrounded from the neck downward by blankets, which en- velop the chair also and hang to the ground. Under the chair is placed a shallow earthenware or metal dish, containing boiling water to the depth of 3 or 4 inches. In the water are placed a couple of red-hot bricks. Or under the chair may be placed a spirit-lamp, sup- ported above it being a shallow pan contain- ing boiling water. Such baths are very useful for catarrh, for rheumatic and neuralgic pains, sciatica, etc., as well as for cases where exces- sive action of the skin is desired to relieve deeper organs, for example the kidneys. Ten to fifteen minutes are long enough for exposure in the vapor bath. Sea-Bathing. — Ordinary sea-bathing is of course cold, and produces the stimulating ef- fects described in regard to the cold bath. There is besides the additional stimulus due to the salt, so that sea-bathing acts as an in- vigorating tonic. It is not, however, suited for everyone, and is taken much too indiscrim- inately. It is also indulged in without due pre- caution. It is a very common error for persons to remain in the sea too long, the result being shivering, blueness of the skin, difficulty in re- covering warmth, headache, etc. Persons who are anaemic, — that is, of deficient quality of blood, — ought not to indulge in sea-bathing without advice, and failing advice had better try first a salt-water bath at home. Persons who have suffered from any internal complaint ought also to refrain. The best time for sea- bathing is in the morning. It should never be indulged in immediately after a meal, when the business of digestion is going actively for- ward. A good time is before lunch or early dinner, for which the brisk walk home after the bath will prove an excellent appetizer. Neither should sea-bathing be engaged in im- mediately after very active exercise, when the body is in s state of very active perspiration or in a condition of fatigue. At the same time, moderate exercise before the bath is unobjec- tionable, and the body ought to be comfortably warm. The person should undress quickly and plunge in bodily, wetting the whole body at once. During the bath exercise should be ac- tive, as in continued swimming. Children, because of the little resisting power of their bodies are readily depressed by sea-bathing. They may be gradually accustomed to it ; but they ought not to be forcibly immersed to their aversion and terror. Sea-bath? m;iy be imi- tated at home by the addition of common salt or sea salt to water. The benefits or open-air bathing, — sea or river, — are not limited, of course, to the action of the water, but are in- creased by the action of the fresh air, the res- piration of which is stimulated by the bath, and by the exercise in the open air invariably indulged in afterward. There are many kinds of medicated baths, which have, or are supposed to have, special properties, valuable for diseased conditions, be- cause of containing various saline substances dissolved in them. Such baths may be arti- ficially prepared by the addition of the salts to the water, or natural mineral waters may be used for the purpose. Mud-baths are recommended for special reasons. Various arrangements are employed for ac- centuating the effect of the water, whether used hot or cold, or for applying it to particu- lar parts of the body. The spray is one well- known variety of bath. The douche is a jet of water directed upon some part of the body through a 1I/2 inch pipe, the force of the wa- ter, quantity discharged, and temperature being capable of modification. It at first lowers the vitality of the part to which it is applied, but reaction sets in quickly, so that its whole effect is stimulating, quickening tis- sue change. The douche may be used hot or cold, or one after the other in rapid succession, a change which is most stimulating of all. In old-standing complaints, thickenings about joints, stiff joints, etc., it is a very useful ap- plication. In the case of the descending douche, the pipe is 10 to 15 feet above the floor level, and for the horizontal douche the pipe is 4 feet above floor level. In the former case it is played first on the spine, and then shoulders, hips, arms and legs in succession. At the close it is directed on to the chest and head, the force of the water being broken by the hands. In the latter case the back, chest, arms, and legs are douched in the order named, while the patient rubs himself vigor- ously. Before beginning the head is wet with cold water, and is douched last, the force of the water being broken. The process should last scarcely two minutes. The sitz-bath or hip-bath is a means of limiting the application of the water to the hips and neighboring parts. The form of the bathing-tub is such that the person has the bath in the sitting posture, the limbs and upper part of the body being out of the bath. The sitz-bath, hot or cold according to circum- stances, is in much use for abdominal and liver complaints, and specially for feminine ailments. Its soothing effects used hot in such disorders are marked. Altogether the use of the bath, in association with treatment by medicine, is of the highest value in numerous disorders, rheumatic, gouty, digestive, lebrile, etc. In particular, the Turkish bath, under due superintendence, may produce surprising results, from checking a simple cold upward. See also Hydrotherapy. Bath Brick, or Bristol Brick, an artificially manufactured brick, of the usual form, but formed of calcareous earth. It is used for clean- ing various kinds of metal work, and in Eng- land is manufactured from the silt left in the river Parret in Somersetshire after high tides. 1 BATH BUN — BATH, HISTORY OF THE Bath Bun, an English bun, or sweetened cake or biscuit, made generally without cur- rants. Bath Chair, a small carriage or chair on wheels, drawn by a chairman, and intended for the conveyance of individuals or others for short distances. It is so called because either originally or principally used at Bath, where the steepness of many of the streets rendered such conveyances especially useful. Bath, History of the. As the most an- cient records of the human race refer to the use of the bath it is probably safe to surmise that the prehistoric peoples early discovered the cleansing effect of water and were eager to enjoy it. To the ancient Egyptians, as to the more modern Mohammedans, it is a part of their religious service, while among the early Hebrews it was not only one of the first puri- ficative duties but it was positively prescribed by the ]\Iosaic law in certain specified cases of uncleanness. Thus the Jew who had no bath in the court yard of his house, bathed in the streams, or, later, in the mixed, or public baths, while, besides water, bran was often used for ceremonial cleansing, especially by the women, just as the modern Arabs, when unable to obtain water, rub themselves clean with sand. See Ablution. The earliest and most common form of bath- ing was, of course, that of swimming in riv- ers, and bathing in such rivers as the Nile •and the Ganges was supposed to possess a re- ligious significance which tended to make the practice a very popular one. The use of oils and the greater luxury of perfumes became customary on occasions of sanitary bathing at a very early period. In later times the more wealthy Romans possessed many kinds of oils and pomades which they brought to the baths, that their bodies might be anointed with them, while even the poorest classes rubbed their bodies with flour of lentils after the bath. The first reference to such a convenience as that of a public bath occurs in the Bible, where it is stated that the bathing "pools*^ were some- times sheltered by porticoes, but this was a simple invention when compared to the perfect bathing facilities which were afterward pro- vided by the Greeks and Romans, while the praise lavished upon the baths of Darius by Alexander the Great iridicates that the Persians must also have possessed beautifully appointed bathing facilities. The public baths, which began to be built in Rome shortly after Clodius had succeeded in supplying the city with water from Praeneste, soon became one of the most popular institu- tions of the nation and emperors vied with their predecessors to construct the largest and most elaborate establishments. As the result, enor- mous buildhigs were erected and these contained not only the bathing apartments but the gym- nasia and libraries, or even theatres, and the most able writers of that time admit their in- ability to describe the magnificence and luxuri- ous appointment of many of these palaces of cleanliness and pleasure. For example, Seneca says, ^*To such a pitch of luxury have we come that we are dissatisfied if we do not tread on gems in our baths." These baths, or thermce, Vol. 2—25. as they were called, contained swimming baths warm baths, vapor baths, and baths of hot and cold air. Wherever the Romans settled they built pub- lic baths, and wherever they found hot springs or natural stufse, they made use of them, thus saving the expense of heating, as at Baiae »nd Bath. The charge made at a public bath was only a quadraus, or about one quarter cent. The delicacy of feeling concerning the bath- ing together of sexes which is said to have ex- isted in early times certainly did not extend to tlie days of the Empire, when it was not at all uncommon for men and women to make use of the same bath and it was probably due to this practice that the public baths came to be condemned by the early Christians as places of unbounded license. While admitting the useful- ness of the bath from the standpoint of cleanli- ness and health, the Church fathers insisted that baths should be taken for such purposes only and not for pleasure. It was at this time when the bath reached the height of luxuriousness ; when rich citizens had magnificent private baths of their own attached to their villas, and when elaborate private bathing houses might be had for hire in all the cities ; conditions which con- tinued until about the 5th century, when the destruction of Rome's water supply by the Huns and the many disasters which accompa- nied the downfall of the Empire tended to turn popular attention from the delights of the thcrmcc. How thoroughly the bath afterward fell into disuse, however, is a matter which historians have been unable to determine. In the East, of course, where the heat and dust make its use obligatory, there has never been any diminution in the practice, and while in Europe, for a time at least, perfumes were used to offset any disagreeable odors that might arise from uncleanliness of the person, this condition could not have existed for many cen- turies, for, by the latter part of the 12th cen- tury, the popularity of the bath had become so well re-established that there was scarcely any large city in Europe which did not possess well patronized hot air bathing houses. Agaiii in the 17th century, when the Turkish bath was introduced, there was another revival of inter- est in the matter of personal cleanliness, and people of all classes flocked to the baths, or Hummuns, as they were called, to enjoy the new luxury that had been imported from the East. While the Turkish bath, not to mention the Russian and Egyptian baths, are so similar to the hot air baths of the Romans that many authorities have regarded them as nothing more or less than an outgrowth from the latter, the fact that the principle of the vapor bath has • been known to many nations, and has even been found among savages, or races in an early stage of civilization, has led to the more recent and counter theory that the hot air boxes of the Mexicans, the "medicine sweats'' of the American Indians, the small baths of the an- cient inhabitants of Scotland and Ireland, and the larger vapor baths of Japan, like those of Turkey and Russia, are of just as independent origin as those of the more ancient Rome. However that may be it is at least certain that, while this luxurious form of bathing was largely responsible for the neglect of the cold BATH BUN — BATH HOUSES bath and the sea-bathing, the virtues of which have been appreciated only within comparatively modern times, it is largely due to the pleasure- able sensations resulting from this form of bath that the various nations of the world have not neglected those principles of cleanli- ness upon which the good health of a people so vitally depends. J. R. Header, Editor of ^American Year Book? Bath Houses, Public. The public bath- house was a matter of course in the cities of southern Europe down to the end of the Roman empire; one of the chief objects of public expenditure and private munificence. The Ro- mans borrowed it from the Greeks, but vastly improved it, connecting it with a general system of public recreation. Maecenas under Augustus was the first private citizen to build a splendid specimen and give it to the city of Rome ; and after him each succeeding emperor strove to outdo the others in enormous buildings of mag- nificent architecture and sumptuous fittings, con- taining not only all kinds of baths, — cold, hot, swimming, vapor, hot air, and shower, — but gymnasia, theatres, and libraries. Private per- sons also founded them in provincial cities. But after the barbarian deluge, both money and water supply failed, and till very modern times general cleanliness ceased to be a municipal concern. The system first revived in Germany, but only in cold swimming baths ; the first enclosed bath houses with hot and cold water were established in Liverpool, in 1842. The movement spread but tardily in Great Britain, — the first legislation of 1846 being little acted on, — till about 1890, when city councils began to take it up energetically with authorization from Parliament ; but it then increased so rapidly that almost every town or borough of 50,000 people now has its public bath open the year round, as do very many smaller ones. In Ger- many about 50 cities have them. On the Conti- nent generally and in Scandinavia, only the large cities are thus provided; but in Russia they are almost universal in places of any size. In the United States, though public baths have existed for some 40 years in a few great water-side cities, they were till a few years ago confined to cold swimming-baths sunk in the sea or river near the shore, and open only dur- ing warm weather; of excellent service for the comfort of those not too far off, but too lim- ited in scope to be of the highest value to the general public. Not only were they closed for more than half the year, but to those who must walk more than half or three quarters of a mile to obtain a bath (their utility being for the poor), their value as refreshment in hot weather was neutralized by the needful exertion to reach them. Their use, therefore, depended on their distribution and relation to the water system. Thus, in Boston, where six were established in 1866, with 300,00c patrons during the first sea- son, and extended to 14 in 1897, they were so located on the Charles River, at City Point, and on South Bay, that a considerable part of the poorer population were within fairly easy distance of them. Only about a dozen United States cities, however, had even these bathing facilities till a few years since, and the first general movement in favor of year-round hot and cold batij': was a reflex from Germany, about 1891. In that year the People's Baths were built in New York by a private philan- thropic association, and maintained by a small fee; and in 1893 Chicago opened a small munici- pal bath house. The first compulsory legisla- tion was by New York state in April 1895 (though a bathing and washing association was incorporated there in 1849) ; it obliged all cities of over 50,000 people to establish public baths and comfort stations, kept open the year round, with both hot and cold water, and 14 hours a day, and under such conditions as the local board of health judged proper; river, lake, or sea baths not to be deemed a compliance with the act. Cities under 50,000, though not com- pelled, were permitted to use their funds or credit for the same object. The first city to comply, and perhaps the first in the United States to furnish such conveniences in their full extent, was Yonkers, N. Y., not within the com- pulsory section. This town opened one on Labor Day, 1896; and another of brick, fire- proof, in 1898, with accommodations for 400 daily baths. Within the act, Buffalo opened its first in 1897 ; Albany, Rochester, Syracuse, and Troy, have since complied ; and in New York the first one, five years after the act was passed, was opened in Rivington Street in a closely packed quarter, during 1900, at a cost of $100,000. It furnishes 3,000 baths a day of 20 minutes each, from 67 spray baths. In Phila- delphia the Public Baths Association was organ- ized in 1895 ; but the first to be opened was in 1898, in a crowded quarter between Fourth and Fifth streets. It is a building of 2^/2 stories, 40 by 60, constructed of brick and iron, with con- crete floors and iron partitions. It cost about $30,000. It has no swimming pool, but only shower baths — a system rapidly coming into favor from its economy of space and water ; the People's Baths and the Baron de Hirsch Fund Baths in New York adopt the same plan. The Philadelphia establishment has a public laundry in connection with its own suit and towel laundry, where women and men in sepa- rate compartments can wash their clothing for a small fee, and single men make much use of it to wash their underclothing. Pittsburg, Pa., has recently erected a permanent public bath. Some of the old warm-season baths have since been made permanent, as in Newark, N. J., which so extended two in 1898, and in 1900 voted a third. Boston from 1897 to 1899 increased its public baths to 2>?>- — I4 floating, 10 beach, and 9 oth- ers ; 17 south of the common and 16 north ; and prepared to erect permanent structures in each industrial section of the city. The first of these was opened at Dover Street in 1898 — a fine brick and granite structure, with marble parti- tions and staircases, the whole with land costing $86,000. It has gymnasiums also, and medical directors for each se.x to give courses of train- ing, and for cases of accident or sudden illness. The intention is ultimately to make these baths places of public recreation, corresponding to the summer playgrounds ; thus reaching in the 20th century the point at which the Romans had arrived in the first. Brookline, adjoining Bos- ton, has a handsomely appointed permanent municipal bath house and so have Worcester, Mass., and Providence. R. I. St. Paul, Minn., through the public spirit of Dr. Ohage, a Ger- man physician, now has a public playground, pavilion, etc., connected with permanent bath BATH — BATHORI houses on what was till recently a waste island in the middle of the Mississippi, near the busi- ness centre of the city and between two main bridges. Like most of the other bath establish- ments, it is free, save a small charge for soap and towels ; has free instruction in swimming, and is open every day, including Sundays. The donor calls it an experiment in municipal social- ism, being himself a socialist. A very recent phase of the movement is the connection of the system with the public schools. It began in Germany, Gottingen leading the way in 1885 under the headship of the mayor and a professor in the university. Thus far, in the United States it is nearly confined to Boston and its suburbs ; in 1900 a number of baths were put into the Paul Revere school in the North End, and in Brookline swimming is a regular part of the school curriculum. As a means of public sani- tation, preventing the spread of disease and purifying the air, where the rooms are full of children from the poorer quarters, it has much to commend it. Bath, Knights of the, an English order concerning the origin of which antiquaries differ. Henry IV., on the day of his coronation, con- ferred the degree upon 46 knights. From that time the kings of England have bestowed this dignity previous to coronations, after births and marriages of the royal issue, etc. Charles II. created several Knights of the Bath, but after his time the order fell into neglect, till 1725, when George I. revived it. By the book of statutes then prepared, the number of knights was fixed at 38, namely, the sovereign, and Zl knights companions. The king allowed the chapel of Henry VII., in Westminster Abbey, to be the chapel of the order. The limits of the order were greatly extended by the prince regent in 1815, to reward the distinguished ser- vices of officers during the wars ; and again in 1847, when it was also opened to civilians. It was further enlarged in 1861. It now consists of three classes, each of which is subdivided into (i) military members; (2) civil members, and (3) honorary members, consisting of foreign princes and officers. The first class consists of Knights Grand Cross (G.C.B.) ; the second of Knights Commanders (K.C.B.) ; and the third, of Companions (C.B.). The dean of West- minster is dean of the order. The ribbon of the order is crimson, and its motto, "Tria juncta in uno." The name is conjecturally derived from the initiatory ceremony of bathing once practised at the installation of a knight, as sym- bolical of the purity thereafter required of him. Bathom'eter, an instrument for measuring the depth of the sea or any large body of water without a sounding line, the name being derived from bathos, depth. It was invented by Dr. C. W. Siemens after 1859 as an adjunct to the laying of submarine telegraphic cables, so as to keep a continuous record of the sea depth below a moving ship. The principle of the instrument is based upon the gravitation of the earth, total gravitation being represented by a column of mercury, which rests upon a thin steel dia- phragm embossed in such a way that its centre can move within a small range freely up and down under the influence of the rnercury col- umn without encountering any frictional resist- ance. The column ends in a cup, and mercury is poured into both cup and pipe up to a certain point, the space above being filled with water, alcohol, or a liquid of less density, this latter ter- minating in a spiral tube laid upon a scale at the top of the instrument. The centre of the diaphragm which supports the column of mer- cury is carried by two or more carefully tem- pered steel springs, so adjusted that their elastic pressure balances exactly the dead weight of the column of mercury resting upon the dia- phragm, the result being that the diaphragm retains its horizontal position. Inclosed in an air-tight casing closed by a disc of plate glass, the instrument records by an ingenious compen- sating arrangement the natural balance of the elastic and gravity forces on the scale, from which readings are made. Consult Siemens, 'The Bathometer > (1879). Bathori, ba'to-re, or Battori, a celebrated Hungarian family which in the 15th century became divided into two branches, one of which gave Transylvania five princes, and Poland one of its greatest kings : 1. Stephen: b. 1532; d. Grodno, 1586. He entered the army, and so distinguished himself that when the death of John Sigismund Zapolya, nephew of Sigismund II., king of Poland, in 1571, left a vacancy in the sovereignty of Tran- sylvania, Stephen Bathori, without courting the honor, was unanimously elected. When the throne of Poland became vacant by Henry of Valois quitting the country in order to mount the throne of France, Stephen Bathori was elected to succeed him in 1575, and was crowned along with his queen, Anne, daughter of Sigis- mund Augustus, at Cracow, in 1576. He found the kingdom torn asunder by faction, the peo- ple enervated by long peace, the treasury exhausted, and the army without discipline. He therefore gave his first attention to internal improvement, but had no sooner effected it than he determined to recover the Polish terri- tories of which the czar of Muscovy had man- aged to possess himself by fomenting dissen- sions. He accordingly declared war against him, beat him at all points, and compelled him to accept a disadvantageous peace. Under Stephen Bathori, Poland enjoyed a comparative tranquillity to which it had long been a stranger, and he was meditating important constitutional reforms, which promised to make that tran- quillity permanent, when he died suddenly. 2. Sigismund, nephew of Stephen : d. 1613. He became waiwode or prince of Transylvania in 1581, shook off the Ottoman yoke, and, by the great talents he displayed, had begun to give hopes of reigning gloriously as an independent sovereign, when, from mere fickleness and eccentricity of character, he voluntarily resigned his dominions to the Emperor Rudolph II. in return for two principalities in Silesia, a cardi- nal's hat, and a pension. With the same fickle- ness, however, he immediately repented of the act, and, availing himself of an invitation by the Transylvanians, returned, and placed him- self under the protection of the Porte. The tal- ent which he had displayed, and the good for- tune which had followed him in early life, appeared now to have forsaken him ; the Imperi- alists defeated him in every battle, and he was obliged to throw himself on the mercy of the emperor, who sent him to live out the rest of his days at Prague. BATHS OF AGRIPPA — B ATH YMETRY Baths of Agrippa, the earliest of the Ro- man thermae; erected by Marcus Agrippa in the reign of Augustus. They stood in the Cam- pus ?\Iartius, about 20 feet behind the Pantheon. In 1881, on the removal of some houses, ruins were found of a great hall paved with marble and lined with fluted columns. Baths of Caracal'la, one of the most mag- nificent of the Roman thermae, in the southeast part of the city, in which 2,300 men could bathe at the same time. They were begun in 206 .\.v. by Caracalla, and completed by Severus. There were stadia for the athletes, galleries for the exhibition of paintings and sculpture, libraries, conversation halls, lecture-rooms, etc. The mechanical skill displayed in their construction was very great. The ruins which still remain are among the most remarkable in Rome. Baths of Diocletian, the most extensive of the Roman thermae : in the northeast part of the city, and covering most of the ground between the Porta Collina and the Porta Vimi- nalis. Over 3,000 persons could bathe in them at the same time. They contained a library, picture-gallery, odeum, etc. Michael Angelo transformed the great hall of the Tepidarium into a nave for the Church of S. Marie degli Angeli. One of the laconica (hot rooms) forms the vestibule of the church. Baths of Titus, a structure on the Esqui- Ime Hill in Rome ; built by the Emperor Titus. Considerable ruins are found northeast of the Coliseum. Bathsheba, bath-she'ba, or bath'she-ba, wife of Uriah, the Hittite, whose story is told in 2 Sam xi. David committed adultery with her, then caused her husband to be slain, and after- ward took her to wife. These sins displeased Jehovah, who sent the prophet Nathan to David with the parable of the ewe lamb. David bit- terly repented, but yet was punished. Bathsheba was the mother of Solomon, whose succession to the throne she took pains to secure. She is afterward mentioned in the history of Adonijah, in the title of Psalms li., and among the ances- tors of Christ (Matt. i. 6). Bath'urst, Allen, (Earl), English states- man: b. 1684; d. 1775. He was a zealous opponent of the measures of Sir Robert Wal- pole's ministry, and the intimate friend of Bolingbroke, Pope, Addison, and other great writers of the time. Bathurst, Henry (2d E.\rl), son ot the pre- ceding, English statesman: b. 1714; d. 1794. In 1771 he was made lord high chancellor of Eng- land. He wrote "^Theory of Evidence,^ etc. Bathurst, Henry (3d Earl), son of the sec- ond earl. English statesman: b. 22 May 1762: d. 1834. In 1807 he became president of the board of trade; in 1809 secretary for foreign affairs; and in 1812 secretary for the colonies, a post held by him for 16 years. He was also presi- dent of the council under Wellington, 1828-30. Bathurst, Ralph, Englisti clergyman: b. 1620; d. 14 June 1704. He was dean of Wells, and wrote some elegant Latin poems, and was one of the founders of the Royal Society of London (q. v.), which was incorporated in 1660. Bathurst, Africa, a towm on the island of St. Mary's, near the mouth of the Gambia, and capital of the British colony Gambia. Its trade is chiefly in gum, bees'-wax, ground-nuts, hides, ivory, and gold, bartered for cloths and cutlery. Pop. 6,000. Bathurst, Australia, the principal town in the western district of the colony of New South Wales, on the south bank of the Macquarie River, 144 miles west of Sydney, 2,153 feet above sea-level, and surrounded by hills. It has wide, well-laid-out streets crossing each other at right angles, with a central square planted with trees. The public buildings include the Anglican and Roman Catholic cathedrals, and churches for the Baptists, Congregationalists, Wesleyans, Presbyterians, and others; court-house, jail, and town-hall ; post and telegraph offices ; a hos- pital, numerous schools, a school of arts, etc. There are several tanneries, a coach factory, railway workshops, breweries, and flour mills. Soap, candles, glue, boots and shoes, and fur- niture are also extensively manufactured. Pop. (1900) 9,069. Bathurst Inlet, an inlet of the Polar Sea, projecting due south about 75 miles out of Coronation Gulf. It is in a direct line between the magnetic pole and Great Slave Lake, and about 300 miles from each. Bathurst Island, the name of two islands: (i) An island off the northeast coast of Aus- tralia, just west of Melville Island, and sepa- rated from the mainland of Australia by Clar- ence Strait on the south, and from Melville Island by Apsley Strait ; (2) an island in the Arctic Ocean, discovered by Parry in 1819, lying due south of Grinnell Land, and the most east- ern of the group called Parry Islands. It is separated from North Somerset on the south by Barrow Strait, and from North Devon on the east by Wellington Channel. Batbyb'ius, the name given by Huxley, in 1868, to a supposed organism, a bit of unorgan- ized protoplasm, found at the sea-bottom at great depths. It was structureless, and con- tained numerous calcareous concretions. Hux- ley abandoned the idea that it was a living organism. Afterward Bessels gave the name ^'^protobathybius^' to a similar slimy moss dredged in Smith's Sound in 92 fathoms, possibly the re- mains of protozoa or sponges. Bathybius was not rediscovered by the Challenger expedition, and Sir John Murray suspected that the sub- stance was only a gelatinous precipitate of sul- phate of lime from sea water mixed with alco- hol. Bath'ycles, Greek artist, supposed to have flourished in the time of Solon, in the 7th cen- tury B.C. He was a resident of Magnesia, in Thessaly, on the Mreander, and constructed for the Lacedaemonians the colossal throne of the Amyclaean Apollo, at Amyclae, near Sparta. Quatremere de Quincy, in his ^Jupiter Olym- pien,^ has given an interesting view of the splendid god and his sunerb throne, designed from the description of Pausanias. Bathym'etry, the art of measuring depths in the sea, especialh' for the purpose of investi- gating the vertical range of distribution of plants and animals. An extensive series of stich bathymetric measurements was made by H. M. S. Challenger (1872-6), the deepest sounding being 4,575 fathoms. In February looo the L^nited States surveying ship Nero reported that in surveying for a proposed telegraphic cable line between Honolulu and Manila by way BATISTE — BATRACHIA uf Guam and Yokohama, she encountered the greatest ocean depths on record; two casts showing 5,160 and 5,269 fathoms respectively. Batiste, ba-test, a fine, white, very compact linen, distinguished by its delicate, firm, and uniform threads from every other linen texture. The name is derived either from the Indian material bastas, or from one of the early manu- facturers of it, Baptiste Chambray, who lived in the 13th century, and from whom it was also called the cloth of Chambray, or Cambray; hence the English word cambric. Batjan, bat-yan', one of the Molucca Islands, lying southwest of Gilolo. It is gov- erned by a native sultan under Dutch suzerainty. The chief industry is the cultivation of spices. Area, 835 square miles ; population from 12,000 to 13,000, of which the majority are Malays or Alfores. Batley, England, a municipal and parlia- mentary borough, in the West Riding of York, eight miles south of Leeds, and just north of Dewsbury, with which it is united for parlia- mentary purposes. The houses are chiefly of stone, and rather irregularly built. Batley has an ancient parish church in the Early English style, a town-hall, a grammar and a technical school, mechanics' institute, etc. The principal manufactures are heavy woolen cloths, Batley being the chief seat of the manufacture of heavy woolens. There are also iron foundries, ma- chine-works, collieries, etc. Pop. (1901) 30,300. Batlle, bat-le, Lorenzo, Uruguayan states- man : b. Montevideo, 1812. He commanded a body of infantry in the nine years' siege of Montevideo; was minister of war in 1866-8; president of the republic from 1868 to 1872, when he resigned the office and resumed his place as general in the army. Batna, bat'na, Algeria, a town of the de- partment of Constantine, situated at the foot of Mount Tugurt. It is an important military and trading post. Pop. 8,381. Baton, bat-on, or ba-ton, a short staflf or truncheon, in some cases used as an official badge, as that of a field marshal. The conductor of an orchestra has a baton for the purpose of directing the performers as to time, etc. In heraldry, what is usually called the bastard bar, or bar sinister, is properly a baton sinister. Baton Rouge, La., city, parish-seat of East Baton Rouge, and capital of the State. The name is derived from the French, meaning red baton or stick. The city is situated on the eastern bank of the Mississippi River, 90 miles northwest of New Orleans, and is on the Texas and Pacific and the Yazoo and Mississippi Val- ley Railroad. It is picturesquely built on a bluff commanding an excellent view of the surround- ing country. The houses are mostly of French and Spanish architecture. The river below the city is bordered by sugar-cane plantations, or- chards of tropical fruits, private gardens, and villas. It was the capital of the State from 1847 to 1864, when the seat of government was re- moved to New Orleans. On i March 1882. Baton Rouge was again selected as the capital city. The State capital building here was com- pleted in 1852 at a cost of $246,000. It was partially burned during the Civil War but was rebuilt in 1882. The Louisiana State University was organized here in i860. The city also (.ob- tains various State institutions, orphan asylum, penitentiary, deaf and dumb, and blind asylums. State agricultural and mechanical college, and agricultural experiment station. There are among other public buildings, the Court House, City Hall, Post Office, Collegiate Institute, High School building, and a National Soldiers' Cem- etery. There are varied and extensive manufactur- ing interests, including cotton seed products, lumber, sugar, molasses, brick, artificial ice, and agricultural implements. The city has National and State banks, several daily and weekly news- papers. There is a large and growing trade with the surrounding cotton and sugar growing regions. The city has a real property assessed valuation of $2,000,000, actual valuation $3,500,- 000, exclusive of the valuable City, Parish and State property which is exempt from assess- ment. In addition to above the personal as- sessed property is $1,000,000, making a total as- sessment of $3,000,000, real value $5,000,000. Baton Rouge is governed under a charter of 1898, by a mayor, elected every four years and a city council, elected every four years. A majority of the municipal officers are selected by the council. The city was one of the earliest French settlements in Louisiana. A conven- tion which met here 21 Jan. 1861, adopted the ordinance of secession on the 26th ; the city was taken by the Federal army 7 May 1862. On 5 August the same year a Confederate force numbering 5,000 under command of Gen- eral John C. Breckenridge, attacked the Federal garrison under General Thomas Williams, but was repulsed after a fierce contest lasting two hours. Gen. Williams was killed and both sides lost heavily. The city was shortly afterward evacuated but a month later was re-occupied by the Federal troops who remained until the close of the war. A former government arsenal here was destroyed during the war. Pop. (1900) 11,269; (1903 est.) 12,500. W. H. Bynum, Mayor of Baton Rouge. Batoni, ba-to'ne, Pompeo Girolamo, Italian painter: b. Lucca, 1708; d. Rome, 1787. The manner in which he executed his paintmgs was peculiar. He covered his sketch with a cloth, and began to paint the upper part on the left hand, and proceeded gradually toward the right, never uncovering a new place until the first was entirely finished. Boni, who compares him with Mengs, calls the latter the painter of philosophy; the former, the painter of nature. Batoni painted many altar-pieces and numerous portraits, including those of the Emperor Joseph and the Empress Maria Theresa in the imperial gallery. His greatest work is his 'Fall of Simon the Sorcerer,^ which was ordered by Cardinal Albani for the church of St. Peter's at Rome, and was intended to be executed in mosaic. His < Magdalene,^ in Dresden, and his 'Return of the Prodigal Son,> in Vienna, are celebrated. Batrachia, the frogs and toads of the Anura order of Amphibia (q.v.), comprising the Ranidce frogs, the Biifonida ordinary toads, the Hylidce tree frogs, the Pipidce Surinam toads, and similar reptiles with the distinguishing characteristic of development frorti the tailed and gilled tadpole state to a tailless, but leg and lung provided adult condition. BxA.TTA — BATTERING RAM Bat'ta, Africa, a province of the Congo Free State, formerly independent. Its prin- cipal towns are Batta and Cangon. Batta, Sumatra, a district in the northern part of the island, stretching between Sinkell and Tabuyong, on the west, and the Bila and the Rakan on the east. The soil is fertile, and produces chiefly camphor, gum, benzoin, cassia, cotton, and indigo. The language of the Battas is a settled one, and extensively ■written. Bark or bamboo staves are used in place of books, being written on from bottom to top. Their literature consists chiefly of tales of witchcraft, riddles, stories, etc. There are three dialects. Pop. about 300,000. Battalion, the tactical unit of command in infantry — that is, the first body that is, as a rule, used independently, and commanded by a field officer (major or lieutenant-colonel). In the United States army eight companies of cavalry and artillery and 10 of infantry con- stitute a battalion ; each infantry regiment has one battalion and those in the cavalry and ar- tillery have two. English battalions are formed of 10 com- panies for administrative, and eight for tactical purposes. The first 25 regiments have two bat- talions, the remainder, originally of one battal- ion each, are linked in pairs according to their territorial derivation. Linked battalions are interchangeable as regards ofificers, and each shares the honors and advantages of the other. Two regiments of rifles have four bat- talions each, and the three regiments of the Guards seven battalions in all. The peace strength of a battalion is about 400 men, but varies; its war strength in the field is 1,000, with one lieutenant-colonel, two majors, eight captains, 16 subalterns, four officers of the regimental staff (adjutant, paymaster, quarter- master, and medical officer), and 50 sergeants. The corporals and lance-corporals fall in with the privates in the ranks, and therefore num- ber among the rank and file. The French infantry is divided into (i) in- fantry of the line; (2) regiments of zouaves; (3) regiments of tirailleurs Algericns; and (4) battalions of chasseurs a pied. The 144 regi- ments of infantry of the line have each four battalions; a battalion (which is divided into four field companies), consisting of 12 commis- sioned officers, 54 non-commissioned officers, and 264 soldiers — in all 330 men, raised in time of war to 1,000. The regiments of zou- aves have in peace 612 men in a battalion, and in war 1,000. The tirailleurs Alger iens, who in time of peace are stationed in Algeria, have in peace 652 men in a battalion, and in war 1. 000. Finally, the chasseurs a pied have in peace 468 men, and in war 1,000. In Germany, with the exception of the Ii6th (Hesse) regiment, the 148 line regiments have three battalions. The yagers are formed into 26 separate battalions. To each line regiment is attached a landwehr regiment of two bat- talions, and these latter bear the same number as the regular regiments to which they are affiliated. The five Prussian Guard regiments have 22 officers and 678 men per battalion in peace time, the remaining regiments having 18 officers and 526 men per battalion, and the yagers 22 officers and 526 men. On mobiliza- tion for war all battalions are raised to a strength of 22 officers and 1,000 men, with a regimental staff of one commandant, one extra field officer, and one aide-de-camp. Pioneer battalions are practically field engineer bodies, and are divided into pontoniers (for bridg- ing), and sappers and miners (for siege operations, demolition or construction of arti- ficial defenses). They have each three field and one depot company ; the former compris- ing 15 officers and 650 men. Battenberg, bat'en-barg, Alexander, Prince of, Bulgarian ruler: b. 1857; d. 17 Feb. 1893. He was the second son of the morganatic union between Prince Alexander of Hesse and the Countess von Hauke, who in 185 1 received the title of Countess of Battenberg. In 1879 he was chosen Prince of Bulgaria, and in 1885, without consulting Russia, proclaimed the union of eastern P.umelia with Bulgaria. This action exasperated both Russia and Servia, and the latter took up arms against Bulgaria, but was easily defeated by Alexander in the space of two weeks. In August 1886, however, Rus- sian partisans overpowered Alexander in his palace at Sofia, forced him to abdicate, and carried him off to Reni, in Russian territory. Set free in a few days, he returned ; but after a futile attempt to conciliate the czar he ab- dicated in September, and, assuming the title of Count Hartenau, retired to Darmstadt. Battenberg, Henry Maurice, British sol- dier: b. Milan, 5 Oct. 1858; d. 20 Jan. 1896. He was the third son of Prince Alexander of Hesse (see Battenberg, Alexander, above), and in 18S5 married the Princess Beatrice of England, j'oungest daughter of Queen Victoria. He joined the British expedition of 1895 against Ashanti, and while on his way home died at sea of a fever contracted during his military service. Battenberg, Louis Alexander, British naval officer : b. Gratz, 24 May 1854. He was the eldest son of Prince Alexander of Hesse (see B.KTTENBERG, ALEXANDER, aDovc), and in 1884 married the eldest daughter of the Princess Alice Maud Mary, grand duchess of Hesse-Darmstadt, and second daughter of Queen Victoria. Battenberg, a village in the Prussian pro- vince of Hesse-Nassau, from which the sons of Prince Alexander of Hesse (see Batten- berg, Alexander, above), derive their title of princes of Battenberg. Battens, pieces of timber of different lengths, used for making floors, and also, after being divided so as to be 2% inches wide and i]4 thick, placed against walls to separate the laths on which plastering is to be put from the walls. In nautical affairs, battens are (i) strips of wood nailed down over the tarpaulins which cover the hatches ; (2) similar strips fastened to portions of the rigging to prevent injury from chafing; (3) light frameworks placed on dining tables to keep the dishes from sliding off by reason of the ship's motion, also called fiddles; (4) thin strips of wood placed in pockets on the leach of a sail to prevent wrinkling or bagging. Battering Ram (Lat. aries), the earliest, simplest, and, until the improved usage of artillery, the most effective machine for de- stroying stone walls and the ordinary defenses BATTERSEA — BATTERY •of fortified towns. Its primitive form was a .huge beam of seasoned and tough wood, hoisted on the shoulders of men; who, running with it, at speed, against the obstacle, wall, .gate, or palisade, made what impression they might against it. The ancients employed two •different machines of this kind — the one sus- pended, and vibrating after the manner of a pendulum, and the other movable on rollers. The swinging ram resembled in magnitude and form the mast of a large vessel, suspended horizontally at its centre of gravity, by chains ■or cords, from a movable frame. Ligatures of waxed cord surrounded the beam at short in- tervals, and cords at the extremity, opposite to the head, served for the purpose of applying human force to give the oscillatory motion. Other cords, at intermediate distances, were -also sometimes employed. The rolling ram was much the same as the above in its general 'Construction, except that instead of a pendulous motion, it received only a motion of simple alternation, produced by the strength of men applied to cords passing over pulleys. This •construction seems to have been first employed at the siege of Byzantium. These machines were often extremely ponderous. Appian de- clares that, at the siege of Carthage, he saw two rams so colossal that loo men were em- ployed in working each. Vitruvius afiirms that the beam was often from lOO to 120 feet in ■length ; and Justus Lipsius describes some as 180 feet long, and two feet four inches in dia- meter, with an iron head weighing at least a ton and a half. In contrasting the effects of the battering-ram with those of the modern ar- tillery, we must not judge of them merely by the measure of their respective momenta. Such a ram as one of those described by Lip- -sius would weigh more than 45,000 pounds, and its momentum, supposing its velocity be about two yards per second, would be nearly •<)uadruple the momentum of a 40-pound ball moving with a velocity of i.Coo feet per second. But the operation of the two upon a wall would be very different. The ball would prob- ably penetrate the opposing substance, and pursue its way for some distance; but the ef- ficacy of the ram would depend almost entirely upon duly apportioning its intervals of oscilla- tion. At first it would produce no obvious -effect upon the wall; but the judicious repeti- tion of its blows would, in a short time, give motion to the wall itself. There would first be a barely perceptible tremor, then more ex- tensive vibrations ; these being evident, the as- sailants would adjust the oscillations of the ram to that of the wall, till at length a large portion of it, partaking of the vibratory im- pulse, would, by a well-timed blow, fall to the earth at once. This recorded effect of the ram has nothing analogous in the results of modern artillery. Battersea, a district of London, in Surrey, forming, with Clapham, a parliamentary borough, on the right bank of the Thames, across which there is communication by sev- eral bridges. There is a fine public park in Battersea, extending over 185 acres, and con- taining a considerable sheet of water. There is a Church of England training college for schoolmasters and a Wesleyan for schoolmis- tresses. Clapham and Wandsworth Commons ^re fine areas of unenclosed ground. Battersea and Clapham send two members to Parlia- ment — one for each division. Battersea par- ish is a borough under the London Govern- ment Act (1 899). Battershall, Jesse Park, American chemist: b. Troy, N. Y., 26 May 1851 ; d. Poughkeepsie, N. Y., 12 Jan. 1891. He studied chemistry at the Columbia School of Mines, Gottingen, Leipsic, Geneva, and Tubingen. In 1879 he be- came head of the analytical department of the United States laboratory in New York, a position held until his death. He has pub- lished a translation of Naquet's ^ Legal Chem- istry' (1876) ; *Food Adulteration and Detec- tioh> (1887). Batterson, Hermon Griswold, American clerg>'man : b. Marbledale, Conn., 28 May 1827; d. New York, March 1903. He was ordained to the ministry of the Protestant Episcopal Church in 1866, and held rectorships in San Antonio, Texas ; Wabasha, Minn. ; Philadel- phia, and Church of the Redeemer, New York, 1891. He published ^Missionary Tune Book' (1868); ^Christmas Carols, and Other Verses' (1877); 'Sketchbook of the American Epis- copate' (1878, 2d ed. 1884) ; < Pathway of Faith' ; 'Vesper Bells.' Batterson, James Goodwin: b. Bloomfield, Conn., 23 Feb. 1823 ; d. Hartford, Conn., 18 Sept. 1901. He was educated in the public schools of Litchfield, Conn., and in 1845 be- came an importer of and dealer in granite and marble, with headquarters in Hartford. His business grew into one of the most extensive of its kind in the United States, controlling large granite quarries in Westerly, R. I. He took important contracts for public and pri- vate buildings and supplied the stone for the State capitol and Connecticut Mutual build- ings in Hartford, the Mutual Life, Equitable Life Insurance Companies' buildings, and Van- derbilt residence in New York. He was the first to use machinery for polishing granite and devised many other improvements. In 1863 he founded the Travelers' Insurance Company, and was its president until his death. Throughout his life, though never holding political office, he was one of the foremost public figures of his city and State. He was an enthusiastic student of political economy, and wrote numerous articles and pamphlets on the money question. He taught himself Greek and became an acknowledged master of it ; and he was equally accomplished in several of the modern European languages, his versatility and capacity for work being extraordinary. In the last year of his life he wrote a poem of some length, 'The Beginnings,' dealing \vith the origin of the universe and life. Publica- tions: numerous articles in 'The Traveler's Record' ; 'Gold and Silver as Currency' (1896). Battery, The, a park of 21 acres forming the southernmost point of New York, occupy- ing the site of the original Dutch fortifica- tions. In the early days of the city the vicinity of the Battery was a very aristocratic quarter, and some of the old houses are still standing. The park now contains the Barge Office and the Aquarium, formerly Castle Gar- den (q.v.). BATTERY Bat'tery, in electricity, an apparatus for the production of voltaic (or dynamic) electricity, by chemical means, or by the direct transforma- tion of heat energy (as in the thermopile). It is admitted, that the first electric battery was constructed by the Italian physicist Volta, about the j'car 1800. Some 20 years before, Galvani, a professor of anatomy at Bologna, had observed the convulsive twitching of frogs' legs, when their muscles and lumbar nerves were simultaneously touched by differ- ent metals that were themselves elsewhere in contact, and he had rightly attributed the phe- nomenon to electricity. Galvani, however, was of the opinion that the electricity was of physiological origin, its seat being within the frogs' legs. Volta, on the contrary, believed that the electricity was generated by the con- tact of the dissimilar metals, and in this belief he constructed the apparatus which is known as his couronne de tasses, or '■'■ crown of cups.'^ Placing a series of cups in a circle, he par- tially filled them with a solution of salt and water, and introduced into each a pair of me- tallic plates, one of these being zinc, and the other either copper or silver. He connected the zinc plate of each cup with the copper plate of the next, completing the entire circle in this way except at one place, where he at- tached wires to the terminals, to lead away the electricity generated. Very shortly after- ward he constructed the "voltaic pile'^ on the same general principle, except that he formed it of disks of copper, zinc, and wet cloth, which he piled up in the order : copper, zinc, cloth, copper, zinc, cloth, etc., the lowest plate of all being copper, and the highest zinc. The wires for leading off the electricity were then connected at the top and bottom of the ap- paratus. It is commonly believed that the *'pile*^ of zinc and copper disks was the first form of his battery ; but according to Niaudet this is an error, the column battery being an afterthought, made with a view to produce an instrument that might be easily transported into hospitals for medical purposes. The phe- nomena exhibited by Volta's **crown of cups* were remarkable enough to attract the atten- tion of the entire scientific world, and improved forms of battery were soon devised. Cruik- shank, Wollaston. Muncke, Young, Faraday, and others contributed in this way, but the most of the changes that were made related to the mode of arranging the plates and other similar details, and, save for the substitution of dilute sulphuric acid for the salt solution, no advance of a fundamental nature was made until 1836, when John Frederick Daniell, an English physicist, invented the battery that bears his name, and which, in some respects, has never been surpassed. The earlier forms of battery, in which the plates were immersed in a salt solution or in dilute sulphuric acid, gave an electrical cur- rent for a short time ; but hydrogen gas was deposited upon the copper electrode by the pas- sage of the current, thereby lessening the area of the plate in contact with the liquid, and so increasing the internal resistance of the cell. It was found, too, that the products of de- composition cut down the electromotive force of the cell, by_ tending to establish an electro- motive force in the opposite direction from that in which the battery current first flowed — a discovery that has since been put to good use in the storage battery (q.v.). To remove the hydrogen film that was deposited upon the copper electrode, various artifices were adopt- ed, such as agitating the solution, or vibrating the copper plate so as to disengage the bubble.?, of gas and allow them to rise to the surface of the liquid and escape into the air, or rub- bing the plate with a brush to achieve the same end, or roughening it in some way so that the hydrogen bubbles would not cling to it so closely. All these methods were trouble- some, and it was reserved for Daniell to de- vise a form of cell in which the hj'drogen is removed, automatically and very perfectly, by chemical means. Within the usual containing vessel of glass, he placed a smaller one made of unglazed earthenware, and known as the ''porous cup." The outer compartment was filled with dilute sulphuric acid, and contained the zinc plate. The copper plate was placed within the porous cup, and the space around it was filled with crystals of copper sulphate, wa- ter or dilute sulphuric acid being added until the liquid stood at the same level on both sides of the porous wall of the cup. When the elec- tric current passes in a battery of this type, the chemical action may be described in the following way : The sulphuric acid, H^SOj, is decomposed into hydrogen, and the radical SO4 (known as "sulphion*'). the sulphion going to the zinc plate, with which it combines to pro- duce zinc sulphate, ZnS04, a salt which dis- solves as fast as it is formed, leaving a fresh surface of zinc constantly exposed. The hy- drogen of the primary decomposition goes to the copper plate, but instead of being deposited there, as in earlier forms of battery, it com- bines with the copper sulphate present, reduc- ing it to metallic copper and sulphuric acid> according to the formula CUSO4 + 2H = Cu + H=S04. It is evident that the molecule of sulphuric acid that was originally decomposed has now been re-formed again, so that the total quan- tity of acid present in the cell has not been diminished. The metallic copper that is set free does not interfere in any way with the continued action of the cell, for it is deposited upon an electrode that is already composed of copper. The actual chemical phenomena that occur in the Daniell battery may possibly be more complicated than here indicated, but the final results are the same as those given above. The valuable feature of the Daniell cell is the remarkable constancy of its electromotive force. In some other respects, however, later forms of battery are superior to it. Thus its electromotive force, although quite constant, is not very great (about 1.07 volts). In 1839 Sir William Robert Grove modified it by sub- stituting strong nitric acid for the solution of copper sulphate, and (since nitric acid will at- tack copper) platinum plates for the copper ones in Daniell's form. An electromotive force as high as 1.9 volts has been observed with this type of battery, the hydrogen that goes to the platinum electrode being oxidized by the nitric acid, with the formation of nitrous acid and water. The chief objections to Grove's battery are the nitrous fumes that it gives ofif, and the expense of the platinum re- quired. In 1843 Robert Bunsen found that the latter objection could be readily overcome by BATTERY replacing the platinum electrodes by plates of carbon. Except for this substitution, his bat- tery is identical with Grove's, and will give substantially the same electromotive force. It is said that the idea of using carbon instead of platinum occurred to Grove himself, and that he made several public experiments with carbon ; but these were not entirely successful, and when Bunsen showed the feasibility of using it, they had been forgotten. Many mod- ifications of the Daniell battery have been pro- posed. Of these the "gravity battery'^ is one of the most interesting. It is identical in gen- eral theory with the Daniell cell, but contains no porous cup, the liquids being kept separate by their different densities. The copper elec- trode is placed in the bottom of the cell, and the zinc is suspended near the top. The con- taining vessel is nearly filled with a solution of copper sulphate, a small quantity of solution of zinc sulphate being floated on the top. The copper sulphate solution, being the denser, re- mains in the lower part of the cell, and the surface of separation of the two liquids de- scends, slowly, as the batter)' is used, owing to the gradual diminution of the quantity of cop- per sulphate present, and the corresponding in- crease in the quantity of sulphate of zinc. Gravity batteries, if carefully installed, are quite serviceable, and need but little attention. They are used to a considerable extent for tele- graphic purposes, when dynamo-electric currents cannot be had conveniently. Batteries in which the depolarizing agent is a salt of chromic acid are now used very commonly for work in which a large current is wanted for a con- siderable time. Bichromate of potassium is the salt commonly employed as the depolarizer, its use having been first suggested by Johann Christian Poggendorff, a noted professor of physics at Berlin. Bichromate of potash bat- teries are made in various forms, some with porous cups and some without. The com- moner type has no cup, but consists of zinc and carbon electrodes, immersed in a solution con- sisting essentially of one ounce of bichromate of potassium and one fluid ounce of concen- trated sulphuric acid, to every lo ounces of water. It is well to add, also, about i grain of mercurous sulphate to each ounce of the solution, in order to keep the zincs well amal- gamated. A bichromate battery so constructed has an electromotive force of about 2 volts, and can be run on a comparatively low resistance for some time without greatly falling off in its voltage. It is not to be compared for con- stancy, however, with the batteries of Daniell, Grove, and Bunsen. All the batteries thus far described should have their zincs well amalga- mated, by rubbing with dilute sulphuric acid and mercury till a bright, mirror-like surface is obtained. The mercury does not enter into any chemical relations with the other contents of the cell, but it has the power of dissolving zinc in preference to other substances that may be present as impurities in the electrode to which it is applied, and so keeping a fresh sur- face of the pure metal constantly exposed to the battery liquid. The sal ammoniac cell invented by M. Georges Leclanche is exceedingly useful for ringing bells, operating telephones, lighting gas jets, and other work where a transient current is desired, though it *runs down'' (or loses its electromotive force) rapidly when used for any considerable time on a closed circuit, re- covering again in a short time when left to itself. In its original form it contained a por- ous cup, in which was a carbon electrode, sur- rounded by a mixture of pulverized carbon and manganese dioxid. The outer compartment contained the zinc electrode, and the liquid used was a solution of sal ammoniac (am- monium chloride) . In recent years the porous cup has been commonly omitted, the depolariz- ing mixture of carbon and manganese dioxid being compressed into blocks and bound di- rectly to the carbon electrode by means of rub- ber bands. The electromotive force of the Le- clanche cell is about 1.48 volts, when it has been left at rest for some time. In the place of the depolarizing compound given above, a mixture of 55 parts of sulphur, 40 of gas-coke powder, and 5 of shellac is also used. So- called "dry cells'' have come into favor greatly during the past few years. These cells are not really dry, except in the sense that they do not contain any free liquid that can run out if the cell is inverted. They contain electrodes of carbon and zinc, the space between which is filled with a paste that acts as a depolarizer. Many different compositions have been recom- mended for the paste, among them the follow- ing, which is said to give excellent results : Charcoal, 3 parts ; graphite, i part ; peroxide of manganese, 3 parts ; slaked lime, I part ; "white arsenic" (arsenic trioxide), i part; a mixture of glucose and starch, i part ; all by weight. These are to be intimately mixed while dry, and then worked into a smooth paste with equal parts of a saturated solution of sal ammoniac and a similar solution of common salt, to which one tenth (by volume) of a sat- urated solution of corrosive sublimate and one tenth (also by volume) of hydrochloric acid have been added. Dry batteries are not in- tended for continuous service, but (like the Leclanche element, to which they are closely related) for the production of transient cur- rents, at considerable intervals. A form of battery, devised by Mr. Latimer Clark for use in laboratories as a standard of electromotive force, is now commonly employed for this purpose in all exact electrical re- searches, where the precise determination of an electromotive force is important. As described in his original paper (< Philosophical Transac- tions' 1875), the cell contains zinc, sulphate of zinc, sulphate of mercury, and mercury ; the zinc and mercury forming the respective elec- trodes. All the materials used must be chemi- cally pure, both the mercury and the zinc being distilled. The sulphate of mercury used in the cell is the mercurous salt, Hg^SQj, which is prepared by treating pure mercury with an equal weight of pure concentrated sul- phuric acid, the mixture being warmed, but kept well below the boiling point (212° F.). The white solid that is produced should be removed before all of the mercury disappears, in order to avoid the formation of the mercuric sulphate (HgSOO, which is detrimental to the battery, and which may be recognized, when present in any considerable quantity, by its transformation, upon addition of water, into a yellow basic salt (perhaps HgS04.2HgO), and free sulphuric acid. The mercury sul- phate should be thoroughly washed, before use, BATTEUX to remove the last trace of free acid. The zinc sulphate is used in the form of a saturated solution, prepared by dissolving the compound in boiling water, and then allowing it to cool. The sulphate of mercury is made into a thick paste with the zinc sulphate solution, and the whole is then heated to 212° F., to expel any air that may be present. The bottom of the cell that is to be used is then well covered with mercury (which is to serve as the posi- tive electrode), after which the paste is poured in. The zinc is suspended in the paste, and the vessel is finally sealed with melted paraifin. The positive connection is made by sealing a platinum wire into the bottom of the cell, or by running the wire down through the paste to the mercury, protecting it by a glass tube. When great accuracy is desired, numerous minute precautions must be observed in the manufacture of these cells, and also in their subsequent use. Such details are to be found chiefly in papers that have appeared in the various scientific journals. (See, for example, Glazebrook and Skinner, ^Philosophical Trans- actions, A,^ 1892.) There is still some small difference of opinion among the various au- thorities as to the exact electromotive force of the Clark cell, but it is certainly very close to 1.433 volts at 60° F., and it varies about C.00061' volt per Fahrenheit degree, being lower at higher temperatures, and vice versa. Vari- ous attempts have been made to devise an elec- tric battery in which some substance other than zinc shall be consumed, to furnish the electrical energy. Iron has been used with some degree of success, but, for one reason or another, iron- consuming batteries have never come into gen- eral favor. Magnesium batteries have also been used to a limited extent ; a magnesium- carbon element, with a bichromate of potas- sium depolarizing solution, giving an electro- motive force as high as 2.95 volts. The expense of batteries consuming magnesium is too great, however, to permit them to be used for any but experimental purposes. The ideal electric battery would be one in which carbon is the substance consumed, and inventors have turned their attention to this particular problem with great energy, but with no very considerable measure of success, al- though there does not appear to be any theo- retical reason why a practical and serviceable battery of this sort may not be ultimately dis- covered. A quarter of a century ago, M. Jablochkoff constructed a cell in which the liquid was melted nitrate of soda or nitrate of potash, the negative electrode (or electrode to be consumed) being of coke, while the posi- tive one was of platinum or cast iron. The coke electrode is brought to incandescence over a part of its surface, before being immersed in the liquid. Upon immersion the coke then burns fiercely, obtaining its oxygen from the melted nitrate, and sending forth large vol- umes of carbon dioxid gas. While the com- bustion continues, the cell is capable of gen- erating quite a sensible electric current ; but it does not appear that its electromotive force has been determined with any great precision. M. Jablochkoff's carbon-consuming battery cannot be regarded as more than a scientific curiosity, but it is nevertheless interesting, be- cause it demonstrates the possibility of a carbon-consuming battery. About 1895 Dr. William W. Jacques devised a form of electric battery which was thought, for a time, to ob- tain its energy from the oxidation of carbon. Each cell consisted of a cast-iron pot, which served as a containing vessel, and at the same time as the positive electrode. The negative electrode was a stick of carbon, suspended cen- trally in the cell. The liquid was caustic soda or caustic potash, which was kept in a state of fusion by means of a furnace, and through' which a stream of air was blown, by means of a kind of rose nozzle entering at the bottom of the pot. The electromotive force of a sin- gle cell of this battery is about 0.9 volt. Dr. Jacques' theory of the cell was that the fur- nace merely served to keep the caustic melted, while the electric energy furnished by the bat- tery had its origin in the oxidation of the car- bon rods in the cells, the oxygen needed for this oxidation being furnished by the blast of air. In the course of some tests carried out by Dr. Jacques and others with this idea in mind, the loss in weight of the carbon rods was compared with the output of electrical energy yielded by the battery, the result being that the apparatus showed an efficiency, in one case, of no less than 87 per cent. Unfortu- nately, investigations made by others do not justify Dr. Jacques' hypothesis as to the origin of the electrical energy in his battery. Thus Mr. C. J. Reed showed that the disintegration of the carbon is merely incidental, and that the carbon can be replaced by iron, brass, copper, gernian silver, or other metallic bodies, with- out detriment to the battery. He also found that the cell works much better and lasts much longer, if the caustic potash is replaced by ni- trate of potash ; and, finally, he proved that a blast of common illuminating gas may be substituted for the air, without lessening the electrical yield of the apparatus. These results established the fact, beyond doubt, that the Jacques battery is not a galvanic battery at all, but a form of the thermo-electric apparatus, drawing its energy from the fuel that is con- sumed in the furnace below the pots. The chemical energy of the coal in the furnace is first transformed into heat, and only later into electrical energy. The battery is therefore amenable to the second law of thermody- namics (q.v.), which is the great obstacle that the successful carbon-consuming battery must avoid. See Electricity ; Storage Battery. In lazv, the unlawful beating of another, or even the touching him with hostile intent. It is legitimate for a parent or a master to give moderate correction to his child, his scholar, or his apprentice. A person who is violently as- sailed by another may strike back in self- defense. He may do so also in defense of his property. But to strike anyone in anger, how- ever gently, without these justifications, ex- poses one to the liability to be prosecuted for assault and battery, the assault being the menacing gesture and the battery the actual blow. Wounding and mayhem are a more ag- gravated kind of battery. In military art. any work in which one or more cannon are planted, and which may be permanent or temporary. See Fortification. Batteux, ba-te, Charles, French scholar, honorarv canon of Rheims: b. Alland'huy, 1713: d. 14 July 1780. He displayed his gratitude to this city, in which he received his education, B ATTH YANYI — BATTLE hy the ode "^In Civitatem Remensem^ (i739), which was much admired. In 1750 he was in- vited to Paris, where he taught rhetoric in the colleges of Lisieux and Navarre. He was after- ward appointed professor of Latin and Greek philosophy at the Royal College. In 1754 he became a member of the Academy of Inscrip- tions, and in 1761 of the French Academ3^ Bat- teux left a large number of valuable works. He did much service to literature and the fine arts, by introducing unity and system into the nu- merous canons of taste, which had gained a standing among the French by the example of many eminent men, particularly in regard to poetry, and must be regarded as a valuable writer on aesthetics, notwithstanding the higher point of view from which this science is now considered. Some of his most valuable works are: 'Les Beaux-Arts reduits a unmeme Principe,^ (1747) ; and *Cours de Belles- Lettres ou Principes de la Litterature^ (1774). These works were translated into several other languages. Batthyanyi, bot'ya-nye, Count Kasimir, Hungarian statesman, minister of foreign affairs ■during the Hungarian revolution : b. 4 June 1807; d. Paris, 13 July 1854. From his earliest childhood he took a lively interest in public af- fairs, and after having, as member of the Hun- garian diet, opposed the Austrian government, he became, at the outbreak of the revolution, one of the prominent champions of Hungarian in- dependence, devoting his wealth and influence to the promotion of this cause, and at the same time distinguishing himself on various occa- sions by his courage and skill on the battle- field. After having officiated as governor of various provinces, he became minister of for- eign affairs, under the administration of Kos- suth, and subsequently he shared his exile in Turkey until 185 1, when he repaired to Paris, where he died. Although sympathizing with Kossuth in some respects, he differed from him in others, and addressed, in 1851, a series of let- ters to the London Times, in which he reflected rather severely upon Kossuth's character as statesman and patriot. Batthyanyi, Count Louis, Hungarian pa- triot: b. Pressburg, iSog; d. 6 Oct. 1849. He entered the army as a cadet at the age of 16, and on coming into possession of a large for- tune, abandoned a military for a diplomatic career, and in process of time attained the rank of leader of the opposition in the Hungarian diet. Upon the breaking out of the commo- tions of 1848, Batthj'anyi took an active part in promoting the national cause, and with a com- pany of armed vassals came forward to assist it in the field. On the entry of Windischgratz into Budapest in January 1849, he was arrested in the house of his sister-in-law, the Countess Karolyi. After being conveyed to various places he was finally brought back to Budapest, tried by court-martial, and condemned to be hanged. The execution of this sentence he prevented by inflicting several wounds with a poinard on his neck, and he was accordingly shot. _ Batti'adae, a djmasty of Cyrene which reigned from the 7th to the 5th century B.C. The kings of this dynasty were: Battus I., the founder of Cyrene; Arcesilaus I., his son; Bat- tus II., son of Arcesilaus. who greatly increased the power of Cyrene; Arcesilaus II., son of Battus II.; Battus III., son of Arcesilaus II.; Arcesilaus III., son of Battus III., who sub- mitted to the Persian king; Battus IV., son of Arcesilaus III. ; Arcesilaus IV., son of Battus IV., the last king of Cyrene, killed in a revolu- tion. He is celebrated in fourth and fifth Pindaric odes. Battik, an oriental production of the na- tives of the Dutch East Indies, who decorate their clothing with it ; also made in The Hague for local use and export. Upon a piece of linen various designs are outlined with a pencil. When the design is completed, the ornamented parts of the fabric are covered with a liquid which possesses the quality of stiffening after being applied. The parts not ornamented are dyed the desired color. After the entire fabric has been ornamented in this manner, it is boiled in hot water so as to take the hard stuff out of the battik. The dyed parts will then hold the d3'e and the battik is ready. The Hague peo- ple were the first to introduce battik into Eu- rope It is made on linen, silk, velvet, and leather, and is exported to all the principal cities of Europe. Battle, CuUen Andrews, American military officer : b. Powelton, Ga., i June 1829. He was graduated from the University of Alabama ; admitted to the bar in 1852 and practised till i860; was a Breckenridge and Lane Presiden- tial elector, and accompanied William L. Yancy in his canvass of Alabama. At the outbreak of the Civil War he entered the Confederate army, and during the war was wounded seven times, promoted brigadier-general on the field of Gettysburg, and major-general in October 1864. After the war he engaged in journalism in Newbern, N. C. Battle, Kemp Plummer, American educa- tor : b. Franklin County, N. C, 19 Dec. 1831. He graduated at the University of North Caro- lina in 1849; was a member of the State conven- tion of North Carolina in 1861 that passed the ordinance of secession; State treasurer, 1866-8; president of the University of North Carolina 1876-91 ; and afterward professor of history there. His works include: ^History of the Su- preme Court of North Carolina^ ; ^History of Raleigh. North Carolina^ ; ^Trials and Judicial Proceedings of the New Testament^ ; ^Life of General Jethro Sumner,' as well as numerous writings relating to the history of North Caro- lina. Battle, England, a market-town in Sussex. It is situated in a valley nearly encircled by wooded hills, seven miles northwest of Hast- ings, and consists chiefly of one irregular street, in which there are many old-fashioned build- ings ; it is well supplied with water, and lighted with gas. The church is ancient, and contains some fine specimens of painted glass and nu- merous antique monuments. There are places of worship also for Wesleyans, Baptists, Roman Catholics, and Congregationalists, and endowed schools. Battle was long celebrated for the manufacture of gunpowder. The original name of this place was Senlac. and it received its present name from the battle of Hastings which was fought here. In memory of the battle William the Conqueror erected a great abbey, the ruins of which have a circum- ference of about a mile. This building has al- most entirel}^ disappeared, but interesting re- BATTLE mains of a subsequent building exist, including the gateway, a beautiful specimen of the dec- orated English style. One portion of this building now forms a mansion, which until very lately was the residence of Lord Rose- bery's mother, the Duchess of Cleveland. See Walcott, ^History of Battle Abbey^ (1867); Duchess of Cleveland, a festival play (1881) ; (i860; 7th ed. 1885): 'Wayside Glean- ings in Europe^ (1876) ; 'Bible Characters^ (1893) ; 'Catechetics and Catechetical Instruc- tion' (1863) ; and edited The Guardian (1867-82), and Refonnirtc Hausfreimd (1882). Bausset, bo-sa, Louis Frangois (Cardixal), French ecclesiastic: b. Pondicherry, India, 14 Dec. 1748; d. Paris, 21 June 1824. His father, who held an important position in the French Indies, sent young Bausset to France when he was but 12 years of age. He was educated by the Jesuits, and became bishop of Alais in 1784. Having signed the protest of the French bishops against the civil constitution of the clerg\% he emigrated in 1791, but in the following year returned to France, was soon arrested, and imprisoned in the old Convent of Port Royal, where he remained until after the fall of Robes- pierre. After the restoration of Louis XVIIL, in 1815, he entered the Qiamber of Peers; the following year he became a member of the French Academy; and, in 1817, he received the appointment of cardinal. He wrote the 'His- tory of Fenelon' (1808-9), at the request of the Abbot Emery, who had in his possession the MSS. of the illustrious Archbishop of Cam- bray. The work had great success, and its author was awarded, in 1810, the second decen- nial prize of the Institute, for the best biogra- phy. His 'History of Bossuet' (1814) was less favorably received. Bautain, bo-tah, Louis Eugene Marie, French philosopher: b. Paris, 17 Feb. 1796; d. 18 Oct. 1867. He entered the Church, and be- came a priest in 1828 ; resigned his professor- ship in 1830; and later was suspended as a priest because of his work, 'La Morale de I'Evangile comparee a la Morale des Philoso- phes' ; but was reinstated in 1841. He was made dean of the Faculty of Letters at Strassburg in 1838, and subsequently director of the College of Juilly. At a still later period he was trans- ferred to Paris, and made vicar-general of the I^Ietropolitan Diocese. He was also appointed a member of the theological facultj^ of Paris. His writings include 'Philosophie-psychologie Experimentale' (1839) ; 'Philosophic Morale' (1842) ; 'Philosophic du Christianisme' (1835) ; 'La Religion et la Liberte considerees dans leurs Rapports' (1848) ; 'La Morale de I'Evangile comparee aux divers Systemes de Morale' (1855), etc. Bautzen, bowt'sen, or Baudissin, bow'de- sen. a manufacturing town in Saxony, noted for its production of textile fabrics, leather, paper, etc. It overlooks the River Spree. 30 miles northeast of Dresden, and is encircled by a wall and moat. The cathedral church of St. Peter is used by both Protestants and Roman Catholics, it being divided into two portions for the purpose. The town contains many schools, a museum, art gallery, and three libra- ries. At Bautzen Napoleon, with 130,000 men, defeated the allied armies of Russia and Prus- sia, 20-21 May 1813. Pop. (1900) 26,000. Bauxite, or Beauxite, bo'zit (from Baux, or Beaux, near Aries, France, where it occurs), a native, hydrated oxide of aluminum, having the formula AI2O3.2H2O. It has a specific grav- ity of about 2.5, and its hardness ranges from I to 3. It occurs massive, in concretionary grains showing a concentric structure, and in clay-like deposits. Sesquioxide of iron is usually pres- ent in considerable quantity. — sometimes to the extent of 50 per cent, — part of it replacing alum- inum, and part occurring merely as an impurity. Bauxite is found in many parts of the world. One of the most important deposits is at Irish Hill, near Larne, County Antrim, Ireland, where it occurs in the iron measures together with lig- nite. At this place three layers of it are known, having an aggregate thickness of about 50 feet. The finest grade from Irish Hill is almost free from iron, containing as little of that metal as good china clay. Analyses have shown that the color of bauxite is no criterion of the freedom of the mineral from iron, since a white variety containing 3.67 per cent of FcsOs is known, while a certain strongly red variety showed, upon analysis, but 3.75 per cent, and a yellow specimen contained 14.39 per cent. In the United States bauxite occurs in considerable quanti- ties in Saline and Pulaski counties, Arkansas, and in a deposit extending from Calhoun Coun- ty, Alabama, eastward into Georgia. Bauxite forms the principal ore of the metal aluminum, which is obtained from it by the electrolysis of a solution of bauxite in melted cryolite (see Aluminum). The American deposits of baux- ite are well suited to the production of alumi- num, as ore can be had in quantity that contains as little as i per cent of iron oxide, and 3 per cent of silica. Bauxite, in some localities, is undoubtedly an alteration product of basaltic rocks, while m other localities (especially in the United States) it has very likely been deposited by hot springs. In addition to its use as an ore of aluminum, bauxite forms an important source of alum. Its clay-like form is known as v.'ocheinite, on account of its occurrence at Wo'chein, in Styria. (C. Willard Hayes, 'Baux- ite.' 'Sixteenth Annual Report of the Lfnited States Geological Survey.' Part 3 (Washington. 1896) ; Branner, 'The Bauxite Deposits of Arkansas,' 'Journal of Geology,' Vol. V., 1897, p. 263). Bava'ria (German. Bayern; French, Ba- Z'ii-rc), a kingdom in the south of Germany, the second largest state of the empire, composed of two isolated portions, the larger comprising about eleven tw^elfths of the monarchy, bounded on the east by Bohemia and Upper Austria ; on the south by Salzburg and the Tyrol : on the west by Wiirtemberg. Baden. Hesse-Darm- stadt, and Hesse-Nassau : and on the north by Hesse-Nassau, Weimar, !Meiningen, Reuss. Co- burg, and the kingdom of Saxony. It lies be- tween lat. 47° 19' and 50° 41' N., and Ion. 8° 53' and 13° 50' E. The smaller portion, the Pfalz or Palatinate, lies west of the Rhine, which forms its eastern boundary, and is separated from the main body by Wiirtemberg. Baden, and He??e-Darmstadt. It is included between lat. 48° 57' and 49° 50' N. ; and Ion. 7° 6' and 8° 31' E. ; and is bounded south by Alsace-Lorraine, BAVARIA west by the Prussian Rhine provinces, and north by Hesse-Darmstadt. Bavaria is estimated to contain an area of 29,286 English square miles, and is divided into eight circles (kreise), vi^hich were formerly named after the rivers that watered them ; but an edict of 29 Nov. 1837, gave the circles new names and new boundaries. The following table shows their names, areas, and populations : Circles Pop. 1900 Oberbaiern (Upper Bavaria).... Niederbaiern (Lower Bavaria).. Pfalz (Palatinate) Oberpfalz (Upper Palatinate) and Regensburg (Ratisbon). . . Oberfranken (Upper Franconia) Mittelfranken (Middle Fran- conia) Unterfranken (Lower Franco- nia) and Aschaffenburg Schwaben (Swabia) and Neu- burg Total . 6,175,153 The capital is Munich (q.v.), and the other principal cities are Nuremberg, Augsburg, Wiirzburg, and Regensburg or Ratisbon (qq.v.). Mountains. — Bavaria is a hilly rather than a mountainous country. A large portion, more especially south of the Danube, is a plateau country of considerable elevation, and indeed, the whole of the main portion of the kingdom may be described as an upland valley, averag- ing about 1,600 feet above the sea-level, inter- sected by numerous large streams and ridges of low hills. On all sides it is surrounded by hills of a greater or less altitude, either quite upon the frontier or only at small distances from it. The whole southern frontier is formed by a branch of the Noric Alps, offsets from which_ project far into the southern plateau of Bavaria. Besides numerous peaks which this range contains, varying from 4,000 to 8,000 feet high, the following may be named as being above the latter number : The Zugspitze, 10.394 feet ; the Watzmann, 9,470 feet ; the Hochvogel 8,460 feet : the Madeler Gabel, 8,650 feet. Passing along the valley of the Inn and across the Dan- ube, we come to the Bohemian frontier, formed by the Bohmerwald mountains running south- east to northwest and lowering down at the valley of the Eger. The highest peaks in this range are the Rachel, 5.102 feet, and the Arber, 5,185 feet. Crossing the Eger we meet with the Fichtelgebirge, presenting the Schneeberg, 3.750 feet high, and the Ochsenkopf, 3,633 feet. West from this range, and along the frontier of the Saxon ducal territories and Hesse-Cassel, run hills of moderate elevation, under various names, Frankenwald. Rhongebirge, etc., no peaks of which attain an elevation of more than 3.327 feet. The western mountain boun- dary of the Bavarian valley is formed north of the Main by the Spessartwald range, and in the kingdom of Wiirtemberg by the Alb or Alp. The only noteworthy interior ranges are, in the northwest the Steigerwald : and in the northeast, running in a southwesterlv direction from the Fichtelgebirge. the Francoiiian Jura; a low limestone range, containing numerous re- markable stalactitic caves. The Pfalz or Palat- inate is traversed by the northern extremitv of the Vosges. the highest peak in this locality bemg the Konigstuhl, 2,162 feet. Lakes. — The lakes of Bavaria are neither very numerous nor of very great extent, though many of them present exceedingly picturesque scenery. The larger are all situated on the upper part of the southern plateau ; the smaller within the range of the Noric Alps. The most remarkable of the former are. Lake Ammer, about 10 miles long by 2'/^ broad, 1,736 feet above the sea ; Lake Wiirm or Starnberg, about 12 miles long by 3 broad, 1,899 feet; and Lake Chiem, 9 miles long by 9 to 4 broad, 1,651 feet above the sea. Of the smaller, the more remarkable are Lake Tegner, about 3 miles long, 2,586 feet ; Lake Walchen, 2,597 '< ^^^ va- rious others upward of 2,000 feet above the sea-level. Most of the lakes are well supplied with fish. Rivers. — Bavaria belongs wholly to the basins of the Danube and the Rhme, with the exception of a very small portion in the north- east corner, wdiich through the Eger appertains to the basin of the Elbe. The river Danube intersects the main portion of the kingdom west to east nearly in the centre, and before it enters the Austrian dominions at Passau, where it is still 925 feet above the sea, it receives on its right bank the rivers Iller, Lech, and Isar, which have their sources in the Noric Alps, be- sides numerous smaller streams ; and on its left bank, the Wornitz, Altmiihl, Nab, and Regen, besides other lesser streams. The Main tra- verses nearly the whole of the northern part of this portion of the kingdom from east to west, and is navigable for steam vessels from Bamberg to the Rhine. Its principal affluents are the Regnitz and the Saale. In the Palat- inate there are no streams of any importance, the Rhine being merely a boundary river. Climate. — If we except the valley of the Rhine, and the valley of the Main in lower Franconia, Bavaria, even including the Pa- latinate, is, in comparison with other German states, a cold country. The average tempera- ture of the year is about 47° F. ; winter, 30° ; spring, 47° ; summer, 63° ; and autumn, 47°. Soil, Vegetation, etc. — Bavaria is one of the most favored countries in Germany in respect of the fruitfulness of its soil, due, no doubt, in a considerable degree, to the undulating nature of the country, to the numerous streams by which it is watered, and to being nearly wholly composed of Jura limestone. In the plains and valleys the soil is capable of producing all kinds of crops, but not till lately were the nat- ural advantages of the country turned to good account. Ignorance and idleness opposed a bar- rier to improvement, which it took the utmost efiforts of an enlightened government, aided by the general spread of education, to remove. Now a spirit of agricultural enterprise pervades the kingdom, improved methods of cultivation have been introduced, and large tracts of waste land have been reclaimed and brought under the plow. The principal crops are wheat, rye, barley, and oats ; but in some districts rice, spelt, maize, and buckwheat are also raised. To these productions of the soil may be added potatoes (the cultivation of which is yearly increasing), tobacco, and fruit, of which large quantities are grown in the valleys of the Main and the Rhine. In the circles of Mittelfranken and Schwaben- Neuburg, the hop plant is cultivated to a con- siderable extent, the quantity varying from 30,000 to 40,000 hundredweight per annum ; and the BAVARIA vine in the circles of Pfalz and Unterfranken. The latter produces the Franconian wines; the best vvines of the former are produced near Deidesheim and Wachcnheim. The celebrated Steinwein and Leistenwein are the produce of the southern slope of the Marienburg, near the town of Wiirzburg. The forests of Bavaria, composed chiefly of fir and pine trees, cover nearly a third of its entire surface and yield a large revenue to the state ; much timber being annually exported, together with potashes, tar, turpentine, and other products peculiar to these wooded regions. The principal mineral products are salt, coal, and iron. Some of the mining works belong to the state, and contribute some- thing to the public revenue ; but the minerals are not wrought to the extent they might be. Coal mining gives employment to between 4,500 and 5,000 hands. Plumbago is found in several places and is principally manufactured into pen- cils. Porcelain clay of the linest quality like- wise abounds in some localities, the best being obtained in the districts of Wunsiedel in the Upper Main. Lithographic stones are another important production. In the rearing of cattle and sheep the Bavarians are somewhat back- ward. Swine are reared in great numbers in all parts of the country, and poultry and wildfowl are abundant. The wolves and bears with which the forests of Bavaria were at one time infested are nearly extinct. Maniifactnrcs. — The manufactures of Ba- varia are singly not very important, being mostly on a small scale and conducted by individuals of limited capital. The principal articles manu- factured are linens, woolens, cottons, silks, leather, paper, glass, earthen, iron, and stee! ware, jewelry, etc., but the supply of some of these articles is inadequate to the home con- sumption. Of leather, paper, glass, and iron- ware rather large quantities are exported. The optical and mathematical instruments made at Munich are the best on the Continent, and are prized accordingly. But the most important branch of manufacture in Bavaria is the brew- ing of beer — the universal and favorite bever- age of the country. There are upward of 5,000 brewing establishments in the kingdom, which have been calculated to supply on an average about 20 gallons a year to every individual of the population. The beer, however, is not con- sumed only in the country of its production, but is sent to all parts of Germany, and even as far as America and India. Spirits are also largely distilled. A large portion of the indus- trial population maintain themselves by weaving linen, and by the manufacture of articles in wood (some of which are of beautiful work- manship), and by the felling and hewing of timber. Notwithstanding its favorable geo- graphical position and other natural advantages the trade of Bavaria is comparatively limited. Among the exports are corn, timber, wine, cattle, leather, glass, hops, fruit, beer, iron, and steel wares, machinery, fancy articles, colors, lucifer matches, stoneware, etc. Among the im- ports are coffee, cacao, tea, cotton, tobacco, drugs, copper, oil, spices, dyestuffs, silk and silk goods, lead, etc. Transportation. — From its position Bavaria enjoys a considerable portion of transit trade, much facilitated by the good roads that traverse the country in all directions. The means of communication are now very complete. The Danube, the Rhine, the Main, the Regnitz, etc^ afford ample scope for inland navigation, be- sides the Konig Ludwig Canal, which connects the Main at Bamberg with the Altmiihl a short distance above its embouchure in the Danube, thus establishing direct water communication through the Rhine between the German Ocean and the Black Sea. The railway system ( now managed as a part of the imperial system of railways) has been carried out on an extensive scale. The lines are partly state property, partly private. The number of miles in opera- tion amounted in 1899 to 4,062, about 3,000 of this total being state railways, the remainder being private enterprises. The amount of debt contracted for railways by Bavaria is $250,000,000, forming over four fifths of the total debt of the country. The receipts from the railways are now generally sufficient to pay the interest and charges on account of this debt. The state also possesses two canals. Education and Art. — The Department of Education is under the superintendence of the Superior Board of Education and Ecclesiastical Aft'airs. A complete system of inspection is established throughout the country ; the reports of the inspectors including not only the number and proficiency of the scholars, but also the conduct of the teachers, the state of the build- ings, and the nature and extent of the funds available. It is necessary in Bavaria, before admission can be obtained into any higher school, to have passed a satisfactory examiuci tion in the lower school. Not only must all candidates for offices under the state pass exam- inations, but examinations are held of appren- tices in trade who wish to become masters, and even of ofiicers in the army on promotion. There are over 8,000 schools in Bavaria, at- tended by more than 600,000 pupils. Attend- ance on school is compulsory up to 14 years of age. There are three universities in Bavaria — two of which (^lunicli and Wiirzburg) are Roman Catholic, and one (Erlangen) Protes- tant. The University of Munich is attended by about 3,500 students, and has about 170 pro- fessors and instructors ; that of Wiirzburg has 80 professors and instructors, and about 1,350 students; and that of Erlangen 67 professors and instructors, and about 1,100 students. There are also several lycea, a number of gym- nasia, numerous Latin, normal, and polytechnic schools, besides academies of arts and sciences, fine arts, horticulture, etc. The capital, Munich, contains a library of 800,000 volumes, including 25,000 AISS. ; several scientific and literarj' insti- tutions, academies, and national societies, and extensive collections of works of art. Bavaria enjoys the honor of having origi- nated a school of painting of a high order of merit, known as the Nuremburg school, found- ed about the middle of the i6th century by Albert Diirer, a native of that town, whose works are little, if at all, inferior to those of his great Italian contemporaries. Hans Hol- bein, who excelled Diirer in portrait, though far behind him in historical painting, is claimed by Bavaria, but neither the precise locality nor the date of his birth is known with certainty — Augsburg, Basel, and Griinstadt being severally named as the one, and the dates 1495 and 1498 as the other. To these celebrated names have been added those of the eminent sculptors Kraft and Vischer, both also Bavarians ; the former BAVARIA born about 1435 and the latter about the middle of the same century. The masterpiece of the latter distinguished artist is the bronze shrine of St. Sebaldus in Nuremberg, esteemed a marvel of art for beauty of design and delicacy of workmanship. The most celebrated of Kraft's works is the remarkable tabernacle in stone, affixed against one of the columns of the choir of the Church of St. Lawrence, also in Nuremberg. The restoration of Bavarian pre-eminency in modern times, in connection with the fine arts, is, in a great measure, if not entirely, owing to Louis L, whose love of art and liberal patronage have rendered the capital one of the most celebrated seats of the fine arts in Europe. Religion. — The religion of the state is Roman Catholicism, which embraces more than seven tenths of the population. The remainder are principally Protestants and Jews. The pro- portion between Catholics and Protestants has scarcely varied during the last three quarters of a century. All citizens, whatever their creed, are equally admissible to the same public func- tions and employments, and possess the same civil and political rights. The articles of the concordat concluded with the Pope are subordi- nate in their application to the fundamental law of the state. By an ordinance of Louis L females are prohibitied from pronouncing any monastic vow until after having passed their 33d year. The dioceses of Bavaria comprise two archbishoprics, IMunich and Bamberg ; and six bishoprics. Augsburg. Ratisbon. Eichstadt, Passau, Wiirzburg, and Spires. The salaries pre paid by the government. In Bavaria mar- riage between individuals having no capital cannot take place without the consent of the principal persons appointed to superintend the poor institutions, who, if they grant such lib- erty where there are no means of supporting the children that may spring from such mar- riage, render themselves liable for their main- tenance. The law is intended to prevent improvident marriages. People. — In personal appearance the Bava- rians are stout and vigorous, well adapted to bear the fatigues of war, and are generally con- sidered good soldiers. They are accused of being indolent and somewhat addicted to drink- ing, but are brave, patriotic, and faithful to their word. Their manners and customs toward the close of the i8th century were described as very coarse, and they were said to be deeply imbued with superstitious bigotry ; but since the more general diffusion of knowledge a great change for the better has taken place. Manj' of the peasantry wear long, loose, snuff-colored coats, lined or edged with pink, and studded in front with silver or white metal buttons, thrown open to displaj- a smart waistcoat of various and brilliant colors ; their hats are often orna- mented with artificial flowers. Many of the Bavarian women are handsome, lively and graceful. They dress smartly and display much taste in their attire. Some of them wear black- silk handkerchiefs, decorated with flowers or ribbons, tied tightly round their heads, some caps of silver or gold tissue, and all have their hair neatly braided. German is the language spoken, with local peculiarities ; but they have never been conspicuous for the cultivation of their native tongue. Constitution. — Bavaria was formerly a member of the Germanic Confederation and now forms part of the German empire. The executive is in the hands of the king. The legis- lature consists of two chambers — one of sen- ators and one of deputies ; the former com- posed of princes of the royal family, the great officers of state, the two archbishops, the heads of certain noble families, a bishop named by the king, the president of the Protestant Gen- eral Consistory, and any other members whom the king may create hereditary peers ; the lat- ter, of members chosen indirectly, one to every 31,500 persons of the total population. The qualifications are that the candidate shall have completed his 30th year, shall be a free and independent citizen, and shall be a member of the Catholic or the Reformed Church and pay direct state taxes. The members are chosen every six years unless the house is dissolved by the king, and are generally convened once a year, but are bound to assemble at least once every three years. Each of the eight circles or provinces has a provincial government consist- ing of two boards, one for the management of the police, schools, etc., and the other for the management of financial affairs. The revenue for the financial year 1900-1 was estimated at about $105,000,000, and the public debt, includ- ing railway debt, etc., was $350,000,000. The army is raised by conscription, — every man being liable to serve from i January of the year in which he completes his 20th year, — and it forms an independent part of the army of the German empire. In time of peace it is under the command of the king of Bavaria, but in time of war it is piaced under that of the emperor of Germany as commander-in-chief of the whole German army. The period of service is three years in the active force, four in the reserve, and five in the landwehr ; and no Bavarian can set- tle or marry, or accept of any definite appoint- ment, till he has fulfilled his military liabilities. On a peace footing the Bavarian army consists in all of fully 63,000 men and 2,600 officers; on a war footing, about twice this number. History. — The Bavarians take their name from the Boii, a Celtic tribe who inhabited the districts which, when conquered by the Romans, became the Roman provinces of Vindelicia and Noricum. After the fall of the Western Empire this territory was overrun by various Germanic tribes who formed themselves into a confedera- tion like that of the Franks and Marcomanni and called themselves Boiarii. The confederacy of the Boiarii was made tributary first to the Ostrogoths and then to the Franks. Finally the sovereignty over them was assumed by Charlemagne, and on the death of that mon- arch the kings of the Franks and Germans gov- erned it by their lieutenants, who bore the title of margrave, afterward converted into that of duke, and latterly (1623) into that of elector. In 1070 Bavaria passed into the possession of the family of the Guelphs, and in 1180 it was transferred by imperial grant to Otho, count of Wittelsbach. On the extinction of the direct line of that family in 1777, the elector palatine. Charles Theodore, added the Palatinate and the duchies of Juliers and Berg to the Bava- rian dominions. In 1799 the Duke Maximilian Joseph of Deux-Ponts came into possession of all the Bavarian territories. The Peace of Lune- ville (9 Feb. 1801) essentially affected Bavaria. BAVIAD AND M^VIAD — BAXTER While it lost all its possessions on the left ibank of the Rhine, and also the lands of the Palatinate on the right bank, it obtained, on the other hand, by an imperial edict, an indem- nification by which it gained, in addition to the amount lost, a surplus of 2,109 square miles and 216,000 inhabitants. In 1805 Bavaria was raised, by the Treaty of Presburg, to the rank of a kingdom, with some further accessions of territory, all of which were confined by the treaties of 1814 and 1815, by which also a great part of the lands of the Palatinate was restored. In 1848 the conduct of the king of Bavaria, in maintaining an open liaison with Lola ]\Iontez. had thoroughly alienated the hearts of his subjects, and quick- •ened that desire of political change which had previously existed. The people, early in March 1848, demanded immediate convocation ot the chambers, liberty of the press, public judicial trials ; also that electoral reform should be granted, and that the army should take an oath to observe the constitution. The king having refused to grant these demands, tumults occurred, and King Louis announced his resig- nation of the sceptre to his son, Maximilian II., under whom the reforms and modifications of the constitution were carried out. Maximilian died in 1864 and was succeeded by Louis II. In the war of 1866 Bavaria sided with Austria, in consequence of which it was obliged, by the treaty of 22 August in the same year, to cede a small portion of its territory to Prussia, and to pa)"^ a war indemnity of $12,150,000. Soon after Bavaria entered into an alliance with Prussia, and in 1867 joined the Zollverein under Prussian regulations. In the Franco-German war of 1 870-1 Bavaria took a prominent part, and since 1871 it has been one of the constit- uent states of the German empire, represented in the Bundesrath by 6, in the Reichstag by 48 members. In 1886 King Louis II. committed suicide through alienation of mind. His brother Otto succeeded, but he being also insane, his uncle, Leopold, became regent. Ba'viad and Maeviad, The, two satires, by William Gift'ord. It was through these that the author, who later w^as the first editor of the ^Quarterly Review,' became known. ^The Ba- viad' (1792) is an attack on a band of English writers, who had formed themselves into a kind of mutual admiration society. It is an imitation of the first satire of Perseus, and in it the author not only attacks the "Delia Cruscans,'* but all who sympathize with them. The ^Maeviad' (i795) is an imitation of the loth satire of Horace, and was called forth, the author says, "by the reappearance of some of the scattered enemy." Bavieca, ba-wya'ka, the favorite horse of the Cid. Bavius, Marcus and Maevius, still noto- rious as two miserable poets and presumptuous critics, satirized by Vergil. The words are often used to signify bad or malevolent poets. Bawbee, bor-be' (French, bas billon, "low^^ or "debased billon*'), a coin originally minted in Scotland from an alloy of copper with a very small amount of silver, called billon, and hav- ing at different times a value varying from i^^ to 3 cents. The coin is no longer issued, but the term is used in Scotland to mean a half- penny (a cent) or a very small value. Bax, Ernest Belfort, English socialist: b. Leamington, 23 July 1854. He was educated in London and Germany; followed journalism in Germany as foreign correspondent in 1880-1 ; and returning to England, became one of the founders of the English socialist movement. In 1885 he aided in starting the Socialist Leag:ue. He wrote a large number of works on social- istic and historical subjects. Bax'ter, Andrew, Scotch philosopher and metaphysician: b. Aberdeen, 1686; d. 1750. He was educated at King's College, Aberdeen, and found occupation as a private tutor. About 1733 he published an 'Inquiry into the Nature of the Human Soul ; Wherein the Immateriality of the Soul is Evinced from the Principles of Reason and Philosophy.' In 1741 he went abroad with two of his pupils, and remained for some years at Utrecht, where he contracted an acquaintance with some of the Dutch literati. He returned to Scotland in 1747. and resided at Whittingham, East Lothian, where he died. He was the author of a Latin treatise on the principles of astronomy, entitled 'Matho sive Cosmotheoria, Puerilis Dialogus,' which he afterward trans- lated into English and published in two vol- umes, i2mo. He was a staunch friend and cor- respondent of John Wilkes, then quite a young man. Baxter, James Phinney, American author : b. Gorham, Me., 2;^ March 1831. A successful merchant and manufacturer ; he has been six times mayor of Portland, Me., to which he pre- sented the land and building for a public library. A devoted student of the history of his native State, he has published: 'George Cleeve of Casco Bay' (1885); 'Journal of Lieut. W. Digby' (1888); 'Sir Ferdinando Gorges and His Province of Alaine' (1890) ; 'The Pioneers of New France in New England' (1894). He edited Vols. III., IV., V. and VI of the anics. — Bay City has five banking institutions with an aggregate cap- ital of $600,000; profits $367,651, and deposits BAY ISLANDS — BAY STATE amounting to $4,784,014, according to the state- ment of 6 Sept. 1904. There are two building and loan associations, the Mutual Building and Loan Association of Bay County, capital $2,000,- 000; and the Savings Building and Loan Associ- ation of Bay County, capital $1,000,000. Churches and Charities. — Bay City is well represented in its religious and charitable insti- tutions. It has 2>^ churches and missions and 12 private and parochial schools. There are three charitable institutions, the Children's Home, Lu- theran Children's Home, and Woman's Home ; three hospitals — the Mercy Hospital, under the auspices of the Sisters of Mercy ; the Lewis Hospital, and the Bishop Hospital. The city also has 66 aid, benevolent, social, and other societies, and 87 secret societies and lodges. Newspapers. — Bay City has two daily news- papers and several weekly publications. Education. — Bay City has a fine high school and nine other school buildings, employing in all 127 teachers, including the superintendent and principals of the several schools. The school census of 1904 shows 9,506 children of school age in the city. A county normal training school and kindergarten schools are maintained in con- nection with the public school system. The city maintains the Bay City Business College, Holy Rosary Academy, conducted by the Dominican Sisters; Mercy Hospital Training School for Nurses ; Oral School for the Deaf, and Lutheran and Catholic parochial schools. There are two libraries — the Bay City Public Library, located in the city-hall building, and having 24,000 vol- umes ; the Bay County Bar Library. Buildings, Parks, Suburbs, etc. — Bay City is noted for its substantial business buildings, its suburban attractions, and the beauty of its homes. The city-hall, Masonic temple, and Federal building are imposing structures. The Bay City Club erected in 1904 a fine club house, the Masonic Club meets in Masonic Temple, the Elks Club owns its own building, as does the Bay City Boat Club, and there are a num- ber of private clubs. Bay City has a board of trade with a membership of over 200. The city has six public parks, and has an abundant sup- ply of good water, obtained from Saginaw Bay. History. — The Saginaw Valley, in the lower portion of which Bay City is situated, derived its name from the Indian appellation "0-saug- e-nong,^' meaning ^'land of the Sauks,'^ a tribe of red men who inhabited this locality more than 350 years ago. Subsequently the Sauks were nearly exterminated by the Chippewas, and the latter ceded the territory to the United States in 1819. The first settler located here in 1831, he being employed by the government as an Indian farmer, in conformity to the provi- sions of the treaty. There were two reserva- tions, one of 2,000 and one of 1,000 acres, embraced within what are now the corporate limits of the city, the reservations being to Stephen V. R. Riley, of Schenectady. N. Y., who had resided with the Indians many years, married an Indian woman, by whom he had three sens, the eldest, John Riley, being located on the reservations referred to. In 1836 he sold his land to a number of Detroit business men, who organized the Saginaw Bay Company, which began to lay out the future city. A large hotel was framed and a dock and warehouse built, but, the panic coming on soon, the com- pany suspended and progress ceased for some time. In 1840 three gentlemen purchased the stock of the Saginaw Bay Company and became the proprietors of what was known as Lower Saginaw. There was a steady growth after 1844, due to the development of the white pine lumber industry, the Saginaw River being the outlet for streams that traversed the richest pine forests then known in the United States. The village of Bay City was incorporated in 1859, and retained its village organization until 1865, when it was given a city charter. Population. — The Federal census taken in 1900 gave the city a population of 27,628, and the State census taken in 1904 gave the city a population of only 27,644, figures which are not accepted as accurate. The population of West Bay City slightly exceeds 13,000, so that when the consolidation becomes effective, i April 1905, the greater Bay City will have a popula- tion in excess of 40,000. E. D. COWLES, Editor '^Bay City Tribune.'* Bay Islands, Honduras, a group of six islands in the Bay of Honduras, 150 miles southeast of Belize, known as Ruatan, Guanaja (or Bonacca), Utilla, Barbareta, Elena, and Morat. They were discovered by Columbus, 30 July 1502, and it was from Guanja that he first sighted the mainland of America. Their ownership was long a matter of dispute between Spain and England^ and later between England and the republic of Honduras. In 1852 the group was declared a colony of Great Britain by royal warrant, and this action involved the United States in the dispute, that government claiming that the seizure was a violation of the Clayton-Bulwer treaty (q.v.). Negotiations dragged along slowly for several years, but finally Great Britain recognized the claim of Honduras to the islands. A practical protector- ate was, however, maintained by Great Britain over the group, and the inhabitants (who num- ber nearly 6,000) avowed British allegiance. In 1903 Great Britain formally renounced all juris- diction, and title to the Bay Islands is now clearly vested in Honduras. Bay Lagoon, Philippines, a freshwater lake in the northern part of Luzon. This lake is connected with Manila Bay by the Pasig River, and from its centre rises a high vol- canic island. It is about 20 miles in extent from north to south, and about 47 miles from east to west. In 1899 it was made a naval head- quarters for the United States. Bay Psalm Book, the title of the first book published in the American colonies. It was printed by Stephen Daye at Cambridge, 1640, and was the product of the joint labors of Revs. Richard Mather, Thomas Wilde, and John Eliot. It was revised in 1650 and was long in use in New England. Bay Salt, the coarse-grained salt found in salt-marshes and along ocean shores, where it is formed by the spontaneous evaporation of sea-water. The name is supposed to refer to the Bay of Biscay, on whose shores extensive deposits of ^'bay salt^^ occur. Bay State, the popular name of Massachu- setts, which prior to the adoption of the United States' Constitution had been known as the Massachusetts Bay Colony. BAYA — BAYARD Baya, or Baya Sparrow, a sparrow-like weaver-bird (Ploceus phillippinns), which the people of India and the Malay countries often keep about their houses, not only in cages, but as a free pet trained to do a variety of clever tricks, even to find small articles, to carry notes to certain places, and to steal ornaments from the hair of visitors. See Weaver Bird. Bayad, a cat fish, Bagus bayad, a large edi- ble fish found in abundance in the river Nile; distinguished, however, from the electric cat- nsh of the same waters. Bayaderes, ba-ya-darz, in the East Indies, yov.ng girls, from lO to 17 years of age, who are instructed in dancing, singing, and acting little plays. They are trained under the care of women, who are experienced in all female arts, and particularly in that of pleasing. These procure from the lowest classes of the people the most beautiful girls, of seven or eight years of age, and instruct them in all the arts of their profession (especially dancing and singing), the object of which is to amuse the rich and minis- ter to their passions. Their presence is con- sidered necessary even at the smallest public entertainments, though they are known to be mere prostitutes. After their 17th year, when their first charms have faded, they retire to a pagoda under the protection of the Brahmins, who scruple not to pocket the gains of their prostitution. This word is from the Portu- guese word bailadcira, from bailar^ to dance. Bayamo, ba-yii'mo, Cuba, a town whose name is indissolubly connected with the Ten Years' war and the revolution of 1895. Thus the Cuban national air received the name *Bayamese Hymn.^ The republican movement of 1868 originated here and in the neighboring town of Yara ; and here Gen. Garcia received the message that Lieut. Rowan delivered to him before the war of 1898 between the United States and Spain. Bayamo was founded in the early years of the Spanish conquest. It is situ- ated on an affluent of the Canto, Cuba's largest river, in the province of Santiago. Bayard, bi'ard, George Dashiell, Ameri- can soldier: b. Seneca Falls, N. Y., 18 Dec. 1835; d. 14 Dec. 1862. Passing his boyhood in Iowa, he entered West Point, 1852, and became a cavalry lieutenant ; then captain in August 1861, colonel of volunteers in September, briga- dier-general the following April ; and after serving in the Shenandoah and northern Vir- ginia campaigns, was mortally wounded at Fredericksburg. Bayard, James Asheton (ist), American ■statesman; b. Philadelphia, 28 July 1767; d. 6 Aug. 181 5. He was the son of Dr. James A. (see Bay.\rd F.vmily) ; was adopted by his uncle. Col. John (q.v.), graduated at Prince- ton, 1784 ; studied law, and settled in Wilming- ton, Del., permanently. In 1796 he was elected (Federalist) Representative in Congress and became the leader of the party in the House, noted as a constitutional lawyer ; and when the peculiar system of presidential elections at that time had tied Jefferson and Burr for the presi- ■dencj^ though Jefferson was the only one really voted for. Bayard threw his vote for Jeffer- :son and elected him as the less obnoxious of the two. John Adams appointed him minister to France, but he declined. He served in the House till 1803 ; in 1804 he was elected to the Senate, and held the seat till 1813, voting against the War of 181 2. He was made peace commis- sioner in 1813 by Madison, and, declining the ministry to Russia, was one of those who con- cluded the Treaty of Ghent, December 1814- but died shortly after his return. Bayard, James Asheton (2d), American statesman, son of the foregoing: b. Wilmington, Del., 15 Nov. 1799; d. there, 13 June 1880. He became a lawyer of high rank in Wilmington, United States attorney for Delaware under Van Euren, and was elected United States senator, 1851, 1857, and 1863, as a Democrat; but on the last occasion the "iron-clad" oath of allegiance being required of public officers at that time, Mr. Bayard entered a protest against it as a violation of State rights, and resigned his seat at once on taking it. His successor, George R. Riddle (q.v.), dying four years later after the war, he accepted an election to fill out his own unexpired term, to March 1869; during most of the time was chairman of the Judi- ciary Committee, and gained an honorable celeb- rity for his punctilious sense of public honor in the matter of the Credit Mobilier (q.v.). His son, Thomas F. (q.v.), was chosen to succeed him by the same legislature which had elected himself, the only instance of the kind in Ameri- can history. He lived quietly at Wilmington during the remainder of his life. Bayard, John, American patriot: b. Bohe- mia Manor. Md., 11 Aug. 1738; d. 7 Jan. 1807. (For his descent, see Bayard Family.) He was a prominent Philadelphia merchant, mem- ber of the Sons of Liberty, and later of the Provincial Congress, 1774-5, and of the Coun- cil of Safety; colonel of infantry at the bat- tles of Brandywine, Germantown, and Prince- ton ; member of the State board of war, and speaker of its House. He furnished arms to Congress and fitted one of the earliest efficient privateers. In 1785 he was elected to Congress. Somwhat impoverished by his sacrifices in the Revolution, he removed permanently to New Brunswick, N. J., where he was mayor, county judge, and leading magnate. He was a firm Federalist, of high character. Bayard, Nicholas, American colonial offi- cial : b. Alphen. Holland, about 1644 ; d. New York, 1707. (See Bayard Family.) He was double nephew ot Peter Stuyvesant, by blood and marriage : became his private secretary and surveyor of the province, secretary of it after the English conquest, and mayor in 1685. He was commander-in-chief of the militia of the province, and one of the three resident coun- cilors ; and had to flee to Albany for his life on Leisler's usurpation after Andros' over- throw, but was made councilor anew on Leis- ler's downfall. On Kidd's arrest for piracy in 1699, Bayard, like all Gov. Bellomont's officials, was accused of complicity, and visited London to clear himself; but the old hates of the Leis- ler time pursued him, and on charge of attempt- ing to introduce popery, piracy, and slavery into New York he was condemned to death for high treason. William's death intervening, however, he was released and restored to his possessions by an order in council. Bayard, ba-yar, Pierre du Terrail (Chev- alier de), French soldier: b. Chateau Bayard, near Grenoble, 1475; d. 30 April 1524. He was descended from one of the most noble families BAYARD in Dauphiny, and at the age of 13 became page to the Duke of Savo\', at that time an ally of France. Charles VIII., struck by his skill and grace in riding, asked that he be transferred to his service, and accordingly, as a preparation to being attached to the royal suite, j-oung Bayard was placed in the household of Paul of Luxembourg, Count de Ligny. where he was taught all the feats of arms and niceties of chiv- alry which were then held necessary to consti- tute a gentleman and a soldier. His first experience in war was in the wild and daring march of Charles VIII., with a small unsupported army, through the whole length of Italy, to invade the kingdom of Naples, which was won and lost in a few days with equal ease; and in that campaign, he greatly distin- guished himself, taking, with his own hand, a stand of colors in the battle of Verona. After this, while serving in an invading army in Italy, after a battle fought near i\Iilan, in the heat of pursuit he entered that citj^ pell-mell with the fugitives, and was made prisoner, but, in con- sideration of his astonishing valor, was sent back without ransom by Ludovico Sforza, together with his horse and arms. In Apulia he defeated a Spanish corps commanded by Alonzo de Soto-Mayor, who broke his parole and slandered Bayard, in return for which the latter challenged and slew him in single com- bat, and afterward covered the retreat of the whole French army, and defended the bridge over the Liris, now the Garigliano, single- handed against half an army. For this feat he received an augmentation of his armorial bear- ings, a porcupine bristling with spears, with the motto Vires agminis u)ius habct. A real type of the ideal knight-errant of romance, wherever honor was to be won or danger incurred, Bayard was there. Desper- ately wounded in the assault of Brescia, he was carried to the house of a nobleman who had fled, abandoning his wife and daughters to the fate which befalls women in a sacked city, and from which the wounded enemy alone preserved them. Half-recovered from his wounds, he joined Gaston de Foix before Ravenna, where with his own hand he took two Spanish standards and converted a retreat of the enemy into a rout. In the subsequent wars with Ferdinand the Catholic of Spain he displayed the same chivalric valor and the same generalship among the Pyrenees which he had displayed in his boyhood among the passes of the Alps and Apennines. In the dark days which clouded the latter years of Louis XII., when Henry VIII. brought his English archers to back the Ger- man Maximilian in Flanders, and Terouanne and Tournay went down, with but feeble resist- ance, before the allies, Bayard was the same in adverse as he had been in prosperous fortunes. Made prisoner at the disgraceful battle of the Spurs, it was again his glory to be taken under circumstances of such honor that, once more, he was dismissed, with his horse and arms, unran- somed. It was, however, in his noon of man- hood that his glory shone the brightest. When Francis I. invaded Italy after his accession to the throne of France, it was Bayard who was the precursor of his march ; who made Prosper Colonna, at the very moment of his belief that he had ambushed and surprised him, his pris- oner : who. in a word, paved the king's wav to the magnificent battle of Marignano. In that tremendous conflict, he did prodigies, and more than any or all beside to change what once seemed a lost fight into a victory. At its close his sword conferred the accolade on the shoul- der of his king, Francis I., who deemed it honor enough to take knighthood at the hand of such a paladin as Bayard. The fortunes of war, proverbially fickle and changeful, were never more so than at this epoch ; and when, a short time later, Charles V. invaded Champagne, his wonderful defense of the open town of Mezieres alone prevented his penetrating to the heart of France, of which, by this exploit, he deserved, as he obtained, the name of savior. His next war was his last. Genoa, ever an unwilling conquest of the French arms, revolted ; and, under the command of Bonnivet, Bayard was sent to reduce the city to obedience and chastise the rebels. In the first instance success attended their advance ; but, after the surrender of Lodi fortune again changed, and, foot by foot, the French were beaten out of their con- quests. In retreating through the Val d'Aosta the French rear was beaten, Bonnivet was severely wounded, and the safety of the army was committed to Bayard, if he perchance might save it. In passing the river Sesia in the pres- ence of a superior enemy, as Bayard was cover- ing the rear and pressing hard upon the Span- iards, who were fast giving way before his impetuous charge, he was shot through the right side by a stone from an arquebus, which shattered his spine. **Jesu, my God !* he cried, "I am a dead man.^^ And then commanding that he should be placed erect, in a sitting pos- ture, with his back against a tree, with his face to the Spaniards, and the cross-hilt of his sword held up as a crucifix before him, he con- fessed his sins to his esquire, sent his adieux to his king and country, and died in the midst of weeping friends and admiring enemies. With his fall the battle was ended. The French lost everything, — standards, drums, baggage, ord- nance, — and their retreat to France became a flight. But there was most grief that they had lost Bayard. His body remained in the hands of the Spaniards; but they embalmed and re- turned it to France unsolicited. A simple bust, with a brief and modest Latin inscription, in the church of the Minorites, in Grenoble, erected in 1823, is the only monument to one of the purest and most beautiful characters in mediaeval his- tory, the chevalier sans peur et sans rcproche. Bayard's life was written by Symphorien Champier in 1525, and two years later by his secretary, Jacques Jofifrey, known as the 'Hoyal servitor." Other accounts have been translated by E. Walford (London, 1867). Bayard, Richard Henry, American sena- tor, elder brother of James A. (2d) : b. Wil- mington, Del., 1796; d. 4 March 1868. He graduated at Princeton, 1814, and became a lawyer in Wilmington. He was United States Senator 183^-45, resigning for a few weeks in 1839 to be chief justice of Delaware, but ac- cepting an immediate re-election ; then charge d'affaires at Brussels 1850-3. Returning, he lived in Philadelphia till his death. Bayard, Samuel, American jurist, son of Col. John: b. Philadelphia, 11 Jan. 1767; d. 12 May 1840. He was valedictorian at Princeton, 1784. and practised law in Philadelphia till 1791, when he was made clerk of the United States BAYARD — BAYER iupreme court. From 1794 to 1798 he was in London as agent to prosecute American claims before the British admiralty court ; after his return was presiding judge of Westchester County till 1803, lawyer in New York 1803-6, then removed permanently to Princeton, X. J. He was one of the founders of Princeton Theo- logical Seminary, the American and New Jer- sey Bible societies, and the New York Histori- cal Society. Bayard, Thomas Francis, American states- man, son of James A. (2d; : b. Wilmington, Del., 29 Oct. 1828; d. 26 Sept. 1898. He was intended for a business career, and was placed in a New York house, his elder brother being designed to carry on the family succession for public life; but, the latter dying in 1848, Thomas returned to Wilmington, studied law with his father, and was admitted to the bar in 1851. He was appointed United States district-attor- ney, but resigned the next year ; removed to Philadelphia 1855 and practised law two years, then returned permanently to Wilmington. He and his father were peace Democrats, unalter- ably opposed to the war, publicly denounced it, and gave no help to its prosecution. Elected to the Senate to succeed his father, he took his seat 4 ^larch 1869, and served by successive re- ■elections till 1885. He was one of the leading Democratic figures, member of the Finance, Ju- diciary, and other important committees, and its president pro tern, in 1881 ; was on the Electoral Commission of 1876 ; continued to champion the party doctrines, and was one of the most prominent candidates for the presi- dency before both Democratic national conven- tions of 1880 and 1884. On 4 March 1885 he was appointed secretary of state in the Cabinet of President Cleveland; and in this position had his share of important and vexatious questions. such as the Bering Sea seal-fishery matter, and treaties with Great Britain and Russia. He was United States ambassador to Great Britain 1893-7, in Cleveland's second term, the first British minister to hold the title of ambassador. Bayard Family, a remarkable succession of American public leaders, statesmen, and ju- rists, identified for two and a half centuries with the Middle States from New York to Maryland, and for a century and a quarter al- most continuously in public service. They descended from a family of French Huguenot refugees, whose ancestor was a Paris theolog- ical professor driven to Holland to escape perse- cution about 1580. His son Samuel became a •wealthy Amsterdam merchant and married^ the accomplished, energetic, and capable sister (Anna) of Peter Stuj'vesant, the last governor of the Dutch New Netherlands, who himself married Bayard's equally accomplished sister Judith, a great lady of her time. Samuel died in Holland: and his widow with her three sons accompanied her brother to Manhattan Island, where she took up an estate of 200 acres, includ- ing the site of the Astor Library. Of these sons, Nicholas became secretary of New Nether- lands and later of English New York payor, commander-in-chief of the colony's militia, and practically the head of the colony — a perilous honor which twice brought him to the verge of destruction. His brother Peter, however, though not personally conspicuous, became the ancestor of the distinguished Bayards of the 18th and 19th centuries. Peter's son Samuel joined the Labadists (see Labadie, Je.\n;, a sect of com- munists otherwise much like the Quakers, and removed to Maryland. Of his grandsons. Col. John was a leading Philadelphia merchant, pa- triot, and soldier, representative in Congress, a county magnate in Marjdand till after the Revolution, later judge and Federalist pillar; his son Samuel, lawyer, clerk of the supreme court, United States claim agent, and judge, was one of the founders of the New York Historical Society and the American Bible So- ciety. Col. John's twin brother, Dr. James A., was father of James A., the noted Federalist statesman of Jefferson's and Madison's time, leader of the Federalists in the House of Rep- resentatives, and the one whose vote gave the presidency to Jefferson instead of Burr, senator, and peace commissioner. The two sons of the latter James A., Richard H. and James A. (2d), were both United States senators of distinction from the State of Delaware, the one a Whig and the other a Democrat — the only instance of the kind in United States history; the former also chosen chief justice of Delaware. The son of James A. (2d), Thomas F., was also senator to succeed his father ; so that father, two sons, and grandson represented Delaware in the Senate 47 years between 1805 and 1885. Thomas F. was further a member of the Electoral Commission of 1876, and secretary of state under Cleveland. This unique record of distin- guished public position is the more notable that it has been on the highest plane of public character as well as capacity — conspicuous for dignity, probity, and scrupulous sense of those official proprieties which shun the appearance of evil and therefore bar out its reality. Bayazid, or Bayezeed, Turkey in Asia, a town in the pashalic of, and 140 miles south- east from Erzeroom, southwest of Mount Ara- rat, from the base of which it is separated^ by a lava-covered plain 10 miles wide. It is situ- ated on the declivity of a rugged eminence, the summit of which is fortified and surrounded bj^ a wall and ramparts. The town is in a ruinous state; most of the houses are small and ill built, and the streets are extremely filthy. Besides the extensive palace of the pasha, the town contains two Christian churches, three mosques, and the famous monastery of Kara-Keleeseh. celebrated for its beautiful arch- itecture and antiquity. The inhabitants consist chiefly of Kurds and Armenians. Kurdish is the common language of the place. Some trade is carried on with Persia, on the frontiers of which the town is situated. It was occupied and held by the Russians for a time in 1877. Pop. 5,000. ' Bayazid, ba-ya-zed', I. and II. See Baj.vzet. Baybay, biiT'baT, Philippines, a town of the province of Leyte, situated on the west coast, 40 miles southwest of Tanaban. Pop. 17)367- Bayberry. See Caxdle Berry. Bayer, bi'er. Gottlieb Siegfried, German philologist, grandson of Johann Bayer: b. Konigsberg, 1694: d. St. Petersburg, 21 Feb. 1738. He displayed from his earliest childhood a singular passion for Chinese and other East- ern languages. He studied the Coptic at Berlin, under La Crosse, Arabic at Halle, under Solo- mon Negri, and at the same time opened _ a correspondence with the missionaries in India, BAYER — BAYLE in order to obtain more information about the Sanskrit and Hindustanee. On the foundation ot the academy of sciences in St. Petersburg in 1726, he became professor of Greek and Ro- man antiquities. Besides his extraordinary knowledge of languages, Bayer was an eminent historical and archasological scholar. His mon- ument is his work published in 1730, ^Museum Sinicum, in quo Sinicae linguje et literaturse ratio explicatur,^ containing a Chinese grammar, a grammar of the dialect of Shin-Shu, and many interesting notices on Chinese literature. Bayer, Johann, German astronomer: b. Augsburg, 1572; d. 1660. He is celebrated for a large work published in 1603, under the title of ^Uranometria,^ and republished in 1627 under the title of *Coelum Stellatum Chris- tianum,^ which contains a minute description and a catalogue of the constellations. He changed the name because he had withdrawn the heathen names of the constellations, and supplied their names by others taken from the Bible, taking those of the northern constellations from the New, and those of the southern con- stellations from the Old Testament, and giving the names of the 12 apostles to the signs of the zodiac. His letters were adopted by Flamsteed and others, and are now universally used, but the heathen names have kept their ground. He contributed much to the simplification of astro- nomical science, by avoiding the old unintel- ligible nomenclature and by denoting the stars m every constellation by the letters oi the Greek alphabet in their order. Bayer was also a good student of law and an able theologian. He was settled as minister over different parishes, and so zealous in his advocacy of Protestantism that he was called "Os Protestan- tium.*' The Emperor Leopold ennobled him. Bayer, Karl Robert Emerich von, German novelist, who wrote under the pseudonym of Robert Byr: b. Bregenz, 15 April 1835. He is a very popular and exceedingly prolific story- teller, and his voluminous fictions have had a wide circulation. Among his best-known novels are ; * Masks' ; < A Se- cret Dispatch' ; ^The Road to Fortune' ; ^Meadow Maidenhair' ; ^The Ironworm.' Bayeux, ba-ye, an ancient town of France, department Calvados, about 16 miles northwest of Caen. It possesses many antique houses of singular appearance, and has a beautiful cathe- dral dating from the 12th to the 15th century, and having a crypt under the choir several centuries earlier. Its noble portal and three towers render it especially noteworthy. The local industries include the manufacture of porcelain and lace, bonnet-making and cotton spinning. There is a public library and mu- seum, in which one of the most interesting relics of the Middle Ages is preserved. See Bayeux Tapestry. Pop (1896) 7,900. Bayeux Tapestry, a celebrated piece of medieval embroidery of sewed work originally found in the cathedral of Bayeux, in the library of which town it is still preserved. The fact that such a tapestry existed was brought to light by M. Lancelot, who communicated a description of an illuminated drawing of a por- tion of it to the Academy of Inscriptions and Belles-lettres in 1724. This led to the discovery of the tapestry itself in 1728, whereupon various speculations arose as to its date, its origin, and its purport. According to tradition it is a con- temporary representation of the invasion and conquest of England by the Normans, and the discussions upon it have proved that tradition is right. It is thus not only valuable as a relic of the art of the Middle Ages, but it has also great historical value, inasmuch as it supplies several details of the great event which it por- trays which are not found in the chroniclers, and also gives us an exact picture of Norman costumes and manners. It contains 1,512 figures with inscriptions in Latin giving the names and subjects. It is supposed to have been worked by the needle of Matilda, queen of William the Conqueror, assisted by her attendants, and tc have been presented by Odo, bishop of BayeuX; the half-brother of William, to the church in which it was found. Whether this be so or not, it is regarded as certain that the tapestry is not later than the nth century. During the French Revolution the tapestry was in great danger of being destroyed. In 1803 it was removed to Paris by order of Napoleon, and when he was meditating the invasion of Britain he caused it to be carried from town to town and exhibited between the acts in the theatres. It was brought back to Bayeux in 1804, when it was placed in the hotel de ville, instead of the cathedral, its former resting-place. The length of the tapestry is 230 feet, and its height 20 inches. It is in an excellent state of preser- vation. There are good representations of it produced photograpically. Consult J. C. Bruce's 'Bayeux Tapestry' (1885). See Tapestry, Bayfield, Matthew Albert, English clergy- man : b. Edgbaston, 17 June 1852. He was edu- cated at the King Edward's School, in Birming- ham, and at Clare College, Cambridge ; was assis- tant master in the Blackheath School, 1875-9, and in Marlborough College, 1879-81 : head- master's assistant in Malvern College, 1881-90; headmaster of Christ College, Brecon, 1890-5, and headmaster of Eastbourne College, 1900. He published editions of 'Ion, Alcestis, and Medea,' and also 'Septem contra Thebas' (with Dr. Verrall) ; 'Iliad' (with Dr. Leaf) ; 'Latin Prose for Lower Forms.' etc. Bayle, bal, Pierre, French critic and phi- losopher: b. Carlat, near Foix (Languedoc), 1647; d. Rotterdam, 28 Dec. 1706. At the age of 19 he entered the College of Puy-Laureps, to finish his studies. All books were eagerly devoured by him; his taste for logic led him particularly to study religious controversies, but Amyot's 'Plutarch' and 'Montaigne' were iiis favorite works. In Toulouse he studied philos- ophy with the Jesuits. The arguments of his professors, and still more his friendly discus- sions with a Catholic priest who dwelt near him, confirmed his doubts of the orthodoxy of Protestantism, so that he resolved to change his religion. His family, however, tried all means to regain him, and after 17 months he returned to his old faith. To escape from the punish- ment of perpetual excommunication which the Roman Catholic Church then pronounced against apostates, he went to Geneva, and thence to Copet, where Count Dohna intrusted him with the education of his sons, where he studied the philosophy of Des Cartes. But after some years he returned to France and settled in Rouen, where he was employed in tearhir.g. In 1675 he obtained the philosophical chair at BAYLEN — BAYLISS Sedan, where he taught with distinction until the suppression of this academy in 1681. He was alterward invited to discharge the same duties at Rotterdam. The appearance of a comet in 1680 induced him to pubHsh, in 1682, his 'Pensees Diverses sur la Comete,' in which he discussed various subjects of metaphysics, mor- als, theology, history, and politics. It was fol- lowed by his 'Critique Generale de I'Histoire du Calvinisme de Maimbourg.^ This work, received with equal approbation by the Catholics and Protestants, and esteemed by Maimbourg himself, excited the jealousy of his colleague, the theologian Jerieu, whose * Refutation du P. Maimbourg^ had not succeeded, and involved Bayle in many disputes. He afterward under- took a periodical work, *Nouvelles de la Repub- lique des Lettres,^ in 1684. The death of his father and of his two brothers, together with the religious persecu- tions in France, induced him to write his 'Com- mentaire Philosophique' on the words of the Gospel : ^'Compel them to come in'' ; which is not equal in merit to his other works. Bayle himself was unwilling to acknowledge it ; but Jurieu, who probably recognized its author by the zeal with which toleration is defended in this work, attacked it with violence, and his influence was sufficient to lead the magistrates of Rotterdam to remove Bayle from the office in 1693. He now devoted all his attention to the com- position of his *Dictionnaire Historique et Cri- tique,^ which he published in 1696. This was the first work which appeared under his name. Jurieu opposed him anew, and caused the con- sistory, in which he had the greatest influence, to make a severe attack upon him. Bayle promised to remove everything which the consis- tory deemed offensive ; but finding the public had other views, and preferring the satisfaction of his readers to that of his judges, he left the work, with the exception of a few trifles, unaltered. He found two new enemies in Jac- quelot and Le Clerc, who both attacked his religion : others persecuted him as the enemy of his sect and his new country. The best editions of his ^Dictionnaire His- torique' are that of 1740, in 4 volumes folio (Amsterdam and Leyden), and that in 16 vol- umes, published 1820-4 at Paris. Baylen, bi-lan', or Bailen, a town of Spain, province of Jaen, at the foot of the Sierra Mor- ena, 22 miles north of Jaen. It commands the road leading from Castile into Andalusia, and derives its celebrity from the events which took place in its vicinity leading to the "Capitulation of Baylen," signed 20 July 1808, when Gen. Dupont, and about 20,000 French troops under his command, surrendered to the Spaniards on condition of their being conveyed to France by the Spanish government ; but the latter stipula- tion was not carried into effect. The incapacity of Dupont was mainly instrumental in bringing about this result, which inspired the Spaniards with confidence, and was always regarded by Napoleon as the principal source of the French disasters in the Peninsula. Pop. (1887) 8,580. Bayley, James Roosevelt, American theo- logian: b. New York, 23 Aug. 1814; d. Newark, N. J., 3 Oct. 1877. He studied at Trinity College, Hartford, and became a min- ister of the Protestant Episcopal Church; but, in 1842, was converted to the Roman Catholic faith ; and, after studying at Paris and Rome,, was ordained a priest in 1844. He accepted the chair of belles-lettres at St. John's College, Fordham, and was its acting president in 1846. After serving as secretary to Archbishop Hughes, he was consecrated the first Bishop of Newark, N. J., in 1853. In 1872 he be- came Archbishop of Baltimore, INId. He was the founder of Seton Hall College and several other institutions. His < Pastorals for the Peo- ple,' and * History of the Catholic Church on the Island of New York,' are his chief writ- ings. Bayley, Richard, American physician: b. Fairfield, Conn., 1745; d. Staten Island, N. Y.,. 17 Aug. 1801. After studying medicine in Eng- land, chiefly in the London hospitals and under Dr. Hunter, he returned to America in 1776 as a surgeon in Gen. Howe's army, but settled in New York the following year. He was the first professor of anatomy in Columbia College (1792), and for a time health officer of the port of New York, where his vigorous advocacy of proper quarantine laws was finally successful. A careful student of his profession, he suggest- ed a new method of treatment for croup, and maintained (1797) that in its origin, yellow fever was due to local causes and was not contagious. He published: < Cases of the An- gina Tracheatis, with the Mode of Cure^ (1781) ; ^ Essay on the Yellow Fever' (1797); ^Letters on Yellow Fever' (1798). Bayley, William Shirley, American geolo- gist: b. Baltimore, Md., 10 Nov. 1861. He graduated at Johns Hopkins in 1883, and since 1887 has been assistant geologist of the Lake Superior division of the United States Geolog- ical Survey, and since 1886 associate editor of the ^American Naturalist.' He is the author (with Prof. C. R. Van Hise) of the < Report on the Geology of the Marquette Iron District of Michigan' and has been a frequent contrib- utor to scientific journals. Baylies, ba'liz, Francis, American states- man, member of Congress from Massachusetts for several sessions: b. 1784; d. Taunton, Mass., 28 Oct. 1852. In the presidential contest which finally resulted in the election of John Q. Adams, he threw the only electoral vote for Jackson that was given from New England. He was for a short time minister to Brazil. He published in 1828 a history of the old colonj^ of Plymouth. Bayliss, Clara Kern, American author: b. near Kalamazoo. Mich., 5 March 1848. She was married to Alfred Bayliss in 1871. and has pub- lished ^In Brook and Bavou' (1897) ; 'Lolami. the Little Cliff Dweller' (1901). Bayliss, Jeremiah Henry, American Meth- ^ odist Episcopal clergyman: b. Wednesbury> England, 20 Dec. 1835 : d. Bay View, Mich., 14 Aug. 1889. He was educated at Genesee College, N. Y., and was prominent as pastor of Park Avenue and Trinity churches, Chicago; Roberti Park and Trinity churches, Indianapolis ; Cen- tral Church, Detroit ; and Walnut Hills Church, Cincinnati. He edited the Western Christian Advocate in 1884 and 1888. Bayliss, Sir Wyke, English artist: b- Madeley, 21 Oct. 1835; d. London 6 April 1906. He was educated at the Royal Academy, and was BAYLOR — BAYNES president of the Royal Society of British Art- ists from 1888. His paintings inckide < La Sainte Chapelle^ (1865); *St. Mark's, Venice' (1880); *St. Peter's, Rome' (1888); ^The Cathedral, Amiens' (1900) ; ^The Golden Duorno, Pisa' (1892), etc. His publications include "^The Wit- ness of Art' (1876) ; '^The Enchanted Island' (1888) ; ^The Likeness of Christ Rex Regum' (1898) ; "^Five Great Painters of the Victorian Era' (1902). Baylor, Frances Courtenay. See Barnum, F. C. B. Baylor, Robert Emmett Bledsoe, Ameri- can lawyer : b. Lincoln County, Ky., 10 May 1793; d. Gay Hill, Tex., 6 Jan. 1874. I" the War of 1812 he served under Col. Boswell and took part in the engagement near Fort ]^.Ieigs. Admitted to the bar in Kentucky, he later re- moved to Alabama (1820), acquired a large practice, and became prominent in politics, being a representative in Congress, 1829-31. Later he emigrated to Texas, then a republic, and was a district judge for 25 years, A loyal member of the Baptist denomination, he gave largely in money and land to establishing one of its col- leges at Independence (1845), and in recogni- tion of his munificence it was named Baylor University (q.v.). Baylor University, a co-educational insti- tution in Waco, Tex., controlled by the Baptist Church. It was founded in 1845 on a charter granted by the republic of Texas, and named for Robert E. Baylor (q.v.). Its first location was in Independence, Tex. ; it was provided with a university course in 185 1 ; in 1861 President Burleson (who had been its head for 10 years) and the entire faculty resigned and organized a university in Waco, Tex., giving it the name of that city. The two institutions were consolidated in 1882, the earlier one being removed to Waco, and President Burleson con- tinuing at the head of the institution. At the close of 1901 the university reported : Profes- sors and instructors, 47 ; students, 436 ; volumes in the library, 11,000; grounds and buildings valued at $200,000; benefactions, $82,100; in- come, $125,000; number of graduates, 660. Bayly, Ada Ellen, a popular English nov- elist, best known as Edna Lyall : b. Brighton, about 1859 ; d. Eastbourne, 9 February 1903. She has written ^Won by Waiting' (1879) ; L'Heris- son, (1888). Bazalgette, baz-al-jet', Sir Joseph William, English civil engineer : b. Enfield, England, 1819; d. London, i March 1891. As chief engi- neer of the London board of works he built many miles of sewers and embankments, three of the Thames bridges, and the well-known Thames embankments. He was an expert au- thority on questions of municipal engineering. Bazan, ba-zan, Don Caesar de. See Don C^SAR DE BaZAN. Bazan, ba-than', Emilia Pardo. See Par- do Baz.\n, Emilia. Bazancourt, ba-zaii-koor, Ce'sar (Baron de), French military historian: b. Paris, 1810; d. there, 25 Jan. 1865. He was official historiog- rapher to Napoleon III., whom he accompanied in several campaigns. He published 'L'expedi- tion de Crimee jusqu'a la prise de SebastopoP (1856) ; ^La campagne d' Italie de 1859^ ; *Les expeditions de Chine et Cochinchine' (1861-2) ; ^Histoire de Sicile sous la domination des Normands^ (1846); and the novels: < Georges la Montagnard (1851) ; < Noblesse Oblige' (1851); *La Princess Pallianci' (1852). Bazancourt, Jean Baptiste Marin Antoine Lecat de, French general: b. Val-de-Molle (Oise), 19 March 1767; d. 17 Jan. 1830. He took an active part in the Italian campaigns ; distinguished himself and was wounded at the siege of St. Jean d'Acre; fought in the battle of Austerlitz, and was a member of the court- martial which, on 21 March 1804, pronounced the sentence of death upon the Duke d'Enghien. In 1806 he was appointed commander of the legion of honor, and in 1808 promoted to the rank of brigadier-general, while in the same year he was created baron of the empire, and went as commander to Hamburg with a mission connected with the continental blockade. He withdrew from service in 1815. Bazar, or Bazaar, a market-place in the East, the word being Arabic in origin. Some bazars are open, some covered over. As the Orientals live almost entirely out of doors, the bazars of populous cities, besides their mercan- tile importance, are of consequence as places of social intercourse. In the Oriental tales, — for instance, in the ^Arabian Nights,' — the bazars, occupy a very conspicuous place. The word bazar has also been imported into Europe, where it is used in much the same sense as in the East. Among English-speaking people it is frequently applied to a temporary sale of fancy goods contributed gratuitously, and sold to raise a special fund. Hazard, ba-zar. Saint Amand, French socialist : b. Paris, 1791 ; d. 29 July 1832. After the Restoration, he helped to found the Revo- lutionary Society of the ^'Amis de la Verite,* and in 1820 an association of French Carbonari. In 1825, impressed with the necessity of a total reconstruction of society, he attached himself to the school of Saint-Simon, and became one of the editors of a journal termed ^Le Produc- teur.' In 1828 he delivered at Paris a series of lectures, the substance of which was published in the 'Exposition de la Doctrine de Saint- Simon' (1828-30), of which the first part was by Bazard, the second being chiefly the compo- sition of Enfantin. He and Enfantin became the acknowledged leaders of the school. After the July Revolution (1830), a larger scope was afforded to the Saint-Simonians. The masses were attracted by the doctrine that all social institutions ought to have for their end the moral, intellectual, and physical amelioration of the poor. In a short time, Bazard and his friends had created a new society, living in the midst of the old, with peculiar laws, manners, and doctrines. But Bazard's connection with it was of short duration. He differed from En- fantin on the doctrine of the emancipation of women, and in 1831 seceded in disgust. His ef- forts to found a school of his own proved un- successful, and, during a heated discussion with his former friend, Enfantin, he was struck with apoplexy, from the effects of which he died. Bazarjik, ba-zar-jek', a town in eastern Bulgaria, situated north of Varna. An impor- tant fair is held here annually. It was twice captured by the Russians, in 1774 and 1810. Pop. (1888) 10,717- Bazigars, ba-ze-garz', a tribe of nomadic Indians dispersed throughout the whole of Hin- dustan. They are divided into seven castes; BAZOCHE — BEACH their chief occupation is that of jugglers, acro- bats, and tumblers, in which both males and fe- males are equally skilful. They present many features analogous to the gj'psies of Europe. Bazoche, ba-zosch, or Basoche (a corrup- tion of Basilica), a brotherhood formed by the clerks of the Parliament of Paris at the time it ceased to be the Grand Council of the French king. They had a king, chancellor, and other dignitaries ; and certain privileges were granted them by Philip the Fair early in the 14th cen- tury, as also by subsequent monarchs. They had an annual festival, having as a principal feature dramatic performances in which satirical allusions were freely made to passing events. The representation of these farces or satires was frequently interdicted, but their develop- ment had a considerable effect on the dramatic literature of France. The order was suppressed 13 Feb. 1793. Baztan, baz-tan', or Bastan, a Pyrenean valley in the extreme north of Spain ; having a length of nine miles, and an average breadth of four miles. It is inhabited by about 8,000 people, who form, under Spanish supervision, a diminutive republic, at the head of which is the mayor of Elizondo. The citizens of this republic rank with the Spanish nobility and hold special privileges, which were granted them for former services to the Spanish crown. Bdellium, del'li-um, an aromatic gum found in different countries, but brought chiefly from Arabia and India. It resembles myrrh in its appearance, and is hence often fraudulently substituted for it. It is obtained from Balsa- modetidron mokul and B. ro.vburgii. It has a sweet smell but bitter taste, softens readily be- tween the fingers before the fire, and dissolves partially in alcohol and still more in water. A better variety of bdellium is that produced by the west African B. africanum; it is used in plasters. The bdellium mentioned in Scripture, in He- brew bedholachh, is rendered in the Septuagint of Gen. ii. 12, anthrax (literally, ^'burning coal") = the carbuncle, ruby, and garnet (Liddell and Scott), the red sapphire (Dana) ; while in Num. xi. 7 it is translated krystallos^=^rock. crystal. Some modern writers, following the Septuagint translation, make it a mineral, as are the gold and onyx stone with which it is associated in Gen. ii. 12, while the Rabbins Bochart and Gesenius consider that it was a pearl or pearls. Beach, Alfred Ely: b. Springfield, Mass., I Sept. 1826; d. I Jan. 1896. He was a son of Moses Yale Beach, and after receiving an edu- cation in the ]Monson Academy at Monson, Mass., he was associated with his fatlier in the publishing business of the New York Sun. In 1846 he formed a partnership with his life-long friend and schoolmate, Mr. Orson D. Munn, of Monson, Mass., and purchased the < Scientific American^ from Rufus Porter, combining with the business of publishing that of soliciting pat- ents. In 1853 he invented the first typewriter which printed raised letters on a strip of paper, intended for the blind, and was awarded a gold medal at the Crystal Palace Exposition. In 1867 he constructed a suspended tube 8 feet in diameter by 100 feet long, through which passengers were carried back and forth in a tightly fitting car, as the air was exhausted from or forced into the tube by a rotating fan. He also devised means for transporting letters through a tube under the street, by which they could be conveyed directly to the post-office when dropped into a street letter-box. His most important invention, — a shield for tunneling under streets or rivers without dis- turbing the surface, — was made in 1868, and became known as the Beach shield. It resem- bled a gigantic hogshead with the heads re- moved, the front circular edge being sharp, and the rear end having a thin iron hood. This cylinder is propelled slowly forward through the earth by several hydraulic rams forced out from the rear of the shield, by the operation of a single hydraulic pump, against the completed tunnel in the rear. By this method only the amount of earth to be occupied by the tunnel is excavated. After the shield is forced for- ward the hydraulic rams are pushed back, and in the thin hood at the rear a new section of the tunnel is constructed. In 1869, by means of such a shield, Mr. Beach constructed a tun- nel nine feet in diameter under Broadway, New York, from the corner of Warren Street south to a point opposite the lower side of Murray Street, and in 1870 a car was sent to and fro on tracks through this tunnel by pneumatic power — the first underground transit in New York. From 1872 to 1876 Mr. Beach edited an annual publication entitled "Science Record," published by the '^Scientific American.^ In 1876 he originated the 'Scientific American Sup- plement,^ devoted to the publication of scientific matters in extenso, taken largely from exchanges and foreign publications. He was also instru- mental in beginning the publication of the 'Sci- entific American Builders' Monthly.^ Beach, Charles Fisk, American clergy- man and lawyer: b. Hunter, N. Y., 5 Sept. 1827. He studied theology at Auburn Theological Semi- nary, N. Y., was pastor of Presbyterian churches 1854-73, editor and publisher National Presby- terian 1873-95, and was admitted to the bar 1896. He has published *The Muzzled Ox^ (1866) ; 'The Christian Worker > (1869) ; 'Com- mentaries on the Law of Trusts and Trustees' (1897) ; 'Monopolies and Industrial Trusts' (1898). Beach, Charles Fisk, Jr., American legal writer : b. Kentucky, 4 Feb. 1854. He was called to the bar in New York 1881, and prac- tised in that city till 1896, but since the last named date has practised in London and Paris. His especial field is railway and corporation law, and he has published treatises on 'Receivers' (1887); 'Wills' (1888); 'Railways' (1890); 'Private Corporations' (1891) ; 'Modern Equity Jurisprudence' (1892); 'PubHc Corporations' (1893) : 'Modern Equity Practice' (1894) ; 'In- junctions' (1895) ; 'Insurance' (1895) ; 'Con- tracts' (1897) ; 'Contributory Negligence' (3d ed. 1899). Beach, David Nelson, American clergy- man : b. Orange, N. J.. 30 Nov. 1848. Enter- ing the Congregational ministry he was suc- cessively pastor of Congregational churches in Westerly, R. I., 1876-9; Wakefield. Mass., 1879-84; Cambridge, Mass., 1884-96; Minneapo- lis (1896-8), Denver from 1899. He was active in banishing the saloon from Cambridge and has been prominent in advocating a modified Nor- wegian liquor system in Massachusetts. He has BEACH — BEACH-FLEA written < Plain Words on Our Lord's Work^ ; *The Newer Religious Thinking^ ; "^How We Rose^ ; *^The Intent of Jesus.^ Beach, Frederick Converse, American editor: b. New York, 27 March 1848, Li 1855 he removed to Stratford, Conn., where he re- ceived an education at public and private schools. In 1864, as a pastime, he began the practice of photography with his father, Alfred Ely Beach (q.v.), and has continued his interest in the art ever since. In 1866 he suggested to the com- missioner of patents the utility and practicability of photo-lithographing the United States pat- ents, a plan which was subsequently adopted. In 1868 he graduated from the Sheffield Sci- entific School of Yale University with the degree of Ph.B. In 1869, after engaging in the business of patent solicitor at Washington, D. C, he returned to New York and was appointed assistant superintendent of the construction of the Beach pneumatic tunnel under Broadway, New York. (See Beach, Alfred Ely.) Sub- sequently he took up the manufacture of electri- cal instruments. In 1877 he entered the office of the ^Scientific American,^ assisting his father, and after the latter's demise he became one of the editors. He has made extensive experiments in pho- tography and written much relating to the art. In 1884 he founded the Society of Amateur Photographers of New York, the name of which was afterward changed to the Camera Club of New York. In 1885 he assisted in organizing the American Lantern Slide Interchange. In 1889 he was instrumental in establishing a monthly magazine entitled "-The American Ama- teur Photographer.^ In 1902 he was appointed editor-in-chief of the ^Encyclopedia Americana,^ the policy of which it was determined should give full credit to all matters pertaining to America and Americans. Beach, Mrs. H. H. A. (Amy Marcy Cheney), American composer : b. Henniker, N. H.. 5 Sept. 1867. She studied music from child- hood, and made her first appearance in public as a pianist at the Boston Music Hall when 16 years old. She has composed a mass in E flat ; 'The Rose of Avontown,^ a cantata for female voices ; a Gaelic symphony : a symphony, an- thems, songs, and compositions for various mu- sical instruments and full orchestras. Beach, Harlan Page, American mission- ary: b. South Orange, N. J., 4 April 1854. He was graduated at Yale in 1878 and at Andover Theological Seminary in 1883. During 1878-80 he taught at Phillips Andover Academy; in 1883 he went to China as a missionary, remain- ing there seven years. Soon after his return he became head of the School for Christian Workers, Springfield, Mass., and in 1895, edu- cational secretary of the Student Volunteer Movement for Foreign Missions. His publica- tions include: ^Dawn on the Hills of T'ang* (1898); 'Knights of the Labarum ; or Four Typical Missionaries^ (1898) ; 'New Testament Studies in Missions' (1899) ; 'Protestant Mis- sions in South Africa' (1900) ; ^Geography and Atlas of Protestant Missions' (1902). Beach, Miles, American jurist: b. 1840; d. 1902. He graduated at Union College, Schenec- tady, studied law, and practiced in Troy. When 27 years of age he removed to New \"ork and in 1879 was elected judge of the court of common pleas, holding that office till 1894, when he passed to the bench of the supreme court of the State. Beach, Moses Sperry, American inventor and editor: b. Springfield, Alass., 5 Oct. 1822; d. 25 July 1892. He was the son of Moses Yale Beach (q.v.), and in 1845 he married Chloe Buckingham, of Waterbury, Conn., and in the same year became joint proprietor, with George Roberts, of the Boston Daily Times. Soon after this he became associated with his father and brother in the publication of the New York Sun, and acquired the sole owner- ship of it in 1851, transferring it in 1868 to Charles A. Dana. It was while he was con- ducting the publication of the Sun that he invented and made several important improve- ments in printing-presses, which were patented, a few now being in use. Among them were the feeding of roll paper to the press instead of flat sheets, apparatus for wetting the paper prior to printing, and another improvement for cut- ting ot¥ sheets after printing; also a method of adapting newspaper presses to print both sides of the sheet at the same time, as is now cus- tomary. In 1867 he visited the Holy Land, on the steamer Quaker City, in company with the distinguished party of which "Mark Twain" was a member, and whose experiences formed the basis of Twain's book, 'The Innocents Abroad.' Mr. Beach brought back an olive-tree from the Mount of Olives, from which was made a pul- pit stand that is at present in Plymouth Church, Brooklyn. Beach, Moses Yale, American inventor and pulalisher: b. Wallingford, Conn., 15 Jan. 1800; d. 17 July 1868. He received a common- school education and before he was 21 married, and with a partner opened a cabinet factory at Northampton, Mass. In 1822 he established himself at Springfield, Mass., where he was very successful. He expended considerable money on a stern-wheel steamboat, the first to ply on the Connecticut River above Hartford. A powder engine intended for its propulsion proved inef- fective. In 1829 he obtained an interest in a paper-mill and removed to Saugerties, N. Y., where his inventive faculty produced a rag- cutting machine, which he patented and which is still used in all paper-mills. In 1835 he pur- chased from his brother-in-law, Benjamin Day, the New York Sun, the first penny paper (then a comparatively new sheet), and to Mr. Beach was due the subsequent growth and popularity of that newspaper. In 1846 President Polk sent Mr. Beach on a secret mission to Mexico. In 1857 Mr. Beach retired from active business and settled in his native town, where he died. Beach. See Coastj Dune; Ocean; Lake; Shore. BeacJi-flea, one of a group of small amphi- pod Crustaceans {Orchestia agilis) which abound under sea wrack near high-water mark. When the dry weed is lifted they will be seen leaping like fleas, by means of the last three pairs of abdominal legs. They are brown, of the same color as the weed and wet sand beneath, about a quarter of an inch in length or about one half as large as the larger and more southern kind of beach-flea (Talorclicstia longicornis) , which is nearly an inch long. Consult: Arnold, ^Sea Beach at Low Tide.' BEACH-GRASS — BEACONSFIELD Beach-grass. See Ammophila. Beach-pea, a leguminous plant growing on beaches. See also Lathyrus. Beach Plants, the usually sparse vegeta- tion of sea and lake shores above the water-line and below the cliffs or dunes, notable for its resemblance to the vegetation of deserts. The plants of sea beaches are closely similar to those of fresh-water shores, and not, as might be inferred, different on account of the salt con- tent of the soil as an influencing factor. (See Halophytes). Bordering the water is a strip of sand or gravel where, on account of summer wave action, land plants cannot gain a foot- hold, and where, because of exposure to sun and air, water plants are unable to live. Contiguous to this border is a zone of vegetation almost wholly restricted by winter wave action to an- nuals. Still farther back from the water is the region of perennials especially characterized by rosette plants and plants with underground stor- age organs. This region is safe from wave ac- tion at all times. Beach plants, like desert plants (see Xerophytes) are capable of with- standing more intense heat, cold, and light, and more violent winds than any other plants of or- dinary climates. Other common terms for this vegetation are littoral, shore, and strand plants. See Distribution of Plants. Beach-plum, Beach-robin. See Plum. See Brant-bird. Beaches, Raised, terraced, level stretches of land, consisting of sand and gravel, and ly- ing at a considerable distance above and away from the sea, but bearing sufficient evidences of having been at one time sea beaches. They are quite common along the coasts of continents in the higher latitudes. In California such terraces occur as high as 1,500 feet above the present sea- level, while the coasts of Scotland are marked by a series of terraces succeeding each other at distances of from 10 to 25 feet. That the ma- terials composing the beaches were deposited beneath the sea is proven by the marine charac- ter of the fossils which are often found in abundance. The existence o*f raised beaches is of importance to the geologist, as it affords di- rect evidence of changes of level between the sea and the land in comparatively recent times, and explains the widespread occurrence of sedi- mentary rocks over continental areas. Many large lakes are also fringed by terraces, but in this case they have resulted from a lowering of the water level and not from coastal movements. See also Lake; Shore; etc. Beachy Head, England, a promontory on the coast of Sussex, about three miles southwest of Eastbourne ; height 564 feet. Here a com- bined Dutch and English fleet, under Lord Tor- rington was defeated by a French fleet, under Tourville, in 1690. In 1828 a revolving light was erected here, 285 feet above the level of the sea, visible in clear weather from a distance of 28 miles. Beacon, a conspicuous mark or signal either used to alarm the country in case of in- vasion, or as a guide to mariners. The alarm beacon was usually fire placed on the tops of high hills, the flames of which could be seen at a great distance by night, and the smoke by day. They were in great use for rousing the Border on an invasion either by Scotch or Eng- lish. A beacon to mariners is either a landmark erected on an eminence near the shore, or a floating signal moored in shoal water. Beacon Hill, one of the original three hills of the peninsula of Boston. It is north of Bos- ton Common, and received its name from the fact that the public beacon was fixed upon its summit in the earliest colonial period. It has been much reduced in height, and the State House now occupies its highest position. Bea- con Street extends in a westerly direction over the hill, skirting the Common and Public Gar- den, See Boston. Beaconsfield, bek'ons-feld or be'kons-feld, Benjamin Disraeli, (Earl of), English states- man: b. 21 Dec. 1804; d. 19 April 1881. He was the eldest son of Isaac DTsraeli (see DTsraeli, Isaac), the well-known author of the ^Curiosi- ties of Literature^; his mother also being of Jewish race. Little is known of his early edu- cation, though it is certain he never attended a public school or a university. In 1817 he was baptized into the Church of England. He was apprenticed to a firm of attorneys, but did not remain long in this uncongenial occupation. His father's position gained him an easy entrance into society, and before he was 20 he was a fre- quenter of such salons as those of Lady Bless- ington. In 1826 he published ^Vivian Grey,' his first novel, a work which became very popular, and, considering the youth of its author, displays re- markable cleverness and knowledge of the world. He now traveled for some time, visiting Italy, Greece, Turkey, and Syria, and gaining experi- ences which were afterward reproduced in his books. In 1831 another novel, ^The Young Duke,' came from his pen. It was followed at short interval? by 'Contarini Fleming,' ^Alroy,' •^Henrietta Temple,' ^Venetia,' ^The Revolu- tionary 'Epic' (a poem), etc. His father having acquired a residence near High Wycombe, Buckinghamshire, young Dis- raeli attempted to get elected for this borough in 1832. He came forward as a Radical or "people's" candidate as against the Whigs, and he was supported by the Tories, as well as by Hume and O'Connell, but was defeated. At the general election after the passing of the Reform Bill he again unsuccessfully contested High Wy- combe, and the like ill-fortune attended him on another attempt in 1835, as also at Taunton the same year. On the latter occasion he appeared in the character of a decided Tory, and his change of political opinions naturally occasioned a good deal of comment. To this period be- longs the noted passage of arms between him and O'Connell. which was signalized by a strength of language happily rare between public men in these days. At last, however, he gained an entrance to the House of Commons, being elected for Maidstone in 1837. His first speech was treated with ridi- cule ; he had to stop abruptly and sit down but he finished with the prophetic declaration that the time would come when the House would hear him. _ In 1839 he married the widow of his colleague in the representation of Maidstone, a lady 15 years older than himself. At the gen- eral election of 1841 he was sent to Parliament by Shrewsbury. He had now gained some repu- tation, and for some years he was an enthusias- tic supporter of Sir Robert Peel. About this BEACONSFIELD — BEADS time he became a leader of what was known as the «Young England*' party, the most prominent characteristic of which was a sort of sentimental advocacy of feudalism. This spirit showed it- self in his two novels of ^Coningsby; or. The New Generation,^ and 'Sybil; or. The New Na- tion,' published respectively in 1844 and 1S45. For some years previous to the downfall of Sir Robert Peel in 1846 he was most persistent and bitter in his hostility to this statesman, whom he had so recently supported, being the advocate of protection against the free-trade pol- icy of Sir Robert. His clever speeches of this period greatly increased his reputation, and by 1847 he was recognized as one of the leaders of the Tory party. Having acquired the manor of Hughenden in Buckinghamshire, he was in the above year elected for this county, and he re- tained his seat till raised to the peerage nearly 30 years later. In 1847 he published his novel of 'Tancred; or. The New Crusade,' a sorne- what extravagant production containing enig- matic allusions to the great "Asian mystery." His first appointment to office was in 1852, when he became chancellor of the exchequer un- der Lord Derby. The following year, however, the ministry was defeated, and Mr. Disraeli again became leader of a Conservative Opposi- tion. He remained out of office till 1858, when he again became chancellor of the exchequer with Lord Derby as his chief. As on the for- mer occasion his tenure of office was but short ; a reform bill which he had introduced causing the defeat of the government and their resigna- tion after an appeal to the country. During the next six years, while the Palmerston govern- ment was in office, Mr. Disraeli led the opposi- tion in the lower House with conspicuous ability and courage. He spoke vigorously against the Reform Bill brought forward in 1866 by the Russell-Gladstone ministry; but when, soon after, he came into power along with his chief, Lord Derby, the demand for reform was so urgent that he had to bring in a reform bill him- self. Accordingly, in August 1867, a measure by which the parliamentary representation was re- formed became law, being piloted through Par- liament by Mr. Disraeli with remarkable tact and dexterity. In February 1868 he reached the summit of his ambition, becoming premier on the resigna- tion of Lord Derby, but being in a minority after the general election he had to give up office the following December. In 1874 he again became prime minister with a strong Conserva- tive majority, and he remained in power for six years. This period was marked by his elevation to the peerage in 1876 as Earl of Beaconsfield, and by the prominent part he took in regard to the Eastern question and the conclusion of the Treaty of Berlin in 1878, when he visited the German capital. In the spring of 1880 Parlia- ment was rather suddenly dissolved, and, the new Parliament showing an overwhelming Lib- eral majority, he resigned office, though he still retained the leadership of his party. Not long after this, the publication of a novel called ^Endymion' (his previous one. ^Lothair,^ had been publi.shed 10 years before) showed that his intellect was still vigorous. His physical powers, however, were now giving way, and he died, after an illness of some weeks' duration. His wife had died in 1872 after having been created Viscountess Beaconsfield. Among others of his writings, besides those already mentioned, are: 'A Vindication of the English Constitution^ (1834) ; "^Alarcos, a Trag- edy' (1839) ; and 'Lord George Bentinck, a Po- litical Biography' (1852). Lord Beaconsfield was one of the most remarkable men of the 19th century. If not possessed of actual genius he was endowed with great intellectual power, and he had astonishing tenacity of purpose and showed remarkable tact and ability in managing men. As a parliamentary speaker and debater he had few rivals, and in wit, sarcasm, epigram, and other rhetorical devices he was a master. His novels are fatally open to criticism on many grounds, and it is doubtful if they will long maintain the place they at present hold. Their popularity has been largely owing to their au- thor having so frequently introduced real per- sons into them under a more or less penetrable disguise, and presented them in a more or less favorable light. Beaconsfield, Africa, a town of Cape Col- ony, in Griqualand West, formerly known as Du Toit's Pan. It lies a little to the east of Kim- berley, with which it is connected by tramway, and is, like it, an upgrowth of the diamond fields. It is well supplied with churches, schools, and hotels. Pop. (1891) 10,478. Beaconsfield, England, a market-town in Buckinghamshire, 24 miles west by north of London. It is situated on high ground, and its name is supposed to have originated from a bea- con once set up there. The remains of Edmund Burke, who resided at Gregories in this parish, are deposited in the parish church ; and the churchyard contains a monument in honor of the poet Waller, to whom the manor belonged, as it still does to his descendant. Beadle, (i) An officer in an English university, whose chief business is to walk with a mace in a public procession. The universities of Oxford and Cambridge have each three es- quire beadles (or bedels), one being attached to each of the faculties of law, medicine and arts, and divinity. The former university has also three yeomen beadles, and the latter one. (2) An inferior parish officer, whose business is generally to execute the orders of the vestry, by whom he is appointed. These parochial beadles were originally officers given to the rural deans to cite the clergy and church-officers to visita- tions, and for other purposes. Beads, small perforated ornaments, gen- erally of a round shape and made of glass, but also of gold, silver, and other metals, paste, coral, gems, etc. The use of them as ornaments belongs to very early times, and this use, still continued, has made them an important article of trade with savage tribes. Glass beads are supposed to have been manufactured by the Phoenicians more than 3,000 years before Christ. Beads have been found in the ruins of Assyrian temples, also as decorations of Egyptian mum- mies, and in the graves of the ancient Greeks, Romans, and Britons. The manufacture of glass beads was introduced into modern Europe by the Italians, and in the neighborhood of Venice it is still an important branch of in- dustr3^ On the island of Murano alone several thousand workmen are employed in this manu- facture. Birmingham is the chief seat of the manufacture of beads in Great Britain. For their use in religion, see Rosary. BEADS — BEALE Beagle, a small hunting dog; in general appearance a diminutive fox hound, solidly built, well set upon straight fore legs, with plenty of bone in proportion to its size, good hard feet, and a broad, deep chest with ample lung capa- city. It is of good disposition, and clever and industrious in the field. In color and marking it much resembles the fox hound, black, white, and tan being the more common colors, and these in more or less solid or pied masses. In its original home, Great Britain, there are both rough and smooth varieties, but the typical American beagle is smooth-haired. Beagles vary in height from 12 to 15 inches, and while ex- cellent trackers are not so fast but that they can be followed on foot, a very common sport in Great Britain. Their voices are exceedingly musical and justify the name sometimes given them of "buglers.*' They are principally used for rabbit-hunting. In former times a very di- minutive breed was in favor ; according to one authority, no larger than well-grown kittens — ■ so small, in fact, that it is said a whole pack could be carried afield in a pair of panniers slung across a pony's back. Beagle, The, a small ship of the British navy which in 1828-34 was employed, under the command of Capt. (afterward Admiral) Fitz- roy, in making surveys of the coast of Patagonia and other South American shores and waters, and later making a voyage around the world. The expedition had for its naturalist the fa- mous Charles Darwin. Beagle Island, an island discovered by Admiral Fitzroy during a voyage in H. M. S. Beagle (q.v.). The channel of the same name is on the south side of the island of Tierra del Fuego. Beak, or Bill, the projecting jaws or snout of a bird or other animal, when prolonged into an instrument for seizing or penetrating ob- jects, and formed of hard materials, as bone, or covered with a rigid envelope, as of horit or chitin. It is most characteristic of birds, where it is called "bill" or "neb,** and forms the prin- cipal means for obtaining, as well as devouring food (except in most birds of prey), and where it takes on a great variety of shapes and cha- racteristics adapted to special habits and pur- poses. (See Birds.) A more or less similar prolongation of mouth-parts occurs in many other animals, however, and receives a similar name. Among mammals, the duckbill (q.v.) is a conspicuous example of a true mammal with the lips formed into a horny bill much like that of a duck, and similarly used. The turtles have horny, projecting, parrot-like jaws of the same sort ; and a curious imitation of this occurs among cephalopod mollusks. The prolonged jaws of various fishes, as of gars ("billfish"), sturgeons, etc., receive the term (technically rostrum), and these are often bird-like, as in the case of the spoon-billed catfish (q.v.). The term is also borrowed by entomologists to describe the elongated mouth-parts of many insects, such as blood-sucking flies; juice-sucking plant-bugs, weevils, and other forms. The prolonged tubu- lar or trough-like parts (canals) of many gas- tropod shells protecting the siphon, and the prominent umbos of such bivalve shells as the cockles, clams, and fresh-water mussels, are also lermed "beaks.'^ Beal, bel, George Lafayette, American military officer: b. Norway, Me., 21 May 1825; d. II Dec. 1896. When the Civil War broke out he was captain of the Norway light infantry, and with this company was mustered into the I St Maine regiment for the three months' cam- paign. At the end of this service he was com- missioned colonel of the 19th Maine infantry, which took part in the battles of Cedar Moun- tain and Antietam and covered the retreat of Gen. Banks from Winchester to Williamsport, Va. He was mustered out with his regiment in May 1863 ; volunteered again ; was made colo- nel of the 29th Maine, and promoted to brigadier- general of volunteers 30 Nov. 1864, for his services in the Red River campaign. On 15 Jan. 1866 he was mustered out of service with the brevet of major-general of volunteers. In 1880-5 he was adjutant-general of Maine, and in 1888-94, State treasurer. Beal, Samuel, English Orientalist. He was educated at Trinity College, Cambridge, graduating therefrom in 1847. Some time after, he entered the royal navy as chaplain, and in that capacity saw active service in China and Japan. He made a close study of the Chinese and Japanese languages, and on his retirement from the navy in 1877 was elected professor of Chinese at University College, London. His principal work was tracing the early history of Buddhism in original Chinese records, and the results of his work were given to the world in several volumes, notably: ^The Catena of Buddhist Scriptures^ (1872) ; ^a - a v*^ 3 a Dry s lelled beans. . . 12.6 22. i; 29.6 T.8 ■^■'=^ 1605 calories Fresh shelled beans. . ^«.q P 4 29.1 0.6 7,0 740 " Fresh string beans. . 89.2 2-3 7-4 0-3 0.8 195 " With man, on an average, 90 per cent of the dry matter is digestible ; 80 per cent of the pro- tein ; 96 per cent of the nitrogen-free extract ; and 80 per cent of the ether extract. String- beans or green-shell beans are usually boiled and served in various ways. In composition they compare favorably with other vegetables. Dry beans are baked with salt pork or beef and used for soups and other dishes. They are a cheap, nutritious food, rich in starch and in the proteid, legumin ; hence they may be used to replace meat in the diet. If the skins are removed they are easier of digestion and are not so liable to cause flatulence; the latter is due to the production of methane by fermentation in the intestines. Shell- and string-beans are preserved by evaporation or canning. String- beans are also preserved with salt. Cooked dry beans are canned. Bean flour consists of beans ground. Bean meal is used in Europe as feed for horses, cattle, and hogs. Bean cake is the residue after the oil has been extracted : it is fed to cattle in northern China. Bean curd is eaten by the natives of northern China. Bean Diseases. — Pod-rust ; anthracnose (Colletotrichuni lindeniuthianiim), a fungus which attacks the stems, leaves, and fruit. The disease may be carried over in the seed, the affected ones may be recognized by the yellow or brown discoloration. A black discoloration with ensuing brittleness marks the progress of the disease on the leaves. The selection of sound seed, immediate removal of infected plants, and spraying with Bordeaux mixture, are recommended. The bean-rust (Uromyces phaseoli) appears as small brown, nearly circu- lar, and slightly elevated dots on the leaves. These discharge a brown powder, the spores of the disease. Spraying with Bordeaux mix- ture is recommended. Blight (Phytophtlwra phaseoli^ attacks the Lima bean. Spraying with copper compound is recommended. The bean- weevil (Bruchus obtectns) may injure the beans when stored. After harvesting, treat the seed two or three times, at intervals of three or four weeks, with carbon bisulphide. Consult: De Candolle, ^Nativity of the Bean' ; Gray and Trumbull, '^Origin of Cultivated Plants,'' ^American Journal of Science.' XX\^I., 130: Sturtevant, ^American Naturalist.' (1887, p. 332; Wittmack, ^Ber. der Deutschen Bot. Gesell- schaft,' VL 374 (1888). S. Eraser. BEAN-GOOSE — BEARD Bean-goose (Anser segetum), a species of European wild goose, distinguished from the true wild goose {A. ferns) by its comparatively small and short bill, which, as far as the nos- tril, is black, and above it of a reddish flesh color, whereas that of the gray lag, or true wild goose, is orange-red, with a touch of grayish- white. They feed generally on high grounds, considerably inland, selecting particularly young wheat, stubbles sown down for grass, and, in spring, fields sown with beans, their fondness for which is supposed to have given them their name. They breed chiefly within the Arctic Circle, but their nests are often found in large numbers in the Hebrides. The bean-goose be- ing rather less than the common wild goose, but having the same color, is sometimes provincially called the small gray goose. Bean, St. Ignatius, a seed vi^hich yields strychnin. Bean Weevil, a beetle, Brunchus ohtectiis, which is smaller than the pea-weevil, measuring .15 of an inch in length. Compared with that insect it is lighter and more uniform in color, being of a tawny gray, without the white spots so conspicuous in B. pisi. The uniform tawny gray eljlra are spotted with a few oblong dark spots, situated between the striae ; tye antennae also differ in having the four basil joints more reddish than in B. pisi, while the terminal joint is red. The legs also are much redder. The eggs are laid on the outside of the bean; the young hatch and bore in, and there may be 8 or 10 grubs in a single bean. The chrysalis lies in a cavity in the bean just large enough to receive its body. The best remedy is to carefully examine the beans in the autumn and before sowing time, when the presence of the weevil can be easily detected by the trans- parent spots made by the larva. These should be burned and such beans as are apparently uninjured should be soaked for a minute in boiling-hot water, so that no beetles be over- looked. Bear, or Bere, a species of barley (q.v.). Bear Flag War, a rising against the Mexi- can government in 1846, by a small body of emigrants from the United States who had set- tled in California, thought to have been incited by Capt. John C. Fremont. He was then com- manding a small detachment of American troops in California and a few Americans having pro- claimed a republic in Sonoma and raised a flag on which was a figure of a bear, Fremont joined the insurgents with his troops. The Mexican war began in the following July and the Bear Flag war then became a part of the American scheme for the conquest of Califor- nia. Bear Lake, Great, a body of v^^ater in Canada, so named on account of its situation directly under the Arctic Circle, and therefore under the constellation Ursa Major. It is of very irregular shape, having five arms project- ing out of the main body, and its greatest diame- ter is 150 miles. The principal supply of the lake is Dease River, which enters it from the northeast. Its outlet is on its southwestern ex- tremity, at the bottom of Keith Bay. through Bear Lake River, which empties into Mackenzie River. The surface of Bear Lake is not more than 200 feet above the Arctic Ocean; conse- quently, its bottom must, like many of the north- western lakes, lie considerably below the level of the sea. Great Bear Lake abounds in fish of many varieties, among which the herring- salmon is noted. The second land expedition, under Franklin, in 1825, wintered on the western shore of this lake, near its outlet, where they built Fort Franklin. Dr. Richardson, a mem- ber of the expedition, mentions a curious cir- cumstance concerning the singing of birds of this lake, that when they first appeared after the long Arctic winter they serenaded their mates at midnight, and were silent during the day. The waters of the lake are so clear that a white substance can be distinctly discerned at the depth of 90 feet. This lake is situated about 250 miles east of the Rocky Mountains, about the same distance south of the Arctic Sea, and 400 miles northwest of Slave Lake. It is the basin of a water-shed of about 400 miles di- ameter. Bear Mountain, the designation of a hill some 750 feet in height, situated in the north- eastern part of Dauphin County, Pa. In its vicinity are valuable deposits of anthracite coal. Bear River, a river in Utah about 400 miles long, which rises in a spur of the Rocky Mountains, about 75 miles east of Great Salt Lake, takes first a northwesterly and then a southeasterly direction, forming nearly a letter V, of which more than half the entire length is in Oregon territory, and finally empties into the Great Salt Lake. Its valley is about 6,000 feet above the sea-level. At the bend of the river in Oregon, and about 45 miles from Lewis River, are found the famous Beer and Steam- boat springs, which are highly impregnated with magnesia and other mineral substances. Bear State, a popular nickname for Ar- kansas. Bearberry, the name of the Arctostaphylos, a genus of plants belonging to the order Erica- cecE (heathworts). It includes the two species, A. uva ursi and A. alpina, both of which are American. They are sometimes ranked under the genus Arbutus. The flowers are rose- colored, the berry of the Uva ursi is red, while that of the other is black. The INIanzanita of California is A. manzanita or A. pungcns. It reaches a height of 30 feet, and forms dense thickets, impenetrable by man or cattle. By reason of an active glycoside, arbutin, bearberry is a very efficient urinary antiseptic, useful in cystitis, pyelitis, and urethritis. The arbutin is decomposed in the urine into hydrochinon and other bodies. Its antiseptic properties are due to the phenal hydrochinon. The extract of the plant is used for dyeing and tanning leather. Beard, Charles, English Unitarian clergy- man : b. Manchester, England, 2y July 1827; d. Liverpool, 9 April 1888. He was pastor of Renshaw Street Chapel, Liverpool, editor of the Theological Rcviciv, 1864-79, and author of ^Outlines of Christian Doctrine^ (1859) ; ^The Soul's Way to God> (1875) ; 'The Hilbert Lectures,^ his most important work and one much esteemed (1883) ; (1889). Beard, Daniel Carter, American artist and author: b. Cincinnati, Ohio, 21 June 1850. He first engaged in civil engineering and surveying; went to New York in 1878 and studied art, and BEARD has since become widely known as a book and magazine illustrator. He founded and became teacher of the department of animal drawing in the Woman's School of Applied Design, believed to be the first class of this character in the world. Besides his illustrative work he has published * Moonlight^ ; ^Six Feet of Romance' ; * American Boys' Handy Book'; < American Boys' Book of Sport,* etc. Beard, George Miller, American physician and hygienic writer : b. Montville, Conn., 8 May 1839; d. New York, 23 Jan. 1883. He made a specialty of the study of stimulants and nar- cotics, hypnotism, spiritualism, etc. Among his works were: 'Our Home Physician' (1869); ^Eating and Drinking' (1871) ; 'Stimulants and Narcotics' (1871); 'American Nervousness' (1881); 'Sea-Sickness' (1882). Beard, Henry, American painter: b. Ohio, 1841 ; d. New York, 19 Nov. 1889. He was a son of James Henry Beard, and nephew of Wil- liam Holbrook Beard ; served in the Union army during the Civil War; at its close applied him- self to painting, particularly animal life ; and, after his removal to New York, in 1877, was chiefly engaged in illustrating books and peri- odicals. Beard, James Henry, American painter: b. Buffalo, N. Y., 1814; d. 4 April 1893. He be- came a portrait painter in Cincinnati, and painted the portraits of Henry Clay and other distin- guished men. In 1846 he exhibited his 'Caro- lina Emigrants' at the National Academy in New York, of which he was elected an honorary member in 1848. In 1870 he removed to New York, and in 1872 was elected a full member of the National Academy. Subsequently he de- voted himself to animal painting. Among his better known works are: 'Mutual Friend' (1875); 'Consultation' (1877); 'Blood Will Tell' (1877) ; 'Don Quixote and Sancho Panza' (1878); 'Heirs at Law' (1880); 'Which Has Pre-emption?' (1881) ; 'Detected Poacher' (1884) ; 'Don't You Come Here' and 'The Mississippi Flood' (1885) ; 'A Barnyard' and < 'LI Yer Gimme Some? Say!' (1886). Beard, Richard, American theologian: b. Sumner County, Tenn., 27 Nov. 1799; d. Leb- anon, Tenn., 2 Dec. 1880. He was graduated from Cumberland College, Princeton, Ky., in 1832; was professor of languages there, 1832-8; president 1843-53. Li 1854 he was called to the chair of systematic theology in Cumberland University, Lebanon, Tenn., a position held un- til his death. He was one of the ablest scholars and most conspicuous figures in the Cumberland Presbyterian Church. He published 'Wiiy I Am a Cumberland Presbyterian' (1874) ; 'Sys- tematic Theology,' a standard work regarded as the crystallization of the Cumberland Presby- terian form of thought and faith. Beard, Thomas Francis, commonly known as Frank Be.\rd, American artist : b. Cincinnati, 6 Feb. 1842 ; d. 1905. During the Civil War he served in the 7th Ohio regiment, and acted as a special artist for the Harper publications. As an artist he devoted himself especially to character sketches. From the age of 12 he contributed pictures to the leading American magazines. As a lecturer he had great success before Chautauqua and other audiences. He accompanied his talks by crayon sketches on a blackboard. The title of his first lecture was "Chalk-Talk," whence the word originated. In 1881 he occupied the chair of aesthetics at Syracuse University. He has published: 'The Blackboard in the Sunday-school' (1880) ; and a number of short stories. Beard, William Holbrook, American painter: b. Painesville, Ohio, 13 April 1825; d. New York, 20 Feb. 1900; brother of James H. Beard. He was a traveling portrait painter from 1846 till 1851, when he settled in Buffalo, N. Y. After several years of for- eign study and travel he settled in New York in i860. In 1862 he was elected a mem- ber of the National Academy. His works in- clude genre and allegorical pictures, but he was most popular in painting animals, especially bears, whose actions he humanized in a satirical and pleasing manner. He made many studies of decorative architecture. Among his most popular works are: 'Power of Death' (1859); 'Bears on a Bender' (1862) ; 'Bear Dance' (1865); 'March of Silenus' (1866); 'Flaw in the Title' (1867) ; 'Darwin Expounding his Theories' and 'Runaway Match' (1876); 'Di- vorce Court' (1877) ; 'Bulls and Bears in Wall Street' (1879) ; 'Voices of the Night' (1880) ; 'Spreading the Alarm' (1881) : 'In the Glen' (1882); 'Cattle Upon a Thousand Hills' (1883); 'Who's Afraid?' (1884); 'His Maj- esty Receives' and 'Office Seekers' (1886), etc. He published 'Humor in Animals,' a collection of his sketches (1885). Beard, the hair on the chin, cheeks, and upper lip of men. It differs from the hair on the head by its greater hardness and its form. The beard begins to grow at the time of pu- berty. The connection between the beard and puberty is evident from this, among other cir- cumstances, that it never grows in the case of eunuchs who have been such from childhood ; but the castration of adults does not cause the loss of the beard. According to Caesar, the Ger- mans thought, and perhaps justly, the late growth of the beard favorable to the develop- ment of all the powers. But there are cases in which this circumstance is an indication of fee- bleness. It frequently takes place in men of tender constitution, whose pale color indicates little power. The beards of different nations afford an interesting study. Some have hardly any, others a great profusion. The latter gen- erally consider it as a great ornament ; the for- mer pluck it out ; as, for instance, the American Indians. The character of the beard differs with that of the individual, and, in the case of nations, varies with the climate, food, etc. Thus the beard is generally dark, dry, hard, and thin in irritable persons of full age ; the same is the case with the inhabitants of hot and dry countries, as the Arabians, Ethiopians, East In- dians, Italians, Spaniards. But persons of very mild disposition have a light-colored, thick, and slightly curling beard ; the same is the case with inhabitants of cold and humid countries, as Holland, Britain, Sweden. The difference of circumstances causes all shades of variety. The nature of the nourishment likewise causes a great variety in the beard. Wholesome, nutri- tious, and digestible food makes the beard soft ; but poor, dry, and indigestible food renders it hard and bristly. BEARD MOSS — BEARDSTOWN In general the beard has been considered with all nations as an ornament, and often as a mark of the sage and the priest. Moses for- bade the Jews to shave their beards. With the ancient Germans the cutting off another's beard was a high offense : with the East Indians it is severely punished. Even now the beard is re- garded as a mark of great dignity among many nations in the East, as the Turks. The custom of shaving is said to have come into use in mod- ern times during the reigns of Louis XIII. and XIV. of France, both of whom ascended the throne without a beard. Courtiers and in- habitants of cities then began to shave, in order to look like the kmg, and, as France soon took the lead in all matters of fashion on the con- tinent of Europe, shaving became general ; but it was only from the beginning of the i8th cen- tury that shaving off the whole beard became common. The English clergy by and by, probably in imitation of those of western Europe, began to shave the beard, and until the time of Wil- liam the Norman, the whole of whose army shaved the beard, there prevailed a bearded class and a shaven class, in short, a laity and a clergy, in England. In forbidding the clergy to wear beards Gregory VII. (1084) appealed to the custom of antiquity. The higher classes indulged in the moustache, or the entire beard, from the reign of Edward III. down to the 17th century. The beard then gradually de- clined, and the court of Charles I. was the last in which even a small one was cherished. Shaving, among many ancient nations, was the mark of mourning; with others it was the contrary. Plutarch says that Alexander intro- duced shaving among the Greeks by ordering his soldiers to cut off their beards ; but it ap- pears that this custom had prevailed before among the Macedonians. The Romans began to shave about 296 B.C., when a certain Ticinius Mena, a barber from Sicily, introduced this fashion. Scipio Africanus was the first who shaved every day. The day that a young man first shaved was celebrated, and the first hair cut off was sacrificed to a deity. Hadrian, in order to cover some large warts on his chin, renewed the fashion of long beards ; but it did not last long. In mourning the Romans wore a long beard, sometimes for years. They used scissors, razors, tweezers, etc., to remove the beard. The public barbers' shops (tonstrincc), where the lower classes went, were much re- sorted to; rich people kept a shaver (tensor) among their slaves. Army regulations gener- ally prohibit the wearing of beards, while in the navy beards are permitted. Physicians sug- gest that the beard should be suffered to groM 3n the chin and throat where tendencies tc throat diseases exist. Beard Moss (usnea harhata), a lichen of gray color. See also Usnea. Beardslee, Lester Anthony, American naval officer : b. Little Falls, N. Y., i Feb. (838; d. near Augusta, Ga., 11 Nov. 1903. Ap- pointed acting-midshipman 5 March 1850, he ..eryed in the East Indies in 1851-5, partici- nating in one battle and several skirmishes with the Chinese army at Shanghai. Gradu- ating from the Naval Academy 1856, he passed chrough all grades of the service to rear-admiral 1895, and was retired I Feb. 1898. During the Civil War he commanded the monitor Nan- tucket in the attack of the ironclad fleet on the defenses of Charlestown Harbor, 7 April 1863, and captured the Confederate steamer Florida at Bahia, Brazil. In 1870 he took the steam-tug Palos to the East Indies, carrying on her the first United States flag through the Suez Canal. In 1879-80 he discovered, surveyed, and named Glacier Bay, Alaska. He is the author of a number of valuable official reports, especially those on ^The Strength of Metals,' * Resources of Alaska,' and 'Present Condition of Affairs in Hawaii-" (1897), published as Senate execu- tive documents; "^The Strength of Wrought Iron and Chain Cables' {li Beardsley, Aubrey, English author and illustrator: b. Brighton, 1874; d. Mentone, France, 16 March 1898. After receiving a grammar school education, he began working for London periodicals and publishers in 1892 ; and soon became widely known by his striking designs for posters and book covers. In 1894 he became art editor of 'The Yellow Book,' and while supplying it with illustrations, contributed drawings also to the 'Savoy' and 'Le Courrier Frangaise.' He illustrated 'Bons Mots' (1892) ; Malory's 'La Morte d'Arthur' (1893) ; Oscar Wilde's 'Salome' (1894) ; 'The Rape of the Lock' and 'An Album of Fifty Drawings' 1896) ; and wrote and illustrated 'The Story of Venus and Tannhauser' (1895) ; and a novel, 'Under the Hill' (1896). Beardsley, Eben Edwards, American Epis- copal clergyman and writer : b. Stepney, Conn., 1808; d. 22 Dec. 1891. He was for many years rector of St. Thomas's Church at New Haven. He wrote 'History of the Episcopal Church in Connecticut' (4th ed. 1883), and lives of 'Sam- uel Johnson, First President of King's College, New York' (1874) ; 'William Samuel Johnson, President of Columbia College' (1876) ; and 'Samuel Seabury, First Bishop of Connecticut' (1881). Beardsley, Samuel, American jurist: b. Hoosic, N. Y., 9 Feb. 1790; d. Utica, N. Y., 6 May i860. On leaving the common school he took up the study of medicine, but abandoned it for law. In 1813 he was a member of the militia that defended Sackett's Harbor. Two years later he was admitted to the bar, and became judge-advocate of the militia. In 1823 he was State senator from the Fifth District of New York. He was appointed attorney for the Northern District of New York by President Jackson, and was a member of Congress in 1831-6 and 1843-5. From 1836 to 1838 he was attorney-general of the State of New York. He became associate judge of the supreme court of New York in 1844, and three years later succeeded Judge Bronson as chief justice. On his retirement he devoted himself to the prac- tice of his profession. Beardstown, 111., a city in Cass County, 45 miles northwest of Springfield, on the Illinois River. The St. Louis division of the Burlington Route has its repair and other shops at Beards- town. There are manufactures of flour, lum- ber, and window screens as well as important cooperage works. The city has a fine park and two great bridges across the river. It was set- tled in 1832 and received a city charter in 1896. Pop. (1900) 4,827. BEARER COMPANY — BEARINGS Bearing, in navigation and surveying, sig- nifies the angle made by any given line with a north and south line. The bearing of an ob- ject is the direction of a line from the observer to that object. In architecture, the space between the two fixed extremities of a piece of timber, or between one of the extremities and a post or wall placed so as to diminish the unsupported length. Also and commonly used for the distance or length which the ends of a piece of timber lie upon ■or are inserted into the walls or piers. In mechanics, (a) The portion of an axle •or shaft in contact with the collar or boxing, (b) The portion of the support on which a gudgeon rests and revolves, (c) One of the pieces resting on the axle and supporting the framework of a carriage, (d) One of the chairs supporting the framework of a railway carriage or truck. In Jieraldry, a charge; anything included within the escutcheon. Generally in the plural, as armorial bearings.) Bearer Company, a British organization ■for removing wounded soldiers from the field of battle to the dressing station or temporary hospital, which is part of the equipment of the bearer company, and where first aid can be given to them. The bearer company, first intro- duced into the British army in 1873, comprises the medical and other officers for discipline and supply duties, over 30 non-commissioned officers and men, trained as sick bearers of the medical staff corps, about 100 attendant untrained bear- ers from the Militia Reserve, six ^'batmen® and drivers of the Army Service Corps. Tents for the personnel and for the dressing stations are •carried, and a bearer company also has ambu- lances, surgery wagons, equipment, supply, and water carts, requiring over 100 horses. A modi- fied organization for mountain warfare com- prises muleteers, mules, and a special kind of •cacolets or litters. Half a bearer company is attached to each army corps on active service, forming the link between the battalion stretcher bearers and the field hospitals. Bearings, Anti - friction. Anti - friction bearings are bearings involving the principle of rolling friction, as distinguished from sliding friction. An ordinary shaft turning in a plain journal slides around on a layer of some lubricating substance. If the lubri- cant IS good and properly applied, little energy or power is lost in the heat produced by rubbing friction. If not, then much heat is pro- •duced, often to such an extent that the oil or grease is set on fire, dried up, thereby causing a so-called "hot box'* or journal. The starting friction of a plain journal differs very greatly from the friction of motion. The reason is that while at rest under a heavy load, the film of the lubricant is penetrated, and contact of metal to metal is established. To overcome this con- tact, until the bearing has moved far enough to drag the film of oil between the points of contact again, requires much more power. Careful tests show the coefficient of rest to be from .09 to .13, as compared with .05 to .08 for the co- efficient of motion. Bearings involving rolling friction are entirely different in this respect. No lubricant other than enough to prevent rust- ing is needed. Between the shaft and the wheel or other bearing is interposed some shape, made of hardened metal that rolls between the two surfaces. Rollers and balls are the two forms adopted to accomplish this purpose. During the last decade rapid evolution has taken place in the design and range of use to which such bear- ings are applied. Improved manufacturing methods in the way of production of large balls are bringing this "type rapidly to the front for large work, such as trolley and steam car bear- ings, shafting, and many other uses not formerly possible commercially, because of cost. The latest improvements have also very greatly advanced the possibilities of the bearing of the ball type. It is the invention of C. H. Chapman, interposing smaller balls between the working, or load carrying balls, in such a way as to prevent all rubbing, sliding or wedging tendencies, thus eliminating all wear, and indefi- nitely prolonging the life of a bearing. Ad- vanced designers of this bearing have learned also to skilfully combine the materials, dimen- sions and design of same in such a way as to successfully perform what has hitherto been thought too heavy work for ball or roller bear- ings. The saving of such a bearing as made by the American Compound Bearing Company oyer the plain journal is very remarkable. Tests give the following comparative results : Bearing Starting Friction Running Friction Plain Ball .100 .009 •OS .005 It is seen that the starting friction for this ball bearing is not appreciably greater than the running friction, and that under all conditions the running friction of this compound bearing (the highest refinement of anti-friction bear- ing), is less than one tenth of the friction of the best lubricated plain journal. By referring to the cut it will be noted that B is the load-carrying ball, B' the idler, P the re- taining tube or float for B' , C the cup, K the cone, and 5" the journal sleeve. The idler B' is so placed, that its centre is coincident with a line connecting the centres of each of the adjacent load-carrying balls B, and is positively and automatically held in position by a loose free tube F that floats with the load- carrying balls, but not in frictional contact with any of the balls when the same are under load, during which time the idler balls are maintained BEARN — BEARS in the same relative position by rolling contact with the load-carrying balls. An important and unique function of the compound features of the bearing is the differ- ential compensating movement of the journal between the shaft and the balls, insuring a positive revolution of the load-carrying balls under all conditions. For the class of journals that are called upon to start frequently, the saving in power is ex- ceedingly great, and the necessity of saving power is bringing about the very general use of anti-friction bearings. Incidentally, there are other very important advantages in the decrease of annoyance and expense of lubrication, hot boxes and dirt attending the use of all plain journals. The use of anti-friction bearings as a means of saving power in all transmission prob- lems is attracting increased attention among all mechanical engineers. Henry Souther, Engineer of the American Compound Bearing Company. Beam, ba-arn, a former province of France, at the foot of the Pyrenees, with the title of a principality ; about 42 miles long and 36 broad. It now forms part of the department of the Basses-Pyrenees. It belonged, with Na- varre, to Henry IV., when he obtained the crown. The plain country is very fertile, and the mountains are covered with fir-trees, while within are mines of copper, lead, and 'iron ; and the little hills are planted with vines, which yield good wine. Pau is the chief town. There is a peculiar and well-marked dialect, — the Bearnese, — spoken in this district, which has much more affinity with the Spanish than with the French. It contains a certain number of Greek elements, which some believe to have been derived from the ancient Greek colonists established in Gaul. The people have retained many Old- World manners, customs, and super- stitions, as well as their old costume. See Bor- denare, 'Histoire de Beam et Navarre^ (1873). Bears, a family (Ursidce) of large, heavy, long-haired, plantigrade, carnivorous mammals, scattered throughout all the northern hemi- sphere, and some parts of the tropics. They are absent from Africa (except the Atlas Moun- tains, which zoologically belong to Europe), and from Australasia. In their structure and dentition they are allied to the dogs on one hand, and to the badgers, weasels, skunks, etc., (Musfclidcc), on the other. The head is broad, and the jaws extended and rather narrow, but not so powerful as those of dogs or hyenas ; while the teeth are complete and large, the molars especially being broad and tuberculous, fitting them well for crushing the vegetable fare so largely eaten by this group. The skele- ton is massive, the limbs of great strength and furnished with long and powerful claws for digging, and for use in fighting. The whole sole of the foot rests upon the ground, leaving a footprint much resembling that of a man. Ordi- narily they move about rather slowly and clum- sily, yet all except the heaviest bears climb trees, and the largest scramble over rocks or ice with surprising agility; and all, when urged by rage or fear, can get over the ground at great speed, their gait being a lumbering but effective gallop. Their ears, though small, are highly developed, and their hearing is perhaps of more service to them than is their eye-sight ; but neither equals in keenness the nose, which seems to be extremely sensitive. In respect to food, bears are truly omnivorous, taking flesh, fish, or vegetable materials as circumstances favor. They seize such small animals of the woods as cannot avoid them, and near settle- ments raid the herds of swine and flocks of sheep^ and cattle, especially in search of the young ones. All bears eat fish, and some, like the Polar and the Kadiak bear, live almost wholly upon this diet, catching the fishes cleverly from the shore by a stroke of the paw, or going into the water after them. Reptiles, crabs, crayfish, etc., are eaten also ; and insects form a large part of their fare, especially ants and honey- making bees and wasps. They dig up ant hills- and overturn rotting logs and stumps for the former, and search out and tear to pieces the combs of the latter, well protected against stings by their long hair. They also eat succulent leaves and herbage, certain roots, fruit, and es- pecially sweet acorns and berries, of which they are exceedingly fond. The Rocky Moun- tain Indians used to burn over certain tracts of mountain-side annually in order to keep the oaks low and promote the growth of certain berry-bearing bushes in order to attract the bears. They drink a great deal of water, enjoy going into it, and will swim long distances. Bears are nowhere very numerous, each pair or family occupying a district and keeping it fairly well to itself. When, as frequently hap- pens, three or four are seen together, they are likely to be old and young of the same family. Their home is usually some cave or crevice among rocks, a hollow tree, a tangle of wind- thrown logs, or a dense thicket. There, in the early spring, are born the young, usually two, sometimes four ; and in the case of the Arctic species, this often happens under the snow, be- fore the female is released from her hibernation. The young remain with the mother until fully grown ; and when they are little she guards and controls them with great solicitude, and will rush at an intruder. At other times bears are rather shy and will usually endeavor to re- treat, yet when brought to bay, fight with great courage, and are among the most dangerous animals men can encounter. Their attack is made with both teeth and claw, striking down or clasping the foe in a crushing embrace, and then tearing him with the teeth. They can easily be tamed, however, remain friendly and prove intelligent and docile to a limited ex- tent. They submit well to confinement, endure change of climate, and breed readily in captiv- ity. The close family likeness throughout the group has made their distinction into natural species a matter of much dispute and uncer- tainty. Everyone recognizes the great white ^*Polar^* or *^ice'^ bear of the Arctic region (Ursus maritiimts) as distinct. Its elongated body, long, pointed head, slender limbs, large, hairy-soled feet, and cream-white coat, are quite unlike the features of any other. Large speci- mens are nine feet or more in length, and have enormous strength. These bears are numerous throughout the icy circumpolar regions, and wander a vast distance away from the coast on the ice, sometimes swimming many miles. They often winter and their young are born on the floes. They live mainly upon seals, young wal- ruses, and fish, which they scoop out of the BEARS furf and from the coast rivers where they come to spawn, but in summer obtain various other kinds of food, including marine grass and shore herbage. The writings of Arctic explorers abound in accounts of this wide-spread species, and should be read by those who wish to know more of their habits. Another sub-Arctic bear that seems undoubtedly distinct is the glacier or ^'blue'* bear of the Mount St. Elias Alps on the coast of Alaska (q.v. ) first described by Dall in 1895. and named Ursiis cmmonsi. It is the smallest of all bears — not larger that a half- grown grizzl}', and bluish black, with a dorsal stripe, the ears and the outer surfaces of the limbs jet black; black and silver is the prevalent color of the sides, neck, and rump ; the belly and inside of the legs are white ; sides of the nose bright tan color. Very little is known of its habits, or of the extent of its limited range. The other American bears, called black, griz- zly, cinnamon, Barren-Ground, brown, Kadiak, and so on, are so confusingly alike that some conservative naturalists regard them all as merely varieties of one species, altered by cli- mate and food, and a tendency to individual variation ; and it has even been said that there was no real specific distinction between them and the Old World bears, which also present differences that blend confusingly together when many specimens are compared. Others regard the differences not only of specific value, but even place some of the forms in separate genera. The latest monographer of the Ameri- can UrsidcE recognizes no less than eight spe- cies on this continent, besides the Polar bear, and the spectacled bear of the Andes {Ursus ornatus), which is thought by others to be merely an isolated variety of the black bear, that somehow has acquired whitish rings arovmd its eyes. The black bear (Ursus Amcricanns) is the most wide-spread of these, being found in all the forested regions of the continent north of -Mexico, and still remaining wherever a large patch of forest, or a range of moun- tains or rough hills give it a harbor, whence it may raid the pasture-lots and pig sties of frontier farmers, especially in early spring, when wild food is scarce. Black bears climb trees easily, travel about a great deal, and are often captured and tamed. They are timid and secretive, and rarely are dangerous unless wounded or cornered and enraged. The color of this bear is properly black, but brown, reddish ("cinnamon*'), or even yel- lowish examples are frequently seen. The nose is always tan-colored. In size they average about five feet, and never reach the dimensions of a large grizzly. The bears of Florida and of Texas are each regarded by some as separate species, but most naturalists consider them to be merely geographical races. The Barren-Ground bear {Ursus richardsoni) is a large whitish-brown species dwelling on the brushy plains northwest of Hudson Bay, which there is good reason to believe is an iso- lated American race of the European brown bear. The grizzly bear (Ursus Jwrribilis) of the mountains of western North America is one of the largest, and perhaps the most to be feared, of any of the family. It is found from the Black Hills and the Badlands of Dakota west- ward to the Pacific coast, and from Mexico to northern Alaska. A large specimen is nine feet in length, and will weigh 1,000 pounds, but the size varies greatly. So does the color, which ranges from reddish-brown to hoary gray. Hence several varieties are recognized by hunt- ers, such as "cinnamons," "silvertips" (in which the tips of the hairs are white), and "grizzlies." The typical form may be described as yellowish- brown, with a reddish mane, black dorsal stripe, and dark-colored legs. In form they are mas- sive, with broad, squarish heads, and immensely muscular bodies. They cannot, or at any rate, do not, climb trees, but they scramble about the roughest mountains or through a dense forest with surprising agility, and can run very rapidly on occasions. They seem rarely if ever to hibernate, and go about alone or in pairs, eating all sorts of food, but seizing and pulling down large prey when an opportunity offers. In former days even a bull buffalo was unable always to resist their strength, and they con- stantly attacked them and the deer. At pres- ent the cattle and horses upon the ranges in some parts of the west suffer from their rav- ages. Though so mighty, and when at bay or enraged probably not less dangerous to encoun- ter than a lion or tiger, they will usually avoid and flee from man, and do not seem quarrel- some, the tradition of a constant enmity be- tween them and the black bears not finding support in facts. The grizzly is easily the most terrible of the game animals of North America, and one of the most formidable in the world ; but different bears vary greatly in tempera- rnent and according to circumstances. The In- dians and experienced hunters of the west, how- ever, have learned to hold all of the race in the highest respect. Much the same statement will apply to the Barren-Ground bear, already men- tioned, and to the Alaskan bears to be spoken of presently. The grizzly is still to be found throughout most of its range, though no longer numerous except in the wilder parts of the Rocky Mountains, in the northern parts of the Sierra Nevada, and in the high mountains northward from Oregon to Alaska, where the largest ones are now to be obtained. The Kadiak bear is a brownish species or variety (Ursus middendoiiE) dwelling on Kadiak Is- land, Alaska, and the neighboring mainland. Specimens of it exceeding in size any other bear have been obtained, and weighing 1,200 pounds. Whether it will prove to be a distinct species remains to be seen. The same may be said of Dalli or the Sitka bear (Ursus dalli). Both are dark-brown or grizzled, and difficult to dis- tinguish externally from other bears of the north. The bears of the Old World have been di- vided into many species by earlier naturalists, but are now regarded as more nearly connected. The best known is the common brown bear of Europe and Asia (Ursus arctos). It is of large size, reaching about eight feet in length in the bigger European specimens, and is usually of some shade of yellowish-brown, reddish-brown, or black, but varies greatly. It is exceedingly difficult to distinguish from the American bears, and passes by indeterminate variation into the so-called species of Siberia, Japan, and the Himalayan region, the differences being such as might come from varying climate and habi- tat ; thus those of the high Himalaya are small- er and lighter in color, etc. Although long ago extinct in Great Britain, it still lingers in the BEAS — BEAT wilder, more mountainous parts of Europe, and is numerous in the forests of Russia, the Cau- casus, on the Lebanon range of Asia Minor (where it is called the Syrian bear), in the Atlas Mountains of Morocco, and throughout Asia north of the Himalayas. The largest are those of Kamchatka, where they are numer- ous and bold, and live in summer almost wholly on salmon, as do the Kadiak and other Alas- kan bears east of Bering Sea. This is the bear most often seen in menageries, where it breeds readily ; and which is led about by "bear- tamers,** and taught certain clumsy "dancing** tricks. The Thibetan or "blue** bear {Ursus pruinosus), is a little known species regarded as distinct. Two other quite distinct species of bear belong to the Indo-Malayan region. One is the sloth-bear or honey-bear of India, a large animal which in its jungle home is one of the most dangerous carnivores of the Indian forests, yet is often tamed and led about the country by Hindu jugglers, who called it < alarmed even Voltaire, who was jealous of every kind of glorj-. ^The Barber of Seville' (1775) and the ^Marriage of Figaro' (1784) have given him a permanent reputation. In 1792 he wrote ^La Mere Coupable,' but never regained his former fame. His last work was (Beau- mont) ; the ^Faithful Shepherdess^ (Fletcher) ; The brief period of their collaboration came at the climax of the astonishingly rapid and varied development of the Elizabethan drama. It was during these years that Jonson and Shakespeare were at their greatest ; but a grow- ing critical consciousness among the dramatists themselves and an increasing patronage from the court seemed to promise for the drama a future even greater in achievement than its past. Gentlemen by birth and breeding, at- tached to the court rather than the people, Beau- mont and Fletcher naturally joined with Jon- son in viewing the plays of their predecessors with critical, though doubtless appreciative minds, and in seeking for a more cultivated audience and a more critical art. Their atti- tude toward the preceding drama is indicated by their abandonment of several species long popular but by this time falling under Jonson's attacks. Beaumont and Fletcher in their col- laboration made no use of the historical matter of the chronicles or of the methods or specta- cles of the chronicle play ; nor did they use the story of blood vengeance, which had been pop- ularized by Kyd in and the association with the great master brought forth some of his finest passages. He was, indeed, frequenth^ engaged in collaborating with various authors, and especially with Mas- singer. *The Queen of Corinth,* (1885-6), and a ^Manual of Meteorology^ (1890). Bebee'rine, an uncrystallizable basic sub- stance, CiaHsiNOs, extracted from the bark of the bebeeru or greenheart-tree (Nectandra rodicei), of Guiana. In pharmacy, the sulphate of bebeerine is a valuable medicine, being used, like quinine, as a tonic and febrifuge. Unfor- tunately, owing to the supplies of the bark be- ing uncertain, the drug is sometimes scarce and difficult to obtain. Bebeerine is thought, by some chemists, to be identical with buxine. Bebee'ru, a tree (Nectandra rodicei) of the laurel family. See Greenheart. Bebel, ba'bel, Ferdinand August, German socialist : b. Cologne, 1840. He was apprenticed to the turner's trade, and acquired a practical knowledge of the difficulties and disabilities of workingmen. He settled in Leipsic in i860, joined various labor organizations, and became- one of the editors of the Volkstaat and of the better known Voruidrts. Membership in the North German Reichstag was followed by his election to the German Reichstag, of which he was a member from 1871 to 1881, and which he entered again in 1883, being the acknowledged leader of his party therein. Bebel's earnest- ness, large sympathy, and wide range of know- ledge impress his hearers, although his appear- ance and manner in the Reichstag did not at first win them. These qualities are also charac- teristic of his books, among which are: *^Our Aims' (1874) ; *The German Peasant War* (1876) ; 'The Life and Theories of Charles Fourier' (1888) ; 'Women in Socialism, the Christian Point of View in the Woman Ques- tion' (1893). Bebel, Heinrich, German humanist: b. 1472; d. 1518. He was an alumnus of Cracow and Basel universities, and from 1497 professor BEC — BECHSTEIN •of poetry and rhetoric at Tubingen. His fame rests principally on his *^Facetise' (1506), a curi- ous collection of bits of homely and rather <,oarse-grained humor and anecdote, directed inainly against the clergy ; and on his ^Triumph of Venus,-* a keen satire on the depravity of his time. Bee, a celebrated abbey of France, in Nor- mandy, near Brionne, now represented only by some ruins. Lanfranc and Anselm were both connected with this abbey. Beccafico, bek-a-fe'ko, the Italian name of the small olive-brown garden-warbler (Sylvia hortnisis), called in England "pettychaps,'^ which has the habit of pecking holes in the rind of ripening figs and other fruits, in search of small insects. The damage done is very slight. These birds were eaten with much delight by the ancient Romans, and are still in high favor on Grecian, French, and Italian tables, especially in Venice. An annual feast made on beccaficos is called Beccaficata. The term is also applied in continental Europe, rather indiscriminately, to different kinds of sylvan warblers when fat and in condition for the table. Beccafumi, Domenico, bek-ka-foo'me, do'- tna-ne'ko, surnamed Mecherino, Italian painter : b. near Sienna, i486; d. Sienna, 1551. As a shepherd boy amusing himself with drawing figures on the sand, he attracted the attention of a wealthy man, from whom he takes the name of Beccafumi, who, discerning his genius, sent him to Sienna to study drawing. He there saw, admired, and tried to imitate the paintings of Perugino, but having heard much of Raphael and Michael Angelo, obtained means from his patron to travel to Rome. After much study of the masterpieces of the Vatican he returned to Sienna and enriched its churches and its city with many noble frescoes, and painted an altar- piece in the museum there. He drew and col- ored well, possessed strong inventive powers, was thoroughly acquainted with perspective, and excelled particularly in foreshortening, but he was not free from mannerism, and his heads are in general deficient in both dignity and beauty. He was buried with pomp in Sienna cathedral, among some of the finest monuments of his genius. His paintings include: (Berlin), 'Marriage of St. Cath- erine' (Rome), etc. He also gained distinction as a sculptor and engraver. Beccaria, Cesare Bonesana, Marchese di, bek-ka-re'a, cha'sa're bo-na-sa'na, mar-ka'se de, Italian author: b. Milan, 1735 (or 1738) 5 d. November 1794. He was early excited by Mon- tesquieu's 'Persian Letters,' to the cultivation of his philosophical talents, and was afterward favorably known as a philosophical writer by his noble philanthropic 'Crimes and Punish- ments' (1764), and several other works. With the eloquence of true feeling and a lively imagination he opposes capital punishments and torture. This work led to the establishment of more correct principles of penal law, and con- tributed to excite a general horror against inhuman punishments. He is also known in Italy as the author of a philosophical grammar and theory of style, 'Ricerche intorno alia Natura dello Stilo' (Milan 1770), and of sev- eral good treatises on style, rhetorical orna- ment, etc., contained in the journal 'II Caffe,* edited by him in conjunction with his friends, Visconti, Verri, and others. In 1768 a chair of political philosophy was created for him at Milan. Beccaria, Giovanni Battista, jo-va'ne bat- tes'ta, Italian philosopher: b. Mondovi, 1716; d. 27 April 1781. He went to Rome in 1732, where he studied, and afterward taught grammar and rhetoric ; at the same time applymg himself with success to mathematics. He was appointed pro- fessor of philosophy at Palermo, and afterward at Rome. Charles Emanuel, king of Sardinia, invited him to Turin in 1748, to fill the profes- sorship of natural philosophy at the university there. He paid much attention to the subject of electricity, and published 'Natural and Artificial Electricity* (Turin 1735), besides many other valuable works on this subject. In 1759 the king employed him to measure a degree of the meridian in Piedmont. Becerra, Gaspare, be-ther'ra, gas-pa'ro, Spanish artist: b. Baeza, Andalusia, 1520; d. Madrid, 1570. He studied for some time in Rome under Michael Angelo and others, and on his return became sculptor and painter to Philip II. He adorned the palace of Madrid with sev- eral frescoes, and also executed works in sculp- ture and architecture. Beche, bash. Sir Henry de la, English geologist: b. 1796; d. 1855. He founded the geological survey of Great Britain, which was soon undertaken by the government, De la Beche being appointed director-general. He also founded the Jermyn Street Museum of Economic or Practical Geology, and the School of Mines. His principal works are: 'Geology of Jamaica' ; 'Classification of European Rocks' ; 'Geological Manual' ; 'Researches in Theoreti- cal Geology' ; 'Geology of Cornwall, Devon, and West Somerset' ; etc. Beche-de-Mer, bash-de-mar, the French name for the dried flesh of holothurians. It is largely cured in the South Sea Islands. Becher, Johann Joachim, beH'er,^ yo'han yo'a-Him, German chemist : b. Speyer, '1635 ; d. 1682. He traveled and resided in various parts of Germany, Holland, Italy, Sweden, and Great Britain, investigating Cornish and Scotch mines. He wrote a number of works on chemistry, the chief of which is entitled 'Physica Subterranea.' In it he expounds his views on the composition of inorganic bodies, the constituents of which, according to him, are three earthy principles, the vitrifiable, the combustible, and the mercurial. The metals consist of these three earths in dif- ferent proportions, and whenever a metal is calcined the combustible and mercurial earths are expelled, and the vitrifiable earth forms the residual calx. When these principles are com- bined with water different salts are formed, and a fundamental acid, which exists in all the others. This theory was subsequently developed by Stahl, who, by means of the principle of phlogiston (q.v.) explained not only the calci- nation of metals, but the phenomena of combus- tion in general. Bechstein, Johann Matthaus, beH'stin, yo'- han ma-ta'oos, German naturalist : b. Waltcr- shausen, Gotha, 1757; d. 1822. He studied the- ology for four years at Jena, but never felt in his element unless hunting in the fields or roam- BECHSTEIN — BECKE ing the forest. After teaching for some time he resolved to devote himself to his favorite pur- suits, and in 1800 the Duke of Saxe-Meiningen made him director of the Forest Academj^ of Dreissigacker, in the vicinit}-^ of his capital. This academy, under Bechstein's management, became one of the most celebrated establishments of the kind in Germany. His chief work is his ^Nat- ural History of Germany,^ in four volumes. In Great Britain he is best known by a treatise on singing-birds. Bechstein, Ludwig, loodViH, German poet and novelist : b. 1801 ; d. i860. > He is chiefly remembered for ^The Legend Treasure and the Legendary Cycles of Thuringia^ (1835-8) ; * German Fairy-Tale Book' (1845, 41st ed. 1893) ; and others. Among his epical poems are: (1894); ^ South Sea Stories* ; The Ebbing of the Tide^ (1896) ; and with W. Jeffery, ^A First-Fleet Family^ (1896); ^Pacific Tales^ (1897); (1897); (1900); 'Edward Barry> ; .350, and came into the possession of the Duke of Marlborough. On coming to the ham- mer once more it strongly attracted the atten- tion of book-collectors and antiquaries, and realized the unprecedented sum of $5,350, being sold at that price (June 1833) to Sir John Tobin of Liverpool. It is now lodged in the collec- tion of the British Museum. In a historical point of view it is interesting on account of its pictorial embellishments, some of which have been engraved by Virtue for his portraits to illustrate the ^History of England.^ For the antiquarian and the student of the fine arts it is one of the most interesting monuments of that age. The antiquarian Cough published a work describing the Bedford Missal. Dibdin, in his ^Biblioniania,^ gives an account of it. Bedivere, bed'i-ver. Sir, in Arthurian legend, one of King Arthur's most trusted knights. It was Sir Bedivere who cast the sword Excalibur into the lake and carried the dying Arthur to the vessel in which he was borne away to Avalon. Bedlam, a corruption of Bethlehem, the name of a religious foundation granted in 1547 by Henry VIII. to the corporation of London, and by them applied to the purpose of a hos- pital for the insane. The place was originally within the city boundaries, but in 1814 a new building was erected in St. George's fields, on the south side of the Thames, which was called New Bethlehem, or vulgarly, Bedlam. The patients, who had been discharged partially cured, and went about begging, were called Bed- lam beggars, or Tom-o'-Bedlams. Bed'lington, a coal-mining town of Eng- land on the river Blyth in Northumberland, il miles north of Newcastle. Pop. (1901) 18,750. Bedlington Terriers. See Terrier. Bedloe's, or Liberty Island, an island in New York harbor ; ceded to the United States government, in 1800 ; the site of Fort Wood, erected in 1841 and mounted with "j guns. It is now the location of Bartholdi's colossal statue of ^Liberty Enlightening the World,' presented by France to the United States. See Liberty, Statue of. Bedmar', Alphonso de la Cueva (Marquis te), Spanish politician and cardinal: b. 1572; d Oviedo, 1655. He was sent in 1607 by Philip III. as ambassador to Venice, and rendered him- self famous by the conspiracy against Venice ■which St. Real has so well described. Not- withstanding the circumstantiality with which the details are given by St. Real, the very existence of the conspiracy is still considered by many a very difficult historical problem. The probability is that the conspiracy was real, but that the Senate, satisfied with having discovered it, and not willing to break altogether with Spain, did not think it advisable to give it much publicity. It forms the subject of Otway's tragedy, ^Venice Preserved.' Bedmar was obliged to save himself by flight to avoid the fury of the populace, but he did not lose the favor either of his own sovereign or of the Pope. By the former he was appointed gov- ernor of the Low Countries, where his severity and rigor made him universally detested; and from the latter he received a cardinal's hat. Bednur, bed-noor', or Bednore, a decayed city, now a village, of Mysore, India ; in the midst of a basin in a rugged tableland of the Vi'estern Ghats, at an elevation of more than 4,000 feet above the sea, 150 miles northwest of Seringapatam. It was at one time the seat of government of a rajah, and its population exceeded 100,000. In 1763, it was taken by Hyder Ali, who pillaged it of property to the estimated value of ii 2.000,000, and subsequently established an arsenal here. Bedott', Widow, the literary name of Mrs. Francis Miriam Whitcher, author of the once famous ^ Widow Bedott Papers.' Bedouin, bed'oo-en or bed'oo-in, the name given to the nomadic Arabs, as distinguished from those settled in towns and villages and engaged in agriculture and manufactures. The Bedouin inhabit the deserts of Arabia and northern Africa, and are lean and short, but very active and capable of enduring great fatigue. They live mainly by 'hunting and pas- toral occupations, and very little agriculture is carried on. Their food consists mostly of the produce of their herds, and they enjoy excellent health. Their temperament is cheerful, and they are honorable in their dealings with one another or with guests. Many of them, how- ever, partly support themselves by robbery, but the statements regarding their marauding pro- pensities seem to have been exaggerated They live in tents, but frequently, when traveling, they sleep in the open air. Their religion is pro- fessedly Mohammedan, but is of a very simple character. The women grind corn and weave coarse cloths, and many of the tribes barter horses, camels, cattle, etc., for various neces- saries, such as arms and cloth. Some tribes gain part of their subsistence by escorting travelers, pilgrims, etc., across the deserts. They are monogamous, but divorce is easily obtained and frequent. Though generally very ignorant, they are by no means unintelligent ; and they possess the lively fancy of most Eastern nations. The head of a tribe is the shclk, and they have also judges known as cadis. See Burckhardt, ^ Notes on Bedouins and Wahabys' (1830) ; Blunt, < Bedouin Tribes of the Euphrates' (1879). Bedreddin Hassan, bed-red-den' hjis'san, the hero of the amusing cream tart story in the •^Arabian Nights Entertainments.' Bedstraw, Galium, a genus of about 200 annual or perennial herbs with four-angled stems, natives mostly of the colder climates, whether of latitude or altitude, in the northern hemisphere. The species, which are mostly harsh-feeling weeds, are often attractive for their regular whorls of leaves and their pani- BEE — BEE-EATER cles of profuse minute, white, yellow, green or purple blossoms which in some species are used by florists to add *"misty delicacy and airy grace^' to bouquets especially of sweet peas, ana lo cover rock-work in and out of doors. The two species most cultivated for this purpose are G. mollugo (European) sometimes called baby's breath (see Gypsophila), and G. boreale (American). Yellow bedstraw or cheese ren- net (G. vernutn), a species with yellow flowers, is used for curdling milk. Its flower sprays yield a yellow dye when boiled in alum solu- tions and its roots a red one, said to rival mad- der as a wool dye. For this use attempts at cultivation have been made in England. This species, together with G. irifidum and G. boreale, redden the bones and milk of animals that eat them in quantity. Goose grass or cleavers (G. Aparinc), a troublesome weed common to Europe, Asia, and America, yields a seed some- times used as a substitute for cofifee. It is noted for the hooked prickles of its stems, fruits, and leaves. In China B. tuberosum is cultivated for its farinaceous tubers. Some species, for in- stance, G. mollugo and G. rigidum, have been tried in cases of epilepsy and others in cutane- ous disorders. Bee, a name applied to those Hymenoptera which stand at the head of the order, and are represented by the bumblebee and the honey- bee. They differ from the wasps in the mouth parts being longer, especially the tongue or pro- boscis. Each hind tibia is hollowed, broad, and so modified as to form a "honey-basket.^' The hairs are more or less spinulose or plumose, often of use in carrying pollen. Bees are soli- tary or social in their habits, and form nests con- sisting of either a single or many cells, and of varying materials and degrees of complexity. There are two families of bees: (i) Andrenidce, comprising solitary bees, with the labian or under lip flattened and very short. They exca- vate nests in turf and in grassy sunny fields, making a deep pipe or hole, with short lateral galleries in which the grub feeds and grows. The species of Halictus and Andrena comprise the most common wild bees. They entertain guest bees (Nomada). See Guest-bees. The family Apidce includes the species of Bombus (see Bumblebee), Xylocopa (see Car- penter Bee) ; stingless bees (Melipona), and the honeybee (q.v.) Apis melliflca. In the bees the labium is usually produced into a long, slender, hairy proboscis, which is. bent under the body. It is very long in Anthropora, and in Englossa longer than the body. The basal joints of the labial palpi are longer than the others. The mouth-parts are complicated and adapted for manifold purposes connected with nest- or cell-building and the collection of nec- tar and pollen. Indeed the bees stand at the head of the insect series, whether we take into account their structure, mode of development, habits, instincts, and differentiation of the sexes, though the flies (Diptera) are in their way more specialized, but the specialization of cer- tain parts in flies is accompanied by the degen- eration and atropy of others. The humble-bee besides its ordinary use in nest-building employs its jaws to cut holes in flowers in order to reach the nectar. The transformations of the bee are complete. The larva is a footless maggot incapable of ex- tended locomotion and lives in its cell where it is fed by the workers, or lives on pollen or honey stored up in the cell ; the food is always derived from plants or other bees, although honeybees have been observed licking meat. The cells of the honeybee are open, the workers, feeding the larvse with a mixture of honey and pollen, the honey being specially adapted to be digested by the young. The larva transforms into the pupa within its cell, previously spinning a slight cocoon, or in the case of the honeybee simply closing the mouth of its cell with a cover of silk. The sting of the queen bee is curved, of the worker straight ; it is composed of three pairs of processes arising from the under side of the segments near the end of the abdomen, wherein is the poison-sac. Besides male and female, there are in the social species numerous barren females or work- ers, in which the ovaries are small and unde- veloped. Occasionally worker bees are capable of laying eggs and producing young. The dif- ference between the workers and the fertile fe- males or queen is now known to be due to the difference in the food given to the larvae ; that of the queen larva being richer in nitrogenous substances than that fed to the larval workers. Thus heredity has nothing to do with the mat- ter ; the larvse of the workers and of the queen inherit the same peculiarities; the barrenness and smaller size of the worker bee is the result of being fed with different food. Bees are essential agents in the fertilization of flowers, in setting fruit, and were it not for them it is now supposed that we should not have had the irregular flowers of the pea and other papilionaceous plants. , It is a notable fact that the incoming or origin of flowers and of the bees and other insects which visit them was geologically about the same time. At any rate bees ensure the existence of flowers and the latter have modified bees. The number of known species of bees is up- ward of 5,000. They abound in all parts of the world, especially the tropics; while humble- bees (Bombus) reach the polar regions and live as alpine forms on high mountain plateaux and ranges. For the different kinds of bees, see also Bee-keeping; Bumblebee; Cabfenter Bee; Honeybee; Leaf-cutting Bee; Mason Bee; Stingless Bee; also Insect. Bee-birds, birds that devour bees, especially the honeybee. Not many birds have this habit, the bees being protected against most birds by their stings. A few fly-catching birds, however, have learned how to avoid being stung, and catch not only bees but wasps, take them to a perch and beat them, so as to kill them, and probably get rid of the sting before swallowing them. Notable among these are the European and African bee-eaters (q.v.). The American kingbirds (q.v.), also catch bees, but not as frequently as is popularly supposed, and are known in the southern States as "bee-martins. '* Bee-eater, a small, richly plumaged, and graceful bird of southern Europe and northern Africa, whose food consists almost wholly of bees and wasps, and which haunts the neighbor- hood of the hives of honeybees and devours these useful insects in great numbers. The bee- BEES. 1. Drone. 2. Queen. 3 . Worker, with front view of each . 4. Italian bee. 5. Egyptian bee. 6. Comb with open and closed cells, (a), queen cell. 7. A swarm; 8-15, Bee enemies. 8. Hornet. 0. Bee wolf. 10. Wasp. I la, Male; iib, female, and iic, larvae of the May worm. 12, 12a. Bee beetle and larva. 13, 13a. Bee fly and larva. 14, 14a. Wax moth and larva. 15, Bee louse, enlarged. BEE-KEEPING Bee on the wing. Bee on Red Clover. eaters are related to the kingfishers, and like them dig deep nesting-holes in earthen banks, and lay pure white eggs. Bee-keeping. Few persons who see the little boxes of honey in the market realize the import- ance and extent of the bee-keeping industry of this country. Careful estimates, based on United States statistics, and the output of large factories for the manufacture of bee-hives and honey-boxes, show that at least 125,000,000 pounds of honey is annually produced, making an aggregate of 5,000 car- loads, or a train 35 miles long. The aggregate value of this, at a conservative figure, is $10,- 000,000. When it is remembered that Califor- nia alone, in a good year, can produce 500 car- loads of honey, and that a good many of the other States produce from 50 to 100 carloads, one can form some idea of the commercial possibilities wrapped up in so small an animal as the bee. The honey resources of the great West are very largely dependent on al- falfa and mountain sage. In the north-central and eastern States, clover and basswood, in the south- central, tupelo, palmetto, catclaw, mesquite, and guajilla. There are several races of bees — Apis dor- sata, or the giant bee of India and of the Philip- pines ; A. Indica, of India ; A. Horca, and A. mellifica. From a commercial standpoint, the last mentioned is by all odds the most im- portant. It comprises the black or German bees of this country ; the Italians, from the southern part of Italy; the Syrians, of Palestine; the Cyprians, from the island of Cyprus ; the Carniolans, from Austria ; and the Tunisians, from North Africa. But the most important of all of these varieties is the Italian. They are the most industrious and the gentlest. They, together with the black or German bees and their crosses, incorrectly termed ^hybrids,* are used most extensively in the United States — in fact, throughout almost all the civilized world. Three Kinds of Hive Bees. — There are three kinds of bees in the hive ; namely, the workers, or undeveloped females ; the queen, a fully developed fe- male ; and the drone, or the male bee. The queen lays all the eggs of the hive, and may as many as 3,000 a day. Notwithstanding there may be from 10,000 to 100,000 bees in a single colonj^ the queen will be the mother o.f the whole colony. The drones are incapa- ble of gathering honey, and serve only one purpose — that of fertilizing or fecundating the young queens, which act takes place in the air. The workers gather all the honey and pollen, fill all the combs, and rear the young or baby bees. As soon as the mating season is over, the drones are shoved out of the hives and allowed to starve^ How to Handle Bees. — There is a general impression to the effect that the ordinary honey- bees are vicious, ever in a towering rage, ready to attack any one who comes near their hives. This is a great mistake. Under certain condi- tions, when their habits are known, they can be handled almost like kittens ; will permit one to tear their hives apart, rob them of their months and months of hard earnings — the honey and the wax — without even offering to sting. But an inexperienced or awkward per- Queen Bee. Bee-Smoker. son may infuriate them to fearful vengeance. To bring them into a state of subjection it is only necessary to blow smoke into the entrance and over the combs, when, if the motions about the hive are careful and deliberate, they will offer no attack. Smoke, when intelligently used, disarms opposition, puts the bees in a quiet state, and enables their owner to do with them, within reasonable limits, whatsoever he will. The bee-smoker is simply a smaU bellows attached to a sort of tin cup having a suitable snout from which the smoke is blown by the ac- tion of the bel- lows, forcing air through the cup in which there is a slow-burning fuel. Besides the bee- smoker, the bee- keeper generally uses a bee-veil made of mo.squito- netting, Brussels net, or any suitable material, the same fastened to the rim of the hat, and tucked inside of the coat, collar or under the suspenders. Gloves are sometimes used by very timid persons or be- ginners; but as a general thing all work with the bees is performed with the bare hand. Stings are, of course, occasionally received ; but beyond a sharp momentary pain no permanent effect will be felt after the first season; for the system of the bee-keeper very soon becomes BEE-KEEPING inoculated so that no swelling takes place. There are many who receive from ten to twenty stings a da}% without any ill effects; but if one will work carefully he will receive almost no stings. Marketable Products of the Hive. — These are beeswax, comb and extracted honey, propolis or Section of Comb Honey. bee-glue (sometimes used for making shoe polishes), and "apis mellifica,** a homeopathic preparation taken from the poison sacs at the root of the stings of bees. While beeswax is an important product, and commands a good price in the United States, comb and extracted honey are the main sources of revenue to the bee-keeper. Comb honey is usually put up in little square or oblong boxes, of which something like 50,000,000 are made and used in the United States annually. The honey in these boxes retails all the way from 12 to 20 cents. Ex- tracted is honey in the liquid form, throw^n from the combs by means of centrifugal force in a honey-extractor, hence the name. There are bee-keepers who make a specialty of pro- ducing honey in the comb, and others the same product free from the comb. The first men- tioned can not be adulterated nor manufactured, newspaper reports to the contrary. One bee- keeper of considerable standing and prominence has had a standing offer of $1,000 for a single Comb Honey Super. sample of artificial comb honey so perfect as to deceive the ordinary consumer. Notwithstand- ing that this offer has been broadly published over the United States for over twenty years, no one has ever claimed it. It may be well to explain that a partial basis for these canards lies in the fact that bee-keep- ers use a commercial product known as "comb foundation,*' which is nothing more or less than sheeted wax, about an eighth of an inch thick, embossed on both sides with indentations hav- ing the exact shape and form of the bottom of the cells of honey-comb — hence the name. It is put into the hive, where the bees draw it out into comb. This is as far as the skill of man can go ; hence there is no such thing as artificial comb; much less, artificial comb honey. The business of producing comb honey re- Bee Hive for Comb Honey. quires some knowledge of the trade. Hives and supers require to be specially constructed, and so arranged that the little boxes containing strips of comb foundation shall be accessible to the bees where they can construct the founda- tion into comb, fill the cells with honey, and seal them over. When their owner finds that his little servants are busily at work in the Uncapping Can. fields ; that the combs are beginning to whiten and to be bulged with honej^ in what is called the brood-nest, he puts on his honey-boxes in BEE-KEEPING the part of the hrVe he calls the "super.^^ These are allowed to remain on during the height of the honey-flow until they are filled and capped over, when they are removed and others put in their place. The business of producing extracted (or liquid) honey requires the same intelligent care and attention. Instead of section-boxes, how- ever, an extra set of combs, or "brood-frames,'' as they are called, are put in the upper story, the same being placed above the lower or brood part of the hive. When these are filled with honejs and capped over, they are removed from the hive by first shaking the bees off, taken to the extracting-house, and extracted. The thin film of wax covering the comb is shaved off with a thin-bladed knife specially designed for the purpose. After the combs are uncapped they are put in the honey-extractor, and re- volved at a high rate of speed. The honey flies out of the comb by centrifugal force against the Honey Extractor. sides of the extractor, when the combs are re- versed, exposing the other surfaces, which are emptied in a like manner. They are next re- turned to the hive to be filled by the bees, when the process may be repeated as long as the season lasts. Stvarming. — At the beginning of or during what is called the honey-flow, when the colony has reached a high state of prosperity, and the combs are being filled with honey, a swarm is liable to come forth between the hours of nine and three o'clock. Three-fourths of the bees, including the queen, are pretty sure to come out with a rush, filling the air with thousands and thousands of them. The bees hover about in the air for fifteen or twenty minutes, when they will in all probability cluster on some bush or tree. They will wait here for two or three hours, or perhaps as many days, at the end of which time they will take wing again and go direct into some hollow tree or cave where they will take up new quarters and start housekeep- ing anew. The young bees, with one or more young queens, are left to take care of the old hive. In ordinary practice it is a custom for the bee-keeper to rehive the swarm by taking the bunch of bees, as soon as it clusters, and putting it into another hive. Or he can, if he chooses, clip the old queen's wings, preventing her flight with the swarm ; and when the bees come forth she will crawl out of the entrance to be cap- tured by her owner; and as soon as her subjects return, which they will do to find their royal mother, they are allowed to go into a new hive on the old stand, while the old hive is carried to another location in the bee-yard. Robbing. — There are certain times during the season when no nectar is secreted by the flow- ers. It is during such periods as this that the bees will rob each other if they can, or help themselves at candy-stands or to the house- wife's fruit-preserves during the canning sea- son. When sweets can be obtained in consider- able quantity, either from a weak colony unable to defend itself, or from man, the bees are apt to become furious, and their craze is not unlike that of gold-hunters when gold is discovered in large quantities. There is a rush ; and when the sweets are suddenly cut off, the bees are in- clined to be cross, and to sting. The wise and careful bee-keeper will see to it that the en- trances of his weak colonies are properly con- tracted so that the sentinels or guards can protect themselves from intrusion from other bees. Feeding. — The bee-keeper may, perhaps, take all the honey away from his bees, or nearly so, as his honey will bring two or three times as much as any cheap syrup costs him. Sometimes he finds it profitable to take the honey all away and give them syrup made of granulated sugar. The purpose of this, of course, is to keep them from starving during the time no honey is com- ing in from natural sources or during the win- ter. Uniting. — After the honey- flow, and just be- fore winter comes on, there are liable to be many weak colonies. It is a common practice to put two or more of these together so as to make one strong stock. The combs from two or three different hives are put into one hive, and the bees are confined for several days w-ith wire cloth over the entrance, when they are allowed to fly. Some of them will return to their old stands, but the majority of them will remain. _ Wintering. — Two methods are in vogue in the colder portions of the United States. One is, to put the colonies in double-walled hives, packed under chaff cushions, and contracting the entrances down to shut out as much cold as possible. The other is, to put the summer hives into a dry dark cellar as soon as cold weather comes on, leaving them there till spring. Diseases of Bees. — Bees are subject to dis- eases, like all domestic animals, such as dysen- tery, paralysis, and foul and black brood. Dys- entery, as its name signifies, is a sort of bowel trouble due to the retention of the feces for an extended time during winter. If the bees are shut up without a chance for flight (for they never void their feces inside of the hive except when confined), their intestines become dis- tended, and this finally results in purging. The only remedy is warm weather and a flight. Paralysis is a form of palsy that seems to affect the adult bees. Their bodies become swollen and shiny, the affected individuals crawling out of the entrance, and running into the grass to die. The remedy is to sprinkle powdered sul- phur over the combs. Foul brood and black brood are germ-diseases that affect bees in the BEE-KILLER — BEECH larval or imago state. The little maggots be- come brown or black, and die, the dead matter finally assuming a sodden, gelatinous, or ropy condition. When it attacks a colony shake the bees into a clean hive, and put them on frames of foundation. For three or four days feed them sugar syrup. The old combs, including the frames, must be burned. If the hive has been soiled by the tainted honey or dead matter, it must be scalded out or held over flames for a few seconds. Any honey taken from the hive may be rendered safe to give to the bees by boiling it for two hours. Bibliograpliy.— Root. (1903) ; Miller, revised edition (1889); Hutchinson, ^Advanced Bee Culture' (1902) ; Cook, < Manual of the Apiary' (1902) ; Root, ^Quinby, New Bee-keeping;' and the following periodicals: ^American Bee Journal,' published in Chicago, 111.; ^Gleanings in Bee Culture,' Medina, Ohio; * Bee-keepers' Review,' Flint, Mich.: < American Bee-keeper,' Fort Pierce, Fla. ; ^Progressive Bee-keeper,' Higginsville, Mo. E. R. Root, Author of ^A B C of Bee Culture'' and Editor of '■Gleanings in Bee Culture.' Bee-killer, one of the robber-flies (q.v.), of the dipterous family Asilidcc, some of which are known to seize with their sharp lancet-shaped beak bumblebees and honeybees, and suck their blood. This species Trupanca apivora, the bee- killer, captures the honeybee while on the wing, and one such fly has been known to kill 141 bees in a single dav. These flies are stout-bodied, hairy or bristly, with a long abdomen ; the mouth-parts are much developed and adapted for piercing. The maggots live in the soil, prey- ing on the grubs of beetles, or on the roots of plants. Bee-larkspur. A well-known flowering plant. Delphinium grandiHorum. Bee-line. The shortest route to any place, that which a bee is assumed to take ; though, in fact, it often does differently in its flight through the air. Bee-louse (Braula coeca) is a parasite on the honeybee, occurring on the thorax espe- cially of the queen bee — rarely on the drones. Benton states that he has at one time removed as many as 75 from a queen, though the num- bers do not generally exceed a dozen. It is the sole member of a family (Braulidce) of flies closely allied to the horse flies (Hippoboscidcv) and the bat-ticks (q.v.). The bee-louse is about one twentieth of an inch in length, entirely with- out wings, and somewhat spider-like in appear- ance. On the day the maggot or larva hatches from the egg it sheds its skin and turns to an oval puparium of a dark-brown color. It has frequently been imported to this country on queens with attendant bees but has gained no foothold. Bee Moth, or Wax Moth, a moth belong- ing to the family Gallcridce; specifically, Gai- leria mellonella, the larva of which feeds on wax in hives. The worm is yellowish-white with brownish dots. It constructs silken galler- ies running through the comb of the bee-hive on which it feeds. When about to transform it spins a thick white cocoon Two broods of the moth appear, one in the spring, the other in Au- gust, and the caterpillars mature in about three weeks. It may become a most troublesome pest in the apiary. Bee-orchis, the name of a species of orchis, the Ophrys apifcra It is so called because a part of the flower resembles a bee. It is large, with the sepals purplish or greenish-white, and the lip brown variegated with yellow. Bee-tree, a forest tree inhabited by honey- making bees, which have taken possession of some natural hollow and filled it with combs. Such a tree may be found by accident, or by deliberate hunting. Those in search take to the edge of the woods a box of diluted honey, and when they see bees near them, open the bait to which one by one the bees will be at- tracted. The direction of their flight is then carefully observed ; the bait is moved to an- other point, and new observations taken, and the converging lines followed until they inter- sect at the tree. As most of these bee tree colonies are escaped swarms the capture of the bees themselves is more important than merely to get such honey as may be there. The best plan is therefore to climb to the nest, if pos- sible, and gather the combs and contents to be let down in a pail or basket, or else saw out the whole section of the tree containing the nest and lower it to the ground. Full direc- tions for this complicated proceeding are given by Root, ^A B C of Bee Culture' (1903). Beech, a small genus (Fagus) of handsome forest trees of the natural order Fagacece, di- vided by some botanists into two genera : Eufa- gus, containing five species natives of the north- ern hemisphere ; and Nothofagus, embracing 12 species indigenous to the southern hemisphere. The American beech (Fagus ferruginea), and the European or common beecli (F. sylvatica), are closely similar. They often attain heights exceeding 80 feet, and diameters greater than 2>\ feet. The former has smooth, light-gray bark, a broad round head, and leaves which turn yellow before they fall in the autumn ; the latter has dark-gray bark, is more ovate in general out- line and has shining leaves which persist during most of the winter. The tree scarcely bears fruit before the 50th year of its age, and then not every year. After the 140th year, the wood- rings become thinner. The tree lives for about 250 years. Some stems are fluted, some even twisted. The roots stretch far away, near to the surface of the soil, partly above it. Young beeches are useful for live hedges, as they bear pruning, and as their branches coalesce by being tied together, or by rubbing each other. Ampu- tations of limbs, and deep incisions in the tree, soon become obliterated by the bark, which con- tains a peculiar periderma. The dead leaves are often used by the poor of Europe for stuffing beds and pillows. Each yields pleasant, edible, three-angled nuts, usually in pairs in prickly in- volucres. These nuts are eaten by swine, deer, and poultry, and in France, and to some extent elsewhere, are pressed to extract a mild culinary long-keeping oil. Both species thrive in light, limy loams, upon which formations they often become the leading species of tree, covering large tracts. They do not grow in damp situations. Their reddi.sh-brown, solid, hard but brittle wood makes excellent fuel, and is largely used BEECH TREE (Fagus sylvatica). BEECH DROPS — BEECHER for making tool handles where bending- and twisting are not expected. The wood is not dur- able in contact with soil, but since it is remark- ably lasting when immersed in water, it is largely used in dams, water-mills, sluices, etc. The wood of the European species is preferred to that of all other species, except walnut, for making shoes (sabots), in France, since it is remarkably resistant to the entrance of water. The bark is sometimes used in tanning. Both species are used in ornamental planting on ac- count of their symmetrical forms, the colors of their bark and foliage, which latter is remark- ably free from the attacks of disease and insects. The European species has produced a large num- ber of varieties, of which the copper or purple beech is probably the best known in America. F. Sicboldi, a native of eastern Asia, is some- times planted for ornament. F. Ciinninghami, the "myrtle tree'* of Tasmania, is a large tree with leathery birch-like leaves. F. betuloidcs, a Terra del Fuegian species, is a striking feature of the winter landscape on account of its ever- green foliage. Its wood is used for flooring ves- sels, and is exported to the Falkland Islands and elsewhere for roofing. Blue or water beech, better known as American hornbeam (Carpiiins aincricana), is a common tree in damp woods and along streams. It is not a member of this genus. See Hornbe.a.m. From the wood of the beech an especially pure form of creosote is obtained that is largely employed in the treatment of chronic lung dis- orders. See Creosote. Beech Drops, a plant parasite on beech tree roots. See Cancer Root. Beecher, Catherine Esther, American edu- cator and philanthropist, eldest daughter of Ly- man Beecher: b. East Hampton, L. I., 6 Sept. 1800; d. Elmira, N. Y., 12 May 1878. Her faith and life were nearly wrecked at 22 by the loss of her betrothed, Prof. A. M. Fisher of Yale, in a shipwreck, and she lived unmarried, plunging into work as a relief ; but she had the Beecher energy which could hardly have re- mained quiet in any case. From 1822 to 1832 she managed a girls' school in Hartford, Conn., with remarkable success and repute ; she wrote some of her own class-books, one on mental and moral philosophy being afterward used in col- leges. From 1832 to 1834 she kept a similar school in Cincinnati, in order to be with her father, who was at the head of Lane Seminary ; but her health compelled her to abandon it. For the rest of her life she worked with heart and soul to advance the education of women and girls, physical and social, as well as intellectual and moral, for she believed in the full harmony of all inborn human qualities. She organized a ^^National Board of Popular Education, » to train women teachers, especially for the South and West, and traveled and wrote extensively in this behalf. As with most persons of much force, she had many ^^fads'^ and eccentricities ; but she was a high-minded, accomplished, and charming woman, full of wit and executive capacity. Her first work was on the ^Difficulties of Religion^ (1836) ; among others were ^True Remedy for the Wrongs of Women^ (1851) ; ^Physiology and Calisthenics' (1856) ; <^Common Sense Applied to Religion' (1857) ; ^Woman's Profession as Mother and Educator, with Views in Opposition to Woman Suffrage' (1871). Beecher, Charles, American clergyman, son of Lyman Beecher : b. Litchfield, Conn., 7 Oct. 1815 ; d. Haverhill, Mass., 21 April 1900. He was educated successively at the Boston Latin School, the Lawrence Academy at Groton, Alass., and at Bowdoin College, graduating 1834. He then studied theology under his father at Lane Seminary, Ohio, and in 1844 was ordained pastor of a Congregational church at Fort Wayne, Ind. Leaving there in 185 1, he was pas- tor in Newark, N. J., till 1854, and in 1857 took charge of a church in Georgetown, Mass. He lived in Florida, 1870-7, and was State superin- tendent of public instruction there for two years, and was stated supply at Wysox, Pa., in 1885. His best work was in the selection of the music for the famous ^Plymouth Collection' of hymns, he having fine musical taste. He wrote ^The In- carnation' (1849) ; ^ David and His Throne' (1855); (r8so) ; ^Papal Conspiracy Exposed^ (1855) ; ^History of Opin- ions on the Scriptural Doctrine of Future Retri- bution^ (1878). Beecher, Henry Ward, American clergy- man, eighth son of Lyman Beecher : b. Litch- field, 24 June 1813; d. Brooklyn, N. Y., 8 March 1887. He was the offspring of a union which has produced some of the world's greatest in- fluences, and in theory ought always to produce them — of a stern, energetic, high-principled father, with a sweet and beauty-loving mother, giving power and continuity to sensibility and sympathetic emotion. Macaulay and Victor Hugo are notable instances in this respect. He had a rather bare, hard childhood, under a father and stepmother who both considered duty and en- joyment hardly compatible. The great genial orator who shouted down and won over hostile mobs was a shy and sensitive boy ; the editor, author, and book-lover had a wretched inem- ory, disliked study, and wanted to go to sea. But the religious atmosphere was around him : ^'converted'^ in a revival, he decided to train for the ministry, entered the Boston Latin School in 1826, then the Mount Pleasant School at Amherst, graduated from Amherst College 1834, and began a theological course under his father at Lane Seminary. He revolted at his father's sulphurous theology, however, and for a short time in 1837 was editor of an anti- slavery paper in Cincinnati, fervid love for humanity holding first place with him then as always. Later in the year he took charge of a country church at Lawrenceburg, Ind., and mar- ried Eunice White Bullard, of West Sutton, Mass., to whom he had been seven years en- gaged. In 1839 he was called to a church in Indianapolis, then a town of 4,000 people, re- maining there eight years and becoming widely known both as a revivalist of great power and a preacher of delightful humor and originality. In 1847 he was called to Brooklyn to take charge of a new church of nine members, called Plymouth Church. He held this pastorate for 40 years, lacking a few months; and for the most of the time the church was not only a Mecca to the vast class seeking to retain Chris- tianity while forced to discard very much in the way of theology, but the fountain of a stream of influence acting powerfully on the moral and social, and sometimes the political tendencies, of the age. He preached on whatever related to the public welfare, probed every evil and championed every reform, especially of intem- perance and slavery. His outspoken courage, strength of thought, and fe :ity of expression, his exhaustless wealth of eloquent rhetoric, humor and pathos, dramatic force, and apt analogy and illustration, not only drew to hear him one of the largest permanent congrega- tions in the United States — his immense church with its seating capacity of nearly 3,000 being constantly crowded — but made his pulpit one of the most famed and influential of the Eng- lish-speaking world ; his utterances forming a basis of action for many. He was not a the- ologian m any sense, and his influence rested on his abstinence from credal logic: he was the spokesman of those who fear that if they compute their doctrinal latitude they may dis- cover much more than thev wish to' know and prefer to keep the fruits of faith by evading exact definition rather than lose them by a rigid self-inquiry. To the orthodox of his day he seemed an underminer ; though to many at the present he seems conservative enough. He be- lieved in the divinity of Christ, in immortality, in special providences and miracles, in the Bible as a divine revelation by fallible human instru- ments ; he did not believe in eternal punish- ment (which he publicly denied in 1878), elec- tion and reprobation, the fall of Adam, the vicarious atonement, or imputed sin and right- eousness ; and he declared the orthodox Deity ^*barbaric, heinous, hideous.^' He gave his whole soul to the work of preaching, often de- livering several discourses in a single day; but such was his physical and mental vigor that he accomplished work in several other directions sufiicient in each case for an able and lusty man. He was one of the giants in oratory of the anti-slavery time ; and none of the champions of the cause was more hated and reviled than '*the abolitionist Beecher,^' whose work was ex- celled only by that of his great sister, and who left his pulpit in the Fremont campaign to denounce the Kansas crime, joining the Re- publican party on its inception and traveling great distances to speak at its meetings. Yet he was not an abolitionist like Phillips and Garrison: and like Lincoln and the mass of the Republicans, held that Congress could not interfere with slavery in the South, but only prevent its extension. The pro-slavery party drew no fine distinctions, however, and the northern Democratic papers all through this period are filled with denunciation and caricature of him. His series of speeches in England in the fall of 1863 helped to turn the tide of English opinion in favor of the North. The prime element of his success was his enormous physical vitality : he tired out the mobs which howled him down, by actual bodily endurance and power of lungs, before he began the splendid addresses which made them at least enthusiastic admirers of himself, if not perhaps converted believers in the Union. He had the ^^rapture of the strife'^ which Attila knew : he loved to be the target of a ring of opponents as well as John Quincy Adams, though without his bitterness, and was as instant and unfailing in retort ; a dozen taunts hurled at him in a breath met a dozen crushing but never malicious answers. He was for many years one of the most popular lecturers and after-dinner speak- ers in America. Of his set orations, those at the Burns centennial of 1859, and by govern- ment request at Fort Sumter, in April 1865,. on the anniversary of its capture by the Con- federates are most famous. He occupied sev- eral editorial positions: editing the Independent 1861-3 ; founding the Christian Union, editings it 1870-81 ; was a fertile sketch writer, and wrote a novel and a ^Life of Christ.' Be- sides this, he was an enthusiastic amateur farmer,, and loved outdoor nature passionately, as well as art and the drama. His open, impressible, sensitive nature responded readily to all things that stimulate the intellect, the heart, or the soul. He was essentially a man of impulses and inspirations, trusting to the spontaneous suggestion of the moment, often not even mak- ing notes for a sermon ; but like all men who make any impress on the world, kept himself filled with material for inspiration to work on. HENRY WARD BEECHER. BEECHER both from books and life. He always lamented that it had not been permitted him to lead a life of scholarship ; but in fact he did not lead it because he was not willing to pay the price for it, of abstinence from leadership in the politi- cal and social life of the time. He never lacked courage to take a side, right or wrong, and often grieved and alienated large bodies of his friends by doing so when passions were hot. He was a firm adherent of the Seward-Johnson policy of reconstruction in 1866, despite the terrible re- sults to which its prematurity led ; sympathized with the Greeley movement in 1872; and braved a threatened disruption of his church in 1884 by voting and speaking for Cleveland. He be- lieved in and advocated free trade and woman suffrage. So brave and impulsive a nature was always shocking the conventions of his order. Naturally, he was forever perpetrating indiscre- tions in speech, to the delight of his enemies and the discomfiture of his friends. Tact was unfortunately not a large inheritance of most of Lyman Beecher's children, and the paucity of Henry Ward's share was the cause of many an inept and unfortunate public utterance; while his fertility of comparisons and analogies often led him into pithy exaggerations and a humorous extravagance of language which his opponents could easily disprove in the letter. In 1874 Mr. Beecher's former associate and later successor in the editorship of the Inde- pendent, Theodore Tilton. charged him with criminal intercourse with Mrs. Tilton. A com- mittee of Plymouth Church examined the case and exonerated Mr. Beecher ; but Tilton had brought suit for $100,000 against him, and after a six months' trial the jury disagreed, a week's confinement and 52 ballots showing three for the plaintiff and nine for the defendant. The long public scandal seriously affected Beecher's in- fluence with the outside public, but his own con- gregation stood loyal to him; and while his ^Life of Christ^ was unsalable, and the last two vol- umes not published till long after his death, his sermons and some of his essays remain popular. Mr. Beecher's first literary work was done in his Indianapolis pastorate, where he edited an agricultural paper, and wrote for it articles afterward republished as "^Fruits, Flowers, and Farming^ ; and published his first book, ^Lec- tures to Young Men' (1844). For 20 years after coming to Brooklyn he contributed regu- larly to the Independent, signing with a (*), whence the two-volume collections of 1855 and 1858 were termed "Star Papers.*' He was also for some time a regular contributor to the New York Ledger of "Thoughts as They Oc- cur,'* collected in 1864 as ^Eyes and Ears' ; and wrote serially for it his one novel, ^Norwood' (1867). His sermons were reported in full after 1859, and the collected volumes are termed 'Plymouth Pulpit.' A two-volume selection revised by the author was issued by Lyman Ab- bott in 1868; other compilations from them are 'Life Thoughts' and 'Notes from Plymouth Pulpit' (1859); 'Pulpit Pungencies' and 'Royal Truths' (1866) ; 'Morning and Even- ing Devotional Exercises' (1870) ; and 'Com- forting Truths' (1884). For some years, also, his prayers, of great charm and high quality as compositions, were taken down by stenographers and a collected volume issued in 1867. Other of his works are: 'Freedom and War' (1863) ; 'Aids to Prayer' (1864) ; 'Lecture-Room Talks' (1870) ; 'Yale Lectures on Preaching* 3 vols. 1872-4) ; 'Evolution and Religion' (1885). Individual sermons and addresses were published also, such as 'The Strike and Its Lessons' (1878) ; 'Doctrinal Beliefs and Un- beliefs' (1882), 'Wendell Phillips' (1884); 'A Circuit of the Continent' (1884). He also edited the famous 'Plymouth Collection' of hymns (1855); and 'Revival Hymns' (1858). His life was written before his death by Lyman Abbott (1883), and Samuel Scoyille (1888); see also 'Autobiographical Reminiscences of Henry Ward Beecher,' by T. J. Ellinwood, who was his private stenographer for 30 years. Mr. Beecher's wife, Eunice White Bul- LARD, was born in West Sutton, Mass., 26 Aug. 1812; d. Stamford, Conn., 8 March 1897. She wrote articles for periodicals, some of them afterward collected: also 'From Dawn to Day- light' (1859), a story of her early married life; 'Motherly Talks with Young Housekeepers' (1875); 'Letters from Florida' (1878); 'AH Around the House' (1878) ; and 'Home' (1883). Beecher, James Chaplin, American clergy- man, son of Lvman Beecher : b. Boston, Mass., 8 Jan. 1828; d. Elmira, N. Y., 25 Aug. 1886. He graduated at Dartmouth 1848, studied the- ology at Andover, and in 1856 was ordained a Congregational clergyman ; thence till 1861 was chaplain of the Seamen's Bethel in Canton and Hong Kong, China. Entering the Civil War as a chaplain, he rose to the rank of brevet brigadier-general and subsequently held pasto- rates in Owego, N. Y., 1867-70, Poughkeepsie 1871-3, and Brooklyn 1881-2. After 1864, a suf- ferer from mental troubles, his last three years were passed in much distress, and he finally committed suicide. Beecher, Lyman, American theologian: b. New Haven, Conn., 12 Oct. 1775 ; d. Brooklyn, N. Y., 10 Jan. 1863. He was a blacksmith's son and himself a blacksmith's helper and far- mer's lad in boyhood. Entering Yale College at 18, he graduated in 1797, studying also the- ology under President Dwight till 1798, when he became supply at East Hampton, L. I., and was ordained there 1799, remaining till 1810. His re- markable pulpit oratory gained national repute from a sermon in 1804 on Alexander Hamilton's death at Burr's hands — an occasion which made more than one reputation, all utterances being eagerly scanned from the excitement and party feeling. In 1810 he was called to Litchfield, Conn., the seat of a celebrated law school and other educational institutions, at a time when New England was the intellectual autocrat of the country, and towns were few and small ; and soon became recognized not only as the foremost man in the Congregational body, but one of the greatest of American preachers. About 1814 a half-dozen sermons of his against intemperance, then a common vice among even the clerg\', were not onh'' widely read in America and England, but were translated into several foreign languages. He also took a foremost part in organizing Bible and missionary socie- ties, etc. ; and his courage, power, and energy made many look to him for guidance and suc- cor in trouble. This came in a flood during the next decade, when the Unitarian movement, under Channing and its other great early lead- ers, was sweeping the Congregational churches BEECHER around Boston off their feet; and Mr. Beecher, in 1826, at the urgency of intiuential clergj^men, accepted a call to the Hanover Street Church in Boston to stem the tide, which his polemic ardor perhaps aided in doing. In 1832 he ac- cepted the presidency of Lane (Theological) Seminary near Cincinnati, Ohio, which had been endowed on the express condition of his taking charge of it, to strengthen Calvinism in the rapidly growing West ; he remained there till 1852, holding also the chair of sacred theology, and was its titular president till death. He was also pastor of the Second Presbyterian Church in Cincinnati 1832-42. In 1833 the famous phi- lanthropist Arthur Tappan, the chief founder of Lane, sent the students a report of the pro- ceedings of the Philadelphia abolition conven- tion of that year; the students, partly southern, at once fell into disputes on the subject of slavery. The trustees vainly tried to check the meetings and discussions ; Kentucky slavehold- ers came over and urged violent suppression of these meetings and threatened the destruction of the seminary. The trustees in terror for- bade all further discussion of slavery, and therefore all the students deserted in a body. The most of the anti-slavery wing refused to return, and their supporters founded Oberlin College; a few came back, and Mr. Beecher and his son-in-law Calvin E. Stowe tried for many years to build up the seminary again, but in vain. Shortly after this, in 1835, he was tried as a heretic and hypocrite, first before his own church and then before the Presbyterian Synod, for his ^'moderate Calvinism** ; he was acquitted, but the Old School and New School contro- versy finally split the church in 1838, Mr. Beecher adhering to the New School party. In 1852 he resigned the presidency of Lane and returned to Boston, to prepare his works for publication ; but was striken with a slow paraly- sis of the brain, which enfeebled his mind for many years before his death. Despite the im- pressions of the extreme orthodox party, he was of the firmest doctrinal faith, though his theology was of his own make, and his humor- ous audacities of speech often shocked digni- fied propriety. His boundless energy, boldness, unconquerable will, and personal magnetism, were those of a natural leader of men ; while his unsurpassed logical power, his intense and com- pact expression, and above all his entire sin- cerity and spirituality of purpose, winged with his racy and picturesque wit, set him above every other American clergyman of his time in popular influence. See his "^ Autobiography and Correspondence,^ edited by his son Charles, 1865. Beecher, Thomas Kinnicutt, American clergyman, son of Lyman Beecher: b. Litch- field, Conn., 10 Feb. 1824; d. Elmirr., N. Y., 14 March 1900. He studied at Illinois College, of which his brother Edward was president, gradu- ating in 1843. He was principal of a Phila- delphia grammar-school 1846-8, of the Hartford (Conn.) High School till 1852. He then re- moved to Williamsburg (Brooklyn). N. Y., and founded a Congregational Church, which he left two years later for the pastorate of a church in Elmira, N. Y., where he spent the rest of his life, well-known as an unsectarian philan- thropist and moral teacher, writer, and lec- turer, editing for many years a weekly depart- ment in Elmira newspapers to discuss current questions, often with rasping originality and always with independence. He was nominated for a variety of offices by nearly every known political party, but never elected. He was a chaplain in the Army of the Potomac four months in 1863. In 1870 he published a series of lectures as a book, entitled *Our Seven Churches* (of Elmira) ; and in 1901 a posthu- mous collection of his juvenile stories was issued, ^In Tune with the Stars.^ Beecher, Willis Judson, American clergy- man and author : b. Hampden, Ohio, 29 April 1838. He was graduated from Hamilton Col- lege in 1858, and from Auburn Theological Seminary in 1864, and filled several Presbyte- rian pastorates. From 1865-9 he was professor of moral science and belles-lettres in Knox Col- lege, 111., and in 1S71 became professor of the Hebrew language and literature in Auburn Seminary. He has published: ^Farmer Tomp- kins and his Bible' (1874) ; '■Drill Lessons in Hebrew* (1883) ; ^ Index of Presbyterian Min- isters in the United States 1706-1881' (1883) ; 'Old Testament Notes' (1897) ; and hundreds of articles in newspapers, periodicals, cyclopae- dias and reference books. Beecher Family, The, an extraordinary American family of religious and humanitarian leaders, mostly of such salient and frequently eccentric originality, combined with immense energy and independence of thought, that the human race was once said to consist of ''men, women, and Beechers.** They were all de- scendants of Lyman Beecher of New Haven, Conn., himself one of the most notable of them; a famous clergyman, orator, and con- troversialist, who had 13 children, so many of whom rose to national or even international distinction that he was said to be "the father of more brains than any other man in America.*' Eight of them were boys, seven living to ma- turity, and nearly all of them to extreme old age, all becoming Congregational ministers ; and the greatest, Henry Ward, said of them that "only one tried to escape the ministry, and he did not succeed.*' But so great was the in- trinsic force of the blood that the daughters were no whit inferior in persistence of energy and originality of ideas, that marriage did not in the least quench their outside work and influ- ence, and that one of them has shown the highest creative genius and left the most en- during memorials of the entire family. The difference in work and sympathies of father and children resulted from difference of generation rather than of spirit. Lyman Beecher's prob- lems were mainly religious. He lived at the threshold of the new material development of the country, when it seemed that the en- grossing task was to prevent its relapsing to heathenism ; at the beginning of the great lib- eralizing flood of new scientific knowledge, when there seemed a danger of all Christianity being swept away with the cosmology it rested on ; and before the humanitarian questions in this prosperous country had come to the fore. He was nearly 60 when the slavery problerr first showed signs of becoming acute ; more than 60 when Father Mathew established his first temperance society across the water ; and at no period would he ever have favored woman suffrage, which one even of his notable daugh- BEECHEY — BEEF-TEA ters wrote against. But his influence was in- tensely strong in creating the loftj'- spirit that fed humanitarianism. It is an encouragement to large families, as so often in history, that the greatest of his children were among the younger ones : Airs. Stowe was the sixth and Henry- Ward Beecher seventh, while the most forceful of the others, Isabella (Mrs. Hooker), was the eleventh. In their order, the ones who grew up were Catherine, William Henry, Edward, Mary, George, Harriet, Henry Ward, Charles, Isa- bella, Thomas, and James. Catherine, robbed of the betrothed of her youth, gave herself to work for her sex, though not with quite the aspirations of most recent women of her type, and perhaps did as much good in training culti- vated wives and mothers as if they had remained unmarried teachers. William Henry was a home missionary and clergyman in Ohio, and a clergyman in the East. Edward was a clergy- man, editor, and theological writer, who tried to pour antique Zoroastrianism into modern molds. !Mary married in Hartford, Conn., and became the mother of Frederick Beecher Per- kins and grandmother of Charlotte Perkins Stetson. George died by accident at 34, while filling a western pastorate. Harriet, author of ^ Uncle Tom's Cabin,^ and of a mass of other works which would give any other author one of the foremost places in American letters, has a secure immortality from her masterpiece. Henry Ward, creator of the greatness of Plymouth Church, a Moses of liberal Con- gregationalism, anti-slavery and temperance leader, ardent in all work for humanity and the elevation of the mass, need not be further cha- racterized. Charles, clergyman and admirable musician, is gratefully remembered for his work in compiling the * Plymouth Collection^ of hymn-tunes. Isabella married John Hooker, a Hartford lawyer fully in sympathy with her, and has been for many years one of the stanch- est champions of woman's rights and upholder of all good causes. Thomas, for some 40 years located in Elmira, N. Y., was noted as an able and independent thinker on all public questions, which he discussed with ability and high- mindedness. James C. was clergyman, soldier, and clergyman again, till shadows overclouded his mind and brought on a tragic death. Al- together, the family is one of the most useful as well as distinguished of the American intel- lectual aristocracy. Beechey, Frederick William, English ad- miral, the son of Sir William Beechey the painter: b. London 1796; d. 28 Nov. 1856. He entered the navy at the age of 10, and in 181 1 was present in an engagement off Madagascar, in which three French frigates were captured. In 1818 he accompanied Lieut, (afterward Sir John) Franklin in an expedition to discover the northwest passage, and the following year took part in a similar enterprise with Capt. Parry. In 1821 he was commissioned, with his brother H. W. Beechey, to exainine by land the coasts of north Africa. During the years from 1825 to 1828 he was engaged as commander of the Blossom in another Arctic expedition, by way of the Pacific and Bering Strait. Of this he published an account: ^Narrative of a Voyage to the Pacific and Bering Strait' (1831), and subsequently a description of the botany and zoology of the regions visited. In 1854 he was raised to the rank of rear-admiral. Vol. 2 — 30. Beechey, Sir William, eminent English portrait painter : b. Burford, Oxfordshire, 12 Dec. 1753; d. Hampstead, 28 Jan. 1839. He en- tered a conveyancer's office, but soon abandoned it, and determined to make painting his profes- sion. In 1772 he was admitted to the Royal Academy. A large equestrian picture of George HI. secured his election as a Royal Academician and procured him the honor of knighthood. He was afterward constantly and lucratively employed. He died in 1839 at the advanced age of 86. His attitudes and expression are gen- erally good, but marks of carelessness are apparent in some of his latest pictures. Two portraits by him are contained in the Metropoli- tan Museum of Art in New York. Beeching, Henry Charles, English clergy- man and author: b. 15 May 1859. He was edu- cated at Balliol College, Oxford, was rector of Yabbendon, Berkshire, 1885-1900, and has been professor of theology at King's College, London, from 1900. He has published editions of Mil- ton, Vaughan, Daniel, Drayton, and several anthologies of verse, and is author of ^Love in Idleness' (1883) ; 'Love's Looking Glass' (1891) ; *^ Seven Sermons to Schoolboys' (1894) ; 'In a Garden and Other Poems' (1895) ; 'Pages from a Private Diary' (1898) ; 'Conferences on Books and ]\Ien' (1900) ; 'Inns of Court Sermons' (1901) ; 'Religio Laici' (1902) ; 'Jane Austen' (1902) ; 'Two Lectures on Poetry.' Beef. See 'Meat. Beef-eater. See Buffalo-bird. Beef-eaters, a popular name for the yeomen of the guard of the sovereign of Great Britain, a body instituted in 1485. There are now one hundred in service, and seventy supernumeraries. They are dressed after the fashion of the time of Henry VII. The warders of the Tower of London, who wear a similar uniform, are also so called. Beef-tea, a preparation made from raw beef and often employed in nursing. It is ser- viceable for stimulation or for nourishment largely according to the method of its prepara- tion. As usually made, or as prepared from ready-made beef extracts, it has very little food value, but is a strong heart stimulant. When fresh beef is finely chopped and its juice squeezed from it and flavored, to take away the raw taste, the extract obtained is rich in the muscle juices and is highly nutritious. It is often thus prepared for infants and invalids. If, however, the juice thus obtained is mixed with water and the compound is boiled, as ie the usual manner, all of the muscle proteids are coagulated, as a scum, and the muscle salts, or extractives remain in solution. The nutri- tious portions, the scum, is thrown away and the extractives retained in the tea. In this form the nutritive value is slight unless the coagula- ted proteid is retained. Ordinary meat extracts are mixtures of the meat extractives, xanthin, hypoxanthin, creatin, creatinin, etc. These are heart tonics but not nourishing. Their use is contraindicated in irritable hearts, in gout, and in any condition in which it is thought that the patient is not breaking down the normal amount of proteid matter. Broths are made of other meats. See also Dietetics; Foods for BEEF-WOOD — BEERS Beef-wood, a popular name for the wood of several Australian trees of the genus Casua- rina (q.v.), which forms the type of a family CasuarinacecE. The trees have been compared to gigantic horse-tails. They have pendent leafless branches, and apetalous monoecious flowers, the male ones being in spikes, and the female in heads. The wood is of a reddish color (whence the name), hard, and close- grained, and used chiefly for fine ornamental work. Beehive Houses, the archaeological desig- nation given to ancient dwellings of small size and somewhat conical shape, found in Ireland and Scotland. They are formed of long stones without cement, each course overlapping that on which it rests. Sometimes they occur singly, at other times in clusters, and occasionally have more than one apartment. Some of them are found near ancient oratories, and were therefore probably priests' dwellings, and certain groups are encircled bj' a stone wall for defense. They are assigned to various dates between the "th and the 12th century. Beelzebub, be-el'ze-bub (Hebrew, ^^the god of flies"), a deity of the Moabites or Syrians. This term is applied in the Scriptures to the chief of the evil spirits (Matt. xii. 24; Mark iii. 22, etc.). The correct form is probably Beelze- bul, but in the Syriac and Vulgate the final let- ter is b. The alteration in that letter from b to / may have been due to euphonic reasons, or, as has also been maintained, zebul may have signified "dwelling^^ or "dung." In order to conceive how this name came to be given to one of the greatest of the imaginary spirits of evil it must be remembered what a terrible tor- ment insects often are in the East. We find that almost all nations who believe in evil spirits represent them as the rulers of disgust- ing, tormenting, or poisonous animals — flies, rats, mice, reptiles, etc. The Greeks wor- shipped several of their chief deities under the character of protectors against these animals ; for instance, Apollo Smintheus, the destroj^er of rats. Christ was charged by the Jews with driving out demons by the power of Beelzebub (Matt. xii. 24). Compare 2 Kings i. 2. Beer, bar, Adolf, Austrian historian: b. Prossnitz, Moravia, 27 Feb. 1831. His publica- tions include: ^History of International Com- merce^ (1860-64; '•Holland and the Austrian War of Succession* (1871) ;*^ The First Partition of Poland-* (1873-4) '> "'The Austrian Commer- cial Policy in the Nineteenth Century^ (1891). Beer, Michael, German dramatist, brother of the composer Meyerbeer : b. Berlin, 1800 ; d. Munich, 22 March 1833. He became known to the literary world by five tragedies, of which his ^Struensee-* is the best. His complete works were published at Leipsic in 1835, and his * Correspondence' in 1837. Beer, Wilhelm, German astronomer: brother of the preceding: b. 4 Feb. 1797; d. 27 March 1850. He was a Berlin banker, and in 1849 became a member of the Prussian Diet. His astronomical labors were associated with those of the astronomer, Miidler. He built an observatory, chiefly devoted to the observation of the planet Mars and the moon. The crown- ing labor of the two astronomers was a map of the moon, published in 1836, upon which the Lalande prize was conferred by the French Academy. Beer, be'er. See Ale and Beer ; Brewing. Beer-money, in the British army, a pay- ment of one penny a day. formerly given to non- commissioned officers and soldiers when on home service, instead of a daily portion of beer and spirits. The custom was established in 1800, and abolished in 1873, when the stoppages for rations were also abolished. Beere, be'er, Mrs. Bernard (Fanny Mary Whitehead), English actress: b. Norwich. Eng- land, 1859. She was the daughter of Wilby Whitehead and began her stage career in 1878 at the London Opera Comique. On her mar- riage she retired a short time from the stage, presently returning to it as Mrs. Bernard Beere,. and her acting in * Fedora* and "^Diplomacy* at- tracted much favorable comment. In 1892 she visited the United States professionally. In 1900 she married H. C. S. Olivier. Beers, be'erz, Ethel Lynn, American poet: b. Goshen, N. Y., 13 Jan. 1827; d. 10 Oct. 1879. She was the author of ^AU Quiet Along the Potomac, and Other Poems^ (1879), and was a descendant of John Eliot, the apostle to the In- dians. Beers, Henry Augustin, American author: b. Buffalo, N. Y., 2 July 1847. He graduated from Yale in 1859; became tutor there in 1871, and professor of English literature in 1880. He has published, among other works, ^A Century of x\merican Literature* (1878) ; ^The Thank- less Muse.-* poems (1886) ; "^From Chaucer to Tennyson* (1890) ; 'Initial Studies in American Letters* (1892) : "^A Suburban Pastoral, and Other Tales' (1894); ^The Ways of Yale' (1895) ; 'History of English Romanticism in the Eighteenth Century' (1899) ; 'History of Eng- lish Romanticism in the Nineteenth Century' (1901). Beers, Jan van, barz, yan van, Flemish poet : b. 22 Feb. 1821 ; d. 14 Nov. 1888. From i860 he was professor at the Athenaeum in Ant- werp. His principal works, full of sentiment and melodious quality, are 'Youth's Dreams' (1853); ^Pictures of Life' (1858), and 'Senti- ment and Life' (1869). Beers, be'erz, Nathan, American soldier: b. Stratford, Conn., 1753; d. New Haven, 10 Feb. 1849. While still quite young he went with his father to New Haven and was a member of a military company formed there in 1774, which was commanded by Benedict Arnold. Imme- diately on the receipt of the news of the battle of Lexington the company was called together by their captain, and Beers with 39 others vol- imteered to accompany him to the seat of war. They immediately set out, and, as they passed throuffh Pomfret, were joined by Gen. Putnam. Beers received a lieutenant's commission in the army in 1777, and served until 1783. He after- ward engaged in mercantile afi^airs. and in 1798 was chosen steward of Yale College, a position which he resigned in 1819. Beers, William George, Canadian dentist: b. Montreal, 5 May 1843. He was educated in his native city, and having entered the dental profession, he founded the first dental journal in Canada, and remained its editor for several years. In 1900 he was editor of 'The Dominion Dental Journal' (Toronto), and dean of the BEERSHEBA — BEET SUGAR Provincial Dental College, as well as professor of dental pathology, therapeutics, and materia medica in McGill University. He wrote the first book on the game of lacrosse, and js regarded as its originator. He organized and captained the first lacrosse team that visited England in 1876, and also the second one in 1883. He is noted as a lecturer and public speaker, and since 1862 has been a constant contributor to the prin- cipal American magazines. Beersheba, be-er-she'ba (now Bir-es-Seba, "the well of the oath"), the place where Abra- ham made a covenant with Abimelech, and in common speech representative of the southern- most limit of Palestine, near which it is sit- uated. It is now a mere heap of ruins near several wells, though it was a place of some importance down to the period of the Crusades. Beeswax, a solid fatty substance secreted by bees, and containing in its purified state three chemical principles — -myricin, cerin, and cero- lein. It is not collected from plants, but elab- orated from saccharine food in the body of the bee. It is used for the manufacture of candles, for modeling, and in many minor processes. Beet (AS. bete; Lat. beta), a plant of the genus Beta, natural order Chenopodiaccc. There are several species, mostly biennials, with stalked, smooth, ovate leaves, with flowers borne on tall leafy stems. B. vulgaris is generally recognized as the only species of economic importance ; the slender-rooted variety, or sea-beet, is found growing wild in sandy soil, near the sea, in Europe and western Asia. De Candolle re- garded it as the original type. It has been in cultivation since 200-300 B.C., and to-day the nu- merous varieties may be classified under one of five sections, although the divisions are arbi- trary and of no great importance. Garden Beets. — These usually have small tops, with turnip-shaped to tapering roots of medium size, fine-grained, smooth, regular, gen- erally red but sometimes yellowish or whitish in color. Among popular varieties are Early Blood, Eclipse, Bassano, and Egyptian turnip. The soil best suited is a loose, rich, deep, clean, well- tilled loam. Well-rotted barnyard manure with some potassic fertilizer is often applied. Seed is sown as soon as possible in the spring, for the early crop, with other sowings until June to en- sure a succession ; in rows, varying from one foot apart, where intensive gardening is prac- tised, to three feet where horse labor is used. The plants are thinned from four to six inches asunder in the rows, care being taken to leave only one plant in a place. Thinning is often done when the young plants are large enough to sell as "greens. * The late crop, if required for winter use, must be stored before frost. Beets are sometimes forced under glass. Mangold Wiirsels or Mangels are a large, coarse form raised for cattle-feeding. Stand- ard varieties include Mammoth long red. Golden tankard, and Globe. Seed is sown as early as possible in the spring, in rows two to three feet apart, and the plants allowed to stand 12 to 16 inches asunder in the row. To ensure a good crop the land must be in a high state of cultiva- tion and well supplied with plant-food. They may be grown on alkali soils. Sugar-Beeis. — The varieties are rather small- growing, and nearly always yellowish or whit- ish in color. They contain a high percentage of sugar, which has been increased by selection and cultivation. They are extensively grown in Eu- rope and in the northern and western States. Chard or Swiss Beets have comparatively large leaves with succulant leaf-stems, which are cooked and eaten like asparagus. See Chard. Foliage Beets are grown for ornamental pur- poses. The luxuriant foliage is of many colors and varied in markings. Brazilian, Chilean, Vic- toria, and Dracena-leaved are well-known va- rieties. They may be raised from seed, like other beets, and the roots lifted in fall and kept over winter. Uses and Feeding Value. — As a vegetable the root of the garden beet is boiled, pickled, and used as a salad ; and the tops are boiled as "greens.'' The contain on an average 88.5 per cent water ; 1.5 per cent protein ; 8 per cent ni- trogen-free extract; i per cent ash; o.i per cent ether extract, and 0.9 per cent crude fibre. Man- gels are fed to cattle; they contain from 7 per cent to 15 per cent dry matter, of which about 88 per cent is digestible ; an average percentage composition may be taken as: water, 90.9; pro- tein, 1.4; nitrogen-free extract, 5.5; ether ex- tract, 0.2; ash, I.I ; crude fibre, e.g. About 77 per cent of the protein or 96 per cent of the nitrogen-free extract is digestible. The dry matter of mangels and corn silage are of about equal value for feeding, but as the cost of pro- duction in mangels is double that in corn, stock- men in the United States have not paid much attention to them. Enemies. — Beets are sometimes injured by the beet-fly, otherwise they have few insect ene- mies. They are sometimes attacked by rust, rot, leaf-spot, and scab. Spraying with Bordeaux mixture will prevent the leaf diseases. Scab at- tacks the root, and as it also attacks the potato these crops should not be grown in succession. Beet pulp is a by-product of sugar-beet fac- tories, consisting of sliced sugar-beets after the sugar is removed. It contains about 10 per cent dry matter, the remainder being water, and in the wet condition must be fed at once or held in silos. It may be fed to milch cows, fattening steers, and sheep, and ranges in value from half to two thirds the value of corn silage. Some of the factories have erected sheds and feed larg'^ quantities of it to stock with the addition of hay and grain. Samuel Eraser, Instructor in Agronomy, Cornell University. Beet Sugar, the sugar obtained from the beet, similar to cane sugar ; but inferior in sweet- ening power. The discovery of sugar in the beet was made by a German chemist, Mar- graff, as early as 1747. No practical re- sults followed his discovery, however, as the cost of obtaining sugar from the beet l^ laboratory methods was too high as com- pared with that of cane sugar. Little progress was accomplished until about SO years later, when another German chemist, Achard, suc- ceeded in extracting sugar from the beet root on a comparatively large scale. In 1812 a manu- factory was in operation in Silesia, in which, under Achard's direction, about 20 quintals of beets were worked up daily, and about five pounds of raw sugar extracted from every quin- tal. The high price of sugar prevailing at that time all over the European continent by reason of the blockade, and the great interest and fa- vorable attitude taken by the different continental governments toward the new experiment, caused BEET-SUGAR INDUSTRY it to be a success for a short time. Napoleon is- sued an imperial decree in the early part of his reign, establishing this industry in France, and in 1S12 he ordered the building of 10 factories and placed Delessert in charge of their construc- tion. In 1830 attempts were made in the United States to introduce the cultivation of the sugar- beet. It was not, however, till 1876 that the first successful beet-sugar factory was built, be- ing erected in Alvarado, Cal., since when the production of beet sugar in the United States has increased by leaps and bounds. Beet-sugar Industry, The. The produc- tion of sugar-beets and of beet sugar in the United States is now assuming such proportions that, with the increase of .factories and the marked popular interest, it has become one of the leading subjects demanding consideration from agriculturists. There is probably no other industry in this country that has developed so rapidly and now absorbs so large a share of public attention as that of beet sugar. Attempts were made to establish the industry in Massachusetts in 1841. There were also ef- forts in this direction in Illinois, Wisconsin, and California between 1863 and 1876, and much was claimed for the industry at this time by news- paper writers, capitalists, and leading farmers. In California, after a long period of unprofitable production, it achieved its first success. The failure of these early attempts seems now very natural as we look back over the history of agri- cultural progress in the United States. The beet-sugar industry belongs to the domain of agriculture, and the problems it presents are agricultural. These early efforts were simply ahead of their time in the course of agricultural development, and they failed in the establishment of the beet-sugar industry for want of the proper methods of farming and the proper conditions underlying the farming industry. At the time of the first attempts at sugar-beet production, agriculture comprehended simply the primary features. Its products were confined mainly to cereals, forage crops, and live stock, and the production and marketing of raw ma- terials was its main object. The farmer in those early days did not concern himself with enter- prises dependent on the concentration of efforts in the production of finished products. Land could be purchased for a few dollars per acre. If the prospective farmer did not have the money to buy the land he could enter a claim on Gov- ernment land. His whole ambition was to pro- duce something quickly and pay for the lands and primary improvements. This was accomplished by raising corn, wheat, oats, cattle, and hogs. The open public domain offered a free pasture. Gradually the eastern sections became more densely settled, and farm lands became more expensive. Crude production was accomplished more cheaply by the Western farmer. Later, owing to development of transportation facilities, the agriculture of this country had to compete with the cheap labor of Europe. The colonial extension of European countries brought areas into competition with American farms in turning out crude products, and with labor much cheaper even than that of Europe. The problem became, how to turn crude material into something that would represent not merely the labor but tlie skill and ingenuity of the American people, thus sup- plying our own markets and those of the world with finished products. The American farmers found, as the manufacturers had found before them, that their success depended upon the su- perior skill and artisan ability of Americans as compared with Europeans and their colonists. '^Necessity is the mother of invention,** and de- mand and necessity united in the evolution of a new system. This began in the East, working westward, in the production of butter, cheese, prepared meats, flour, eggs, poultry, etc. Later came the establishment of other industries, work- ing up crude products of the farm into finished articles. We became producers of syrups, canned vegetables, canned fruits, etc., until man- ufacturing reinforced farming from ocean to ocean. When all this was accomplished, the time was ripe for the success of the beet-sugar industry. Industrial Features. — It is one of the marked features of American industrial life that the people as a mass have always shown a readiness to forego immediate benefits, and, even at con- siderable expense to themselves, to encourage industrial development. As a result this country has made a record among the nations of the earth unparalleled in rapid development, accumu- lation of wealth, and hold on the trade of the world. One of the chief items of cost in the produc- tion of anything is labor. In this country it is contended that the laborer is not only entitled to earn a living, but to live comfortably, to be able to educate his family, and to acquire a com- fortable home. There is no position in life, so- cial, financial, or political, to which the laboring man may not aspire. While this means much for the citizen, it adds materially to the cost of production. This country to-day is the concern of the nations of the earth in being able to main- tain a balance of trade in its favor through its agricultural and industrial productions, and this balance is constantly increasing. The sugar in- dustry is supported by American enterprise and spirit, and under this American policy it is rap- idly assuming a prominent position in the long list of successful industries. There are two sides to the proposition of es- tablishing a sugar factory in any particular com- munity: (i) That of the farmer, involving agricultural conditions; and (2) that of the manufacturer or those financially interested in the enterprise. Problems for the Farmer. — The leading diffi- culties of the farmer may first be noticed. To begin with, he is unacquainted with the methods of cultivating the sugar-beet plant, and his first experience usually proves unsatisfactory. He is accustomed to certain methods in farming. As a rule he is conservative, and thinks, from his long experience in farming, that he knows how to farm. He undertakes to apply methods suc- cessful in the cultivation and production of other crops. He is not inclined to listen to those who are posted in methods applicable to the new crop. Eventually he finds out his mistake. He finds that in growing sugar-beets he must apply prin- cipleSj in many case, the reverse of those neces- sary to other crops. For instance, he has been accustomed to growing large ears of corn, large hogs, and large steers ; but in the case of sugar- beets he finds that the first question is not one of size, but of quality. He must grow beets of a certain size, purity, and sugar content. In or- der to accomplish this he must give careful attention to the work of preparing the land, BEET-SUGAR INDUSTRY planting the seed, bunching, thinning, and culti- vating. He finds that attention to details counts in results at the harvest in the profits on the crop. He learns that the whole process is a very laborious and expensive one, entirely unlike any- thing he has attempted before. To be successful he must apply the methods of the gardener to a field crop. He must have a rich soil, and the proper rain conditions at the proper time. These facts can only be learned through experience. The Question of Labor. — The labor problem is important in the cultivation of sugar-beets. At certain stages of their growth they require a considerable amount of labor. This labor is very tiresome. As a rule, the farmer, if he grows beets to any extent, does not have on his farm sufficient labor to do the work of thin- ning and bunching, hoeing, and harvesting the sugar-beets ; nor does any farming community possess to any considerable extent the labor necessary to grow the beets that a factory will re- quire in a campaign. It will cost about $30 an acre in sections where sugar-beets are grown under rainy conditions, and about $40 to $45 an acre in sections where beets are grown by irri- gation, to cover the cost of seed, preparation of seed-bed, bunching and thinning, hoeing, culti- vating, harvesting, and delivering to the factory. These estimates apply to growing sugar-beets when it is properly done. In the farming com- munities of foreign countries, as a rule, a large amount of suitable labor can be secured in the neighborhood, because these neighborhoods are more thickly settled ; the whole population is willing to do the laborious, tedious work re- quired, and whole families work at it, including the father, mother, and children. In this coun- try, as a rule, the farmer, his older sons, and hired hands must attend to the outdoor work. It has been found necessary for sugar-beet growers to resort to the cities and towns for the extra labor required. Most of this work comes about the time the public schools are closed, and boys from 12 years up are employed for bunch- ing and thinning the beets, for hoeing them during the season, and to aid in the harvesting by pulling, cleaving the tops, and loading the beets into wagons. In the cities also live many foreigners from Holland, Russia, Sweden, and other places, who are thoroughly familiar with this kind of work. These people are willing to move out into the fields and live in tents ; they make contracts at so much per acre for bunching and thinning, hoeing, weeding, and harvesting. Since the agitation and starting of the beet- sugar industry in this country, foreigners are coming here with a view to securing employment of this kind. While the labor question is a seri- ous one, it is one capable of solution by careful and detailed attention. Proble)ns for the Manufacturer. — The manu- facturer or the capitalist who builds a factory finds that he has even more problems to w^ork out than the farmer, and, like the farmer, he usually discovers that he is entering a field that is entirely new to him. Before establishing his plant the prospective manufacturer must thor- oughly investigate certain conditions: (i) The water supply, for he must have an abundant sup- ply of pure water for the use of the factory. (2) The fuel supply, as the factory must be lo- cated in a section where cheap fuel can be se- cured (the fuel usually used is coal, but on the Pacific coast petroleum is used to a large extent, and in some of the mountain States it is found that wood is the cheapest fuel). (3) A market for the product (this factor should be thoroughly canvassed and settled prior to establishing a factory; the fact that the manufacturer is pro- posing to establish a factory on a particular line of railroad can generally be used to secure by contract low freight rates for the future in ship- ping both beets and the finished product — • sugar). (4) The supply of lime (the local quarries of lime rock must be investigated to see if the quality is suitable and the supply suffi- cient, as a large amount will be required). The general conditions having been found satisfactory, and the factory being built, other problems arise. In the beginning only a limited amount of skilled labor is employed. Eventually every employee of the factory will become skilled in his particular part. After two or three cam- paigns have passed the factory will have worked out the details of producing the best product at the least cost with the machinery which it has. When this point shall have been reached those interested will be prepared to estimate the cost of production of beet sugar. The difference in cost of production at a new factory and at one operated for a considerable time is much greater than one unacquainted with the subject would suppose. Statistics of the Industry. — The recent cen- sus shows the rapid growth of the beet-sugar in- dustry in this country. Thirty-one factories had been established before the end of the century. Since that time 11 other factories have been put in operation, located at the following places, and having the daily capacities named : Lyons, N. Y., 600 tons; Rockyford, Col., 1,000 tons; Sugar City, Col., 500 tons ; Bingham Junction, Utah, 350 tons ; Provo, Utah, 350 tons ; Lansing, Mich., 600 tons ; Saginaw, Mich., 600 tons ; Salz- burg, Mich., 400 tons; Loveland, Col., 1,000 tons; Menomonee Falls, Wis., 500 tons ; and Logan,. Utah, 400 tons. At the following places factories are either in process of erection or preparations have been made for building in 1902 : Sebewaing, Mich., 600 tons ; Carrollton, Mich., 600 tons ; Mount Clemens, Mich., 600 tons ; Crosswell, Mich., 600 tons ; Greeley, Col., 800 tons ; Eaton, Col., 500 tons; Fort Collins, Col, 500 tons. At the following places companies have been organized and capitalized, and there is every in- dication that they will mature their plans and erect factories in time to engage in the beet- sugar campaign of 1902 or 1903 : Saginaw, Mich., two factories, 500 tons each ; Chesaning, Badaxe. Grand Rapids, and Lapeer, Mich. ; Sioux City, Iowa ; Longmont, and Lamar, Col. ; Bear River Valley, Utah; Phoenix, Ariz.; Cheyenne, Wyo. ; Los Angeles. Cal. . At many other places preliminary organiza- tions have been formed which are only awaiting developments assuring more settled conditions affecting the sugar industry. Methods of Groiving Sugar-Beets. — It would be quite difficult to give general directions and rules for growing sugar-beets applicable to all localities and conditions. Often expert sugar- beet growers, at public meetings and in the agricultural press, give minute directions cov- ering all the details of this intricate process. Others, each well versed in the process of grow- ing sugar-beets, get into arguments and disputes as to the right method. In such cases each. BEET-SUGAR INDUSTRY may be correct in a measure. The occasion for such disagreements Hes in the fact that each person has in mind the right method for a par- ticular locaHty or set of conditions. A careful study of -the different sections of the United States where sugar-beets are grown will lead to the conclusion that there is no single road to success in growing sugar-beets. Every local- ity has settled conditions which will materially modify any set of methods that might apply to some other one. There are some settled rules, of course, but it is an actual fact that the vari- ous agricultural districts of this country will have to work out each for itself the right method. The person who argues that the ground must be plowed in the fall in order to receive the benefit of winter frosts is not offering any argument to the Pacific coast, for instance, where many beets are grown, and he who insists that the ground should be rolled in all instances after planting will hazard the crop if his directions are followed in many parts of Nebraska and other sections where the soil is sandy and there are strong winds. In such cases a smooth surface offers an excellent op- portunity for the wind to carry along the sharp grains of sand, cutting off the plants and de- stroying the crop. There can be no general fixed rules applying to the kinds and application of fertilizers. Gen- eral principles are all right when accompanied with the underlying reasons, but they must always be modified to meet local conditions. With the development of the industry in all the sections which have the necessary conditions, and the acquirement of ample experience both by the farmers in the production of beets and by manufacturers in the making of sugar, there will come many improvements, and eventually a cheapening of production, a result of great importance to all concerned in the success of the industry, because eventually the beet-sugar industry in the United States will have to meet a sharper competition with foreign sugar pro- ducers. There are some things settled, however, about growing sugar-beets. It will generally be con- ceded that the ground should be plowed deep, and in most instances subsoiled. Before the seed is planted, the ground must be thoroughly pulverized by harrowing and by rolling, even if the surface has to be afterward roughened. Advantage must be taken of the general and prevalent rain conditions. The ground must be moist enough to germinate the seed, either by rainfall or irrigation. Rainfall is best when it can be obtained. In some localities either is used, according to circumstances. Seeds are planted at depths of from half an inch to two inches, according to the prevailing conditions in the particular locality. The beets must be planted near enough together to produce a beet of a certain size. This spacing depends, again, upon the locality and the nature and fertility of the soil. The size and quality of the beet de- pend materially on the right kind of spacing. The beets must be thoroughly cultivated, hoed, and hand-weeded, because cultivation tends to conserve the moisture of the soil, and clean fields permit favorable action of sun and air. This close cultivation should be kept up until the beet tops thoroughly shade the ground and reach a size when it would be injuri- ous to operate among them further with a plow and hoe. The beets should be harvested as soon as possible after they are ripe, because then they contam the most sugar and the highest purity. It is evident that the entire crop of beets in the neighborhood of a factory cannot be harvested at once. In many localities some will have to be siloed. Harvesting-time will depend a great deal upon circumstances connected with the operation of the factory. The sooner the beet is harvested after it is ripe the better, be- cause further rainfall may start a new growth, producing new lateral roots and new leaves, thus greatly reducing the sugar content and purity of the beets. Benefits to the Fanner. — No statement of facts with reference to any new crop would be complete or would indicate the advisability of its introduction unless it showed the benefits to be derived. Of course, profit and loss in any enterprise is the first consideration. It has already been stated that it costs about $30 per acre to produce sugar-beets and to market the crop where rain conditions prevail. This is without taking into consideration the rent of the land, but it includes the farmer's time and everything else that enters into the cost of production. The average j'ieid is about 12 tons per acre. Probably this cost of production will be gradually reduced because of improvements in implements and methods. The beets grown have a gross value at the factories of $4 to $4.50 per ton (in States paying no bounty). This gives a gross return per acre of $48 to $54, and a net profit of $18 to $24. It must be kept in mind that these are averages of gross and net proceeds. It is never very encouraging to consult the average of agricultural crop sta- tistics ; indeed, it is often said that ^*the average crop does not pay.** If one should take the fig- ures of the average crop of corn in Iowa, for instance, or the average crop of wheat in Min- nesota or Kansas, and compute the proceeds at the average market price, and deduct therefrom the cost of production, the results would show a very small remuneration or an actual loss, quite discouraging to one who has not investi- gated this subject. Taking what seem to be the most authentic figures, the cost of producing sugar-beets in sec- tions where they are grown by irrigation is about $40 per acre. An average of 13 tons per acre can be produced, having a higher sugar content, and worth $4.50 to $5 per ton, making the gross proceeds $58.50 to $65, and the net profit $18.50 to $25 per acre. These figures give to the farmer in each case a profit greatly more satisfactory than in the case of other crops. But the successful farmer will never be satisfied with the average proceeds of any crop, and it is to him we must look for the results that give the more encouraging inducements to beet cul- ture. Many growers receive as high as $75 and some as high as $100 per acre for their beets, these high results depending upon the superior quality of the land and the superior skill of the one producing the beets. If a farmer has poor land or is a poor farmer, he is not in a position to expect much in planting any kind of crop. These statements are sufficient to give a farmer who is experienced in all other kinds of crops a fair insight into the situation. There are indirect benefits in sugar-beet growing that the farmer must take into consid- eration, along with the direct, as follows : He BEET-SUGAR INDUSTRY learns that sugar-beets are a very valuable crop to grow for his slock. It is estimated that they are worth two thirds as much for feeding as for production of sugar. They may enter into a food ration for any kind of stock. The farmer growing beets for a sugar factory re- tains for feeding the beets that have been *' docked,** or that are liable to be. He con- structs root-cellars and stores them away, and they enter largely into all animal food rations for winter feeding. For stock-feeding sugar- beets have both a nutritive and a sanitary value. The high cultivation that must be given to the land through deep plowing, thorough har- rowing, and constant weeding and cultivating finally makes the land of superior quality for any purpose. It will grow better corn or wheat, and at a less expense, on account of the ab- sence of weeds and grass. Finally, through ro- tation, other fields are brought under this high state of cultivation, until the whole farm is at its best condition of soil fertility and produc- tiveness. The method that has brought this about serves as an object-lesson to the farmer and the farming neighborhood. A better cultivation will prevail, and the science of farming will become several degrees higher on account of experience in sugar-beet cultivation. After the beets are delivered to the fac- tory, and the sugar has been extracted, it is found that the pulp (which will amount to 50 per cent in weight of the beets worked) is almost as valuable for feeding purposes as the original beets themselves. It is a very cheap feed and sells for 35 to 50 cents per ton. It enters naturally and profitably into the food rations of all kinds of stock. It is especially valuable for steers, lambs, brood mares, and brood sows, but reaches its highest use as ani- mal food when fed to the dairy cow. The farmers in the neighborhood of a beet-sugar factory feed large quantities of it. They appre- ciate its nutritive and sanitary value. Pulp feeding gives an impetus to animal industry of all kinds. It offers a stimulus to the estab- lishment of butter and cheese factories, to the erection of feeding-pens, and to the whole stock-feeding industry. Its use is one of the strong reasons for establishing the industry. The beet-sugar industry opens up at once a large demand for labor, not only in the factory itself, but on the farm. It is one of the things in which the farmer can invest with the assur- ance that he has a sure market and a fixed price for his crop to begin with. Benefits to Other Industries. — The estab- lishment of a beet-sugar factory opens up not only a large field for the employment of labor, but also a field for the employment of capital. It becomes at once a market for considerable crude material to be used in conducting the business. First and most important it furnishes a market for the beets. Then the factory is a large consumer of coal, and as the factories are often established in communities having local coal fields they become at once local markets for a local product. The amount of coal neces- sary to work up a certain amount of beets is generally computed at about 17 per cent by weight, or, in case of an ordinary factory of 350 tons capacity, about 60 tons of coal per day, or 6,000 tons for a full campaign of 100 days. A factory also consumes a large amount of lime rock, which of necessity must also be a local product. It usually consumes lime rock to the extent of about 10 per cent of the crude weight of beets worked, which in the case of a 350-ton factory would be 35 tons of lime rock per day, or 3,500 tons for the campaign. It consumes about one fifth as much coke as lime, or a little less than 700 tons during a campaign. The establishment of a factory in a commu- nity necessitates considerable transportation of crude products — beets, coal, and lime rock — to the factory, and in carrying the finished prod- uct to the market. It stimulates banking and almost all kinds of mercantile business through- out the community. The Future of the Industry. — The follow- ing figures will give an idea of the possibilities for the expansion of the beet-sugar industry in the United States : CONSUMPTION, PRODUCTION, AND IMPORTATION OF SUGAR. TONS. For 1 90 1 the total consumption of sugar in the United States was 2,372,000 Adding to this the average yearly increase, based on an estimate for twenty years, the consumption of sugar for 1902 will be.... 2,478,000 To meet annual requirements there must be imported into the United States proper this 2,478,000 tons, less what this country man- ufactures. The home production for 1902 should be about as follows: Cane sugar of the South 300,000 Beet sugar of the North and West 185,000 485,000 Balance imported 1,993,000 Requirements from outside for 1902 will be in round numbers 2,000,000 Of this amount from insular possessions, free of duty, there will be received — From Porto Rico about 100,000 From Hawaii about 300,000 400,000 There must be secured from strictly foreign sources, duty paid 1,600,000 It is the ambition of those encouraging the beet-sugar industry to establish factories enough at least to furnish this foreign importa- tion. Making due allowance for failure of facto- ries to reach in actual production their full capa- city under ideal conditions, it would require 500 factories having a daily capacity of 500 tons of beets to produce the sugar imported, or a suf- ficient number of cane-sugar factories to pro- duce an equal amount of sugar. As a matter of fact, there is likely to be a rapid increase in both beet-sugar and cane-sugar factories. But for convenience the calculations here made are based on the supposition that the increase will be in beet-sugar factories only. In. order to equip and build these factories it will require an investment of capital of $250,000,000. This vast sum of money must be expended in this country for building materials and machinery and in the employment of the labor necessary to construct and equip the factories. The an- nual requirements of these factories will be as follows : ANNUAL REQUIREMENTS OF 5OO BEET-SUGAR FACTORIES. They will require of beets tons.. 18,750,000 pay farmers for the beets $84,375,000 require of coal tons.. 3,187,500 pay the coal-dealers $ 9,562,500 require of lime rock tons. . 1,875,000 pay to the quarries for lime rock.$ 3,750,000 BEETHOVEN They will require of coke tons. . 375,oOo pay to the coke-dealers for coke..$ 3,000,000 expend for labor in the factories. $19,000,000 In addition to the foregoing list large amounts of money will be paid for mill supplies, transportation, etc. As working capital to ope- rate these factories $135,000,000 will be required. This sum being in use, however, for about four months in the year, the interest charged thereon is equal to an interest charge on $45,000,000 for one year. It should be remembered that the above estimates do not include the capital already invested in the business and the opera- tions of the factories already built, the state- ment of which is as follows : PRESENT DEVELOPMENT OF THE BEET-SUGAR INDUSTRY. Capital invested in factories, equipment, and grounds $30,000,000 Beets purchased annually tons.. 1,875,000 Cash paid for beets purchased annually .... $ 8,437,500 Coal consumed annually tons.. 318,750 Cash paid for coal annually $ 956,250 Lime rock purchased annually tons.. 187,500 Cash paid for lime rock annually $ 375,000 Coke purchased annually tons.. 37,500 Cash paid for coke annually $ 300,000 Cash paid for labor annually $ 1,900,000 Operating capital annually employed $ 5,000,000 Also there is a considerable amount an- nually expended for crude material and various other things. It hardly seems possible that an industry which affects so many people over such a wide scope of country can fail to re- ceive anything but the most friendly, careful, and fostering consideration on the part of those who shape industrial affairs. The immensity of future demands, it seems, answers effectually those who feel that the industry might be overdone. Attention should be called to the fact that not only are present demands great, but that the rate of increase of consumption is considerable. According to careful statistics for the last 19 years, consump- tion of sugar in this country has been increas- ing at the average rate of about dVs per cent annually. Charles F. Saylor. Beethoven, Ludwig Van, the greatest or- chestral composer of the 19th century : b. Bonn 16 Dec. 1770; d. Vienna 26 March 1827. While classed among the German masters, the Dutch Van in his name (which is not a sign of no- bility) indicates his descent from a family in the Netherlands, the world's musical centre in the 15th and i6th centuries. This family moved in 1650 from Louvain to Antwerp. Beethoven's grandfather was a bass singer and a conductor ; his father was a tenor, who did not lead an ex- emplary life ; his income was only $150 a year, wherefore it is not surprising that he eagerly availed himself of his son's musical talent and exploited it. He personally taught Ludwig to play the violin and the clavier, in the hope of making of him a *wonder-child'^ like Mozart. While Ludwig was not remarkably precocious (he_ even shed tears over his music lessons), he is said to have written a funeral cantata at II, and in the same year was taken on a concert- tour by his father, who, to make his perform- ances seem more remarkable, represented him as being two years younger. Before he had reached his I2th_year the organist Neefe spoke of him as ''■playing with force and finish, reading well at sight, and, to sum up all. playing the greater part of Bach's 'Well Tempered Clavier,' a feat. which will be understood by the initiated. If he goes on as he began, he will certainly become a second Mozart.*' Mozart himself appears to have been of this opinion, for when he heard young Beethoven improvise in Vienna he exclaimed to the by- standers, "Keep your eyes on him ! He will give the world something to talk about !" This was in 1787. Beethoven had been sent to Vienna in the hope that he might be able to take lessons of Mozart; apparently he did take a few, but the illness of his mother made him hasten back to Bonn. Although Bonn was a small town, it had quite a musical atmosphere, and Beethoven had good opportunities to be- come acquainted with the operas and the con- cert pieces then in vogue. He was only 13 when he got a position as assistant court organ- ist, and subsequently he played the pianoforte accompaniments at the rehearsals of the opera orchestra. He also played the viola. His first salaried position ($63 a year) was as assistant organist under Reicha. The most important occurrence of the Bonn period was the forma- tion of an intimate friendship with Count von Waldstein, to whom he subsequently dedicated one of his best sonatas. The Count had promptly recognized his genius, and it was probably owing to his suggestion that the elector of Cologne, Max Franz, decided to pro- vide the young musician with the means for going to Vienna again and there continuing his studies with Haydn, to whom Beethoven had already been introduced when Haydn stopped at Bonn, in 1790, on his way to London. It was in November, 1792, nearly a year after Mozart's death, that Beethoven entered Vienna, which was to remain his home till the end of his life. The lessons from Ha3^dn were duly arranged for and the first was given in Havdn's house en Dec. 12, the payment being eight groschen (about 20 cents). But Haydn, like most creators, was not a good teacher and although Beethoven took lessons of him more than a year, he soon began to take his exercises for correction to Schenk before showing them to Haydn. He subsequently took lessons of the pedantic contrapuntist Albrechtsberger, who, however, complained that his pupil was unwill- ing to " do anything in decent style " and had too little respect for rules — this last being a peculiarity which he, fortunately, soon began to manifest in his compositions. To these com- positions he was so lucky as to be able to devote nearly all his time. From his father he re- ceived no pecuniary assistance, but there were several sources of income. Prince Lichnowskj-^ gave him an annual stipend of 600 florins, and when, in 1809. an attempt was made to entice him to Kassel, where a position as Kapellmeister was offered him, some of his princely friends gave him an additional annuity of 4,000 florins, to chain him to Vienna. This lasted only till 1811, but at this time he was already deriving a considerable income from the sale of his works. Many of his letters show that he knew how to make a good bargain. Had it not been for a spendthrift nephew, of whom he was very fond, and for whom it was found at the time of his death he had even placed 7,000 florins in the bank, he would have never suffered any financial tribulations such as Mozart and Schubert had to endure all their lives. BEETHOVEN. BEETHOVEN It was fortunate that the Kassel offer was re- fused, and that an earUer attempt (in 1796) to win him for Berlin had also led to naught; for Vienna was the proper place for Beethoven. It was at that time the world's musical centre, owing largely to the unusual interest taken in music by the aristocratic circles. To under- stand the significance of this fact we must bear in mind that at that time there were few public concerts ; it was the nobility who maintained the orchestras and patronized the great artists, the audiences being invited guests. Beethoven brought with him from Bonn letters of intro- duction to leading members of the aristocracy, and thus found himself at once " in the swim." He had not yet done anything very remarkable as a composer and was at first admired chiefly for his improvisations on the pianoforte; but gradually a sense of his greatness dawned on his patrons, who bore patiently all his eccentrici- ties. While recognizing the advantage of being intimate in the houses of the aristocracy, he never truckled to rank and refused to submit to the intricate and artificial rules of court etiquette. At the same time he expected the aristocrats to behave like ladies and gentlemen ; one day when a young man talked loudly while he was playing, he suddenly stopped and ex- claimed : " I play no longer for such hogs.'' His attitude toward wealth is illustrated by his once sending back his brother's card on which *Johann van Beethoven, land proprietor* was printed, after writing on the back : " Ludwig van Beethoven, brain proprietor." In the homes of some of his aristocratic friends he gave lessons' to the women and girls. He did this unwillingly, looking at the time thus spent as filched from his compositions. He often failed to keep his appointments and was apt to be irascible and bearish ; but his fair pupiis were only too glad to put up with all this for the sake of the benefit they got from his lessons. He was, at the same time, a great admirer of women and often in love, although none of his infatuations appear to have lasted more than seven months. He was never married, for al- though he repeatedly proposed he was each time refused. These love affairs call for mention because they had an influence on not a few of his compositions. A well-regulated house- hold was a blessing he greatly needed. His eccentric habits were forever forcing him to change his lodgings and he seldom could keep a servant longer than a few weeks. If his cook brought him a bad egg he threw it at her. He often got angry when the servants laughed at the sight he presented while composing — tossing his hands about, beating time with his feet, and singing or rather, growling. His rooms pre- sented scenes of great disorder. His gastro- nomic habits were unwise, and the dyspepsia they gave rise to was responsible for much melancholy and for many of the outbreaks of ill-temper for which he became notorious as he grew older. While naturally of an affectionate disposition (as instanced in his fondness for his nephew) and alwaj^s fond of jokes, he would, on occasion, insult and abuse his best friends on sliffht provocation ; but these outbursts of irascibility were usuallj' followed by the most abject apologies. He was, in short, like his music, highly emotional and regardless of rules. The chief cause of his growing moroseness and irritability was the difficulty of hearing which began in 1798 and gradually ended in complete deafness. In 1802 (25 years before his death) he wrote in his last will: **0 ye, who consider or declare me to be hostile, ob- stinate, or misanthropic, what injustice ye do me ! Ye know not the secret causes of that which to you wears such an appearance® ; and he proceeds to speak of his hearing, which had been growing more and more defective for six years, and which made him „hun people, as he did not wish to say constantly : "Speak, louder — bawl — for I am deaf." His last appear- ance in public in concerted music was in 1814. Two years lat^r he began to experiment with, ear-trumpets, his collection of which is now in the Royal Library of Berlin. His attempts to conduct after this usually led to mortifying and pathetic scenes. The last was in 1824, when, although totally deaf, he insisted on con- ducting his ninth symphony ; he could not even hear the applause which followed it. All com- munication with him was, in the last years of his life, carried on with the aid of pencil and paper. The autopsy showed that not only were the auditory nerves practically paralyzed, but there were other advanced troubles (the liver was tough as leather and shrunk to half its normal size), which made it remarkable that he should have retained his vitality so long. The immediate causes of death were inflamma- tion of the lungs and dropsy. A week before his death he was still busy with letters and with plans for new compositions, including a tenth symphony, a requiem, and music to Faust. He died during a violent thunder and hail storm, about six o'clock on March 26, 1827. The Viennese, who had been neglecting him during the last few years, because of the Rossini furore (in 1823 no operas but Rossini's were sung in Vienna, and the whole musical atmosphere was affected by them), now realized their loss and a crowd of 20,000 persons attended the funeral. He was buried in the Wahringer Fried- hof, but in 1888 his remains were transferred, with those of Schubert, to the Central Ceme- tery. Statues of him were erected at Bonn in 1845, in Vienna in 1880, in Brooklyn in 1894, at Leipsic (Max Klinger) in 1902. In 1815 the freedom of the city of Vienna had been con- ferred upon him. A certain wildness was given to Beethoven's appearance by his long, abundant hair, which was always in a state of disorder. He was strongly built and muscular, but below rnedium stature, his height being five feet five inches. His small black eyes were bright and piercing, his forehead broad and high, his ' complexion ruddy. His friend Schindler wrote that when a musical idea took possession of his mind, <'there was an air of inspiration and dignity in his aspect; and his diminutive figure seemed to tower to the gigantic proportions of his mind.'^ Already in Bonn his friends used to note the occasions when he was "in his raptus?^ These moments of inspiration would come to him at any time and anywhere — in his room, in the streets of Vienna, and particularly in the coun- try. He was extremely fond of nature and country life, and spent his summers in the picturesque regions near Vienna. A sketch BEETHOVEN book was always in his pocket, and into this he •otted his ideas as they came. Afterward he revised and re-revised these sketches. "There is hardly a bar in his music*, says Grove, **of which it may not be said with confidence that it has been rewritten a dozen times. Of the air 'O hoffnung,' in ut it is when we come to the orchestral works — the 11 overtures, and 9 symphonies — that we see Beethoven in his real grandeur. Of these works Richard Wag- ner, who worshipped Beethoven, has written most eloquently; (see index to vol. I of Glase- napp's ^Wagner Encyclopadie,^ or to Ellis's translation of Wagner's prose works ; Grove's 'Beethoven's Nine Symphonies' gives an excel- lent analysis for amateurs) . Concerning the sym- phonic works, Wagner wrote: "He deveioped the symphony to such a fascinating fulness of form and filled this form with such an unheard- of wealth of enchanting melody, that we stand to-day before the Beethoven Symphony as be- fore the boundary line of an entirely new epoch in the history of art; for with them a phe- nomenon has appeared in the world, with which the art of no time and no nation has had any- thing to compare even remotely. '' It is not only that Beethoven's symphonies are longer than those of Haydn and Mozart, or broaaer and richer in melody, more varied in rhythm, and fuller in minute details of elaboration ; what particularly distinguishes them is their greater emotionality and more powerful contrasts of moods. On the one side we have (as in the pianoforte sonatas) those soulful, tearful adagios which are a specialty of Beethoven; on tile other the humorous scherzo, which he put in place of the dainty, graceful minuet of his predeces- sors. This symphonic scherzo was really a new thing in music, for while there is much fun in Haydn, it is of a much lighter quality. In Beethoven's there are elements of grimness and the grotesque; with an undercurrent of melancholia as in the scherzos of Chopin. In the art of dyeing the music in deeper and more varied orchestral colors Beethoven's sym- phonies and overtures also mark a great ad- vance over his predecessors. While Beethoven stands at the head of com- posers of the classical school, an almost equal claim to distinction lies in this that in his works are to be found many of the germs which Weber, Schubert, Mendelssohn, Schumann, and others developed iiito the German roman- tic school. Among these germs are his inclination to shatter the sonata form (particu- larly in the last movement of the ninth sym- phony, which is epoch-making in its bold uncon- ventionality) ; his disposition to allow his ideas to shape the form in which they are to be ut- tered ; the subjective expressiveness of his music, which has five times as many expression marks as Mozart's; the use of characteristic (realis- tic) orchestral colors ; his way of playing the pianoforte and conducting an orchestra, with tempo rubato, or frequent modification of pace ; and above all, his sanctioning of Programme music by his 'Pastoral Symphony,^ which il- lustrates episodes in the country — a scene at a brook, the merrymaking of peasants, the song of birds, and a thunderstorm. It is also signifi- cant of his romantic inclinations that toward the end of his life he conceived a plan of giving poetic titles to all his sonatas and even to the separate movements. Tae 'Moonlight sonata,^ it is well to remember, did not get its inap- propriate name from him. Of the books relat- ing to Beethoven several have already been referred to. Of the biographies the best was written in English by the American A. W. Thayer and Dublished, in a German version only, in three vols. (1866-77). An English edition, revised, with a final volume, is in prepa- ration. Thayer also furnished a useful 'Chron- ologisches Verzeichniss' of Beethoven's works, of which a complete edition was printed by Breitkoff and Hartel in 1864-67. Pending the appearance of Thayer's great work, the best treatise is Grove's, in his 'Dictionary of Music and Musicians •• (vol. I, pp. 162-209). Crowest's biography is a fair compilation in one volume. Other biographers are Wasielewski, Schindler, Marx, Nohl, Wilder, Wegeler, and Ries. Nohl's 'Beethoven and his Contemporaries' contains many literary "snap-shots." Analyses of his sonatas and symphonies have been written by Elterlein (English version) and . Reinecke. Kullak's 'Beethoven's Piano-playing' is ex- cellent. Other critical and analytical works are by Ulibischeff, Wagner (essay), Harding, Diirenberg, Alberti, Lorenz, Helm, Nottebohm, and Frimmel. His letters have been printed in several volumes by Nohl, Kochel, Schone, Had- den. They are not nearly so interesting as Schumann's, Mendelssohn's, Wagner's, Liszt'?, and Berlioz's. Henry T. Finxk, Musical Critic, '-Evening Post,'' N. Y. Beetle, an insect of the order Coleoptera Beetles are distinguished from all other insects by the elytra or thickened fore wings, which are not actively used in flight, the hind wings being especially adapted for that purpose. The elytra cover and encase, thus protecting, the posterior segments of the thorax and the abdo- m.en. The prothoracic segment is greatly en- larged, often exarated in front, to receive the head. These characters are very persistent. There are few aberrant forms and the order is remarkably homogenous and easily limited. The head is free from the thorax; it is scarcely nar- rowed behind, and its position is usually hori- zontal. The eyes are usually quite large, and there may be one or two oceli — not more. The antennae are usually inserted just in front of the eyes, and rarely between them. They are either filiform where the joints are cylindrical, as in the ground beetles (Carabidcc), not enlarging toward the end, or serrate, as in the Elatcridcc, where the joints are triangular and compressed, giving thereby a serrate outline to the inner edge ; or clavate as in the Silphidce, where the enlarged terminal joints give a rounded, club- shaped termination ; or lamellate, when the ter- minal joints are prolonged internally, forming broad, leaf-like expansions, as in the Scarabccida, while the geniculate antenna is produced when tlie second and succeeding joints make an angle with the first. The mandibles are always well developed as biting and chewing organs, be- coming abnormally enlarged in the stag-beetles (Lucanus), while in certain Scarabceida: they BEETLE are small and membranous. The maxillae pre- pare the food to be crushed by the mandibles. The greatly enlarged prothorax is free and movable. In the running species, as carabidce, the hind wings being useless are aborted, and very rarely in some tropical Lampyridcc and Scarabaidce both pairs of wings are wanting in both sexes, though, as in the glow-worm and some of its allies the females, are apterous. The legs are well developed, as the beetles are among the most powerful running insects ; the hindermost pair of legs becoming oar-like in the swimming Dytiscidce and some Hydropliilidcr, while in the Gyrinidce both pairs of hind legs become broad and flat. The number of tarsal joints varies from the normal number five, to four and three joints, the terminal joint as usual being two- clawed. These claws are known to be wanting only in Phancnis, a scarabasid, and the aberrant family, Stylopida. According to the number of the tarsal joints the families of the Coleop- tera have been grouped into the Pentarnera (five-jointed) the Tcframera (four-jointed), the Trhnera (three-jointed), and the Heteromera, which are four-jointed in the hind pair, while the first and second pairs are five-jointed. The abdomen, usually partially concealed by the wings, is sessile, its base broad; in form it is usually somewhat flattened. A few genera are capable of producing sounds by rubbing the limbs or elytra over finely wrinkled surfaces, which in Trox are situated on the side of the basal segments of the abdo- men, and in Strategus on the tergum of the penultimate segment of the abdomen, while such a surface is found in Higyriis on the surface of the elytra. The larvse when active and not permanently enclosed (like the curculio) in the substances that form their food, are elongated, flattened, wormlike, with a large head, well developed mouth-parts, and three pairs of thoracic feet, either horny, or fleshy and retractile, while there is often a single terminal prop-leg on the termi- nal segment of the body and a lateral horny spine. The wood-boring larvre of the Ceramhy- cid(e are white, soft, and more or less c^dindrical, while those of the CurcnUonida; are footless or nearly so, and resemble those of the gall-flies, both hymenopterous and dipterous. The pupse have free limbs, and are either enclosed in cocoons of earth, or, if wood-borers, in rude cocoons of fine chips and dust, united by threads, or a viscid matter supplied by the insect. None are known to be coarctate. though so:7ie CoccmeJl(P transform within the old larva- skin, not rejecting it, as is usual in the the group, while other pnpre are enclosed in the cases in which the larva lived. In some Staphylinidce the pupi shows a tendency to become obtected, the limbs being soldered to the body, as if were enclosed in a common sheath. Generally, hov/- ever, the antennse are folded on each side of the_ clypeus, and the mandibles, maxillse and labinl palpi appear as elongated papillre. The wing-pads being small are shaped like those of the adult Meloe, and are laid upon the posterior femora, thus exposing the meso- and meta-thorax to view. The tarsal joints lie parallel on each side of the middle line of the body, the hinder pair not reaching to the tips of the abdomen, which ends in a pair of acute, prolonged, forked, incurved horny hooks, which must aid the pupa in working its way to the surface when about to transform into the beetle. The number of known living species is be- tween 100,000 and 200,000, and over 10,000 spe- cies are known to inhabit the United States. About 1,000 fossil species are known. Coleoptera have been the favorites of ento- mologists. They have been studied when in their perfect state, more than any other insects, but owing to the difficulty of finding their lar- vae and carrying them through the successive stages of growth, the early stages of compara- tively few species are known. The metamor- phoses are complete, and in this respect the beetles are much in advance of the orders of net-veined insects in which the transformations are incomplete. Many beetles, as the .species of Cetonia, etc., visit flowers to collect and eat the pollen, and in doing so bring about the fertilization of those flowers. ClassHication. — The systematic arrangement of the Coleoptera is in an unsettled state. The tiger and ground beetles are generally consid- ered to be the "highest'' Coleoptera, but in reality they appeared to be allied to what were the more prim.tive and generalized types, while what are by some authors regarded as the "lowest'' beetles, that is, the weevils, are the most specialized or most highly modified. As all our classifications begin with the more primi- tive or earliest forms, and end with the most specialized, we should begin with the Carabi- dce or ground beetles, as being the nearest repre- sentatives of what are supposed to be the earliest beetles. We would, therefore, adopt provision- ally Sharp's primary divisions of Coleoptera, with some important changes. His first division or series comprises the lamellicorns (May beetle, etc.), and his s-^cond the Adelphaga or ground beetles. This order should be reversed. Series i. Adelphaga {Carahidce of some au- thors). Antenna; long, slender, filiform; tarsi five-jointed; maxillae highly developed, three- lobed, the outer palpus shaped. (Ground and tiger beetles.) Series 2. LamelUcornia. Antennae short, the terminal joints leaf-like; tarsi five-jointed. Series 3. Polymorpha. Antennae either club- like or serrated, variable in shape, as are the number of joints of the tarsus. (Buprestidcv, spring-beetles, etc., including many families.) Series 4. Heteromera. Front and middle tarsi five-jointed, hind tarsi four-pointed; other characters very variable. Tenebrionidce, Can- tharidcr, or blister-beetles (q.v.), etc. Series 5. Phytophaga. Tarsi four-jointed but with a small additional joint at the base of the fourth joint; sole usually densely pubescent. (Boring or longicorn beetles ; Cerambycidce, leaf-beetle, potato beetle.) Series 6. Rhyncophora. {Weevils.^ Head prolonged in front to form a beak ; palpi much reduced; tarsi four-jointed, but with an ad- ditional minute joint at the end of the fourth. The term Isomer a was applied by Le Conte and Horn to a combination of series i, 2, 3, and 5. Phytogeny. — The Coleoptera are supposed by Braver and also Packard to have descended from some tj'pe allied to a Campodea-Mke an- cestor. The larvae of the ground beetles are BEETLEHEAD— BEGAS allied by their long legs and biting mouth-parts to the common Campodca-Uke progenitor ; they appear to have undergone the least modification from the shape of the primitive coleopterous larva ; the footless grubs of boring beetles, longicorns and weevils, being secondary forms. Thus the Coratidcc and next after them the rose-beetles {Stapliylinidcc) have been regarded as the nearest to the earliest type of beetles. Fossil beetles. — The earliest known remains of Coleoptera are five specimens from the car- boniferous strata of Silesia, of which four are wing covers and one is a pronotum ; these have been referred by Karsch to the families Cara- bidcr or Tcncbrionida;. In the lower Jurassic, however, comparatively well preserved remains of six families {Carabidce, Dytiscidcc, Elateridcc, Scarabccidce, Ccramoycidcc, and ChrysomelidcB) have been detected showing that early in the Mesozoic era, nearly all the principal types of beetles had appeared ; whence we naturally sup- pose that their ancestors evolved during the Carboniferous period, though their remains have not yet been discovered. During the Tertiary age beetles became more abundant, and a greater number of species belonging to existing genera have been found. The Oligocene fresh- water deposits of Aix and Provence, of Floris- sant, Colorado, contain many kinds of beetles, as also does the Miocene amber of the Baltic coast in Prussia, and the lignite of Bohemia, as well as the fresh-water marls of Germany, Utah, and Wyoming. Of the weevils 350 Tertiary species have been described, their hard bodies accounting for their preservation. Bibliography. — The writings of Say, Harris, and others; especially Le Conte and Horn; ^Rhynchophora of America north of Mexico^ ^Classification of the Coleoptera of North America.' Beetlehead. See Black-bellied Plover. Beets, bats, Nicolaus, Dutch poet and writer: b. Haarlem, 13 Sept. 1814. He studied theolog}' at Leyden, and after serving at Heem- stede, near Haarlem, he was in 1854 appointed to the pastorate of Utrecht, and in 1874 to the chair of theology there. His poetical works have been collected (4 vols., 1873-81). Through the earlier pieces runs a strong vein of misan- thropic sentiment, due probably to Byron, some of whose works he translated into Dutch (2 vols., 1835-7). His prose writings include 'Camera Obscura' (13th ed., i38o), a series of tales and sketches of life and scenery in Hol- land, published under the pseudonym of Hilde- braxd; they display keen observation and con- siderable humor. Besides several critical works, he published in theologv, notes on the life of St. Paul (3d ed., 1858), and ^Stichtelijke Uren' (new ed., 8 vols., 1872). Befana, ba-fa'na (Italian, Befania. '^Epipli- eiiy^^), a figure, generally representing an old woman, which is exhibited in Italy on the day of Epiphany by children, or in shops, etc., where things for children are sold. In Ger- many presents are given to children on Christ- mas Eve, and in France on New Year's even- ing, but in Italy on the day of Epiphany, and it is said that the befana brings them to good children. Beg, or Bey, ba, a title of honor among the Turks, meaning "lord.'* The beg is, in some parts of the empire, inferior to a pasha. Bega, ba'ga, Cornelius, Dutch painter : b. Haarlem, 1620; d. 16 Aug. 1664. He was a pupil of Ostade, whose manner he imitated. The subjects of his paintings are commonly the amusements of the Dutch peasantry and the in- terior of cottages and taverns. When the plague, in 1664 visited Holland, a young ladj', whom hd" loved, was attacked by it, and was abandoned by her friends. Bega remained by her side, rendering her every attention till her last mo- ment, but caught the fatal infection and died. Begarelli, ba-ga-rel'le, Antonio, Italian de- signer, styled AxTONio of Modexa-: b. Modena, about 1498; d. 1565. By his contemporaries he was considered the greatest designer of his day. He was a friend of Correggio and co-operated with him in decorating the cathedral at Parma, furnishing many of the designs and models for the artist's pictures. His groups were com- monly of life size or heroic, and were greatly admired by Michael Angelo. He influenced strongly the succeeding Lombard artists in the matter of design. His 'Descent from the Cross,' the most significant of his remaining works, still adorns the Church of San Fran- cesco at Modena. Begas, ba'gas, Karl, Prussian painter : b. Heinsberg, near Aix-la-Chapelle, 30 April 1794; d. Berlin, 23 Nov. 1854. He studied first under Philippart, and in Paris under Gros. His first work, a copy of the Madonna della Sedia, at- tracted the attention of the king of Prussia, who appointed him painter of the Prussian court. His productions comprise historical, genre, and portrait paintings, of which the most important are 'Henry IV. at the Castle of Canossa' ; the 'Sermon on the Mount' ; 'Christ on the Mount of Olives' ; the 'Lorelei' ; and the portraits of Humboldt, Schelling, Ritter, Ranch, Cornelius, and Meyerbeer. He was a member of the Berlin Academy of Fine Arts. Begas, Karl, German sculptor (son of the preceding) : b. 1845. He studied in the studio of his brother Reinhold and at the Berlin Acad- emy of Art. Among his most important works are the Franco-Prussian memorial unveiled at Cassel in 1898; the groups in the Berlin "Siega- salle," of Alargrave Otho IV. and Frederick William ; the statue of Knobelsdorf in t'.ie Ber- lin Museum, and those of Columbus and Aris- totle in the L^niversity of Kiel. Begas, Oscar, German artist (eldest son of Karl Begas, 1 794-1854) ; b. 1828. d. 1883. He painted portraits with astonishing ability at the age of 12, and in 1852 won a scholarship which gave him two years of study in Italy, where he painted his 'Hour of Gossip,' now in the Berlin National Gallery. His work is mainly portraiture. Begas, Reinhold, German sculptor (son of Karl Begas, 1794-1854) : b. Berlin, 1831. He studied in Rome, and in 1866 settled in Berlin, where he has not only executed many important works in the strict line of his profession, but painted many portraits of women, and produced important architectural designs. Among his most characteristic works are a statue of Schilr BEGG— BEGGING THE QUESTION ler (1863) ; ^Borussia,' a colossal statue in the Ruhmeshalle in Berlin (1885) ; . tortuo- sum or molle) are used in Florida and else- where as fodder plants and as green manures on light soils. Like the clovers these plants can assimilate free nitrogen from the air. The spe- cies mentioned yields heavy crops of highly nu- tritive hay which is relished by stock. At the Louisiana Experiment Station six tons of hay per acre is reported. The plant is an annual from 3 to 10 feet tall, has pinnate leaves, small flowers in racemes and flat, jointed pods which adhere to clothing and animals by their hooked hairs. The plant has been found to do well in the West Indies and as far north as Virginia. About 10 native species worthy a place in the flower-garden have been offered for sale by dealers in native plants, but not generally by seedsmen. D. gyrans, the telegraph plant, a pur- ple flowered perennial, native of southern Asia, is sometimes raised in hot-houses on account of the interesting movements of its leaflets when exposed to favorable temperature and sun- shine. Beggiatoa, one of the bacteria of the fam- ily Beggiatoacccc. They are of sanitr-ry interest as indicating the character of the water in which they grow, — it usually contains sulphur, — and their presence in large quantities in a water supply is usually held to mean that the water is contaminated and should be investigated. Their growth in natural sulphur waters is to be expected. Begging the Question, in logic, is the as- sumption of a proposition which in reality in- volves the conclusion. Thus, to say that par- allel lines will never meet because they are par- allel is simply to assume as a fact the very thing you profess to prove. The phrase is a translation of the Latin term, petitio principii, and was first used by Aristotle. BEGONIA. Leaf of the Countess Pandolfini Begonia. BEGIN — BEH AIM Begin, ba-zhan, Louis Nazaire, Canadian clergyman ; educated at the College of St. Mi- chael de Bellechasse, the Seminary of Quebec, Laval University, and the Grand Seminary of Quebec. About the time of his graduation from the last institution its trustees decided to found a theological department in connection with La- val University, and it was their wish that the faculty of this theological school should be educated in Rome. Therefore Dr. Begin, who had been elected a member of the faculty, was sent to Rome in 1863, and remained abroad till 1868. During this time he traveled exten- sively and studied many branches of theology. On his return to Quebec he was appointed pro- fessor of dogmatic theology and ecclesiastical history in Laval University and held the chair till 1884. He became principal of the Laval normal school in 1885 ; was appointed bishop of Chicoutimi in 1888; coadjutor to Cardinal Taschereau, with the title of archbishop of Cy- rene, in i8gi ; and in 1894 became administra- tor of the Province of Quebec. His works in- clude *La Primaute et ITnfaillibilite des Souver- ains Pontifes,* ^La Sainte Ecriture et la Regie de Foi> (1874); Beham, Hans Sebald, German painter and engraver: b. Nuremberg. 1500; d. Frankfort, 22 Nov. 1550. He studied under Albert Diirer, and was one of his ablest scholars, but rendered his talents worse than useless, both to himself and society, by employing his pencil for the most profligate purposes. The disgust produced by his licentiousness drove him from his native town to Frankfort-on-the-Main, where dissipa- tion made his downward progress very rapid. Behar, be-har', an extensive province of British India, now a part of the presidency of Bengal; pop. about 25,000000 in 1901. It was ceded to the British by the Mogul shah Alum in 1765, on condition of an annual payment of 26 lacs of rupees. It is intersected by the Gan- ges, and produces much opium,' indigo, sugar, cotton, and saltpetre. Gaya, the birthplace of Buddha, and the scene of one of Vishnu's incar- nations, is in the province, and is visited by vast numbers of pilgrims. Other places of im- portance in the province are Baha, Chapra, and Patna. Be'hemoth, the name of an animal de- scribed in Job xl. IS, to the end. It is evidently an herbivorous animal ; but commentators and naturalists are not agreed as to the particular species. Bochart, Gesenius, and the generality of English commentators think the description most applicable to the hippopotamus ; others think it was the elephant. Nor would it mili- tate much against this interpretation that the elephant is not a native of the country in which the scene of the poem is laid. The author of the book of Job, whether ]\Ioses or not, may have been familiar with life in Egypt and Arabia, and if so, would naturally introduce scenery and adjuncts Egyptiairor Arabian, or both com- hined ; and that the elephant was well known in Egypt is proved not only by the use of ivory in the arts, specimens of which are preserved in abundance, but also by the representation of the animal itself on early Egyptian monuments. Behistun, ba-his-toon', a mountain near a village of the same name, not far from Kerman- shah. in Persian Kurdistan, celebrated for the sculptures and cuneiform inscriptions cut upon one of its rocky sides, which rises almost perpen- dicularly to the height of 1,700 feet. These works are about 300 feet from the ground, and were executed by the orders of Darius I., king of Persia. The inscriptions set forth his gene- alogy, enumerate his 19 victories obtained against the rebels in different provinces of his empire, and proclaim the final pacification of the latter, and his gratitude to God. The sculptures consist of a large tablet, on which are repre- sented a king with his foot upon a prostrate man, two long-speared warriors behind him, nine captives chained together by the neck before him, and above the whole a mythological figure. The inscriptions are executed with great neatness, and the whole monument is very well preserved, the rock, which had been carefully polished, having been coated with a hard sili- cious varnish, much harder, indeed, than the limestone beneath. The mountain was well known in ancient times, being mentioned by Diodorus under the name of Bagistanon. The same writer states also that an inscription and figures were engraved upon the rock by the orders of Semiramis, but these if they ever ex- isted, have now disappeared. Rawlinson was the first to copy and decipher the Behistun in- scriptions. Behm, bam, Ernst, German geographer: b. Gotha, 4 Jan. 1830; d. there, 15 March 1884. In 1856 he became Dr. Petermann's chief assistant in editing the famous geographical periodical *^Mitteilungen,' to the editorship of which he succeeded on his chief's death in 1878. In 1872 he began, in conjunction with H. Wag- ner, the useful ^Population of the Earth,' in- tended as a statistical supplement to the 'Mitteil- ungen' ; and from 1876 he undertook the sta- tistical department of the '^Almanach de Gotha.' His more extended writings of this nature are marked by fullness, accuracy, and marked lu- cidity of arrangement. Behn, ban, Aphra, or Aphara, English novelist and dramatist: b. Wye, Kent, 1640; d. London, 16 April 1689. She went to Surinam when she was very A'oung, and remained there some years, during which time she became ac- quainted with the American prince, Oroonoko, whom she made the subject of a novel, subse- quently dramatized by Sothern. On her return to England she married Mr. Behn, a London merchant, but was probably a v/idow when se- lected by Charles II. to acquire intelligence on the Continent during the Dutch war. She took up her residence at Antwerp, and it is said that, by means of one of her admirers, she obtained notice of the intention of the Dutch to sail up the Thames, and transmitted the news to Eng- land. This intelligence being discredited, she returned to England, and devote.d herself to intrigue and writing for support. She published three volumes of poems, by Rochester, Etherege, Crisp, and others, with some poetry of her own ; and wrote 17 plays, the heartless licentiousness of which was disgraceful both to her sex and to the age which tolerated the performance of them. She was also the author of a couple of volumes of novels, and of the celebrated love- letters between a nobleman and his sister-in- law (Lord Gray and Lady Henrietta Berkeley). Pope, in his ^Character of Women,' alludes to INIrs. Behn, under her poetical name of Astrea. ' The stage how loosely does Astrea tread, Who fairly puts her characters to bed.' She was buried in the cloisters of Westminster Abbey. An edition of her works was published in 1872. BEHRENDS — BEISA Behrends, ba'rens, Adolphus Julius Fred- srick, American clergyman: b. Nymwegen, Holland, i8 Dec. 1839; d. Brooklyn, N. Y., 22 May 1900. He was successively pastor of a Baptist church at Yonkers, N. Y., 1868, and of the First Baptist Church in Cleveland, Ohio, 1873 ; of the Union Congregational Church, Providence, R. I., 1876, and of the Central Congregational Church in Brooklyn, 1883-1900. Hex published * Socialism and Christianity^ (1886) ; 'Philoso- phy of Preaching^ (1890) ; 'The Old Testament Under Fire^ ; 'The World for Christ. ■• He was a forcible writer and very popular as a pulpit orator. Behrens, ba'rens. Bertha, popular German novelist, who has written over the signature, W. Heimburg: b. Thale, 1850. She completed ^Das Eulenhaus,* a posthumous novel by E. Marlitt, whose successor as contributor to Die Gartenlaube she became, and among her own novels may be named 'Aus dem Leben meiner Alten Freunden^ (1878, 8th ed. 1890) ; 'Lum- penmijllers Lieschen^ (1879) ; 'Ihr einziger Bruder' (1882); 'Waldblumen' (1882); 'Daz- umeP (1887); ^Trudchens Heirat' (1884); 'Umfreund Schuld^ O895) ; 'Antons Erben^ (1898). Behring, ba'ring, Emil Adolf, German physician : b. Hansdorf, 1854, and since 1895 di- rector of the Hygienic Institute in Marburg. He has published 'Die Blutserumtherapie' (1892) ; 'Bekampfung der Infektionskrankheiten' (1894) and is widely known for his discovery of diph- theria serum. Behring, ba'ring or be'ring. See Bering. Beige, a light, woolen fabric, made of wool of the natural color; that is, neither dyed nor bleached. Beijerland, bi'er-lant, a fertile island in the Netherland province of South Holland at the mouth of the Maase. It produces great quanti- ties of flax. Pop. 13,300. Beilan, ba-lan', a town and pass in the north of Syria, on the Gulf of Iscanderoon. The pass has more than once been of military importance, and was in 1832 the scene of a battle between Turks and Egyptians. The town, 1,584 feet above the Mediterranean, has 5,000 inhabitants. Beilstein, bil'stin, Freidrich Konrad, Rus- sian chemist : b. St. Petersburg, 1838. In J866 he became professor of chemistry in St. Petersburg Institute of Technology. He has \)ublished 'Anleitung zur qualitaten Chemische Analyse,^ which has been widely circulated (1867) ; 'Die Chemische Grossindustrie auf der Weltausstellung in Wien^ (1873) : and a cele- brated 'Handbuch der Organischen Chemie^ (1800-1901). Beira, ba'ra, a province of Portugal, bounded chiefly by the River Douro on the north, by Spain on the east, and by the Tagus and Portuguese Estremadura on the south, and by the Atlantic on the west. It was formerly divided into Beira Alta (High Beira), and Beira Baixa (Low Beira). Its extent is 9,248 square miles, and the pop. (1900) 1,518,406. The capi- tal is Coimbra. It is traversed by jhe Serra d'Estrella, and well watered by the Douro, Vol. 2 — 31. Tagus, etc. Though not fertile in grain, the produce of' wine and olives is considerable. The heir-apparent of the Portuguese crown is styled Prince of Beira. For purposes of administration the province is subdivided into the districts of Aveiro, Visien, Coimbra, Guarda, and Castello Branco. Beira, a seaport on the coast of Portu- guese East Africa, at the mouth of the Pungwe River, a little to the north of Sofala. It is the nearest port to the gold-fields of Mashonaland, and a railway through Fontesvilla, Chimoio, Massikesse, and New Umtali to Salisbury was completed in 1899. Beira has a good harbor protected by a sand-bank. There is a hospital, an English church, and about 1,600 inhabitants, of whom about 700 are Europeans. Beiram, ba'ram. See Bairam. Beirut, or Beyrout, be-rut, or ba-root', (ancient Berytus), a flourishing seaport of Syria, 60 miles northwest of Damascus. It stands on a tongue of land projecting into an open bay, and spreading out toward the land into a beautiful plain, backed by the mountains of Lebanon. It consists of the old town, com- posed generally of narrow dirty streets, the resi- dence of the poorer classes, and the business place of the merchants ; and of the new town, which stretches around it. The latter, with its modern houses, carriage roads, and gardens, — • its churches, colleges, schools, and hotels, — has little or nothing of the Oriental in its compo- sition. Beirut has rapidly increased since 1844 when its population was only 8,000, its rise being largely due to the extension of the silk tidde, of which it is the centre. The better protection afforded both to foreigners and na- tives by its being the residence of the consuls- general has also contributed to its prosperity. It is the seat of a consulate of the United States. Besides silk its principal exports are olive oil, cereals, sesame seed, tobacco, and wool. Ship- building is carried on here ; an English company completed waterworks here in 1875 and gas works were built by a French comoany in 1886. Besides a Scottish school for Jews, there is an American-Syrian mission in Beirut, printing an- nually thousands of Arabic Bibles and having a school and hospital connected with it. In ancient times Beirut was a large and important Phoenician city, and under the Romans was long celebrated for its school of jurisprudence. The Byzantine Emperor Theodosius II. raised it to the rank of a metropolis. After being destroyed by an earthquake in 551, it again rose to a con- siderable town in the time of the Crusades. In later times it was long in the possession of the Druses. It was bombarded and taken by the British on 29 Aug. 1840. There is a railway to Damascus. Pop. estimated (1901) 120,000. Beisa, bi'sa, a large Abyssinian antelope {Oryx beisa). dififering from the gemsbok prin- cipally in lacking the tuft of hair on the throat and by the black patch on the front of the face being completely separated from the cheek stripe. This is probably the animal called oryx by the ancients, and may be the animal from which is derived the legend of the unicorns. Its straight horns (about 36 inches long) when seen in profile might easily appear as one. Herds of beisas are still numerous upon the plains of Somaliland. See also Gemsbok ; Oryx. BEISSEL — BEKE Beissel, bi'sel, Johann Conrad, German mystic: b. Eberbach, 1690; d. Ephrata, Pa., 1768. He studied theology at Halle, but having been banished in 1720 for his Pietistic opinions he emigrated to Pennsylvania, settling first at Ger- mantown and later in Lancaster County. In 1724 he returned to Germantown and adopted the Dunker faith, but his views as to celibacy and his observance of Saturday as the Sabbath were unacceptable to his neighbors, and he therefore established a sect of Seventh Day Dunkers. He attempted a hermit life, but his fellow believers gathered about him and in 1735 he founded the famous Settlement of Ephrata, Pa. (q.v.), and remained at its head till his death. He was the author of the earliest volume of German poetry published in America, ^Gott- liche Liebes und Lobestone^ (1730), and pub- lished several collections of hymns, such as *The Voice of the Lonely and Forsaken Turtle Dove — that is, of the Christian Church ; by a Peaceable Pilgrim traveling to Tranquil Eter- nity^ (1747) ; and ^Paradisiacal Wonder-Play' (1766). In the latter are found the ^Brother Song' of the sect with its 215 stanzas, and the ^Sister Song' with 250. He was known at Ephrata as Friedsam, and on his tomb may be read the inscription : "Here rests an outgrowth of the love of God, "^Friedsam,' a solitary Brother, afterward a leader, ruler, teacher of the Solitary and the Congregation of Christ in and around Ephrata." See *Chronicon Ephrateuse' (1786) ; Sachse, ^German Sectarians of Penn- Bylvania' (1899-1900). Beit, Alfred, German colonial financier: b. Hamburg, Germany, 1853 ; d. London, Eng- land, 16 July 1906. He was educated in the schools of his native city, emigrated to South Africa in 1873, and was a diamond merchant in Kimberley 1875-88. He became partner in the hanking firm of Werner, Beit & Co. in 1888. On the discovery of gold in the Transvaal he purchased mining lands on an extensive scale, and prior to the Boer war in 1899 was chief partner in mines producing annually $90,000,000 of gold. He was a director of the Rand and Bulfontein mines, of the Rhodesia railways, of the Bechuana Railway Trust, and the Trans- vaal Consolidated Lands Company. His busi- ness offices were in Bishopsgate Street, London, and his wealth was estimated at over $100,000,000. Beit-el-Fakih, bat-el-fa'ke, a town of Arabia, in Yemen, 32 miles south-southeast of Hodeidah, and "]-] northeast of Mocha. It is celebrated for its trade in Mocha coffee, which is chiefly grown in the neighborhood. Pop. about 8,000. The word Beit, signifying a house or hut, is prefixed to the name of various other small towns and villages in Arabia. Beitullah, bat-ul'la, the name of the build- ing in Mecca within whose enclosure the Caaba (q.v.) is located. Beitzke, bits'ke, Heinrich Ludwig, German historian: b. Muttrin, 15 Feb. 1798; d. 10 May 1867. His publications include ^History of the German War for Freedom' (1855) ; ^History of the Russian War — Year of 1812' (1856); * History of the Year 1815' (1865), etc. Beja, ba'zha (anciently Pax Julia), a town of Portugal, in the province of Alemtejo, 85 miles southeast of Lisbon. It stands on a height, surrounded by walls flanked with 40 towers, and is defended by an old fort. It was founded by the Romans, and some Roman remains are still visible. The town has two annual fairs and has an extensive trade in cattle and agricultural products. Pop. (1900) 8,895. Bejapur, be-ja-p6r' (anciently Vijayapura, the impregnable city), a town of Hindustan in the Bombay presidency, near the borders of the Nizam's dominions, about 245 miles southeast of Bombay, and near the right bank of an afiiuent of the Krishna. From the great extent of the ruins here it would seem to have been formerly one of the largest cities of India. In its present state it may be described as two towns adjoining each other — the fort on the east, and the old town on the west. The former, though much less than the latter, has one entire and regular street 50 feet wide and nearly 3 miles long. Some of the mosques and mauso- leums of Bejapur are elaborately elegant, but the prevailing character is solid and massive. The great dome of Mahomet Shah's tomb is visible far ofif. The fretwork on the ceilings and ver- andahs, the panels covered with passages of the Koran in bas-relief, and the stone trellises pierced with a mesh-work of Arabic characters, are all in the richest style of Oriental sculpture. Among the religious structures is a Hindu tem- ple, built in the earliest style of Brahmanical architecture. There are here some guns of enormous size; one cast in 1549 is the largest piece of brass ordnance extant. Bejapur has become the chief town of Kaladgi district, and some of the old palaces are now used for public purposes. Pop. about 17,000. See Ferguson, "^Ancient Architecture in Hindustan' (1847) ; Ferguson, ^The Study of Indian Architecture' (1867). Bejar, ba'jar, a town of Spain, in the province of Salamanca, 41 miles south of the town of that name. It is surrounded by old walls, and has considerable manufactures of cloth. Lord Hill defeated a French force here in 1813. In its vicinity are warm sulphur springs. Pop. (1895) 12,140. Beke, Charles Tilstone, English traveler: b. Stepney, Middlesex, 10 Oct. 1800; d. Bromley, Kent, 31 July 1874. In his 20th year he entered on a business career, and was thus led to visit Italy. On his return he studied law at Lin- coln's Inn, and in 1834 he followed up several archaeological articles in periodicals by publishing ^Origines Biblicse, or Researches in Primeval History.' In 1837-8 he was British consul at Leipsic, and in 1840 set out on his first journey to Abyssinia. Returning in 1843 he was awarded the gold medals of the Royal Geographical so- cieties of London and Paris, and again engaged in business. He subsequently made several efforts to open up commercial intercourse with Abyssinia, and in 1861-2 he traveled in Syria, Palestine, and Egypt. When the news of the detention of several British subjects by the king of Abyssinia arrived in 1864, Beke went out to secure their release, and was temporarily suc- cessful, but ultimately King Theodore had to be coerced by war. In the direction of the military operations Beke's knowledge of the country proved of the utmost value, and in 1870 he received a civil list pension of $500 per annum. In 1873 he set out for Egypt in order to explorf the country traversed by the Israelites, and to locate Mount Sinai. His published works com- BEKES — BELA prise: ^The Sources of the Nile^ (i860) ; ; (The Charity BalP ; ; (1881); Mill, 'Analysis of the Phenomena of the Human Mind' (1869); James. ^Psychologj'^ (1890); Brentano, 'Psychologic' (1874) ; Verbrot, the publication of a work which first appeared in 1804, under the title of a * Treatise on the Laws of Bankruptcy,^ but in subsequent editions was extended and ap- peared as 'Commentaries on the Laws of Scot- land and on the Principles of Mercantile Juris- prudence. ■" This work, notwithstanding recent changes in the law, is still a standard. Besides the work above mentioned, he published ^Prin- ciples of the Law of Scotland,^ the loth edition of which was issued in 1897; and other works. Bell, Henry, Scottish engineer, the first successful applier of steam to the purposes of navigation in Europe : b. Torphichen, Linlith- gowshire, 7 April 1767; d. Helensburgh, 14 Nov. 1830. He practised for several years, at Glasgow, the craft of a house carpenter, but in 1808 removed to Helensburgh, where he contin- ued to prosecute his favorite task of mechanical scheming, without much regard to the ordinary affairs of the world, though he became proprie- tor of baths there. The application of steam to navigation had already been attempted by Mr. Miller of Dalswinton (among others), who, in 1788, had a vessel constructed, propelled by a small engine and paddle-wheel, the scene of operations being a loch on his own propert}'' in Dumfriesshire. Some further experiments were made, yet the scheme had no practical result for several j-ears. Henry Bell seems to have turned his attention to the subject before the end of the century, and in January 1812 produced the Comet, a vessel 40 feet long, which was found in a great measure to answer the purpose contemplated. This vessel could make way against a head tide in the river at the rate of five miles an hour, and continued to ply on the Clyde for a number of years. It may be mentioned, that Mr. Robert Fulton, an Amer- ican engineer, had launched a boat upon this principle in 1807, and that it performed long voyages upon the Hudson River ; but it has been proved that Fulton had derived assistance in the construction of his vessel from Bell, who must therefore be allowed the praise of having done, in his own country, what all other men, notwithstanding the superior advantages of skill and capital, had failed in doing. Bell lived to see the bosom of the Clyde dotted far and wide by innumerable copies of his own invention; to know that steamboats promised to give a new turn to the art of general warfare ; yet he reaped for himself little advantage. While mankind at large were enjoying the blessings which he had pointed out to them, he approached the confines of old age with the prospect of hardly the average comforts which attended that stage of existence in the humbler walks of society. Touched by his condition, a number of benevolent individuals instituted a subscription in his behalf, and it is creditable to the good feeling of the citizens of Glasgow and other places that a considerable sum was raised. The trustees on the river Clyde also gave him an annuity of iioo, which he enjoyed for several years, the half of which sum was continued to his widow. A monument was erected to his memory at Douglass Point on the Clyde. Bell, Henry Glassford, Scottish law5'er and author: b. Glasgow, 1803; d. 1874. He founded the Edinburgh ^Literary JournaP 1S28. was admitted to the bar in 1832 and became one of the most esteemed Scottish mercantile lawyers of his day. He published a spirited defense of Mary Queen of Scots, (1830;, ^Summer and Winter Hours^ (1831) ; ^My Old Portfolio^ (1832); 'Romances and Minor Poems' (1866). Bell, Henry Haywood, American naval officer: b. North Carolina, 1807; d. 11 Jan. 1868. He was appointed a midshipman in 1823, and served on the Grampus when she was en- gaged in clearing the coast of Cuba of pirates. For many years he served with the East Indian squadron, and commanded one of the vessels of the squadron which, in November 1856 de- stroyed four forts near Canton, China. Shortly after the outbreak of the Civil War he became fleet captain of the Western Gulf squadron. He commanded one of the three divisions of the fleet which captured New Orleans, and was sent to raise the United States flag over the custom house and the city hall. In 1865 he took com- mand of the East India squadron with the rank of commodore : in 1866 was promoted to rear- admiral ; and, in 1867, retired. He was drowned at the mouth of the Osaka River, Japan. Bell, Henry Thomas Mackenzie, English poet and critic : b. Liverpool, 2 IMarch 1852. His collections of verse include 'The Keeping of the Vow^ (1879) ; 'Verses of Varied Life* (1882); 'Old Year Leaves* (1883); 'Spring's Immortality* (1896) ; 'Pictures of Travel* (1898). He has also published such critical works as 'Charles Whitehead* (1884) ; ^Chris- tina Rossetti* (1898). Bell, Hillary, American dramatic critic: b. Belfast, Ireland, 1857; d. New York, 9 April 1903. After coming to the United States he painted portraits for some years and subse- quently engaged in journalism and was the dramatic and musical critic of the New York Press. He also edited the "^Insurance Econo- mist,* and was a vice-president of the JMutual Reserve Life Insurance Company. The life-size portrait which he painted of Ada Rehan as Katharine in 'The Taming of the Shrew,* was presented by Augustin Daly to the Shakespeare Memorial at Stratford-on-Avon. Bell, Isaac, American philanthropist: b New York, 4 Aug. 1814; d. there, 30 Sept. 1897. He began his business life in a banking house when 14 years old, and in 1836 became interested in large financial and other concerns. About this time he began to devote himself to the work of benevolent institutions, and was presi- dent of the department of charities and correc- tion 1857-73. It was principally through his efforts that the Bellevue Hospital, and also the Bellevue Hospital Medical College, were found- ed. In connection with the first institution he established the system of ambulance service. He was also largely instrumental in the estab- lishment of the Normal College, and was re- sponsible for the schoolship Mercury, which came under the control of the department of Charities and Correction, and of the St. !Mary's, as well, loaned by the Navy Department to the Department of Education, of which he was also for a long time a member. During the Civil War he was active in raising and disbursing money for the benefit of New York volunteers. BELL and in aiding soldiers' wives, widows, and orphans. Bell, James, Scotch geographer: b. Jed- burgh, 1769; d. 1833. After receiving a liberal education he served an apprenticeship to the weaving business, and in 1790 commenced the manufacturing of cotton goods upon a large and respectable scale. In the universal depres- sion occasioned by the shock of the French Revolution in 1793, he was reduced to the con- dition of a common warper ; but having relin- quished that line of life, he was about the year 1815 engaged to improve the * Glasgow System of Geography,* a work which had met with con- siderable encouragement, and was now, chiefly by the labors of Mr. Bell, extended to five volumes. It was well received by the public, and formed the basis of his principal work, *A System of Popular and Scientific Geography,' published at Glasgow in six volumes. His 'Gazetteer of England and Wales' was in the course of publication at the time of his death. Bell, James, Canadian physician: b. North Gower, Ont., 10 Oct. 1852. He graduated at McGill University in 1877 ; became house sur- geon of the Montreal General Hospital the same year, and medical superintendent of it in 1881. In 1885 he became a member of the hospital staff as assistant surgeon, and in 1886 full sur- geon. In 1894 he was made consulting surgeon to the General Hospital, surgeon of the Royal Victoria Hospital of Montreal, and professor of clinical surgery in McGill University. Bell, James Franklin, American soldier: b. Shelbyville, Ky., 9 Jan. 1856. He was grad- uated from the United States Military Academy 1878; served on the plains in the 7th United States Cavalr}-. 1878-94: and was aid to Gen. J. W. Forsyth in California, Arizona, and Washington. He went to the Philippines with the original expedition in 1898, and his military career there has been of the most daring and brilliant kind. As colonel of the 36th regiment of volunteers, he was not attached to any brig- ade, but acted as a free lance, reporting only to his division commander. He received a medal of honor for most distinguished gallantry in action 9 Sept. 1899, near Porac, in Luzon. While in advance of his regiment he charged seven insurgents with his pistol and compelled the surrender of the captain and two privates under a close and hot fire from the remaining insurgents, who were concealed in a bamboo thicket. In December 1900 he was made a brigadier-general in the regular army, being promoted over more than 500 captains, 200 ma- jors, 98 lieutenant-colonels, and TJ colonels. Bell, James Montgomery, American sol- dier: b. Williamsburg, Pa.. I Oct. 1837. He entered the 86th Ohio infantry, and served with distinction throughout the Civil War, being twice brevetted for gallant and meritorious services in the battles of the Wilderness and Ream's Station, Va. Entering the regular army as 2nd lieutenant in 7th Cavalry, 1866, he took part in the Cheyenne and Arapahoe war, 1867-9; the Sioux wars, 1876-81, and the Nez Perces war. 1877. He received a brevet-com- mission of lieutenant-colonel for gallant services in action against the Indians at Canon Creek, Montana. 13 Sept. 1877. He commanded in southern Luzon, Philippine Islands, 1900-1, and was appointed brigadier-general of volunteers, Jan. 20, 1900. Bell, John, Scotch traveler: b. Antermony, 1691 ; d. there, i July 1780. Having gone to St. Petersburg in 1714, after the completion of his studies, he happened to be in that city when an embass3' was being sent to the Sophy of Persia, and was appointed medical attendant to the ambassador. On his return from Persia to the Russian capital in 1718 he found another embassy preparing to set out for China, and through the influence of the ambassador whom he had attended to Persia he obtained an ap- pointment in it also. The embassy arrived at Pekin *'after a tedious journej' of exactly 16 months." The embassy returned in January 1722. The war between Russia and Sweden was now concluded, and the czar had determined to undertake an expedition into Persia, at the request of the sophy, to assist that prince against the Afghans, his subjects, who had seized upon Kandahar and possessed themselves of several provinces on the frontiers toward India. Bell's former journey to Persia gave him peculiar advantages, and he was accordingly engaged to accompany the army to Derbend, from which he returned in December 1722. In 1737 he was sent to Constantinople by the Russian chancel- lor, and Mr. Rondeau, the British minister at the Russian court. He seems now to have abandoned the public service, and to have set- tled at Constantinople as a merchant. About 1746 he married a Russian lady and returned to Scotland. The only work written by him is his 'Travels from St. Petersburg in Russia to Various Parts of Asia' (1763). Bell, John, distinguished Scotch surgeon: b. Edinburgh, 12 May 1763; d. Rome, 15 April 1820. He was a brother of Sir Charles and George Joseph Bell, and after completing his professional education traveled for a short time in Russia and the north of Europe; and on his return began to deliver lectures on surgery and midwifery. These lectures, delivered between 1786 and 1796, were very highly esteemed, and speedily brought him into practice as a consult- ing and operating surgeon. The increase of his private practice, indeed, rendered it necessary for him, in 1796, to discontinue his lectures, and from that time forward he devoted himself to his patients, and to the preparation of the sev- eral publications of which he was the author. Patients came to him from all quarters, both of Scotland and England, and even from the Con- tinent ; and during that interval he performed some of the most delicate and difficult operations in surgery. Early in 1816 he was thrown by a .spirited horse, and appears never to have en- tirely recovered from the effects of the accident. He was the author of ^The Anatomy of the Human Body' (1793-1802; 3d edition, with plates by Charles Bell, 181 1) ; ^Engravings of the Bones, Muscles, and Joints,' illustrating the first volume of the ^Anatomy of the Human Body,' drawn and engraved by himself (1794, 3d edition) ; 'Engravings of the Arteries,' illustrating the second volume of the 'Anatomy of the Human Body' (i8or) ; * Discourses on the Nature and Cure of Wounds' (1795) ; "^The Principles of Surgery' (i 801-8) ; 'Letters on Professional Character'; 'Observations oa Italv.' BELL Bell, John, American statesman: b. near Nashville, Tenn., 15 Feb. 1797; d. Cumberland Iron Works, Tenn., 10 Sept. 1869. Graduating at Cumberland College (now University of Nashville) in 1814, he practised law until 1827, when he was elected to Congress. He received successive re-elections until 1841 when he be- came secretary of war in President Harrison's cabinet, but resigned when President Tyler withdrew from the Whig party. From 1847 to 1859 he was senator from his State. He was chairman of several important committees, and vigorously opposed the Kansas-Nebraska bill and the Lecompton constitution framed for Kansas. In May i860 he was nominated for President by the Constitutional Union party (q.v.), but was defeated. During the Civil War he took no active part in politics. Bell, John, English sculptor: b. Hopton, Suffolk, 181 1 ; d. 25 March 1895. His best- known works are the •■ Eagle Slayer^ ; *Una and the Lion^ ; 'The Maid of Saragossa^ ; 'Imo- gen^ ; ' Andromeda ■• ; statues of Lord Falkland, Sir Robert Walpole, Newton, Cromwell, etc., and the Wellington Memorial in Guildhall. He was one of the sculptors of the Guards' Monu- ment in Waterloo Place, London, and the Prince Consort Memorial in Hyde Park. He was the author of several professional treatises and of a drama, "^Ivan: a Day and a Night in Russia.^ Bell, Lilian, American novelist: b. Ken- tucky, 1867. In 1900 she was married to Arthur Hoyt Boyne, but continues to write under her maiden name. Her writings include 'The Love Affairs of an Old Maid^ (1893) ; *A Little Sis- ter to the Wilderness^ (1895); 'The Under Side of Things^ (1896) ; 'From a Girl's Point of View^ (1897) ; 'The Instinct of Stepfather- hood^ (1898) ; 'As Seen By Me' (1900) ; 'The Expatriates' (1900) ; 'Yessum' (1901) ; 'Abroad With the Jimmies' ; 'Hope Loring' ; 'Sir John and the American Girl.' Bell, Sir Lowthian, English manufacturer and politician: b. Newcastle-on-Tyne, 1816; d. 20 Dec. 1904. He was mayor of his native city 1854-62, sat in the House of Commons for Hartlepool 1875-80, and was made a baronet in 1885. He founded the Clarence Iron Works on the Tees. His publications include 'The Chemical Phenomena of Iron Smelting' (1872); ' Report on the Iron Manufacture of the United States, and a Comparison of It with That of Great Britain' (1877). Bell, Nancy R. E. Meugens, English art writer : b. Lambelh, London. Until her mar- riage to A. G. Bell in 1882 she wrote over the signature N. D. Anvers. She has published 'Elementary History of Art' ; 'Masterpieces of the Great Artists' ; 'Life of Gainsborough' ; 'Representative Painters of the 19th Century' ; 'St. Antony of Padua' ; 'An Old Educational Reformer: J. M. D. Meiklejohn' ; '^Memoirs of Baron Le Jeune' ; 'Science Ladders Series' (8 vols.) ; 'Raphael' ; 'Lives and Legends of the Saints' ; 'The Saints in Christian Art.' Bell, Robert, Irish journalist and miscel- laneous writer: b. Cork, 16 Jan. 1800; d. Lon- don. 12 April 1867. He settled in London in 1828, edited an important weekly paper, the Atlas, for several years, and afterward the 'Monthly Chronicle,' 'Mirror,' and 'Home News.' He compiled several volumes of 'Lard- ner's Cabinet Cyclopaedia' ; wrote three plays, 'The Ladder of Gold,' a novel (1856) ; 'Hearts and Altar,' a collection of tales (1852), and did a great deal of miscellaneous literary work ; but is best known by his annotated edition of the 'British Poets,' the first volume of which ap- peared in 1854, and which was carried through 29 volumes. Bell, Robert, Canadian geologist: b. To- ronto, Ont., 3 June 1841. He was educated at McGill and Queen's universities, and in 1867 joined the Canada Geological Survey, and in 1900 was an assistant director of it. In 1861 he was elected a member of the American Institute of Mining Engineers; in 1881 became a Fellow of the Royal Society of Canada; and in 1888-9 was a member of the Ontario Commission, which reported on the mineral resources of that province. During his connection with the geo- logical survey, he made more extensive explora- tions throughout the Dominion than any other man. He was the author of about 130 reports and papers, a list of which is found in the 'Biblio of the Royal Societ3^' Bell, Robert Stanley Warren, English writer, editor of 'The Captain' : b. Long-Pres- ton, Yorkshire, 27 June 1871. He has published 'The Cub in Love' (1897) ; 'The Papa Papers' (1898); 'Bachelorland> (1899); 'Tales of Greyhouse' ; 'Love the Laggard' (1901). Bell, Samuel, American statesman: b. Londonderry, N. H., 9 Feb. 1770; d. Chester, N. H., 23 Dec. 1850. He passed his boyhood upon his father's farm, graduated at Dartmouth College in 1793, and was admitted to practise law in 1796. He rapidly achieved distinction in his profession, and in 1804 was elected a repre- sentative to the State legislature, an office to which he was twice re-elected ; and during his last two terms held the position of speaker of the house. He declined the attorney-generalship in 1807, after v/hich he was successively a mem- ber of the State senate, and of the executive council, a judge of the supreme court, and in 1819 governor of the State. To the latter office he was re-elected four times in succession, till in 1823 he was elected to the senate of the United States, an office to which he was also re-elected. He retired from public life upon the expiration of his second term in 1835. Bell, Samuel Dana, American jurist: b. Francestown, N. H., 9 Oct. 1798; d. 31 July 1868. He was graduated at Harvard in 1816; studied law in Exeter ; and began practice in Meredith. He became a member of the legisla- ture about 1825, and was the clerk of that body for several years. In 1830, 1842, and 1867, he was a member of the commissions appointed to revise the State 'Statutes.' In 1855 he was appointed justice of the supreme court of New Hampshire, and in 1859, became chief justice of the court, which office he held till 1864. He joined the New Hampshire Historical Society soon after its organization, and the Manchester Public Library was founded largely through his efforts. Bell, Thomas, English zoologist: b. Poole, Dorset, 1792; d. Selborne, Hampshire, 1880. He studied medicine at Guy's and St. Thomas' hospitals, London, became a member of the Roj'al College of Surgeons in 1815, and soon secured a large practice as a dentist. In 1832 he was appointed professor of zoology in King's BELL-SMITH — BELL College, London, a post which he held almost to the last. Latterly he lived for a number of years at Selborne in the residence that had belonged to the celebrated Gilbert White. His best-known separate works are his histories of ^British Quadrupeds^ ; ^British Reptiles' ; and ^British Stalk-eyed Crustacea,' published in Van Voorst's series. In 1877 he published an excellent edition of White's * Natural History of Selborne.' Bell-Smith, Frederic Marlett, English art- ist : b. London, 26 Sept. 1846. He went to Canada in 1866, and was for seven j-ears art director at Alma College, St. Thomas, and teacher of drawing in the public schools of Lon- don, Ont. About 1888 he became a portrait and figure painter ; but he is best known as a painter of landscapes. In 1894 he produced < Lights of a City Street,' his greatest achieve- ment up to that year, and later, two canvases depicting incidents connected with the death of Sir John Thompson. Bell, a hollow vessel, which, by its vibra- tions when struck, gives forth sounds ; whence its name, from the old Saxon word hcllan, to bawl or bellow. It is an instrument of great antiquity, being spoken of by Hebrew writers, as in Ex. xxviii., in which golden bells are pre- scribed as appendages to the dress of the high priest, that notice may thus be given of his approach to the sanctuary. And at this day the bell is used for a similar purpose before the priest, in Roman Catholic countries, as he pro- ceeds to administer the Holy Viaticum to the soul that is passing away ; and so when the bell is tinkled, fn administering the sacrament, by the same priest, it is in pursuance of a cus- tom, founded on the ancient Hebrew use of the bell. More intimately than any other instru- ment are bells associated with the religious and imaginative, as also with the most joyous and the saddest feelings of mankind. The metal from which bells are usually made (by found- ing), is an alloy, called bell-metal, commonly composed of 80 parts of copper and 20 of tin. The proportion of tin varies, however, from one third to one fifth of the weight of the cop- per, according to the sound required, the size of the bell, and the impulse to be given. The clearness and richness of the tone depend upon the metal used, the perfection of its casting, and also upon its shape ; it having been shown by a number of experiments that the well-known shape with a thick lip is the best adapted to give a perfect sound. The depth of the tone of a bell increases in proportion to its size. A bell is divided into the body or barrel, the ear or cannon, and the clapper or tongue. The lip or sound bow is that part where the bell is struck by the clapper. The sound of a bell is a compound tone, pre- senting five and in many instances more notes to the ear. There is a great difference between the harmonics of a bell and of a vibrating string. In the case of the former a minor third is not infrequently one of the loudest tones next to the fundamental tone. When a bell is properly struck the first note which attracts the atten- tion of the ear is known as the strike note, tap note, or fundamental, and forms what is called <'the" note of the bell. The low sound heard after the strike note has lost its intensity is called the hum note, and the octave above the strike note the nominal. There are also present a minor third and a perfect fifth in the first octave, and a major third and a perfect fifth in the second octave. Very few bells agree with these conditions. Generally the hum note is a sixth or seventh, and in rare cases a ninth below the strike note. The nominal is some- where about an octave or a ninth above the strike note, and the other notes diverge accord- ingly. Bells that are swung are more likely to conform to the conditions than those that are struck. Bells were used very early in the form of cymbals and hand bells in religious services. In Egypt the feast of Osiris was announcef through the ringing of bells. Bronze bells have, been found in Assyria. Bells of gold were worn by Aaron and the high priests of the Jews on the border of their robes, and in Athens the priests of Cybele used them in their offering! The Romans also used bells which they called tintinabula, to announce the public assemblies, and, according to Suetonius, Augustus had a bell suspended before the temple of Jupiter. In the Christian churches a similar custom early came into use, though it is not known that in the first Christian churches divine service was announced by any such method. They were used, however, in the early monasteries to announce the hours of prayer. Generally they were made of tubes struck with a hammer. They are said to have been first introduced into Christian churches about 400 a.d., by Paulinus, bishop of Nola in Campania (whence campana and nola as old names of bells) ; although their adoption on a wide scale does not become apparent until after the year 550, when they were introduced into France. They are rung to summon monks and choir nuns to the office, and the people to mass, to announce the Angelus, to toll during funerals, and peal on occasions of joy. They are blessed with elaborate ceremo- nies and consecrated or "baptized" in honor of some saint. Until the 13th century they were of com- paratively small size, but after the casting of the Jacqueline of Paris (6I/2 tons) in 1400, their weight rapidly increased. Among the more famous bells are the bell of Cologne, 11 tons, 1448; of Dantzic, 6 tons, 1453; of Halberstadt, 714, 1457; of Rouen, 16, 1501 ; of Breslau, ir, 1507; of Lucerne, 7V2, 1636; of Oxford, 7^, 1680; of Paris, i2f/5, 1680; of Bruges, io34, 1680; of Vienna, 17^, 1711; of Moscow (the monarch of all bells), 193, 1736; three other bells at Moscow, ranging from 16 to 31 tons, and a fourth of 80 tons, cast in 1819; the bell of Lincoln (Great Tom), 55^2, 1834; of York Minster (Great Peter), 10^, 1845; of Montreal, 131/3, 1847; of Westminster (Big Ben), 151/, 1856; (St. Stephen), 1314, 1858; the great bell of St. Paul's, 171^, 1882. Others are the bells of Ghent (5), Gorlitz (lO-M), St. Peter's, Rome (8), Antwerp (7>4). Olmutz (18), Brus- sels (7), Novgorod (31), Pekin (53^)- Bells, as the term is used on shipboard, are the strokes of the ship's bell that proclaim the hours. Eight bells, the highest number, are rung at noon and every fourth hour afterward, that is, at 4, 8, 12 o'clock, and so on. The inter- mediary periods are indicated thus: 12:30, i bell ; I o'clock, 2 bells ; i :30, 3 bells, etc., until the eight bells announce 4 o'clock, when the series recommences 4 :30, i bell ; 5 o'clock, 2 BELL-BIRD — BELLA bells, etc. The even numbers of strikes thus always announce hours, the odd numbers half hours. See Gatty, (188O ; Otte, ^Glockenkunde* (1884) ; Tyack, from its use as a cosmetic for distending the pupil and giving the ej'e a bright glistening appearance and also from the use of the juice for staining the skin. Its names, deadly night shade, and dwale (which latter is believed by some to come from the same source as the French deuil, sorrow, and by others from the Anglo-Saxon dull, because of its stupefying effects), refer to popular belief in the plant's poisonous properties. The generic name came from Atropos, the fate who cut the thread of life. Belladonna Lily. See Amarvllidace.i:. Bellaire, bel-lar', Ohio, a city in Belmont County, on the Ohio River, and several rail- roads ; five miles south of Wheeling, W. Va. The river is here crossed by a costly iron rail- road bridge. Bellaire is the centre of a region rich in coal, iron, cement, brick, clay, and lime- stone, and has manufactories of stoves, glass, carriages, boilers, and foundry and machine shop products. The city has a national bank, high- grade educational institutions, daily and weekly newspapers, and an assessed property valuation of over $3,000,000. Pop. (1900) 9.912. Bel'lamont, or Bellomont, Richard Coote (E.\RL of), royal governor of New York and Massachusetts: b. 1636; d. New York, 5 IMarch 1701. To these ofifices he was appointed in May 1695, but did not arrive in New York until May 1698. He went from New York to Boston in May 1699, and was received by 20 companies of soldiers and a vast concourse of people. His administration was uneventful, his time having been occupied in the pursuit of the pirates who infested the coast, one of whom, the notorious Kidd, he secured and sent to England in 1700. He was disliked by the aristocratic party in New York, but very popular in New Hampshire and Massachusetts. Hutchinson speaks of Bellamont as being a hypocrite in a pretended devotion to religion. It appears, however, that while living at Fort George, in New York, he passed much time in meditation and contrition for his youth- ful excesses. He was accompanied to America by his countess. See De Reyster, ^Life and Ad- ministration of Richard, Earl of Bellamont^ (1869). Bellamy, Edward, American writer: b. in Chicopee Falls, Mass., 29 March 1850; d. there, 22 May 1898. He was educated in Germany; admitted to the bar; was on the staflf of the Evening Post of New York in 1871-2: and on his return from the Sandwich Islands in 1877, founded the Springfield News. He is best known by his novel ^Looking Backward' (1888), a socialistic work, of which an immense num- ber of copies were sold in two years. This led to the formation of Nationalist clubs, in which work Mr. Bellamy took active part. His other books are ^Six to One: a Nantucket Idyl* (1878); ^Dr. Heidenhoff's Process' (1880); *^Miss Ludington's Sister' (1884) ; ^Equality' (1897); 'The Duke of Stockbridge' (1901), a sequel to 'Looking Backward.' Bellamy, Elizabeth Whitfield ( C R o m ) , American novelist, writing under the pseudonym Kamba Thorpe: b. Quincy. Fla., 17 April 1838; d. 1900. She published 'Four Oaks' (1867) ; 'Little Joanna' (1876); 'Old Man Gilbert' (1888) ; 'The Luck of the Pendennings.' Bellamy, George Anne, English actress: b. 1727; d. 1788. She was the natural daughter of Lord Tyrawley, by whom she was educated. Having forfeited his favor by going to live with her mother, she secured an engagement at Covent Garden in 1744, and appeared with Quin as Monimia in 'The Orphan.' Mrs. Bellamy's professional career was brilliant ; but her extrav- agance and profligacy were notorious. In 1785, after many alternations of fortune, a free bene- fit released her from the debtors' prison, and in the same year she published an ^Apology' for her life. Bellamy, Jacobus, Flemish poet: b. Flush- ing, 1757; d. 1786. In 1772 the second secular festival in commemoration of the foundation of the republic was celebrated throughout Holland. His genius, suddenly inflamed by the love of his native land, rendered him a poet, and his first productions met with success. He studied Latin, made himself better acquainted with his mother tongue, and composed several pieces of merit sufficient to induce the Society of Arts at The Hague to incorporate them in its collections. In 1785 he published his patriotic songs under the title 'Vaderlandsche Gezangen,' which se- cured him a place among the first poets of his nation. Bellamy sung likewise the praise of love. A biographical account of him has been written by G. Kniper. Bellamy, Joseph, American clergj-man and educator: b. North Cheshire, Conn., 20 Feb. 1719; d. 6 March 1790. In 1740 he became pas- tor of the church in Bethlehem, Conn., where he remained until his death. About 1742 he established a divinity school, in which many celebrated clergymen were trained. Among his published works, besides his 'Sermons,' are 'True Religion Delineated' (1750) ; (1855); ^Assault on Malakoff^ (1859); (1866;. Bellarmino, bel-lar-me'no, or Bellarmine, Roberto Francesco Romolo, Italian cardinal and celebrated controversialist : b. Monte Pul- ciano in Tuscany, 4 Oct. 1542; d. Rome, 17 Sept. 1621. At the age of 18 he entered the College of Jesuits, where he soon distinguished himself; and his reputation caused him to be sent into the low countries to oppose the progress of the re- formers. He was ordained in 1569 by Jansenius, Bishop of Ghent, and placed in the theological chair of the University of Louvain. After a residence of seven years he returned to Italy, and was sent by Sixtus V. to France, as com- panion to the legate. He was made a cardinal on account of his learning, by Clement VIII., and in 1602 created Archbishop of Capua. At the elections of Leo XI. and Paul V. he was thought of for the pontificate, and might have been chosen had he not been a Jesuit. Paul V. recalled him to Rome, on which he resigned his archbishopric without retaining any pension on it as he might have done. Bellarmino had the double merit with the court of Rome of sup- porting her temporal power and spiritual su- premacy to the utmost, and of strenuously op- posing the reformers. The talent he displayed in the latter controversy called forth similar ability on the Protestant side ; and for a num- ber of years no eminent divine among the re- formers failed to make his arguments a particu- lar subject of refutation. The great work which he composed in this warfare is- entitled "^A Body of Controversy,^ written in Latin, the style of which is perspicuous and precise, without any pretension to purity or elegance. He displays a vast amount of Scriptural learning, and is deeply versed in the doctrine and practice of the Church in all ages. His maxims on the right of pontiffs to depose princes caused his work on the temporal power of the popes to be con- demned at Paris. On the other hand, it did not satisfy the court of Rome, because it asserted, not a direct, but an indirect, power in the popes in temporal matters ; which reservation so of- fended Sixtus v., that he placed it among the list of prohibited books. His society thought so highly of his sanctity, that proofs were collected to entitle him to canonization ; but the fear of giving offense to the sovereigns whose rights he oppugned has always prevented a compliance with the ardent wishes of the Jesuits. His con- troversial works were published at Prague in 1721, and again at Mayence in 1842. Of his other works the most important is his ^Chris- tians Doctrinae Applicatio' (1603) — a work originally composed in Italian, but since trans- lated into all European languages. He left an autobiography, which was re-issued and an- notated by Dollinger and Reusch (1887). Bellary, bel-la're, or Ballari, a town in India, in the presidency of Madras, capital of a district of the same name, 280 miles northwest of Madras. It is the headquarters of the troops belonging to the districts of Bellary and Kada- pah, and possesses two forts, one built on the summit, and the other on a lower eminence of a huge granite rock about two miles in circum- ference, and rising to the height of about 450 feet from the ground. Bellary is the terminus of a branch line of the Madras Ry., and car- ries on an active trade in cotton. Pop. (1901) 57,700. Bellay, be-la, Joachim du, distinguished French poet, known as the French Ovid : b. about 1524; d. 1560. He joined Ronsard, Daurat, Jo- delle, Belleau, Baif, and De Tisard in forming the ^Pleiad,* a society, the object of which was to bring the French language on a level with the classical tongues. Bellay's first contribution was *La Defense et Illustration de la Langue Frangaise.-* His chief publications in verse are 'Recueil de Poesie^ ; a collection of love-sonnets called ^L'Olive^ ; ^Les Antiquites de Rome,^ a series of sonnets; (1880); Pator, ^Studies in the History of the Rennais- sance' (if Belle-Alliance, bel-a-le-ans, a farm 13 miles south of Brussels, famous as the position occupied by the centre of the French' army in the battle of Waterloo, 18 June 1815. By the Prus- sians the battle was called that of Belle Al- liance. Belle Chocolatiere, bel-sho-ko-la-tyar. La, a noted portrait by the artist Liotard of the Princess Dietrichstien, who, prior to her mar- riage, was a waitress in a cafe in Vienna. The painting is now in the Dresden Gallery. Belle-Isle, bel-el, or Belle-Isle-en-Mer (anciently Vindilis), an island in the Bay of Biscay, belonging to France, in the department of Morbihan, eight miles south of Quiberon Point, about ii miles long, and 6 miles across at the widest point. The soil is diverse, con- sisting of rock, salt marsh, and fertile grounds. Palais is the capital. The island is of much in- terest historically. In 1747 the French fleet was defeated by Admiral Hauke off the island, and n was captured by the English in 1761. Pilchard and sardine fishing is the important industry. Pop. 10,000. Belle-Isle, an island, 15 miles north of Newfoundland and northeast of the Gulf of St. Lawrence, about 21 miles in circuit. On the northwest side it has a small harbor, called Lark Harbor, within a little island close to the shore. At the eastern point it has another small harbor or cove that will only admit fishing shal- lops. A rescue station has been established for persons who may be shipwrecked. Its area is about 15 square miles. At its southern end is a lighthouse whose light is 470 feet above the sea, and visible for 28 miles. The narrow chan- nel between Newfoundland and the coast of Lab- rador is called the Straits of Bell-Isle. Steam- ers from Glasgow and Liverpool to Quebec round the north of Ireland commonly go by this channel in summer as being the shortest route. Belle Isle, Va., an island in the James River, opposite Richmond, where nearly 12,000 Federal prisoners were confined in 1863. BELLE JARDINERE — BELLEROPHON Belle Jardinere, bel-zhar-de-nyar, La, a celebrated painting by Raphaeij now in the Louvre. It represents the Madonna with the holy child, and the infant St. John. Belle Plaine, Iowa, town in Benton County, on the Iowa River and on several rail- roads ; 257 miles west of Chicago. It has flour- ing mills, furniture factories, creameries, ma- chine shops, broom factories and numerous ar- tesian wells. It was founded in 1862. Pop. (1900) 3,283. Belle Savage, an old inn, on Ludgate Hill, London, celebrated in coaching days, and frequently mentioned by Dickens and other writers dealing with that period. Belleau, be-16, Remy, French poet: b. Nogent-le-Rotrou, 1528; d. Paris, 16 March 1577. He made an elegant and spirited transla- tion of ^The Odes of Anacreon* (15/6). His ^Bergerie^ (1572), a compound of prose and verse, is of unequal merit ; but it contains some passages, — for example, the **April,^' — which are of great beauty. Bellefontaine, Ohio, a city and county- seat of Logan County ; on the Cleveland. C, C. & St. L. R.R. ; 57 miles northeast of Dayton. It occupies the highest elevation in the State ; and is surrounded by an agricultural region. It has extensive car-shops and other railroad works ; two national banks ; daily and weekly newspapers ; an assessed property valuation of $2,250,000 ; a total debt of about $200,000. Pop. (1900) 6.649. Bellefonte, Pa., a borough and county- seat of Centre County, 87 miles northwest of Harrisburg. It has important lime quarries, iron furnaces, glass works, manufactories and machine shops, and was incorporated in 1800. It is a summer resort much visited for its scen- ery and noted for its spring, whose waters have supplied the borough since 1807. Pop. (1900) 4,216. Bellegarde, bel-gard, Henri (Count de), French writer : b. Piri^e, 30 Aug. 1648 ; d. Paris, 1707. He was a member of the community of priests of St. Francis de Sales, and the recog- nized author of the 'Universal History of Voy- ages' (1707). Belleisle, bel-el, Charles Louis Auguste Fouquet (Comte de), marshal of France: b. Villefranche, 22 Sept. 1684 ; d. Versailles, 26 Jan. 1761. He distinguished himself during the fa- mous siege of Lille, and became brigadier in the royal forces. After the conclusion of the war of the Spanish Succession he went with Marshal Villars to Rastadt, where he displayed diplomatic talents. The cession of Lorraine to France in 1735 was principally his work. Car- dinal Fleury reposed confidence in him ; Louis XV. made him governor of Metz and the three bishoprics of Lorraine, which office he held until his death. Before the breaking out of the war in 1741 he visited the principal courts of Ger- many with the design of disposing them, after the death of Charles VI., to choose the elector of Bavaria emperor of Germany ; and he dis- played so much address on this occasion as to excite the admiration of Frederick II. After his return he placed himself at the head of the French forces sent to oppose those of Maria Theresa. He took Prague by assault ; but, the king of Prussia having made a separate peace, he was compelled to a retreat which he per- formed with admirable skill. In December 1744, when on a diplomatic journey to Berlin, he was arrested in Germany and sent to England, but he was exchanged in 1746. In the following year he forced Gen. Browne, who had entered the south of France from Italy, to raise the siege of Antibes and to retreat over the Var. In 1748 the king made him a duke and peer of France, and the department of war was commit- ted to his charge. He reformed the army by abolishing many abuses, enlarged the military academy, and caused an order of merit to be established. Bellenden, William, Scottish writer: b. Lasswade (?) Midlothian, about 1555; d. about 1633. He was educated at Paris, where he was professor of belles-lettres in 1602; and though he was made master of requests by James I. he still continued to reside in the French me- tropolis. He was distinguished for the elegance of his Latin style, and in 1608 he published a work entitled 'Ciceronis Princeps,' containing a selection from the works of Cicero, consisting of passages relating to the duties of a prince, etc. He afterward published 'Ciceronis Consul,' 'Senator,' etc., with two other treatises, from one of which Conyers Middleton's 'Life of Cicero' was largely compiled — a plagiarism de- nounced by Dr. Parr in a Latin preface prefixed to a re-issue of Bellenden's writings (1787). Bellermann, Ferdinand, German painter: b. Erfurt, 14 March 1814 ; d. Berlin, 11 Aug. 1889. He was educated at the academy at Wei- mar, and studied later at Berlin under Karl Blechen and Wilhelm Schirmer. He traveled in Norway, the Netherlands, Venezuela, and Ital}-, and in 1866 became professor of landscape paint- ing at the Berlin Academy. He utilized the results of his travels in the production of many magnificent landscapes, among which may be mentioned 'Evening in the Valley of Caracas' ; the 'Guacharo Cave, Venezuela'*; 'Sierra Ne- vada' ; etc. Bellerophon, bel-le'ro-fon, son of Glaucus, king of Ephyre, by Eurymede, at first called Hipponous. The murder of his brother, whom some call Alcimenus and Bellerus, procured him the name of Bellerophon, or murderer of Bel- lerus. After this murder Bellerophon fled to the court of Prcetus, king of Argos, whose wife became enamored of him ; and because he slighted her passion she sought to destroy him. He escaped her machinations, was introduced to the court of Jobates, king of Lycia, and, after a number of adventures, in one of which he con- quered the Chim?era, he married the daughter of Jobates and succeeded to the throne of Ljxia. The latter days of Bellerophon were unfortunate. Attempting to soar to heaven on the back of Pegasus, Zeus sent a hornet which so stung his winged steed that he cast his rider to the earth, where lame and blind he wandered lonely in the Aleian fields, a prey to corroding grief and melancholy, shunning men, and hated by the gods. Bellerophon, a genus of gasteropodous mollusks, typical of the family Bellerophontidci. The species are all fossil shells foimd in the limestones of the Silurian, Devonian, and Car- boniferous periods. The best-known American species are found in the coal measures of the Mississippi valley and the southwest. The so- BELLES-LETTRES — BELLIARD called B. cilohahis, a fossil characteristic of the Trenton formation, is now assigned to the genus Protozvarthia. Belles-letti-es, bel-letr, the French term, for which the English equivalent is polite litera- ture. It is impossible to give a satisfactory ex- planation of what is or has been called belles- lettres; in fact, the vaguest definition would be the best, as almost every branch of knowledge has at one time been included in, at another ex- cluded from, this denomination. The most cor- rect definition, therefore, would be, perhaps, such as embraced all knowledge and every science not merely abstract or simply useful. In the division of the departments at the Lyceum of Arts, es- tablished at Paris in 1792, the belles-lettres comprehended general grammar, languages, rhe- toric, geography, history, antiquities, and numis- matics ; while philosophy, mathematics, etc., were called, in contradistinction, sciences. Belleval, Pierre Richer de, bel-val, pe-ar re-cha de, French botanist : b : Chalons-sur- Marne c. 1564 ; d. 1623. He was the first person in France who taught botany as a science distinct from medicine. Henry IV. established a botani- cal garden at Montpellier, and created a chair of botany. Belleval obtained the first appointment in 1593, and immediately began a collection of all the plants in Languedoc, in order to the produc- t-ion of an illustrated flora, for which about 500 quarto plates had been engraved, when he cjied. Through the carelessness of his representatives, almost all of these were lost. Belleville, bel-vTl, Canada, town, port of entry, and county-seat of Hastings County, On- tario, on the Bay of Quinte, at the mouth of the Moira River. It is on the Grand Trunk Railway and 60 miles west of Kingston. It has an ex- cellent harbor, and the Moira affords abundant water-power for manufacturing. Belleville is in the heart of the finest dairying region of Can- ada; is in direct steamboat communication with many Canadian and United States points, and enjoys an extensive trade, especially in lumber. It has 13 churches. It is the seat of Albert Col- lege, which has an arts course, music, etc., and was established in 1857. The Ontario Business College, Belleville Business College, Saint Agnes Ladies' School, public and high schools, deaf and dumb institute, and public library are some of its institutions. The chief manufactories are lumber, pottery, cigars, sash and blinds, woolens, shirts, mining tools, machinery, lanterns, and tin- ware. A short distance east of Belleville are large cement works for the utilization of a lime- stone which exists in great abundance in the vicinity. The city has agencies for the principal banks of Canada, daily and weekly newspapers, ;'nd is the seat of a' United States consulate. Pop. C1901) 9,117. Belleville, 111., a city and county-seat of Saint Clair County; situated on several rail roads ; 14 miles east of Saint Louis, Mo. It is in the midst of very productive coal mines ; has a large trade in flour, and general produce ; and is chiefly engaged in the manufacture of glass, stoves, flour, nails, and machinery, and has one of the largest rolling mills in the West. The city has trolley lines to Saint Louis, a public library. Saint Peter's Cathedral (Roman Catho- lic), convent, four national banks, and an as- sessed property valuation of over $2,250,000. Pop. (1900) 17,484. Bellevue, Ky., a city on the Ohio River opposite Cincinnati, of which it is practically a suburb. It is almost exclusively a city of resi- dences. Pop. (1900) 6,332. Bellevue, bel-view, Ohio, a village on Lake S. & M. S., Wheeling & L. E., and Nickel P. R.R.'s ; situated in Huron and Sandusky counties ; about 16 miles south of Sandusky. It has manufactures of agricultural implements, and a large farming trade. Pop. (1900) 4,100. Bellevue, bel-vii (French, *fine prospect'*), a name given to various villas and palaces, but particularly to a beautiful country palace in the neighborhood of Paris, situated on a ridge of hills stretching from St. Cloud toward Meudon. It was built by Mme. de Pompadour, com- menced in July 1748, and finished in November 1750. The first French artists of the time had exerted all their talents in embellishing it; so that at the period when it was built, it was con- sidered the most charming in all Europe. After the Rev'olution the Convention decreed that Bellevue should be kept in repair at the expense of the nation, and devoted to public amuse- ments. Nevertheless it was publicly sold dur- ing the highest pitch of revolutionary excite- ment, and the purchaser had it demolished. There is a pretty village on its site, which, dur- ing the siege of Paris (1870-1) was an impor- tant strategic point. Bellevue Hospital, New York, a hos- pital situated on the East River, between 26th and 27th streets. It is the seat of a medical school of high rank, and has accommodations for about 1,300 patients. Belley, bel-la, France (ancient Bellica), a town in the department Ain, 39 miles southeast of Bourg, and 38 miles southwest of Geneva ; situated in a fertile valley watered by the Furan. It is very ancient, having been a place of note in the time of Julius Caesar, and is the seat of a bishopric founded in 412. It contains a com- munal college, has an agricultural society, and a court of primary resort. The episcopal palace, the belfry of the cathedral, the college, and the rich cabinet of medals and antiquities, are worth notice. Silk worms are reared; and lithographic stones, reckoned the best in France, are ob- tained from quarries in the neighborhood. Pop. (1896) 6,070. Belli, Giuseppe Gioachino, bel'le, joo-sep'pT jo-ke'no, Roman humorist and satirical poet: b. 1791 ; d. 1863. He wrote in the popular dialect of the Trastevere.; and in early life scourged the papacy and the clergy with sting- ing, irreverent, and often vulgar satire. Becom- ing afterward a zealous convert to the Roman faith, he endeavored to call in and destroy the indiscretions of his youth. In his last years he published a beautiful translation of the Roman Breviary. His published sonnets amount to more than 2,000; his other published Italian verses fill four considerable volumes ; while two thirds of his vast remains have never been gath- ered and edited. Of this last, much is clothed in language too coarse to bear the light of mod- ern culture. Belliard, Augustin Daniel, bel-yar, 6-goos- tah dan-vel (Count de), French soldier and diplomatist : b. Fontenay-le-Comte, La Vendee, 1769; d. 27 Jan. 1832. He entered the military service very early, and Dumouriez soon made BELLIGERENT — BELLINI him an officer of his staff. Under Napoleon, serving in Egypt, Germany, Spain, and Russia, he rose to great military distinction. After the emperor's abdication he received the order of Saint Louis from Louis XVIII. and was made a peer and major-general of the French army. Bellig'erent, a nation or a large section of a nation engaged in carrying on war. When a revolted party of great numerical strength are able to lorm a regular government and rule over the whole or part of the territory which they claim, humanity dictates that they should not be treated as rebels guilty of treason, but should, if captured, be regarded as prisoners of war. To attain this result it is needful for those who have risen in arms against the gov- ernment to make every effort to obtain for their party the position of belligerents. In the con- test between the Federals and Confederates in the War of 1861-5, the latter section of the American people, at the very commencement of the struggle, claimed the privileges of belliger- ents. Their demand was promptly acceded to by the British government, at which the Federal authorities took umbrage, contending that the recognition had been premature, while the Brit- ish maintained that it could not have been re- fused or delayed. Bellingham, Richard, royal governor of Massachusetts: b. 1592; d. 7 Dec. 1672. He emigrated to the colony in 1634 ; in 1635 was made deputy-governor; and in 1641 was elected governor in opposition to Winthrop by a ma- jority of six votes. He was re-elected in 1654, and after the death of Endicott was chosen again in May 1665, and continued in the execu- tive chair of the colony as long as he lived, hav- ing been deputy-governor 13 and governor 10 years. He was chosen major-general in 1664, in which year the king sent Nichols, Cortright, Coon, and Moresick as commissioners to in- quire into the state of the colony, when, accord- ing to Hutchinson, Bellingham and others ob- no.xious to James II. were required to go to England to account for their conduct. The gen- eral court, however, refused obedience and main- tained the authority of the charter. His wife having died, in 1641 he married a second time, of which a contemporary speaks thus : "A young gentleman was about to be contracted to a friend of his, when on a sudden the governor treated with her, and obtained her for himself.** The banns were not properly published, and he performed the marriage ceremony himself. He was prosecuted for a violation of the law, but at the trial he refused to leave the bench, sat and tried himself, and thus escaped all punishment. In his last will he provided that after the decease of his wife and of his son by a former wife, and his granddaughter, the bulk of his estate should be spent for the yearly maintenance "of goodly ministers and preachers** of the true Church, which he considered to be that of the Congre- gationalists. This will the general court set aside on the ground that it interfered with the rights of his family. A sister of his, Anne Hib- bens, was executed at Salem in June 1656, dur- ing the witchcraft persecution. Bellingham, Wash., city, county of Whatcom ; on the eastern shore of Bellingham Bay, and on the Great Northern, Northern Pacific, Canadian Pacific, and Bellingham Bay & British Columbia R.R.'s. History. — The first settlement was made in October 1852 by Capt. Henry Roeder, who built a saw-mill on what is now Whatcom Creek. The Lummi tribe of Indians maintained their chief camp on the beach near the mouth and falls of Whatcom Creek, and called the camp or rather the locality ^HVhrap-cop^^ meaning "the noisy water** or "the place of the noisy water.** The white men retained the Indian name for their town, modified as indicated by the spelling to Whatcom. This remained the name of the town until the consolidation of Whatcom and New Whatcom in 1891 under the name of New Whatcom, from which the prefix "New'* was dropped by action of the state legislature 19 Feb. 1901. Fairhaven is the English interpreta- tion of an Indian word or phrase, '^See-see- leechel/^ meaning "a safe harbor** or "the shel- tered beach.** The town was platted and named in 1883 by Daniel J. Harris, the original dona- tion claimant. In 1890 Fairhaven and the ad- joining town of Bellingham were incorporated as one city under the name of Fairhaven. On 27 Oct. 1903, the electors of Fairhaven and Whatcom voted to consolidate the two cities under the name of Bellingham and the con- solidation was duly consummated. The new- name went into effect 28 Dec. 1903, and the post- office became Bellingham i April 1904. Belling- ham Bay was named by Vancouver in 1792, and the consolidated city takes its name from that bay. Indxistries. — The city is the commercial cen- tre of a large lumber and agricultural region ; salmon fishing is also an industry of great im- portance, and mining and quarrying are carried on in the vicinity. The principal manufactur- ing establishments include lumber and shingle mills, salmon canneries, wood working and iron working plants, and brick kilns. There are four banks with a combined capital of $405,000. Churches and Educational Institutions. — There are (in 1904) 27 established churches in Bellingham, representing practically all denom- inations. There are 11 city schools, including a high school, and two libraries, the Bellingham Bay Library, and the Carnegie Library. The city also contains the State Normal School, and three business colleges. Government and Population. — The govern- ment is vested in a mayor, elected biennially, and a council of seven members, elected al- ternately every two years. Pop. (Official census 1904), 22,632. Frank C. Teck, Bellingham Chamber of Commerce. Bellini, Gentile, jen-te'la, the elder son of Jacopo (q.v.) : b. 1421 ; d. 1501. He became much more distinguished than his father, but did not rival his younger brother, Giovanni. His fame attracted the notice of Moham- med II., conqueror of Constantinople, and Bel- lini visited the grand seignor, being sent by the Senate. He painted a number of pictures for Mohammed, and also struck a medal for him, with all of which he was greatly pleased, and rewarded the painter by presenting him with a gold chain and 3,000 ducats. A story is told of his exhibiting to IMohammed a picture^ he had painted of the head of John the Baptist in a charger, and the emperor, who had certainly great experience in decapitation, observing that the muscles of the neck were not correctly drawn, sent for a slave and had his head cut off in the presence of the artist, to convince hira BELLINI — BELLOT of his mistake. Voltaire ridicules this tale, and Gibbon altogether rejects it. There is a very fine pen-and-ink drawing by Bellini in the Brit- ish Museum, representing Mohammed and the sultana mother, in whole-length figures in a sit- ting position. After Gentile's return to Venice, he continued to paint, honored by the patronage of the state and of private individuals, until his death. Bellini, Giovanni, bel-le'ne, jo-va-ni, Ital- ian painter: b. 1426; d. Venice, 29 Nov. 1516. He was the second son of Jacopo Bellini (q.v.) and generally regarded as the founder of the Venetian school, though he himself was his father's pupil. Some of his earliest works were portraits, among them that of the doge, Leonardo Loredano, now, with another of his masterpieces, 'Peter Martyr,^ in the London National Gallerj'. Having attracted the notice of the government, he was emploj^ed by the republic to decorate the great hall of the council with a series of mag- nificent paintings, covering the entire walls, and designed to represent the proudest historic glories of Venice. These were worthily accom- plished, but were destroyed by a fire. Among his scholars were Giorgione and Titian, and it was from him that these masters acquired their magnificent coloring. Bellini, Jacopo, ya'c6-p6, Italian painter: b. Venice about 1405 ; d. 1470. He was a pupil of Gentile da Fabriano, and is said to have been taught oil-painting, which was then a secret, by Andrea dal Castagno, and in turn taught it to his sons Gentile and Giovanni (qq.v.). The first works by which he acquired fame were portraits of Catharine Cornaro, the beautiful queen of Cyprus, and one of her brothers ; a picture repre- senting the passion of Christ, in w-hich many figures were introduced, himself among the num- ber ; and a historical picture representing a Vene- tian legend of the miracle of the cross. This cross, containing a piece of the true one on which the Saviour died, was by some accident thrown into the Grand Canal at Venice, and although many persons plunged in after it, it was the will of God that only the guardian of the broth- erhood to whom the cross belonged, Andrea Vindramino, could take it out again. This event was represented in the painting. Almost all of Jacopo's works have perished ; one supposed to be authentic is in the Manfrini palace at Venice and represents the portraits of Petrarch and Laura. Bellini, Vincenzo, vin-chen'zo, Italian composer: b. Catania, Sicily, 1802; d. near Paris, 1835. He was educated at Naples under Zinga- relli, commenced writing operas before he was 20, and composed for the principal musical es- tablishments in Europe. His most celebrated works are 'Norma,^ 'I Puritani,' and 'La Son- nambula.' He is remarkable chiefly for sweet- ness of melod3^ suitableness of harmony, and an adaptation of sound to sense, and stood honor- ably distinguished from many of his profession by the excellence of his moral character. Bellinzona, bel-Tn-z6'na, or Belleny, bel- a'ne, Switzerland, the capital of the canton of Ticino on the left bank of the Ticino, about five miles from its embouchure in the northern end of Lago Maggiore. It occupies a position of great military importance. Bellis. See Daisy. Bellman, Karl Mickel, Swedish poet: b. Stockholm, 1740; d. 1795. He grew up in the quietude of domestic life, and the first proofs he gave of his poetical talents were religious and pious effusions. The dissipated life of young men at Stockholm devoted to pleasure was afterward the subject of his poems. By these his name was spread over all Sweden. Even the atten- tion of Gustavus III. was attracted to him, and he received from the king an appointment which enabled him to devote himself almost entirely to poetical pursuits, in an easy independence, un- til his death. His songs are truly national, and love and liquor their most common themes. Bello, Andres, Spanish-American diplo- matist and author : b. Caracas, Venezuela, 30 Nov. 1780; d. Santiago, Chile, 15 Oct. 1865. He represented Venezuela in London, 1810-28; in 1829 became a^n official of the bureau of finance; in 1834 was minister of foreign affairs for Chile ; in 1842, the first rector of Santiago University. He was the author of 'Principles of Interna- tional Law^ (1832), and after his death his en- tire works were printed at the expense of the state. Belloc', Hilaire, English litterateur: b. 27 July 1870. He is the son of M. Louis Belloc, a French barrister; was educated at Balliol College, Oxford, after serving for a time in the French artillery at Toul, and in 1906 was elected to Par- liament as a Liberal. He has published 'The Bad Child's Book of Beasts > (1896); 'More Beasts for Worse Children* (1897) ; 'The Modern Traveler' (1898); 'The Moral Alphabet > (1899); 'Danton,' a much-admired biography (1899); 'Lambkins Remains' (1900); 'Paris' (1900); < Robespierre' (1901) ; 'The Path to Rome' (1902) ; 'The Old Road' (1905); etc. Belloc. Marie Adelaide. See Lowndes, M.A. Bellomont, Earl of. See Bellamont, Rich- ard, Earl of. Bel'lomont, Earl of. See Coote, Richard. Bello'na, the goddess of war, daughter of Phorcys and Ceto. She was called by the Greeks Enyo, and is often confounded with Minerva. She was anciently called Ducllona, and was the sis- ter of Mars, or, according to some, his daughter or his wife. She prepared his chariot when he was going to war, and drove his steeds through the tumult of the battle with a bloody scourge, her hair dishevelled and a torch in her hand. The Romans paid great adoration to her ; but she was held in the highest veneration b)' the Cappadocians, chiefly at Comana, where she had above 3,000 priests. ,Her temple at Rome was near the Porta Carmentalis. In it the senators gave audience to foreign ambassadors and to generals returned from Avar. At the gate w^as a small column, called the "column of war,'* against which they threw a spear whenever war was declared. The priests of this goddess con- secrated themselves by making great incisions in their bodies, and particularly in the thigh, from which they received the blood in their hands to offer as a sacrifice to the goddess. In their wild enthusiasm they often predicted bloodshed and wars, the defeat of enemies, or the besieging of towns. Bellot, Joseph Rene, bel-lo, zho-sef re-na, French naval officer : b. Paris, 1826 ; d. 1853.' At the age of 16 he entered the naval academy at BELLOT STRAIT — BELLOY Brest, and two years afterward received a com- mission as elcve de marine on board the Berceau. He was promoted for bravery to the rank of eleve of the first class, and also created a cheva- lier of the Legion of Honor, though not yet 20 years old. On his return to France in 1847 he was made a sub-lieutenant, and shortly after a two-years' voyage to South America in the Triomphante he volunteered his services on the Royal Albert schooner, fitted out by Lady Frank- lin, in June 1851, to search for her husband, Sir John Franklin. The expedition failed in its main object, but an interesting journal of it, kept by Bellot, was published after his death. In June 1853, he sailed again on board the Phoenix, under command of Capt. Inglefield, on a new Arctic expedition, the principal object of which was to convey dispatches to Sir Edward Belcher, then commanding H.M.S. Assistance in the Polar seas. Arrived in Erebus and Terror Bay, where lay the North Star, whose com- mander. Capt. Pullen. was absent on a journey of discovery, Capt. Inglefield set out in search of him ; but in his absence it became desirable to get the despatches conveyed to Sir Edward Belcher — a duty which Lieut. Bellot undertook to perform by crossing the ice. Having set out with four sailors, a canoe, and a sledge, the party got separated in a gale of wind on 18 Aug- ust, and Bellot, with two others, drifted away on a piece of ice. With the view of ascertain- ing the direction the ice was taking, he crossed over to the opposite side of the hummock and was never seen more. A handsome granite obelisk was erected to his memory in front of Greenwich Hospital, and a provision was made for his sisters. Bellot Strait, the passage on the north coast of North America which separates North Somerset from Boothia Felix and connects Prince Regent Inlet with Franklin Channel. Its eastern entrance was discovered in 1852 by Lieut. Bellot (q.v.). After four unsuccessful attempts it was explored for the first time by McClintock on his crowning voj'age. It is about 20 miles long, and, at its narrowest part, about one mile wide, running nearly on the parallel of 72°, be- tween granite shores which, everywhere high, rise here and there to 1.500 or 1,600 feet. Through this funnel both the winds and the wa- ters have full play; the latter, permanent cur- rents and flood tides alike, coming from the west. A point on the southern shore, 71° 55' N., 95° W., is the most northerly point of the North American continent. Bellotto Bernardo, Italian painter and en- graver: b. Venice, 1724; d. Warsaw, 1780. He studied under his uncle, Antonio Canal, and painted perspective and architectural views. He passed much time in Germany and was a mem- ber of the Academy of Dresden, where many of his pictures are exhibited. He etched, from his own designs, views of Vienna, Dresden, and Warsaw. His pictures are called by the name of Canaletto, which he assumed. Bellows, Albert F., American painter: b. Milford, Mass., 20 Nov. 1829; d. 24 Nov. 1883. He was one of the first to succeed with water- colors. He studied in Antwerp. Paris, and Eng- land, becoming a National Academician (1861), and an honorary member of the Royal Belgian Water Color Society {il Bellows, Henry Whitney, American Uni-- tarian clergyman and writer : b. Walpole, N. H., II June 1814; d. 30 Jan. 1882. He became pastor of All Souls Church, New York, 1839; was chief founder and long editor of the 'Christian In- quirer* (1846); chief originator of the United States Sanitary Commission, and its president during the Civil War (1861-5). He wrote * Public Life of Washington* (1866) ; 'Relation of Public Amusements to Public Morality* ; 'pt There he lived from 1815 to 1819, at first as a dancer, till he won the favor of the pasha. BELZU — BEMBO Belzoni kept the rude inhabitants of the country in awe by his extraordinary stature and strength. He opened the second of the pyramids of Ghizeh, known by the name of Cephrenes. In the year 1816 he succeeded in transporting the bust of Memnon from Thebes to Alexandria, whence it was taken to the British Museum. In 1817 he entered several catacombs near Thebes, especially one in a fine state of preservation in the valley of Biban el Molook, which is con- sidered to be the mausoleum of Psammetichus, and from which he took the splendid alabaster sarcophagus which is now in the British Mu- seum. On I August in the same year he opened the temple of Ipsambul, near the second cataract of the Nile, which two Frenchmen, Cailliaud and Drovetti, had discovered the year before, but had not succeeded in opening. Bel- zoni discovered a subterranean temple in its ruins, which until that tim,e had been unknown. He then visited the coasts of the Red Sea and the city of Berenice, discovering the emerald mines of Zubara and made an expedition into the Oasis of Jupiter Ammon. Belzoni refuted Cailliaud's assertion, that he had found the famous Berenice, the great emporium of Europe and India, by subsequent investigations on the spot, and by the actual discovery of the ruins of that great city four days' journey from the place which Cailliaud had taken for Berenice. Belzoni's ^Narrative of the Operations and Re- cent Discoveries within the Pryamids, Temples, Tombs, and Excavations in Egj^pt and Nubia; and of a Journey to the Coast of the Red Sea in Search of Berenice; also of another to the Oasis of Jupiter Ammon^ (Lond. 1820) ; ac- companied by a folio volume of 44 copper-plate engravings, was received wath general approba- tion. Padua, his native city, requited his pres- ent of two Egy^ptian statues from Thebes with a medal by Manfredini. In the year 1823 this enterprising traveler had made preparations for passing from Benin to Houssa and Timbuctoo, when he died at Gato, on his way to Benin, 3 Dec. 1823. He believed the Nile and Niger to be different streams, and that the Niger emptied its waters into the Atlantic Ocean; opinions which have long been proved to be correct. Bel'zu, Manuel Isodoro, ma'noo-el e-s6- dor'o, Bolivian revolutionist: b. LaPaz, 1808; d. March 1866. He led the revolutions of 1847 and 1848, and was killed in a street battle there while leading a revolt againt Melgarijo. Bern, Jozef, a distinguished military com- mander b. Tarnow, in Galicia, 1795; d. Aleppo, Syria, 1850. He was educated at the University of Cracov/, and in 1810 was admitted into the corps of cadets founded at Warsaw by Napoleon, afterward entered the horse artillery, and took part as lieutenant in the expedition of the French army to Russia. For the bravery here dis- played by him he received the decoration of the cross of the Legion of Honor. On hearing of the outbreak of the Polish revolution, he at once hurried to Warsaw, and during the whole of the Polish struggle he displayed great gal- lantry and military skill. On the night of 7 Sept. 1831, he held the bridge of Praga with his artillery, but the following morning, on hearing of the agreement concluded with the Russians, withdrew to ModHn. After the fall of Warsaw he went to Prussia, and in 1832 to Paris, where he was occupied partly with political schemes, ^'ol. 2 — 33. partly with scientific pursuits. Upon the com- mencement of the Austrian insurrection in 1848, Bem proceeded there, and took a prominent part in conducting the defense of Vienna against the imperial troops. Toward the end of the year he received a commission from the new Hungarian government to undertake the conquest of Tran- sylvania, and crossed over into that territory at the head of a large army, raised by his own exertions in an incredibly short space of time. His progress here was marked by great suc- cesses, with occasional checks ; and in March 1849 he succeeded in driving the Austrians, with their Russian auxiliaries, into Wallachia. He subsequently made an incursion into the Banat, which he compelled Puchner to evacuate. Re- turning to Transylvania, he found himself op- posed by overwhelming numbers, and, after sev- eral reverses, returned to Hungary, where he took part in the disastrous battle of Temesvar. Shortly after he went to Turkey, became a con- vert to Mohammedanism, and received an ap- pointment in the Sultan's army under the name of Amurath Pasha. Bema (Gr. bema, a stem), the name applied in the Greek Church to the sanctuary because of its position above the rest of the church. The iconostasis or choir screen divides it from the main portion of the church. Bembato'ka, Bay of, a safe and commo- dious bay on the northwest coast of Madagas- car, lying in lat. 16° S. and Ion. 46° E. The river Betsiboka, with the Ikiopa, drain into the bay; the former, about 300 miles long, is naviga- ble for small steamers for about 90 miles. Mojanga, on the north side of the bay. is the second town in the island, with about 14,000 inhabitants, Bembatoka being but a village. Bemberg, baii-bar, Henri, French com- poser : b. Paris, 1861. Besides songs and piano- forte numbers his principal works are 'Le Baiser de Luzon,^ a one-act opera (1888) ; and 'Elaine,^ a four-act opera successfully produced in London 1892, and in New York 1894. Bembecidse, bem-bis'i-de, a family of wasp- like hymenopterous insects with stings, mostly natives of warm countries, and known also as sand-wasps. The female excavates cells in the sand, in which she deposits, together with her eggs, various larvse or perfect insects stung into insensibility, as support for her progeny when hatched. The insects are very active, fond of the nectar of flowers, and delight in sunshine. Bembex is the tj-pical genus of the family. Bembo, Pietro, a celebrated Italian scholar: b. Venice, 29 Alay 1470; d. 18 Jan. 1547. At Ferrara he completed his philosophi- cal studies, and after visiting Rome went, in 1506, to the court of Urbino, at that time one of those Italian courts where the sciences stood highest in esteem. In 15 12 he went to Rome, where Pope Leo X. made him his secretary. His many labors arising from his office, as well as his literary pursuits, and perhaps too great an indulgence in pleasure, having impaired his health, he was using the baths of Padua when he was apprised of the death of Leo X. Being by this time possessed of several church bene- fices, he resolved on withdrawing entirely from business, and on passing his days at Padua oc- cupied only with literature and science, and enjoying the society of his friends. Bembo BEMBRIDGE BEDS — BEN-MUICH-DHUI collected a considerable library: had a cabinet of medals and antiquities, which at that time passed for one of the richest in Italy, and a fine botanical garden. In the year 1529 the office of historiographer of the republic of Venice was offered to him, which he accepted, declining the salary connected with it. At the same time he was nominated librarian of the library of St. Mark. Pope Paul III., having resolved upon a new promotion of cardinals, from the most dis- tinguished men of his time, conferred on him, in 1539, the hat of a cardinal. From that time Bembo renounced the beUes-lettres, and made the Fathers and the Holy Scriptures his chief study. Of his former labors he continued only the 'History of Venice.^ Two years later Paul III. bestowed the bishopric of Gubbio on him, and soon after the rich bishopric of Bergamo. A collection of all his works appeared in 1729. at Venice, in four folio volumes. Bembridge Beds, in geology, a fossilif- erous division of the upper Eocene strata, prin- cipally developed at Bembridge, in the Isle of Wight, consisting of marls and clays resting on a compact, pale-yellow or cream-colored lime- stone, called Bembridge limestone. Their most distinctive feature is the mammalian remains of the Palasotherium and the Anoplotherium. The Anita group of Colorado and Wyoming, and the gypsum deposits near Paris, are supposed to belong to the same epoch as the Bembridge beds. Bementite, a mineral occurring at Frank- lin Furnace, New Jersey, in radiated-stellate masses. It has a grayish-yellow color and pearly lustre, is soft and has a specific gravity of about 3.0. It is a hydrous silicate of manga- nese, having the approximate formula of 2MnSi03.H20. It was named in honor of C. S. Bement, whose unrivaled private collection of minerals is now in the American Museum of Natural History in New York city. Bemis, Edward Webster, American econ- omist: b. Springfield, Mass., 7 April i860. He graduated at Amherst College in 1880 ; was a pioneer lecturer in the University Extension System, 1887-8; professor of economics and his- tor}', Vanderbilt University. 1889-92; and asso- ciate professor of economics. University of Chi- cago, 1892-5. In 1897 he became professor of economical science in the Kansas State Agricul- tural College. He published 'History of Co- operation in the United States' (1888) ; 'Muni- cipal Ownership of Gas' (1891) ; 'Local Gov- ernment for the South and Southwest* (1893). , Bemis Heights, N. Y., a village in j Saratoga County, on the Hudson River, famous I as the scene of the first battle of Stillwater, 19 , Sept. 1777. See also Saratoga, Battle of. Bemmel, Peter von, German painter: b. Nuremberg. 1685: d. 1754. He was educated by his father, also an artist, and was employed by the Prince Bamberg, Fran?: Konrad von Stadion in adorning the walls of his palaces. Many of his paintings are preserved at Bamberg and Brunswick. Of the Bemmel family 14 were prominent as artists. Ben (Hebrew, son), a prepositive syllable found in many Jewish names, as Bendavid, Benasser, etc.. which, with the Jews in Germanv, has been changed into the German sohn (son). for example, Mendelssohn, Jacobssohn, etc. In Arabic the plural form Beni occurs in the names of many tribes, as Beni Omayyah and in those of places, as Beni-Hassan. Ben, Beinn, or Bhein, a Gaelic word sig- nifying mountain, and prefixed to the names of many mountains in Scotland north of the Firths of Clyde and Forth, as Ben Nevis and Ben MacDhui. Pen, which occurs in Welsh and Cornish nomenclature is a corresponding term. Ben Bolt, a noted poem by Thomas Dunn English (1843) set to an old German air. It had been partially forgotten when it was re- vived by its effective employment in Du Mau- rier's 'Trilbj-.' Ben Hur: A Tale of the Christ, a popular novel, by Lew Wallace, published 1880. The scene of the story is laid in the East, principally in Jerusalem, just after the Christian era. The first part is introductory, and details the coming of the three wise men, I\Ielchior, Kaspar, and Balthasar, to worship the babe born in the man- ger at Bethlehem. In the course of the narra- tive, which involves many exciting adventures of Ben Hur, hero, John the Baptist and Jesus of Nazareth are introduced, and Ben Hur is con- verted to the Christian faith through the miracles of our Lord. The tale has been successfully dramatized. Ben-Lawers, a huge pyramidal mountain of Scotland, Perthshire, on the north bank of Loch Tay, 3.984 feet above the level of the sea, or 4,004 with the cairn at the top. Many rare Alpine mosses and other plants are found on it, Ben-Ledi, a Scottish mountain, lying northwest of Callander, Perthshire, reaching the height of 2,875 feet above sea-level. It is some- what difficult of ascent, but gives a splendid view\ High up on it there is a small loch. It is mentioned in Scott's 'Lady of the Lake.' Ben-Lomond, a Scottish mountain at the western extremity of Stirlingshire, on the east shore of Loch Lomond. The ascent is divided into three great stages, and the top has an elevation of 3,192 feet above sea-level. On the southeastern side it presents a sheer preci- pice of about 2,000 feet. From the hotel at Rowardennan, on the east shore of the loch, to the summit, the distance is four miles. The lower part is well wooded, and the upper affords excellent healthy pasture. It commands a most extensive prospect of the vale of Stirlingshire, the Lothians, the Clyde, Ayrshire, Isle of Man, Hills of Antrim, and all the surrounding high- land territory. Like Ben-Lawers this is one of the botanical gardens of the highlands. Ben-More (the great mountain), a conical hill between Loch Dochart and Loch Voil, western part of Perthshire, among the Braes of Balquhidder. It rises to an elevation of 3.843 feet above the level of the sea. Several other hills also bear this name. Ben-Muich-Dhui, ben-mak-doo'e, or Ben- Mac-Dhui, the second highest mountain in Scotland, situated in the southwest corner of Aberdeenshire, on the borders of Banffshire. It is a granitic mass, rising to the height of 4.296 feet, and form? one of a cluster of lofty mountains, among which are Brae-riach, Cairn- toul. Cairngorm, Ben-a-bourd, and Ben-A'an, Its upper parts are bare of vegetation. The view from the top includes the Moray Firth, the BEN NEVIS — BENBOW hills of Caithness and Sutherland, Ben Nevis, Benmore, etc. Ben Nevis, a Scottish mountain now as- certained to be the most lofty height in Great Britain, is situated in the southwestern extrem- ity of Inverness-shire, immediately east of Fort William and the opening of the Caledonian Canal into Loch Eil. It rises from the brink of the latter piece of water to the height of 4,406 feet. In clear weather a view can be obtained from its summit across nearly the whole of the north of Scotland from sea to sea. It con- sists principally of a fine brown porphyry, and contains red granite of a beautiful grain. It has some very lofty precipices, and in its fissures the snow remains unmelted, even in the warmest weather. An observatory occupied by a resident staff was established on the top of the mountain by the Scottish Meteorological Society in 1883. Ben Nut. See Ben, Oil of. Ben, Oil of, the expressed oil of the ben- nut, the seed of Moriiiga aptcra, the ben or horse-radish tree of India. The oil is inodorous, does not become rancid for many years, and is used by perfumers and watchmakers. Benaiah, be-na'ya, the name of 12 different persons mentioned in the Bible, the most im- portant being a son of Jehoida, a chief priest. He figures as a mighty and valiant warrior who overcame two Moabite champions, slew an Egyptian giant with the giant's own spear, went down into a dry cistern and slew a lion that had fallen in while it was covered with snow, and killed the rebels Adonijah and Joab. He was made commander-in-chief in Joab's place by Solomon. Benalcazar, ba-nal-ka'thar, Sebastian de, Spanish leader, the first conqueror of Popayan, New Granada: b. about the end of the 15th century, at Benalcaz, in Estremadura, Spain; d. 1550. He set out as a common sailor in the train of Pedrarias, the newly appointed gover- nor of Darien, 1514. The ability and daring of young Sebastian gained for him the confidence of Pizarro, who sent him against the Indian leader, Ruminahui. Sebastian was favored at the moment of engagement by a happy accident ; the volcano of Cochabamba suffered an eruption. The frightened Peruvian army fled to Quito and Sebastian then possessed himself of the smoking ruins of this city. From here he passed north- ward and conquered the territory possessed by a chief named Popayan, whose name he pre- served to designate the territory over which the former had held sway. Inflamed by the speeches of an Indian captive, who spake strange words about a chief farther north, anointed with gold powder, Benalcazar and his band determined to visit and conquer this El Dorado, or chief of gold. After traversing vast forests, in 1534. he arrived at the country which afterward re- ceived the name of New Granada. Arrived there, he found himself forestalled by two other Spanish adventurers, or conquistadores. He re- turned to Popayan, and was made governor of this province by a decree dated ici8. When La Gasca succeeded in supplanting Diego Pizarro, he deprived Sebastian of his governorship. Benares, be-na'rez, a division in the north- western provinces of India, with an area of 10.414 square miles, largely made up of rich cultivated flats on each side of the Ganges. The heat in summer is excessive, but in winter fires are requisite. Garden stuffs, grain of dif- ferent kinds, flax for oil, and sugar, are the principal objects of cultivation. Rice, for which many parts of the soil seem well adapted, is seldom grown. Muslins, silks, and gauzes, salt» indigo, and opium, are made very extensively. The principal town is Benares. Pop. (1901) 5,368,600, and the Hindus greatly outnumbering the Mussulmans. Benares (in Sanskrit, Varanasi), a town in Hindustan, northwest provinces, in the division of the same name, on the left bank of the Ganges, from which it rises like an amphitheatre, presenting a splendid panorama of temples, mosques, palaces, and other buildings, with their domes, minarets, etc. Fine ghauts lead down to the river. It is built of freestone, and con- tains many handsome and highly decorated houses, but the height of the houses and narrow- ness of the streets give it all the usual incon- veniences of an Asiatic town. Kasi, the Splen- did, as the Hindus commonly call it, is one of the most sacred places of pilgrimage in all India, being the headquarters of the Hindu religion. To die at Benares is the greatest happiness for a Plindu, because he is then sure of imme- diate admission into heaven. The number of pious foundations and temples is exceedingly great. There is a continual influx of wealthy pilgrims into the city, and many of the Hindu princes have a town residence here. The prin- cipal temple, called Bisheswar, is dedicated to Siva. Aurungzebe built a splendid mosque on the highest ground in the city, and it is the most prominent object from the river side. At the end of the 17th century an observatory was erected in this city by one of the rajahs, which still exists. One of the temples has a great number of sacred monkeys attached to it. Altogether there are about 1,500 Hindu temples. Among the municipal structures are the govern- ment college, hospitals, town-hall, .asylums, swimming baths, and waterworks. Benares car- ries on a large trade in the produce of the dis- trict and in English goods, and manufactures silks, shawls, embroidered cloth, jewelry, etc. The merchants and bankers are numerous and wealthy. There are few English inhabitants, ex- cept the government officers, and the members of the various missions. Kasi was ceded to the East India Company by the Nabob of Oude in 1775. During the mutiny of 1857 a serious out- break occurred here. Pop. (1901) 203,100. See Sherring, 'Sacred City of the Hindus^ (1869). Benavente, ba-nii-ven'ta, a town of Spain, in the province of Zamora. on the western bank of the Esla, 34 miles north from Zamora. It is overlooked by a huge, half-ruined castle, and is now a dull and poverty-stricken place, built chiefly of mud cottage.-j. It was here that Moore's retreat commenced, 28 Dec. 1808. Benbow, John, famous English admiral* b. Shrewsbury, England, 1653; d. Jamaica, <» Nov. 1702. After serving for some time in the navy he entered the merchant service, and fought .so desperately against a pirate from Sallee, in one of his trips to the Mediterranean, about the year 1686. as to beat her off, though greatly his superior in men and metal. He re-entered the navv after the Revolution, and was employed in protectine: the English trade in the channel, which he did with great effect. His valor and BENCH — BENDALOU activity secured him the confidence of the na- tion, and he was soon promoted to the rank of rear-admiral, and charged with operations against Dunkirk and the French coasts. In 1698 he was sent to put down the pirates in the West Indies, and not long after returning, he again sailed to the West Indies with a small fleet, having accepted a command previously declined by several of his seniors, from the supposed su- periority of the enemy's force in that quarter. In August 1702, he fell in with the French fleet under Du Casse, and for five days main- tained a running fight with them, when he at length succeeded in bringing the enemy's stern- most ship to close quarters. In the heat of the action a chain-shot carried away one of his legs, and he was taken below ; but the moment the dressing had been applied to the wound he caused himself to be brought again on deck, and continued the action. At this critical in- stant, being most disgracefully abandoned by several of the captains under his command, who signed a paper expressing their opinion that "nothing more was to be done,*^ the whole fleet efi^ected its escape. Benbow, on his return to Jamaica, brought the delinquents to a court- martial, by which two of them were convicted of cowardice and disobedience of orders, and condemned to be shot ; which sentence, on their arrival in England, was carried into execution at Plymouth. Bench, in law, the seat which judges or magistrates occupy officially in a court of jus- tice; also the judges or magistrates sitting to- gether to try cases. The court of common pleas in England was formerly called Bancus, the Bench, as distinguished from Bancus Regis, the King's Bench. It was also called Communis Bancus, the Common Bench, and this title is still retained by the reporters of the decisions in the court of common pleas. Mention is made in the Magna Charta "J^ jiisticiariis nos- tris de Banco)^ which all men know to be the justices of the court of common pleas, com- monly called the Common Bench, or the Bench. Viner, Abr. Courts (n. 2). Bench-mark, a mark placed upon some permanent object, as a stone or wall, for use in tidal observations and leveling surveys. Its position above the zero of the tide-gauge or other datum level is made a matter of record and any level once established may be readily ascertained at a future period. See also Level- ing. Bench Warrant, a warrant issued by the court before which an indictment has been found to arrest the accused, that he may appear and find bail for his appearance at the trial. Where a bench warrant is directed to the sheriff it can- not be executed by one having only verbal authority from the sheriff, and such arrest does not discharge the recognizance. A bench war- rant is defective which does not direct that the party shall be brought before some judge or jus- tice. Benchers, in England, senior members of the Inns of Court, who have the entire manage- ment of their respective inns, the power of punishing barristers guilty of misconduct, and the right to admit or reject candidates to the bar. See alsc Inns of Coubt. Bencoolen, ben-koo'len (Dutch, Benkoe- Icn) , a seaport of Sumatra, on the southwest coast ; Ion. 102° 19' E. ; lat. 3° 47' 36" S. The English settled here in 1685, and in 1690 the East India Company built a fort here, calling it Fort York. In 1825 Bencoolen was yielded up to the Dutch in exchange for the settlements on the Mala}'- Peninsula. A convenient river on its northwest side conveys pepper out of the in- land country ; but there is great inconvenience in shipping it, by reason of a dangerous bar at the river's inouth. The place, which is almost two miles in compass, is known at sea by a high, slender mountain, which rises in the coun- try 20 miles beyond it, called the Sugar Loaf. It is inhabited by a mixed population. The me- dium heat throughout the year is from 81° to 82°. Pepper is the chief produce of the adja- cent country, which is mountainous and woody. The place is unhealthy and subject to earth- quakes; storms are frequent. Pop. 6,000. Benczur, ben'tsoor, Gsoila (Julius), Hunga- rian artist : b. Nyiregj-haza, 1844. He was made professor at the Academy of Munich in 1880 and was subsequently director of the Academy of Budapest. His paintings, which are of the School of Piloty, are noted for their splendid coloring. Among the most celebrated are ^Fare- well of Ladislas Hunyady' (^1867) ; < Arrest of Rakoczy^ (1701) ; * Louis XV. in the Boudoir of Dubarry^ ; ^Family of Louis XVI. during the Assault on Versailles' (1872), owned by D. O. Mills, New York; ^Baptism of St. Stephen^ (1875); (1881) ; (1879); 'The Price She Paid> (1883). A collection of his verses 'The Shadow Wor- shipper and Other Poems^ appeared in 1857. Benedict, Sir Julius, German-English pian- ist and composer : b. Stuttgart, 1804 ; d. London, 1885. In 1821 he went to Dresden to study under Weber, and two years later became con- ductor at a Vienna theatre. His first opera, 'Giacinta ed Ernesto,^ was produced in Naples in 1829 without success. He took up his resi- dence in England in 1835, and was knighted in 1871. He was for many years conductor at the Norwich festival, and during a number of seasons acted as operatic conductor in London, both for English and Italian opera. His principal works are the operas, 'The Gipsy's Warning^ (1838); 'The Bride of Venice' (1843). ^The Crusaders^ (1846) ; 'The Lily of Killarney' (1862), founded on Boucicault's 'Colleen Bawn,^ and 'The Bride of Song' (1864) ; the cantatas, 'Undine' (i860) and 'St. Cecilia' (1866); the fine oratorio 'St. Peter' (1870) ; and the can- tata 'Graziella' (1882). Benedict-Beuern, be'ne-dikt-boi'ern, for- merly an abbey situated in the Bavarian circle of the Iser, about 40 miles distant from the city of Munich, on the descent of the mountains toward the Tyrol. The convent was founded as early as 740, and was abolished in 1803. The fine abbey church still remains. The Bavarian government has here a depot for army horses, and a veterinary establishment ; and there is also a residence for invalids. Benedic'tine, a liqueur originally prepared by the Benedictine monks of the abbey of Fe- camp, in Normandy, consisting of spirit (fine brandy) containing an infusion of the juices of plants, and said to possess digestive, anti- spasmodic, and other virtues, and to have pro- phylactic efficacy in epidemics. It somewhat resembles chartreuse and has been made in the same way since 15 10. See Liqueur. Benedictines. From the 6th to the loth century almost all the monks in the West might be so called, because they followed the rule of St. Benedict of Norcia. The rules which at that time the monasteries in Spain and France re- ceived from their bishops, as well as the rule of the Irish St. Columba, were essentially the same as those of St. Benedict ; and in the pro- gress of his order the monasteries in Spain and France, as well as those of the order of Columba, united themselves with it. Monte Cassino, the magnificent primitive monastery of the Benedic- tines, became the model of all others. At that time the monasteries, having no common supe- riors, were under the immediate control of the bishops in their respective dioceses, and differed from one another in many qualifications of the primitive rule. Not even the color of their dress was the same. The disciples of Columba wore white garments like the first Benedictine nuns, who originated in France in the 6th cen- tury. After the unions which took place at a later period, all the members of this order wore black, as the founder is said to have done. The decline of monastic discipline after the 8th cen- tury occasioned the reforms of Benedict of Aniana in France, the renewed inculcation of the old rule, and the adoption of new ordinances suited to the times, by the Council of Aix-la- Chapelle (817), as well as the particular rules and fraternities of the celebrated monasteries in France, Germany, and England, which in those barbarous times became seats of civiliza- tion and finally the institution of the Cluniacs, a new branch of the Benedictines, which pro- ceeded from the convent of Clugny in Burgundy, founded in the year 910. The Benedictine mon- asteries, in the Middle Ages, were often asylums in which science took refuge and found protec- tion. In place of the discordant and uncertain rules which had hitherto existed, the Cluniacs made fixed regulations concerning the hours of worship, the obedience, discipline, and common government of all the monasteries belonging to their order, which were soon imitated in all Europe. In the 12th century their order con- tained 2,000 monasteries, whose luxury fre- quently called for reforms, and finally became the chief cause of their decline. The remains of the Cluniacs united themselves in the 17th century, under the patronage of Richelieu, with the Benedictine fraternities of St. Vannes and St. Maurus, the latter of which, founded in 1618, had in the beginning of the i8th century 180 abbeys and priories in France, and acquired by means of its learned members, such as Ma- billon, Montfaucon, and Martene, merited dis- tinction. To this family belong those new orders established on the foundation and observ- ing the rule of St. Benedict, which have origi- nated since the nth century, and are distin- guished from the proper Benedictines by their dress, names, and particular regulations ; for ex- ample, the Camaldulians, the monks of Val- lombrosa, the Sylvestrians, the Grandimontenses,. the Carthusians, the Ccelestines, the Cistercians, and Bernardines, the Trappists, and the monks of Fontevraud. The Benedictine monasteries never constituted one society, constitutionally regulated and governed under an aristocratical or monarchical form ; on the contrary, a great many monasteries which descended from the old Benedictines were compelled by the Council of Trent to unite themselves gradually into par- ticular fraternities. Among these the Benedic- tines of Monte Cassino, of Monte Vergine, and Monte Oliveto (who called themselves Olive- tans) in Italy and Sicily; those of Valladolid and Montserrat in Spain ; those of Hirschau and Fulda in Germany, and that of Molk in Austria, deserve particular notice on account of the extent of their possessions, the magnificence of their churches, and the mildness of their rules. To the fraternity of Molk (or Melk), which still exists, but accommodated to the spirit of the times, the rest of the Benedictine convents in Austria are joined. Many of the nunneries of this order are reserved for the BENEDICTION — BENET nobility, because the places in them arc equal to the most lucrative benefices. During the first French revolution the monasteries of the Bene- dictines along with all other monastic orders were abolished ; but the Benedictines have since partially re-established themselves in France. In England the Benedictines were an important body at the dissolution of the monasteries, hav- ing then i86 abbeys, priories, and nunneries, be- sides many smaller houses. At present there are eight Benedictine abbeys in England, besides an .extensive establishment at Fort Augustus in 'Scotland, comprising an abbey and college. In 'the United States there are 13 abbots, 545 priests, 133 clerics, and 345 lay brothers in the order. The Benedictines have charge of 16 colleges in the United States. Bibliography. — Chateaubriand, * Monks of the West> ; Taunton, < English Black Monks of Saint Benedict' ; Digby, ^Ages of Faith.' Benediction, the act of blessing, of wish- ing to a person or thing the grace of God. It has always existed as a custom among Jews and Christians. The Jewish priests bestowed benedictions upon the people when they remained obedient to the law, and maledictions when they neglected it. In the Catholic Church the term is generally applied to the religious public service at which the priest makes the sign of the cross over the congregation with the osten- sorium containing the consecrated Host. The Anglo-Saxon term "blessing" is now commonly used to express the benediction invoked with prayer, sign of the cross, and holy water upon religious articles such as prayer-books, holy pic- tures, rosary-beads, etc. In Protestant churches the benediction is usually given in words similar to those prescribed by Moses to Aaron. It is often accompanied with laying on of hands, especially in the celebration of marriages, the ordination of pastors, the confirmation of con- verts, and the baptism of children. Benedic'tus, the song of Zacharias used in the Roman breviary at lauds and also in the Anglican morning service. Benedix, ba'ne-diks, Roderich, German playwright and actor: b. Leipsic, 21 Jan. 181 1; d. 26 Sept. 1873. In 1831, he became an actor, and in 1838 staged his first play "^Das Bemuste Haupt.-* He was connected with the manage- ment of several theatres at Cologne and Frank- fort-on-the-Main. Among his plays are ^Dr. Wespe' ; ^Die Hochzeitreise' ; ^Die Manner- feinde' ; ^Der Liebesbrief ; 'pt. The tribe of Benjamin, small at first, was almost exterminated in the days of the Judges, but Vol. 2 34. afterward it greatly increased. On the revolt of the 10 tribes Benjamin adhered to the camp of Judah ; and the two tribes ever afterward closely united. King Saul and Saul of Tarsus were both Benjamites. Benjamin, Charles Henry, American en- gineer : b. Patten, Me., 29 Aug. 1856. He gradu- ated at the University of Elaine, and was pro- fessor of mechanical engineering there, 1880-6. Since 1889 he has been professor of the same subject in the Case School of Applied Science, Cleveland, Ohio. Publications: < Notes on Heat and Steam' (1894) ; < Notes on Machine Design' (1895) : ^Mechanical Laboratory Prac- tice' (1898) ; 'Evolution of the Machine Tool' (1898) ; 'Power Losses in Machine-Shops' (1900) ; 'Development of Fly Wheels' (1900) ; and nionographs in the 'Transactions' of the American Society of Mechanical Engineers, Vols. XVTII.-XXL Benjamin, Judah Philip, American lawyer: b. St. Croix, West Indies, 11 Aug. 181 1 ; d. Paris, 7 May 1884 ; of English parentage and of Jewish faith. He was educated at Yale College ; admitted to the bar in New Orleans in 1832 ; and elected to the United States Senate in 1852 and 1858. At the beginning of the Civil War he resigned from the Senate and declared his adhesion to the State of Louisiana. In 1861 he accepted the office of attorney-general in the Cabinet of Jefferson Davis, and afterward be- came successively Confederate secretary of war and secretary of state. After the w-ar he went to London, England, where he was admitted to the bar in 1866. He gained a successful prac- tice, and in 1872 was formally presented wnth a silk gown. He wrote a 'Treatise on the Law of Sale of Personal Property' (1868). Benjamin, Marcus, American editor and compiler: b. San Francisco, 17 Jan. 1857. He graduated at Columbia School of Mines, 1878, and was chemist at the United States Appraiser's Store, New York, 1883-5. Since 1883 he has been a reguar contributor to 'Appleton's Annual Cyclopsedia' and the 'Cyclopaedia of American Biography,' and edited a number of the Appleton guides and handbooks. He was on the editorial staff of the 'Standard Diction- ary' ; 'Encyclopaedic Dictionary' : 'Johnson's Universal Cyclopaedia' : and the 'International Year Book' ; and has translated Bertholet's 'Explosive Materials' (1883). Since 1896 he has been connected with the United States National Museum. Benjamin, Park, American journalist, poet, and lecturer: b. Demerara, British Guiana, 14 Aug. 1809; d. New York, 12 Sept. 1864. He studied law, but later took up literary' work, helping to found 'The New World' in New York. His poems, of a high order of merit, have never been collected. 'The Contemplation of Nature,' read on taking his degree at Wash- ington College, Hartford, 1829; the satires. 'Poetry' (1843): 'Infatuation' (1849): 'The Nautilus' ; 'To One Beloved' ; and 'The Old Sexton' are among his works. He was asso- ciated editorially with Epes Sargent and Rufus W. Griswold. Benjamin, Park, American lawyer, editor, and miscellaneous writer, son of the preceding: b. New York, 11 May 1849. A graduate of the United States Naval Academy (1867), he served on Admiral Farragut's flagship, but resigned in BENJAMIN — BENNETT 1869. As a lawyer he has been a patent expert. He edited the 'Scientific American' (1872-8), and Appleton's * Cyclopaedia of Applied Mechan- ics'. He has written * Shakings: Etchings from the Naval Academy' (1867) ; 'The Age of Elec- tricity' (1886) ; 'The Intellectual Rise in Elec- tricity, a History' ; 'The United States Naval Academy' (1900) ; etc. Benjamin, Samuel Green Wheeler, Ameri- can traveler, artist, and miscellaneous writer : b. Argos. Greece, 13 Feb. 1837. He was edu- cated at Williams College; was assistant libra- rian in the New York State Library, 1861-4 ; and was United States minister to Persia, 1883-5. Among his numerous works, both in prose and verse, are: 'Art in America' ; 'Con- temporary Art in Europe' (1877); 'Constanti- nople* (i860). Benjamin, William Augustus, American journalist, poet, composer: b. 26 July 1865. His most prominent poems are: 'From Then Till Now' (1889); 'The Storm' (1889); 'Musings of Shadow-Silence' (1890); 'Twilight Fancies' and 'The Tide of Life' (1891) ; etc. Of his musical compositions, 'The Surge of the Sea' (1890); 'The Promise' (1894); and 'Go to Sleep' (1895). Benjamin of Tudela, Jewish traveler: b. Tudela, Navarre, in the 12th century; is chiefly known by his travels over large portions of Europe, Palestine, Mesopotamia, the East Indies, and Ethiopia. As the first European traveler who penetrated far into the East, he furnishes a great amount of interesting informa- tion, and though not free from error or fable, proves himself worthy of the high estimation in which he has always been held among his Jew- ish countrymen for soundness of judgment and extent of learning. His 'Itinerary,' first printed in Hebrew at Constantinople in 1543, has been translated into many languages. The edition of Asher (London and Berlin 1840-1) contains an English translation. Benjamin-Constant, Jean Joseph, bon-zha- man-kon-ston, zhon zho-sef, French painter: b. Paris, 10 June 1847 ; d. there, 26 May 1902. He studied under Cabanel, and exhibited in the salon of 1869, a scene from 'Hamlet.' His taste inclined him to Oriental subjects and the nude, and his vivid coloring and dramatic treatment made his work fashionable in Paris and London. His work displays much finished and minute detail, but he paid chief attention to harmony of effect and decorative value. Among his Oriental pictures are 'Mahomet II.' ; 'Les Cherifas' ; 'Les Funerailles de TEmir' ; 'La Justice du Cherif.' Benkulen. See Bencoolen. Benndorf, Otto, German archaeologist: b. 13 Sept. 1838 ;d. 2 Jan. 1907. He studied at Er- langen and Bonn, went to Italy and Greece, 1864-8, and was professor of archaeology at the universities of Gottingen, Zurich, Munich, Prague, and Vienna. In 1875 he made a second archaeological tour to Samothracc; in 1881 and 1883 he made two expeditions, at state cost, to southwestern Asia Minor; in 1898 he was made director of the Austrian Archnsological Institute. He wrote 'The Ancient Sculptures in the Lat- eran Museum' (in conjunction with Schone) (Leipsic 1867) ; 'Ancient Historical Flelmets and Sepulchral Masks' (1878) ; 'Travels in Southwest Asia Minor' (1884) ; etc. Benne Oil, a valuable oil expressed from the seeds of Sesamum orientdle and S. iiuiicum, much cultivated in India, Egypt, etc., and used for purposes similar to those of olive oil. Also called sesamum oil and gingelly oil. See Se- same. Bennet, Elizabeth, the heroine of Jane Austen's novel, 'Pride and Prejudice.' See Howells, 'Heroines of Fiction' (1901). Bennet, Henry (E.\rl of Arlington), Eng- lish statesman: b. Arlington, Middlesex, 1618; d. 28 July 1685. He was devoted to the cause of Charles I., and was appointed under-secretary of state ; he fought in several battles, and was wounded at Andover, but after the battle of Worcester he retired to Spain. Upon the resto- ration he returned to England, and was ap- pointed keeper of the privy seal, and shortly afterward secretary of state. In 1664 he was created Baron Arlington ; in 1670 became noted as one of the famous Cabal, but is not accused of entertaining their extreme sentiments ; he was created Earl of Arlington in 1672. He was one of the plenipotentiaries sent to LTtrecht to negotiate a peace between Austria and France, but the mission not being successful, an en- deavor was made by his colleagues to cast the odium of the failure upon him. He defended himself, however, before the House of Com- mons, and was acquitted. The war with Hol- land, which is said to have been caused by the machinations of the Cabal, lost to Arlington the favor of the king and people ; but in spite of this he received the office of chamberlain. In 1679 he became a member of the new council, and retained his office of chamberlain on the accession of James II. Bennett, Alfred Allen, American chemist: b. Milford, N. PL, 30 Nov. 1850. He graduated at the University of Michigan 1877; became professor of chemistry and physics in Iowa Wesleyan University; and since 1885 has been professor of chemistry in Iowa State College. Publications: 'Text Book of Inorganic Chem- istry,' 2 vols., and articles in the 'American Chemical Society Journal.' Bennett, Charles Edwin, American edu- cator : b. Providence, R. I., 6 April 1858. He graduated at Brown University 1878; pursued graduate studies at Harvard and in Germany 1881-4; was professor of Latin at the University of Wi-sconsin 1889-91 ; of classical philolog}^ at Brown 1891-2; and in the latter year was elected professor of Latin at Cornell. He has been a frequent contributor to classical journals and editor of classical texts. Publications: 'A Latin Grammar' (1895) ; 'The Foundations of Latin' (1898) ; 'Critique of Some Recent Subjunctive Theories'* (1808) ; 'The Quantitative Reading of Latin Poetry' (1899) ; 'The Teaching of Greek and Latin in Secondary Schools' (1900). He has edited: 'Xenophon's Hellenica, Books V.-VIIL' (1892) : 'Tacitus, Dialogus de Ora- toribus' (1894) : 'Cicero, De Senectute' (1897) ; and 'Cicero, De Amicitia' (1897). Bennett, Charles Wesley, American ^Nleth- odist clergvman and educator: b. East Bethany, N._ Y., 18 July 1828; d. 17 April 1891. He was principal of Genesee Wesleyan Seminary (1869- 71) ; professor of history and logic at Syracuse University (1871-8=;) : professor of historical theology, Garrett Biblical Institute, Evanston. 111. BENNETT (1885-91). He wrote < National Education in Italy, France, Germany, England, and Wales* (1878) ; and 'Christian Art and Archaeology of the First Six Centuries' (i888j. Bennett, Edmund Hatch, American lawyer: b. Manchester, Vt., 6 April 1824; d. 2 Jan. 1898. He was graduated at the University of Vermont in 1843, and admitted to the bar in 1847. He practised for many years in Taunton, Mass., and was mayor of that city 1865-7, and judge of pro- bate and insolvency of Bristol County 1858-83. He was lecturer at Harvard Law School 1865- 71, and afterward professor and dean at the Law School of Boston University. His works include 30 volumes of 'English Law and Equity Reports' ; '9-12 Cushing's (Mass.) Reports' ; 'Massachusetts Digest' (3 vols.) ; 'Bingham on Infancy' ; 'Blackwell on Tax Titles' ; 'Leading Criminal Cases' (2 vols.) ; 'Goddard on Easements' ; 'Benjamin on Sales' ; 'Pomeroy's Constitutional Law'; 'Indermaur's Principles of Common Law' ; and 'Fire Insur- ance Cases* (5 vols.). He has made contribu- tions to professional journals, and has been co- editor of the 'American Law Register.* Bennett, Emerson, American novelist : b. Monson. ^Nlass., 16 March 1822; d. Phila- delphia, Pa., 12 ^lay 1905. He began to write at an early age and published some 60 or more extremelj' sensational tales which have been popular with uncritical readers. Among them are 'Prairie Flower'; 'The Outlaw's Daughter'; and 'The Forged Will.' Bennett, James Gordon, American journal- ist: b. Newmill, Keith, i Sept. 1795; d. i June 1872. Trained for the Roman Catholic priest- hood, he emigrated to the United States in 1819, where he became in turn teacher, proof-reader, journalist, and lecturer. He had acted as casual reporter and writer in connection with several journals, and had failed in one or two journal- istic ventures previous to the issue of the first number of the New York Herald, which he founded as an independent newspaper, 6 May 1835, price one cent. He spared no effort and expense in securing news, and laid the founda- tion of its subsequent enormous success. It was the first newspaper to publish the stock lists and a daily money article. Bennett, James Gordon, American journal- ist, (son of the preceding) : b. New York, 10 May 1841. He became managing editor of the New York Herald in 1866. and became its pro- prietor on the death of his father in 1872. In 1870 he sent Henry M. Stanley on the explor- ing expedition which resulted in the finding of Dr. Livingstone, and. in conjunction with the London Daily Telegraph, supplied the means for his journey across Africa by way of the Congo in 1874-8. He organized a system of storm prognostications of value to shipping-masters; fitted out the Jeannette Polar exnedition ; and in 1883 was associated with John W. Mackay in organizing the new Commercial Cable Company. He founded the Evening: Telef^rnm in New York, and_ established daily editions of the Herald in Paris and London. He early gave much atten- tion to yachting, in 1866 taking part in an ocean yacht race from Sandy Hook to the Needles, Isle of Wight, which was won by his schooner Henrietta against two competing yachts in 13 days. 21 hours. 55 minutes. In 1870 he raced in his yacht Dauntless from Queenstown to Sandy Hook, but was beaten by the Cambria by two hours. He resides mainly in Paris, collecting foreign news, and directing by telegraph the management and policy of his newspapers. The New York Herald was incorporated in 1899. Bennett, John, American writer: b. Chilli- cothe, Ohio, 17 May 18O5. He has published 'iMaster Skylark' (1892); 'The Story of Bar- naby Lee' (1900). Bennett, John Hughes, English physician: b. London, 31 Aug. 1812; d. Norwich, 25 Sept. 1875. He graduated at Edinburgh in 1837, and after four years' study in Paris and Germany settled in Edinburgh as an extra-mural lecturer. A work published in 1841, in which he recom- mended cod-liver oil in all consumptive diseases, first brought him into notice, and in 1848 he was made professor of the institutes of medicine in Edinburgh University — a post which he held until 1874. His health gave way in 1871, and. most of his last 3'ears were spent abroad. Bennett, Joseph M., American philanthro- pist: b. Juliustown, N. J., 16 Aug. 1816; d. 2g Sept. 1898. He engaged in the clothing business in Philadelphia, Pa., when 16 years old. In 1880 he gave 40 acres of ground in what is now Fairmount Park, valued at $400,000, for a Meth- odist Orphanage, to the support of which he afterward largely contributed. He also estab- lished the Hays Home, and gave valuable prop- erties to the Deaf and Dumb Institute, the University of Pennsylvania, and the Methodist Deaconesses. His property was said to be worth $3,000,000, and it is estimated that he gave $1,000,000 to charity. Lie bequeathed $500,000 ta the University of Pennsylvania for its proposed college for women. Bennett, Mary E. (Eliz.\beth Glover), American writer : b. Connecticut, 1841 ; a writer of New Haven, Conn., whose writings have been publish^ over the pen name Elizabeth Glover. They mclude 'Cyril Rivers' ; 'Six Boys' ; 'Asaph's Ten Thousand' ; 'Talks About a Fine- Art' ; 'Family Manners'; 'The Children's Wing' ; 'Jefferson Wildrider' ; 'The Gentle Art of Pleasing.' Bennett, Samuel Crocker, American law- yer : b. Taunton, ^Lass.. 19 April 1858. He is a son of Edmund Hatch Bennett (q.v.), and in 1898 succeeded his father as dean of the law school of Boston University. He is one of the editors of 'Federal Decisions' ; 'Smith's Leading Cases' ; 'Benjamin on Sales' ; 'Cyclopedia of Law and Procedure.' Bennett, Sanford Fillmore, American h\'m- nologist: b. Eden, N. Y.. 1836; d. 12 June 1898. He settled in Elkhorn, Wis., in i860, and became editor of the Independent. Resigning this place, he entered the 40th Wisconsin Volunteers and served with them throughout the Civil War. In 1867 he aided J. P. Webster, the composer, in preparing 'The Signet Ring.' a Sunday-.school hymn-book, to which he contributed about loa hvmns. 'The Sweet Bye and Bye' was one of tlie first of these. Many of Mr. Bennett's hymns and songs have been published in sheets. Bennett, "William Cox, English song- writer: b. Greenwich. 14 Oct. 1820: d. Black- heath, 4 March 1895. He suggested that the bust of Longfellow be placed in Westminster Abbey, and formed a committee of 500, with the Prince of Wales at its head, to effect k. He BENNETT — BENOIT was the author of 'Poems^ (1850) ; 'The Trial for Salamis' (1850) ; < Endowed Parish Schools and High Church Vicars> (1853) ; 'Queen Eleanor's Vengeance, and Other Poems^ (1856); (1857); 'Songs by a Song- Writer' (1858) ; 'Baby May, and Other Poems' (1859) ; 'Our Glory Roll, and Other National Poems' (1867) ; 'Contributions to a Ballad History of England, etc' (1869) ; 'School-Book of Poetry' (1870); 'Songs for Sailors' (1872) ; 'Narrative Poems and Bal- lads' (1879) ; 'Songs of a Song-Writer' (1876); and 'Sea Songs' (1878). Bennett, Sir William Stemdale, English composer: b. Sheffield 13 April 1816; d. Lon- don, I Feb. 1875. He became a pupil of the Royal Academy of Music in 1826, studying un- der Cipriani Potter, Crotch, and Lucas, and afterward Moscheles. By the advice of Men- delssohn, whose friendship he had gained, he studied in Leipsic from 1836 to 1838, and his performances and compositions were held in high esteem by the younger German musicians, and especially by Schumann. After a period spent in teaching, conducting, and composing, he was appointed professor of music at Cam- bridge in 1856, and was knighted in 1871. Li 1868 he became principal of the Royal Acad- emy of Music. He was too entirely dominated by Mendelssohn's influence to do great original work. He is best known by his overtures, 'Tlie Naiads' and 'Parisina' ; his cantatas, 'The May Queen' and 'Woman of Samaria' ; and his lit- tle musical sketches, 'Lake,' '^^lillstream,' and 'Fountain.' Bennigsen, Levin Augustus (Baron Von), Russian soldier: b. Brunswick, 1745; d. 3 Oct. 1826. He entered the Russian service at an early age, and distinguished himself by his bravery in the war against Poland, under the Empress Catherine H. In 1806 he was ap- pointed to comm.and the Russian army which went to the assistance of the Prussians. He afterward fought the battles of Eylau and Friedland. After the Peace of Tilsit he retired to his estates. In 1813 he led the Army of Poland into Saxony, took part in the battle of Leipsic, and blockaded Hamburg. He was commander-in-chief in southern Russia, but finally settled in his native country, where he died. Bennigsen, Rudolph von, German states- man : b. Luneberg, Hanover, 1825 ; d. Bennig- sen, 7 Aug. 1902. After Hanover became a part of Prussia he was elected to the North Ger- man Diet and the Prussian Assembly, becom- ing vice-president of both. Entering the Ger- man Reichstag in 1871, he became prominent as leader of the National Liberals, warmly support- ing Bismarck for years, but later opposing his policy toward the Socialists. After some years spent in retirement, Bennigsen re-entered poli- tics in 1887 and continued active until 1898, when he resigned his position as president of the province of Hanover. Bennington, Vt., town and county-seat of Bennington County, on the Bennington & R. and the Lebanon Springs R.R.'s ; 36 miles east of Troy, N. Y., and 55 miles southwest of Rut- land. It contains the villages of Bennington, North Bennington, and Bennington Centre ; and has large woolen and knit-goods factories ; a Soldiers' Home, a memorial battle monument, dedicated on the centennial of the admission of the State into the L'nion, 19 Aug. 1891 ; two national banks, public library, numerous churches, and graded public schools. There are valuable deposits of brown hematite ore in the town. The government consists of a town presi- dent and a board of trustees elected annually at town meetings under the charter of 1885. The town, which was named after Governor Benning Wentworth of New Llampshire, was settled in 1761, and for many years before Vermont be- came a State, was claimed by both New York and New Hampshire. Pop. (1900), 8,033. Bennington, Battle of, one of the early battles of the Revolution, fought at Bennington, Vt., 16 Aug. 1777. The army of Gen. Burgoyne, marching to the south from Canada, and caus- ing the abandonment of Ticonderoga by Gen. St. Clair, created the greatest commotion throughout New England, since Boston was supposed to be its point of destination. Gen. Stark chanced to be at the time at Bennington, having under his command a corps of New Hampshire militia, and he determined to con- front a strong detachment of the enemy sent out under Col. Baum to procure supplies. He hastily collected the continental forces in the. neighborhood, and on 16 August approached the British, whom, after a hot action of tv/o hours, he forced to a disorderly retreat. The engagement was hardly over when a re- enforcement arrived, sent by Gen. Burgoyne, and the battle was renewed, and kept up several hours till dark, when the British forces re- treated, leaving their baggage and ammunition. The loss of the enemy was 207 killed, 600 taken prisoners, and i,oco stand of arms. The Amer- icans lost only 14 killed and 42 wounded. Benno, Saint, bishop of Meissen (son of the Count of Bultenburg) and Apostle of the Slavs: b. Hildesheim, loio; d. 1106. At 20 years of age he became a monk in the Bene- dictine convent of Saint Michael in his native town. His extraordinary virtues and learning caused his brethren to elect him abbot in 1042, but the dignity and office he resigned three months later. During the minority of Henry IV., he was appointed to the see of ^Meissen, and during his episcopate of 40 years he led the life of an ascetic. In the quarrel between Henry and the Saxon nobles he stood by th'i latter, and in consequence was led away pris- oner when Henry passed through Meissen in 1075 after his victory on the Unstrut. He sup- ported Pope Gregory VII. in the long dispute between the emperor and the Pope. He died at the advanced age of 96 years and his tomb in the Cathedral of Meissen was venerated as a shrine, until the remains were transferred to the cathedral in Munich. The Bavarians chose him as their patron saint after he was canonized by Hadrian VI. in 1523. See his 'Life' by Emser in the Bollandists for June 3d, also his 'Life' by Seyffort. Benoit, Pierre Leopold Leonard, be-nwa, pe-ar la-6-p6ld la-o-nar, Flemish musician and composer: b. Harelbeke, Belgium, 17 Aug. 1834. He studied under Fetis. He has held the position of director of the Flemish School of Music in Antwerp since 1867, and has written a number of oratorios, cantatas, and operas. In BENOIT — BENT the first class of these compositions, his ^ Luci- fer, > and (1887): 'Men of Might' (with Mr. Tatham) ; 'Fasti Etonenses' (1899); 'Life of Archbishop Benson' (1899): 'The Schoolmaster' (1902) ; and 'Tennyson' (in the 'Little Biographies' Series). Benson, Carl, pseudonym of Charles Astor Bristed (q.v.). Benson, Edward Frederic, English author: (son of Edward White Benson and brother of Arthur Christopher qq.v.) b. Wellington Col- lege, 24 July 1867. He was educated at King's College, Cambridge : worked at Athens for the British Aichaeological School (1892-5), and in Egypt, for the Hellenic Society (1895). His writings include 'Dodo' (1893), a novel of London society; 'Six Common Things' (1893) ; 'Rubicon' (1894); 'Judgment Books' (1895); 'Limitations' (1896); 'The Babe' (1897); 'Vintage' (1898); 'The Capsina' (1899); 'An Act in a Backwater' (1904). Benson, Edward White, Archbishop of Canterbury: b. near Birmingham, 1829; d. Ha- warden, 11 Oct. 1896. He graduated at Cam- bridge in 1852 as a first-class and senior optime, and was for some time a master at Rugby. He held the headmastership of Wellington College from its opening in 1858 to 1872, when he was made a canon and chancellor of Lincoln Cathe- dral. In 1875 he was appointed chaplain in ordinary to the queen, and in December 1876 was nominated to the newly erected bishopric of Truro. Here he began the building of a cathe- dral (1880-7), most of the first cost, £110,000, having been gathered by his own energ\'. In 1882 he was translated to Canterbury to suc- ceed Dr. Tait as primate of all England. A high-churchman, Dr. Benson was frequently se- lect preacher at both universities, and published several volumes of sermons, a small work on 'Cathedrals,' and a valuable article on 'St. Cyprian.' A distinguished ecclesiastical law- yer and diplomatist, he gave the important judg- ment in the Lincoln case on ritual. Benson, Egbert, American jurist and poli- tician : b. New York, 21 June 1746; d. Jamaica, N. Y., 24 Aug. 1833. He was graduated at Co- lumbia College 1765; was member of Congress 1784-8, 1789-93, and 1813-15; judge of the su- preme court of New York 1 794-1 801 ; and be- came a judge of the United States circuit court. He wrote a 'Vindication of the Captors of Major Andre,' and 'Memoir on Dutch Names of Places.' Benson, Eugene, American artist and mis- cellaneous writer : b. Hyde Park, N. Y.. 1840. Residing in Rome, Italy, he has contributed to American magazines. He has written 'Gaspara Stampa' (1881), a biography, with selections from her sonnets; 'Art and Nature in Italy' (1882). Benson, Frank Weston, American painter: b. Salem, Mass., 24 IMarch 1862. He was edu- cated at the Museum of Fine Arts, Boston, and in Paris ; became a member of the Society of American Artists in 1888. He won the Hall- garten and the Clarke prizes at the National Academy of Design in 1889 and 1891 ; has done nvich in figure work with outdoor effects, but is best known for his portraits. Bent, James Theodore, English traveler: b. Liverpool, 30 March 1852 ; d. London, 6 May 1897. He graduated at Oxford University in 1875, and managed excavations in Greece for the British Museums and the Hellenic Society. His publications include: 'A Freak of Free- dom, or the Republic of San Marino' (1879) ; 'Genoa: How the Republic Rose and Fell' (1880) ; 'Life of Giuseppe Garibaldi' (1881) ; 'The Cyclades, or Life Among the Insular Greeks' (1885). Bent, Silas, American naval officer: b. St. Louis, 10 Oct. 1820; d. 1889. He entered the navy in 1836 ; served in the Seminole war, and was with Commodore Glynn and Commodore Perry on several cruises to Japan. He was always especially active in survey work; on BENT-GRASS — BENTHOS Perr3''s Japan expedition he had charge of the hydrographic survey, and his excellent work became the basis of the surveys undertaken later by the Japanese government. His most important work was to delineate and describe scientifically the Kuro Shiwo, or Black Tide, the great northward-tlowing stream of the Pacific, corresponding to the Atlantic Gulf Stream. Bent-grass (Agrostis), a genus of grasses usually regarded as weeds except in soils which cannot produce better. Common bent-grass or purple bent (A. vulgaris) is a fine-leaved species with trailing stems rooting at the joints, and small thin panicles of purplish satiny flowers. It overruns dry, gravelly, sandy places with its wiry stems, and becomes a troublesome weed, only to be got rid of by pulling up early in the season before the seed is ripe, or by frequent harrowing. It is, however, sometimes sown in warrens and in places where nothing better will §row. March bent, white bent, or fiorin grass {^A. stolonifera). has broader leaves than com- imon bent, a much closer and larger panicle, and green or pale flowers. It is very common in low, damp places, which it overruns with its compact, trailing, rooting stems, and is a useful grass in newly reclaimed bogs or land liable to inimdation. Brown bent-grass {A. canina) is known in the United States as Rhode Island bent-grass, and is highly prized as a lawn grass. Herd-grass {A. cormicopia or dispar) has large panicles of green flowers, which form an almost level top. Bentang, See Eriodendron. Benteen, Frederick William, American soldier: b. Petersburg, Va., 24 Aug. 1834; d. 22 June 1898. He was educated in his native state; and at the outbreak of the Civil War went to Missouri and organized a company of Union volunteers. He became first lieutenant of the loth Missouri Cavalry, i Sept. 1861 ; promoted captain, i Oct. 1861 ; major, 18 Dec. 1862; lieu- tenant-colonel, 27 Feb. 1864: and colonel of the 138th United States Colored Infantry, 15 July 1865 ; mustered out of volunteer service 6 Jan. 1866. On 28 July 1866 he was commissioned captain in the 7th cavalry; promoted major of the 9th cavalry, 17 Dec. 1882; and retired 7 July 1888. His most brilliant service after the •war was in his campaigns against the Indians. Benthal Fauna, the abyssal or deep-sea fauna ; the great assemblage of animals living at all depths below 150 fathoms in the North Atlantic, to 500 fathoms in the tropics. See also Deep-sea Life. Bentham, George, English botanist; nephew of Jeremy Bentham (q.v.) : b. near Plymouth, 22 Sept. 1800; d. 10 Sept. 1884. He was privately educated, early attached himself to botany, and having resided in southern France (where his father had an estate), 1814-26, he published in French (1826) a work on *The Plants of the Pyrenees and Lower Languedoc.^ Having returned to England he studied law, and on this subject, as well as logic, he de- veloped original views. Finally, however, he devoted himself almost entirely to botany; was long connected with the Horticultural Society and the Linnsean Society ; and from 1861 on- ward was in almost daily attendance at Kew (except for a ffw weeks occasionally), work- ing at descriptive botany from 10 to 4 o'clock as a labor of love. Along with Sir J. D. Hock'"'- he produced the great work of descriptive bot- any, ^Genera Plantarum^ ; another great work of his was the ^Flora Australiensis^ (in 7 volumes). His ^Handbook of the British Flora^ is well known. Ben'tham, Jeremy, English jurist and pub- licist : b. London, 15 Feb. 1748; d. London, 6 June 1832. After an early education at West- minster School he went to Oxford in his 13th year, taking his bachelor's degree at 15, and his master's degree at 18. He studied English law, but never appeared at the bar, being enabled by easy circumstances to devote himself entirely to literary compositions. He did not, however, publish his chief works himself. They were arranged and translated into French by his friend, Etienne Dumont, and printed partly in Paris and partly in London. Among them are : 'Treatises on Civil and Penal Legislation' (Paris 1802, 3 vols.), and "^ Theory of Punish- ments and Rewards' (London 1801, 2 vols.). Bentham advocated a thorough correction of civil and criminal legislation. His * Fragments on Government,' in opposition to Blackstone, appeared anonymously in 1776, and with his name, London 1823. In France his literary labors found a better reception than in England or Germany. A small pamphlet on the liberty of the press (London 1821) was addressed by him to the Spanish Cortes during their discus- sion of this subject; and in another ('Three Tracts Relative to the Spanish and Portuguese Affairs,' London 1821) he refuted the idea of the necessity of a house of peers in Spain, as well as Montesquieu's proposition that judicial forms are the defense of innocence. One of his latest works was the 'Art of Packing' (Lon- don 1821), that is, of arranging juries so as to obtain any verdict desired. His previous work, 'Essay on Parliamentary Practice.' edited from the author's papers by Dumont (Geneva 1815), and translated into German, contains many use- ful observations. His 'Introduction to the Prin- ciples of Morals and Legislation' (London 1823, 2 vols.) treats of the principal objects of government in a profound and comprehensive manner. Zanobelli has translated Bentham's 'Theory of Legal Evidence' into Italian (Bergamo 1824, 2 vols.). Among the earlier works of Bentham was his 'Defense of Usury.' showing the Impolicy of the Present Legal Re- straints on the Terms of Pecuniary Bargains' (1787). At his death Mr. Bentham bequeathed his body to be dissected for the benefit of sci- ence. A complete edition of his works, with a biography by Bowring, was published in London (11 vols. 1843). He was a man of primitive manners, unblemished character, and undoubted earnestnees in the cause of the people at large. He is considered the father of the Utilitarians, or those moral political economists who view everything as it is aiifected by the principle of "the greatest happiness of the greatest number." Benthos, the constantly or periodically submerged vegetation attached to the bottoms of seas and, to some extent, of lakes, distinguished from the floating vegetation. (See Plank- ton.) Commencing at the high-tide line and progressing toward the low-tide line the vegeta- tion gradually becomes more abundant and lux- uriant, but reaches its maximum below the low- tide mark in areas wholly submerged, in which ;3t medium d^ths individual development is BENTINCK — BENTLEY greater than at greater depths. The benthos of the frigid zones are the most remarkable of the world. The leading plants of such formations are green, red, and brown algaj, eel-grass, and rockweed. Ben'tinck, Lord William Charles Caven- dish, English soldier and statesman (second son of the third Duke of Portland) : b. 14 Sept. 1774; d. Paris, 17 June 1839. He entered the army at an early age, and served in the Duke of York's campaign in Flanders, and also in Italy with the Russian army under Suwaroff, 1799-1801. In 1803 he proceeded to India as governor of Madras, returned thence in 1805, and subsequently went to Spain, where he com- manded a brigade under Sir John Moore at Corunna. In 1810 he visited Sicily as British plenipotentiary, and commander-in-chief of the English troops. The most noticeable feature of this expedition is his bestowment on the Sicili- ans of a constitution, which, however, was over- turned on the restoration of the Bourbons. He conducted in 1813 the expedition from Sicily to Catalonia, and in 1814 took possession of Genoa on the revolt of the inhabitants from French rule. The same year he returned to England, and subsequently entered Parliament as member for Nottingham. In 1827, under Mr. Canning's administration, he was sent to India as governor- general, and held that office till 1835, when he returned to England. Among the principal events of his administration are the abolition of the practice of suttee, the repeal of the restric- tions which prohibited all Europeans, except servants of the company, from settling in India, and the recognition of the liberty of the press. In 1836 he again entered Parliament as mem- ber for the city of Glasgow, but was now unable from ill health to take any active share in politi- cal matters. Bentinck, Lord William George Frederick Cavendish, generally known as Lord George Bentinck, English statesman (son of William Henry Cavendish, fourth Duke of Portland) ; b. 27 Feb. 1802; d. 21 Sept. 1848. He entered the army, but quitted it early to become private secretary to Mr. Canning, who had married his mother's sister. In 1827 he entered Parliament as member for King's Lynn, and continued to represent that borough for the rest of his life. Up to 1846 he was a warm adherent of Sir Rob- ert Peel and his measures ; but on the latter announcing himself in that year a convert to free-trade principles, Lord George abandoned his old ally and came forward as the zealous and indefatigable leader of the Protectionists in the House of Commons. With the assistance of Disraeli he maintained this position for two years, and though often illogical, and sometimes unscrupulous in his statements, he nevertheless commanded much attention by the vigor and earnestness of his oratory and deportment. Bentivoglio, Cornelio, ben-te-vol'yo. cor- nal'yo, Italian ecclesiastic and poet : b. Ferrara, 1668: d. Rome, 1732. He early distinguished himself by his progress in the fine arts, litera- ture, philosophy, theology, and jurisprudence, and was a patron of the literary institutions at Ferrara. Pope Clement XI. made him his domestic prelate and secretary to the apostolic chamber, and sent him, in 1712, as nuncioto Paris, where, during the last years of the reign of Louis XIV., he acted an important part in the affair of the bull Unigenitus. The Duke of Orleans, regent after the death of Louis, was not favorably disposed toward him ; the Pope therefore transferred him to Ferrara, and in 1719 bestowed on him the hat of a cardinal, and employed him at first in Rome, near his own person, then as legate a latere in Romagna, etc. Poetry had occupied his leisure hours. Sonnets composed by him may be found in Gobbi's Col- lection, Vol. III., and in other collections of his time. Under the name of Selvaggio Porpora he translated the *Thebais of Statius^ into Italian. Bentivoglio, Guy or Guido, ge'do, Italian historian and ecclesiastic: b. Ferrara, 1579; d. Rome, 1644. He studied at Padua with great reputation, and afterward, fixing his residence at Rome, acquired general esteem by his pru- dence and integrity. He was an able politician, and his historical memoirs are valuable, especi- ally his ^History of the Civil Wars in Flanders,' written in Italian, and first published at Cologne (1630), a translation of which, by Henry, Earl of Monmouth, appeared in 1654 (London, folio). His own ^Memoirs' and a collection of letters are reckoned among the best specimens of epistolary writing in the Italian language (an edition of which was published at Cambridge in 1727). Bentley, Charles Eugene, American clergy- man: b. Warner's, N. Y., 30 April 1841. He was educated at Monroe Institute and Oneida Seminary. In 1866 he removed to Iowa and in 1878 to Butier County, Neb., where he resided until 1890. He was ordained a Baptist clergy- man in 1880 and was in charge of a church at Surprise, Neb. In 1884, he was chairman of the Nebraska Prohibition Convention, and became the unsuccessful candidate for congress, gover- nor, and United States Senator during the next eight years. When the Prohibition party divided in 1896, he became presidential candidate of the faction known as the Liberty Party (q.v.). Bentley, Gideon, American soldier: b. 1751 ; d. Constantia, Oswego County, N. Y., Jan- uary 1858. He was remarkable for his longev- ity (107 years), and for the excellent though humble services which he rendered as a private soldier in the Revolutionary War, Bentley, John Francis, distinguished Eng- lish architect: b. Doncaster, England, 1839; d. Clapham, London, 2 March 1902. Upon the rebuilding of the great parish church in Don- caster, about 1856, Bentley was placed in the office of the clerk of the works, his architectural education practically beginning at this time. In 1862 he began practice as an architect on his ow-n account, and his patrons froni that date onward were mainly Roman Catholics. Among his lesser works are the Roman Catholic church and convent at Bocking, Essex; and the new Roman Catholic cathedral in Brooklyn, N. Y. ; but the building with which his name will be in- separably associated is the Roman Catholic cathe- dral at Westminster, a structure of vast propor- tions with a nave wider than that of any church in England. Bentley left nothing in the way of design to subordinates, but designed and directed everything from the foundation to the minutest decorative feature. Bentley's death took place just as the Royal Institute of British Architects had voted to award him the royal gold medal. BENTLEY — BENTON Bentley, Richard, English divine, classical scholar, and polemicist: b. near Wakefield, Yorkshire, 1662; d. Cambridge, 14 July 1742. His father is said to have been a blacksmith. To his mother, a woman of strong natural abili- ties, he was indebted for the rudiments of his education, and in 1776 he entered Saint John's College, Cambridge. In 1682 he left the uniyer- sit}^ and became usher of a school at Spalding; a year later he took the position of tutor to the son of Dr. Stillingfleet, dean of St. Paul's. He accompanied his pupil to Oxford, where he availed himself of the literary treasures of the Bodleian Library in the prosecution of his studies. In 1684 he took the degree of A.M. at Cambridge, and in 1689 obtained the same honor at the sister university. His first published work was a Latin epistle to Dr. John Mill on an edition of the *^ Chronicle of John Malela,^ which appeared in 1691. It displayed 'so much profound learning and critical acumen as to ex- cite the sanguine anticipations of classical scholars from the future labors of the author. Dr. Stillingfleet, having been raised to the bish- opric of Worcester, made Bentley his chaplain, and in 1692 collated him to a prebend in his cathedral. He was chosen the first preacher of the lecture instituted by the celebrated Robert Boyle for the defense of Christianity. The dis- courses against atheism which he delivered on this occasion were published in 1694; they have since been often reprinted, and translated into several foreign languages. In 1693 he was appointed keeper of the Royal Library at Saint James' — a circumstance which incidentally led to his famous controversy with the Hon. Charles Boyle, afterward Earl of Or- rery, relative to the genuineness of the * Greek Epistles of Phalaris.^ In this dispute Bentley was victorious, though opposed by the greatest wits and critics of the age, including Pope, Swift, Garth, Atterbury, Aldrich, Dodwell. and Conyers Middleton, who advocated the opinion of Boyle with an extraordinary degree of warmth and illiberality. In 1699 Bentley, who had three years before been created D.D., pub- lished his 'Dissertation on the Epistles of Pha- laris,^ in which he proved that they were not the compositions of the tyrant of Agrigentum, who lived more than five centuries before the Christian era, but were written by some sophist under the borrowed name of Phalaris, in the declining age of Greek literature. Soon after this publication Dr. Bentley was presented by the Crown to the mastership of Trinity College, Cambridge, worth nearly £1,000 a year. He now resigned the prebend of Wor- cester, and in 1701 was collated to the arch- deaconry of Ely. His conduct as head of the college gave rise to accusations of various of- fenses, including embezzlement of college money. The contest, lasting more than 20 years, was decided against him, a sentence, de- priving him of his mastership, being passed ; but Bentley's superior skill and mastery of legal forms constantly baffled all attempts to oust him. In 171 1 he published a quarto edition of Horace at Cambridge, which was reprinted at Amsterdam; and in 1713 appeared his remarks on < Collins' Discourse on Free-Thinking,^ un- der the form of a 'Letter to F. H. (Francis Hare), D.D., by Phileleutherus Lipsiensis.^ He was appointed regius professor of divinity in 1716, and in the same year issued proposals for a new edition of t'.ie Greek Testament, an under- taking for which he was admirably qualified, but which he was prevented from executing in conse- quence of the animadversions of his determined adversai-y, Middleton. In 1726 he published an edition of Terence and Phaedrus ; and his notes on the comedies of the former involved him in a dis- pute with Bishop Hare on the metres of Terence. The last work of Dr. Bentley was an edition of Milton's 'Paradise Lost,^ with conjectural emen- dations, which appeared in 1732, but this proved a failure. He died at the master's lodge at Trin- ity, and was interred in the college chapel. The German scholar, J. A. Wolf, wrote an excellent biography of Bentley ; and an English biography of him was written by Monk (London, 2 vols. 1833). See also Prof. Jebb's monograph in the 'English Men of Letters Series' (1882). Bentley, "William, American clergyman :b. Boston, 1758; d. 29 Dec. 1819. He graduated at Harvard College in 1777, and was ordained pastor of a church in Salem in 1783. He was distin- guished for his antiquarian learning, and col- lected a valuable and curious library and cabinet, which he bequeathed to the college at Meadville, Pa., and to the Antiquarian Society at Worcester. In theology he was regarded as a Unitarian, and he left several published sermons and discourses. Benton, Angelo Ames, American clergy- man : b. Canea, Crete, 1837. He graduated at Trinity College, Hartford, Conn., 1856, and at the General Theological Seminary, New York city. He was ordained in the Episcopal ministry in i860. Pie was professor of Latin and Greek in Delaware College, Newark, Del., 1883-7, and professor of dogmatic theology in the University of the South, 1887-94. His chief publication has been 'The Church Cyclopsedia : A Dictionary of Church Doctrine* (Phila. 1884). Benton, Dwight, an American artist, writer and botanist : b. Norwich, N. Y., 1834 ; d. Rome, 8 May 1903. After close of the Civil War, in which he fought on the Northern side, he estab- lished himself in Cincinnati as a landscape painter. From there he went to Rome where he lived 25 years almost uninterruptedly. In 1895 Hawaii, before its annexation, appointed him its Consul-General to Italy. His most famous can- vases are 'Tombs of Keats and Shelly,' 'Sun- set in the Roman Campagna,' and 'A Gloomy Day' (giornata de Tristezza), owned by the King of Italy. His work, 'Flora of the Roman Campagna and Palatine' is his most important contribution to literature. Benton, James Gilchrist, American soldier and inventor: b. Lebanon, N. H.. 15 Sept. 1820; d. Springfield, Mass., 23 Aug. 1881. He grad- uated at West Point in 1842, and served in the ordnance department throughout his life. He was in command of the Washington Arsenal and principal assistant to the chief of ordnance dur- ing the Civil War, at the close of which he was transferred to the Springfield (Mass.) Arsenal. For signal bravery in rescuing exposed ammuni- tion from fire, he was twice brevetted. The various models of the Springfield rifle, known as the models of 1866, 1868, 1873, and 1879, were made under his direction. He devoted himself especially to the improvement of firearms, and acquired distinction for his valuable inventions in this and other lines of his work. He refused to patent any of them, as he held that since the THOMAS HART UEXTuX. BENTON — BENTON HARBOR government had educated him it had every right to benefit from his time and talents. He published ^Course of Instruction in Ordnance and Gunnery for the United States Military Academy^ (1861; 4th ed. 1875). Benton, Thomas Hart, American states- man: b. Orange County, N. C, 14 March 1782; d. 10 April 1858. He was the greatest of that most valuable and scarcely appreciated class, the Border State leaders, whose sympathies were with the South, and who had no feeling against slavery, yet at the cost of their influence and much personal peril opposed the political aggres- sions of slavery and the doctrines of disunion. Early orphaned, the eldest of a large family, after part of a course in the University of Penn- sylvania he went with his mother to Tennessee as a pioneer, settling at the present Benton- town. A few years later he took up the study of law, and was admitted to the bar in 181 1 under the patronage of his friend Andrew Jackson, then a judge of the Supreme Court. Elected to the legislature, he pushed through a judiciary reform bill, and one to give slaves the right of jury trial. In the War of 1812 he was aide-de-camp to Jackson, raised a volunteer regi- ment, was made lieutenant-colonel in the regu- lar army, but saw no active service ; meanwhile, 4 Sept. 1813, a misunderstanding over a duel of his brother's led to an affray in which the brother was stabbed, Jackson shot, and Thomas H. thrown downstairs, and the former friends were at bitter feud for many years. In 1815 he removed to St. Louis, practised law, and estab- lished a newspaper, which involved him in duels (one of which cost his opponent's life, to Ben- ton's lasting regret); but which he used so vig- orously to advocate Missouri's admission to the Union as a slave State that she elected him one of her senators on her entrance in 1820, and re- elected him every term for 30 years. During this time he stood as one of the foremost public men of his generation — a speaker of great abil- ity and mastery of facts, a hard-headed logician and tremendous debater, of astonishing memory, unwearying industr3^ an iron will and physique, and a power of wit, sarcasm, and denunciation that made most men shrink from a contest with him. Being the spokesman of the Western Democrats, his policy and political feelings were coincident with Jackson's, their personal quarrel was at last arranged, and Benton became Jack- son's first lieutenant and admiring champion. In every regard he supported Western interests: he secured the passage of laws for pre-emption, donation, and graded prices of lands, for throw- ing open the government mineral and saline lands to occupancy, and for repeal of the salt tax ; advocated transcontinental exploration and post-roads, a Pacific railroad, occupation of the mouth of the Columbia, trade with New Mex- ico, military stations through the Southwest, amicable relations with Indian tribes, and every- thing conducive to opening up the West and making it prosperous. This made him invin- cible there till the slavery question drove him into opposition. He supported Jackson in his refusal to re-charter the United States Bank; and made a series of speeches urging the adop- tion of a metallic currency only, \yhich were widely circulated, gained him the nickname of «01d Bullion,* and had much to do with the creation of the sub-treasury scheme. When Jackson removed the secretary of the treasury, Duane, for refusing to check out the deposits in the bank, the Senate adopted a resolution censuring him for it ; Benton set about having the resolution expunged from the records, and after a protracted struggle succeeded, despite the logical absurdity of his motion, in accom- plishing his purpose by a .series of fervid pane- gyrics on Jackson. In the Nullification contest, Benton was Calhoun's chief opponent, not only as Jackson's supporter, but by conviction ; and the two men of might — the chiefs of the State- Rights and Nationalist wings of the Democ- racy — remained deadly foes until Calhoun's death. In the Oregon boundary dispute Benton opposed the "fifty- four forty or fight" war-cry; it was dropped, but the Polk administration was glad of an excuse to drop it in order to push the Mexican war, and had no notion of dimin- ishing the area of slavery to enlarge that of freedom. He favored the vigorous prosecution of the war, and came near being made com- mander-in-chief, from his close acquaintance with the territory. But from this time on, the slavery problem swallowed up every other. Benton fought Calhoun's State-Rights resolu- tions in retort to the Wihnot Proviso fq.v.), and they never came to a vote ; but Calhoun sent them to various State legislatures to adopt and utilize for instructing their senators, and they were pushed through the Missouri legislature without Benton's knowledge. He denounced them as misrepresenting the people, canvassed his State for re-election in a long-famous series of powerful and caustic speeches, and carried his party, but was defeated by a fusion of Whigs and anti-Benton Democrats, and his senatorial service ended with 1850. He opposed the Clay compromise resolutions of that year, however (see Compromise of 1850), with sarcasm still quoted. In 1852 he canvassed Missouri for elec- tion to the lower House, and was triumphantly returned. He supported Pierce for election, and in Congress till the Kansas-Nebraska bill came up. Against that he made one of his greatest speeches, and the administration thereupon ousted all his Missouri supporters, and he was defeated for re-election by the now dominant ultra-Southern sentiment in the Democratic party. The time of mediators and middle courses had gone by. He now set about writing his remarkable 'Thirty Years' View^ (1854-6), a most valuable account of his senatorial ex- periences and the secret political history of the years 1820-50. In 1856 he ran for governor, but a third ticket in the field defeated him. In the campaign of 1856 he supported Buchanan against his own son-in-law, Fremont, as repre- senting the party of union ; but materially changed his mind before his death. In these last two years, though in extreme old age, he carried through the immense and useful labor of compiling an abridgment of the debates in Con- gress, from the foundation of the government to 1850, published later in 15 volumes. He also published an * Examination of the Dred Scot Case^ (1857)- Benton Harbor, Mich., a city in Berrien County, situated on the St. Joseph's River, one and a half miles from Lake Michigan; on the Cleveland, C. & C, and Pere Marquette R.R.'s. It is also connected with the lake by a ship canal and thus by steamboat lines with Chicago and Milwaukee. It has a large trade in lumber, grain, and fruits, especially the latter, and has BENTONVILLE — BENZENE also considerable manufacturing interests, in- cluding manufactories of fruit packages, furni- ture, machinery, flour, vinegar, and canned fruit. Pop. (1900) 6,562. Bentonville, Ark., a town and county-seat of Benton County, situated northwest of Little Rock; on the Arkansas & O. R.R. It is the seat of Bentonville College, and a Baptist acad- •emy; is the centre of a fruit-growing region, has some trade in fruit, tobacco, and grain. It has a large fruit-evaporating plant. Pop (1900) 1.843. Bentonsville, N. C, a village in Johnston County, noted as the place of a stubborn battle during the Civil War. Here, during his march from Savannah through the Carolinas, Sherman, at the head of 65,000 National troops, encoun- tered 24,000 Confederates under Johnston. A battle took place 18 March 1865, Johnston hav- ing come up in great haste from Smithfield, in- tending to surprise Sherman. The latter, how- ever, was ready for him, and Johnston was thrown on the defensive near Mill Creek. Johnston was partially defeated and retreated to Smithfield. Bentzel-Sternau, bent'zel-star'now, Count Karl Christian Ernst von, German novelist: b. Mentz, 9 April 1767; d. Mariahalden, Switz- erland, 13 Aug. 1843. He is esteemed as a hu- morist after the manner of Jean Paul ; and his satirical romances, ^The Golden Calf^ (1802-3) ; (1819- 20) ; "^The Master of the Chair,' together form a series. Bentzon, Th., the pseudonym of Marie Theresa Blanc (q.v.). Benue, ben'we, or Binue, a river of west Africa, the chief tributary of the Niger. It rises in the Bub'n Jidda hills on the east of Adamawa, flows for a short distance northwest then west to Bassama, after which its course is generally southwest to its junction with the Niger at Lokoja. Its length is about 850 miles. The source of the Benue was long vuiknown. Dr. Barth, who came upon the river in 1851, while traveling in Adamawa, near the confluence of the Faro, which joins it on its left bank about lat. 12° 30' E., was told that it came from the southeast, a distance of nine days' journey. In consequence of this discovery an expedition was fitted out by the British government for the pur- pose of exploring the Niger from its mouth up- ward. The exploration was made in a small steamer called the Pleiad, and was under the command of Dr. William Balfour Baikie. After reaching the point of confluence of the Benue with the Niger, about lat. 7° 40' N., Dr. Baikie followed the former eastward for a direct dis- tance of about 370 miles. The point thus reached was about lat. 9° 25' N. ; Ion. 11° 30' E. There was sufficient depth of water, though' the river was only rising, to allow a still fur- ther exploration. The natives, however, had be- gun to display their hostility in such a manner as made it necessary to return. The result was to show that a large, fertile, and populous tract of a region of Africa previously in a great mea- sure unknown was accessible by means of a nav- igable river. A second expedition, also under Dr. Baikie, explored the same river in 1857. In 1879 a small steamer belonging to the Church Missionary Society went up the river 140 miles, and its source was discovered by Flegel in 1883. Benvolio, ben-v6'li-o, in Shakespeare's < Romeo and Juliet,' a friend of Romeo and nephevv of Montague. Benwood, W. Va., a town in Marshall County ; on the Baltimore & O. R.R. It is the centre of a large iron-mining region and has sev eral rolling mills and blast furnaces. Pop. (1900) 4,511. Benzal'dehyde, or Benzoic Al'dehyde, a colorless, volatile oil, familiarly known as "oil of bitter almonds.*' Benzaldehyde does not oc- cur in the bitter almond in nature, but is formed, when the kernels are crushed and allowed to stand in water, by the decomposition of a glu- coside known as "amygdalin." It has the chem- ical formula CsHs-CO.H, boils at 354° F., and has a specific gravity of about 1.05, and a re- fractive index of 1.56. Benzaldehyde is pre- pared, artificially, by boiling benzyl chlorid with nitrate of lead, copper, or sodium, and subse- quent treatment with sodium acid sulphite, with which the benzaldehyde forms a crystalline com- pound that may be easily separated from the mother liquor by filtration or otherwise. Ben'zene, an aromatic hydrocarbon dis- covered by Faraday in 1825, and called, by him, "bicarburet of hydrogen." It has the chemical formula CeHe, and is the fundamental substance from which the extensive series of "aromatic compounds" is obtained. In 1849, C. B. Mans- field proved its existence in coal tar, and that substance now constitutes its most important commercial source. In the manufacture of ben- zene, coal tar is distilled at a temperature not exceeding 300° F., and the distillate is treated with caustic soda to remove phenols, and sub- sequently with sulphuric acid to remove basic substances. It is tlien re-distilled, the tempera- ture (at least in the upper part of the still) being kept as low as 212° F., in order to prevent toluene from passing over. In order to effect a still further purification, the benzene so ob- tained may be cooled by a freezing mixture of ice and salt. The true benzene solidifies when thus treated, and the fluid impurities that it contains may be expelled by pressure, or by the aid of a centrifugal drier. Pure benzene is a colorless liquid, strongly refractive, boiling at about 176° F., and freezing at 43° F. It does not mix with water, but mixes readily with al- cohol, acetone, glacial acetic acid, chloroform, and ether. It crystallizes in the trimetric sys- tem when solidified by cold, and dissolves iodine, phosphorus, sulphur, oils, resins, fats, and alko- loids. It expands by about 0.00075 of its own bulk, per degree increase in its temperature, on the Fahrenheit scale. Its specific gravity is about 0.88, and its specific heat is 0.40. For the chemical constitution of benzene, see Aromatic Compounds. Benzene forms two general classes of com- pounds, known respectively as "addition" and "substitution" products. In forming an "addi- tion" compound, benzene merely takes up atoms or molecules of some other substance, without parting with any of its own atoms ; the new sub- stance being simply "added" to the benzene. Benzene hexabromid, CeHeBre, is a good ex- ample of a benzene addition compound. It is formed by dropping bromine into boiling ben- zene, in direct sunlight ; the hexabromid crystal- lizing out upon cooling. The "substitution" compounds of benzene are far more numerous BENZIDINE and important than the ''addition'^ compounds, however. They are formed by replacing one or more of the typical hydrogen atoms in the ben- zene by an equal number of other atoms or monad radicals. The general theory of ben- zene substitutions is given under Aromatic Compounds ; but a few of the more important examples of such substitution products may be given here. The radical GHd (which is not capable of independent existence) is called ^phenyl,* and is often represented by the symbol Ph. The mono-substitution compounds of ben- zene, in which one atom of the hydrogen in the original benzene has been replaced by a radical (or by an atom different from hydrogen), may then be regarded as addition compounds of the radical phenyl. Thus "monochlorbenzene,^' CcHs.Cl, may also be regarded as chlorid of phenyl, and its formula may be written PhCl. Benzene itself may even be regarded as hydrid of phenyl, its formula being written C0H5.H, or PhH. Carbolic acid (or "phenoP^) is hydrate of phenyl, its formula being PhOH, the radical OH being here substituted for one atom of the hydrogen in the original benzene. Nitrobenzene, PhNO;, is formed from benzene (PhH) by the action of nitric acid, in accordance with the equation PhH + HNO3 = PhN02 + U,0. It is used in the arts for the manufacture of aniline (q.v.). Aniline itself is an amide of phenyl, obtained by replacing an atom of H in ammonia (NH3) by phenyl, or by replacing an atom of hydrogen in benzene by the radical NH2. The formula of aniline may be written PhNHs, and aniline may be called ^'amido- benzene,^^ or ^'phenylamine.* (See Amine and Amide.) Methyl-benzene, C0H5.CH3, in which one of the original hydrogen atoms of the ben- zene is replaced by the radical CH3 (^'methyl") is also an important benzene substitution com- pound, and is known to chemists as toluene (q.v.). That portion of the original benzene which remains intact, after a substitution, is called the ^'benzene residue.'^ In a mono-substi- tution compound of benzene, further substitu- tions may be made, by replacing one or more of the hydrogen atoms in the "benzene residue*^ by monovalent radicals, and secondary, tertiary, and higher substitution compounds may be thus formed. The classification of the secondary sub- stitution compounds is given under Aromatic Compounds. For the classification of higher compounds, special treatises on organic chem- istry must be consulted. It may be mentioned, however, that if A, B, C and D are monad radi- cals, there are no less than 30 distinct sub- stances possible, which shall all have the same general formula CeHo.ABCD. This fact illus- trates the exceeding complexity of the general theory of benzene substitution compounds. The full theory is even more complex than this ex- ample indicates, however, for it often happens that the hydrogen in a substituted radical can be replaced by another radical, as well as the hydrogen of the "benzene residue." Thus in methylbenzene (or toluene), CflH.-^.CH3, the radi- cal OH may be substituted for one of the hydro- gen atoms. If the hydrogen so displaced occurs in the "benzene residue," the resulting com- pound will be "cresol,» C6H4(OH) .CH,, a sub- stance which (since it is a di-substitution com- pound) can exist in three isomeric forms. If, on the other hand, the OH takes the place of one of the hydrogen atoms of the "methyl" radi- cal, the resulting compound will be "benzyl al- cohol," C6H5.CH.(OH). When a primary amine of the fatty series is acted upon by nitrous acid (HNO2), the NH2 group of the amine is replaced by (DH, with the formation of an alcohol ; but when nitrous acid acts upon aromatic amines, the products are quite different, and are known as "diazc- compounds." Thus when nitrous acid acts upon aniline nitrate, a compound having the formula CsHo.No.NOs, and known as "diazobenzene nitrate," is formed. This is regarded by chem- ists as a compound of the hypothetical monov- alent radical C0H5-N = N-. When the free af- finity of this radical is saturated by the addition of phenyl (CeHs), the resulting compound, CsHs.Ns.CoHs, is known as "azobenzene," or as "benzene-azo-benzene." Azobenzene maj-- be prepared by heating nitrobenzene with a solution of SnCU in aqueous caustic soda. It is de- posited from a solution in benzene in the form of bright red trimetric plates, and owes its im- portance largely to the fact that aniline yellow, CoH5.N2.CbH4(NH2), is one of its derivatives. Benzene is an exceedingly inflammable sub- stance, burning with a luminous flame and the generation of a great amount of heat. It is volatile, and its vapor forms a dangerou.'^ly ex- plosive mixture with air, when present in any considerable quantity. Mansfield, mentioned above as having first demonstrated its existence in coal tar, lost his life, on 25 Feb. 1855, while experimenting with a considerable quantity of benzene, through the mass accidentally taking fire. Benzene may be formed synthetically by heating acetylene gas (C2H2) to dull redness in a glass tube. Polymerization occurs, and, among numerous other substances, benzene is formed in accordance with the equation sCi^i^^CeHn. In works on chemistry, benzene is often called "benzol." (Compare Benzine.) This product is so widely employed in the industry of the aniline dyes that chronic poison- ing is by no means uncommon. It is usually breathed as vapor in the vat rooms, and causes, after some exposure, dizziness in the head, ring- ing in the ears, nausea and vomiting, coughing, and sleepiness, which latter may deepen to uncon- sciousness, somewhat resembling the narcosis caused by breathing chloroform. In some in- stances there are blood changes, with cyanosis and death. Treatment by fresh air, oxygen, free diuresis, catharsis and diaphoresis, and if the blood changes are marked, infusion of physiolog- ical salt solution may be necessary. Ben'zidine, an important substance be- longing to the benzene (or aromatic) series, and used in the arts for the manufacture of Congo red, chrysamin, and other so-called "coal-tar colors." The coloring matters derived from benzidine have the unusual and valuable property of dyeing cotton without the use of a mordant to fix them upon the fibre. Benzidine has the formula H2N.C0H4.C0H4.NH2, and is prepared, commercially, by heating nitrobenzene (see Benzene) with caustic soda and zinc dust, and subsequent treatment with hot dilute hydro- chloric acid. Pure benzidine crystallizes in sil- very scales which melt at 252° F., and boil at a temperature probably above 700° F. It is easily soluble in alcohol and ether; it also dissolves readily in hot water, but is almost insoluble in cold water. BENZINE — BENZYL Ben'zine, the commercial name for a mix- ture of the lighter and more volatile hydrocar- bons that pass off in the earlier stages of the distillation of crude petroleum. It is essentially different from benzene (q.v.), the latter being a definite chemical substance, belonging in the group of Aromatic Compounds (q.v.) ; while "benzine* is a more or less indefinite mixture of hydrocarbons that chiefly belong to the paraffin series. Benzine differs but little from naphtha and gasolene, such slight differences as exist being due to variations in the proportions in which the constituent hydrocarbons are present. Benzine is a colorless, mobile liquid, very vola- tile and inflammable. It is valuable as a sol- vent for fats, oils, and resins, and is much used about the household as a cleansing agent. Its vapor, when mixed with air, is highly explosive, and serious accidents are common, as the re- sult of using it in the vicinity of lighted lamps or tobacco pipes, or near stoves in which fires are burning. In printing ofifices it is used for cleaning type, and for removing ink from press rolls. It is also used in large quantities for en- riching illuminating gas. Benzine is much lighter than water, and will not mix with it. It boils at from i6o° to 190° F. Poisoning by benzine is rare. The vapor has been used, combined with chloroform and ether, for purposes of narcosis, but it is questionable if it will ever be very popular. Instances of sudden death following the prolonged breathing of benzine vapor have been reported. Benzo'ic Acid, an organic acid, belonging in the aromatic series, and having the formula CeHs.COOH. It occurs in benzoin gum, and in certain other resins and balsams. It may be obtained also from the hippuric acid that occurs in the urine of the horse and other herbivorous animals, by boiling that acid with concentrated hydrochloric acid. Benzoic acid is used as a mordant in calico printing, and in the manu- facture of aniline blue. It is also used in medi- cine, and as a preservative agent for anatomical specimens. The benzoic acid that is used for medical purposes is obtained by the direct dis- tillation of benzoin gum over a sand bath, at a temperature of about 340° F. When so pre- pared, the acid has a pleasant, vanilla-like odor, which is imparted to it by a trace of an aromatic oil that comes over with it from the gum. For most of the purposes for which it is used in the arts, benzoic acid is formed by oxidizing benzyl chlorid with dilute nitric acid. Benzoic acid dissolves in hot water, but crys- tallizes out,_ upon cooling, in needles or pearly prisms. It is soluble in ether, alcohol, and ben- zene. It melts at 250° R, boils at 480° F., and may be sublimed at intermediate temperatures. Its salts are called '^benzoates.'' In medicine benzoic acid and its salts, the benzoates (sodium, ammonium, lithi-um), are widely employed for diseases of the bladder and of the mucous membranes of the lungs. They are also used as intestinal germicides. Benzoic acid has marked bactericidal properties, and may be used for sterilizing purposes. Taken into the intestines it prevents excessive bacterial decom- position ;' absorbed into the blood it is partly broken up, and in the kidneys is eliminated in part as hippuric acid, rendering the urine acid. It is therefore useful in alkaline fermentations of the urine, particularly in cystitis, pyelitis, etc. Benzoic acid is partly eliminated by the lungs, here acting to increase the amount of mucus, it is therefore used to loosen the mucus in tight coughs. As a parasiticide, benzoic acid is very valuable in scabies. Benzoates are prac- tically useless in gout. Benzo'ic Al'dehyde, See Benzaldehyde. Ben'zoin, -zo-in, an aromatic compound, soluble in hot alcohol, and crystallizing in color- less, six-sided prisms having the formula C0H5 . CH ( OH ) . CO . CeHs. Benzoin is best pre- pared by acting upon pure benzaldehyde with a hot alcoholic solution of cyanide of potassium. Upon cooling, the benzoin separates and may be removed by filtration. The action of the cyanide is not known, because the chemical change in- volved in the foregoing process of manufacture appears to consist merely in the uniting of two molecules of benzaldehyde to form a single molecule of benzoin. Ben'zoin Gum, -zo-in, or Gum Benjamin, a reddish brown resin that exudes from the tree Styrax benzoin, which grows in Sumatra, Java, and other parts of the East. It is a mix- ture of various resinous substances, together with free benzoic acid. Cinnamic acid is also present in the free state in many cases, but it is absent from the Siamese gum. Benzoin gum has a pleasant odor when burned, and for this reason has been much used for incense, and in making pastilles. It has antiseptic properties, and preparations of it are used as a dressing for wounds, and in the manu- facture of court-plaster. Benzoin is also ad- ministered internally, especially in asthma and other pulmonary aft'ections, and chronic catarrh. It is readily soluble in alcohol, and when the tincture so formed is dropped into water, it forms a white, milky fluid, which is used in France as a cosmetic, under the name ^^lait vir- ginal?^ The gum is obtained from the styrax- tree by making incisions in the bark, through which the resin oozes. It is allowed to harden by exposure to the air before removal. The best gum is obtained during the first three years of the tree's life, though a good quality may be had for seven or eight years subsequently. The Siamese gum is esteemed more highly than that from Sumatra. Benzol. See Benzene. Benzoni, Girolamo, ben-zo'ne, je-ro-la'm5, Italian traveler: b. Milan, 1519; d. after 1566. He went to Spanish-America in 1542, visited the principal places then known, and frequently joined the Spaniards in raids on Indian settle- ments; and after returning to Italy (1556) pub- lished a narrative of his adventures, * History of the New World^ (Venice 1565). Ben'zoyl, -zo-il, in chemistry, the monova- lent radical C0H5.CO. Benzoyl cannot exist in the free state, but it occurs in the combined state in many organic substances. Benzalde- hyde (or oil of bitter almonds), CsHs-COH, may be regarded as its hydrid, and benzoic acid, CeHs.COOH, as its hydrate. Ben'zyl, the monovalent organic radical CcHj.CHi, which does not exist in the free state, but which has numerous important com- pounds. Toluene (q.v.) is its hydrid. Ben- zylamine, CeH5.CH2NH2, is derived by substi- tuting benzyl for one of the hydrogen atoms in ammonia, by heating benzyl chlorid with alcoholic ammonia. Benzyl chlorid, which is BEOTHUK — BERANGER used as a source of ^^oil of bitter almonds^^ (**benzaldehyde'0 and of benzoic acid, has the formula CeHo.CHsCl, and is obtained by pass- ing chlorine into cold toluene, in direct sun- light. Benzyl alcohol, CeHs-CH^C OH), is the hydrate of benzyl, and is obtained by the action of an alcoholic solution of potash upon benzal- dehyde. Beothuk, ba'6-thuk, a linguistic stock of North American Indians, habitants of the region of the Exploits River in northern Newfound- land, and believed to have been limited to a single tribe, the last known survivor of which died in 1829. The Beothuks painted their bod- ies and their property with red ochre, and from this circumstance their stock and tribal name was derived. They were also known as the Goodnight Indians, from the incorrect transla- tion of a Micmac word that sounded like Beo- thuk. It is not known whether the Beothuks became extinct by reason of wars and famine or by absorption among other tribes. Beowulf, ba'6-wulf, an Anglo-Saxon epic, the only manuscript of which belongs to the 8th or 9th century, and is in the Cottonian Library (British Museum). From internal evidence it is concluded that the poem in its essentials existed prior to the Anglo-Saxon colonization of Britain, and that it must be regarded either as brought to Britain by the Teutonic invaders, or as an early Anglo-Saxon translation of a Danish legend. From the allu- sions in it to Christianity, however, it must have received considerable modifications from its original form. It recounts the adventures of the hero Beowulf, especially his deliver}'- of the Danish kingdom from the monster Grendel and his equally formidable mother, and, lastly, the slaughter by Beowulf of a fiery dragon, and his death from wounds received in the conflict. The character of the hero is attractive through its noble simplicity and disregard of self. The poem, which is the longest and most important in Anglo-Saxon literature, is in many points obscure, and the manuscript is somewhat imper- fect. _ Bibliography. — Morley, ^English Writers,* Vol. I. (1887) ; Ten Brink, < Early English Lit- erature^ (1883) ; translation by Garnett C1885) ; English prose translation by Tinker (1892). Beppo, a satirical poem on Venetian life by Byron, published in 1818, and named for the chief figure. In Auber's opera, (1879). H. W. Wright, Cornell University. Berkeley, George Charles Grantley Fitz- hardinge, English writer: b. 10 Feb. 1800; d. Poole, Dorsetshire, 23 Feb. 1881. In 1832-52 he was a member of the British Parliament, and for a time he was in the army. His ^My Life and Recollections^ (1864-6), an extensive work, attracted some attention. Among his further works are: < Berkeley Castle^ (1836); (1870). Berkeley, Sir George, English engineer: b. London 26 April 1821 ; d. there 20 Dec. 1893- In 1835 he began experimenting with methods for operating atmospheric railways. In 1841 he associated himself with Robert Stephenson and continued his experiments. On Stephen- son's death he became engineer of the Great Indian Peninsular Railway. In 1892 he was made president of the Institute of Civil Engi- neers. He wrote papers on atmospheric rail- ways and on the strength of iron and steel; and was knighted in 1893. Berkeley, Sir John, English nobleman, one of the proprietors of New Jersey : b. 1607 ; d. 28 Aug. 1678. He was a prominent Royalist •during the contest of Charles I. with Parlia- ment. Charles II. granted him, with Sir George Cartaret, a proprietary interest in New Jersey and Carolina. Berkeley, Miles Joseph, English botanist: b. Biggin, Derbyshire, 1803 ; d. Sibbertoft, Lei- cestershire, July 1889. Educated at Christ Church, Oxford, he took orders, was curate at Margate (Kent) and Market Harborough (Leicestershire), and subsequently was made vicar of Sibbertoft. He soon became the lead- ing British authority on fungi and plant path- ology, and especially well known for his achieve- ments in mycology. About 6,000 species of fungi are credited to him; his most important work was the section on fungi contributed to Hooker's ^British Flora^ (1836), and his * Out- lines of British Fungology^ (i860), and he assembled a fine herbarium of more than 9,000 species, now at the Kew Gardens, and regarded as one of the most noteworthy in the world. A bibliography may be found in the "^Catalogue of Scientific Papers* of the Royal Society. Con- sult, also. Vol. XLVII. (1890) of the < Proceed- ings of the Royal Society* for a sketch by Hooker. Berkeley, Stanley, English artist. He has constantly exhibited at the Royal Academy in recent years, and is a national gold medallist and a member of the Royal Institute of Painter Etchers. Among his paintings are < The Vic- tory of Candahar* ; ^For God and the King*; 'Prince Rupert at the Battle of Edgehill* ; ^Completely Routed* ; ^An Australian Bush Fire*; 'Heroes of the Tugela* ; 'The Meet*; 'Atbara* ; 'Omdurman*; 'The Charge of Scar- lett's Three Hundred* ; Gordons and Greys to the Front* ; 'Full Cry* ; 'Desperate Odds* ; 'Dargai* ; 'Cornered at Last* ; 'The Death* ; 'The Charge of the French Cuirassiers at Waterloo.* He has also done much in the way of illustrating books and newspapers. Berkeley, Sir William, American colonial governor : b. near London about 1610 ; d. 13 July 1677. His father and brother were colo- nial proprietors. Graduating from Oxford 1629, he traveled on the Continent for a year; was appointed a commissioner of Canada 1632, and won a high reputation there. In 1641 he was made governor of Virginia, and arriving in 1642, was for a time very popular. He experimented in the cultivation of rice, cotton, indigo, hemp, flax, and silk, the manufacture of potash and naval stores, and the cutting and export of masts ; pleased the Royalist party by expell- ing the New England Puritans in 1643. and all parties by capturing the Indian chief Opechan- canough in 1644, after a series of Indian mas- sacres. Always with an eye to profit, however, he received from the king a monopoly of the fur trade. During the English revolution he adhered to the royal side, and offered an asylum in Virginia to exiled or dissatisfied Royalists ; many hundreds availed themselves of this. When Cromwell felt strong enough he sent a fleet (in 1651) to bring him back for punish- GEORGE BERKELEY, BERKELEY — BERKHAMPSTEAD I ment ; but Berkeley succeeded in making terms with it by mingled "bluff'' and finesse, and was allowed to retire in safety to his plantation, though deprived of his office. When the Resto- ration began to seem probable, the colonists elect- •cd Berkeley as governor to gain favor in such event ; Berkeley accepted it provisionally, and Charles II. on accession confirmed it. But in this second term all Berkeley's evil side showed itself, till it ended in the atrocities of 1676. Besides expelling and confiscating the goods of Puritans and Quakers, a measure popular at the time, he frowned on the establishment of schools, and absolutely refused to have a print- ing-press set up, as making people too censorious ■of their superiors. He formed a council of the wealthier planters, and having obtained during the spasm of Restoration loyalty in 1662 an ultra-royalist House of Burgesses, would not issue writs for another election for 14 years, simply adjourning annually the "Long Assem- "bly,*' as it came to be called ; and in 1670 abol- ished universal suffrage, substituting a property qualification, purely as a precaution for the future, as no elections were held for years before and after. These, however, were only means to the end of profiting himself and his friends, ■and the rapacious crew of civil officers sent over by Charles to quiet their importunities. The heavy taxes and fees imposed on the colony, ■drove them to desperation, so that as early as 1667 they were ripe for revolt. Besides Berke- ley's share in various extortions, he had one monopoly which led directly to the catastrophe, that of the Indian trade, which he gained by underhand means. The colony allowed no trade with the Indians without license ; Berkeley there- fore licensed a small number of men to trade in furs with them, which secretly included liq- uor, firearms, and other things, and exacted a third of the profits. It was believed to be this Lgain which led him to refuse permission to the [colonists to protect themselves against the In- Wians in 1675-6, while hundreds of them were |teing massacred and tortured and scores of plantations laid waste, and to dissolve force lafter force assembled to protect them. How JNathaniel Bacon chastised the Indians in spite •of him, was proscribed for it, forced into open iTebellion, drove Berkeley into retreat and burned jliis capital, and died at the moment of his jTictory, is told under 'Bacon's Rebellion.^ JBerkeiey's soul was as full of senile fury as it ["had been of senile avarice ; he slaughtered right [and left, hanging a score of victims with such ["vindictive haste and ruffianly insult that the lAssembl}' remonstrated, and the royal commis- isioners, who came in January to investigate the reondition of the colony, made a report that led [the king to remove him, with the comment, [*The old fool has put to death more people in [that naked country than I for the m.urder of [iny father." He sailed 27 April, his departure [celebrated with bonfires and salutes of cannon ; [and expected to justify himself to the king and iTeturn. But Charles kept postponing an inter- Iview, and in a few weeks Berkeley died — of [chagrinj it was believed. Berkeley, Gal., a town in Alameda County, [on the Southern P. R.R. ; 8 miles northeast of I San Francisco. It is the seat of the State Uni- [versity of California (q.v.) ; the State Agricul- Itural College; the State Institution for the Deaf, Dumb, and Blind ; and six college preparatory schools. The town is w'ell equipped with elec- tric light and street railroads ; and has soap works, iron foundries and machine shops, furniture factory, and other industries. Pop. (1900) 13,214. Berkeley, England, a market town, 16 miles southwest of Gloucester, pleasantly situ- ated on the right bank of the Avon, in the rich vale of Berkeley, and celebrated for its castle, where Edward II. was confined and barba- rously murdered. Pop. (igoi) 6,277. Berkeley Divinity School, an Episcopal theological school at Middletown, Conn. It was organized by Bishop John Williams of Con- necticut while he was president of Trinity Col- lege, at Hartford, and was at first intended to be the theological department of the college. It was later placed upon an independent basis and removed to its present location. The value of its buildings is about $90,000, and its endow- ment fund is not far from $350,000. Berkeley Sound, next to Stanley Sound the most frequented inlet of the East Falkland Island, near its northeast extremity. Though it is difficult to enter, it contains some of the best harbors in the South Atlantic. Berkeley Springs, W. Va., a town and county-seat of IMorgan County ; 2 miles south of the Potomac and 'j'j miles northwest of Washington ; on a branch of the Baltimore & O. R.R. It is in an agricultural region, and has been widely known and popular for more than a century because of its mineral springs. The site of the town was a part of the vast estate of Lord Fairfax, and Washington owned considerable property here. It is the oldest pleasure resort in the South, and as far back as the colonial days the gentry of Virginia came here in warm weather and lived in log huts in order to enjoy or be benefited by the baths and swimming pools. Pop. (1900) 781. Berk'enhout, John, Dutch-English physi- cian and general writer: b. Leeds, about 1730; d. 1791. Having entered the Prussian service, he rose to the rank of captain. In 1756 he quitted that service and entered into that of England, where he obtained the same rank. At the peace in 1760 he went to Edinburgh and began the study of physic ; while there he pub- lished his 'Clavis Anglica Linguae Botanicas,' a book of great merit, and later his 'Pharma- copoeia Medici,' which passed through three editions. In 1778 he attended the British com- missioners to America, and at Philadelphia he was committed to prison, but he soon after- ward was set at liberty, and returned with the commissioners to England, where he obtained a pension. He was an industrious writer, and his publications possess considerable merit. Berkhampstead, berk'ham-sted, or Berk- hamsted, Great, a town in Hertfordshire, England, beautifully situated in a hollow, sur- rounded by hills, on the London & N. W. R.R. It consists almost wholly of one main street, and has a fine old church, restored 1871-87 ; several chapels ; Berkhamsted School, with a fine chapel (1895); a high school for girls; many other schools ; etc. There are works for wooden ware, a large chemical work, a boat- building yard, brush, coach, and mantle fac- tories, an iron foundry, etc. The poet Cowper BERKHEY — BERLIN was born here in 1731. In the small parish of Little Berkhampstead, some miles to the north, the famous Bishop Ken was born. Pop. (1891) 5,034- Berkhey, berk'hl, Johannes Lefranca van, Dutch writer of eminence : b. Leyden, 23 Jan. 1729; d. there, 13 March 1812. His work, en- titled *Naturlyke Historie van Holland,* first brought him into notice. He also distinguished himself as a poet, though he often manifests a tendency to bombast, and indulges in false pathos. One of his best poems is entitled 030. Bern, University of, a state educational institution having its origin in a minor school which in the early part of the i6th century was much enlarged by the demand for accommoda- tions for theological students. About 200 years later it expanded by the institution of depart- ments of law, science, and medicine, and about 1830 was formally reorganized as a State uni- versity. It has a library of about 40,000 volumes and manuscripts, and educates about 1,300 students. Ber'nacle Goose, a large goose of north- ern Europe and Greenland, allied to the brant, and named Beniicla cucopsis, a name identified with strange old fables. It differs from the brant mainly in its white cheeks, as the lavender- gray of the mantle. This goose is a common winter visitor to western Europe, retiring in summer to Arctic regions to breed, but the region and the character of its nesting remain undiscovered. Up to comparatively recent times it was the belief of the European peasants that this goose was born from the stalked barnacles which adhere to driftwood, and sometimes to the branches of trees that reach down into the sea at high tide. Circumstantial accounts were given of the birth of the young, whose tiny wings (the waving filaments of the feeding cirripeds) could be seen sticking out of the shells from which they were supposed to escape. So firmly was this fixed in the minds of the people that it is given and illustrated with much detail as truth in many books of the time; and the Roman Church permitted these geese to be eaten on holy days because they were sea-born, and therefore "fish" ! What is less generally known is that the cirripeds were named after the bird, as their supposed parent; and not the bird after the crustacean. Bernicle, like *brant,* refers to the "burnt" black color of the birds, as explained in the * English Dic- tionary^ and by other authorities. The name has been adopted as generic for a large group of the geese usually distinguished by sports- men as "brants" (q.v.). Bernadotte, Jean Baptiste Jules, bar-na- dot', zhoh bap-test zhool, king of Sweden: b. Pau, 26 Jan. 1764; d. 8 March 1844. He was the son of an advocate of Pau, and enlisted in a French regiment of marines at the age of 17. He was made a subaltern in 1790, and thereafter his promotion was rapid. In 1794 he was ap- pointed general of division, and distinguished himself greatly in the campaign in Germany and on the Rhine. After the battle of Neuwied he was introduced for the first time to Bonaparte, who conceived the highest opinion of his abili- ties, though a constant suspicion of Napoleon seems always to have been present in the mind of Bernadotte. In 1798 he married Mademoi- selle Clary, sister-in-law of Joseph Bonaparte. The following year he became minister of war, but was shortly obliged to resign. On the establishment of the empire Bernadotte was created Marshal of France and Prince of Ponte- Corvo. At the head of an army of observation stationed in the north of Germany, he fixed his headquarters at Hamburg. At this time Gus- tavus IV. had been driven from the throne of Sweden. The Duke of Sudermania assumed the crown under the name of Charles XIII. ; and as he was far advanced in years the diet had nominated, as his successor, the Prince of Holstein-Augustenburg, when the latter died in a mysterious manner. The heir-apparency to the Swedish crown was then offered to the Prince of Ponte-Corvo. This ofifer was accepted by Ber- nadotte with the consent of the emperor; and in October 1810 he arrived in Sweden, where, having previously abjured the Roman Catholic religion, he was proclaimed heir-apparent to the throne under the title of Prince (Charles John. He had not long been established in this dignity before serious disagreements look place between him and Bonaparte, whose blockade of the Con- tinental ports was very detrimental to the com- mercial interests of Sweden. The result was a complete rupture, and the accession of Sweden in 1812 to the coalition of sovereigns formed against Napoleon. At the battle of Leipsic Prince Charles John contributed eflfectually to the victory of the allies. On the general re- establishment of the European dynasties at the termination of the war, strenuous but unsuccess- ful attempts were made by the emperor of Aus- tria and other sovereigns to restore the family of Gustavus IV. to the crown ; and Bernadotte, retaining his position as crown-prince, became king of Sweden on the death of Charles XIII. in 1818, under the title of Charles XIV. During his reign agriculture and commerce made great advances, and many important public works were completed ; among others, the Gotha Canal. BERNADOU — BERNARD He was succeeded by his son Oscar, father of the present sovereign, Oscar II. Ber'nadou, John Baptiste, American naval officer : b. Pennsylvania, 1858. Educated at the Naval Academy in Annapolis, he entered the navy and in the Spanish-American war com- manded the torpedo boat Winslow and was wounded in a naval engagement off Cardenas in May 1898. He has written ^The Develop- ment of the Resources of the United States for the Production of War Material^ ; ^The De- velopment of Smokeless Powder^ ; ^A Trip Through Northern Korea in 1883-4.' Bernard, ber'nard, ber-nard', or (Fr.) bar-nar, Saint(OF Claikvaux), French ecclesias- tic: b. Fontaine, Burgundy, 1091 ; d. 1153. In 1 1 13 he became a monk at Citeaux; in 11 15 first abbot of Clairvaux, near Langres. An austere manner of living, solitary studies, an inspiring eloquence, boldness of language, and the repu- tation of a prophet, rendered him an oracle to all Christian Europe. He promoted the crusade of 1 146, and quieted the fermentation caused at that time by a party of monks against the Jews in Germany. He declined all promotion, and in the rank of abbot of his "beloved Jerusalem*' (as he used to call Clairvaux) he continued with all humility, but with great boldness, his cen- sures of the clergy and his counsels to the Popes. Innocent II. owed to him the posses- sion of the right of investiture in Germany, and Eugenius III. his education. He was, at the same time, the umpire of princes and bishops, and his voice in the synods was regarded as divine. By his rigid orthodoxy and his remark- able eloquence, which were always directed to the promotion of practical Christianity, he did much to confirm the power and influence of the Church in the ISIiddle Ages. He was a strong opponent of Abelard and Gilbert of Poree in their philosophical teachings. He was canonized by Alexander III. in 1174. The best edition of his works is that of Mabillon ( Paris 1690, 2 vols. ; reprinted, Paris 1839-40). Bernard, Saint, of Mentone: b. Mentone, Savoy, 923 ; d. Novara, May 1007. Very little is known of his life except that he was at one time archdeacon of the city of Aosta, and that he later entered upon a monastic life and founded the hospices on the Great and Little Mount Saint Bernard, about 962 a.d. Bernard, ba-nar', Charles de, properly Bernard du Grail de la Villette, French novel- ist : b. Besangon, 25 Feb. 1804 ; d. Neuilly, 6 March 1850. He was a disciple of Balzac, whom he resembles in his power of realistic description and psychological analysis ; but he possesses a purer and more nervous style, and above all is content with a less minute elabora- tion of story and characters. His first piece, ^The Gerfalcon,' made a hit with its clever description of the literary cliques. Everywhere he evinces clear insight into the foibles of so- ciety. Of his novels, the following may be named as only second in rank to his master- piece, ^The Gerfalcon' ; ^A Magistrate's Ad- venture' ; ^The Gordian Knot' ; ^Wings of Icarus' ; *The Lion's Skin' ; During the Years 1814-31* (1863-77); 'Fred- ' erick the Great as a Militarj' Commander' (1881); and similar works, all of value. Bernhardt, Rosine, barn-hart, ro-zen, bet- ter known as Sarah, French actress : b. Paris, 22 Oct. 1844. Of Jewish descent, her father French, her mother Dutch, her early life was spent largely in Amsterdam. In 1858 she en- tered the Paris Conservatoire and gained prizes for tragedy and comedy in 1861 and 1862; but her debut at the Theatre Frangais in 'Iphigenie' and Scribe's 'Valerie* was not a success. After a brief retirement she reappeared at the Gj'mnase and the Porte Saint-Martin in burlesque, and in 1867 at the Odeon in higher drama. Her suc- cess in Hugo's 'Ruy Bias* in 1872 led to her being recalled to the Theatre Frangais, since which she has abundantly proved her dramatic genius. In 1879 she visited London, and again m 1880, about which time she severed connec- tion with the Comedie Frangais under heavy penalty. In 1880, 1887. 1891, 1896, and 1900 she made successful appearances in the United States, and between and after these dates vis- ited Switzerland, Holland, South America, Italy, Algeria, Australia, etc. In 1899 she appeared in a new rendering of ^Hamlet* in Paris, and scored a most flattering triumph. Among her most successful impersonations are ^Theodora,* 'Fedora,* 'La Tosca,* and 'Cleopatre* in the plays bearing those titles. In 1882 she married M. Damala, a Greek, whom she divorced not long afterward. She is also known as a sculp- tor, painter, and playwright. Bernhardy, Gottfried, bern'har-de, got'fred, German classical philologist : b. Landsberg-on- the-\\'arthe. 20 March 1800 ; d. Halle, 14 May 1875. He lectured very brilliantly at the lead- ing universities, his principal works being 'Greek Syntax Scientifically Considered* (1829), a historical study of the subject; 'Out- lines of Roman Literature* (5th ed. 1872) ; 'Outlines of Greek Literature* (Part I. 5th ed. 1892: Part II. 2d-3d ed. 1876-80; Part III. wanting), and a supplement to the first-named treatise, entitled 'Paralipomena [Omission] in [the Work on] Greek Syntax* (1854-62) ; al- though he has written many other important books. Berni, Berna, or Bernia, Francesco, ber'ne, ber'na, or ber'ne-a, fran-ches'ko, Italian poet : b. Lamporecchio, Tuscany, toward the close of the 15th century; d. 26 July 1536. His family was noble, but poor, and young Berni went to Florence, and at the age of 19 to Rome, where he lived under the care of his relation, Cardinal Bibiena. At length he entered the service of Ghiberti. bishop of Verona, datary of the papal chancery, as secretary. In the hope of promotion he took orders ; but sought recrea- tion in amusements which displeased the prelate. A society had been established at Rome, consist- ing of young ecclesiastics of a jovial temper like Berni, and of a poetical vein, who, in order to denote their love for wine and their careless gaietj^, called themselves i vignajuoli (vine- dressers). They laughed at everything, and made sport in verse of the most serious, nay, the most tragic matters. Berni's verses were the most successful, and were written in so peculiar a style that his name has been given to it (maniera Bcrnesca or Berniesca). When Rome was sacked by the troops of the Constable Bour- bon, 1527, Berni lost all that he possessed. He afterward made several journeys, with his pa- tron Ghiberti, to Verona, Venice, and Padua. At length, wearied with serving, and satisfied with a canonship in the cathedral at Florence, he retired to that place. The favor of the great, however, which he was weak enough to court, brought him into difficulties. He was required to commit a crime, and his refusal cost him his life. Alessandro de' Medici, at that time Duke of Florence, lived in open enmity with the young Cardinal Ippolito de' Medici. Berni was so intimate with both that it is doubtful which first made him the proposal to poison the other. Certain it is that the cardinal died by poison in 1535, and it is probable that Alessan- dro caused Berni's death. In the burlesque style of poetry, Berni is still considered the best model. His satire is often very bitter, and frequently unites the good humor of Horace with the causticity of Juvenal. The extreme licentiousness of his writings is his greatest fault. Berni also wrote Latin verses very correctly, and was well acquainted with Greek. His ^Burlesque Verses* have great merit; so also has his rifacimento of Bojardo's 'Orlando Innamorato.* Bernicia, ber-nish'ya, a Latinized form of the English word Brynelch, used to indicate the north part of what became the kingdom of Northumbria, the part north of the river Tees. The Anglian kingdom of Bernicia is said to have been founded by Ida, who made his capital at Bamborough about 550 a.d. Bernier, ber-nj^a, Camille, French painter: b. 1823. He did not exhibit until 1863, but in a few years became one of the leading landscape artists of France, a position he has held for 40 years. His best-known works are: ^The Aban- doned Lane* ; ^Evening* ; "^A Farm in Brit- tany* ; and 'Landes, Near Bannalec* Bemier, Frangois, French physician and traveler : b. Angers, about 1625 ; d. Paris, 1688. He set out on his travels in 1654, and after visiting Egypt and Palestine, went into India, where his skill in medicine brought him into notice; and he remained for 12 years, residing chiefl}^ at Delhi, as physician to the Great Mogul Emperor Aurungzebe. On one occa- sion he accompanied the prime minister on his march, at the head of an immense army, to the conquest of Cashmere, and in his travels, record- ing all that he saw, has given accounts full of interest, and recognized by subsequent travelers as remarkable for their fidelity. After his return to France he not only compiled his '^Travels' and several volumes of history relating to the empire of the Great Mogul, but turned his at- tention to philosophical subjects, and published BERNINA — BERNOUILLI an abridgment of the philosophy of Gassendi. He also wrote a treatise, entitled (1878-93)- Bersier, bar-sya, Eugene Arthur Frangois, a French Protestant pulpit orator of note : b. Morges. near Geneva, 1831 ; d. Paris, 19 Nov. 1889. He became in 1855 a preacher in Paris where he was much admired and his sermons were translated into several languages. Among his writings are *Coligny avant les guerres de religion' (1884) ; *Histoire d'une petite fille heuveuse' (1890) ; in English, 'Sermon^* (1881-1901). See Tinling, 'An Analysis of the Published Sermons of Pastor Eugene Bersier* (1901). BERT — BERTHOLLET Bert, bar, Paul, French statesman and physiologist : b. Auxerre, 17 Oct. 1833 ; d. Ketcho. Tonquin, 11 Nov. 1886. He studied both law and medicine, became assistant to Claude Bernard at the College of France, and succes- sively occupied the chairs of physiology at Bor- deaux and Paris. Entering political life in 1870, on the proclamation of the republic, he was four lime re-elected to the chamber. He brought forward laws removing primary instruction from the control of the religious orders, and making it compulsory. During the premiership of Gam- betta he held the post of minister of public in- struction and worship. While engaged in public life, M. Bert still pursued with ardor his scien- tific investigations, attracting world-wide atten- tion by his experiments in vivisection. The anti- religious views of M. Bert excited much controversy. He was also the author of several works on anatomy and physiology, and of nu- merous educational and political writings. He rendered a service to natural science by the clear and simple style of his text-books. Berthelot, bar-tlo, Pierre Eugene Marcel- lin, French chemist : b. Paris, 25 Oct. 1827 ; d. there 18 March 1907. He early studied chem- istry, and in 1859 was appointed professor of organic chemistry in the Superior School of Pharmacy. In 1865 a new chair of orgaaic chemistry was organized for him in the Col- lege of France. In 1870 he was elected presi- dent of the scientific committee of defense, and during the siege of Paris was entrusted with the manufacture of ammunition and guns, and especially dynamite and nitro-glycerine. In 1878 he became president of the committee on explosives, which introduced smokeless powder. His labors also led to the discovery of dyes ex- tracted from coa! tar. He received the decolla- tion of the Legion of Honor in 1861 ; was made commander in 1879, and grand officer in 1886. In 1889 he was elected permanent secretary of the Academy of Sciences. He has contributed to the knowledge of synthetical processes and to the relations between the phenomena of heat and of chemistry. His works include: 'Chimie or- ganique fondee sur la synthese^ (i860) ; (1883); (1884). Bertrand, Joseph Louis Frangois, bar-tran, j6-sef loo-e fron-swa, French mathemati- cian: b. Paris, 1822; d. 1900. He taught at the Polytechnic and Normal schools, and the College de France, and in 1884 became a member of the French Academy. He wrote treatises on arith- metic, algebra, calculus, thermodynamics, and probabilities, and in 1881 was appointed com- mander of the Legion of Honor. BeruUe, ba-rul, Pierre de, French cardinal: b. near Troyes, 4 Feb. 1575; d. Paris, 2 Oct. 1629. He early showed remarkable mental acuteness and knowledge, and became distin- guished for skill in controversy. He instituted, and was the first superior of, the order of Carmelites in France, and also founded the con- gregation of the Oratory notwithstanding the op- position of the Jesuits. He was a statesman as well as priest, and took a leading part in poli- tics. He was often opposed to Richelieu, whose jealousy he excited, and who could not conceal his satisfaction at the news of his death. He accompanied the Princess Henrietta to England, on her marriage with the Prince of Wales. He shunned elevated positions, and was very un- willingly obliged to accept the hat of a cardinal. This elevation made no difference, however, in his humble way of life, and did not prevent him from sometimes taking part, as he had always done, in the servile work of the reli- gious community to which he belonged. He was also a man of letters, and was the first to appreciate and encourage the genius of Des- cartes urging him, by his sense of obligation to his Creator, to make known to the world his discoveries. The most noted of his writings is *Les Grandeurs de Jesus.* Bervic, bar-vek, Charles Clement, French engraver: b. Paris, 1756; d. 1822. The works of Bervic are among the best of the French school, but are not numerous. The most celebrated of them is the full-length figure of Louis XVL, after a picture of Callot. The copies are very rare and dear, because the plate was broken to pieces in the revolutionary tumvilts of 1793. The exactness of his drawing, the firmness and brilliancy of his touch, the purity and correctness of his design, and the happiness with which he transferred to his plate the beauties of the original, gave a high character to hi.= produc- tions. Berwick, James Fitz-James (Duke of), French marshal: b. Moulins, 1670; d. 1734. He was the natural son of the Duke of York, after- ward King James H., and Arabella Churchill, sister of the Duke of Marlborough ; and first went by the name of Fitz-James. He received his education in France, and served his first cam- paigns in Hungary under Charles, Duke of Lor- raine, general of Leopold L He returned to Eng- land at the age of 17, and received from his father the title of Duke. On the landing of the Prince of Orange in 1688 he went to France with his father, whom he afterward accompanied on the Irish expedition. He fought bravely and was wounded at the battle of the Boyne, i July 1690. He afterward served under Luxembourg in Flanders ; in 1702 and 1703 under the Duke of Burgundy; then under Marshal Villeroi, and Vol. 2—37. was naturalized in France. In 1706 he was made marshal of France, and sent to Spain, where he gained the battle of Almanza, which rendered King Philip V. again master of Va- lencia. In 1709 he went to take the command in Dauphine, and the measures which he took to cover this and the neighboring provinces against the superior forces of the Duke of Savoy gained him a great reputation. In 1718 and 1719 he was obliged to serve against Philip v., who from gratitude to the marshal had taken a son of his into his service. On his entrance into the Spanish dominions he wrote to his son, the Duke of Liria, admonishing him to do his duty to his sovereign. At the siege of Phil- ipsburg, on the Rhine, his life was terminated by a cannon-ball. His memoirs were published originally in French, and have gone through two or three editions in English. Consult Wil- son, president of the Nebraska Academy of Sciences in 1891; acting chancellor of University of Ne- braska i888-gi and 1899-1900; Fellow of the American Association for the Advancement of Science. His publications include: ^Reports on Insects^ (1873-4) ; "^Geography of lowa^ (1876) ; ^The Erysiphei of North America' (1877) ; ^Botany for High Schools and Colleges^ (1880) ; 'Essentials of Botany> (1884); 'Reports of the State Botanist of Nebraska' (1887 to 1892); 'Elementary Botany' (1904) ; 'Plant Migration Studies' (1905). He was editor of the department of botany of 'Johnson's Universal Cyclopa;dia.* in 1892-5; and is one of the editors of 'Science.' Bessieres, bes-yar, Jean Baptiste (Duke OF Istria), French marshal: b. Preissac, 6 Aug. 1768; d. Lutzen, i May 1813. Entering the army in 1792 as a private soldier, in less than two years he had attained the rank of captain. After making the Spanish campaign, he passed into the army of Italy, and soon attracted the notice of Napoleon, who took him to Egypt in 1798, where his conduct at St. Jean d'Acre and Aboukir covered him with glory. At the ac- cession of Napoleon to the throne, he became marshal of France. He showed his usual con- spicuous courage at Austerlitz, Jena, Eylau, and Friedland, and, raised to the rank of Duke of Istria, commanded in Spain in 1808-Q. In the Russian campaign he led the cavalry of the Guard, and did much by his sleepless courage and presence of mind to save the wreck of the army in the disastrous retreat from Moscow. On the morning of the battle of Liitzen he fell mortally wounded by a cannon ball. Best, William Thomas, English musician: b. Carlisle, 13 Aug. 1826; d. Liverpool, 10 May 1897. In 1848 he was appointed organist of the Philharmonic Society in Liverpool ; in 1852 he went to London and became organist of the Panopticon of Science and Art, and also of the Church of St. Martin-in-the-Fields; in 1854 was organist of Lincoln's Inn Chapel ; in 1855 re- turned to Liverpool, and became organist of St. George's Hall ; in 1868 was organist of the Liverpool Musical Society ; and in 1872 was again engaged by the Philharmonic Society. He was the author of 'The Modern School for the Organ' (1853); 'The Art of Organ Play- ing' (1870) ; 'Arrangements from the Scores of the Great Masters' (1873) ; 'The Organ Student' ; 'Organ Concertos' ; 'Opera and Ora- torio Songs,' etc. Bes'tiaries, the name given to certain ex- tremely popular books of the Middle Ages. In the written volumes, sometimes with copious illustrations, were given descriptions of animals, real and imaginary, which was which being left to the discretion or knowledge of the readers. They were composed in verse or prose or a mixture of both, and were designed not only as hand-books of zoologj'. but as teachers of morals as well. It was the fashion to attach spiritual meanings to the animals or their ac- tions, until every quality of good or evil in the soul of man had its type in the beast world. It is to the bestiaries that we must look for explanation of the strange, grotesque creatures which are found sculptured on the churches and other buildings of the Middle Ages. The old- est Latin bestiaries had an early Greek original, the well-known 'Physiologus,' under which name about 50 such allegories were grouped. The Greek text of this famous work is found only in manuscript. There are old Syriac, Ar- menian. Ethiopic, Arabic, Icelandic, and nu- merous Latin versions. Editions of the Latin have been issued — Mai, Heider, and Cahie*-. An Old High German version was made earlier than the nth century; in the 12th century, ver- BESTUZHEFF — BETHANY COLLEGE sions in French were made by Philippe de Thaun and Gui'laume, a priest of Normandy. The * Bestiary of Love^ of Richard de Fourni- val was rather a parody upon the earher form of such books. The following is a characteris- tic extract from the * Divine Bestiary^ : ^^The unicorn has but one horn in the middle of its forehead. It is the only animal that ventures to attack the elephant ; and so sharp is the nail of its foot, that with one blow it rips up the belly of that most terrible of all beasts. The hunters can catch the unicorn only by placing a young virgin in the forest which it haunts. No sooner does this marvelous animal descry the damsel than it runs toward her, lies down at her feet, and so suffers itself to be taken by the hunters. The unicorn represents our Lord Jesus Christ, who, taking our humanity upon him in the Virgin's womb, was betrayed by the wicked Jews, and delivered into the hands of Pilate. Its one horn signifies the Gospel truth, that Christ is one with the Father,^^ etc. BestuzhefF, be-stoo'zhef, Alexander Alex- androvitch, Russian novelist and soldier: b. St. Petersburg, 3 Nov. 1797; d. 19 July 1837. Of his numerous novels, the most celebrated are ^Ammalat-Beg' ; ; < Kitty ^ ; (1830); < History of Painting in Italy^ (1817) ; ^Racine and Shake- speare* (1827) ; and *Life of Napoleon,* etc. A collective edition of his works appeared in 18 volumes in 1855-6, and his *^Correspondance Inedite* in two volumes in 1855. Beyrout. See Beirut. Beza, be'za, or de Beze, de baz, Theodore, Calvinistic divine : b. of a noble family at \'eze- lay, in Burgundy, 24 June 1519; d. 13 Oct. 1605. He was educated in Orleans under Melchior Volmar, a German philologer devoted to the Reformation ; and, early familiar with the ancient classical literature, he became known at the age of 20 years as a Latin poet, by his petulant and witty "^Juvenilia* (a collection of poems of which he was afterward ashamed). In 1539 he was made a licentiate of law, and went to Paris. He received from his uncle the reversion of his valuable abbey Froidmond, and lived on the income of two benefices and on property which he inherited from a brother. His habits were dissipated, but a clandestine marriage in 1543 recalled him from his excesses, and a dangerous illness confirming the intention which he had formed at Orleans of devoting himself to the service of the Reformed Church, he went to Geneva with his wife in 1547. Soon after he accepted a Greek professorship at Lausanne. During his 10 years in this office he wrote a tragi-comic drama in French, — *The Sacrifice of Abraham,* — which was received with much approbation ; delivered lectures (which were numerously attended) on the Epistle to the Romans and the Epistles of Peter (which served as the basis of his Latin translation of the New Testament, of which he afterw^ard published several editions) : finished Marot's translation of the Psalms in French verse ; and obtained to such a degree the confidence of the Swiss Cal- vinists that he was sent in 1558 on an embassy to the Protestant princes of (Germany to obtain their intercession at the French court for the release of the Huguenots imprisoned in Paris. In the following year he w^ent to Geneva as a preacher, and soon after became a professor of theology and the most active assistant of Cahin, to whom he had already recommended hirnself by several works, in which many of the views of that eminent theologian were advocated with great zeal and no small measure of ability, so that he was generally regarded as Calvin's ablest BEZA'S CODEX — BHADRINATH coadjutor, and the person destined to be his successor. His talents for negotiation were now often put in requisition by the Calvinists. He was sent to the court of Anthony, king of Navarre, at Nerac, to obtain toleration for the French Huguenots ; and at his desire he ap- peared, 1561, at the religious conference at Poissy, where he spoke in behalf of his party with a boldness, presence of mind, and energy which gained him the esteem of the French court. He often preached in Paris before the queen of Navarre and the Prince of Conde ; also in the suburbs. At the conference of St. Germain, in 1562, he spoke strongly against the worship of images, and after the commence- ment of the civil war accompanied the Prince of Conde as chaplain, and on the capture of the prince joined Admiral Coligny. After the restoration of peace he returned to Geneva in 1563, where, besides discharging the duties of his offices, he continued to engage in theological controversies in support of the Calvinists ; and after Calvin's death in 1564 became his suc- cessor, and was considered the first theologian of this Church. He presided in the synods of the French Calvinists at La Rochelle (1571) and at Nismes (1572), where he opposed Morel's proposal for the alteration of clerical discipline; was sent by Conde (1574) to the court of the Elector Palatine ; and at the religious confer- ence at Montpellier (1586) opposed the theo- logians at Wiirtemberg, particularly James An- dreas. At the age of 69 years he married his second wife (1588), and still continued to repel, with the power of truth and wit, the attacks and calumnies which his enemies, apos- tatized Calvinists (such as Bolsec), Lutherans, and Jesuits, heaped upon him. They reported in 1597 that he had died, and returned before his death to the Roman Catholic faith. Beza, now 78 years old, met his assailants in a poem full of youthful enthusiasm, and resisted in the same year the attempts of St. Francis de Sales to con- vert him, and the alluring offers of the Pope. In 1600 he visited Henry IV. in the territory of Geneva, who presented him with 500 ducats. Among his many works, his exegetic writings, and the able and correct ^History of Calvinism in France from 1521 to 1563,^ which is ascribed to him, are still much esteemed. Beza's name is associated with the Codex which he presented to the University of Cambridge, for an account of which see Bible. Beza's Codex. See Bible. Bez'ant, a round, flat piece of pure gold, without any impression, supposed to have been at one time the current coin of Byzantium. Bez- ants are frequently employed as one of the charges in heraldry, a custom supposed to have been introduced by the Crusaders. Its value was about $2. Beziers, ba-ze-a, France, a town in the department of Herault, 38 miles southwest of Montpellier ; situated on a height above the Orb, and on the Canal du Midi, a few miles from the Mediterranean, to which there runs a tramway line. It is surrounded by old walls, and though its streets are narrow, it is tolerably well built. Its most conspicuous edifice is the cathedral, a Gothic structure, crowning the height on which the town stands, and possessing a fine semicircular choir surrounded by columns of red marble. The city has a communal col- lege, a museum, a library, and a society of eco- nomics and archjeology. Its manufactures con- sist chiefly of woolens, silks, hosiery, chemicals, spirits, etc. In 1209 it was the scene of a hor- rible massacre of the Albigenses by Simon de Montfort, in which 20,000 persons were killed. Pop. (1896) 48,012. Bezique, a card game which crystallized into official form in 1887. Two packs of cards are used, two players participate and the cards rank, ace high, then ten, king, queen, knave, nine, eight, and seven. All cards below that are discarded from both packs. Eight cards are dealt to each player. Trumps may be determined either by turning up the first card of the stack or by the suit of the first marriage. The non-dealer leads for the first trick, and the winner of each trick has the succeeding lead. After each trick, each player draws one card from the top of the stack, the winner of the trick taking the top card. The playing is as in whist, the leader taking the trick unless his opponent plays a higher card of the same suit or a trump. It is not necesssary to follow suit until the stack is exhausted, when one must do so and take each trick, if possible. Counting is done by means of the values of the cards ; each ace or ten-spot taken in a trick counts 10, the winner of the last trick of each hand scores 10, and if the trump is turned, both sevens count 10 for the turner, and if one ex- changes from his hand a seven of trumps for another turned trump or if one declares the other seven of trumps 10 more is scored. The game is won by the player who first makes 1,000 points, and if his opponent has not made 500 the game counts double. There are certain combinations of cards other than the above, which, when declared, count as follows : Dou- ble bezique (both queens of spades and both knaves of diamonds) 500; sequence of five high- est trumps, 250; and 4 aces, 100; any 4 kings, 80; any 4 queens, 60; any 4 knaves, 40; bezique (queen of spades and knave of diamonds), 40; royal marriage (king and queen of trumps), 40; marriage (king and queen of same suit), 20. A declaration is made by placing the declared cards face up on the table where they remain till played or the stack is exhausted, except in the case of the seven of trumps. To score, a declaration can only be made after winning a trick and before drawing, and but one declara- tion can be made at a time. After a card has been used in one combination it may be used to form another, excepting when used to form an equal or inferior combination in the same class as before. A player need not de- clare a combination which he holds and only before the stack has been exhausted can a declaration be made. Consult : A. Howard Cady's treatise, for details and rules. Bezo'ar, concretions found in the fourth stomach of many of the hcrbivora. notably goats, at one time held in high repute because of fan- cied miraculous healing properties. Bhadrinath, bha-dri-nath', a town in north- ern Hindustan, on the Bishengunga, celebrated for its temple of Vishnu, with a hot mineral spring in whose waters both sexes bathe indis- criminately, to wash away their sins. Some 50.000 pilgrims visit the place annually. The temple has been frequently overthrown by earth- quakes. The principal idol is a figure of black BHAGALPUR — BHILS marble, clothed in gold and silver brocade while the season of pilgrimage lasts, and then stripped and stowed away in a vault the rest of the year. The Hindus believe that in the neighbor- ing mountains some holy anchorites have lived for several thousand years. Their place of hab- itation is a cavern perpetually choked with snow, which forbids the approach of the curious and the skeptical. The Bhadrinath peaks in the neighborhood are above 22,000 feet high. Bhagalpur, b'ha-gal-poor', a city of Hin- dustan, m Bengal, capital of a district and divi- sion of the same name, situated on the Ganges, 113 miles northwest of Moorshedabad. In the town and neighborhood are some interesting Mo- hammedan shrines ; and there are here also two monuments, one erected (in 1780) by natives, and the other erected by government in memory of Augustus Cleveland, the conciliator of the formerly turbulent and marauding hill tribes of Sonthals. There are several indigo works in the neighborhood. Pop. (1901) 75,275. The division of Bhagalpur lies between that of Rajshahi on the east and that of Patna on the west. It has an area of 20,511 square miles. Pop. (1901) 8,721,484. The district of Bhagal- pur is fertile, well watered, and highly culti- vated. It is divided into two unequal portions by the Ganges. Area, 4,226 square miles ; pop. (1901) 2,088,560. Bhagavadgita, bha'ga-vad-ge'ta (Sanskrit, the Divine Song), the title of a religious-philo- sophical didactic poem interwoven as an episode in the great Indian epic of the Mahabharata (q.v.). Bhamo, bha-mo', India, a town of Burma, on the Upper Irrawaddy, about 40 miles from the Chinese frontier, and 180 north-northwest of Mandalay, with which it has railway communi- cation. About 20 miles above Bhamo the river suddenly narrows from 1,000 to 150 yards and flows through a roclcj' gorge subject to eddies and back-waters. Navigation is at that point very difficult, and at times impossible. Bhamo is the starting-point of caravans to Yunnan, and will become one of the great emporiums of the East in the event of a regular overland trade being established between India and Western China. Pop. (estimated) about 7,000. Bhang, bang, an Eastern name for hemp (Cajinabis Indica) (q.v.). Bhartpur, bhert-poor', or Bhurtpore. (i) A native state of India with an area of 1,961 square miles. The surface is generally low and the state is scantily supplied with water : soil gen- erally light and sandy ; chief productions, corn, cotton, sugar, and salt. It has been under Brit- ish protection since 1826. Pop. (1901) 626,000. (2) A town, the capital of the above state, on an extensive and fertile plain, no miles south- southwest of Delhi. It covers an area about four miles in circuit, and was so strongly fortified that in 1805 it stood a siege by Lord Lake of 14 weeks, and cost the besiegers 3,100 men. In a second siege, in 1826. its resistance to Lord Combermere was less successful. The fortifications have been demolished, but the fort still exists, and is enclosed by a wet ditch and a wall of hewn stone, which taken together are 60 feet high. Within the fort is the rajah's palace, built of red and yellow freestone in the Mogul style, and picturesquely crowning an emi- nence surrounded by flower-gardens and foun- tains. Pop. (1901) 43,000. Bhartrihari, bhar-tre-ha're, Indian poet, author of a book of apothegms. According to the legend he was the brother of King Vikra- maditya, who lived in the ist century B.C. The collection of 300 apothegms (short poems) bear- ing his name present us with graceful descrip- tions of nature, charming pictures of love, shrewd remarks on everyday life, and profound thoughts on the Deity and the immortality of the soul. Bhartrihari was the first Indian writer who became known in Europe, 200 of the apo- thegms having been translated by the missionary Abraham Roger and published at Leyden (1653). His actual personality has been much discussed without any very satisfactory conc'usion having been reached. The weight of opinion inclines to belief in his existence, and that he was a poet of a philosophical cast, possibly a grammarian also, and very likely of roj'al descent. See Von Bohlen, ^Bhartrihari's Sententise' (1833); Tawney, ^Two Centuries of Bhartrihari^ (1877) ; Wortham, ^Translation of the Satakas of Bhartrihari* (1886) ; More, ^A Century of Indian Epigrams. Chiefly from the Sanskrit of Bhartrihari' (1898) ; Kale and Gurjar, ^Xitisa- taka and Vairagysataka, with Notes and an English Translation* (1898). Bhatti, bhat'te, Indian epic poet of the 6th or the 7th century. His poem, named after him, *Bhattikavyam.,^ is in 22 cantos. Its theme is the deeds of Rama; but the author designed the work to be also an exemplification of the rules of grammatical and rhetorical composition. It was published with a two-fold commentary at Calcutta (1828). Bhavabhuti, bha-va-bhoo'te, surnamed SRi-K.\XTH.\, Indian dramatist, of the first half of the 8th century. He wrote at least three plays, the *^Mahaviracharita* (*4ife of the great hero**), and the ^Uttararamacharita* ("later life of Rama'*), forming together, in seven acts each, a dramatized version of the story of the Ramayana ; and the "^Malati-madhava.* a domes- tic drama in ten acts, full of life and incident. Bhavabhuti is often compared with Kalidasa, whom he equaled in vigor and variety, but hardly in genius. All three plays have been translated into English. See Levi, ^Le theatre indien* (1890). Bhawalpur, bha-wal-poor', or Bahawalpur, a state of the Punjab, British India, south of the Indus and Sutlej rivers. It is chiefly a desert of shifting sand. Only the river banks are cul- tivable. The inhabitants are Jats, Baluchis, and Afghans, the greater part Mohammedans. Area, 17,285 square miles. Pop. (1901) 720,000. Bhawalpur, the capital, is on a branch of ths Sutlej. It is enclosed by gardens and mud walls, four miles in circumference ; noted for the manufacture of a kind of turban and scarf very popular among the Hindus ; also produces considerable woolen, silk, and cotton cloth, in- digo, alum, and saltpetre. Pop. 14,000. Bhils, bels. or Bheels, a Dravidic race inhabiting the Vindhya, Satpura, and Satmala Hills, a relic of the Indian aborigines driven from the plains by the Aryan Rajputs. They appear to have been orderly and industrious under the Delhi emperors ; but on the transfer BHILSA — BIANCHINI of the power in the i8th century from the Moguls to the Marathas they asserted their independence, and being treated as outlaws took to the hills. Various attempts to subdue them were made by the Gaekwar and by the British in 1818 without success. A body of them was, however, subsequently reclaimed, and a Bheel corps formed, which stormed the retreats of the rest of the race and reduced them to com- parative order. The hill Bheels wear little clothing, and live precariously on grain, wild roots, and fruits, vermin, etc., but the lowland Bheels are in many respects Hinduized. Their total numbers are about 7so,ooo. See Rowney, *Wild Tribes of India' (1882) ; Reclus, < Primi- tive Folk' (1891). Bhilsa> bel-sa, or Bilsa, a town of Hindu- stan, on the Betwa, 280 miles southwest of Alla- habad. It has a fort enclosed by a ditch and a stone wall surmounted by square towers, and is a place of Hindu pilgrimage. One of the curiosities of the place is a brass gun measur- ing ig^2 feet in length, with a bore of 10 inches ; elegantly proportioned, highly ornamented, and said to have been made by order of the Mogul emperor, Jehangir. Fine tobacco is produced in the A'icinity. In the neighborhood are some very large and remarkable ancient Buddhist monu- ments known as topes, one of the principal being a dome-shaped structure 70 or 80 feet in height. Pop. (1891) 9,700. Bhima, be'ma, Beemah, or Bimah, (i) a god in Hindu mythology, the son of Pritha (or Kunti) by Vayu, the god of the wind, remarka- ble for his great size and strength; (2) the. name of a river of India rising in the Poona district of Bombay and flowing southeast to the Kistnah River, about 400 miles in length. Bhiwana, bhe-wji'ne, a tow^n of India in the Punjab, district of Hissar. It is the trading centre of its district, exporting metals, sugar, and spices. Pop. 35,000. Bhopal, bhd-pal'. i. A native State of central India, with an area of 6,874 square miles. The country is full of jungles, and is traversed by a hilly tract, forming part of the Vindhya Mountains. The soil is fertile, yielding wheat, maize, millet, pease, and other vegetable productions peculiar to central India. Sugar, tobacco, ginger, and cotton are the chief ex- ports. The district is well watered by the Ner- budda, Betwa, and other minor streams. The state of Bhopal was founded by an Afghan adventurer, named Dost Mohammed Khan, who in 1723 succeeded in establishing himself here by the countenance of Aurungzebe, on whose death he assumed the title of nabob, which was retained by his successors. Bhopal has all along been friendly in its relations with the British. In 1818 the state was placed under British protection. Pop. (1901) i,i98,35;o; (2) a town, capital of the above state, on the boundary be- tween INIalwah and Gundwana, 108 miles east of Oojein. It was defended successfully in 1813 against the forces of Scindia and ihe rajah of Nagpore. It is surrounded by a wall two miles in circuit, and contains a fort. Outside is an- other fort on a large rock, the residence of the ruler of Bhopal. Among other buildings of note are two mosques, arsenal, mint, and the palace of the Begum. Large artificial lakes supply good water. Pop. (1891) 70,338. Bhuj, or Bhooj, the chief town of Cutch in India, Bombay presidency, at the base of a fortified hill, with military cantonments, high school and school of art, mausoleums, of the Raos or chiefs of Cutch, pagodas, etc., including a temple dedicated to the cobra di capello. Bhuj is famous for its manufactures of gold and silver. Pop. (1891) 25,421. Bhutan, bhoo-tan', an independent State in the eastern Himalayas, with an area of about 16,800 square miles, lying between Tibet on the north and Assam and the Jalpaiguri district on the south, and consisting of rugged and lofty mountains, abounding in sublime and picturesque scenery. Pop. (estimated) 200,000. The Bhu- tanese are a backward race, governed by a Dharm Rajah, regarded as an incarnation of Deity, and by a Deb Rajah, with a coun- cil of eight. They are nominally Buddhists. After various aggressive incursions and the capture and ill treatment of Ashley Eden, the British envoy, in 1863, they were compelled to cede to the British coasiderable portions of territory, in return for a yearly allowance of £2,500. Bia'fra, Bight of, a large bay on the west coast of Africa, at the head of the Gulf of Guinea, between Capes Formosa and Lopez. The principal rivers flowing into it are the Niger, the New and Old Calabar rivers, the Rio del Rey, the Cameroon, and the Gaboon; its islands are Fernando Po (Spanish), and St. Thomas' and Prince's (Portuguese). Opposite Fernando Po are the Cameroons. Bialystok, byal-e-stok', or Bielostok, a town of Russian Poland, province of Grodno, on the Bialy, 45 miles south-southwest of Grodno, with which and Warsaw it is connected by rail. It is a well-built, handsome town, with a spa- cious market, gymnasium, and several churches, and has among its edifices a palace which be- longed to the counts of Braniski, and was once known as the Polish Versailles. Its manufac- tures are woolen goods, leather, hats, soap, etc. Pop. (1897) 63,927. Biancavilla, byan-ka-vel'la (Italian hianca, white, and z'illa, town), a city of Sicily situated on the slope of Mount Etna, 20 miles northeast of Catania, founded in 1480 as an Albanian colony. Lava is employed for paving its streets, and in its neighborhood are the noted grottoes of Scila and Archi, the former basaltic, the latter in the lava of 1607 with a tunnel half a mile in extent. Wine and grain are produced in the district and all the cotton in this portion of Sicily is called Biancavilla. Pop. (1901) 13,358. Bianchi, byan'ke, Francesco (called II Frari), Italian painter: b. Modena, 1447; d. 1510. He was the instructor of Correggio, according to Vidriani, and his woiks were esteemed for graceful design and agreeable col- oring. Among his few works extant are a •^Madonna with Saints,' now in the Louvre. He must not be confounded with Federigo Bianchi, a Milanese artist, born about the end of the i6th century. The paintings of the latter are numer- ous in northern Italy, and are held in_ high esteem. He wrote a volume of biographies of painters. Bianchini, be-an-ke'ne, Francesco, Italian astronomer: b. Verona, 13 Dec. 1662; d. Rome, 2 March 1729. He was intended for the clerical BIARD — BIBIRU profession, but repaired to Rome, and applied himself to jurisprudence, and continued the study of experimental physics, astronomy, etc., as well as of Greek, Hebrew, and other lan- guages. Pope Alexander VIII. bestowed on Bianchini a rich benefice, with the appointment of tutor and librarian to his nephew, the Cardi- nal Pietro Ottoboni. Pope Clement XI. also patronized him, and appointed him secretary to the commission emplo3'ed in the correction of the calendar. Being on a tour through France, Holland, and England, he formed the idea of drawing a meridian in Italy, from one sea to the other, in imitation of that which Cassini had drawn through France. He was occupied eight years at his own expense in that work ; but other employments withdrew his attention from it, and it remained unfinished. He con- cluded his career with two important works (1727) on the planet Venus, and on the sepul- chre of Augustus. Biard, Auguste Frangois, byar, a-gust froii- swa, French genre painter: b. Lyons, 27 June 1801 : d. near Fontainebleau, 8 July 1882. He traveled extensively, vi.siting Spain, Greece, Syria, Egypt, Mexico, Brazil, etc. Among his best known pictures are the ^ Babes in the Wood* (1828); the ^Beggar's Family* (1836); the < Combat with Polar Bears* (1839) ; and ^The Strolling Players,* now in the Luxembourg. A strong element of caricature runs through most of his works. Biard, Peter, French missionary in Amer- ica : b. Grenoble, 1565; d. 1622. He was one of the first two missionary priests sent to New France, and with his companion. Masse, on 10 June 161 1, he wrote the earliest letters sent by the Jesuit order from Canada. He at once began a stud\ of Indian languages, established friendly relations with the Indians on the Ken- nebec in 1612, and in 1613 founded a colony on the island of Mount Desert. The colony was soon destroyed by the forces of Argall, deputy governor of Virginia, and Biard, being captured, was sent to England. This enterprise of Argall's marks the actual beginning of hostilities be- tween the French and English in North Amer- ica. Biard was liberated after a short time, and returning to Lyons, published in 1616, ^Re- lation de la Nouvelle France, et du Voyage des peres Jesuites dans cette Countree.* This is the earliest of the 40 volumes of "^Jesuit Relations* (1632-72), which are such valuable storehouses of material for early American history. Biarritz, bya-rets, a fashionable watering place of France, department of Basses-Pyrenees, five miles south of Bayonne. It is a favorite of bathers and other persons who come from all parts of Europe, and especially of the Basque mountaineers, who deem it an obligation to drink of the mineral waters once a year, as well as to bathe in the sea of Biarritz. In 1856, the place acquired additional importance from being made the summer residence of Napoleon III. and his court. Since then its popularity both in w'inter and summer, has steadily increased. It has no industries and is composed almost entirely of hotels and lodging houses. Pop. 12,000. Biart, byar, Lucien, French novelist, poet and writer of travels : b. Versailles, 21 June 1829. He published a number of novels, con- taining masterly descriptions of Mexican and South American nature and customs. Among his works are ^The Mexican Women* (1S53), poems; "^ Adventures of a Young Naturalist* (1869) ; gives a list of standard editions of the best French authors. I. M. Querard, ^La France Litteraire ou Dictionnaire Bibliographique,^ an account of the literature of the i8th and 19th centuries (10 vols. 1827-39) ; Querard, ^La Litterature Franqaise Contemporaine' (1827-49) ; Brunet's ^Manuel du Libraire^ (new edition, 6 vols. 1860-5) ; E. Hatin, *^ Bibliographic de la Presse Periodique Frangaise' (i vol. 1866) ; Lorenz, ^Catalogue General de la Librairie Fran- gaise depuis 1840,^ giving French publications from 1840 to 1899. In England, although it contains many rich public and private collections, bibliography has not been so successfully cultivated as in France. The most extensive catalogues of books of which it can boast arc those of the Bodleian Library, the British Museum, the Advocates' Library, Edinburgh, the Harleian Library (compiled partly by Dr. Johnson), etc. Catalogues com- piled on a scientific system, by which the reader is assisted in his researches after books on a particular subject, are not numerous in English, but we may mention Sonnenschcin's *^The Best Books' (1891), and "^ Guide to Contemporary Literature' (1895), presenting classified lists of about 100,000 works. The most splendid cata- logue perhaps ever published is that of the Earl of Spencer's Library, compiled by Dibdin, in four large volumes, with numerous engravings. Among English bibliographical works are the ^Typographical Antiquities' of Ames, Herbert, and Dibdin; Adam Clarke's ^Bibliographical Dictionary and Miscellany' (1803-6) ; Dibdin's ^Introduction to the Knowledge of Rare and Valuable Editions of the Classics' (1827, 2 vols.) ; Brydges' ^Censura Literaria' (1805), and ^British Bibliographer (1818) ; Beloc's < Anecdotes of Literature' (1807) ; Savage's ^Librarian' (1808) ; Dibdin's ^Bibliographical Decameron' (1817) ; and ^Tour in France arud Germany' (1821) ; Home's "^Introduction to the Study of Bibliography' (1814) ; Robert Watt's ^Bibliotheca Britannica' (1824, 4 vols. 4to), a work of stupendous labor and great utility ; Joseph W. Moss' "^Manual of Classical Bibli- ography' (1825) ; Darling's < Cyclopaedia Biblio- graphica' (chiefly theological literature, 1854) : *A Bibliographical and Critical Account of the Rarest Books in the English Language,' by J. Payne Collier (1865) ; Lowndes' ^Bibliographer's Manual,' edited by H. G. Bohn (1869, 6 vols.) ; S. A. Allibone's < Critical Dictionary of English Literature and British and American Authors' (Philadelphia 1859-71, 3 vols., and 2 of Sup- plement 1891); Halkett and Laing's Bidar, be'dar, India, an ancient town in the Nizarn's dominions, 75 miles northwest of Hai- darabad; noted for the metal ware to which it has given the name of Bidri or Bidery. It oc- cupies a commanding site above the surround- ing country, and its mosque and madrissa or college testify to its former spJendor and im- portance. Pop. 14,000. Bidassoa, be-dasso'a (Basque, *way to the west," or "two streams"), a river in Spain, about 45 miles long, the last 12 of which form the boundary between France and Spain. It rises in the mountains of Spanish Navarre, and, after various changes of direction, falls into the Bay of Biscay near Fontarabia. In former times Spain claimed not only the entire river, but so much of its banks, on the French side, as its waters covered at full tide. This difference was finally settled by each country contenting itself with its own shore. Near Irun there is a small island in the middle of the stream, called the Island of Pheasants, on which, being neutral ground, Louis XI. and Henry IV. met in 1463. Here also a peace was concluded between France and Spain in 1654. Biddeford, Maine, city in York County, on the right bank of the Saco River, 6 miles from the sea, and on the Boston & Maine R.R., 15 miles southwest of Portland. The river separates it from Saco (q.v.), and, like that city Biddeford grew up as a manufacturing centre, its development being favored by the abundant water-power furnished by the falls, the stream descending here about 40 feet. The city also has a large local trade. Industries. — The leading industries include the extensive manufacture of cotton goods, lum- ber, boots and shoes, machinery, etc. Here are some of the most important cotton mills in New England, the products of which are found in the markets of many states. Near the city are granite quarries which annually produce large quantities of superior stone, used in many parts of the world. Several thousand people are em- ployed in the city's industries, and the flourish- ing of these has led to its gradual growth. It has two national banks. Schools and Churches. — The public school system is well organized and conducted, and the various religious denominations are represented by 14 churches. The intellectual life of the peo- ple is also stimulated through useful local pub- lications and an excellent public library. History and Government. — The city was named from Biddeford, England, the home of some of its early settlers. In 1616 a small set- tlement was made at Biddeford Pool, near the mouth of the Saco, and Biddeford was settled under a patent in 1630, embraced Saco until 1718, and was then incorporated under its pres- ent name. This was long the chief settlement of the Maine province. In 1855 Biddeford re- ceived a city charter. The present government includes a mayor and a city council, elected an- nually. The population in 1900 was 16,145. In 1903 it was estimated at 16,655. Consult: Fol- som. 'History of Saco and Biddeford' (1830) ; Clayton, 'History of York County' (1880); Ridlon, metallism is that neither metal alone furnishes a sufficient quantity of money to support the world's commerce. Bimetallism is, therefore, actually necessary as well as theoretically ad- vantageous. This phase of the question was not much considered until after 1873 because, prior to that date, there were sufficient mints open to the coinage of both metals to furnish a mone- tary use for every ounce produced. When all of the gold and silver available for coinage could go through the mints into the currency, each nation could consider the question from a' purely theoretical standpoint, because so long as the commercial world had the benefit of the entire volume of gold and silver, it did not make so much difference how many nations used one metal, or the other, or both. When, however, the_ crusade against silver began and enough nations joined in it to reduce the demand for silver below the supply available for coinage, then each nation was compelled to consider not only its preference as to a standard, but whether — and it was a vital question — it was always sure of having a sufficient quantity of the chosen metal. The advocates of bimetallism not only con- tend that the law of supply and demand regu- lates the value of the dollar — an increase in the demand, the supply remaining the same, raising the purchasing power of the dollar, and an in- crease in the supply, the demand remaining the same, decreasing the purchasing power of the dollar, but they also believe that supply and de- mand regulate the market price of the metals. The contention of monometallists that it is impossible to fix a relation between two metals is met with the reply that the relation between two things of limited production, such as gold and silver, can be fixed by any nation or group of nations which can furnish a use for so much of both metals as is available for coinage. Gold and silver differ from agricultural products in that they must be found before they can be pro- duced. If gold and silver could be raised from seed and cultivated practically without limit, as, for instance, corn and wheat can be, it would be very difficult if not impossible to fix a relation between them, but they are called precious metals because they are scarce. The demand created by the government must be considered as added to the demand created by the arts. If the demand created by the gov- ernment is sufficient to utilize the surplus over and above what the arts require, the commer- cial value can be kept up to the coinage value for the reason that each owner will seek the highest possible price, and so long as the gov- ernment stands ready to convert a given amount of metal into a given amount of money, he will not have to dispose of the metal to any one else for less than the government price. If the gov- ernment, instead of standing ready to convert one metal into money, stands ready to convert two metals into money, it can make the com- mercial ratio and the coinage ratio identical, if there is a use for the money. The changes in relative production would not affect this con- dition so long as the government was able to utili;'e all of the surplus of both metals. The influence exerted by the legal ratio oa the commercial ratio is well described by the BIMETALLISM Royal Commission of England, which in its report of 1888 said : «Nor does it appear to us a priori unreasonable to suppose that the exist- ence in the Latin Union of a bimetallic sys- tem with a ratio of 15^ to i fixed between the two metals, should have been capable of keep- ing the market price of silver steady at approxi- mately that rate. The view that it could only affect the market price to the extent to which there was a demand for it for currency pur- poses in the Latin Union, or to which it was actually taken to the mints of those countries is, we think, fallacious. The fact that the owner of silver could, in the last resort, take it to those mints and have it converted into coin which would purchase commodities, at the ratio of 15^/2 of silver to i of gold, would, in our opin- ion, be likely to affect the price of silver in the market generally, whoever the purchaser and for whatever country it was destined. It would enable the holder of the silver to stand out for a price approximating to the legal ratio and would tend to keep the market steady at about that point.^' Independent bimetallists and international bi- metallists agree as to the theoretical and prac- tical benefits of the double standard, but differ as to the ability of the United States to main- tain the parity alone, the former believing, and the latter denying, that under conditions as they now exist our nation is able to utilize all the silver that could come to our mint. If our government offered to coin into mone}^ at a fixed ratio every ounce of gold and silver presented at the mint, the supply brought to the mint would necessarily come from one of three sources — that is, from silver bullion al- ready in existence, from silver coin of other countries, or from the annual product of the mines. As there is no considerable quantity of silver held in the form of bullion, there could be no material increase in our coinage from that source. Whether silver coin would come to our mint from other countries would depend entirely upon the ratio. The fear that, under bimetallism, our country would be flooded with the coined sil- ver of the world, is entirely without founda- tion, for the reason that our ratio, 16 to i, is more favorable to gold than the ratio existing between gold and silver in the nations that have a large quantity of silver coin. France, for instance, is the largest European holder of sil- ver, but as her silver now circulates on a parity with gold at a ratio of 15^ to i, it could only come here at a loss equivalent to about three cents on the dollar. Whether the mines would furnish an exces- sive amount of silver is a question about which no one could speak positively, because no one can foresee new discoveries or estimate the possible exhaustion of mines now being worked. There is, however, nothing in the past to jus- tify a fear of over-production. Raising the government price of a precious metal does not necessarily increase the pro- duction of it, neither does the lowering of the price necessarily reduce the production. For instance, the law of 1834 reduced the govern- ment price of gold, and yet soon afterward there was a wonderful increase in the produc- tion of gold. The discoveries of silver follow- ing 1870 were not brought about by an in- crease in the price of silver, and for several: years the production of silver increased, even, with a falling market. The monetary use of gold> and silver is the controlling use. If, by agree- ment among all the nations, the legal tender function was withdrawn from both gold and silver, and other money substituted for them, both would fall in value, just how much no- one knows, because a fall in the price of either of the metals would develop new uses and thus increase the demand, which, in its turn, would act with the supply in determining the ulti- mate price. While it is probable that a higher price for silver bullion would cause the re-open- ing of some mines which have been abandoned because of the low price of silver, the production of silver would not be likely to be increased to any such extent as has been imagined. It is not out of place to refer, in this con- nection, to another matter which has been the subject of much speculation, namely, the cost of producing gold and silver. The labor cost has less influence on the price of gold and silver than upon products of the soil. In the case- of agricultural products, an attempt to raise the price of anj' kind of crop much above the cost of production would immediately be fol- lowed by such an increase in the crop as to at once cause a supply that would reduce the price. If, on the other hand, the cost of pro- ducing a particular kind of crop is increased out of proportion to the price, the production will fall off until the scarcity of the article raises the price. In the case of the precious metals, however, the supply cannot be in- creased at will, and therefore the price does not necessarily vary with the cost of production. If, for illustration, all the gold mines were to be exhausted excepting one, and this one mine began producing just the amount that all the mines now produce, but no more, the price of gold would remain the same whether it was produced at $1.00 an ounce or at i cent an omice. We have no means of ascertaining the labor cost of either gold or silver. About 10 years ago the director of the mint was asked for statistics in regard to the labor cost of producing gold and silver, and his reply was that there were no statistics in regard to gold and none of any value in regard to silver, because the statistics were gathered from the mines in operation and did not include the money expended in prospect- ing and in mines that had ceased to produce. No two mines in the world have produced either gold or silver at the same cost for any considerable period. If we take into account the money spent in prospecting and the money spent in the purchase of claims that have proven worthless, as well as the money invested in machinery and other appliances, it is probable that more than $1.00 has been- expended for every dollar of either gold or silver taken out of the earth, and it is also probable that, dol- lar for dollar, it has cost less to produce gold than silver; first, because gold is often found in nuggets, while silver is found in veins, and second, because gold is often found on the sur- face, while silver is, as a rule, a deep-mine product. Space does not permit a history- of the con- flict between the standards in Europe. England. has maintained the gold standard for about a century and has exerted a controlling influence- BIMETALLISM on several other European nations. During this period France, although free coinage is now suspended, has been the most loyal supporter of bimetallism and as late as 1897 offered to join the United States in the restoration of coinage, provided England and Germany would do likewise. After the gold discoveries of 1849, the Euro- pean financiers became alarmed lest the in- creased production of the yellow metal would largely aid debtors, and there was quite a senti- ment in favor of the demonitization of gold. Writers like Chevalier were complaining that holders of fixed investments were in danger of suffering from a cheap gold dollar. It was exactly the same argument that was made against the white metal a little later when the Comstock lode and other rich deposits of silver were dis- covered. Bimetallism in the United States. — The bi- metallic standard was recommended by Jeffer- son and Hamilton, and adopted by our govern- ment by a statute approved by George Wash- ington 2 April 1792. This law provided for the free and unlimited coinage of silver and gold at the ratio of 15 to i, the coins being equally a legal tender for all debts public and private. The Spanish milled dollar then in use in this country contained the same amount of pure sil- ver as our present silver dollar and, the ratio of 15 to I having been adopted, the gold dollar was made to weigh one fifteenth as much. The silver dollars then coined (many of which are now in existence), are sometimes called the **unit dollars,^' because they have on the edge the following inscription : ^'Hundred Cents, One Dollar, or Unit." In 1834 (28 June) the ratio was changed from 15 to I to 15.988+ to i, which for con- venience has been called 16 to i. The change was made for the purpose of checking the exportation of gold, but as the new ratio under- valued silver it made gold the money in general use. This law, supported by Thomas H. Ben- ton, and approved by Andrew Jackson, provided for the free and unlimited coinage of gold and silver into full legal tender money at the new ratio. In 1837 (28 January) the alloy in the dollar, both gold and silver, was changed from one twelfth to one tenth, making the weight of the standard silver dollar 41214 grains, nine tenths fine, and the weight of the standard gold dollar 258-10 grains, nine tenths fine. As the law of 1834 undervalued silver and led to the exportation of considerable quantities of it, it became difficult to keep fractional cur- rency in circulation, and to remed}'- this the law of 1853 was enacted. By the terms of this law subsidiary silver (that is, coins of less de- nomination than $1.00), were reduced from full weight to light weight and made token money, with limited legal tender, instead of standard money. This law, however, did not change the provision in regard to the standard silver dol- lar, the free and unlimited coinage of that dollar still continuing. The subsidiary silver coins were redeemable in the standard mone\% either gold or silver. Sometimes the Act of 1834 has been referred to as establishing the gold standard, but this is erroneous. It merely changed the ratio and that, too, by reducing the weight of the dearer dollar, not by increasing the cheaper dollar. Equally erroneous is the assertion that the Act of 1853 established the gold standard. That did not in the least change the law relating to the standard money, either gold or silver. On 12 July 1873 the demonetization of silver was eft'ected by an act entitled "An Act Re- vising and Amending the Laws Relative to the Mints, Assay Offices, and Coinage of the United States. ^^ (A similar law having the same pur- pose had just before been enacted in England, and a copy of it delivered to the director of our mint.) When this law was passed the business of the country was being transacted with paper money, both gold and silver being at a pre- mium — silver at a greater premium than gold. No attention was being paid to the subject of metallic money and the purpose of the law of 1873 was not generally understood. In making provision for silver coinage it omitted the coin- age of the standard silver dollar, and substituted for it a trade dollar of 420 grains which was intended for use in the Orient, it being thought that the trade dollar would compete with the Mexican dollar in China and other Eastern countries. In 1874 (20 January) the Federal stat- utes were revised, and in this revision a clause was inserted limiting the legal tender of silver coins to $5.00. Neither the Act of 1873 "or the Act of 1874 was generally discussed, and it is only the recognition of a well-settled fact of history to say that this discrimination against silver and in favor of gold was not known among the people and not thoroughly discussed even in Congress. When the matter became known an active agitation for the restoration of silver at once began, and nearly all of those who voted for the measure denied that they knew that the Act of 1873 was intended to demonetize silver. The suspension of silver coinage by the United States alone would not have caused a fall in the price of silver as measured with gold, but other nations joining in the demonetization of silver it soon became apparent that the mints still open could not utilize all the silver avail- able for coinage, and the gold price of silver began to decline. The effort to reopen the mints to silver resulted in the passage of what was known as the Bland-Allison Act. The bill, as it passed the House, under the _ leadership of Richard P. Bland, of Missouri, restored the free and unlimited coinage of gold and silver at the ratio of 16 to i. The opposition in the Senate was sufficient, however, to defeat the bill in its original form, and to compel the ac- ceptance of a substitute framed by Senator Alli- son, whose name was thus connected with the law. This compromise measure provided that there should be ^'coined at the several mints of the United States silver dollars of the weight of 412^ grains troy of standard silver as provided by the Act of January 1837.'* and also provided that such silver dollars "together with all silver dollars heretofore coined by the United States of like weight and fineness'' should be "a legal tender at their nominal value for all debts and dues public and private, except where otherwise expressly stipulated in the contract. '' It will be seen that this law restored the coinage of silver dollars under the law of 1837, but did not contain the former provision in re- gard to the unlimited coinage of silver on private account as gold was then and is now coined. In order to secure the bullion out of BIMETALLISM which to coin the dollars mentioned in the Act of 1878, the law provided ^^ of the Royal Society of London* ; 'Life of Henry, Prince of Wales.* Birch, Thomas, American painter: b. Lon- don, England, 1779; d. Philadelphia, Pa., 3 Jan. 1851. Coming to the United States in 1793, he settled in Philadelphia, and painted chiefly portraits until 1807, when he took up marine painting, in which he achieved a high reputa- tion. A number of his works represent naval battles of the War of 1812, and of these the paintings representing the engagements between the United States and the Macedonian, and be- tween the Constitution and the Guerriere. are the best known. Both are in the Harrison col- lection at Philadelphia. Birch-Pfeiffer, Charlotte, berH'pflf-er,. shar-lot'ta, German actress and dramatic writer : b. Stuttgart, 23 June 1800; d. 24 Aug. i858, her maiden name being Pfeiffer. She first appeared on the stage in her 13th year at Munich, and soon acquired a great reputation, her special role- being that of the heroines of tragedy. In 1825 she married Christian Birch, a writer of some note. After playing with success at places as far apart as St. Petersburg, Amsterdam, and Buda- pest, in 1837 she took the management of the theatre at Ziirich, and remained in this capacity till 1843. Next year she was engaged for the Theatre Royal, Berlin, and here she remained till her death. Her plays, mostly founded on novels, became well known on almost every stage in Germany, and give evidence of real dramatic talent, as well as of a knowledge of stage effects and what would suit the taste of the theatre-going public. Victor Hugo's ^ Notre Dame* and Charlotte Bronte's 'Jane Eyre* fur- nished her with materials for two of her dramas. She also wrote novels and tales. Her collected dramatic works appeared at Leipsic in 23 vol- umes (1863-80) ; her narrative writings in three (1863-5). Her daughter has become well known as a novelist under the name Wilhelmine von Hillern. Birch (Bcftila). a genus of trees belonging to the natural order (or sub-order) Betulacea, BIRCH which comprises only the birches and alders. The principal habitats of the trees of this order are North America, Europe, northern Asia, and the Himalayas. The common birch is hidige- nous throughout the north, and on high situ- ations in the south of Europe. It is extremely hardy, and only one or two other species of trees approach so near to the North Pole. There are two varieties natives of Great Britain, Bctula alba, and B. alba pcndula, or weeping-birch ; the latter by far the more valuable and ornamental. When young it may readily be distinguished by the touch, its bark being covered over with rough exudations, while that of the common tree is soft and velvety. Each variety is found exclu- sively in some districts, but frequently they are interspersed. Throughout the most remote parts of the Highlands of Scotland the birch is often found covering extensive tracts or rocky eleva- tions, where no other ligneous plant is to be met with. It also grows in glens and ravines, adorn- ing the margins of lakes and rivers, w'here the silvery whiteness of its trunk and the light and airy habit of its spray form beautiful and inter- esting pictures, even in the absence of every other tree. Though often found associated with the alder on swampy ground, yet few trees more successfully resist drought. Adapting itself to various soils and situations, it possesses a wider range than any other tree. It is well suited to form a cover on ground from which Scotch pine timber has been recently removed ; the exuvi?e, which always overspreads such places, though hostile to plants in general, are favorable to the birch, which commonly springs up and becomes the successor of the pine. The common tree, where it grows wild, attains a height of about 30 feet, and the weeping variety about 40 feet ; b)ut both sorts rise to a much greater height when formed into plantations, particularly when interspersed with other trees. Although the "birch is considered by no means a valuable tree, yet its wood, which is light in color, and firm and tough in texture, is used for a variety of purposes. Not long ago, in many parts of the Highlands, the birch may be said to have been the universal wood, and was used by the High- landers for every purpose. They made their beds, chairs, tables, dishes, and spoons of it, and «ven manufactured ropes and horse-harness by lieating and twisting its spray. The brushwood is used in forming wicker fences to prevent the inroads of cattle and sheep, in thatching cot- tages, and in forming brooms or besoms. The wood is largely used for fish-casks and hoops, and for smoking hams and herrings. Turners use it for trenchers, bowls, ladles, and other wooden ware. Ox-yokes, small screws, women's shoe-heels, pattens, and in France wooden shoes are made of it. Birch-trees are not unfrequently planted along with hazels, for the purpose of procuring wood to be converted into charcoal for forges. This charcoal is much esteemed, and the soot which is formed on burning the wood constitutes a good black substance for printers' ink. Nearly all the other parts are applicable to useful purposes. The bark is em- ployed in the tanning of leather ; and by fisher- men for preserving their nets and cordage, In America, northern Europe, and Asia it is util- ized for a great variety of purposes. The North American Indians use it for canoes, boxes, buck- ■ets, baskets, kettles, and dishes, curiously join- ing it together with threads made of roots of the cedar-tree. It is serviceable in dj^eing a yel- low color. In Norway it is dried, ground, mixed with meal, and boiled with other food for swine. The houses or huts in many parts of the north of Europe are covered with the outward and thicker part of the bark, instead of slates or tiles. It is spun into a coarse kind of cordage, woven into shoes and hats, and in some places even made into drinking cups. The Laplanders fasten together large pieces of it to keep off the rain. Abounding in resinous matter, slices of the bark are sometimes tied together to make torches. During a scarcity of corn it has, in several instances, been ground with bread corn, and successfully used as food for men. The leaves afford a yellow .dye. The sap, from the amoimt of sugar it contains, affords a kind of agreeable wine. Birch-wine is produced by the tree being tapped by boring a hole in the trunk, during warm weather, in the end of spring, or beginning of summer, when the sap runs most copiously. It is recorded that during the siege of Hamburg, in 1814, many birch-trees in that vicinity were destroyed in this manner by the Russian soldiers. The dwarf birch, Betula nana, is a low shrub, a native of parts of the High- lands of Scotland and of Arctic regions gen- erally. It is never more than two or three feet high, and is generally much less ; a full- grown plant being thus a very tiny example of a tree. It is used as fuel, and as stuffing for beds, and its seeds furnish food for ptarmigan and other birds. A similar species is a native of the Antarctic regions. Among others the black or river birch of North America {B. nigra'), grows to the height of 70 feet, and pro- duces hard and valuable timber. It is also known as the red birch, from the redness of the bark in the young trees. Another American species, the cherry birch or sweet birch (B. lenta), is also called the black birch. It grows to a similar height with the preceding, and yields even more valuable timber, used in mak- ing furniture, etc., being tough, fine-grained, and taking on a good polish. It has been intro- duced into Great Britain though not much known there. The paper birch (B. papyracca) is another American species which also attains a large size, and by some is regarded as a mere variety of the white or common birch. Its habitat extends within the Arctic Circle, but it becomes rare and stunted in the extreme north. It receives its name from the fact that thin strips of the brilliant white bark are sometimes used as a substitute for paper. The bark of this species is put to perhaps a greater variety of uses than that of any other, its wood and sap being also utilized. Another American birch is the yellow birch {B. cxcclsa), so named from the golden color of the outer bark. It is a large- leaved species, yielding timber used for ship- building, etc., and is a native of the eastern parts of Canada and the northeast of the United States. Of Himalayan species may be men- tioned B. blwjputfra, the Indian paper birch. Its thin papery bark has been used as paper from a remote period, and is still commonly used for packing purposes, for lining the flexible tubes of hookahs, and in other ways, while the wood is tough, and is emploj^ed in making arti- cles of various kinds. In its native mountains it may be found at an altitude of 10,000 to 13,000 feet. Several of the pigmy species de- serve mention. B. pumila, which is generally BIRCH. 1. Spray witn - Bird. 6. Black-billed Cuckoo. 7. Tree, or Canada Sparrow. 8. Red-eyed Vireo. 9. Golden-crowned Kinglet. 10. Little Screech-owl (red phase). 11. American Redstart. PARTS OF BIRDS 1. Digestive organs. 2. Forms of feet. — ■ a, partially webbed; b, lobe-foot; c, insessorial foot; d, runner's foot; e, walker's foot; f, palmated foot; g, gressorial foot; h, web foot; i, cloven foot; j, scansorial or yoke foot; k, cloven web foot; 1, staff-foot; m, cramp foot. 3. Forms of head and bill. — a, flamingo; b, spoon- bill; c, yellow-hammer; d, thrush; e, hawk; f, pelican; g, avocet; h, saw-bill; i, scissor-bill; j, dove; k, shoe- bill; 1, gap bill; m, arassari; n, ibis; o, song-bird; p, stork. 4. Feathers of a bird.— a, frontal; b, crown; c, occipital; d, bill; e, cheek; f, breast; g, abdominal; h, rump; i, croup; j and k, sickle feathers; 1, back; m, primary quilis; n, secondary quilis; o, coverts; p, pin- ions; q, shoulder-pinions. BIRDS — BIRDS OF PARADISE Birds, The, a comedy by the Greek drama- tist Aristophanes, that appeared in 414 b.c. It belongs with the writer's earlier plays, in which farcical situations, exuberant imagination, and a hnguistic revel, are to be noted. The comedy is a burlesque on the national mythology; the author creates a cloudland for his fancy to sport in without restraint. Birds of America, The, the monumental work of John James Audubon, the great Amer- ican naturalist, first published in England be- tween the years 1827 and 1830. It contained colored illustrations of 1,065 species of birds. The text is descriptive of the habits and man- ners of the birds observed by Audubon himself in his long wanderings over the North American continent. Bird's-eye Limestone, the old name of a rock of the Trenton formation, now called Lowville Limestone. It is a fine-grained, dove- colored stone, in which the crystallized corals of the genus Tetradium appear as whitish points. Bird's-ioot, iOniifJiofytis) . a genus of about seven species of small slender pinnate-leaved, white, pink, or yellow flowered annual herbs of the natural order Legtiminosce. The common and generic names were suggested by the shape of the articulated, cylindrical pods which re- semble the bent claws of a bird. The prin- cipal species, O. sativiis, is used as a forage plant. Birds' Nests. See Nests. Birds' Nests, Edible, the nests of the salangane {Collocalia fiiciphaga) and other spe- cies of swifts or swiftlets, found in the Malay Archipelago, and used as an article of luxury among the Chinese. They are particularly abundant in Sumatra and Borneo, especially near the north end of the island. The nest has the shape of a common swallow's nest, is about the size of a half teacup, is found in caves, particu- larly in sea-cliffs, and has the appearance of fibrous gelatine or isinglass. They appear to be composed of a mucilaginous substance secret- ed by special glands, and are not, as was for- merly thought, made from a glutinous marine fucus or seaweed. The finest nests at present .are said to bring as high a price as $12 or $13 a pound. Seventy-five or one hundred dollars' worth are said to be sent to Singapore and China annually. They are bought almost ex- clusively bj' the rich Chinese, who consider them a great stimulant and tonic, and are used in making soup. The finest are those obtained before the nest has been contaminated by the young birds ; they are pure white, and are comparativeh"^ scarce. The inferior ones are dark, streaked with blood, or mixed with feath- ers ; they are chiefly converted into glue. Sorne of the caverns in which these nests are built are difficult of access and dangerous to climb, so that none can collect the nests but persons brought up to the trade. The following account of the traffic in these birds' nests is extracted from Crawfurd's excellent work on the East- ern Archipelago: *The best nests are those obtained in deep, damp caves, and such as are taken before the birds have laid their eggs . . . They are taken twice a year, and if regular- ly collected, and no unusual injury be offered to the caverns, will produce very equally, the quantity being very little, if at all, improved by the caves being left altogether unmolested for a year or two. Some of the caverns are ex- tremely difficult of access, and the nests can only be collected by persons accustomed from their youth to the office. The most remarkable and productive caves in Java, of which I superin- tended a moiety of the collection for several years, are those of Karang-bolang, in the prov- ince of Baglen, on the southern coast of the island. Here the caves are only to be ap- proached by a perpendicular descent of many hundred feet by ladders of bamboo and rattan over a sea rolling violently against the rocks. When the mouth of the cavern is attained, the perilous office of taking the nests must often be performed with torchlight, by penetrating into recesses of the rock, where the slightest trip would be instantly fatal to the adventurers, who see nothing below them but the turbulent surf making its way into the chasms of the rock. The only preparation which the birds' nests undergo is that of simple drying, without direct exposure to the sun, after which they are packed in small boxes, usually of half a picul . . . They are consumed only by the great ; and indeed the best part is sent to the capital for the consumption of the court. The sensual Chinese use them under the imagination that they are powerfully stimulating and tonic ; but it is probable that their most valuable quality is their being perfectly harmless. The people of Japan, who so much resemble the Chinese in many of their habits, have no taste for the edible nests ; and how the latter acquired a taste for this foreign commodity is no less singular than their persevering in it.*' Birds of Passage, any migratory birds. See ^IlGRATION. Birds of Paradise, a family of birds of New Guinea, northern Australia, and the neigh- boring islands, which contains a large number of species, notable for splendid plumage, al- though they are most nearly allied to the plainly dressed crows. The name "bird of paradise'* is a translation of the native name in the Island of Batchian, "manukdewata," meaning birds of the gods. About 50 species of these birds are known, varying in size from that of a crow to that of a sparrow ; all are forest birds, spend- ing their lives in the tree-tops, where many of them go about in small flocks, active and noisy, but are inclined to hide themselves in the thickest foliage, as though aware that their plumage rendered them easily conspicuous to their enemies. None are singers, and in most cases the voice is a loud, harsh cry, or a sharp whistle, or in some species, strange mewing notes. It is related that on some of the islands certain species were called "birds of the sun.'* because of their habit of joining in loud cho- ruses at sunrise. Their diet consists mainly of fruit, and especially of berries and seeds ; the fig and the nutmeg are especially eaten, and some species suck honey from the large tropical flowers. Insects are captured by all species, as also are the numerous snails inhabiting the trees and bushes of that region, and the larger forms devour frogs and lizards. In pursuit of insects, worms, and snails, several species spend much of their time scrambling about the trunks of trees, and searching the bark, like creepers. The breeding habits of these birds vary extens- ively, and the nests and eggs of many have not BIRDS OF PARADISE yet been discovered. The typical paradise-birds construct rather loose, careless platforms of sticks and leaves, moss, etc., placed in trees or bushes, and lay eggs which are much streaked and spoiled, and vary in color and patterns. The very extraordmary nests and play-grounds of that section of the family which is terrestrial, and inhabits Australia, are described under bower-birds (q.v.). Interest in the birds of paradise centres in their marvelous displays of plumage. These are exhibited in most species by the male alone, the female being comparatively plain and simple in her attire, as also are the young of both sexes, until the young males arrive at maturity. This dissimilarity between the females and males of birds in which the latter are highly adorned, is a protective arrangement, designed to keep the females from observation while they are sitting defenseless upon their nests, where they would easily be discovered, and often killed, did they wear the conspicuous colors and ornaments of their brilliant mates. Natural selection, by keep- ing their colors, and those of the inexperienced and comparatively helpless young ones plain, has tenued to preserve the species ; and at the time when the females are brooding their mates remain at a discreet distance from the nests, so as not to iDCtray their position to the monkeys, lemurs, civets, serpents, and other searchers for eggs and fledglings. The same influence, acting through sexual selection (q.v.), has de- veloped in the males the bright colors and eccen- tric adornments which distinguish this group of birds as a means of increasing their attractive- ness in the eyes of the females. The theory is that the most beautiful male will be chosen first as a mate, and will transmit to its offspring its tendency toward ornamentation or high color, and that thus, by constant rivalry between the males, the excessive ornamentation in this group has slowly arisen. A justification for this view is found in the fact that in the courting season, which occurs at the opening of the rainy season, numbers of males of each species gather in certain spots, sometimes on the ground, but more usually on the limbs of the forest trees, and go through a great variety of movements and strange antics, lifting their wings, spreading their tails, erecting their crests, and apparently doing everything in their power to display their finery in the eyes of the females, and thus solicit them to make a choice. Natives call these as- semblages, which usually occur at sunrise, and always in the same place, ^^dancing parties,'* and it is during this time that they secure specimens for the trade, by shooting them from ambush with blunt arrows. So persistent has been the demand for their skins and feathers, chiefly for millinery purposes, that many of the species have been nearly exterminated. This may easily occur from the fact that the range of most of the birds of paradise is very limited, several species being confined to a single island. Their increase, too, is slow, as most of them lay only two or three eggs, a condition which has arisen from the fact that their natural enemies are comparatively few. They have oc- casionally been captured alive, and kept for a time in captivity, even in the zoological gardens of Europe, btit they do not thrive in confinement. The best-known of the birds of paradise, is the great emerald paradise bird (Paradcisea apoda) of the Moluccas which was brought to Europe first in 1523, by the members of Magellan's com- pany, on their return from the first circumnavi- gation of the world. They brought two dead specimens which had been given to them in the island of Batchian as a mark of royal favor. From these skins the natives, as was their custom, had cut off both the wings, and the feet; and this gave rise to the absurd stories of the early books, that the paradise birds were naturally footless and wingless, never perched, suspended themselves by the tail-feathers, etc. It was also said that they gazed perpetually at the sun, and that the hen laid her eggs on the back of her spouse. This species is as large as a crow. The male is rich brown, becoming purplish beneath ; the head and neck are pale yellow, the forehead, cheeks, and throat, metallic green. From the sides of the body, beneath the wings, spring thick tufts of delicate, loosely- webbed, golden-orange feathers, which, v'hen the wings are lifted, may be lifted and spread out so as to seem to fall like a shower over the whole bird ; and the two middle tail-feathers are like long wires, each with a very slight flag-like web at the tip. It would be impossible to describe at length the great variety and splendor of the plumage of these eccentrically ornate birds, only a few of which may be further alluded to. In the red bird of paradise (Para- disca sangiiinca) the plumage is like velvet in a variety of gorgeous colors, and the tufts at the sides are rich crimson, while the elegantly curling central tail-shafts are 21 inches in length. A genus of New Guinea (Cincinntirus) includes a number of species, only about six inches long, called the king birds of paradise, which are distinguished by large tufts of fan- like plumes on each side of the breast. Another genus (Parotia) has as its especial ornament a group of three long feathers springing from behind each eye, which are in the form of me- tallic wires, with a racket-like web at the end that may be erected and moved about as the bird wishes. Otherwise the plumage is black, except for some vivid steel-green and white feathers about the head. Some species have a distinct shield of metallic, scale-like feathers, upon the back or upon the breast, which may be glossy blue, or green, or violet, or glowing scarlet, or a mixture of these. The acme of this strange and gorgeous development in plu- mage seems to be attained by the "superb'' bird of paradise (LopJwrliiiia superba), which is cha- racterized by the presence of an enormous erec- tile forked shield of velvety hlack feathers arising from the nape of the neck, and when in repose lying flatly on the back. So strange and apparently incongruous is this shield, that it might suggest to the beholder that the tail of some other bird had been stuck on to the skin, were it not that its feathers are of a different type. The ground-color of the plumage is of the deepest black, but with bronze reflections on the neck; while the feathers of the head are metallic green and blue. Spreading over the breast is a shield composed of narrow and rather stiff feathers, which extends in a pointed form, along each side, and is emarginate in the middle. In color, this is bluish-green, with a satiny sheen; the back shield, on the other hand, is velvety black, with reflections of bronze and purple, its outer' most feathers exceeding the primaries of the wing in length. The natives say that the enor- mous crest, when displayed during the courtship BIRDS OF PREY. BIRDS OF PREY. 1. Hobby (Falco subbuteo). 2. RuppelTs African Vulture (Gyps Ruppelll). 3. Carancho (Polyborus Brasiliensis). 4. Common Buzzard (Buteo vulgaris). 5. Sparrow Hawk (Accipiter Nisus). 6. Bataleur Eagle (Helotarsus ecaudatus). 7. South American Buzzard-Hawk .Vsturira polyzona). 8. East Indian Pigeon-Hawk or Turumti (Falco chiquera) BiRDS OF PREY — BIRETTA of the female, is not only raised, but spread widely out, in a fan-like manner, while the chest shield is similarly expanded. Hence the head of the bird forms a circle of irregular feathers of velvety black and emerald, completely concealing the rest of the body when viewed from the front. General information as to the birds of para- dise vcill be found in books of East Indian travel, especially in ^The Malay Archipelago* (1869), by Alfred Russel Wallace, the first naturalist to study these birds attentivel}' in their native haunts. As early as 1873, Daniel Elliot com- pleted a magnificent monograph of the family, illustrated with colored folio plates, and in 1881 was published a second monograph, by Sal- vadori. as a part of his general work on the ornithology of the Papuan region. Still more recently German naturalists have increased our knowledge of this family by many papers in ■German scientific periodicals, which have been titilized by Rothschild in the preparation of his account of these birds in ^Das Tier-reich* (Ber- lin 1898). The most recent sketches are those of the 'Ro3'al Natural History^ (Lond. 1895), and Evans, ^ Birds* (Lond. 1900). Birds of Prey. This group is a survival of the old-fashioned classification of animals by resemblances in appearance and function, rather than in structure. Broadly speaking, a bird of prey is merely one which subsists by attacking and' devouring living creatures, and hence the name covers such birds as skuas, frigate-birds, shrikes, and fish-catching birds, as well as the ■eagles, hav.'ks, and owls, to which it is restricted by popular usage. In all these cases ihe adapta- tions are for a predatory life, especially marked in the strong seizing talons of the hawks and owls, and in their hooked, sharp-edged beaks, suitable for tearing and cutting, along with which go suitable modifications of the digestive organs, characteristic of the accipiters. These adaptations bear a curious, yet natural likeness to the claws, teeth, etc., of carnivorous mam- mals and reptiles. Birdsall, William W., American educator: b. Richmond, Ind., 1854. He was graduated from Earlham College, Indiana. 1873 and was a successful teacher in and head of large secondary schools until 1898. He was president of Swarth- more College, Pennsjdvania, 1898-1902. Birdwood, Herbert Mills, English lawyer: b. Belgaum, Bombay Presidency, 29 May 1837. He was educated at Edinburgh University, and w^as dean of arts (1868, 1881, 1888, 1890) and syndic at the Bombay University, and vice- chancellor 1891-2. He entered the Bombay civil service 1858 .; was made assistant collector and magistrate 1859; assistant judge 1862; under secretary to the government, judicial, political, and educational departments, and secretary of the legislative council 1863 ; acting registrar of the high court, Bombay 1867; district judge for Ratnagiri, Surat, and Thana 1871-80; judi- cial commissioner and judge of the sadar court, Sind 1881 ; three times acting judge of the high court, Bombay 1881-5 : puisne judge of the high court of Bombay 1885-92; and member of the executive council of the governor of Bombay 1892-7. His publications include < Catalogue' of the Flora of Matheran and Ma- Jiableshwar* ; < Catalogue of Bills Introduced into the Bombay Legislative Council in 1862-5* ; and papers relating to the constitution of the council, the plague in Bombay, etc. Bireme, a Roman ship of war with two banks of oars. It was inferior, in magnitude and strength, to the trireme. Biren, be-ron, or Biron, Ernest John von (Duke of Courlandj, Russian statesman (grandson of a groom of James, Duke of Cour- land, and the son of a Courland proprietor of the name of Biihren) : b. 1687; d. 28 Dec. i'/'72. He studied at Konigsberg, secured the favor of Anna, Duchess of Courland, and niece of Peter the Great of Russia ; but he was unsuccessful in b's attempt to obtain admission among the Courland nobility. When, in 1730, Anna as- cended the Russian throne Biren was loaded by her with honors and introduced at the Russian court. Here he assumed the name and arms of the Dukes of Biron in France. Fierce and haughty by nature, he indulged his hatred against the rivals of his ambition. The Princes Dolgorucky were his first victims. He caused 11,000 persons to be put to death, and double that number to be exiled. It is said that the empress often threw herself at his feet to induce him to lay aside his severity, but that neither her entreaties nor her tears were able to move him. The firmness of his character, however, introduced vigor and activity into all branches of the administration throughout the empire. In 1737 Anna forced the Courlanders to choose her favorite (who had in 1722 mar- ried a Courland lady) for their Duke. After declaring Prince Ivan her successor, she ap- pointed Biren regent. Anna died 28 Oct. 1740, The new regent acted with prudence and mod- eration. But a secret conspiracy was soon formed against him. Field Marshal Miinnich caused him to be arrested in his bed during the night of 19 Nov. 1740, and to be confined in the castle of Schliisselburg. He was subjected to a trial ; but the sentence of death was changed into that of imprisonment for life, and his for- tune was declared confiscated. Together with his family he was transported to Pelym, in Si- beria, and thrown into a prison, of which Miinnich himself had furnished the plan. In the following year Elizabeth, daughter of Peter the Great, being raised to the Russian throne by a new revolution, Biren was recalled 20 Dec. 1 74 1, and Miinnich was obliged to occupy his prison. At Kasan the sledges met ; the travelers recognized each other, and proceeded on their way without interchanging a word. Biren was detained at Jaroslav, and only received his full liberty in 1762 from Peter HI. When Catherine II. ascended the throne the Duchy of Courland was restored to Biren in 1763. He governed with wisdom and lenity, transferring the gov- ernment to his eldest son, Peter. Biretta, a cap worn by ecclesiastics, espe- cially those of the Roman Church, though .some ritualistic clergymen of the Anglican Church also wear it. It is of considerable antiquity, though it has varied in shape and material at different times. It is at present a stiff-sided, square- shaped cap with sharp edges, a flattened top sur- mounted by ridges rising above it, having in the centre a sort of tuft or tassel. It is made of cloth or stuff, the color being black for priests, purple or violet for bishops, and scarlet for cardinals. See Vestments. BIRGE — BIRMINGHAM Birge, Edward Asahel, American natural- ist: b. Troy, N. Y., 7 Sept. 1851. He graduated at Williams College 1873 ; studied physiology and histology at Leipsic 1880-1 ; became instruc- tor of natural history in the University of Wis- consni 1875; professor of zoology 1879; dean of the College of Letters and Science in 1891 ; and acting president of the . university 1900-1. In 1894 he became director of the Geological and Natural History Survey of Wisconsin. He has written many articles and papers on zoology. Birge, Henry Warner, American soldier: b. Hartford, Conn., 25 Aug. 1825 ; d. New York, I June 1888. At the outbreak of the Civil War he organized the 4th regiment Connecticut Vol- unteers, and was commissioned its major 23 May 1861. In November 1861 his uncle. Gov. Buckingham of Connecticut, appointed him colonel of the 13th Connecticut Volunteers, which joined Butler's army at New Orleans. He took part in the siege of Vicksburg and the first Red River campaign ; commanded a divi- sion in Grant's Virginia campaign ; and was with Sheridan in the latter's most brilliant move- ments in the Shenandoah valley. In November 1865 he resigned with the rank of brevet major- general. His services were recognized by an appreciative vote of thanks from the legislature of Connecticut. Birkbeck, George, originator of mechanics' institutes: b. Settle, Yorkshire, 10 Jan. 1776; d. I Dec. 1841. He studied medicine at Edinburgh and took the degree of M.D. in 1799, among his friends and fellow students being Brougham and Jeffrey. Being appointed to the chair of natural and experimental philosophy in the Andersonian University at Glasgow, in 1799, he delivered his first course of lectures. The fol- lowing year he began to give gratuitous lectures to mechanics, which were soon largely attended. This was the first attempt to establi,sh mechanics' institutes, and to Dr. Birkbeck the honor of being their founder belongs. The Glasgow Mechanics' Institution, though not established till 1823, owed its origin to these lectures de- livered by him. In 1804 he settled as a physi- cian in London, and was soon engaged in an extensive practice ; but the extension of scientific knowledge to mechanics was ever in his thoughts, and in 1824 he had the happiness of being elected pjresident of the London Me- chanics' Institution, for which that at Glasgow had led the way. Similar institutions soon arose and prospered in all the larger towns of the kingdom. Dr. Birkbeck was also connected with the foutading of University Col- lege, London, advocated the repeal of the tax on newspapers, and was active as a lecturer and promoter of various educational movements. The London Mechanics' Institution still exists, but it is now known as the Birkbeck Literary and Scientific Institution. Birkenhead, England, a parliamentary, county, and municipal borough of Cheshire, on the estuary of the Mersey, opposite Liverpool. Its growth has been rapid. It owes its pros- perity to the same causes that have made Liver- pool a great seaport, and may be regarded as a suburb of that city. Its docks have a lineal quay space of over nine miles, with a complete system of railway communication for the ship- ment of goods and direct coaling of steamers. It has a handsome square, a town-hall ; sessions court and police courts ; market ; moderr? slaughter-houses ; public baths ; and ranges of dwelling-houses for workmen, unusually com- plete in their accommodation and in all their appointments. The system of drainage and sewerage is very complete. There is a theo- logical college of the Church of England (St. Aidan's) ; a free public library, schools of art, etc. The ruins of an ancient Benedictine priory founded in 1153 still exist in a good state of preservation. The ferry privileges were for- merly vested in the monks of this priory. The benevolent institutions comprise an infirmary, children's and lying-in hospitals, and a dispen- sary. It has a large public park of 114 acres beautifully laid out, and another and smaller public park. Its magnificent docks and dock warehouses, however, which belong to the splen- did Liverpool system, form the distinguishing feature of Birkenhead. The Mersey tunnel, 4J/2 miles long, including the approaches, 21 feet high, and 26 feet wide, and which cost $6,100,000,. now connects Liverpool with Birkenhead. Communication with Liverpool is also kept up by steam ferries, the property of the corporation, which yield a handsome revenue. The corpora- tion also owns the gas, water, and electric light- ing plants, and the tramway lines, which were introduced here by George Francis Train, one of the earliest systems in Great Britain. The water-supply, which is abundant and of excel- lent quality, is obtained within the borotigh by pumping from the red sandstone strata which underlies it. Birkenhead has gained a distin- guished name for ship-building, the extensive yards of Laird Bros, (builders of the famous Confederate ship Alabama) being located here. There are machine and engineering works, wagon factories, flour-mills, oil-cake mills, etc. Birkenhead has returned a member to Parlia- ment since 1861. It received a charter of incor- poration as a municipal borough in 1877. Pop. (1821) 236; (1901) 110,926. Bir'ket-el-Keroon' ("lake of the horn^>), Egypt, a lake in the Fayoom, about 30 miles long and 6 miles wide. It communicates with the Nile and had connection formerly with the ar- tificial Lake Mosris, with which it has been con- founded. Birkett, Herbert Stanley, Canadian physi- cian: b. Hamilton, Ont., 17 July 1864. He grad- tiated at McGill University in 1886; was senior house surgeon to the Montreal General Hos- pital 1886-7 ; and assistant physician to the Montreal Dispensary 1887-9. He is a Fellow of the American Laryngologist Association. In 1889 he was appointed demonstrator of anat- omy at McGill University, and in 1900 was laryngologist to the Montreal General Hospital, and aurist to the Mackay Institute for Deaf Mutes. Birmingham, Ala., ^'the Pittsburg of the South," the industrial head of the entire South between Atlanta and New Orleans, and the chief centre of the iron and coal industry south of Pennsylvania ; county-seat of Jefferson County, in the northern centre, midway between the Coosa and Black Warrior rivers, 608 feet above the sea in a valley, near where the last Appala- chian spurs sink to the coast plain ; 96 miles- north of Montgomery, the State capital, and i68- miles west of Atlanta, on six trunk roads : the: Southern, L. & N., Kansas Citj', M. & B.. Cen- BIRMINGHAM trai of G., Alabama G. S. (Queen & Crescent), and Seaboard A. L. R.R.'s. It is situated in the heart of the greatest coal, iron, and lime- stone district of the South. Around it lie three huge coal fields, the Warrior, Cahaba, and Coosa, aggregating over 8,6io square miles, with some 60 seams, more than half of them worka- ble; the nearest deposits being only 4 miles from the city. Birmingham is built partly upon the slope of Red Mountain, named from its out- crop of hematite iron ore, which extends many miles in every direction from the city, in a vein from 6 to 26 feet thick with an indefinite depth. This district produced in 1902 about 90 per cent of the State's production of 10,329,479 tons of coal, 2,210,735 tons of coke, and 1,472,211 tons of pig iron. Six hundred thousand freight cars were handled in and out of Birmingham, carry- ing 70 per cent of the entire tonnage of Ala- bama in 1902, and also hauling nearly 1,000,000 tons of limestone. This ideal equipment for the production of iron and steel at the lowest cost, is building up a great city with such rapidity that no statistics can be other than temporary. Business Interests. — It is estimated that there are in Jefferson County more than 300 mining and manufacturing plants of various kinds, among which are 27 blast furnaces, 7,168 coke ovens, 60 coal mines, a large number of mines and stone quarries, 2 steel plants, 3 roll- ing mills, a wire rod and nail mill, a steel rail mill, besides other plants of various kinds. There are in Jefferson County 50,000 wage- earners who receive more than $2,750,000 per month. The gross volume of business in mining and manufacturing during the year 1902 was estimated at $60,000,000, and the gross volume of business in the general wholesale and retail trade amounted to about $42,000,000, making the total amount of business for the year 1902, $102,000,000. In 1901 alone, 124 new companies were organized with a capital of $8,955,100 and existing corporations increased their capital stock $2,650,000 and made extensions to their plants costing over $4,000,000. The record for the year 1902 will show an increase of at least 10 per cent over the year 1901 in new companies and in additional capital. The furnaces of the district (including the suburbs, practically part of the city, though not yet formerly incorpo- rated) turned out in 1902 1,472,211 tons of pig iron, against 1,225,308 in 1901, and 68,927 in 1880. In 1900 it furnished six sevenths of the total United States' export of pig iron, but since then none of the product has been exported on account of the increased home demand. The first steel plant .in the South was started in 1897 at Birmingham, two open-hearth furnaces of 160 tons a day ; now^ the Tennessee Coal, Iron & Railroad Company has in operation at Ensley. a suburb, 10 furnaces and a 44-inch blowing mill, capacity 1,000 tons a day. This is the largest basic open-hearth plant in the world except the Carnegie works at Homestead. There is a casting plant and rail mill in connec- tion with it. The Alabama Steel and Ship- building Company began in 1899 with $1,000,000 capital, and the Alabama Steel and Wire Com- pany with $2,000,000 capital. Besides the plants already mentioned, Birmingham has a steel cast- ing plant, a bi-product plant, a wrought pipe plant, 2 cast pipe and foundry plants, 2 soil pipe plants, I clay pipe plant. 2 cement factories, 1 chemical works, i fertilizer factory, 2 breweries. I corn mill, i flour mill, 5 ice factories, r gas and gasoline engine works, i iron and steel bridge works, 2 boiler works, 6 foundries and machine shops, i stove foundry, 3 railroad shops, 3 sash factories, 2 wagon factories, i agricul- tural implement works, 3 printing and book- binding concerns, i hollow ware plant, 20 brick plants, 15 planing mills and wood-working plants, and i packing company. Birmingham is also a cotton market, the cotton receipts for 1901-2 amounting to 100,000 bales. It has 2 cotton factories, 2 cotton-seed oil mills, and I knitting factory. Besides the unparalleled cheapness of material, its transportation facilities are shortly to be greatly increased by the com- pletion of the government improvements on the Warrior and Tombigbee rivers, by which coal and other products can be transported to tide water at Mobile, thence to the Atlantic sea- board, at greatly reduced cost. Public IVorks and Institutions. — Birming- ham is a handsome and solidly built city, with wide avenues, handsome dwellings, and imposing public buildings. It has a large government building, county court-house, new city hall, costing over $200,000, and three new lo-story steel-frame "skyscrapers," one of them costing over $600,000. Among the other notable build- ings are the Jefferson Theatre, the Auditorium, St. Vincent's Hospital, Hillman's Hospital, Union Station, and Hillman Hotel. There are 16 or more public parks, the most prominent of which are the Capitol, North Birmingham, East Lake, and Lakeview. The city has an extensive waterworks system, with a reservoir on Shade's ^Mountain, 225 feet above the city, a Waring system of sewerage, and over 100 miles of street railroads, connecting it not only with its imme- diate suburbs, but with points many miles away. There are over 50 white churches, a public library, 11 ho.spitals and infirmaries, 13 public schools, 16 newspapers, including 3 dailies. ^ military organizations, 2 telephone companies, 13 private sciiools and colleges, including i medical college, i dental college. 2 business col- leges, Howard College (Baptist, at East Lake, 5 miles northeast, founded 1841). Northern Ala- bama (Methodist) and a colored normal train- ing school. Its charitable institutions comprise St. Vincent's Hospital, Hillman Hospital. Mercy Home. Jeffer.son County Alms House, and the Boys' Industrial School at East Lake. Finances and Government. — The assessed valuation of the city property for 1902 was $18,318,408, which is on about a 50 percent basis; tax rate for 1902. State, county, and city, $2.30; public outlay for 1902, in':luding $39,362.60 iot public schools. $463,489.69. In 1902. however, a special expenditure of $229,856 was made for cement sidewalks, street improvements, and sewers. The government of the city is in the hands of a mayor and city council, elected bien- nially, and an elected police commission and a nominated board of education. The rapid development of Birmingham's business is best shown by the infallible test of the clearing house, the only one in Alabama. In 1897 the clearings amounted to $20,907,495 J in 1899. to $34,469,751. and in 1902 to over $56,000,000, having nearly trebled in five years. Part of this is due to the increasing use of the Birmingham banks by territory which formerly sought those of the other large cities. The Bir- mingham banks furnish funds for moving BIRMINGHAM 125,000 bales of cotton. Their business often exceeds $1,000,000 a day. In 4 years, 1898-1902, their deposits increased from $3,500,000 to $9,251,820. There are 9 banking institutions in the city, 2 national, with an aggregate capital of $1,848,500. Popiilaiion and History. — By the census, the population in 1880, the first after Birmingham's settlement, was 3,086; in 1890, 26,178; in 1900, 38,415. But these figures tell only part of the story and are very misleading. Birmingham is entirely the creation of the last 30 years. The future of the district was foreseen as early as 1849, but the first attempt t® realize it was about 1870, by a company which bought a large tract of land around Elyton, then the county- seat, now a suburb of Birmingham, which sought to make that the centre of the new de- velopment. It failed because prices were too high, and another company bought a tract to the east, where stood a single shanty on the spot where the Florence Hotel now stands, which they named Birmingham. The next year a small iron furnace was erected and this started up coal mining. Coal had hitherto lacked a market, but in 1874, 50,400 tons were mined. The demand of the Oxmoor furnace for coal led, in 1879, to the opening of the Pratt mines, and with this began the era of great growth. The population leaped in the next decade from 3,000 to 26,000, a growth unparalleled in United States history, except by Chicago. Retarded for some years by the collapse of the boom, it still had grown 50 per cent by 1900. In fact, the in- crease was more than double that, for the nomi- nal city is only the business hub of a large group of cities and towns, built up by the same inter- ests and but little removed from each other, which will probably in the near future be an- nexed under the name Greater Birmingham, giv- ing it a population of more than 200,000. The largest of these surrounding towns is Bessemer, 1 1 miles away ; others are Ensley, Pratt City, Elyton, Gate City, Irondale, Powderly, West End, Smithfield, East Birmingham, North Bir- mingham, East Lake, Woodlawn, Kingston, Jonesville, and Avondale. The figures for the county are equally significant: When Birming- ham was settled, it had 12,345 inhabitants; in 1900 it had 140,420, practically all the growth of the Birmingham district. The rapidity of the city's present growth is shown by the fact that in 1902 nearly 1,900 new dwellings and business buildings were erected, at a cost of over $3,250,000. Roy McCullough, Secretary Board of Trade. Birmingham, England, one of the greatest manufacturing cities of the world, situated on the River Rea, near its confluence with the Tame, an affluent in the northwest extremity of the county of Warwick, 112 miles northwest of London, and nearly in the centre of England (north iat. 52° 28' 45", west long. 1° 54'). The lower part of the city, consisting chiefly of old houses, is crowded with workshops and ware- houses, and inhabited principally by the working classes; but the upper part has some fine streets and buildings, and there are fine suburbs west- ward and southward of the city. Public Bitildinss. — The town hall, built of Anglesey marble in 1832, is a rectangular build- ing, modeled after the temple of Jupiter Stator at Rome. Its large hall is 145 feet long, 65 feet wide, and 65 feet high, seating 2,250 persons, and contains a magnificent organ. In this hall a great musical festival is held once every three years the proceeds of which go to the General Hospital. It was at the Birmingham Festival that Mendelssohn's oratorio, 'Elijah,^ was first performed (1846), and Gounod's * Redemption' and Elgar's ^Dream of Gerontius' are among other famous works first heard at this festival. Among other public buildings of note are the council-house, for the accommodation of the different corporation offices, with fine reception rooms and council chamber, erected 1874-S (cost $1,000,000) ; the Victoria Law Courts, a fine edifice in terra cotta (Renaissance), (cost $580,- 000) ; University buildings, municipal technical school, municipal schools of art and design, Bingley Hall (a large covered place holding 25,000 persons, wherein the late John Bright, W. E. Gladstone, and Joseph Chamberlain have addressed vast audiences), post-office, corpora- tion baths, the stations of the L. & N. W., Mid- land, and Great Western R.R.'s, cavalry bar- racks, public libraries, the Exchange buildings, art gallery (special features, paintings by David Co.x and by the Pre-Raphaelite school of artists, and valuable collections illustrative of industrial arts), Birmingham and ^Midland Institute, corn exchange. Masonic hall, markets, etc. Monuments. — The public statues include those of Queen "Victoria, Prince Albert, James Watt, Joseph Priestley, Lord Nelson, Sir Robert Peel, John Bright, Joseph Sturge, Thomas Att- wood, George Dawson, Dr. R. W. Dale, Sir Josiah Mason, etc. Churches, Hospitals, etc. — The mother church of Birmingham is that of Saint Martin's, or the Old Church (built about 1250, rebuilt 1875), the parish registers of which date from the year 1544; this church contains several altar tombs of the Birmingham family. Saint Philip's (re- cently constituted the cathedral church) was the second parish church, built 171 1, palladian style, restored 1868; both churches contain fine stained-glass windows designed by Sir E. Burne Jones, a native of Birmingham. Among the more noteworthy non-anglican churches are the Roman Catholic Cathedral of Saint Chad, a noble Gothic church designed by Pugin, richly adorned with stained-glass windows, and with fine i6th century pulpit and stalls ; the Oratory of S- Philip Neri (founded by Cardinal New- man) ; the old Meeting House of Carr's Lane (Congregational), associated with the labors of John Angell James and R. W. Dale ; the Wes- leyan Central ^Mission Hall, erected 1903, sur- mounted by a lofty Renaissance tower, and seat- ing over 2,000 persons (cost $300,000) ; the two LTnitarian churches, "Old Meeting House* and "Church of the Messiah," the successors of the old meeting houses destroyed in the memorable riots of 1791. Among the charitable institutions the most important are the General Hospital (founded 1766, rebuilt on new site 1894-7, cost over $1,000,000); the Queen's Hospital; Free Hospital for Sick Children ; Women's Hospital : Ear and Throat Hospital ; Orthopaedic and BIRMINGHAM Spinal Hospital; Homoeopathic Hospital; Skin and Lock Hospital ; Dental Hospital ; Eye Hos- pital; Jaffray Hospital for Convalescent pa- tients, etc. Educational Institutions. — The principal edu- 'Cational institutions are the Birmingham Uni- versity, incorporated 1900, a growth of Mason University College, founded by Sir Josiah Mason in 1875 (and further endowed by public sub- scription with about $2,000,000), which has fac- ulties of arts, science, medicine, and commerce, and new buildings for the engineering, physics, and science sections generally are now (1907) in course of erection at a cost of over $1,500,000; Roman Catholic College at Oscott ; Wesleyan Theological College at Handsworth ; Saltley diocesan training college; Free Grammar School founded by Edward VI. out of the endowments of the older Birmingham town gild, which has a central and five branch schools ; Blue Coat School ; Protestant Dissenting Charity School (for maintaining and educating poor girls for domestic service) ; the municipal schools of art and design, and technical schools; industrial schools, and numerous public elementary schools, mostly erected by the now defunct School Board, and maintained by the council under the Educa- tion act, 1902. Libraries. — There is a central free library, having 170,000 volumes in its reference library, a Shakespeare Memorial Library (11,500 vol- umes), and eleven lending libraries, containing over 110,000 volumes; the Birmingham Library, an old proprietary library (established 1779), contains 80.000 volumes. Parks, etc. — There are ten public parks and several recreation grounds, and the city owns two natural beauty-spots somewhat remote from its boundaries, viz. Rednal Hill (Lickey), and Warley Abbej' estate. In Aston park (one of the oldest belonging to the city) is Aston Hall, a fine Jacobean residence built by Sir Thomas Holte in 1618, which was besieged in the civil war by the parliamentary forces, December 1643. Its chief features are the long gallery, one of the finest in England, and the great staircase, which was injured during the siege. The Hall is now a public museum. Industries. — The prosperity of Birmingham is attributable to the excellence, variety, and ex- tent of its hardware manufactures, as well as to its geographically central situation on the horder of the great South Staffordshire coal and iron district, combined with the command of a wide and ready transit by canal and railway. There is an extensive system of tramways. At Soho, in the vicinity of the city, was the earliest and one of the largest steam-engine manufac- tories in the world, belonging to Boulton, part- ner of the celebrated James Watt. The Soho works were founded in 1757 and came into the possession of Matthew Boulton in 1762. Not a vestige of the building now remains. One of the most important manufactures is that of firearms. The number of gun-barrels tested in some recent years has been between 500,000 and 600,000. The manufacture of swords is also one of the ■staple trades. Cast-iron articles of all kinds, and of the m.ost beautiful patterns and work- manship, are manufactured at Birmingham to a great extent. In former years iron-founding was limited to large and heavy articles, but is now extended to the lightest and most grace- ful, in the finishing of which bronze is very generally employed. The manufacture of rail- way wagons and carriages has been very exten- sively developed. The quantity of solid gold and silver plate manufactured is large, and the consumption of silver in plating is very great. Electro-plating was first practised in this town in 1840. Japanning, brass-founding, glass man- ufacturing, and glass staining or painting, are important trades. There are also large chemical works for vitriol, sal-ammoniac, cobalt, and other substances. Steel pens, of which hundreds of millions are manufactured annually, pins, fancy seals, brooches, clasps, and other trinkets are made in immense quantities. Bicycles are now made in Birmingham in greater numbers than in any other town. Government, etc. — The charter of incorpora- tion dates from 1838. By the Reform Act of 1S32, Birmingham was constituted a borough, sending two members to Parliament. The act of 1867 gave it a third, while that of 1885 added four others and divided the borough into seven parliamentary districts. In 1888 it was raised by order in council to the rank of a city, and by the Local Government Act of that year, it also became a county borough. A further order in council (1896) conferred upon the chief magistrate of the city the title of lord mayor. In 1891 the boundaries of the borough were ex- tended, and its area is now 12,705 acres compris- ing the parishes of Birmingham and Edgbaston, and parts of others. The borough is divided into 18 wards, and has 18 aldermen and 54 coun- cillors. The municipal and parliamentary bound- aries are the same, the parliamentary divisions being North, South, East, West, Central, Bordesley, and Edgbaston. Water is now brought from the Elan Valley, Wales, a distance of 80 miles, at a cost of about $30,000,000. The corporation of Birmingham has long been rec- ognized as in the forefront of British municipal- ities, a reputation which it largely owes to the work done by the Right Hon. Joseph Chamber- lain (three times mayor). The corporation pur- chased the gasworks and waterworks in 1875, and the Electric Company's rights in 1898. In 1876 an "Improvement .\ct'* was obtained, by which at a cost of about $10,000,000 a large area of insanitary property in the centre of the city was removed, and Corporation Street was laid out on the site thereof. History, Populations, etc. — The city of Bir- mingham is supposed to have originated in a Saxon settlement formed in a clearing in the great central forest of England, the forest of Arden, near to the Icknield Street, a Roman road of which an original portion is still visible in Sutton park. It was the home of the Bermings — the young, or progeny of Berm, from whence the name is derived. It was a place of compar- atively small importance at the Conquest, al- though it is mentioned in Domesday Book (10S6) where it is called Bermingham, a name of which there were many corruptions, chiefly arising from the old pronunciation and from misspellings, wherefrom the popular local •.-.anic "Brummagem^^ is derived. In the 14th centurv two gilds were founded, the more important of BIRNAM— BIRNEY which (the Gild of the Holy Cross) exercised functions akin to those of a municipal character, until the dissolution of the monasteries and re- ligious houses. There was also a priory or hos- pital of Saint Thomas, and several chantries attached to the parish church, but all these were sequestrated with the religious houses. Some of the revenues of the town gild were devoted by Edward VI. to the foundation of the Free Grammar School. Birmingham was visited in 1532 by John Leland, who wrote of it in his Itinerary as having "many smiths in the town, that make knives and all manner of cutting tools, loriners that make bits, and many nay- lors.^* Camden, in 1576, found it "swarming with inhabitants and echoing with the noise of hammers and hammers.'* In the civil war Bir- mingham suffered considerably at the hands of Prince Rupert and the royalists, who encoun- tered the inhabitants in a fierce hand-to-hand fight in the streets, and burnt a great many houses, in 1643. The plague also ravaged the town in 1665. The old market town first began to outgrow its ancient boundaries in 1700, at which date the population was about fifteen thousand. Birmingham began to assume im- portance as a manufacturing town about the middle of the iSth century. John Baskervillc, by his fine printing, John Taylor by innumera- ble fancy articles, Boulton and Watt by the in- troduction of the steam engine, helped to make Birmingham "the toyshop of Europe" as Burke described it. In the 19th century the introduc- tion of steel pens and electro-plated goods, gave Birmingham new fame as a manufacturing cen- tre. It also attracted attention as the centre from whence spread the Reform agitation of 1830, which culminated in the Reform Bill of Earl Grey, which became law in 1832. Bir- mingham had also an unenviable reputation for rioting and disturbance at the end of the iSth century, and the Priestley Riot of July 1791 is among the memorable nncntes of that century. The general healthfulness of Birmingham is probably due to the large quantity of open space which it possesses; to the general excel- lence of its drainage, greatly facilitated by the substratum of sand and gravel (belonging to the new red sandstone or Trias formation) on which it is built; and the circumstance that there is scarcely an underground dwelling or cellar (used as a dwelling) within its precincts. In 1905 the birth-rate was 29.2 and the death-rate 16. 1 per thousand. In 1801 the population was 75,670; in 1901, 522.102, but this does not take into account the densely populated boroughs and urban districts by which the city is closely surrounded. With the inclusion of these the urban population of the midland metropolis would amount to 820,000. Bibliograj^hy. — Bunce and Vince, ^History of the Corporation of Birmingham' (1878-1902) ; Dent, 'Old and New Birmingham' (1880); *The Making of Birmingham' (1894); Hutton, 'History of Birmingham^ (first pub. 1781) ; Langford, 'A Century of Birmingham Life' (1741-1841; 2 V. 1868). R. K. Dent, Chief Librarian Aston Manor, and author of ^Old and Nezv Birmingham,^ etc. Birnam, Scotland, a hill in Perthshire, irr. the western highlands, Scotland, rendered fa- mous by its connection with the history of Mac- beth, and immortalized by Shakespeare. It was foretold to the ambitious thane, yet guiltless, except in thought, of bloody ambition, that, un- til Birnam wood should come to Dunsinane, his life and power could suffer no disaster. On the approach of Malcolm with the avenging army, composed of the loyal clans, aided by Seward, Earl of Northumberland, ignorant of the proph- ecy, the invaders cut down the boughs and bore them as leafy screens, by which to conceal their numbers, when the report of "the moving for- est" marching upon Dunsinane struck a fatal despair into the soul of the usurper. Birney, David Bell, American military officer (son of J. G. Birney, q.v.) : b. Hunts- ville, Ala., 29 Alay 1825 ; d. Philadelphia, Pa., 18 Oct. 1864. He was graduated at Andover, later studied law in Cincinnati and in 1848 began practice in Philadelphia where he remained for several years. In April 1861, upon the outbreak of the Civil War, he entered the Union army as lieutenant-colonel of the 2^ Pennsylvania Infantry ; in the summer of 1861 was commis- sioned colonel ; in February 1862 was raised to the rank of brigadier-general of volunteers; and was promoted major-general of volunteers 23 May 1863. He served throughout the Penin- sula campaign (q.v.) and with particular dis- tinction at the battles of Yorktown and Wil- liamsburg. He subsequently distinguished him- self at the second battle of Bull Run and in the battles of Fredericksburg and Chancellorsville. He was in command of the Third Army Corps during a part of the battle of Gettysburg ; from May to June 1864 was in command of a division under Gen. Hancock; and from July 1864 com- manded the Tenth Corps of the Army of the James. Birney, James G., American politician : b. Danville, Ky., 4 Feb. 1792; d. Perth Amboy, N. J., 25 Nov. 1857. He studied law. and re- moved early to Alabama, where he flourished in his profession and held the office of district attorney. Having had his attention turned to- ward the question of property in slaves, in 1833 he interested himself in the organization of a branch of the Colonization Society for the State of Alabama. Soon afterward, returning to Kentucky, he organized one there also, of which he became president. But in 1834. his views rapidly advancing, he espoused the cause of im- mediate emancipation in a public letter, at the same time emancipating all his own slaves, about 20 in number. This letter, the 'Letter on Col- onization' (1834) was shortly afterwards fol- lowed by 'American Churches the Bulwarks of American Slavery' (1840) ; 'Speeches in Eng- land' (1840); and 'Examination of the Decision of the United States Supreme Court in the Case of Stroder et al. vs. Graham' (1850). Making arrangements to establish a news- paper to disseminate these vievi^s at Dan- ville, where he resided, and where he held the situation of professor in the university, he found it impossible to have such a paper printed in Kentucky, and removed to Cincinnati, where he began to issue the Philanthrof^ist. It BIRNEY — BIRTH Siad not been long published before it was found no less obnoxious to public sentiment in Ohio than it had been in Kentucky, and the press was thrown into the river. The editor, how- «e\er, managed to revive the paper, and, in connec- tion with Dr. Bailey, made it a powerful instru- ment in acting upon the opinion of the State. About the year 1836 he went to New York as secretary of the American Anti-Slavery Society, and for many years devoted his time and strength to the furtherance of the objects of that society by letters and articles from the press and by public addresses wherever he could make an opportunity to be heard. His purpose Avas to build up a political parly upon the single question of slavery, to act upon the govern- ment within the forms of the Constitution ; and he succeeded in forming an organization in most of the northern States, under the name of the Liberty Party. During his absence in England he was nominated in 1840 by that party for the presidency, but met with little success. He was again nominated in 1844, when he received more votes. It was charged upon his friends at the time that by withdrawing their votes from Mr. Clay, especiall}' in the State of New York, they .accomplished the election of Mr. Polk, thus aiming the death-blow at their own projects. Previous to this, in 1842. Mr. Birney had be- come a resident of Michigan, where not long afterward he was disabled, by a fall from his horse, from taking the active part in politics to which he had been accustomed. The latter part of his life was spent at Perth Amboy, N. J. Birney, William, American lawyer: b. Madison County, Ala., 28 May, 1819. He was educated in Paris ; took part in the Revolution •of 1848, and was appointed, on public competi- tion, professor of English literature in the ■college at Bourges, France. In 1861 he entered the United States army as a private, and was promoted through all the grades to Ijrevet major-general. In 1863-5 he commanded a division. His writings include 'Life and Times of James G. Birney-*; 'Plea for Civil and Re- ligious Liberty,' etc. Biron, be-ron, Baron de (Arm.\nd de Gon- TAULT. Jir-miin de gon-to), French soldier: b. 1524; d. 1592. He took a prominent part in the civil wars between the Huguenots and Catholics, and served at the battles of Dreux, St. Denis, and Moncontour. He was made marshal of France in 1577 by Henry HI. He negotiated the peace of St. Germain, and narrowly escaped the massacre of St. Bartholomew. He recov- ered Guienne and Languedoc from the Protes- tants, served in the Netherlands again.st the Duke of Parma, and was one of the first to recognize Henry IV. as king. He distinguished himself in various battles and was killed at the siege of Epernay. Biron, due de (Ch.\ri.es de Goxtault, sharl de goii-to). French soldier, son of the preced- ing: b. about 1562; d. 31 July 1602. He served Henry IV. in the field with much zeal and cour- age, was raised to the rank of Admiral of France in 1.SQ2, and in 1598 was made a peer and duke. He thought himself, however, not sufficiently rewarded, and began to intrigue with the Spanish party against the king. In 1599 be concluded an agreement with the Duke of Savoy •and the Count of Fuentes, by which he pledged Jiimself to take up arms against his benefactor. Meanwhile, war being declared against the Duke of Savoy (1600;, Biron saw himself reduced to the necessity of attacking him. He still con- tinued his negotiatipns with the enemy, however, and at last they became known to the king, who interrogated the marshal as to his designs, with promises of pardon. Biron made a partial confession and continued his intrigues as before. Notwithstanding this, Henry sent him in 1601, after the conclusion of peace with Savoy, as en- voy to Queen Elizabeth of England. In the meantime the Count of Fuentes discovered the whole plot. He was tried before Parliament, and was beheaded. Biron, Ernest John. See Biren. Birrell, Augustine, English essayist: b. Wavcrtrce, near Liverpool. 19 Jan. 1850. He graduated from Cambridge and was called to the bar. In 1903 he became a Bencher of the Inner Temple ; from 1896-9 was Quain pro- fessor of law in University College, London ; and from 1889-1900 represented Fifeshire W. in Parliament. He is author of charming critical and biographical essays on literary subjects, collected in the two series of 'Obiter Dicta' (1884, 2d series 1887 J and 'Res Judicatae' (1892; ; 'Men, Women and Books' (1895). 1" 1S87 be published a 'Life of Charlotte Bronte*; in 1897 edited BoswelFs 'Life of Johnson,' in i8g8 published 'Life of Sir Frank Lockwood* ; 'Copyright in Books' (1899) ; 'Collected Essays' (1900); 'Miscellanies' (1901); 'Wil- liam Hazlitt' (1902). In 1905 he became Presi- dent of the Board of Education in the Liberal Cabinet and in 1907 Chief Secretary for Ireland. Birth, or Labor, in physiology, is the act by which a female of the class Mammalia brings one of her own species into the world. When the foetus has remained its due time in the womb, and is in a condition to carry on a separate existence, it is extruded from its place of con- finement, in order to live the life which belongs to its species independently of the mother. The womb having reached its maximum of growth with the increasing size of the foetus, its pe- culiar irritability excites in it the power of contraction ; it thereby narrows the space within and pushes out the mature foetus. The period of gestation is very different in different animals, but in each particular species it is fixed with much precision. In the womb the corporeal frame of man com- mences existence as an embryo ; after further development, appears as a foetus ; then as an immature, and finally a mature, child. With its growth and increasing size the mem- branes which envelop it enlarge, the womb also expanding to give room for it. At the end of the 39th or the beginning of the 40th week the child has reached its perfect state and is capable of living separate from the mother; hence follows in course its separation from her, that is, the birth. Contractions of the womb gradually come on, which are called, from the painful sensations accompanying them, labor-pains. These are of two kinds: first, the preliminary pangs, which begin the labor, do not last long, are not violent, and produce the feeling of a disagreeable strain- ing or pressure. When the pregnant female is attacked by these she is often unable to move from her place till the pang is over, after which BIRTH RATE — BIRTHWOKT she is often free from pain for some hours. Then follow the true labor-pains; these always last longer, return sooner, and are more violent. The contractions of the womb take place in the same order as the enlargement had previously done, the upper part of it first contracting, while the mouth of the womb enlarges and grows thin, and the vagina becomes loose and distensible. By this means the foetus, as the space within the womb is gradually narrowed, descends with a turning motion toward the opening; the fluid contained in the membranes enveloping the foe- tus, as the part making the greatest resistance, is forced out, and forms a bladder, which con- tributes much to the gradual enlargement of the opening of the womb. It is therefore inju- rious to delivery if hasty or ignorant midwives break the membranes too soon. By repeated and violent throes the membranes at length burst and discharge their contents, and some time after the head of the child appears. As the skull-bones have not yet acquired their perfect form and substance, but are attached at the crown of the head only by a strong membrane, and may be brought nearer together, the head, by the pressure which it undergoes, may be somewhat diminished in size and squeezed into a more oblong form, so as to pass through the opening of the matrix and the pelvis in which it is contained, and. finally, through the exter- nal parts of generation ; and when this is done, the rest of the body soon follows. The act of birth or delivery is accordingly, in general, not an unnatural, dangerous, and dis- eased state of the system, as many timid women imagine. It is a natural process of development, which is no more a disease than the cutting of the teeth or the coming on of puberty, although, like them, it may give rise to impor- tant changes in the body and to various dis- eases. It is true that the process of child-birth requires a violent exertion of nature, but this is facilitated by many preparatives and helps adapted to the purpose. If the birth succeeds in the way described, it is called a natural birth. For this it is requisite that the pelvis should be properly formed, and that the opening should permit a free passage to the perfect fcetus ; that the growth and size of the foetus should be proportioned to the pelvis, especially that the head should have the size designed by nature, proportioned to the diameter of the pelvis ; also, that there should be a proper situation of the womb, in regard to the axis of the pelvis, and a proper position of the fcetus, namely, the head down, the back of the head in front and toward the opening of the womb, so as to appear first at birth : and, finally, that the external parts of generation should be in a natural state. An easy birth takes place without any exces- sive strainings and in due season. A diflficult birth proceeds naturally, but is joined with great efforts and pangs, and occupies a long time — over six or eight hours. The cause of it is sometimes the stiffness of the fibres of the mother, her advanced years, the disproportion- ate size of the child's head, and various other causes. Nature, however, finishes even these births ; and women in labor ought not to be immediately dejected and impatient on account of these difficulties. An unnatural (or properly, an irregular) birth is one in which one or more of the above-mentioned requisites to a natural birth are wanting. An artificial birth is that which is accomplished by the help of art, with instruments or the hands of the attendant. Premature birth is one which happens some weeks before the usual time, namely, after the seventh and be.ore the end of the ninth month. Though nature has assigned the period of 40- weeks for the full maturing of the foetus, it sometimes attains, some weeks before this period has elapsed, such a growth that it may be pre- served alive, in some cases, after its separation from the mother. That it has not reached its mature state is determined by various indica- tions. Such a child, for instance, does not cry like full-grov.^n infants, but only utters a faint sound, sleeps constantly, and must be kept constantly warm, otherwise its hands and feet immediately become chilled. Besides this, in a premature child, more or less, according as it is more or less premature, the skin over the whole body is red, often indeed blue, covered with a fine, long, woolly hair, especially on the sides of the face, and on the back ; the fontanel of the head is large, the skull-bones easily moved ; the face looks old and wrinkled ; the eyes are gen- erally closed ; the nails on the fingers and toes short, tender, and soft, hardly a line in length ; the weight of such a child is under six, often under five pounds. The birth is called untimely when the foetus is separated from the womb be- fore the seventh month. Such children can be rarely kept alive ; there are instances, however, of five months' children living. Some writers have contended that a seven months' child is more likely to live than one born a month later. Late birth is a birth after the usual period of 40 weeks. As this reckoning of the time from pregnancy to birth is founded for the most part solely on the evidence of the mother, there is much room for mistake or deception. The ques- tion is one of much interest in medical juris- prudence, as the inquiry often arises whether a child born more than 40 weeks after the death of the reputed father is to be considered legiti- mate or not. The importance of the question and the uncertainty of the proof have occasioned a great variety of opinions among medical writers. Most of them doubt the truth of the mother's assertions about such a delayed birth, and give, as their reason, that nature confines herself to the fixed period of pregnancy; that grief, sickness, etc., cannot hinder the growth of the foetus, etc. Others maintain, on the con- trary, that nature binds herself to no fixed rules ; that various causes may delay the growth of the child, etc. Abortion and miscarriage take place when a foetus is brought forth so immature that_ it cannot live. They happen from the beginning of pregnancy to the seventh month, but most frequently in the third month. The occasions, especially in those of a susceptible or sanguine temperament, are violent shocks of body or mind by blows, falling, dancing, cramp, passion, etc. Birth Rate. See Vital Statistics. Birthmark. See N.^vus. Birthright, any right or privilege to which a person is entitled by birth, such as an estate descendible by law to an heir, or civil liberty under a free constitution. See Primogeniture. Birthroot. Birthwort. See Trillium. See Aristolochia BIRU — BISCHOFF Biru, the name of a warlike chief of South America who flourished in the i6th century. During an exploring expedition of Caspar de Morales in 1515 the Spaniards encountered a chief called Biru, by whom they were repulsed. His territory extended on both sides of the river Biru or Piru. All the country south of the Gulf of Panama was soon characterized as the Biru country. In 1526 this name was given to the empire of the Incas, now known as Peru. Bisbee, Arizona, town of Cochise County, the terminus of a branch line of the El Paso and Southwestern R.R., which connects with the Soutliern Pacific R.R. at Benson. Bisbee lies in a canon of the ]\Iule Pass Alountain, about 30 miles south of Tombstone, the county capital, and is a busy copper mining and smelting centre. Pop. 3,000. Bis' cay, (Spanish Vizcay.\, veth-ca-ya), also called Bilbao, a province of Spain, forming one of the three Basque provinces (Provincias Vas- congadas), the other two being Alava and Gui- puzcoa. It lies near the northeast corner of Spain, between the Bay of Biscay and the pro- vinces of Santander, Burgos. Alava, and Guipuzcoa. The area is 850 square miles ; the population 183,098. The surface is generally mountainous ; the principal river is the Nervion or Ibaizabal. In point of soil and natural pro- ductions Biscay is one of the least favored provinces of Spain ; but the industry of the in- habitants has been successfully exerted in con- verting naturally barren tracts into fruitful fields and verdant pastures. The chief crops are maize and barley. Many fine fruits, especially nec- tarines, are raised ; walnuts and chestnuts every- where abound and form a considerable export to England and Germany. The cattle are of a small and inferior breed ; and the rearing of sheep for wool is rendered difficult by the brush- wood which covers great part of the moun- tain districts and tears and destroys the fleece. Fish abound along the coast, and give occupa- tion to a great number of fishing-boats. The most important mineral is iron, which is found of excellent quality throughout the province, and is extensively worked. Lead, copper, and zinc also occur. The inhabitants of Biscay, who are called Basques, are brave, active, and in- dustrious. The capital of Biscay is Bilbao ; of Guipuzcoa, St. Sebastian ; of Alava, Vittoria ; of Navarre, Pampeluna. Biscay, Bay of, that portion of the Atlan- tic Ocean which sweeps in along the northern shores of the Spanish Peninsula in an almost straight line from Cape Ortegal to St. Jean de Luz, at the western foot of the Pyrenees, and thence curves north along the western shores of France to the island of Ushant. Its extreme width is about 400 miles, and its length much about the same. The depth of water varies from 20 to 200 fathoms, being greatest along the northern shores of Spain. The whole of the southern coast is bold and rocky, and great parts of the French shores are low and sandy. The bay receives numerous unimportant streams from the mountains of Spain, and. through the rivers Loire. Charente. Gironde. and Adour. the wa- ters of half the surface of France. Its chief ports are Santander. Bilbao, and San Sebastian, in Spain ; and Bayonne, Bordeaux, Rochefort, La Rochelle, and Nantes, in France. Navi- gation of the bay is proverbially trying to inex- perienced voyagers, and is frequently rendered dangerous by the prevalence of strong winds, especially westerly ones. Rennel Current sweeps in from the ocean round the northern coast of Spain. Bisceglie, be-shal-ya, Italy, a seaport town in the province of Bari, 13 miles east-southeast of Barletta, on a rock on the western shore of the Adriatic, surrounded by walls, and in general badly built. It has a cathedral, two collegiate and several other churches, convents for both sexes, a seminary, and hospital. The port ad- mits vessels of small burden only. The town being almost destitute of water, rain is col- lected in large cisterns cut in the solid rock. The neighborhood produces good wine. Impor- tant fairs are held here twice a year. Pop. (1901) 30.855. Bischof, Karl Gustav Christoph, bish'of, karl goo'stav kris'tof, German geologist and chemist: b. Nuremberg, 18 Jan. 1792; d. Bonn, 30 Nov. 1870. He studied in Erlangen ; became professor of chemistry and technolog;. there in 1819, and professor of chemistry and mineralogy at Bonn in 1822. He devoted him- self especially to geological research and ad- vanced some entirely new opinions in regard to the formation of mountain ranges. In con nection with his work in this line he wrot i 'The Volcanic ^Mineral Springs of France and Germany* ; * Concerning Glaciers and their Re- lation to the Elevation of the Alps' ; and 'Con- cerning the Formation of Quartz and ^letal Ores.-* His paper on internal terrestrial heat received a prize from the Scientific Society of Holland; and he also published in English 'Re- searches on the Internal Heat of the Globe.* His greatest work 'Text-book of Chemical and Physical Geolog>-* is an important contribu- tion to the development of that phase of geo- logical research. Bischoff, Joseph Eduard Konrad, bish'of, yo'sef ed'oo-ard kon'rad, German novelist: b. Niedergailbach, 9 Aug 1828. He was fitted for the priesthood, studying at the Catholic Semi- nary at Munich, and was ordained a priest, but later gave his whole attention to literary work and wrote a number of novels in which he attacks the Protestant Reformation and the modern movement in literature and science. Among his works are 'Historical Novels con- cerning Frederick II. and his Time* ; 'Gustavus Adolphus' ; 'The Free Thinkers' ; 'The Social Democrats and their Fathers' : and 'Otto the Great.' Bischoff, Theodor Ludwig Wilhelm, ta'o- dor lood'vig vIl'lK-lm. bish'of. German physi- ologist: b. Hanover, 28 Oct. 1807; d. Munich, 5 Dec. 1882. He was educated at Bonn : was lecturer in the university there in 1833 : and professor at Heidelberg in 1836; in 1844 he went to the university at Giessen ; and in 1855 to Munich, retiring from active work in 1878. His chief work was a series of books on the history of the development of man and some of the higher animals, and his 'Evidence of the Periodic Ripening and Detachment of the Ova. independ- ently of Generation in Man and the Mammals.* He also established the presence of carbonic acid and oxygen in the blood, and studied the differ- ence between man and the anthropoid apes. BISCHOFF — BISHOP Bischoff, Mount, Tasmania, a town 60 miles west of Launceston, which owes its exist- ence to the discovery here in 1872, by James Smith, of some of the richest tin mines in the world. Between 1884-6 more than 20,000 tons of tin ore had been mined. The yield of pure tin from the ore is from 70 to 80 per cent. There is railwaj' communication with Emu Bay, 45 miles distant. Biscuit, a thin cake, baked until crisp and ■dry. In this shape it is known in the United States as a cracker; the name biscuit being applied to a soft cake made from dough raised with yeast. Plain biscuits are more nutritious than an equal weight of bread, but owing to their hardness and dryness, they should be more thorough]}' masticated to insure their easy diges- tion. When exposed to moisture, biscuits are apt to lose their brittleness and become moldy, hence it is necessary to keep them in a dry atmosphere. Digestive biscuits consist almost entirely of bran. Charcoal biscuits contain about 10 per cent of powdered vegetable char- coal. Meat biscuits, which are very nutritious, contain either extract of meat, or lean meat which has been dried and ground to a fine powder. In pottery, articles molded and baked in an oven, preparatory to the glazing and burn- ing. In the biscuit form, pottery is bibulous, but the glaze sinks into the pores and fuses in the kiln, forming a vitreous coating to the ware. Bisharrin, be-sha-ren', a tribe of northeast Africa, forming the northern division of the Beja, said to be the Kushites of the Bible. They live between the Red Sea and the Nile and "between Egypt and Abyssinia ; they are nomadic in habit and nominally Mohammedans. They are of Caucasian race and speak a well-devel- oped Hamitic language. Bishop, Anna Riviera, English singer: b. London, 1814 ; d. New York, 18 March 1884. She married Sir Henry Rowley Bishop, the com- poser, in 1831, and was married a second time to Mr. Schultz of New York in 1858. She made her first appearance as a concert singer in 1837 ; made a tour of the Continent in 1839: and 1847 sang in United States, Canada, and Alexico, where she was very popular. She lost her voice in 186S. Bishop, Sir Henry Rowley, English musi- cal composer: b. London, 18 Nov. 1786; d. 30 April 1855. He was trained to his profession under Signer Bianchi, composer to the London Opera House. In 1809 his first important opera, the < Circassian Bride,* was produced at Drury Lane with great success ; but the following even- ing, the theatre, with the score of Bishop's opera, was consumed by fire. Numerous operas and other musical pieces now followed of his composition, and from this period to 1826 upward of 70 works were produced by him. Among others may be mentioned the music of ^Guy Mannering* : (1879) ; Bishops Suffragan, a class of bishops in England appointed by the Crown to take the places of the early bishops in partibus, who were assistants to the active bishops of English sees, and who held their warrant at the pleasure of the bishops to whom they were assigned. They were distinguished from suffragan bishops in the Church of England, as every regular bishop was a suffragan of his superior or metropolitan. Biskara, bes'ka-ra, or Biskra, Algeria, a town situated at the southern base of the last spurs of the Aures Mountains, about 120 miles south-southwest of Constantine. The railway from Philippeville, on the Mediterranean, termi- nates here. New Biskara, or the French town, has (1903) 9,076 inhabitants. Old Biskara has a population of about 75,000. Bismarck-Schonhausen, Herbert Nikolaus, Prince von, her'bert nik'5-lows bes'mark- shen'how-sen, German statesman : b. Berlin, 28 Dec. 1849; d. Friedrichsruhe, Prussia, 18 Sept. 1904; son of Otto Eduard Leopold Prince von Bismarck-Schonhausen. He served as secretary to the London Embassy, and on his father's retirement he was provisionally charged with the foreign affairs of the em- pire. In 1886 he was secretary of state, and in January 1889, the emperor conferred on him the first class of the Order of the Red Eagle. When his father resigned, Herbert withdrew from the diplomatic service, and remained upon his estate for several years. In 1893 ^nd 1898 he was a member of the Conservative party in the Reichstag. His speeches are published- under the title. 'Politische Reden> (1899). Bismarck-Schonhausen, Otto Eduard Leo- pold, Prince, ot'to ed'oo-ard la'o-puld bes'- mark-shen'how-sen: b. of a noble family of the *Mark" (Brandenburg), at Schonhausen. i April. 1815 : d. 30 July i8q8. He studied at Gottingen. Berlin, and Greifswald : entered the army and became lieutenant in the Landwehr. After a brief interval devoted to his estates and to the ofiice of inspector of dikes, he became in 1846 a member of the provincial diet of Saxony. And later he entered the diet of Prussia, when he began to attract attention as an Ultra Roy- alist. He opposed the scheme of a German empire as proposed by the Frankfort Parlia- ment of 1849. His diplomatic career began in 185 1, when he was appointed Prussian member of the resuscitated German diet at Frankfort. In the diet, he gave open expression to the long- felt discontent with the predominance of Aus- tria, and demanded equal rights for Prussia. He remained at Frankfort till 1859, when he beheld in the approach of the Italian war an opportunity of freeing Prussia and Germany from the dominance of Austria. In the spring of 1862 King William, on the urgent advice of the Prince of Hohenzollern, transferred Bis- marck as ambassador to Paris, in order to give him an insight into the politics of the Tuileries. During his short stay at Paris Bismarck visited London, and had interviews with the leading politicians of the time, including Lord Pal- merston and Disraeli. In the autumn Bis- marck was recalled, to take the portfolio of the ministry of foreign affairs, and the presidency of the cabinet. Not being able to pass the reorganization bill and the budget, he closed the chambers (October 1862), announcing to the deputies that the king's government would be obliged to do without their sanction. When the "conflict era,** as it was called, approached a crisis, the death of the king of Denmark re- opened the Schleswig-Holstein question, and ex- cited a fever of national German feeling, which Bismarck was adroit enough to work so as to aggrandize Prussia by the acquisition of the Elbe duchies. The action of France in regard to the can- didature of Prince Leopold of Hohenzollern for the throne of Spain gave Bismarck the oppor- tunity of carrying into action the intensified feel- ing of unity among Germans. During the war of 1870-1, Bismarck was the spokesman of Ger- many; he it was that in February 1871, dictated the terms of peace to France. Having been made a count in 1866, he was now created a prince and chancellor of the German empire. Following the Peace of Frankfort (10 May 1871), the sole aim of Bismarck's policy, domes- tic and foreign, was to consolidate the young empire of his own creating. Thus, conceiving the unity of the nation and the authority of its government to be endangered by the Church of Rome, and its doctrines of papal infallibility, he embarked on that long and bitter struggle with the Vatican, called the Kulturkampf, in the course of which the Imperial and Prussian parliaments passed a series of most stringent measures (Falk or May laws) against the Ro- man Catholic hierarchy. But Bismarck had underrated the resisting power of the Roman Catholic Church, and motives of political ex- pediency gradually led him to modify or repeal the most oppressive of the anti-papal edicts, leaving the Roman Catholics virtual masters of the field. Otherwise, his domestic policy- was marked, among other things, by a re- formed coinage, a codification of law, a na- tionalization of the Prussian railways (as a pre- liminary step to Imperial State lines), fiscal reform in the direction of making the empire self-supporting (that is, independent of matric- ular contributions from its component states), repeated increase of the army and the regular voting of its estimates for seven years at a time (military septennate), the introduction of a protective tariff (1879), and the attempt to combat social democracy. In 1884 Bismarck inaugurated the career of Germany as a colonizing power, a new depart- ure which brought him into sharp but temporary conflict with the England of Gladstone. For the rest, his foreign policy mainly aimed at isolating France and rendering her incapable of forming anti-German alliances. On the other hand, he BISMARCK — BISMUTH gradually combined the central powers of Europe into a peace league, aiming at counter- acting the aggressiveness of Russia and France, separately or combined, on the Danube or the Rhine. The nucleus of this peace league was formed in 1879 by the Austro-German Treaty of Alliance (published in February 1888) which Italy formally joined in 1886, and which en- titles Bismarck to be called the "peacemaker'^ and the "peacekeeper" of Europe, a character he first publicly acquired when, as "honest broker'^ between Austria and Russia, he pre- sided over the Berlin Congress in 1878. The phrase, "man of blood and iron," is based on the Iron Chancellor's own use of the words in a speech in 1862. Bismarck's life was often threatened, and twice actually attempted — once at Berlin in 1866, just before the Bohemian campaign, by Ferdinand Cohen (or Blind), a crazy youth who aimed at making himself the instrument of popular dissatisfaction with Bismarck, as the champion of absolutism and the fancied apostle of a fratricidal war; and again in 1874 at Kissingen, by a Roman Catholic tinsmith named Kullmann, who was unquestionably a product of Ultramontane fury engendered by the May laws. Emperor William died 9 March 1888. The short reign of Emperor Frederick followed and then William II. ascended the throne. On 18 March 1890 Bismarck fell. The last cause of his fall has not been told. Many explanations have been given — that Bismarck objected to the labor rescripts, that he opposed the aboli- tion of the laws against Socialists, that he would not tolerate the emperor's direct consultation with the other ministers or the parliamentary leaders. After the war with Denmark, King William had made Bismarck a count. After the conquest of France, Emperor William had named him prince. Emperor William II. gave him the title of Duke of Lauenburg. When Bismarck's 81 st birthday was celebrated in 1896, there was talk of a reconciliation between the prince and his sovereign. The emperor sent his photograph to Bismarck, the latter returned thanks, and little by little the way was paved for a meeting between the two men, and event- ually for the state visit which the emperor paid to Bismarck at Friedrichsruhe, where the states- man died. Bibliography. — Bismarck's "^ Autobiography' ; Busch, < Bismarck: Some Secret Pages of His History^ (2 vols.) ; Blum, <^Das Deutsche Reich zur Zeit Bismarcks' ; Sybel, 'The Founding of the German Empire' ; Dawson, 'Bismarck and State Socialism' ; Munroe-Smith, 'Bismarck and German Unity' ; 'Hoche, 'Bismarck at Home' ; Hay ward, 'Bismarck in Private Life' ; and ^Lives,' by Gorlach, Jacks, Lowe, and Stearns. Bismarck, N. Dak., city and capital of the State ; and county-seat of Burleigh Coun- ty ; on the Missouri River, and the Northern Pacific R.R. ; 194 miles west of Fargo. It contains the State capitol (which cost over $500,000), the State penitentiary, court-house, city hall, opera house, a State hospital for the insane. Saint Alexius' Hospital, Saint Paul's Seminary, and an immense river warehouse. The river is here spanned by a bridge that cost $1,500,000. Bismarck has improved waterworks, electric lights, several flour mills, a national bank, the State Library, and an assessed prop- erty valuation of nearly $2,000,000. The city is a supply and trade centre for an extensive agri- cultural section, and is also a base of supplies for Indian agencies and United States military posts. Its river traffic with stations above and below it, is very heavy. Pop. (1890) 2,186; (1900) 3,319- Bismarck Archipelago, official name given by Germany to New Britain, New Ire- land, New Hanover, and several smaller adjoin- ing islands in the South Pacific, since in 1884, when they became a German dependency. Bismark, Friedrich Wilhelm, fred'riH vil'- helm, bes'mark (Count von), German gen- eral : b. Windheim, Westphalia, 28 July 1783 ; d. 18 July i860. In 1796 he en- tered the army of Hanover as an ensign, and in 1804 was attached to the Hano- verian legion in the English army. The result of a duel forcing him to leave the English ser- vice, he entered that of the king of Wiirtem- berg, in 1807, and was soon after appointed cap- tain of cavalry. During the campaign in Russia, he served under the command of Ney, and distinguished himself at the Beresina. He was made a prisoner at Leipsic, but returned to Wiirtemberg in 1813. In 1815 he received the title of count ; in 1819 he was appointed brigadier-general. In 1828 Count Bismark in- troduced his system of cavalry tactics into the Danish army, and was soon after appKjinted commander-in-chief of the cavalry of Wiirtem- berg. He published several military treatises, and also a work upon Russia. Bismuth, biz'muth, a metallic element, first accurately described by Pott in 1739. It was known before that time, but had been previ- ously confounded with antimony and zinc, which it resembles to some extent. The origin of the word "bismuth" is not known, although several highly improbable derivations have been sug- gested. For example, miners often call the metal "wismuth," and Mathesius suggests that this word comes from "Wisse," or "Wiese," meaning a meadow ; because, he says, in the mines it is often found covered with incrusta- tions of various colors, resembling a meadow covered with brilliant flowers. Bismuth occurs in nature in the metallic form, and several ores of it are also known, from which the metal may be easily obtained by roasting and smelt- ing. The principal supply comes from Saxony, but considerable quantities are obtained from Austria, Norway, Cornwall, Spain. California, New South Wales, and portions of South Amer- ica. The total consumption of the metal prob- ably does not greatly exceed 50 tons per annum, and the demand for it is so variable that the price has ranged all the way from 50 cents to $5 a pound. Bismuth is of a peculiar light-red- dish color, and is highly crystalline, and so brittle that it can be readily pulverized. It melts at 510° F., and boils in the vicinity of 2300° F. Its specific gravity is about 9.82 at 54° F., that of the melted metal, just above the point of fusion, being 10.06. Its specific heat is about 0.030 at ordinary temperatures, and 0.036 just above the melting point. Its coefficient of expansion is about 0.000736 per degree Fahren- heit, its conductivity for heat is about one fiftieth of that of silver, and its electrical resistance at 32° F. is 1. 1 5 times that of mercury at the same < CO X u Ui a O W ;^ BISMUTHINITE — BISON temperature. Bismuth is readily recognized by the spectroscope, as it shows a large number of characteristic lines. Its chemical symbol is Bi, and its atomic weight is 208.5 for O = 16, and 206.9 for H = i. It has a tensile strength of 6,400 pounds per square inch. According to some authorities, the specific gravity of metallic bismuth is diminished by pressure; but Spring has shown that this is not the case. He sub- jected a sample whose specific gravity was 9.804 to a pressure of 20,000 atmospheres, and found that the specific gravity rose to 9.856, while a second compression increased it still further, to 9.863. Bismuth expands upon solidi- fying, but Tribe has shown that this expansion does not take place until immediately after the congelation of the metal. Bismuth is the most diamagnetic substance known, a sphere of it being sensibly repelled by a magnet. It has marked thermo-electric properties also, on ac- count of which it is much used in laboratories in the construction of delicate thermo-piles. In the arts, metallic bismuth is used chiefly in the preparation of alloys. By adding a small amount of it to lead, that metal may be hard- ened and toughened. An alloy consisting of three parts of lead and two of bismuth has 10 times the hardness and 20 times the tenacity of pure lead. The alloys of bismuth with both tin and lead are extremely fusible, and take fine impressions of casts and molds. An alloy of one part of bismuth, two parts of tin, and one part of lead, is used by pewter workers as a soft solder, and by soap-makers for molds. An alloy containing five parts of bismuth, two of tin, and three of lead melts at 199° F., and is somewhat used for stereotyping, and for the manufacture of metallic writing pencils. Thorpe gives the following proportions for the better known fusible metals, into which bismuth enters : Newton's: Bismuth, 50; lead, 31.25; tin, 18.75. Melts at 202° F. Rose's: Bismuth, 50; lead, 28.10; tin, 24.10. Melts at 203° F. D'Arcet's : Bismuth, 50 ; lead, 25 ; tin, 25. Melts at 201° F. (If 250 parts of mercury are also added, the resulting alloy, or amalgam, melts at 113° F.) Wood's: Bismuth, 50; lead, 25; tin, 12.50; cadmium, 12.50. Melts at 149° F. Lipowitz's : Bismuth, 50 ; lead, 26.90 ; tin, 12.78; cadmium, 10.40. Melts at 149° F. Guthrie's "eutectic^^ alloy: Bismuth, 50; lead, 20.55; tin, 21.10; cadmium, 14.03. Melting point not definitely stated, but said to be *'very low.» The action of heat upon some of the fore- going alloys is remarkable. Thus, Lipowitz's alloy, which solidifies at 149°, contracts very rapidly at first, as it cools from this point. As the cooling goes on, the contraction becomes slower and slower, until the temperature falls to 101.3° F- From this point the alloy expands as it cools, until the temperature falls to about 77° F., after which it again contracts, so that at 32° a bar of the alloy has the same length as at 115° F. Alloys of bismuth have been used for making fusible plugs for steam boil- ers, but it is found that they are altered in some unknowm way by prolonged exposure to heat, so that they cannot be relied upon, after any great length of time, to melt at the proper temperature. Some of the alloys of bismuth are also used in tempering steel. In its Compounds, bismuth has an odd valency — usually three, but sometimes five. Metallic bismuth does not oxidize readily in dry air at ordinary temperatures, but it burns with a blue flame when strongly heated in pres- ence of air, passing into the trioxid, BisOs. If the trioxid is dissolved in a solution of caustic potash, and nitric acid is subsequently added, bismuth peroxid (or pentoxid, Bi-Os, is pre- cipitated. The trioxid is pale yellow, and the pentoxid is brownish-red. Both unite with acids to form salts. Bismuth trichlorid, BiCU, is formed when the metal is heated in chlorine gas ; it is a white, crystalline, deliquescent sub- stance, which is decomposed by water with the formation of hydrochloric acid and bismuth oxy- chlorid, BiOCl. Bismuth trisulphid, Bi2S.-!, is thrown down as a black, insoluble precipitate, when a stream of sulphuretted hydrogen gas is passed through an acid solution of a salt of bismuth. The trisulphid also occurs native as "bismuth glance," or Bismuthinite (q.v.). Bis- muth dissolves readily in nitric acid, with the formation of the nitrate, Bi(N03)3 + 5H,0. A peculiarity of the soluble bismuth salts, as a class, is that their solutions are rendered milky by the addition of water in considerable excess, owing to the formation of insoluble basic com- pounds. The nitrate, for example, becomes transformed by this process into a series of so-called sub-nitrates. In medicine, bismuth is used in the form of some one of this metal's insoluble salts, the solu- ble salts of bismuth being actively poisonous. The poisoning closely resembles that caused by lead (q.v.). The insoluble salts used most frequently are bismuth subnitrate, subcarbon- ate, salicylate, and subgallate. These are for the most part employed as gastric sedatives, as gastro-intestinal anti-fermentatives, and locally as bland astringent dressings. Bis'muthinite, a native sulphide of bis- muth, having the formula BijSs. It commonly occurs massive, but is also found in needle-like crystals belonging to the orthorhombic system. It is opaque, and leaden in color, often with a superficial yellowish or iridescent coating. Its hardness is 2, and its specific gravity usually about 6.5. In the United States it occurs in Connecticut, California, North Carolina, and Utah. It is also found in Mexico and Canada, and in Sweden, France, England, and Bolivia. Where it can be had in quantity, it is mined as an ore of bismuth. Bison, a form of wild cattle regarded by some naturalists as constituting a genus Bison, separated from the larger group Bos, which is represented by the American "buflFalo,'* the European aurochs, and some extinct species. Bisons diflfer from other cattle, in external appearance, mainly by their massive and shaggy forms. Their heads are exceedingly broad, and the horns curve outwardly from each side of the forehead, and are short, round, and thick. A mop of long and shaggy hair covers the fore- head, nearly hiding the little eyes, and forms a great Iseard upon the throat and chin, espe- cially of the bulls. In order to support this massive head, which is usually carried low, great spines rise from the vertebrse of the back over the shoulders, giving attachment to the huge muscles necessary to support the skull. This makes the neck very thick, and the fore- BISON quarters much higher than the haunches, which droop away from the arched contour of the back, over the withers. The massive appear- ance of the fore-quarters is increased by the long growth of hair on the neck, shoulders, and fore-legs, which is especially coarse and shaggy in bulls, and is of protection to them in their furious assaults upon one another in the rut- ting season. This hair consists mainly of a short, crisp, wool-like growth, different from that of other cattle, and capable of being \yoven. Internally, the bisons are peculiar in having 14 ribs, instead of 13 ; in the breadth and convex- ity of the frontal bones of the skull ; in having six, instead of four nasal bones ; and in the com- parative slenderness of the bones of the limbs. The bisons are inhabitants of the northern hemisphere, and, in the era preceding the pres- ent, were represented by two or three species of probably circum-polar range. The race is rep- resented in the Old World by the aurochs, now preserved only in small, protected herds in Russia (see Aurochs) ; and in America, by the buffalo (Bison americaiius), now nearly extinct. The American bison or buffalo is somewhat smaller than the aurochs, and has shorter and thicker horns, and a shorter tail, but its hump and fore-quarters are higher, and more shaggy. The females are much inferior to the males in bulk, weighing only about 1,200 pounds, whereas an old bull in good condition will weigh 2,000 pounds. The American animal differs in one very important respect from the European spe- cies, due to the difference in their habitats. The auroch was a native of a region covered with forests, where large herds could not find open pasturage of any considerable extent, and consequently moved about only in small bands, whereas the American animal had open to it the immense, grassy prairies and plains of the interior of this continent, and was able, and in effect, forced to join into vast herds, so that it acquired gregarious habits. When North America was explored by white men, the bison was first encountered in the valleys of the Alle- ghanies, and scattered throughout the prairies of the Mississippi valley, north of the Tennessee River. Its principal home, however, was upon the grassy plains, between the IMissouri River and the Rocky Mountains, where the herds sometimes contained hundreds of thousands of individuals, and grazed all the way from south- ern Texas to the shores of Great Slave Lake. They wandered through the valleys of the Rocky Mountains, to the plains of New Mexico, Utah, and Idaho, but seemed never to have crossed the Sierra Nevada. Those east of the Missis- sippi River were probably killed off before the beginning of the igth century, and by 1850 none remained east of the dry plains. The building of the Union P. and Kansas P. R.R.'s. where the early trains were sometimes stopped by herds crossing the tracks, soon led to the dis- appearance of the animals from the central plains ; and by 1875 they w^ere divided into two distinct groups, a northern and a southern. These were rapidly slaughtered by parties of men who followed the animals at all seasons, and killed them for their hides, which, as ^buffalo robes*^ became more and more valuable, until by 1890 the Texan herd had been utterly exterminated, and of the northern herd, none remained except such as had been gathered by the government for preservation in Yellowstone Park, and a few hundred that still survive in the remote forests beyond the North Saskatch- ewan. The herd in Yellowstone Park amounts to about 100 and will probably be maintained under the protection of law. Small bands are living in private parks and zoological gardens in various parts of the world. Thus, perhaps, 500 or 6od living bisons remain as the sole relic of the millions of these valuable animals, which half a century ago ranged our western plains, and which were recklessly wasted. The buffalo herds were made up of small companies, consisting of a patriarchal old bull, several cows, and a number of young of various ages, and thousands of these companies would graze in the same region, all moving slowly in the same direction, so that travelers would never be out of sight of bisons during a whole day's journey. They were more or less nomadic, wandering from one part of the plains to the other in search of fresh pasturage. Thus on the approach of winter a general movement always took place from the high, central plains toward the warmer south, and also into the shelter of the wooded valleys of the foot-hills. In these journeys they had the habit of travel- ing in single file, thus forming long, narrow paths, which the plainsmen called ^buffalo trails,'^ yet traceable in many places. In spite of their weight and apparent clumsiness, they swam rivers with ease, and climbed about the mountains with remarkable agility. Neverthe- less they chose the easiest places, and the well- marked buffalo-trails were the guides for ex- plorers, and were most deeply imprinted in those mountain passes, which are now the highways of commerce. The sexes kept together through- out the year, and as is usual among gregarious animals, there was constant fighting among the bulls for the supremacy of their bands, the old leaders being overthrown by j^ounger and more vigorous aspirants, as soon as their strength began to wane. Thus the very best sires were continually selected by the law of battle, and the race kept at its highest point. The herding was a measure of protection against the enemies which hung upon the skirts of every band. The grizzly bear was perhaps the only animal that could vanquish a bison bull in fair fight, but pumas and wolves were ever on the watch to seize any young or feeble ones that strayed from the band. When attacked the band would instantly form a close crowd with the cows and calves in the centre, protected by the bulls, forming a circle with lowered heads on the out- side. The calves were born in the spring, a single one, as a rule, to each cow after a gesta- tion of about nine months. To the western Indians the bison was the principal resource for food and shelter, and was continually hunted. In the days before firearms, the Indians would approach them on foot, by creeping within bowshot on all fours, often disguised in the skin of a calf or an ante- lope; or would rush the herds upon horseback. They_ also had the practice in rough countries of driving the buffaloes into enclosures or small canyons, where they could easily be slaughtered ; or sometimes would force them over a cliff, to be killed by the fall. Besides eating the flesh as fresh meat, vast quantities of it would be cut into strips each autumn, and dried in the sun for winter use : while the northern tribes BISPHAM — BISTINEAU chopped it into fine pieces, mixed it with ber- ries, and preserved it in skin bags, mixed with boiled fat, and so formed the highly portable and nutritious food called "pemmican." The dis- appearance of the buffalo consequently meant starvation to the Indians, as well as the loss of the principal material for warm clothing and bedding, and the Indian wars which raged upon the plains, during the thjrd quarter of the 19th century, were mainly due to the desperate efforts made by these people, to preserve their hunting-grounds. Species of fossil bisons have been found both in Europe and America, associated with the remains of mammoths, mastodons, and other extinct animals of the Quaternary Period. Some of these extinct bisons exceeded in size any of the living species, the bony horn-cores in one being six feet from tip to tip (the length of the horns themselves must have been considerably greater) ; the height of this species is estimated to have been over six feet at the shoulder. The literature relating to the American buf- falo is as extensive as the story of the western States. The most complete and special accounts are: J. A. Allen's monograph, ^The American Bisons* republished by the United States Geo- logical Survey in 1875 ; ^ind W. T. Hornaday's ^Extermination of the American Bison,* in the annual report of the Smithsonian Institution for 1887. For the more picturesque and adventur- ouii side of the animal's history, and its hunt- ing, consult Audubon's ^Quadrupeds of Amer- ica* ; Catlin's * North American Indians* ; Gregg's * Commerce of the Prairies* ; Dodge's (1894); ^Miss Jerry> (1895); ^A Capital Courtships (1897) ; 'Miss America^ (1898) ; 'Modern Daughters^ (1899) ; 'The Girl and the Guardsman ^ (1900). Black, Charles Clarke, American lawyer: b. Mount Holly, N. J., 29 July 1858. He stud- ied law and was admitted to the New Jersey bar in 1881. He has since practised in Jersey City, and has published 'Proof and Pleadings in Accident Cases^ (1886) ; 'New Jersey Law of Taxation^ (1893) ; 'Law and Practice in Accident Cases^ (1900). Black, Frank Swett, American lawyer : b. Limington, Me., 8 March 1853. He graduated at Dartmouth College in 1875 ; was editor of the Journal in Johnstown, N. Y. ; studied law at Troy in the office of Robertson & Foster, and was admitted to the bar in 1879. He won much popularity by his activity in prosecuting the men who murdered Robert Ross in the election riots in Troy in 1892. In 1895-7, he was a member of Congress, and in 1897-9 gov- ernor of New York. Black, James, American prohibitionist : b. Lewisburg, Pa., 23 Sept. 1823; d. 16 Dec. 1893. He joined a temperance society at the age of 17, and throughout his life was a determined advo- cate of prohibition and legislation for its en- forcement. He was the first to propose the formation of a temperance partv, was one of the committee that called a national convention to organize the Prohibition party (q.v.) and was elected its president when the convention met in Chicago, i Sept. 1869. At the Columbus, Ohio, convention, 22 Feb. 1872, he was m.ade the first nominee of the party for President of the United States. His ticket received 5,608 votes in the election of that year. He pub- lished: 'Is There a Necessity for a Prohibition Party ?s (1876) ; ^^istorv of the Prohibition Party) (1880) ; 'The Prohibition Party > (1885). Black, Jeremiah Sullivan, American jurist and statesman : b. Glades, Somerset county, Pa., ID Jan. 1810; d. York, Pa., 19 Aug. 1883. At 17 years of age he entered the law office of Chauncey Forward, in Somerset, an eminent member of the bar, and was admitted to the courts in 1830, being still in his minority. In April, 1842, he was appointed by the governor president judge of the judicial district in which he resided, and confirmed by the Senate upon a strict party vote. In 1851, when a change in the State Constitution made the judges elective. he was nominated as judge of the Supreme Court by the Democratic convention, before which he was not a candidate. Of the 10 can- didates named by the two parties, he obtained the largest popular vote. Under the mode of drawing provided by the Constitution, a three years' term was assigned to him, and he became chief justice of the court. In 1854 he was re- elected to this place, by a majority of 47,000 votes, though the candidate for Governor on the same ticket was defeated by 37,000. On 5 March 1857, while engaged in the discharge of his judicial duties at Philadelphia, he re- ceived a telegraphic despatch from President Buchanan, tendering him the appointment of Attorney-General of the United States. He soon after appeared on behalf of the government, in a disputed land claim from California, involv- ing an important principle upon which hundreds of similar cases depended. He achieved a great success, at once becoming famous as a jurist. In December, i860, Mr. Black succeeded Mr. Cass as Secretary of State. After the election of Lincoln, Judge Black retired to his law prac- tice. In 1868, he was counsel for President Johnson in the famous impeachment trial. In 1877 he appeared as counsel for S. J. Tilden before the Electoral Commission. Besides a great jurist. Judge Black was a brilliant conver- sationalist, classical scholar, and powerful ora- tor. His collected 'Essays and Speeches^ were published in 1885. Black, John Charles, American lawyer, sol- dier, and statesman: b. Lexington, Miss., 27 Jan. 1839. He entered the Union army in i86r as colonel of the 37th Illinois Volunteers ; was severely wounded in the service ; and was brev- etted brigadier-general. After the war he was elected Congressman-at-large from Illinois; was appointed commissioner of pensions by Presi- dent Cleveland during the latter's first term, and United States attorney for the northern district of Illinois during his second term. Black, Joseph, Scottish chemist: b. Bor- deaux, France, 1728; d. Edinburgh, 6 Dec. 1799. He studied medicine, and in 1754 delivered a thesis. 'De Humore Acido a Cibis Orto et Mag- nesia Alba,) in which he ascribes the difference between the mild and caustic alkalies to the presence of fixed air (carbonic acid) in the former. The discovery of carbonic acid is of interest not only as having preceded the other gases made by Priestley, Cavendish, and others, but as having preceded in its method the expla- nation given by Lavoisier of the part played by oxygen in combustion. In 1756 he was ap- pointed professor of medicine and lecturer on chemistry in the University at Glasgow; and in 1766 to the same chair in Edinburgh. No teacher inspired his disciples with such a zeal for study; his lectures, therefore, contributed much to make the taste for chemical science general in England. Upon Lavoisier's proposal, the Academy of Sciences in Paris appointed him one of its eight foreign members. Black did not adopt the Lavoisierian system until he was satisfied that it was more accurate than that of which he had been so long a teacher. In his later courses, however, he taught the anti- phlogistic system. His 'Lectures on Chemistry^ appeared in 1803. BLACK — BLACK-BELLIED PLOVER Black, William, Scottish novelist: b. Glas- gow, 13 Nov. 1841 ; d. Brighton, England, 10 Dec. 1898. He first studied art, but eventually became connected with the Glasgow press. In 1864 he went to London, and in the following year joined the staflf of the Morning Star, for which he was special correspondent during the Austro-Prussian war of 1866. His first novel, ^Love or Marriage* (1868), was only moder- ately successful, but his *In Silk Attire' (1869), ^Kilmeny' (1870), ; Patterson, ; Snelling, *Life of Black Hawk^ ; Thwaite, ^ Story of the Black Hawk War' (Wisconsin Historical Society ^Papers' Vol. XII.). Black-Hawk War. See Black Hawk. Black Hills, a region in South Dakota, extending into Wyoming. It was purchased from the Indians in 1876, for whom it had been one of the finest hunting grounds in the West. In 1877-8 thousands of miners went there, and in 1880 there had already sprung into existence three towns, Deadwood, Central City, and Lead- ville. Around these lay also groups of smaller towns and villages. From 1880 the gold mines yielded about $4,000,000 annually, and the silver mines about $3,000,000 annuallv. The region is also rich in copper, lead, iron and mica. The soil is fertile and the hills have abundant facili- ties for the grazing of cattle. Thrifty farmers have settled there, and many of them have good farms and fine improvements. Good school- houses have also been built in different settle- ments. See South Dakota. Black Hole of Calcutta, a small chamber, 20 feet square, in Fort William, Calcutta. On the capture of Calcutta by Surajah Dowlah, 20 June, 1756, the English garrison, consisting of 146 men, under the command of Mr. Holwell, were locked up for the night in the common dungeon of the fortress, a strongly barred room, 18 feet square, and never intended for the con- finement of more than two or three men at a time. There were only two windows, and a pro- jecting veranda outside and thick iron bars within materially impeded what little ventila- tion there might be, while conflagrations raging in different parts of the fort gave the atmos- phere an unusual oppressiveness. The unhappy creatures, exhausted with previous fatigue, were packed so tightly in their prison that it was with difficulty the door could be closed. A few mo- ments sufficed to throw them into a profuse per- spiration, the natural consequence of which was a raging thirst. One of the soldiers stationed in the veranda was offered 1,000 rupees to have them removed to a larger room. He went away, but returned saying it was impossible. The bribe was then doubled, and he made a second attempt with a like result ; the nabob was asleep, and no one dared wake him. By nine o'clock several had died, and many more were delirious. A frantic cry for water now became general, and one of the guards, more compassionate than his fellows, caused some to be brought to the bars, where Mr. Holwell and two or three others received it in their hats, and passed it on to the men behind. In their impatience to secure it nearly all was spilt, and the little they drank seemed only to increase their thirst. Self- control was soon lost ; those in remote parts of the room struggled to reach the window, and a fearful tumult ensued, in which the weakest were trampled or pressed to death. They raved, fought, prayed, blasphemed, and many then fell exhausted on the floor, where suffocation put an end to their torments. About 11 o'clock the prisoners began to drop off fast. At length, at six in the morning, Surajah Dowlah awoke, and ordered the door to be opened. Of the 146 only 23, including Mr. Holwell (from whose nar- rative, published in the ^Annual Register' for 1758, the account of this event is partly derived), remained alive, and they were either stupefied or raving. Fresh air soon revived them, and the commander was then taken before the na- bob, who expressed no regret for what had oc- curred, and gave no other sign of sympathy than ordering the Englishman a chair and a glass of water. Notwithstanding this indifference, Mr. Holwell and some others acquit him of any intention of causing the catastrophe, and as- cribe it to the malice of certain inferior of- ficers, but many think this opinion unfounded. Holwell and three others were sent prisoners to Muxadavad ; the rest of the survivors ob- tained their liberty, and the dead bodies were carelessly thrown into a ditch. The Black Hole is now used as a warehouse, and an obelisk, 50 feet high, was erected in memory of the vic- tims. BLACK JACK — BLACK RIVER Black Jack. i. A term loosely applied by miners to blende, the sulphuret of zinc, or to any other ore which resembles it in being ob- noxious to them, if in no other respect. 2. One of several small oak trees of the southeastern coast, especially Qucrcus Mary- landica, which has a rough, dark, scaly bark, and peculiar broadly wedge-shaped 3-5 lobed leaves, dark green and lustrous above, and somewhat rusty beneath. Black Knight, The, a name given by ro- mantic writers to various heroic characters. In Scott's ^Ivanhoe^ Richard Cceur de Lion mas- querades as the Black Knight. The Knight Es- plandian, son of Amadis of Gaul and Oriana, is also so called. In the Arthurian legend the Black Knight, Sir Peread, was one of the four brothers who kept the passage of Castle Dangerous. Black Law, in the United States the name given to certain laws in force before the Civil War in many of the northern and border States discriminating against free negroes who might become citizens. Such laws excluded negroes from the public schools and from the militia, forbade them to testify in court against a white man, or in any case in which a white man was interested. Black Lead. See Graphite. Black Letter, that variety of type other- Avise designated Gothic, and which in a modified form is the ordinary type made use of in Ger- many, although in recent years there has been a tendency to employ the Roman letter, the Gothic tj'pe being considered injurious to the eyes. The earliest printed books were in black letter. See Printing. Black Lilly. See Fritillary. Black List, a list of bankrupts or other persons whose names are officially known as failing to meet pecuniary engagements. The term is also applied to a list of employees who have been discharged by a firm or corporation and against whom some objection is made and reported to other firms or corporations to pre- vent them obtaining employment. Blacklisting is made a punishable ofifense by the laws of some States. See Eddy, ^Laws of Combinations^ (1901). ^ Black Monday, (i) A name for Easter Monday, in remembrance of the dreadful ex- periences of the army of Edward III., before Paris, on Easter Monday 14 April 1360. Many soldiers and horses perished from the extreme cold. (2) The 27th of February, 1865, a memor- able day in Melbourne, Australia, when a des- tructive sirocco prevailed in the surrounding country. Black Mountains, the culminating group of the Appalachian system, named from the dark growth of balsam-firs and other evergreens which cover their summits. Their position is in Yancey and Buncombe counties. North Carolina, between the main central ridges on the west and a portion of the Blue Ridge on the east. Un- like the other ridges of the Alleghanies, they lie for the most part transverse to the g:eneral trend of the range, and give this direction to the great valleys and rivers included between them. They rise from a district of great eleva- tion, the height of the valley at Asheville, on the French Broad River, being about 2,000 feet above the sea, and that of Toe River, at Burns- V'ol. 2 — 44 ville, Yancey County, about 2,500 feet. From this plateau the drainage is toward the Ohio in a northerly direction by the branches of the Great Kanawha, by those of the Holslon and the French Broad toward the southwest, and by those of the Yadkin and the Catawba into the Pedee and Santee toward the southeast. This position at the sources of streams flowing in such diverse directions, long since pointed out this district as probably the most elevated east of the Rocky Mountains. The chief peaks are Mitchell, 6,710, and Clingman's Peak, Guyot's Peak, or Balsam Cone, Sandoz Knob, Hairy Bear, Cat Tail Peak, Gibbe's Peak, Sugar Loaf, or Hallback Peak, Potato Top, Black Knob, Bowler's Pyramid, Roan Mountain, all of which are above 6,500 feet in height. Black Prince (Edward, Prince of Wales), the son of Edward III. of England. He is thus styled in history by reason of the color of his armor. He died in 1376 and his son became king in 1377 as Richard II. Black-quarter, an apoplectic disease which attacks cattle, indicated by lameness of the fore- foot, one of the limbs swelling, and after death being suffused with black blood, which also is found throughout the body. The disease, which chiefly attacks young cattle, is due to undrained fertile pasture, or to the too rapid transference of the cattle from poorer to richer soils. It is difficult to cure, but may be prevented by thor- ough draining or by giving regular doses of nitre to all the animals. The usual treatment con- sists in blood-letting, cutting into the swollen parts, and administering first nitre and after- ward ammonium acetate and purgatives. In the United States the disease is especially prevalent in Texas, Kansas, Nebraska, South Dakota, and Colorado. Black Republic, a name applied to the Republic of Haiti, which is under the dominion of the African race. Black Republicans, a name applied to those members of the Republican party, who resisted the introduction of slavery into any State where it was not already recog- nized. Black River, the name of several Ameri- can rivers, (i) A river which rises in New York in Herkimer County, and after passing through Oneida and Lewis counties, changes its course at a place called Great Bend, passes by Water- town, and flows through Black River Bay into Lake Ontario. Near Turin, in Lewis County, it has a fall of about 63 feet. Below the fall, it is navigable to Carthage, a distance of 40 miles. The whole length of the river is 125 miles, and its breadth at Watertown (six miles from its mouth) is 60 yards. (2) A river of Mis- souri and Arkansas, also known as the Big Black River, the largest affluent of White River. It rises in the southeastern part of the former State, takes a southerly course, enters Arkan- sas, and joins the White River 40 miles below Batesville. During nine months of the year it is navigable for a distance of 100 miles from its mouth. Its entire length is about 400 miles. Trout and other excellent fish are caught in its waters in great abundance. (3) A river of Wis- consin. It rises in Marathon County and en- ters the Mississippi 15 miles above La Crosse, after a course of 225 miles. (4) A river of Ver- mont which rises in the town of Plymouth and BLACK RIVER FALLS — BLACKADDER is a tributary of the Connecticut. Its abun- dant water power is utilized by various manu- factories along its course, (s) A portion of the Washita River in Louisiana between the mouth of the Tensaw River and the Red River; also sometimes styled Black River. Black River Falls, Wis., a city and the county-seat of Jackson County, 171 miles north of Milwaukee. A fine water power is afforded by the falls of the Black River, and there are flour and lumber mills, wagon and other factories, foundaries, machine shops, and nurseries. There are iron mines in the neighborhood, and kaolin deposits from which fire-brick are manufactured. Pop. (1900) 1,938. Black Rock Desert, a tract of nearly 1,000 square miles, north of Pyramid Lake, in Ne- vada. In summer it is a barren level of alkali and in winter covered in places with shallow water. Called also "Mud Lakes.® Black Rod, Usher of the, an officer of the House of Lords, appointed by letters patent from the Crown, and employed to execute orders for the commitment of parties guilty of breach of privilege and contempt, to assist at the in- troduction of peers and other ceremonies ; and to summon the Commons to attend in the House of Lords when the royal assent is given to bills. His proper title is gentleman-usher of the black rod ; that of his deputy, yeoman-usher. Black Rood of Scotland, a cross of gold in the form of a casket, alleged to contain a piece of the true Cross. It was brought to Scot- land in the nth century by Margaret, queen of Malcolm III. ; was bequeathed as an heirloom, and regarded as a sacred relic. It was delivered to Edward I. in 1291, but restored to Scotland after the Peace of Northampton in 1328. It was finally taken in battle by the English in 1346, and hung in the Cathedral of Durham un- til the Reformation, when it disappeared. Black Saturday, 4 Aug. 1621; so called in Scotland because a violent storm occurred at the very moment the parliament was sitting to enforce episcopacy on the people. The name has also been applied to 10 Sept. 1547 on which date the disastrous battle of Pinkie was fought. Black Sea (Lat. Pontus Euxinus), a sea situated between Europe and Asia, and bounded on the west by Turkey, Bulgaria, and Rumania, northwest, north and east by the Russian do- minions, and on the south by Anatolia (Asia Minor), being connected with the Mediterranean by the Bosporus, and with the Sea of Azov by the Strait of Yenikale. The area of the Black Sea and the Sea of Azov amounts to 168,500 square miles. The water is not so clear as that of the Mediterranean, and, on account of the many large rivers which fall into it, — the Dan- ube, Dniester, Dnieper, Don, Kuban, etc., — be- ing less salt, freezes more readily. The tempests on this sea are sometimes tremendous in win- ter, as the land which confines its agitated wa- ters gives to them a kind of whirling motion ; but being practically clear of islands and rocks its navigation is not difficult on the whole. In 1854 one of its tremendous storms occasioned a very serious loss to the shipping of the allied British and French. The fisheries in the Sea of Azov and the Black Sea are not unimportant, various kinds of valuable fish both large and small being taken ; among others, several species of sturgeon. Caviare is made on the coast, as well as fish-glue, fish-oil, and, from the spawn of the sea mullet, botargo. The chief ports are Odessa, Kherson, Nicolaiev, Sebastopol, Novo- rossisk, Batoum, Trebizond, Samsun, Sinope, and Varna. ' It contains no islands of any note. After the capture of Constantinople (1453) the Turks excluded all but their own ships from the Black Sea till 1774, when the Russians obtained the right to trade in it, the same right being ac- corded to Austria in 1784, and to Britain and France in 1802. The preponderance thereaftei gained by Russia was one of the causes of the Crimean war, by which she was compelled to cease keeping armed vessels on it, the sea being declared neutral by the Treaty of Paris in 1856. In 1871, however, the sea was deneutralized by a conference of the European powers (France being unrepresented) at London in response to a protest from Russia. Black Tin, tin ore w^hen dressed, stamped, and washed ready for smelting, forming a black powder. See Tin. Black-vomit, a form of vomiting occurring usually in severe cases of yellow fever, due to the presence of blood in the stomach. See Yel- low Fever. Black Wad, an ore of manganese, used in making chlorine gas and as a drying ingredient in paints. It is an earthy variety of the diox- ide found in low-lying districts, and is often mixed with oxides of cobalt or copper. Black Walnut. See Walnut. Black Warrior, an American merchant vessel, seized and confiscated by Cuban customs officers in May 1854. This seizure was used as an excuse for proposed filibustering expeditions against Cuba. Spain, however, made compensa- tion for the seizure. Black Warrior, a river of Alabama, formed by the confluence of the Locust and Mulberry forks. It flows into the Tombigbee near De- mopolis, after a course of 300 miles, and is nav- igable in its lower course to Tuscaloosa. Black Watch, The, a famous British regi- ment, originating as a body of Highlanders, raised about 1668, for the purpose of keeping the peace in the Highlands, and so n?med frcm their dark dress. They were embodied in the regular army under the title of the 42d regi- ment in 1739. It first distinguished itself in the battle of Fontenoy (i745)- From 1750 till 1767 the regiment was in America, and on its return it received the title of Royal Highland- ers. It again served in America during the War of Independence; and in 1801 it particu- larly distinguished itself in Egypt at the battle of Alexandria. The Black Watch was also present at Napoleon's final defeat in the battle of Waterloo. It has gained special mention for its conduct at the Alma, in the Ashantee war, and at Tel-el-Kebir. The regiment was practically annihilated in the Boer war in 1901. Few English regiments surpass them for number of engagements or battle honors. Black Water State, a popular nickname for Nebraska. Blackadder, John, Scottish preacher: b. 1615; d. December 1685. He entered the Pres- byterian ministry and when, in 1662, the episcopal WHITE BLACKBERRY. "ICEBERG/ BLACKBERRY — BLACKBIRD form of church government was forced upon a people who were generally repugnant to it, Blackadder, so far from complj'ing with the new system, employed himself for several suc- cessive Sundays in exposing what he considered its unlawfulness, and, in his own words, en- tered his ^dissent in heaven*^ against it. He was obliged to demit his charge in favor of an Episcopal incimibent, and in 1670, having per- formed worship at a conventicle near Dunferm- line, where the people had armed themselves for self-defense, he was summoned before the privy council, but contrived to elude their power. On one occasion he preached at Kinkell, near St. Andrews ; the people flocked from the metropoli- tan city to hear him, notwithstanding all the injunctions and surveillance of Archbishop Sharpe. It is said, that on Sharpe desiring the provost to send out the militia to disperse the cong:regation, he was informed that it was im- possible — the militia had gone alreadv as wor- shippers. After spending several months in Holland, in 1680 he returned to Scotland, and in the succeeding year was apprehended, and confined in the state prison upon the Bass Rock, where he died. See Crichton, ^Life of Black- adder' (1823). Blackberry, various species of Rubus (q.v.), in which the drupelets adhere to the re- ceptacle after ripening. Two general types are common: the trailing or dewberry (q.v.), and the upright, which is more generally known as the blackberry. The leading or representative species of this group is the very variable R. nig- robaccus (R. villosiis of some botanists), which since 1841, when the first variety was introduced, has developed numerous varieties and has be- come in America, but not elsewhere, an im- portant commercial fruit. It is used chiefly as a dessert fruit, but is also preserved, canned and evaporated. The plant thrives best on a north- ern slope and on rather heavy, loamy soils re- tentive of moisture but well drained. The soil must not be rich in nitrogenous food, since this tends to increase wood at the expense of fruit- fulness. On light soils the plants are likely to sufl'er from lack of moisture in drj' seasons. Potash fertilizers are required jn abundance. Plants are usually propagated from root cuttings or suckers, and when one season old the smaller varieties are set in the field usually three by eight feet apart, the larger four by ten or else in checks six by six feet or more. When set in checks cultivation may be given both ways. For cultivation, diseases, etc., see Raspberry. In Europe the bramble {R. fruticosus) is called the blackberry. It is not extensively cultivated. Consult: Bailey and Miller, < Cyclopaedia of American Horticulture* (1900-2) ; Card, "^Bush Fruits' (1901). Blackberry Lily (Leopard Flower) (Bel- amcanda punctata), a perennial herb, out of the two species of its genus of the natural order Iridacece, native of Japan and China and long cultivated as a garden plant for its orange, red- spotted flowers. Its popular names were sug- gested by the blackberry-like clusters of round- ish seeds and the spotted flowers. The seed stalks are occasionally used for decoration with dried grass. The seeds may be sown in a sunny place where the soil is light and rich, and in after years the root-stocks may be divided. Blackbird, the name given to two distinct species of birds: (i) The American grakles (q.v.) of the family Icteridcc, which consists of about a dozen species differing in size and color. (2) The English song-thrush or ^'merle." Four species are known in the eastern States, namely : the purple grakle, and rusty grakle, the red- winged blackbird, and the cow-bird. The most familiar American one is the crow- blackbird, more properly termed purple-grakle, because of the iridescent or metallic gloss on its plumage. This bird is found throughout the entire East, and as far west as Dakota. It is the largest variety, being 12 inches in length. In the spring flocks of these grakles are found among the advance guard of the returning hosts of the homeward-bound migrants, although many remain in the southern States throughout the entire winter season. Their nests, located along the edges of the swamps, are rude, strong structures of sticks and reeds, placed among the branches of bushes, in the tops of tall pine trees, or in holes of old tree-stumps. The eggs are remarkably varied in size, shape and color, some being pointed, others long and slender, while others are nearly globular, the length averaging about 1.25 by .90 of an inch. The color is any shade of dirty white, light-blue or green, and the markings consist of confused blotches, scratches, and straggling lines of vari- ous dark tints. A bird similar in its habits and mode of life to the purple-grakle is the rusty blackbird, lacking only the metallic hues, its plumage being rusty black. The marshes where they breed are great centres of blackbird popu- lation, and there they collect in great flocks of young and old as the end of the season ap- proaches. At this time they visit any neighbor- ing fields of Indian corn, sometimes in hordes, to tear open the husks, feed upon the milky kernels, and make themselves obno.xious to the farmers, although, indisputably, they are, on the whole, beneficial by their destruction of insects. The red-winged blackbird (Agelceus phceni- ccus), a variety of which is also found on the Pacific coast, varies in color from the bird of the eastern States, in the fact that it has on the wing a dark, blood-red patch, bordered witK pure white, the other possessing only the scarlet patches on each shoulder, from which it takes its name. The nests of the red -winged black- bird are placed near the ground, among reeds or in small bushes and swamps. The eggs are smaller and lighter in color than those of the grakle, but resemble them in the scrawled mark- ings. The French-Canadians call them "officer- birds.'' The impression upon the beholder, as he gazes at the prodigious flocks of tens of thou- sands of these red-epauleted blackbirds, when gathered upon the marshes preparing for the fall migrations, and wheeling in regular lines as they fly, their epaulets glistening in the sun, is that of an army of soldiers. Besides these, there is found in the middle west the handsomest of the family, the yellow-headed blackbird (Xanthoce- phalus xanthoceplwlus), in which the whole head and throat are rich orange-yellow. The females of many species are strikingly contrasted in plumage to their mates, having only a streaked brown dress instead of glossy black and red or yellow of the males. The young resemble the females in their protected dullness of plumage. For the English Blackbird, see Song Thrush. For the cow-bird, see Cow-Bird. BLACKBREAST — BLACKFISH The name is given to various other birds, prevailingly black in plumage, as, for example, to the bobolink (q.v.), which is called "skunk blackbird," because of the resemblance in its black and white markings to those of a skunk; and to the ani of Florida and the West Indies, which is commonly termed "savanna blackbird.*^ See Baird, Brewer and Ridgway, < North American Birds' (Boston 1874) ; IngersoU, also an anonymous volume of verses. In 1855 appeared About this time a legacy from his uncle, the Rev. H. H. Knight, enabled him to build him- self a substantial country house, Gomer House, at Teddington, near Twickenham. Here he lived the rest of his life, devoting his mornings to the raising of fruits and flowers, famous for quality but costing him an average loss of £250 a year. The remainder of his time he gave over to literature. A translation of two of the Georgics of Virgil, entitled 'The Farm and Fruit of bld> (1862), was followed by < Clara Vaughan' (1864) and 'Cradock NowelP (1866), neither very successful novels. His third novel, (1869), after a somewhat slow start, became one of the great popular novels of the century; up to the time of Blackmore's death it had gone through nearly 50 editions, and has now assumed the place of a semi-classic. Uneven in structure, often prolix, exaggeratedly romantic, occasionally falling into a false metri- cal prose, it nevertheless continues to hold the interest of its readers through the fine sense of the Devon country where the scene is laid, the very real and human country types, and the es- sentially manlv character of its hero, John Ridd. Up to the time of his death, Blackmore continued to produce novels at the rate of about two in five years. Of these the most important are regarded by the author as his best, ^Springhaven' (1887) which he thought superior to "^Lorna Doonc,' (1877), (1880), (1894), < Tales from the Telling House' (1896), and *^I)arieP (1897). A volume of verse, 'Fringilla' (1895), completes the list of his published work. No life has as yet been published, and most of the commentary on him is to be found in magazine articles and ^^^^^^3- _ W. T. Brewster, Professor of English in Columbia University. Blackpool, England, a town and county bor- ough on the west coast, and in the Blackpool Division of North Lancashire, between the es- tuaries of the Ribble and Wyre, 27 miles south- west of Lancaster, which has of late years attracted many visitors by its advantages as a watering place. It affords excellent accommoda- tion for visitors in the numerous hotels, hydro- pathic establishments, and lodging-houses, and consists of ranges of loft}' houses about three miles long facing the sea, in front of which ex- tends an excellent promenade and carriage drive. The town is abundantly supplied with the means of amusement and recreation, including theatres, concert rooms, fine winter gardens, aquarium, extensive pleasure-grounds, park of 60 acres, a great steel tower over 500 feet high, a gigantic wheel, and other attractions. There are a court- house and three markets, several churches, six council schools, eight non-provided schools and one for higher education, libraries and news- rooms. Blackpool was incorporated as a muni- cipal borough on 21 Jan. 1876, and as a county borough I Oct. 1904. Pop. (1903) 48,000. Blacksnake, or Blue Racer, a common colu- brine serpent (Zamenis constrictor) found throughout the United States, and the adjacent parts of Canada. The typical eastern black- snake is uniform lustrous black above, and slate- color beneath, the lower jaw, chin, and some- times upper edges of the lip-plates white, the tongue black. Western specimens are bright olive-green, with the entire under surface greenish-white, varying to bright yellow, which accounts for the name, "blue" or «green racer," often heard in the Mississippi valley. The 3-oung, under 18 inches in length, are variegated with dark blotches upon olive, and light mar- gins to the scales, especially on the sides. The female is larger than the male, but rarely if ever exceeds six feet in length. This is one of the most numerous and vigorous of Ameri- can snakes, making its home in hollow stumps and underground dens. At the approach of win- ter, many are likely to gather together in simi- lar retreats, and remain there in a torpid condi- tion until spring, entangled into a ball, for the sake of mutual warmth. Its motions are of the swiftest, it being capable of running with great rapidity and of scaling trees, sometimes to a height of 100 feet above the ground, where it searches from branch to branch for birds' eggs, young squirrels, etc. It seeks much of its food in swamps and along streams, mainly frogs, toads, eggs and young of birds, insects, and other snakes. Cope says: «The constricting power of blacksnakes is not sufficient to cause inconvenience to a man, but might seriously oppress a child. ... It is easy to unwmd the snake with the free hand and arm.» The black- snake is harmless, and its bite is no worse than BLACKSTOCK HILL — BLACKSTONE RIVER that of a mouse. It is readily tamed, and shows some intelligence. It is courageous and will sometimes attack an enemy, moving forward with the head raised a foot or two above the ground, and waving about with a most terrifying aspect. Its principal enemies are the badger and skunk, and it seems to hold a special ani- mosity toward the copperhead and rattlesnakes, whose trail it follows, at night, by its power of scent; and having overtaken the object of its pursuit, it leaps upon it, avoiding its stroke by its swiftness, wraps itself about it, and slowly crushes its victim to death, after which it swallows it whole. The blacksnake breeds dur- ing the summer, the female laying 15 or 20 eggs at a time in the hollow of a sunny bank, or in the midst of a decayed stump, around which she stays, guarding her young until they reach a considerable age. Several other species of the genus belong to the southwestern United States, Mexico, and the West Indies, and the Texan whipsnake (q.v.) is a near relative. The '^'^chainsnake" is some- times called "mountain blacksnake.'^ Other blackish serpents known as blacksnakes include a colubrine of Jamaica (Ocyophis atcr) ; the death adders (q.v.) of Australia and Tasmania, and some others notable for dark hues. One of the most widespread of the native names of the East Indian Cobra de Capello has the meaning ^blacksnake.'' Consult: Cope, 'Snakes of North America.^ Blackstock Hill, South Carolina, a locality where, on 20 Nov. 1780, the patriots of the State, under Gen. Sumter defeated Tarleton's cavalry after a sharp encounter. Blackstone, William, the first inhabitant of Boston, was an Episcopal minister, who set- tled there as early as 1625 or 1626, and died 26 May 167s, on Blackstone River, a few miles north of Providence. On the arrival of Gov. Winthrop at Charlestown, in the summer of 1630, it is stated in the records of that place that '*Mr. Blackstone, dwelling on the other side of Charles River, alone, at a place by the In- dians called Shawmut, where he only had a cottage, at or not far off from the place, called Blackstone's Point, he came and acquainted the governor of an excellent spring there, withal inviting him and soliciting him thither ; where- upon, after the death of Mr. Johnson and divers others, the governor, with IN.Ir. Wilson, and the greatest part of the Church, removed thither." At a court held in April 1633, 50 acres of land near his house in Boston were granted to him forever. In 1634 he sold his land and became the first white settler within the present limits of Rhode Island. Blackstone, Sir William, English lawyer, and the most popular writer on the laws and constitution of his country: b. London, 10 July 1723; d. 14 Feb. 1780. He was educated on the foundation of the Charter House, whence in 1738 he was removed to Pembroke College, Ox- ford. He was much distinguished, both at school and at the university, and at an early age compiled a work for his own use, entitled the < Elements of Architecture,' which has been much praised. Having chosen the profession of the law, he was in due time entered at the Middle Temple, and on this occasion published the ad- mired verses called the * Lawyer's Farewell to His Muse,' which appeared in 'Dodsley's Mis- cellany.^ In 1743 he was elected Fellow of All- Souls College, Oxford, and in 1746 was called to the bar, and commenced the practice of law. Be- ing deficient in elocution, and not possessed of the popular talents of an advocate, his progress was slow. Having attended the courts of law at Westminster for seven years, without success, he determined to quit the practice of his pro- fession, and retire to his fellowship at O.xford. The system of education in the English universi- ties supplying no provision for teaching the laws and constitution of the country, Blackstone undertook to remedy this defect by a course of lectures on that important subject; and the manner in which he executed the task has con- ferred a lasting distinction on Oxford. His first course was delivered in 1753, and was repeated for a series of years with increasing effect and reputation. These lectures doubtless suggested to Mr. Viner the idea of founding, by his will, a liberal establishment in the University of Ox- ford for the study of the common law ; and Black.stone was, with great propriety, chosen the first Vinerian professor. His engagements at Oxford did not prevent his occasional practice as a provincial barrister; and in 1754, being en- gaged as counsel in a contested election for the county of Oxford, he was led into considerations on the elective franchise, which produced his work entitled 'Considerations on Copyholds.^ In 1759 he published a new edition of the Great Charter and Charter of the Forest, with an historical preface; and during the same year, the reputation which he had obtained by his lectures induced him to resume his attend- ance at Westminster Hall, when business and the honors of his profession soon crowded in upon him. In 1761 he was elected member of Parliament for Hindon, made king's counsel and solicitor-general to the queen. About this time he also married, and thereby losing his fellowship, was appointed principal of New Inn Hall ; which ofiice, with the Vinerian pro- fessorship, he resigned the next year. In 1765 he also published the first volume of his 'Com- mentaries on the Laws of England' ; a work of greater merit than any which had yet appeared on the subject. The real merit and talents of Blackstone, backed by political tendencies which are generally favorable to advancement, now made him an object of ministerial favor, and he was offered the post of solicitor-general in 1770, and, declining it, was made one of the justices of common pleas, which station he held until his death, in his 57th year. Blackstone, Mass., town in Worcester Co., on the Blackstone River, and on the New York, New Haven and Hartford R.R. It is an important manufacturing town and the centre of an extensive agricultural region. It has numerous churches, schools, library, weekly newspapers, electric lights, and excellent water power. Pop. (1890) 6,138; (1900) 5.72I. Blackstone River, a river of eastern New England ; rises in Paxton and Holden townships, Worcester County, Mass., flows southeast into the State of Rhode Island, and empties into the Providence River, near Providence, where it is known as the Seekonk. It is over 50 miles long, and falls over 700 feet, thus affording abundant water-power, and for a great part of its course flows through an almost continuous village of manufacturing establishments. BLACKTAIL — BLACKWELL Blacktail, the name of two different spe- cies of western American deer, notable for the blackness of the tail as compared with the snowy white tail of the eastern or "white-tailed*^ deer. One of them is more suitably called "mule*' deer, and is described elsewhere under that title. The other is the Columbian or Pacific Coast deer {Cervns, or Odocoileus, columbiamis) . The Columbian blacktail is somewhat smaller than the mule deer, with relatively shorter ears and finer hair. The general color in summer is red or reddish-yellow; in winter the color is more varied. The coat is then brownish-gray, darkest along the spine; top of head, chestnut and black; face gray, with a black spot on the forehead, passing backward as a stripe over each eye; chin white, behind which is a black patch ; upper throat, posterior portion of under part, and base of tail, white; chest, sooty; legs, dark cinnamon, white inside, and rest of under parts covered with black; upper surface of the tail, black. The antlers of the buck resemble those of the mule deer. This deer is limited to the Pacific coast, from central California north- ward to Alaska, and does not pass east of the coast ranges of mountains. It is a deer of the woods, frequenting the foot-hills and valleys especially those covered with small brush ; and its habits and gait, more nearly resemble those of the white-tailed deer, than of the mountain- loving mule deer. Its hunting affords excellent sport, and its venison is highly prized. See also Deer. Consult: Farell, ^Big Game in North America^ and VanDyke, (2d ed. 1880); < Sound Bodies for our Boys and Girls > (1883). Blaikie, William Garden, Scotch clergy- man: b. Aberdeen, 1837; d. 11 June 1899. He was graduated at the University of Aberdeen; ordained a minister of the Established Church in 1842; joined the Free Church in 1843; and was appointed professor of apologetics and pastoral theology in New College, Edinburgh, 1868. He was a delegate to the Presbyterian General As- sembly of the United States in 1870 ; took a leading part in the formation of the Alliance of the Reformed Churches ; and was editor of the (Phila. 1888). Blair, Austin, American la\vyer: b. Caro- line, N. Y., 8 Feb. 1818; d. Jackson, Mich., 6 Aug. 1894. He graduated at Union College in 1839 ; studied law in Oswego, N. Y., and re- moved to Jackson, Mich., where he was ad- mitted to the bar in 1842. He was elected to the legislature in 1846; became conspicuous in the convention which established the Republi- can party in Michigan ; and was elected gover- nor of Michigan in i860. He w^as a member of Congress (1866-70). Blair, Francis Preston, American journal- ist and politician: b. Abingdon, Va., 12 April 1791 ; d. Silver Spring, Md., 18 Oct. 1876. In early life he was a Jacksonian Democrat. He edited the Washington Globe from 1830 to 1845. Through his anti-slavery sentiments he became one of the founders of the Republican party, but in later years returned to the Democratic faith. Blair, Francis Preston, Jr., American sol- dier and statesman (son of the preceding) : b. Lexington, Ky., 19 Feb. 1821 ; d. St. Louis, Mo., 5 July 1875. He was a representative in Con- gress from Missouri (1857-9 and i86i-3)_; be- came a major-general in the Union ariny in the Civil War, taking an active part in the Vicks- burg campaign and Sherman's march to the sea; was an unsuccessful Democratic candidate for Vice-President in 1868, and United States senator (1870-3). Blair, Henry William, American legis- lator : b. Campton, N. H., 6 Dec. 1834. He re- ceived an academic education ; was admitted to the bar in 1859; served through the Civil War, becoming lieutenant-colonel of the 15th New Hampshire Volunteers, and was twice wounded. After serving in both branches of the State legislature he was a member of Congress (1875-9 and 1893-5), and United States Sena- tor (1879-89). He is the author of what was known as the "Blair Common School Bill,^^ de- signed to distribute a certain amount of Fed- eral money for educational purposes among the various States in proportion to the number of illiterates. He was a strong opponent of Chi- nese immigration, and. when he was appointed and confirined United States minister to Qiina, that government objected to receiving him. He has been an active worker in the cause of tem- perance and other reforms. Blair, Hugh, Scottish divine: b. Edin- burgh, 7 April 1718; d. 27 Dec. 1800. He corn- menced his academic career at Edinburgh Uni- versity in 1730. In 1741 he was licensed as a preacher, and the following year was ordained to the parish of Collessie, Fife, but a few months after he was elected to the second charge of the Canongate, Edinburgh. In 1754 he received one of the city charges, that of Lady Yester's church, and in 1758 one of the charges of the High Church. In 1759 he commenced a course of lectures to students upon the principles of literary composition; and in 1762 he was made professor of rhetoric and belles-lettres in the University o-f Edinburgh, being the first that ever occupied this chair. He continued the course till 1783, when he published his lectures, which received very high praise. In 1763 he published a dissertation on the 'Poems of Os- sian,^ in the authenticity of which he firmly believed. It was not till 1777 that he could be pre- vailed upon to offer to the world any of those sermons with which he had so long delighted a private congregation. One of the sermons hav- ing been sent by Strahan, the king's printer, to Dr. Johnson for his opinion, Strahan received from him the following characteristic note: "I have read over Dr. Blair's first ser- mon with more than approbation ; to say it is good is to say too little.^' Strahan there- upon agreed to purchase the volume, with Mr. Cadell, for $500. The sale was so rapid and extensive, and the approbation of the public so high, that the proprietors voluntarily doubled the stipulated price. The volume speedily fell under the attention of George III., and by royal mandate a pension of $1,000 a year was bestowed on Dr. Blair. During the subsequent part of his life Dr. Blair published three other volumes of sermons ; and it might safely be said that each successive publication only tended to deepen the impression produced by the first. Blair, James, American clergyman and educator: b. Scotland, 1656; d. Williamsburg, Va., I Aug. 1743. In 1685 he was sent as a mis- sionary to Virginia by Dr. Compton, Bishop of London. There he secured the confidence of the planters, and proved himself far in advance of his contemporaries on the question of slav- ery. In 1689 Sir Francis Nicholson appointed him "commissary,^* the highest ecclesiastical of- fice in the colony. This ofiice gave him a seat in the Council of the colonial government; he presided over the trials of clergymen, and pro- nounced sentence upon conviction of crimes or misdemeanors. His great desire was to see a college established in the colony. The Assembly and governor warmly sympathized with his pro- ject; he went to England and laid his plan be- fore William and Mary, and on 14 Feb. 1692, a charter for the college was granted, the bishop of London being appointed chancellor and Blair president, and the institution named "William and Mary.** Its opening was repeatedly de- layed, and Blair did not enter on his duties as president until 1729. but his enthusiasm never wavered, and his efforts were finally crowned with success. He left his library to the college. He wrote 'Our Saviour's Divine Sermon on the Mount' (London 1722, 4 vols.; 3d ed. 1740), a BLAIR — BLAKE work highly considered throughout the i8th century. Blair, John, Scotch chronologist and geographer: d. 24 June 1782. He went to Lon- don about the middle of the 18th century. In 1754 the publication of a work in folio, en- titled "^The Chronology and History of the World from the Creation to 1753 a.d.,' gained him great reputation. He dedicated his work to Lord Chancellor Hardwicke, and in 1757 was ap- pointed chaplain to the Princess Dowager of Wales, and mathematical tutor to the Duke of York, whom he accompanied, in 1763, on a tour to the Continent, having already received sev- eral ecclesiastical preferments. On his return to England he published, in 1768, a new edition of his * Chronological Tables,^ with 14 maps of ancient and modern geography annexed. Blair, John Insley, American philanthro- pist : b. Belvidere, N. J., 22 Aug. 1802 ; d. 2 Dec. 1899. In early life he was a merchant and banker ; subsequently becoming the individual owner of more miles of railroad property than any other man in the world. He acquired a very large fortune ; loaned the Federal gov- ernment more than $1,000,000 in the early part of the Civil War ; built and endowed at a cost of more than $600,000 the Presbyterian Academy in Blairstown, N. J. ; rebuilt Grinnell College, Iowa ; erected Blair Hall and made other gifts to Princeton University ; was equally liberal to Lafayette College ; and had erected more than 100 churches in different parts of the West, be- sides laying out many towns and villages on the lines of his numerous railroads. Blair, Montgomery, American lawyer: b. Franklin County, Ky., 10 May 1813 ; d. Silver Springs, Md., 27 July 1883. He was graduated at the United States Military Academy in 1835 ; resigned from the army, 1836 ; was admitted to the bar, 1839, and began practice in St. Louis. He was judge of the court of common pleas, 1843-9 ; removed to Maryland in 1852 ; was United States solicitor in the court of claims, 1855-8. He acted as counsel for the plaintiff in the widely known Dred Scott case. In 1861-4 he was postmaster-general. In 1876-7 he acted with the Democratic party in opposing Hayes' title to the office of President. Blair, Robert, Scotch clergyman and poet: (eldest son of the Rev. David Blair, one of the ministers of Edinburgh, and chaplain to the king) : b. Edinburgh, 1699 ; d. Athelstaneford, 1746. He was ordained, in 1731, minister of Athelstaneford, in East Lothian, where he spent the remainder of his life. He was a man of learning and of elegant taste and manners. A botanist and florist ; he was also skilled in opti- cal and microscopical knowledge, on which sub- jects he carried on a correspondence with some learned men in England. He was a man of sin- cere piety and very assiduous in discharging the duties of his clerical functions. His best-known poem, ^The Grave,^ was chiefly composed be- fore his ordination. It was first printed in 1743, and is now esteemed as one of the standard classics of English poetical literature, in which rank it will probably remain longer than many works of greater contemporary or even present fame. Blake, Edward, English statesman: b. Cairngorm, Ont., Canada, 13 Oct. 1833. He was educated at Upper Canada Cpllege and Toronto University ; was called to the bar in 1856 and engaged in practice in Toronto. He entered public life in 1867 ; was premier of Ontario, 1871-2; minister of justice, 1875-7, and the recognized leader of the Canadian Liberal party, 1880-91. He declined the appointments of chan- cellor of upper Canada in 1869, chief justice ot Canada in 1875, ^nd chief justice of Ontario in 1897, and also the honor of knighthood. In 1892 he was invited by the leaders of the Anti- Parnellites in Ireland to enter the British House of Commons as the representative of an Irish constituency. Consenting, he removed to South Longford, was elected for that district, and in 1895 was re-elected. In 1896 he was appointed a member of the judiciary committee of the privy council. Blake, Eli Whitney, American inventor: b. Westboro, Mass., 27 Jan. 1795 ; d. New Haven, 17 Aug. 1886. He graduated at Yale University in 1816, and began business with his uncle, Eli Whitney, in the manufacture of fire- arms. In 1834 he founded, near New Haven, Conn., the pioneer factory for the manufacture of domestic hardware. In 1857 he invented the widely-known stone- and ore-crusher called the Blake crusher, which introduced a new era in road-making and mining industries, and is used throughout the world. Blake, Francis, American inventor: b. Needham, Mass., 25 Dec. 1850. He served for 13 years on the United States Coast Survey, part of the time engaged in field work and its reduc- tion to determine dififerences of longitude be- tween the observatories at Greenwich, Paris, Cambridge, and Washington. Having devoted himself to the study of experimental physics, in 1878 he invented the famous Blake transmitter, which is the telephonic transmitter now most widely used throughout the world. He has also patented other electrical devices. Blake, John Laurie, American clergyman and author: b. Northwood, N. H., 21 Dec. 1788; d. Orange, N. J., 6 July 1867. He was educated at Phillips Exeter Academy and at Brown Uni- versity. He first entered the Congregational ministry, but in a short time became an Episco- palian and was ordained in that Church. He settled in Pawtucket, and later in Hopkinton. N. H., and in 1822 removed to Boston. He continued to teach in this school till 1830, then devoted himself to literary work. While a teacher he published several text-books, pre- pared for his own classes, and was editor of the "^Gospel Advocate.^ His greatest work, a ^Biographical Dictionary,^ was first published in 1835. Blake, Mrs. Lillie (Devereux) Umstead, American advocate of woman's rights and novel- ist : b. Raleigh, N. C, 1835. Her first husband, Frank G. Quay Umstead, died in 1859 ; she mar- ried Grenfill Blake in 1866, who died in 1896. She has written and spoken much on woman suffrage, and her novels bear on this theme. She has written ^Southwold^ (1859) ; ^Rock- ford^ (1863) ; * Fettered for Life^ (new ed. 1885); 'Woman's Place To-Day> (1883), a reply to Dr. Morgan Dix's 'Lenten Lectures on Women, ^ which attracted attention; etc. In 1900 she was president of the Civic and Equality Union. BLAKE Blake, Mary Elizabeth McGrath, American poet and writer: b. Dungarven, Ireland, i Sept. 1840. In verse she has written < Poems' (1882) ; < Youth in Twelve Centuries' (1886) ; etc. Of her travels may be named <0n the Wing' (1883); ^A Summer Holiday.' Blake, Robert, British admiral: b. Bridge- water, Somerset, August 1599; d. 17 Aug. 1657. After attending the grammar school of his na- tive place he was sent to Wadham college, Ox- ford, where he took the degree of B.A. in 1617. On his return to Bridgewater he lived quietly on the fortune left him by his father, and was led to embrace the principles of the Puritans, by whose interest he was elected member for Bridgewater in the Parliament of 1640. This being soon dissolved, he lost his election for the next, and immediately sought to advance the cause in a military capacity in the war which then broke out between the king and the Par- liament. He soon distinguished himself by his activity. In 1649 he was sent to command the fleet in conjunction with Cols. Deane and Pop- ham, and thus commenced the naval career which has given him so distinguished a place in British history. He immediately sailed to Kinsale in quest of Prince Rupert, whom he attempted to block up in that port. The prince escaped to Lisbon, where Blake followed him ; and, being refused permission to attack him in the Tagus by the king of Portugal, he took several rich prizes from the Portuguese (against whom the Parliament declared war), and fol- lowed Rupert to Malaga, where, without asking permission of Spain, he attacked him and nearly destroyed the whole of his fleet. On his re- turn to England he was made warden of the Cinque Ports, and soon after reduced the islands of Scilly and Guernsey. In 1652 he was made sole admiral, and on the 19th of May was at- tacked in the Downs by Van Tromp with a fleet of 45 sail, the force of Blake amounting only to 23. He fought so bravely, however, that Van Tromp was obliged to retreat. He then continued his cruise, took a number of Dutch merchantmen, and after several partial actions drove the enemy into their harbor and returned to the Downs. On 29 May he was again attacked by Van Tromp, whose fleet was now increased to 80 sail. Blake engaged this vast force with a very inferior number and an unfavorable wind ; but, after every possible exertion, was obliged to retreat into the Thames, on which Van Tromp was so much elated that he sailed through the Channel with a broom at his mast- head, to signify that he had swept the sea of British ships. In the February following, Blake, having with great diligence repaired his fleet, put to sea with 60 sail, and soon after met the Dutch admiral, who had 70 sail and 300 mer- chantmen under convoy. During three days a furious running fight up the Channel was main- tained with obstinate valor on both sides, the result of which was the loss of 11 men-of-war and 30 merchant ships by the Dutch, while that of the English was only one man-of-war. It was in April of this year that Cromwell assumed the sovereignty, on which occasion Blake and his brother admirals issued a dec- laration that, notwithstanding this change, they resolved to persist in faithfully performing their duty to the nation. "It is not for us," said Blake to his officers, "to mind state affairs, but to keep the foreigners from fooling us." On 3 June he again engaged Van Tromp with dubious success ; but, renewing the action the next day, he forced the Dutch to retire with a consider- able loss in ships and men. On his return he was received by Cromwell with great respect, and returned member in the new Parliament for Bridgewater. Aware of his aff'ection for a republican government, the protector was not displeased at having occasion to send him, with a strong fleet, to enforce a due respect to the British flag in the Mediterranean. He sailed first to Algiers, which submitted, and then de- molished the castles of Goletta and Porto Fer- ino, at Tunis, because the dey refused to deliver up the British captives. A squadron of his ships also blocked up Cadiz and intercepted a Spanish plate fleet. Being now very sick, he resolved to do one more service to his country before his death, and sailed with 24 ships to Santa Cruz, in Tenerift'e, and, notwithstanding the strength of the place, burned the ships of another Spanish plate fleet which had taken shelter there, and by a fortunate change of wind came out without loss. His brother having failed in some part of duty during this service, he immediately re- moved him from his command. Finding his disorder making rapid progress he then sailed for England, and expired while the fleet was entering Plymouth Sound. His body was hon- ored with a magnificent public funeral, and in- terred in Westminster Abbey, whence it was, with pitiful spite, removed at the Restoration and buried in St. Margaret's churchyard. So disinterested was he that, after all his rich captures and high posts, he scarcely left behind him $2,500 of acquired property, freely sharing all with his friends and seamen, into whom he infused that intrepidity and spirit of enterprise by which the British navy has been ever since so highly distinguished. Blake, William, English poet, painter, and engraver: b. London, 28 Nov. 1757; d. 12 Aug. 1857. At the age of 10 he was sent to a drawing-school, and four years later he was apprenticed for seven years to the engraver James Basire, for whom he drew from the monuments in the older London churches and Westminster Abbey. In 1778 he studied in the Royal Academy, and about this time he began to engrave for the booksellers, among his chief productions being plates after Stothard for the < Novelists' Magazine.' To the first exhibition of the Royal Academy he sent a drawing en- titled "^The Death of Earl Godwin.' He mar- ried in 1782, and for the three years 1784-7 carried on a printseller's shop in partnership with another engraver. From his earliest years Blake was a mystic. He believed that all things exist in the human imagination alone, and had a wonderful power of imaginative vision which enabled him to see angels in trees and in fields, great men of past times, etc. His * Songs of Innocence,' verse and designs (1789), and the companion ^ Songs of Experience' (i794)> were reproduced by himself and his wife by a process which he believed to have been revealed to him in a dream by a dead brother. Between 1793 and 1800 he produced a large number of designs, among them 537 illustrations for Young's by Swinburne (1868), and Story (1893). Blake, William Phipps, American min- eralogist : b. New York, i June 1826. Graduat- ing at the Sheffield Scientific School in 1852, he joined the United States Pacific Railroad ex- ploring expedition (1853) as mineralogist and geologist. In 1861 he became mining engineer for the Japanese government, and with R. Pumpelly organized the first school of science in Japan. As an expert in his specialty he was connected in important capacities with the Paris Exposition of 1867, the Vienna Exposition (1873), United States Centennial Exhibition (1876), Paris Uni- versal Exposition (1878), and drafted the sys- tem of classification of United States ores and minerals at the Columbian Exposition (1893). He has .conducted important explorations in Alaska, California, and NeA'ada, and the chief mining districts of the United States, frequently publishing his results in valuable reports and scientific papers. Publications: 'Silver Ores and Silver Mines' (1861) ; 'California Minerals' (1863) ; 'Production of the Precious Metals' (1867) ; 'Iron and Steel' (1873) ; 'Ceramic Art and Glass' (1878) ; 'History of the Town of Hamden, Conn.' ; 'Life of Captain Jona- than Mix.' Blake, William Rufus, American actor: b. Halifax, N. S., 1805 ; d. Boston, 22 April 1863. His first appearance on the American stage was at the old Chatham Theatre, New York, under the management of Mr. Barrere, in 1824, as Frederic in 'The Poor Gentleman,' and in Elliston's favorite character in 'The Three Sin- gles.' His success was great. Jesse Rural, in 'Old Heads and Young Hearts,' was one of his best parts. Mr. Blake was a fluent and effective speaker. He was stage manager of the Tremont Theatre, Boston, joint manager of the Walnut Street Theatre, Philadelphia, and stage manager of the Broadway Theatre, New York. Blakeley, Johnston, American naval offi- cer: b. near Seaford, County Down, Ireland, October 1781 ; lost at sea, 1814. His father emi- grated to the United States in 1783, and event- ually made his home in Wilmington, N. C. Johnston graduated at the University of North Carolina in 1800, and on 5 February of that year entered the navy as midshipman, and rose to the rank of captain. On i May 1814 he left Portsmouth, N. H., in command of the new sloop-of-war Wasp, and very shortly ap- peared in the English Channel, spreading terror among the merchant ships and seaport towns. On 28 June he fought and defeated the British sloop Reindeer, for which exploit Congress voted him a gold medal. On i September he destroyed the Avon and on the 21st, near the Azores, took the Atlanta, which he sent home to Savannah. On 9 October the Wasp was spoken by the Swedish bark Adonis ; and that was the last ever heard of the vessel and of those on board of her. It seems probable that, being heavily armed and sparred, the vessel foundered in a gale. Blakelock, Ralph Albert, artist: b. New York, 15 Oct. 1847. He graduated at the Col- lege of the City of New York in 1867, and it was intended that he should follow his father's profession of medicine, but he developed a strong taste for music and the arts, and with- out a master taught himself painting. He has painted landscapes, moonlight scenes, and In- dian figures ; one of the last-named represents the Ta-vo-kok-i, or circle-dance of the Kavavite Indians. His work is very striking on account of its harmonious color-schemes. His studio is in New York. Blakesley, Joseph Williams, English clergy- man : b. London, 6 March 1808; d. Lincoln, 18 April 1885. He graduated at Trinity College, Cambridge, in 1831 ; was Fellow there 1831-45, and select preacher 1840-3 ; became a member of the New Testament Committee on Bible Revi- sion in 1870; became dean of Lincoln in 1872. His publications include 'Life of Aristotle' (1839) ; 'Conciones Academicge' (1843) ; and an edition of 'Herodotus' (2 vols., 1852-4). Blakey, Robert, English writer: b. Mor- peth, Northumberland, 18 May 1795 ; d. Belfast, 26 Oct. 1878. He bought the Newcastle Liber- ator in 1838, and got himself into trouble with the government on account of certain alleged seditious articles which he published. In 1848 he became professor of logic and metaphysics at Queen's College, Belfast. Among his works are 'Treatise on tbe Divine and Human Wills' ; 'History of Moral Science' ; 'Historical Sketch of Logic' ; 'Temporal Benefits of Christianity' ; and 'The Angler's Song Book.' Blanc, bloii, Anthony, American clergy- man: b. Sury, France, 11 Oct. 1792; d. New Orleans, 20 June i860. He was ordained to the Roman Catholic priesthood in 1816 ; went to Annapolis, Md., in 1817; was appointed bishop of New Orleans in 1835 ; and became archbishop there in 1850. Blanc, Jean-Joseph-Louis, zhoii-zhd-sef- loo-e, French historian, publicist, and socialist: b. Madrid. 29 Oct. 181 1 ; d. 6 Dec. 1882. He studied with great success in the college at Ro- dez, and completed his education at Paris. He was for a short time an attorney's clerk, after- v/ard a teacher of mathematics and a private tutor. Subsequently at Paris he devoted him- BLANC — BLANCHARD self to the career of journalism, fighting stoutly in the ranks of the militant democracy. In 1839 he founded the Revue du Progres, in which first appeared his great work on socialism, ^De I'Or- ganisation du TravaiP (separately published in 1840). In this work he condemns individual and competitive rivalry in labor; society should not be subjected to a perpetual combat, but should form a harmonious whole, in which each member should contribute according to his abili- ties and be recompensed according to his needs. In 1841-4 appeared his *Histoire de Dix Ans' (1830-40), in which he vigorously exposed the trickery and jobbery of the government of Louis Philippe, and which greatly contributed to bring about its downfall. On the outbreak of the revolution of 1848 Blanc was elected a member of the provisional government, and appointed president of the commission for the discussion of the question of labor. He has been unjustly charged with creating and organizing the disas- trous scheme of national workshops, a scheme which he strenuously opposed. After the closing of these workshops, and the June insurrection of 1848, he was prosecuted for conspiracy, but escaped to England, where he took up a length- ened residence. During this period he wrote the Ibulk of his famous "-Histoire de la Revolution Frangaise^ (12 vols. 1847-62). His other works are: ^Lettres sur I'Angleterre^ (1865-7); (1889), were- crowned by the French Academy. Other stories are 'Georgette* and 'Jacqueline* (1893); 'Con- dition of Woman in the United States* (1895)- Blanc, Paul Joseph, pol zho-zef, French genre painter: b. Paris 1846; d. Paris 5 July 1904. He studied under Bin and Ca- banel. He won the Grand Prix de Rome in 1867 ; the first-class medal of the Paris Salon in 1S72; the decoration of the Legion of Honor in 1878; and the first-class medal in the Paris Exposition of 1889. One of his best-known works is a decorative composition depicting the consecration, baptism, and triumph of Clovis. Blanc, Mont. See Moxt Blanc. Blanchard, blan-shard, Edward Laman, English dramatist and novelist : b. London, 1820; d. 1889. His novels, 'Temple Bar* and 'A Man Without a Destiny,* evinced no special talent for story-telling; on the other hand he composed for Drury Lane Theatre about 100 Christmas pantomimes in the vein of grotesque burlesque, among them 'Sinbad the Sailor,* which were received with unbounded popular favor. Blanchard, Emile, a-mel bloh-shar, French naturalist : b. Paris, 6 March 1819. He is espe- cially renowned as an entomologist, and is the author of many scientific works, including 'Researches into the Organization of Worms' (1837) ; 'Natural History of Orthopterous and Neuropterous Insects* (1837-40); 'History of Insects, etc.* (1843-5). Blanchard, Frangois, fran-swa, French aeronaut : b. 1753 ; d. 1809. He displayed great ingenuity by the invention of a hydraulic ma- chine in the 19th year of his age, and afterward in the construction of a flying ship, which, by means of a counterpoise of six pounds, was raised to more than 20 feet from the ground. He eagerly availed himself of the discoveries of the brothers Montgolfier, and the improvements of the same by Prof. Charles and M. Robert in Paris. After having made his first aerostatic voyage. 4 March 1784, he crossed the Channel from Dover to Calais, 1785, with Dr. Jeffries, a gentleman of Boston. For this exploit he was rewarded by the king of France with a present of $2,400 and a pension of $240. In the same year, at London, he first made use of a parachute invented by him, or, accord- ing to others, by Etienne Montgolfier. After having performed many aerostatic voyages in foreign countries also, he \yas accused of propa- gating revolutionary principles, and imprisoneo (1793) in the fortress of Kufstein, in the Tyrol. Havmg obtained his liberty, he made his 46th ascent in the city of New York in 1796. In 1798 he ascended with 16 persons in a large balloon at Rouen, and descended at a place 15 miles distant. In 1807 his aerostatic voyages amounted to more than 66. His wife continued to make aerial voyages. In 181 1 she ascended in Rome, and after going a distance of 60 miles she rose again to proceed to Naples. In June 1819 having ascended from Tivoli, in Paris, her balloon took fire at a considerable height, from some fire-works which she carried with her. The car fell in the Rue de Provence, and the aeronaut was dashed to pieces. BLANCHARD — BLANCHING Blanchard, Jacques, zhak, French painter: b. Paris, 1600; d. 1638. He received the first lessons of his art from Bellori, his rnaternal uncle, studied some time at Lyon, and in 1624 repaired to Rome. After two years he visited Venice, studied the works of Titian and the other great colorists of his school, and executed several paintings which gave him a name. After his return to Paris he executed a great number of works, which procured him the surname of Hhe French Titian." His best piece, a *^ Descent of the Holy Spirit,^ is in the cathedral at Notre Dame. Blanchard, Jonathan, American educator: b. Rockingham, Vt, 19 Jan. 1811; d. Wheaton, 111., 14 May 1892. He graduated at Lane Theo- logical Seminary in 1832 and was ordained a. Presbyterian minister in 1838. He was Ameri- can vice-president of the World's Anti-Slavery Convention in London in 1843 ; and in 1846 became president of Knox College at Galesburg, 111. He was president of Wheaton College, 111., 1880-2 ; and, on resigning, was chosen president- emeritus, and subsequently gave most of his time to editing ^The Christian Cynosure.^ Blanchard, Thomas, American inventor: b. Sutton, Worcester County, Mass., 24 June 1788; d. 16 April 1864. He joined his brother in the manufacture of tacks lay hand, and at the age of 18 commenced his invention of a tack- machine, which in six years he brought to such perfection that by placing in the hopper the iron to be worked, and applying the motive power, 500 tacks were made per minute with better finished heads and points than had ever been made by hand. He sold the patent for $5,000. About this time various attempts were made in the United States armories at Springfield and Harper's Ferry, to turn musket-barrels with a uniform external finish. Blanchard undertook the construction of a lathe to turn the whole of the barrel from end to end, by the combination of one single self-directing operation. About three inches of the barrel at the breech was partly cylindrical and partly with flat sides ; these were all cut by the same machine, ingeniously chan- ging to a vibrating motion as it approached the breech. The superintendent of the Springfield armory contracted with Mr. Blanchard for one of his machines. While it was in operation one of the workmen remarked that his own work of grinding the barrels was done away with. Another, employed on the wooden stocks, which were then all made by hand, said that Blanchard could not spoil his job, as he could not make a machine to turn a gunstock. Blanch- ard answered that he was not sure, but he would think about it, and as he was driving home the idea of his lathe for turning irregular forms suddenly struck him. The principle of this machine is, that forms are turned by a pattern the exact shape of the object to be pro- duced, which in every part of it is successively brought in contact with a small friction-wheel; this wheel precisely regulates the motion _ of chisels arranged upon a cutting wheel acting upon the rough block, so that as the friction- wheel successively traverses every portion of the rotating pattern, the cutting wheel pares off the superabundant wood from end to end of the block, leaving a precise resemblance of the model. This remarkable machine, with modi- fications and improvements, is in use in the national armories as well as in England, and in various forms is applied to many operations in making musket-stocks, such as cutting in the cavity for the lock, barrel, ramrod, butt-plates, and mountings, comprising, together with the turning of the stock and barrel, no less than 13 different machines. Beside gunstocks, it is also applied to a great variety of objects, such as busts, shoe lasts, handles, spokes, etc. Mr. Blanchard was also interested at an early day in the construction of railroads and locomotives, and in boats contrived to ascend rapid rivers. He also invented a machine for cutting and fold- ing envelopes, a steam wagon, and a process for bending heavy timbers. Blanche of Bourbon, Castilian queen: b. 1338. She was the daughter of Peter, Duke of Bourbon, and in 1353 married Peter, king of Castile, surnamed the Cruel. Don Frederick, Peter's natural brother, had been deputed to meet her at Narbonne and bring her into Spain, and she is said to have so far forgotten herself as to conceive a violent passion for him. Ru- mors to this effect had reached the king's ears, and though he celebrated the marriage he soon showed that he had placed his affections else- where. He shortly after declared the marriage null, imprisoned the queen in the castle of Medina Sidonia, and is said to have gotten rid of her by poison. Blanche of Castile, French queen: b. 1187; d. Milan, November 1252. She was the daughter of Alphonso IX., married Louis VIII. of France and became the mother of Louis IX. («St. Louis"). On the death of her husband she anticipated the formal appointment of a regency by procuring the immediate coronation of her son, and during his minority held the reins of government in his name with distin- guished ability and success. In 1244, when St. Louis took his departure for the Holy Land she again became regent and gave new proofs of her talents and virtues. Her days are said to have been shortened by the long absence of her son, and a prevailing rumor that he had resolved to remain permanently in Palestine. Blanche, August Theodor, ow'goost ta'6- dor blansh, Swedish dramatist and novel- ist: b. Stockholm, 17 Sept. 181 1; d. Stockholm, 30 Nov. 1868. His comedies and farces, — more particularly ; blanc. The name is as common and as unphilosophical as that of White Hill, Black River, etc. The cape best known by this name is a headland on the west coast of Africa, in lat. 20° 47' N., and Ion. 16° 58' W., the extremity of a rocky ridge which projects from the Sahara in a westerly direction, and then bending southward forms a commodious harbor called the Great Bay. Cape Blanco was first discovered by the Portuguese in 144 1. Bland, Edith Nesbit (E. Nesbit), English writer: b. London, 15 Aug. 1858. She was mar- ried to Hubert Bland, 1879. She has written several volumes of verse, as well as a series of popular children's books and several novels. Her published works include: ^Lays and J.egends> (1886-92); ^Leaves of Life^ (1888); ^A Pomander of Verse^ (1895) ; (1893); 'The Marden Mystery* (1896) ; < Songs of Love and Empire* (1897); 'The Secret of Kyriels* (1898) ; ^The Story of the Treasure Seekers* (1899) ; ^ Pussy and Doggy Tales* (1899) ; 'The Book of Dragons* (1900) ; 3i5>304. valued at $1,740,988 or about the same as before. The chief seats of manufacture were Pennsylvania for all-wool, and Massachusetts for cotton-warp, though Indiana, Minnesota, California, and several other States furnished large quantities. The nap is formed in the finest grades, and till recently was so altogether, by pulling up the fibre with teazles ; these have now been replaced in the cheaper makes with steel teeth or brushes on revolving cylinders, which, however, are too inflexible and liable to tear the goods to be trusted with expensive ones. The use of Jac- quard patterns with two or three colors, in place of printed ones, is another change which has popularized blankets by increasing their beauty. Blanqui, blaii-ke, Jerome Adolphe, French economist: b. Nice, 1798; d. 1B54. While study- ing medicine at Paris he made acquaintance with Jean Baptiste Say, and was induced to devote himself to the study of economics. He succeeded Say in the Conservatoire des Arts et Metiers as professor of industrial economy. Blanqui, who favored a free-trade policy, pub- lished, among other works, ^Precis Elementaire d'ficnnnmie Politique^ and ^Histoire de I'ficono- mie Politique en Europe.' Blanqui, Louis Augusta, French revolu- tionist: b. Nice, 7 Feb. 1805; d. i Jan. 1881. He made himself conspicuous chiefly by his passion- ate advocacy of the most extreme political opin- BLANQUILLO — BLASPHEMY ions, for which' he suffered with the pride of a martyr. He was one of the foremost fighters in all the French revolutions of the 19th cen- tury. In 1830 he was decorated for his valor at the barricades. In 1848 he figured as the chief organizer of the popular movement under the provisional government. He took the lead also in the revolutionary attentat of 15 May, the aim of which was to overthrow the Constituent Assembly. At the head of an excited mob he demanded of the French representatives the resuscitation of the Polish nationality, while one of his friends pronounced the dissolution of the Assembly. For his share in these disturbances he was rewarded with a 10 years' imprisonment in Belleisle. In 1861 Blanqui was sentenced to another imprisonment of four years. After the downfall of the second empire in 1870, Blanqui resumed his revolutionary activity, and, in 1871, took a prominent part in forming the Commune. Being too unwell to endure transportation to New Caledonia, he was condemned to imprison- ment for life, from which he was released in 1879. He spent nearly half of his life in prison. Blanquillo, blan-kel'yo, a fish of the Gulf of Mexico (Caiilolatihis chrysops), related to the tile-fish. The name is also given in southern California to the yellow-tail (q.v.). Blarney, Ireland, a village four miles northwest of the city of Cork, near the stream of same name, here crossed by a handsome bridge of three arches. It is a small but well- built place ; and besides the parish church, con- tains a national school. Flax and cotton were formerly manufactured to some extent, but both of these branches have now decayed. Spinning and dyeing woolen 3'arn is, however, still car- ried on ; and there is an extensive tweed manu- factory employing a number of people. Blarney Castle stands on an isolated limestone rock at the junction of the Blarney and Comane. Erected in the 15th century, it was the scene of several interesting historical events ; but de- rives its chief notoriety from a stone in its northeast angle, several feet from the top, bear- ing a Latin inscription, recording the date of the erection, and called the "Blarney Stone.'^ To this stone tradition ascribes the faculty of com- municating to all who kiss it that species of most persuasive fluency of speech commonly called "blarney.^^ The "groves of Blarney'^ are extensive and interesting, and beneath the castle there are also some curious natural caves. Blaser ble'zer, Gustav, German sculptor: b. Diisseldorf, 9 ]\Iay 1813; d. Cannstatt, 20 April 1874. He was associated 11 ji-ears with Ranch and for that time shared in all his work. In 1845 he went to Rome, but returned to Berlin when appointed to design one of the groups for the "Schlossbriicke.^ His group, ^Minerva Leading a Young Warrior to Battle,' is thought to be the best of the series. Among his other works are a statue of St. Matthew in the church at Helsingfors ; the ^Prophet DanieP ; Barussia in the new museum at Berlin ; the statues of Jeremiah, Daniel, and Charlemagne for the church at Potsdam ; the equestrian statue of Frederick William III. at Cologne; ^Hospital- ity-* ; and many busts, including one of Lincoln and one of Washington. •Blashfield, Edwin Howland, American art- ist: b. New York, 15 Dec. 1848; studied in Paris under Leon Bonnat ; and began exhibiting in the Paris Salon in 1874. He returned to the United States in 1881, and has since distin- guished himself by the execution of large deco- rative works. Among his noteworthy produc- tions in this line are one of the domes of the Manufacturers' building in the World's Colum- bian Exposition, the great central dome of the Library of Congress, and the new apartment of the appellate court in New York ; besides ceil- ing and panel work in the residences of C. P. Huntington, W. K. Vanderbilt, and George W. C. Drexel, and in the Astoria ballroom and sev- eral clubhouses in New York. Bla'sius, St., or St. Blaise, Bishop of Se- baste, in Armenia, is said to have suffered martyrdom about 316, by order of Agricola. governor of Cappadocia and little Armenia. His feast day is celebrated in the Greek church on il February and he is commemorated in the oldest martyrologies of the Roman church. In the Roman iMartyrology, 3 February is assigned to him. He is the patron saint of wool-combers, his flesh having been torn by iron combs. He is especially invoked in diseases of children and animals, and ailments connected with the throat are more particularly in his province. Blasphemy, is somewhat variously defined. According to the most general definition, it means the speaking irreverently of the mysteries of religion ; and formerly, in Roman Catholic countries, it also included the speaking contemptuously or disrespectfully of the Holy Virgin or the saints. Public blasphemy has been considered by the Catholic Church as an un- pardonable sin, and it was formerly punished with death by the municipal laws. The 77th novel of Justinian assigned this punishment to it ; and the capitularies inflicted the same pun- ishment upon such as, knowing of an act of blasphemy, did not denounce the offender. The former laws of France punished this crime with fine, corporal punishment, the gallows, and death, according to the degree and aggravation of the offense. The records of the parliaments supply numerous instances of condemnation for this crime, and many of punishment by death ; others of branding and mutilation. A man was for this offense condemned to be hanged, and to have his tongue afterward cut out, and the sen- tence was executed at Orleans as late as 1748. But it is remarked by a writer in the French ^Encyclopedie Moderne,' that we should form an erroneous opinion from the present state of society of the effect of this offense, and the dis- orders it might introduce in former times; for religion was once so intimately blended with the government and laws, that to treat the re- ceived articles of faith or religious ceremonies with disrespect was in effect to attack civil institutions. By the common law of England, as stated by Blackstone, blasphemy consists in denying the being and providence of God, contumelious reproaches of Jesus Christ, profane scoffing at Holy Scripture, etc., and is punishable by fine and imprisonment, or corporal punishment; the offense is also statutory, the statute 9 and 10 William III. cap. xxxii., declaring that if any one shall deny any of the persons of the Trinity to be God, or assert that there are more gods than one, or deny the truth of Christianity or of the Scriptures, he shall be incapable of holding any office; and for a second offens& be BLAST FURNACE disabled from suing any action, or being an executer, and suffer three j^ears' imprisonment. By the law of Scotland, as it stood under acts of 1661 and 1695, the punishment of blas- phemy was death. Blasphemy consisted of rail- ing at or cursing God, or of obstinately persist- ing in denying the existence of the Supreme Being, or any of the persons of the Trinity. The early legislation of the American colo- nies followed that of the mother country, and in some of them the crime of blasphemy was punished with death; but the penalty was miti- gated before the establishment of independence, and imprisonment, whipping, setting on the pil- lory, having the tongue bored with a red-hot iron, etc., were substituted. Several penalties against blasphemy are to be found in the laws of some of the New England States, according to which it is provided that, if any person shall blaspheme, by denying, cursing, or contumeli- ously reproaching God, his creation, govern- ment, or final judging of the world, or by curs- ing or reproaching Jesus Christ or the Holy Ghost, or contumeliously reproaching the Word of God, consisting of the commonly received books of the Old and New Testament, he is liable to imprisonment for a term not exceed- ing five years. But the most direct and public violations of these laws are passed over with- out punishment or prosecution, due probably to the provisions of the National and State Consti- tutions, guaranteeing religious liberty, and the freedom of speech. In many States, the offense of blasphamy, not being a subject of special statutory provision, is only punishable either as an offense at common law, or a violation of the statute laws against profane swearing. Blast Furnace, a modern mechanical appli- ance, or structure built of refractory material in which metallic ores are smelted in contact with fuel and flux, the combustion of the fuel being accelerated by air under pressure. The materials are fed in at the top of the furnace, and after the ores are reduced, the metal, or in some cases the matte, and the resulting slag are tapped in a molten state at or 'near the bot- tom; as a rule, the slags, being of less specific gravity than the metal, float upon it. The sizes of blast furnaces vary from a few feet to over 100 feet in height, a horizontal section through the structure showing either circular or rectangu- lar interiors, the circular form being adopted for the larger sizes, while those of smaller height are often made rectangular to permit of introducing a number of tuyeres with air noz- zles into a narrow hearth. A vertical section of a modern American blast furnace shows at the lower part, the hearth or crucible of the shape desired, into which the air is admitted under pressure through tu3'-eres. On this hearth is superposed an inverted frustum of a cone forming the boshes, and above these the shaft of the furnace ascends in the form of a right cone. The shafts are inclosed by shells of sheet steel or by crinolines formed of bands and beams, and carried on columns. The boshes are usually secured bj' bands and the crucibles by sheet and metal jackets. The mate- rials are charged into the shaft so that layers of fuel alternate with layers of ore and flux, the taper of the shaft being sufficient to permit of ex- pansion as the materials are heated, and facilitate their delivery to the hopper formed by the boshes. where reduction of the ores takes place. The reduced ore, meeting the burning fuel near the tuyeres, is melted, and the liquid slag and metal drop into the hearth or crucible (the cinder or slag floating on the liquid metal), from which they are tapped out from time to time. By heating the blast before it enters the tuyeres combustion is accelerated, and the furnaces pro- duce increased quantities of metal with reduced fuel consumption per unit of product. The large blast furnaces smelt ores of iron or manganese, or of iron and manganese, and are from 40 to 106 feet in height, a cross sec- tion at the top of the boshes showing a circle from 10 feet to 23 feet in diameter. The blast is heated to 1,000°, and sometimes to 1,200°, or 1,400° F., and is forced into the crucibles 'or hearth through from 6 to 20 tuyeres, at pres- sures from 5 to 15, and, at times, exceeding 20 pounds per square inch. The blast furnaces smelting silver or copper ores seldom exceed 30 feet in height, the horizontal section being rec- tangular, and the blast pressure but a fraction of a pound. A modern blast furnace will produce from 300 to 600 tons of pig iron daily, requiring from 1,000 to 2,000 tons of ore, fuel and flux to be fed into it. The cost for construction and equipment of one of these modern furnaces, with its necessary railroad tracks, storage room and bins for receiving the raw material, the mechanism for elevating it to the top of the stack, with sufficient blowing engines, boilers, hot blast stoves, etc., ranges from $400,000 to $800,000. As a rule, blast furnaces smelting other ores than those of iron have the top of the furnace stack open, while, in those producing iron, the top is usually sealed by a bell closing against a hopper, to distribute the stock in the wide throat of the furnace and to control the gases which are the result of the smelting operation, so as to employ the calorific value of these gases for heating the blast or for generating steam in boilers to operate machinery. The practica- bility of using these gases in engines, where the gas, in exploding, gives impetus to a piston, has also been demonstrated. The blast is heated in hot blast stoves, generally cylinders from 14 to 25 feet in diameter and from 50 to 115 feet high, filled with checker work of fire brick. These stoves are placed in series; the gas being admitted to and burned in a stove raises the temperature of the masonry, after which the gas is shut off and the blast forced through the highly heated checkers. By alternating a series of stoves on gas or blast, at intervals of one or two hours, a nearly uniform temperature is maintained. The blast, after passing through the hot blast stoves, is conveyed in iron or steel conduits, lined with fire brick, to tuyeres, set in the walls of the crucible. These tuyeres are formed of an inner and outer shell with closed ends, water circulating between the two shells. The tuy- eres are mostly made of bronze or copper and are set in larger tuyere blocks (also water cooled) of iron or bronze. Nozzles connect the lined air conduits to the tuyeres. The cooling water required by a modern blast furnace amounts to millions of gallons daily. A large furnace requires a boiler equipment of from 3,000 to 3.500 horse power for its blowing, pump- ing and elevating machinery, electric plant, etc Copyright by the Scientific American. MODERN BLAST FURNACE, SHOWING AUTOMATIC HOISTING AND CHARGING EQUIPMENT. BLAST FURNACE PRACTICE Blast furnaces are numerous in Great Brit- ain, Germany, France, Belgium, Spain, Russia, Austria-Hungary, Sweden, and they also exist in Canada, ^lexico, Italy, China, India, and Japan. Data as to the number of these is not at hand, but the pig iron production of various countries gives an approximate idea. In 1905 these figures (in metric tons) were approxi- mately as follows : United States 25,340,258 tons; United Kingdom 9,746,221 tons; Germany 10,987,623 tons; France 3,077,000 tons (for the first six months of 1906, 1,573,504 tons) ; Russia 2,125,000 tons; Austria-Hungary 1,372,300 tons; Belgium 1,310,200 tons; Sweden 531,200 tons; Spain 383,100 tons; Canada 475,491 tons; Italy 31,300 tons; all other countries (estimated) 655,000 tons ; making a total production of about 54,054,783 tons. It is impossible to give the total number of blast furnaces in the United States, for the rea- son that the number of those used for producing copper, silver, etc., are not collated, but lists of the furnaces employed in reducing iron ores are carefully reported by the American Iron and Steel Association. There were in 1906, in the United States, a total of 424 blast furnaces, whose aggregate reported capacity amounted to over 25,000,000 long tons of pig iron, but as all of these furnaces are not active at one time (on 31 Dec. 1905 only 313), it is more equitable to consider the practical production as between that reported and the greatest annual output, which, in 1905, amounted to 22,992,380 long tons, valued at $382,450,000 See Steel ; Iron and Steel; Foundry Practice; etc. Blast Furnace Practice, Modem. The first requisite for the conduct of Blast Furnace Practice is equipment, and therefore although the space allotted for this article is very limited, a brief description of the apparatus required to obtain modern furnace practice is necessary. The construction of the Duquesne Blast Fur- naces in 1902 and 1903 marked a great advance in the evolution of the modern blast furnace, for the labor of filling the furnaces formerly done by hand was performed mechanically, and their size far exceeded any previously built. The capacity predicted of 600 tons per day and actually accomplished, was the most marked achievement, as it was fully 50 per cent greater than any furnace production at that time. These furnaces were 100 feet high and were equipped with powerful blowing engines of large capacity. The ore was handled in and out of stock pile mechanically, by means of a large gantry crane euipped with a scraper bucket spanning the ore yard. The stock house was equipped with steel bins for ore, stone, and coke, and the furnaces were filled by an inclined hoist, oper- ating a cylindrical bucket, which w^as deposited in the stock house on a low car and transferred to the bin chutes for filling. This bucket was closed by a bell, to the rod of which the hoist rope was hooked when the tub was hoisted, and this bell when lowered on top discharged the contents automatically into the receiving hopper, thus forming a complete ring in layers of m.aterial in this hopper each time a tub was hoisted. The success of these stacks was followed rapidly by the construction in different parts of the country of stacks of similar dimensions, but differing somewhat in equipment, particularly in the charging mechanism. These furnaces for a while gave good results, but later were a grave disappointment, owing to the almost universal failure of their linings after a few months' oper- ation, while the Duquesne furnaces made over one million tons on their first lining, a result which the writer believes to have been clearly shown since to be due entir 'y to the good dis- tribution obtained by the mechanical charging apparatus installed at the Duquesne Works. The hoist and di.stributing mechanism in- stalled at Duquesne seemed to engineers, when built, more complicated and expensive than was necessary, and at the same time they aimed to make a still greater reduction in the labor em- ployed, but they failed to appreciate the import- ance of good stock distribution on top of the furnace and how it was accomplished by the Duquesne design. The usual construction now adopted for charging the furnace is mechanical stock hand- ling, storage bins, and skip hoists equipped with single or double skips. These dumping skips are responsible for the short life of the fur- nace linings, for, in discharging their load on top of the furnace, they cause a sorting of the stock, the finer parts dropping down near the dumping point of the skip, and the lumps going farthest away. It was quite possible to obtain a uniform layer in the furnace of coke^ lime- stone, and ore, but the fact that more of the lumps went to the side of the furnace farthest from the skip made the gases channel on that side and thus cut the inwall by concentrating the smelting action to that side of the furnace. Good stock distribution may be obtained by me- chanically filled furnaces provided with any kind of skip hoists by the use of the rotary dis- tributor, of which there are three distinct types. From the bins, an electrically driven larry should weigh and deliver the stock to the skip at the foot of the inchned furnace hoist. Plants operating on lake ore must receive most of their yearly requirements during warm weather, and hence a stocking equipment is required, and even at all furnaces some form of stocking plant is desirable. When the plant is located on navigable water and receives its ore that way, the unloading machines operating grab buckets are arranged to deliver the material into the stock piles, from whence it is recovered by another grab bucket, operated by a gantry crane spanning the ore yard, and delivering its load into an elec- trically driven transfer car serving the stock bins. When two or more large furnaces are located away from navigable water, and hence receiving all the stock by rail, a mechanical car dumper is an economy. Considering next the power equipment, we find that the water tube boiler gives the best re- sults WMth waste gas as a fuel, but for more than two furnaces, much greater economy _ is obtained by burning the gas direct in the cylin- der of the' gas engine, and thus furnishing the electric power required to drive auxiliary- ma- chinery about the plant, and in the gas driven blowing engine the blast required for the fur- nace. In plants where the water tube boiler is still in use, the steam engines are compounded and the cxhau.st steam condensed in a central condenser of large capacity. BLAST FURNACE PRACTICE Furnace gas is made much more efficient under boilers, if cleaned before use, and if go- ing to internal combustion engines, a thorough cleaning is absolutely necessary. For use under boilers, the cleaning may be effected by the wet dust catcher of the contact type, where the gas is repeatedly directed against a' surface of water kept clean by circulation. Such dust catchers remove 95 per cent of the solid matter in the gas, absorbing less than I per cent of moisture, and reducing the temper- ature about S per cent. For use in the gas engines, the gas must be thoroughly cooled and scrubbed to remove the solid matter very com- pletely, for which a great variety of devices are used. It is good practice to pass all the gas through a good contact wet dust catcher and thus retain most of the initial heat for the gas to be burned in the stoves, subjecting the balance to a more thorough treatment for use in the gas engines. No furnace plant to-day is complete without some means of regulating the amount of mois- ture admitted into the furnace in the blast, and the most satisfactory way to do this is to re- duce the amount to the lowest possible mini- mum. This is accomplished by refrigeration of the air admitted to the air cylinders of the blowing engines, a process patented by James Gayley, and accomplishing greater economical results than was estimated possible in that di- rection. h-on Ores. — Such ores are smelted when con- taining from 40 per cent and upwards, and, in case of calcareous ores, even lower grade ma- terial has been treated profitably, but the costs of manufacture increase very rapidly as the yield in metallic iron drops in the mixture. It is, therefore, important to give attention to the preparation of the ore before smelting, with the view of removing objectionable elements. This concentration frequently removes considerable phosphorus which is practically unaffected by the smelting process, and occasionally reduces the sulphur, which is always a difificult and ex- pensive element to remove. In concentration, it is usually necessary to crush fine, which leaves the product in a finely divided state, and, as the ore grains decrease in size below what would stay on a 60 mesh sieve, the difficulty ot smelting increases ; hence two methods are used to agglomerate this fine product and thus render it more easily and economically smelted. One is, briquetting either with or without binder, in the latter case, it is necessary to burn the product in a continuous furnace. The other is nodulizing, that is, agglomerating by u.se of the rotary kiln. This latter process practically removes all the sulphur, that occasions any trouble in the smelting ; breaking up sulphates, as well as sulphides. Ores carrying 6 per cent of sulphur, contain after such treatment, less than .3-10 of I per cent. Some ores, principally the soft brown hematites, found quite abund- antly in the Southern states, are best concen- trated by washing. The point necessary to emphasize in dis- cussing this subject is the importance of bring- ing the material for smelting into the blast fur- nace as pure as possible, consistent upon se- curing the proper slag volume for good working. Fuels. — For the blast furnace, coke (q.v.) is to-day the most commonly used, on account of the wide distribution of coking coals, but anthra- cite is still used largely by the plants within easj' radius of the anthracite field of Pennsyl- vania and charcoal is still used, where timber is abundant. The development of the retort oven, partic- ularly with the saving of by-products, has made possible the coking of coal that is practically non-coking, in the ordinary beehive oven. At the same time, it has reduced the cost of coking from 40 cents to $1.50 per ton of coke, depend- ing upon the nature of the coal and the market value of the by-products at the ovens. With fuel, as witli ores, it is important to eliminate earthy impurities before the smelt- ing operation. It is therefore found advanta- geous to wash coal, high in sulphur and ash, that is, such as will, in the raw state, give a coke over 1.25 per cent in sulphur and 15 per cent in ash. By-product coke, however, lacks the silvery color of beehive coke, and is not quite as effi- cient in the blast furnace pound per pound of the carbon contents. It is also frequently high in moisture, due to faulty methods of quench- ing. In order of efficiency in the blast furnace, charcoal comes first, next anthracite, beehive coke, retort coke. Small furnaces operate with lower fuel con- sumption on anthracite than on coke and it is always necessary to lighten the burden when changing such furnaces from anthracite to coke fuel. Other things beings equal, the fuel with high combined carbon is more efficient in the blast furnace than one of lower carbon content. For example, the best coke from the Pocahon- tas region is more efficient than the best Con- nellsville; the former, while a soft coke, has from 5 to 7 per cent of ash, while the latter, although hard and silvery, has from 10 to 12 per cent of ash. Fluxes. — Purity is here a desideratum as well as in ores and fuels, but the only way it can be obtained is by choosing as pure a deposit as possible, then strip off the overlying earth carefully, and, in quarrying, thro'U' out stratas or dykes of silicious material. It is important that the flux for the furnace be crushed to conform with the average of the stock, which ordinarily means, broken to pass a three-inch ring. Both Dolomite and Calcite are used as flux, the latter is a itiore active desulphurizing agent, but does not make as fluid a slag, and this lack of fluidity oflfsets to a large extent its greater affinity for sulphur. While the greater fusibil- ity of dolomite slag increases the opportunities of calcium present to combine with the sulphur, and hence as a rule, one flux is as efficient as the other, as a purifying agent in the blast furnace process. Ihroughout the South, dolomite is used when basic pig is desired and calcite when foundry iron is sought. In other words, dolomite is found to give low silicon and low sulphur, while calcite gives higher silicon in the pig. Blast. — Each furnace should be equipped with blowing engines, capable of delivering the full quota of air at 30 lbs. pressure, if neces- sary, and provided with governors, to give a constant speed without regard to the pressure BLAST FURNACE PRACTICE of the blast. This practice has been one im- portant cause of the very large production ob- tained for American blast furnaces, and has been adopted by some of the English iron mas- ters, after remodelling their plants. The volume of the blast required for a mod- ern stack is 85 cu.ft. per min. for each ton of pig made per 24 hours and weighs nearly i^ times all the solid materials charges into the furnace, hence any variations in the quantity or temperature of this blast, acts quickly upon the smelting process going on in the furnace. In the desire to return as much heat as pos- sible to the furnace, the use of the iron pipe stove, where the maximum temperature of the blast is limited to 950°F., has been superseded by the firebrick stove, where the temperature is only limited by the refractory quality of the firebrick lining. The iron pipe stoves have the advantage of maintaining a nearly constant temperature of the blast, so long as there is gas enough to fully supply the burners in the stove setting, but has the disadvantage of cooling off very rapidly, when blast is taken off the furnace for any pur- pose. Firebrick stoves drop in temperature from 50° to 250° F. from the beginning to the end of an hour's blow, the usual period, but hold their heat when closed up tightly during a shut down of the furnace for a short period. The best results Avith use of firebrick stoves is obtained by means of a good recording pyrom- eter to give the temperature of the blast going into the furnace and by introducing cold air through a tempering pipe, so as to hold the mixture of cold and hot blast at the tempera- ture desired. It is a good practice to maintain the temper- ature of the stoves two hundred degrees (200°) hotter than the blast going into the furnace, as a reserve to be called upon, should the fur- nace turn cold. With blast at constant volume and temperature, there is still another variable, which needs controlling, and that is the humid- ity of this blast. The humidity of the atmosphere may vary from 9 grains in the summer to as low as i grain in the winter, and between these extremes, the humidity varies widely and rapidly during even a few hours of any day. Just the importance of this variable to furnace operation was never demonstrated until ^Ir. James Gayley con- structed at the Isabella furnaces in the year 1904 his desiccating apparatus to furnish dry air for that plant. This trial showed that with blast at less than 2 grains of moisture per cubic foot, a saving of 20 per ceiit of the fuel required per ton of coke was effected, while theoretically only 37-10 percent was expected. Since these astounding results, many eft'orts have been made by prominent metallurgists to explain the dis- crepancy between the actual and theoretical saving, current metallurgical literature contains much of interest on this subject. < Gas. — The waste gases issuing from the fur- nace consist principally of nitrogen, carbonic oxide (CO), carbonic acid (C d.) and water in the form of steam. The ratio C O and C O2 indicates the char- acter of the combustion taking place in the fur- nace hearth, the larger the percentage of C O2, the better the combustion and the lower the fuel consumption. A good average ratio for the United States is C O-2 and C O2-1, that is (2 to i). In rare instances it has been as low as i^ toi, but with a hot furnace making foundry or high silicon pig, it may reach 4 to i, or in speigle manufacture, from 10 to 15 to i, depending on the mixture being smelted. 1 o obtain the maximum economy in iron smelting, every effort is made to utilize the heat units escaping in the waste gases. This is ac- complished in two ways. One portion is used in heating the blast, as already described, and the remainder is burned for power, either under water tube boilers, for the generation of steam, or in the' cylinder of gas engines, about 65 per cent of the total waste gas produced being usually available for this purpose, and the bal- ance 35 per cent going into the stoves for heat- ing the blast. The modern furnace is a large producer of power in excess of its own requirements, es- pecially when the gas is utilized in gas driven engines. Such engines may furnish the blast required, and electrical energy for distribution about the furnaces, providing also an excess for sale or distribution elsewhere, amounting to 800 H.P. per ton of pig per hour. Cinder or Slag. — This by-product in the manufacture of pig iron is a silicate of the oxides of the metals not reduced in the pro- cess. Various attempts have been made to utilize this material, and it is quite extensively used for road making and for railroad ballast. For this purpose it is frequently run when hot onto an endless chain of cast iron pans, and dis- charged broken and chilled, in cars for distribu- tion. This method has the advantage of making the surface of the slag vitreous, and thus im- pervious to water. The most remunerative use for furnace slag of certain composition is in the manufacture of slag cement. For this purpose the slag must not be over 4 per cent in magnesia and from 12 to 14 per cent in alumina. Two kinds of slag cement are manufactured, the ordinary Puzzo- lani, made direct from the slag without reburn- ing, and slag Portland cement, made by clinker- ing the slag in a rotary kiln and then grinding. When slag is intended for cement purposes it is granulated, that is, run while hot into water, which breaks it up in the form of sand. Such material is also useful to replace sand in mak- ing concrete. Granulated cinder is light or heavy, depend- ing upon the amount of water used in quench- ing. In the first case, it seems to consist of small globules of chilled cinder, in the latter, it resembles sand. The quantity of slag made per ton of pig produced varies from 600 lbs. per gross ton of pig to 3,000 lbs. and over. The slag has an important bearing on the quality of the pig made, and is one of the great purifying agents of the blast furnace. The greater part of the furnace slag produced, however, is unutilized, and is usually tapped into iron cars called ladles and hauled in the fluid state to the bank, where it is poured out. Iron Product. — This metal is a crude carbide of iron, containing about 94 per cent of metallic iron, from 3.25 per cent to 3.75 per cent of car- bon and graphite, silicon varying usually from y2 per cent to 4 per cent, and sulphur usually BLASTING from .01 per cent to .10 per cent, while the phos- phorus in Bessemer pig is less than .10 per cent and in low phosphorus pig down to .03 per cent, and in basic from .10 per cent to 3 or 4 percent, depending on the ores used. In the manufac- ture of pig iron, it is possible to vary the per- centage of carbon somewhat and the proportions of carbon to graphite. It is also possible to control the sulphur, and the silicon, but the phosphorus must be con- trolled solely by the choice of the materials charged. This choice also influences the for- mation of other elements under discussion, but in case of phosphorus, it is the only means for effecting such control or regulation. Practically all of the phosphorus contained in the fuel flux and ore passes into the product, except a loss when making high silicon foundry iron of about 7 per cent by volatilization, and this loss may be increased to 10 per cent in the manufacture of speigle. The usual way of handling the pig product is to run the metal while hot into moulds made in sand, forming a runner called a sow and short branches about three feet long, called pigs. In case of gray iron, this metal is broken hot, when it has first solidified, and then cooled with water and loaded into cars. This iron has considerable sand adhering to the surface of the pigs, and for that reason is unsuited to melt in the open hearth furnace, where the lining is made of basic material. In order to obtain iron free from sand, and to reduce the arduous work of breaking this product hot, and carrying same by hand into cars for shipment, various devices have been constructed. The Uehling pig machine is the most com- mon device employed to make sandless pig. It consists of an endless chain of moulds, which are filled at one point and after spraying with water, discharge the pig into a transverse pan conveyer, which carries the pig under water, where it is thoroughly cooled and afterwards is delivered into cars for shipment. Another form is provided with moulds and pans made of soft flange steel, and these when filled, pass into a tan where they are sub- merged, the metal cooled, and then delivered into cars. Still another form consists of a sub- stantial turntable on which the moulds are mounted. When it is not necessary to obtain sandless pig, the mechanical pig breaker is used. In the operation of this device the metal is cast in sand and the whole bed is removed mechan- ically by a travelling crane or trolley to the breaker, where the pigs are broken and fall into cars. With the pig machines the metal must be first run into cars or ladles, from which it is poured into the machine, but with the pig breaker no ladles are required, the metal going direct into sand beds, as when it is to be handled by hand. Sandless pig may also be obtained by equipping the cast house with cast iron moulds or «chills,» which are washed with loam while hot, thus making it easy to lift the pig when it is cooled. Pig iron before_ the advent of the pig ma- chine, and even since for some purposes, is graded according to fracture as follows : No. I, No. 2, No. 3 forge, mottled and white. the first No. i and No. 2 being made in a hot furnace and white in a cold furnace. No. i is called the highest grade and contains, as a rule, the lowest sulphur, and the highest percentage of graphitic carbon ; white is called the lowest grade and is usually high in sulphur, low in graphite and high in combined carbon. These grades are practically obliterated in machine cast pig, and the iron is usually sold by anal- ysis. This method of classifying also obtains at large steel plants, where most of the pig is taken direct, that is, in the fluid state, to the Bessemer or Open Hearth for treatment. Blast Furnace Lines. — In the blast furnace the hearth represents the grate surface, and its area determines the amount of fuel burned per unit of time, hence, the production of the fur- nace. The top of the furnace controls the dis- tribution of the charged materials, and has an important bearing on the working of the fur- nace, the character of the combustion taking place in the hearth, and hence the burden or amount of charge the coke unit is capable of carrying in smelting. The bosh determines to a large extent, de- pending upon its height and angle of slope, the regularity of the working of the furnace, by assisting or retarding the descent of the charge in the smelting zone. The largest furnaces in the United States at this writing are built with the hearth and top diameters practically equal, i5'-6" to i6'-o", while the diameter of the bosh is usually 25 per cent greater and the angle of the slope approx- imately 74°. The tendency of the last five years has been to increase the hearth and top diameters, while the bosh has remained about the same in diam- eter, but lower in height. These changes seem to cause the stacks to work with greater regu- larity, and larger outputs on burdens composed, largely, of fine ore, and, at the same time, the loss of ore in flue dust has been materially re- ^"^^^- David Baker, Consulting Metallurgical Engineer, Philadelphia. Blasting, the technical term for splitting and breaking up any object by means of gunpowder or some of the other powerful explosives now in use. The operation, which is of extensive use in quarrying, mining, and other branches of en- gineering, is often performed by boring a hole in the substance to be exploded, by means of an iron rod, called a jumper, filling it with gun- powder, and igniting this by means of a match, burning so slowly as to allow the parties em- ployed to remove to a sufficient distance before the explosion takes place. At one time it was supposed that the force of the explosion de- pended on the firm packmg of the gunpowder in the hole by means of small chips of stone, sand, etc. It has since been ascertained that loose sand is as effectual as firm packing, which in consequence has been generally laid aside. One of the most important modern improvements in blasting is the firing of the charge by electricity. This mode is more especially applicable to sub- marine blasting, and was first practised for that purpose by Gen. Pasle^', in 1839. The only thing necessary is to make an interruption in the con- ducting wire at the point where the explosion is to take place. In passing the electric current, BLASTOMERYX — BLAUBOK a spark produced at the interruption fires the charge. The effect being instantaneous the op- erator can fire any number of charges simulta- neously. Gun-cotton is often employed in blast- ing, and nitro-glycerine has also been found to be a very powerful agent in such operations, but its use requires the utmost caution, as it is very liable to explode unexpectedly with most dis- astrous results. The same objection does not apply to dynamite, which is quite as efYective and perfectly harmless when properly handled. For removing small volumes of rock in mines, quarries, and other engineering enterprises at a single blast, small-shot blasting is the most common method employed. This consists of drilling a small number of holes in the rock from 1 54 to 3 inches in diameter and from i8 inches to several feet in depth which are then filled with dynamite or blasting-powder or some other safe and easily handled explosive, and properly connected by fuse or with a magneto- machine or electric battery by electric wires. The space above the explosive is then plugged up with sand, dirt, clay, or other matter, and the charge exploded. For breaking the rock into small pieces so as to be more easily re- moved (as in excavating for a foundation) the holes are drilled close together and heavily charged, but where it is unnecessary to break into small pieces (as in quarrying) and large shapely masses are more desirable the holes are drilled in rows with greater distance between and filled with a smaller amount of explosive. This will split the rock practically along one line and will not shatter it as in the first case. In excavating tunnels, it is in many cases desirable to remove a mass of rock the size of the tunnel cross-section, an object which is generally ac- complished by drilling and firing a small num- ber of converging holes, thus forming and re- moving a cone-shaped or wedge-shaped centre- core. This central opening thus formed is en- larged by drilling and blasting successive rings of holes around it. For removing vast quantities of rock or blowing up ledges, the best method is mine blasting. For this purpose shafts are sunk either vertically, or horizontally, or both, into the ledge to be removed ; enormous quantities of powder, dynamite, or other explosives are placed at the bottom or end of the shafts, which are then closed up by rocks, earth, etc., and the charge is fired either by fuse or by electricity, most generally the latter. One of the greatest mine blasting operations ever attempted was the removal of the reefs in the East River, near New York, known as Hell Gate. An entrance shaft was sunk on the Long Island shore, from which the reef projected. From this shaft nearly 20 tunnels were bored in all directions, extending from 200 to 240 feet, and connected by lateral galleries. Upward of 52,000 pounds of dynamite, rend rock, and pow- der were used, and millions of tons of rock were dislodged. In May 1894 a vertical cliff, Greben Point, was blown up in order to remove a rock obstruction in the Danube River, known as the "Iron Gates* ; in 1889 the face of a quarry at South Bethlehem, N. Y., was broken down by a mine blast and in 1886 the same operation was carried out at Crarae Quarry in Argyllshire, Scotland ; and on t8 Dec. 1899 a granite mound, known as Vesuvius Butte, was blown up in order to secure a sufficient quantity of rock to build a dam near Teller, Colorado. Surface blasting is generally used to remove reefs and obstructions to navigation, high explosives such as dynamite, gun-cotton, or nitro-glycerine be- ing the only effective agencies in an unconfined space, as the detonation is so sudden that the shock is instantly transmitted to the rock with which it is in contact. Numerous important im- provements have been made in blasting by the substitution of rock boring machines for hand labor. Of such machines, in which the jumper or drill is repeatedly driven against the rock by compressed air or steam, being also made to rotate slightly at each blow, there are many varieties. See also Explosives. Blastomeryx. See Merycodus. Blatchford, Samuel, jurist: b. New York, 9 March 1820; d. Newport, R. I., 7 July 1893. He graduated at Columbia, 1837; became sec- retary to Gov. W. H. Seward of New York, and practised law at Auburn, N. Y., as a member of the governor's firm, 1845-54. In 1854 he settled in New York as head of the firm of Blatchford, Seward & Griswold. Though he attained success in general practice, it was his application to admiralty law that gave him his widest repute. On 3 May 1867 he was appointed judge of the United States district court for the Southern district of New York ; in March 1878, judge of the United States circuit for the sec- ond circuit; and in March 1882 he became an associate justice of the United States supreme court. Here he continued to give close atten- tion to admiralty cases, and also rendered im- portant decisions on bankruptcy, copyright, pat- ent, and libel cases. Publications: ^Reports of Cases in Prize in the Circuit and District Courts for the Southern District of New York 1861-5^ (1866) ; ^Reports of Cases in the Cir- cuit Court of the United States, Volumes 4-6' (1867-9) ; 'Circuit Court Reports for the Sec- ond Circuit, 1847-75^ (12 vols, octavo) ; 'Re- ports of the Circuit Courts of the United States, Second Circuit, Volumes 13-20^ (N. Y. 1877- 83, 8 vols.) ; with E. Howland and E. R. Olcott, 'United States District Court Reports (Admi- ralty Cases Decided by, Judge Betts) for the Southern District of New York, 1827-47' (N. Y., 2 vols, octavo). Blatchley, Willis Stanley, naturalist: b. Madison, Conn., 6 Oct. 1859. He graduated at Indiana State University 1887, and was success- ively an assistant on the Arkansas Geological Survey 1889-90, a member of Scoville's scien- tific expedition to Mexico 1891, and assistant on the United States Fish Commission in 1893. In 1894 he was elected State geologist of Indiana, and re-elected 1898 and 1902. Besides his an- nual reports his scientific writings include : 'Gleanings from Nature' (1899) ; 'Locustidae and Blattidre of Indiana' (1892) ; 'Some In- diana .ALcrididae' ( 1891-8) ; 'Descriptions of New Species of Orthoptera' ; 'A Nature V/oo- ing' (1902) ; etc. Blat'tidae. See Cockroach. Blaubok, blow'bok, a large antelope of South Africa. {Hippctragns nigcr). It is of a BLAUVELT — BLEACHING bluish hue, and has long, stout horns which sweep back from its forehead like those of its relatives, the isabel and equine antelopes. It formerly occurred in large herds, but had a limited habitat, and is now probably extinct. Blauvelt, blow'velt, Mme. Lillian Evans (Mrs. Wm. F. Pendleton), prima donna: b. Brooklyn, N. Y., about 1870, of Welsh and Dutch ancestry. When eight years old she rnade her debut as a violinist. She studied (voice) with M. Jacque Bouh}', of Paris, for three years. Her debut in opera was made at the Theatre de la Mormari, Brussels, and she has taken the principal roles in ^Faust,^ < Romeo and Juliet,^ ^Myna,^ etc. Of late her work has been chiefly in concert and oratorio. Besides Great Britain, (ianada, and the United States, she has sung in Russia, Germany, France, Italy, Holland, Bel- gium, Austria-Hungary, and Switzerland. Blavatsky, bla-vats'ke, Helene Petrovna, Russian theosophist: b. Yekaterinoslay, Russia, 1831 ; d. London, 8 May 1891. She traveled in all parts of the world and succeeded in entering Tibet. In 1873 she came to the United States, founded the Theosophical Society in New York, and aided in establishing but it was long believed that the peculiar properties of the water about the bleaching grounds of Haarlem gave to this neighborhood advantages which no other region couid possess. The use of chlorine as a bleaching agent was first proposed by Ber- thollet in 1785, and shortly afterward intro- ■duced into Great Britain, where it was first used simply dissolved in water, afterward dissolved in alkali, and then in the form of bleaching powder, commonly called chloride of lime, the manufacture of which was suggested by Mr. Tennant, of St. RoUox, Glasgow, in 1798. At first he passed the chlorine into milk of lime, and thus obtained the solution known as bleach liquor. In 1799 he took out a patent for ab- sorbing chlorine by dry lime, and thus obtained bleaching powder. Bleaching powder has little bleaching action till the chlorine is liberated by the action of an acid. The best bleaching pow- der contains about 36 per cent of available chlorine ; that is, chlorine which is liberated by acid. In Silesia and Bohemia, where the chlorine process is not adopted, the linens are exposed to a fermenting process, then washed, and steeped in alkaline liquors, with alternate ex- posures upon grass, which processes are re- peated a great number of times for 60 to 70- days ; but to render them properly white, they are afterward passed through a bath acidulated with sulphuric acid, then treated again with the potash lye several times and alternately ex- posed on the grass, and finally thoroughly cleansed by washing in a revolving cylinder called a dash-wheel. This machine is also em- ployed in the English and Scotch processes for washing the goods without subjecting them tO' unnecessary wear. The frequent repetition of the different processes is rendered necessary by the complete diffusion of the coloring matters through the flax fibres, and their close union with them ; each operation decomposing and removing in succession small portions only. In the bleaching of cotton cloth, the pieces^ after being singed, by passing them over a red- hot plate or a semi-cylinder of iron or copper> are steeped in lukewarm water or old lyes, till they are completely soaked, which loosens any paste or filth got during weaving; they are then well washed through the dash-wheel, and put through the hydro-extractor or drying machine. If the cotton is in the hank, this process of steeping and washing is not required. The mechanical operations of the bleaching house vary considerably, according to the qual- ity of the goods and the facility for mechanical appliances. In the chemical operations of whit- ening the cloth there is little variation, further than that heavy fabrics require longer time and more frequent repetition of the processes. The first operation, after steeping and washing, is boiling. The boiling liquor is made by adding a quantity of water to slaked lime, and when the grosser particles of lime have settled to the bottom of the vessel, the milky liquor is put into the boiler, or, it may be, filtered through a cloth. Some bleachers use with the lime a little carbonate of soda ; the quantity of lime varies from four pounds to eight pounds for every 100 pounds of cotton, and from one pound to two pounds of soda ash, where this is used. The boilers used for boiling the goods are called kiers, and many kinds are used, the boil- ing liquid being made to shower over the goods and percolate down through them. This is effected by having a false bottom or frame fitted inside the boiler at about one third of its depth from the bottom, upon which the goods are laid. The space between the false bottom BLEACHING and real bottom of the boiler is filled with the liquor or lye, connected with which is a pipe lead- ing to the top of the boiler. When the heat is applied, either by steam or fire, and the liquor begins to boil, it is forced up through this pipe, which is made to shower its contents over the surface of the goods. This boiling is continued, according to the quality of the goods, from 6 ,o 12 hours. The goods are now removed from the boiler and washed in water ; they are then passed through dilute hydrochloric acid, again washed, and boiled for 12 hours with dilute caustic soda, after which they are passed into a solution of bleaching powder contained in a large stone or wooden trough or cistern, where they are left for from two to four hours. The bleaching solution is prepared by first dissolving a quantity of bleaching powder in water in a large cask and allowing the whole to settle; a quantity of the clear liquor is then drawn from the cask and put into the large bleaching cis- terns, which have been previously nearly filled with water. To ascertain the necessary quan- tity of this strong bleaching liquor to be added to the troughs or cisterns, a certain measure of sulphate of indigo is taken in a graduated vessel, termed a test glass, and then, according to the number of graduated measures of the bleaching solution required to decolor the sulphate of indigo, the strength of the bleaching liquor is regulated. These test glasses and sulphate of indigo are carefully prepared for the purpose. Instead of dash wheels, a more improved method of cleaning and washing is adopted by some bleachers previous to boiling the goods. They are all sewed together, end to end, mak- ing one line of the whole. This line of pieces is drawn along by machinery between rollers and squeezers, with a plentiful supply of water, and having been thus thoroughly washed and cleaned, is at last laid out by a mechanical con- trivance into the bleaching trough. The goods are allowed to steep in the bleaching liquor from two to four hours ; they are then lifted and washed, either by the dash wheel or rollers, as before, and are then laid in a sour, made by adding about one pint of hydrochloric or sulphuric acid to every four gallons of water. After steeping in the sour for four hours, the goods are again washed, as before, and are sub- jected to another boiling for eight hours; but this time the lye is caustic soda or potash, gen- erally the former, made caustic by boiling to- gether a quantity of soda ash and slaked lime, and allowing the sediment to settle, and using only the clear solution. About eight pounds of soda ash suffice for 100 pounds of goods. After the boiling the goods are again washed and steeped in the bleaching liquor for eight hours, and again washed and soured — the sour in this case being always made with sulphuric acid. Light fabrics require no further treatment ; but heavy fabrics need a clearing process, which is a repetition of the last course, the liquors being generally, however, a little weaker, and the processes shorter. Cotton, in the hank, under- goes the same operation, except in the washings, which are performed by hand, not with the wheel. The goods being bleached and dried by the extractor, are now prepared for the opera- tions of finishing. For this ourpose they are stretched by women to their breadth, and the folds, as much as possible, taken out by beating hem; then they are stitched together by the ends with a sailor's needle, and being thus pre- pared for the mangle the cloth is now starched, common wheat flour and a portion of porcelain clay being employed. It is then subjected to to the action of the stiffening machine, and hav- ing been thus impregnated with starch, the superfluous portion of which is pressed out as it passes through the rollers above, the goods are then hung upon rails in an apartment, called the stove, heated by two furnaces from which flues are led through the room. The heat thus generated is sometimes so great that the workmen, in hanging up the cloth, are obliged to throw oft" most of their clothes. When the goods are dried thoroughly, they are taken from the stove and carried 10 the damping ma- chine, where they are subjected to the action of a shower of water. When the cloth comes from the damping machine, it may be seen covered with wet spots, the greater portion, however, being dry; but after remaining some time it becomes uniformly damp. The goods are now passed through the calender; they are then regularly folded and put into a Bramah press, with a sheet of pasteboard between each, and, being sufficiently pressed, they are then finished for the market. The process has been greatly shortened by the introduction of the Mather-Thompson process (1884). In this pro- cess an important feature is the use of the steamer kier, in which the goods are submitted to the action of low-pressure steam. The ma- terial is passed through soda lye, squeezed, and washed; then through boiling caustic soda, squeezed, and run into a steamer kier, where it is boiled for four hours under a pressure of four pounds, washed with hot water, and then passed continuously through a series of vats containing water, bleaching powder solution, carbonic acid gas, water, alkaline solution, water, bleaching powder, carbonic acid gas, water, hydrochloric acid. The bleaching of linen is conducted after a similar manner to that of cotton ; but there is much more coloring matter in the former than in the latter, and it is therefore found necessary in the bleaching of linen to repeat the boiling in lye and the steeping in chloride of lime three or four times. An electrolytic method of bleaching (the Hermite process) has recently been introduced. The chlorine for bleaching is liberated by the action of an electric current on solutions of calcium or magnesium chloride. Wool and silk cannot be bleached with chlorine, so sulphur dioxid, usually prepared by burning sulphur, is used instead. In the case of wool, the material is well washed with water and scoured with alkaline solutions to remove fatty matters. It is then exposed, while still wet, to the action of sulphur dioxid in a brick chamber for six or eight hours, — or it may be soaked for several hours in a solution of sulphurous acid, — after which it is well washed. Silk is treated with dilute acid, then worked in a soap bath for about 20 minutes to remove the gummy matter present, after which it is rinsed, tied up in bags of cotton, and boiled for from one to three hours in water, and rinsed in dilute alkali and finally in water. The bleaching is effected by stoving in sulphur di- oxid, exactly as in the case of wool. In place of sulphur dioxid, hydrogen peroxid is coming into use for both wool and silk bleaching. BLEACHING POWDER — BLEEDING Bleaching Powder, a compound of lime, chlorine, and oxygen, greatly used for bleaching purposes, and as a disinfectant. It is commonly known also as "chloride of lime,^^ a name some- what unfortunately chosen, since it appears to imply that the substance is simple chloride of the element calcium, which is far from being the case. Its precise chemical nature has never been satisfactorily demonstrated, but it is be- lieved to consist essentially of a mixture of calcium chloride and calcium hypochlorite. In preparing bleaching powder on a commercial scale, slaked lime is spread out, in a thin layer, on the floor of a chamber constructed of stone, or lined with lead. Chlorine gas is then ad- mitted to the chamber, and allowed to act upon the lime until the latter has absorbed consid- erable of it, and has been superficially trans- formed into the substance desired. The lime on the floor is then thoroughly raked over, so as to expose a fresh surface to the chlorine, and the process is continued until samples of the powder, withdrawn for the purpose of analysis, are found to contain about y] per cent of available chlorine. The lime used in the process should be as free from magnesia as possible, as otherwise more or less of the chlorine is wasted by the formation of unde- sirable compounds of chlorine and magnesium. The chlorine used in the manufacture of bleach- ing powder has been largely produced, in the past by heating manganese dioxid with the hydrochloric acid obtained as a by-product in the manufacture of soda from common salt. The tendency in recent times, however, has been toward the more direct manufacture of soda by the electrolysis of a solution of salt in water. Free chlorine gas is given off at the anode during this electrolytic process, and this is now largely utilized for the manufacture of bleaching powder ; bleaching powder and soda being both produced in the same factory. _ Large works embodying this idea are in operation at Niagara Falls, and most of the soda and bleaching powders manufactured in the United States now come from that place. Bleaching powder is white, or nearly so, and has a strong smell of chlorine. Its disinfecting properties are sup- posed to be due to the slow liberation of that gas, which is a powerful germicide. Bleak, or Blick (Leuciscus alhurnus), a small river fish, six or seven inches long, of the carp family. It somewhat resembles the dace. Its back is greenish, otherwise it is of a silvery color, and its silvery scales are used in the manufacture of artificial pearls. It is a good food fish. Bleak House, a novel by Charles Dickens (1853). Its secondary theme is the monstrous injustice and even ruin often wrought by delays in the old Court of Chancery, which defeated all the purposes of a court of justice. Blechen, Karl Eduard, karl ed'oo-ard bhen'en, German landscape artist: b. Kottbus, 1798; d. 1840. After studying art in Italy for some years he settled in Berlin in 1830 and became professor at the Academy of Fine Arts there in 1835. The first representative of the Berlin landscape school, he painted 'Villa Este^ ; * Villa Borghese^ ; (new ed. 1853); 'Philosophy of Mathematics' (1868) ; etc. Bleecker, Ann Eliza, American poet. daughter of Brandt Schuyler : b. New York, Oct. 1752; d. Tomhanick, near Albany, N. Y., 23 Nov. 1783. She married, in 1769, John J. Bleecker, and moved to Tomhanick, whence she was driven by the news of the approach of Burgoyne's army. Her husband had already left to provide m.eans of escape, when she was obliged to fly on foot, in the midst of her family, and of a crowd of other helpless persons, for refuge from the advancing savages. After en- during great horrors and distresses, they made their escape to Albany, and thence by water to Red Hook, where they remained until the sur- render of Burgoyne enabled thein to return to their home. Her poems were written as sug- gested by occasions, without a view to publica- tion. She possessed a sportive fancy, with much tenderness of feeling, but the sad ex- periences of her life produced upon her such an effect, that she destroyed "all the pieces that were not as melancholy as herself.® Her poems are to be found in the earlier numbers of the 'New York Magazine,' and a collection of her stories and "poetics* in a volume published in 1793. by her daughter Margaretta. Bleeding, the escape of blood from thv"". arteries or veins. Bleeding may be external, and thus readily seen and prevented by proper sur- gical measures, or it may take place internally, into one of the large body cavities, and is then a serious matter. The amount of blood that is in the human body varies from one tenth to one twelfth of the weight of the individual, and of this from 40 to 60 per cent may be lost without resulting in death from the direct effects of bleeding. Death may result in some individuals from the loss of much smaller quantities, but most persons can lose two fifths of their blood and not die. Bleeding varies widely in its rapidity. Some wounds ooze, others well-up, and again bleeding may be very rapid when a large vessel has been cut. Bleeding from a vein or an artery may be recognized by the dark color and regular flow from the former, and the brighter red and spurting or throbljing flow from the latter. If bleeding is taking place while pressure is being applied to a cut these differences may not be so pronounced. In emergencies bleeding from an artery may be stopped by direct and hard pres- sure of the carefully cleaned finger immediately over the source of the issuing jet of blood. ThiJ pressure must be hard and continued. This will permit time to find the chief artery that is supplying the bleeding vessel, and as soon as this is found pressure upon it will further aid in suppressing the flow. Thus the brachial artery can be found on the inside of the arm by feeling on the patient's well side, and firm pres- BLEEDING HfiART YARD — BLENDE sure on it will stop all bleeding in the parts below, as in a cut wrist or cut hand. Pressure on the femoral artery in the groin will control all bleeding below the point of pressure. As pressure by means of the finger is difficult to maintain, an improvised apparatus may be made of a knotted napkin or large handkerchief. This may be placed about the arm or leg, the knot brought to press on the artery and then by means of a short stick the whole may be made to tightly compress the entire limb. (See Tourniquet). Pressure of this kind should not be too prolonged, or serious damage to the parts may result. Venous bleeding is usually controlled by direct pressure of the limb on the side away from the heart and by direct pressure of antiseptic gauze. In oozing, direct pressure of antiseptic gauze or direct application of hot water, 118-120° R, is most effective. Powders, cobwebs, iron, alum, etc., are not advisedly used. Internal hemorrhage is extremely important, since the blood cannot be seen, and one has to rely on the symptoms solely. These are usually a beginning sense of faintness or weakness, and perhaps some nausea. The extremities com- mence to get cold and white, the face becomes pale and anxious, and the patient may com- mence to have air-hunger. He desires the win- dows to be opened wide, thinking thereby to get more air. Thus the beginning symptoms are very similar to those of a severe fainting spell. But as the bleeding continues there is increas- ing restlessness with increased air-hunger ; there may be cold, clammy sweat over the patient's body; there is sighing to gasping respiration, and the heart-beat is hard to hear and it may be impossible to feel the pulse beat. The patient may die in convulsions, the face becoming deeply cyanosed, and the respirations spasmodic or convulsive in type. If the patient does not die he will have a long, tedious convalescence. Prompt medical or surgical aid is imperative in all such cases. The best temporary stimulant is an enema of hot (118-120° F.) salt solution, one teaspoonful to the pint, which is allowed to run in and out of the rectum, a quart or two at a time. Bloodletting. — This procedure was one much in vogue in former years, and while still a most desirable operation to perfonn for certain types of disease, the conditions brought about by its use are now largely induced by other means. In conditions of poisoning, some cases of pneumonia, and in some apoplexies, bleeding is still performed by competent medical practi- tioners, and is advocated in most manuals of practice. It is its indiscriminate use for all ills that has fallen out of favor. Bleeders. — Certain individuals have a ten- dency to bleed inordinately from even the slight- est wound. They are called "bleeders," and are frequently found in families,, most of the mem- bers of which have like traits. The pulling of a tooth is often followed by continuous hemor- rhage. The causes for this idiosyncrasy are not all known. In some an insufficient quantity of calcium salts in the blood has been thought to be the most important cause. Bleeding Heart. See Dicentra. Bleeding Heart Yard, a squalid locality in London, mentioned by Dickens in < Little Dor- rit.^ The origin of the name is unknown. Bleek, Friedrich, fred'riH blak, German biblical scholar and critic : b. Arensbok, Hol- stein, 4 July 1793 ; d. 27 Feb. 1859. He was appointed professor of theology at Bonn, 1829, and spent the remainder of his life there. Ha was the author of much esteemed commentaries and expository books, valuable Introductions to the Old and New Testaments (1860-2), his most important work bein Pidgin, 'Blenner- hassett,* a romance (1902). Blenny. These small fishes of the spiny- rayed marine family Blcunida, frequent rocky coasts and shallows, in seas of all parts of the world. Their elongated bodies, some of which are scaleless. are remarkable for the abundance of slimy matter with which they are covered. These fishes are extraordinary in possessing but one dorsal fin. which in some species is deeply divided; and in having the faculty of using their ventral fins to aid them in moving about among the rocks and sea-weed. They are frequently deprived of water, by the ebb of the tide, when they are capable of subsisting for some hours. Small BLENORRHCEA — BLESSINGTON crustaceans form their main food. In some species the eggs are retained in the oviduct until they hatch, so that the young are pro- duced alive. Blenorrhoea, an old term signifying a muco-purulent discharge from any mucous membrane. This discharge is usually creamy white and consists usually of water, mucus, epithelial cells, white blood cells, or pus cells, and bacteria. At the present time a blenor- rhagic discharge is definitely named according to the structure involved. Thus a blenorrhoea of the eyes is termed a purulent conjuncti- vitis ; of the vagina, leucorrhoea ; of the ure- thra, gleet or urethritis ; if a urethritis of infectious origin, gonorrhoea, etc. Treatment is usually local and general. Tonic stimulat- ing applications may be locally applied, and the general health built up as thoroughly as possible. Blepharitis, an inflammation of the margin of the eye-lids and hair follicles. It may con- sist of a very slight hyperasmia or redness that causes itching and discomfort. This form may be due almost entirely to eye- strain and proper glasses will usually cure it. The disease may be more extensive, involv- ing the margin and the follicles, with redness and swelling and whitish scales. The eye- lashes may drop out, but usually are regrown, and there is much itching and discomfort. This form may also result from refractive errors, or may be the index of a bad consti- tutional state from poor food, bad surround- ings, or it may follow the infectious diseases, notably measles. A more persistent form is associated with ulceration and loss of the eyelashes. This is usually a very chronic type and resistant to treatment. In the man- agement of all forms, all errors of refraction should be corrected by properly adjusted glasses, — not on opticians' prescriptions, — and the local treatment by stimulating oint- ments. Bl€re, bla-ra, a French town, in the de- partment of Indre-et-Loire, on the Cher, 15 miles east-southeast of Tours. It contains a notably fine i6th century chapel. Pop. (1896) 3,269. In the vicinity is the Chateau Chenonceaux, built in the time of Francis I., and still in excellent preservation. It was given by Henry II. to his mistress, Diana de Poitiers, who was dispossessed on the death of Henry by Catherine de jMedici. In the latter part of the i8th century it was fre- quented by Fontenelle, Voltaire, Rousseau, and all the wits of the time, who were drawn together by the then owner of the chateau, Madame Dupin, widow of a fennier-gencral ;who died in 1799. See Cook, *01d Tou- raine.^ Bles, Henri, 6n-re' bles, Flemish painter: b. probably at Dinant, about 1480; d. 1550. Very little is known of his career, and the ^Adoration of the Magi^ in the Dresden Gal- lery is his only signed picture. He is known to have been a very prolific artist, and almost all the European galleries contain paintings ascribed to him. Blesbok, bles'bok, one of the African hart- beests, now rare, which was distinguished by the violet color of its coat. See Hartbeest. Blessing, or Benediction. The expression of wishing one well soon gave rise, in early ages, to a solemn act, accompanied, like other solemnities of those periods, by symbolic signs, this was the blessing or benediction. In patri- archal times, when the authority of the head of a family included that of the priest and the civil ruler, the blessing of course appertained chiefly to him, on account of his venerable cha- racter, and when the priests began to form a separate class, became, in certain cases, a pre- rogative of theirs. As the authority of the father, in the infancy of every nation, is ex- tremely great, the idea soon sprung up that his prayers, invoking the favor of the Deit}% were more effectual than those of others, and that whatever he blessed would be likely to receive the favor of God. The same importance was soon attributed to blessings conferred by a priest. The heathens, the Jews, and many Christian sects, have cherished this idea. By the Jewish institutions, certain benedictions were reserved to the priest ; the same is the case in the Roman Catholic Church, in which different benedictions are appropriated to different degrees of the clergy. We shall mention only a few of them. The Roman Catholic bishops alone can confer those benedictions which are con- nected with unction, and are called consecra- tions, as, for instance, the consecration of kings and queens, of the cup and patera, the church and altar. To them also is confined the bene- diction of abbots and abbesses, of knights, and the holy oil. For the benediction of the holy vestments, etc., they may employ a substitute. Eveiy Roman Catholic clergyman may confer the benediction on the occasion of betrothment ; also the marriage benediction ; may bless the fruits of the earth, and the holy water. The benedic- tion of a bishop is eagerly sought for by a faith- ful Roman Catholic, as contributing peculiarly to his spiritual welfare ; and the Catholic clergy, in general, use the benediction as a salutation or reward for a service, etc. When the Pope rides or walks out the Roman Catholics kneel to re- ceive his blessing, which he gives by a motion of his hand. In his ante-chamber are often seen things of different kinds, rosaries, etc., in large quantities, which he blesses in passing by. The Roman Catholic Church blesses things animate and inanimate, and this is believed by many to preserve them from sickness, injury, etc. Among most Protestant bodies there is a blessing pro- nounced upon the people at the close of a reli- gious service, that of the Church of England being contained in the ■Pra3'er Book. Roman Catholics in many cases use the consecrated water in giving the benediction. Blessington, Margaret (Countess of) : b. Knockbrit, near Clonmel, Ireland, i Sept. 1789; d. Paris, 4 June 1849. She was the daughter of Edmund Power, and at the age of 15 was married to a Capt. Farmer, who died in 1817. A few months after his death she mar- ried Charles John Gardiner, Earl of Blessington. In 1822 they went abroad together, and continuec to reside on the Continent till the Earl's death in Paris, in 1829, when Lady Blessington returned to London and took up her abode in Gore House. Kensington, which had been bequeathed to her by her husband. Here_ for many years she held those celebrated reunions and soirees, at which the most distinguished literary cha- racters in London were wont to assemble. The BLICHER — BLIND fascination of her manners and conversation, with her genial warm-heartedness of character, rendered these gatherings most attractive ; but certain equivocal circumstances in relation to her connection with a Count d'Orsay prevented their being frequented much by respectable female society. The count had married a daugh- ter of Lord Blessington by his first wife, and been separated from her shortly afterward, but after the death of his father-in-law, resided with the countess during the remainder of her life. Lady Blessington had made her debut as an authoress in 1822 by the publication of two volumes of ^ Sketches.^ In 1832 she contributed to the ^New Monthly Magazine,* "Conversa- tions with Lord Byron,** considered by many as the best of her productions. She also wrote numerous novels, including, among others, 'The Belle of a Season'; 'The Two Friends*; 'Strathern*; and 'The Victims of Society.* None of these have much literary merit, but de- scribe scenes in fashionable life with considera- ble power, and enjoyed at the time a large share of popularity. She acted as editress for several years of 'Heath's Book of Beauty* and the 'Keepsake,* and also of another annual, the 'Gems of Beaut3^* In 1849 she proceeded to Paris, whither Count d'Orsay had previously gone, in the hope of obtaining an appointment under Louis Napoleon, with whom they had been intimate during his exile in England, Con- sult Madden, 'Life of the Countess of Blessing- ton* (1855). Blicher, Steen Steensen, stan stan'sen bliH'er, Danish poet and novelist: b. Vium, Jutland, II Oct. 1782; d. Spentrup, 26 March 1848. His first work was a translation of 'Os- sian' (2 vols. 1807-9), a^d his first original poems appeared in 1814, but attracted little notice. He quickly won a national reputation with his novels, and in 1842 appeared his master- piece of novel writing, 'The Knitting Room,* a collection of short stories in the Jutland dialect. Blida, ble-dii', a fortified town of Algeria, 30 miles inland from Algiers, well-built, with modern houses and public edifices, the centre of a flourishing district, and having a good trade. There are cedar and cork trees in the neigh- borhood and mines of copper and lead. The principal exports are oranges, grain, tobacco, raisins, etc. It is one of the chief stations on the railway connecting Oran, Algiers, and Con- stantine. Pop. (1896) 13,026. Bligh, William, English navigator: b. Ply- mouth. England, 9 Sept. i7.S4; d. 7 Dec. 1817. He acquired considerable celebrity from having been the commander of the ship Bounty when the crew mutinied in the South Seas and car- ried her off. She had been fitted out for the purpose of procuring plants of the bread-fruit tree, and introducing these into the West Indies. Bligh. who had sailed with Capt. Cook, ob- tained the command, and in December 1787. left Spithead for Otaheite. where he arrived, and remained till April 1789. Having loaded his vessel with plants he set sail and was pro- ceeding on his voyage for Jamaica when he was seized in bed, bound, and brought on deck The launch was lov.-ered. and Bligh. with 18 men supposed to be well disposed to him. were forced into it, with no other provision than 1 50 pounds of bread, 32 pounds of pork, a little rum and wine, and 28 gallons of water. Thus scantily provided they found themselves in the open sea, not far from the island of Tofoa, in lat. 19° S. and Ion. 184'' E., and managed by admirable skill and perseverance, though not without enduring fearful hardships, to reach the island of Timor in 41 days, after running nearly 4,000 miles without the loss of a single man. Ultimately 12 of the number reached England. Of these, Bligh was one, and in a second voyage accomplished the object of the first bj' giving the bread-fruit tree to the West India Islands. When several of the mutineers were afterward tried at Portsmouth, sufficient evidence was ob- tained to show that Bligh himself was not free from blame, and had on many occasions been too much inclined to play the tyrant. This feature in his character was afterward mani- fested on a larger scale. In 1805 he was ap- pointed governor of New South Wales, and acted so harshly that the other authorities inter- fered and put him in confinement. On his return he was made an admiral. See Pitcairn Island. Blighia, bli'i-a, a genus of numerous trees and shrubs of the natural order Sapindacem, the principal species of which is B. saoida {Ctioania saoida of some botanists), the akee tree indige- nous to west tropical Africa and naturalized in the West Indies since the close of the 17th century. It is also planted in southern Florida. The tree attains a height of 30 feet, bears pinnate ash-like leaves and very fragrant whitish flowers, from which by crude distillation the colored people obtain a cosmetic and which would probably yield a valuable perfume under proper management. The rich, red fruits, as large as goose eggs, are used for dessert and largely also in cookery. In Jamaica the tree is cultivated as high as 3.000 feet above sea- level, although it can withstand slight frosts. Cuoania anacardioidcs, which also bears an edi- ble fruit, has been introduced into California, and C. clegantissima is sometimes raised in warm greenhouses for its attractive foliage and racemes of white flowers. Blight, an indefinite term applied to any diseased state of cultivated plants, but gradu- ally being restricted to plant diseases caused either by bacteria or fungi. See sections on diseases in articles on various plants. Blight, American, an English and Austra- lian name for the woolly apple louse or "apple blight," one of the aphides (q.v.). Blight-bird, a small insectivorous bird {Zostcrops cacnilcsccus) of New Zealand, which devours the "blight** or plant-lice on fruit trees. It is one of the white-eyes (q.v.). Blimbing, Bilimbi, Cucumber-tree {Aver- rlioa bilimbi), a tropical tree of the natural order Geraniacccr. native of southern Asia, where it is largely cultivated and whence it has been in- troduced in other tropical countries. It is extensively . raised in South America. The tree attains a height of 15 feet, bears racemes of red flowers followed by smooth cucumber-shaped green fruits as large as hen's eggs, which are highly esteemed for their acid pulp. The ca- rambola (q.v.) is a close relative. Blind, blint. Karl, German political agi- tator and writer on history, mytholog}", and Germanic literature : b. Mannheim, 4 Sept. 1826 ; BLIND d. London. Eng., 31 May 1907. He was edu- cated at Heidelberg and Bonn, and from his student days till he settled in England in 1852 he was continually engaged in agitating or in heading risings in t!:e cause of German freedom and union, being frequently imprisoned. The democratic propaganda was afterward supported by his pen ; and he wrote political and biog- raphical works: < Fire-burial Among Our Ger- manic Forefathers^ ; 'Teutonic Cremation* ; (1883) ; 'Madame Roland* (1886) ; 'Tlie Heather on Fire,' a tale (1886) : 'Ascent of Man> (1889); 'Dramas in Minia- ture> (1892) ; 'Songs and Sonnets> (1893) ; and 'Birds of Passage^ (1895). Blind. The loss of the sense by means of which man receives an idea of the world that surrounds him, clothed in light and color, is an event as melancholy as it is frequent. Blindness is different: (i) In its degrees, some persons being partially blind, retaining a slight perception of light, with the power of distinguishing very brilliant colors, and the general outlines of bod- ies ; others being entirely deprived of the fac- ulty of seeing. (2) In its causes: some men are blind from their birth; others have become blind by local diseases of the eyes, — for instance, — by inflammation, suppuration, cancer of the eye-ball, spots, films, tumors on the cornea (by which its transparency is destroyed), also by closure of the pupil, by a turbid state of the humors, by a debility of the optic nerve, or by general diseases of the body, violent fevers, ner- vous fevers, plethora, and tendency of the blood to the head, erysipelas in the face, smallpox, scarlet-fever, etc., or by excessive exertion of the eyes, by which the optic nerve is enfeebled ; for which reason, some classes of mechanics and artists, as blacksmiths, laborers in glass and smelting houses, watch-makers, etc., not unfre- quently lose their sight, and in northern coun- tries, which are covered with snow for a long time, and which dazzle the eyes by the reflec- tion of the sunbeams, as well as in the sandy deserts of Africa, blindness is a frequent com- plaint. Old age is sometimes accompanied with blindness, occasioned by the drying up of the humors of the eye, or by the opacity of the cornea, the crystalline lens, etc. There are sev- eral causes which may produce blindness from birth. Sometimes the eyelids adhere to each other, or to the eye-ball itself, or a membrane covers the eyes ; sometimes the pupil of the eye is closed, or adheres to the cornea, or is not situated in the right place, so that the rays of light do not fall in the middle of the eye; besides other defects. Those who are born blind have no idea of vision, and are entirely desti- tute of all the ideas derived from the sense of sight. They cannot, therefore, be sensible of their misfortune in the same degree as those who have lost their sight at a later period. Ex- perience has shown that those who acquire the power of seeing after being born blind, or having lost their sight in their childhood, form very different ideas of visible objects from other persons. A young man, whom Cheselden couched for a cataract, at the moment he re- ceived sight imagined that all the objects which he saw were in contact with his eyes ; he could not distinguish objects, although of very dif- ferent forms. Those with which he was already familiar by the touch he examined with great attention, in order to recognize them another time; but having too many things to notice at once, he soon forgot all that he had observed. He wondered that those persons whom he loved most were not handsomer than others. Before he received his sight he had expressed a great desire to obtain this sense. The other senses of persons, who have been blind for a long time, become more exquisite, perhaps, because they are not subject to the distraction produced by the sight of so many objects. The blind, there- fore, are often distinguished for a remarkable mental activity, and a wonderful development of the intellectual powers. Their touch and hearing, particularly, become very acute. Thus it is related of a blind man, who lived at Puiseaux, in France, and was a chemist and musician, that he could accurately estimate the proportions of objects, could judge of the distance of fire by the degree of heat, determine the quantity of fluid in vessels by the sound it produced while running from one vessel into another, and the proximity of objects by the effect of the air upon his face. He determined very accurately the weights of bodies and the capacities of ves- sels. The celebrated Saunderson, professor of mathematics at Cambridge, lost his sight in his early youth. He invented several processes to facilitate his studies in arithmetic and geometry. His sense of touch was so acute that he dis- tinguished spurious coins merely by letting them pass through his fingers, though they were so well executed that even skilful judges were deceived by them. When it is a case of imparting instruction to persons destitute of sight, it is necessary to have recourse to the other senses to supply the want of the eye. If, for instance, we wish to teach them the arts of reading and writing, letters must be prepared which will be palpable to the touch, and the hand guided until they are able to copy them. If we wish to communicate to them a knowledge of the surface of the earth, globes and maps must be prepared with the divisions, etc., in relief. Knowledge obtained in this way must, of course, be acquired much more slowly than that received by the sight. The senses of touch and of sight differ in this respect, that the former ascends by degrees from the perception of parts to the perception of the whole, while the latter views the whole at a single glance. It is therefore evident that the blind cannot be instructed in the common schools destined for those who see: in the first place, because the means of instruction by the touch are wanting; and secondly, because the progress of the other children would be retarded by the slow appre- hension of the blind pupils. (See Blind, Edu- cation OF THE.) The occupations in which the blind are found capable of engaging are such as the making of baskets and other kinds of wicker-work, brush- making, rope and twine-making, the making of mats and matting, knitting, netting, fancy work of various kinds, cutting fire-wood, the sewing of sacks and bags, the carving of articles in wood, etc. Piano-tuning is also successfully car- BLIND, EDUCATION OF THE ried on by some, the typewriter is used by others and the cleaning of clocks and watches has also been occasionally practised by them. Skilled musicians are sometimes foimd among the blind. Reading Room for the Blind. — By an act of Congress passed in 1879, entitled an Act to Pro- mote the Education of the Blind, $250,000 was set apart to be permanently invested in securities of the United States, the proceeds of which were to be applied, through the American Printing House for the Blind at Louisville, to the making of books and apparatus used in the education of the blind, to be annually distributed to the schools for the blind in the several States in proportion to attendance. For almost a quarter of a century this benefaction has been available for the youthful blind of the country in the schools, and the books in embossed characters have multiplied amazingly. The catalogue now embraces nearly or quite every title in popular literature and technical subjects, and as only the best books are printed in raised letters, the en- tire catalogue constitutes the finest and best library of equal numbers in the world. There is a steady increase in t'le number of visitors in the reading room for the blind in the library of Congress. To Helen Marr Campbell is given by many the credit of having taken the initial steps to procure this reading room. She was a fre- quent visitor to the crowded rooms of the old Congressional Library, and often found the ex- periences there far from agreeable. The few books for the blind were often difficult to obtain and equally difficult to read in cramped rooms, and too often under the scrutiny of curious and annoying strangers. Going to John Russell Young, then librarian, she made a request for a special reading room in behalf of the blind read- ers of Washington. He was quick to see the justice of the request, and at once placed the fitting up of Pavilion No. 7 in the new library in charge of the second assistant librarian, David Hutcheson. This is in the extreme northwest- ern corner of t'^e ground floor of the great build- ing and is a large and well-appointed room, with square bay windows and a groined ceiling resting upon massive pillars. The alcoves along the eastern wall are filled with the specially pre- pared books for the blind ; the Bible, making so many large volumes that it completely fills one of the alcove shelves. Dictionary for the Blind. — The first general dictionary ever issued in any country or lan- guage was published in 1903 by the Maryland School for the Blind. It contains 40,000 words, with complete diacritical marks and definitions and fills 18 volumes. In the last 10 years more books have been printed for the blind than in all previous time. This is due largely to the rapid spread of the New York point system of printing for the blind. The new dictionary, as well as all the books from the Maryland School printing house, is printed in New York point. The American Printing House for the Blind at Louisville expends its annual subsidy of $10,000 entirely in New York point printing. The annual appropriation of $1,000 by the State of New York for the publication of general literature for the blind department of the State Library at Al- bany goes into New York point. The Interna- tional Sunday-School Lessons go out weekly over the United States in New York point. Three periodicals are published in it. There is an excellent musical library in it, includmg a dictionary of 6.000 musical terms. The Society of St. Francis Xavier uses the system in its pub- lishing house for the blind. Photophonic Books for the Blind. — A sheet of transparent paper contains, printed upon a black background, a number of small white .squares, separated from each other by intervals one, two, or more lengths of a square in size. These squares, together with the intervals, rep- resent the letters of the alphabet, exactly as do the dots and dashes of Morse. In order to enable the blind to read these letters, the printed sheet is placed in a frame between two thin plates of glass fully exposed to the light, and an opaque piece of cardboard, or some other material, with a square-shaped opening in the centre, is moved by the reader along the priiited lines from left to right. Whenever the opening passes over one of the white transparent squares, the rays of light illuminating the printed sheet pass through this opening, and, by means of a photophonic apparatus, are changed into sound. In this way, the blind reader receives the letters in the form of sounds separated by longer or shorter intervals of silence, and his ear fulfills the functions of the eye. Blind, Education of the. — When it is stated that prior to 1830 the blind of America were to be found "moping in hidden corners or de- graded by the wayside, or vegetating in alms- houses,^^ it is the adult blind that is meant. Still blind children were occasionally found in these places, though it could scarcely be said' that they were vegetating, as could be said of the untrained deaf children. The British census of 185 1 first showed the world that over 80 per cent of the blind are adults. Our schools for the blind were started, first, because of the wide-spread interest in the results of educating the young deaf and dumb, which furnished inspiration for new fields of educational endeavor ; secondly, because the country was coming to the conviction that all the children of the state should receive educa- tion both as a matter of public policy and as a private right; and thirdly, because reports of what had been accomplished abroad in schools for the blind were being promulgated in our land. By 1830 the more progressive states of the east were ready to give their blind children school training. In that year the government first included in the national census the deaf and dumb and the blind. The work of the blind was to begin with scientific foreknowledge as to their number. In 1829 certain gentlemen in Boston obtained the incorporation of the "Now England Asylum for the Blind. '> By a most fortunate circumstance, the interest and ser- vices were obtained of a graduate of Brown University, Dr. Samuel G. Howe, who after finishing his medical studies had chivalrously gone to the aid of the Greeks. Dr. Howe went at once to Europe to study methods of instruction. Upon his return, in 1832, the school was opened with six pupils. In New York the act of incorporation of the New York Institution for the Blind was passed in 1831 ; but funds were needed and no one went abroad to study methods. This school opened in March, 1832, antedating by a few months the school at Boston. In the very same year a German teacher of the blind, a Mr. Friedlander, mcst BLIND, EDUCATION OF THE opportunely came to Philadelphia, in the hope of starting a school for the blind there. Hav- ing trained certain blind children he exhibited their accomplishments, first, to a few influential people, secondly, before a large audience among whom he distributed a leaflet, ^-Observations on the instruction of blind persons.^^ A meet- ing of public-spirited citizens followed, funds were liberally contributed, fairs held, and the success of the cause was assured. The Penn- sylvania institution for the instruction of the blind was opened in 1833, fully ten months be- fore an act of incorporation was obtained. The three schools at Boston, New York, and Phila- delphia are called the pioneer schools. All sprang from private effort and private funds. A.11 were incorporated as private institutions, and remain so to this day. Two similar in- stitutions for the blind have arisen in this country, that at Baltimore and that at Pittsburg. The origin of the State schools dififers from that of the type above given only in that classes of trained pupils from the earlier schools were exhibited before the state legislatures, as well as before the people. State appropriations fol- lowed and the institutions were inaugurated as state institutions. The new schools sprang into being with astonishing rapidity. There were in 1899 forty schools for the blind in the United States, and every State in the union makes pro- vision for its blind of school age either in its own school or in that of a neighboring state. In our sparsely-settled country, especially west of the Alleghenies and south of Maryland, great efforts had to be made to find the children and still greater eff^orts to persuade the parents to send them to school. In certain states where the amount of the public fund seemed to pre- clude a special grant for the blind, pupils of this class were brought together in connection with a school for the deaf and dumb, forming "dual schools," as they are called. These in- stitutions could not help being unfair to their blind contingent ; for in nearly every such case the blind came to a school already established as a school for the deaf, and under the superin- tendence of a man especially interested in the education of the deaf; moreover, the number of the deaf pupils usually far exceeded that of the blind. There are still a few of these dual schools, but wherever possible they have been divided into two distinct institutions. In north- ern schools the colored blind are educated with the white; in southern schools it is best for the colored to have schools of their own. Both the whites and they prefer this arrangement. The first school for the colored blind was opened in North Carolina in 1869. All the institutions for the blind were in their very inception schools. The pioneer schools imported literary teachers from Paris and handicraft teachers from Edinburgh. At first only the brighter class of pupils came under instruction. Teaching them was easy. They progressed with amazing strides ; all was enthusiasm ; exhibitions were called for and widely given (Dr. Howe's pupils gave exhibi- tions in 17 states) ; large editions of the various annual reports were exhausted. Soon, however, less bright pupils came to be admitted ; then the curriaulum of studies began to sober down to the practical and comprehensive one pre- vailing to-day. Whatever occupation the boy or girl expects to follow after leaving school, it is assumed he will follow it better and thus live more happily and worthily if he has a general education. When, as was formerly the case, the period or term of schooling allowed pupils was shorter than it is now, they were not admitted before the age of eight or nine. Now that kindergarten departments have been uni- versally added to the schools, the pupils are urged to enter at an early age ; because experi- ence has shown that at home these little blind folks are coddled rather than trained, so much so in fact that by the time many of them come to school their natural growth of body and mind has been so interfered with by inaction, that all the efforts of the schools cannot make up for lost time and opportunity. The principle of periodicity of growth has now come to be understood and the importance of applying the proper stimulus at the period most sensitive to it, comprehended. Children with good sight and hearing have got along without kinder- garten training, and so have blind children, but of all the useful means of reaching and developing the average blind child none is so effective as the properly-conducted kindergarten. The practical knowledge of things comes to the blind through the hand, their fingers being veritable projections of their brains. Thus must their hands not only be trained to sensitiveness of touch but to be strong and supple, so that they may, indeed, be dexterous ; for as their hands are so are their brains. The kinder- garten cultivates ear and heart and hand and brain as nothing else does. Even color is not wholly omitted in kindergartens for the blind. Many see colors, and those who do not love to talk about them and certainly derive some indirect value for considering them. Blind children with kindergarten training are more susceptible to instruction than those with- out it. Above this department the course of studies in American schools requires from seven to eight years, which means a primary, a gram- mar and a high school education, or instruction in object lessons, reading, writing, spelling, grammar, composition, arithmetic, history, physi- ology, botany, zoology, geology, physics, algebra, geometry, civics, English literature, typewriting and sometimes Latin and modern languages. Not a few pupils have fitted for college where they took the regular course with the seeing students, and from which they were graduated usually with distinction. Formerly much of the teaching was oral, which, in many cases, was apt to be more pleasant than profitable to the pupil. Since the general introduction of the embossed text book and tangible writing, the pupil has been forced to depend more and more upon himself, obviously with better re- sults. In fact, the work has been growing more and more practical. The methods of teaching the blind correspond in general to those of teaching other hearing children. The com- mon appliances have but to be raised and en- larged as in maps and diagrams, or simply made tangible, which may be done, for example, by notching an ordinary ruler so that the gradua- tions can be felt. Industrial training has been an integral part of the school course from the beginning. Re- cently educational manual training has been generally introduced as preliminary to the BLIND, EDUCATION OF THE trades. Sloyd has been found especially adapted to the blind. The handicrafts — chair-caning, hammock-making, broom-making, carpet-weav- ing, and a few others, alone remain of all the many trades taught at one time or another in our schools. Manual occupations of some kind will always be taught, even were it evident that none of them would be followed by the blind as trades ; for it is by doing and making that the blind especially learn best. Then, it is essen- tial that they be kept occupied. In the past, before the introduction of such varieties of labor-saving machinery as the last half century has seen, many of the discharged pupils fol- lowed some manual trade and succeeded in sub- sisting by it. To-day this is less and less pos- sible. The mind itself of the blind is least trammeled by the lack of sight ; hence some pursuit where intelligence is the chief factor would seem to be best adapted to his condition. Music, of course, opens up his most delightful field. It is said that all the force of the super- intendents of the early schools was required to prevent the institutions from becoming mere con- servatories of music. To-day only those pupils pursue music in regular course who have talent for it ; but even those are not allowed to neglect other studies for it. It is the experience of the American schools, as of the European, that the profession of music offers to the educated and trained musician who is blind, a field in .which he can work his way with least hindrance from his lack of sight, and many are they who have found in it a means of livelihood for them- selves and their families. A few in nearly every school fit themselves to be tuners of pianos. The American schools for the blind were founded upon embossed books. Dr. Howe states somewhere that the simple reading from embossed print did more to establish the schools in the country than any other one thing. Extraor- dinary pains were taken by Dr. Howe and his assistants to perfect a system which should be at once readily tangible to the fingers of the blind and legible to the eyes of their friends. The resiJt was the small lower-case letter of Dr. Howe, the Boston line print, as it is often called. To this the jury gave preference before all other embossed systems exhibited at the great exhibition of the industry of all nations, in London, in 1851. Backed by such indorse- ment and all the authority of Dr. Howe the system was rapidly adopted into the American schools. It was then the theory that the blind would be further isolated from their friends if their alphabets were dissimilar. The blind of themselves had devised a writable system — ar- bitrary and composed of dots or points — one which they could both read and write. But the early superintendents would not countenance it. However, many of the blind failed to read the line-letter system ; because to read it requires extreme nicety of touch, which all the blind "by no means have. Characters composed of points, not of lines, are scientifically adapted to touch reading. In the 33d report of the New York institution, Supt. William B. Wait wrote : "Now, which is the more important, that all the young blind should be able to read, thus being made, in fact, like the seeing, or that they should be taught an alphabet zvhich in some sort resembles that used by the seeing, l3Ut by doing which only 34 per cent of them will ever be able to read with any pleasure or profit?'* This attitude of the New York school was the outcome of statistics gathered from seven institutions, in which 664 pupils were in- volved, and of experiments made by Mr. Wait with his own pupils, using a system scientifically devised by him, composed of points in arbitrary combination. This was in 1868. At the next convention of the American instructors of the blind, it was resolved "That the New York hori- zontal point alphabet as arranged by Mr. Wait should be taught in all institutions for the educa- tion of the blind.*' Europe was a long time accepting a writable point system. That of Louis Braille, devised in 1829, though much used by individuals, was not officially adopted into the Paris school where it originated until 1854. In contrast, America devised, printed, spread, and resolved to accept its writable sys- tem in less than one-half the time. The benefits of a tangible writable system are vast. It puts the blind more nearly on a par with the seeing, particularly as pupils in school. Its adoption here, next to that of tangible printing, makes obtainable the ideal of American schools for the blind. Every tangible system has its defects. French "braille" as adopted into England has antiquated abbreviations and contractions for the use of adults ; and is involved with rules allowing much bad use, like the omission of all capitals. The New York point as printed also laid itself open to much criticism as to "good use.'* The American braille, the latest system, combining the best features of French braille and of New York point, was devised by a blind teacher of the Perkins institution. It takes full account of "good use," and those who use the system deem it very satisfactory. In 1892, when the American braille system was adopted into several schools, a typewriter for writing braille was invented, and this was followed by the in- vention of another machine for embossing braille directly on plates of thin brass from which any number of duplicates could be struck off on paper. Here was a means of creating a new library at once. But the chief value of the in- vention lay in the fact that as the machine was simple and inexpensive and could be operated if necessary by a blind man, any institution could have a printing office of its own. And several schools immediately established such offices, from which they issued at once whatever their school classes demanded. By co-operating in the selection of the books to be embossed these schools have created in the space of seven years a library of books in American braille than which there is no superior in any svstem in any country, and they have added an immense amount of music in the braille music notation, which is the same all over the world. A type- writer, and a machine for embossing brass plates in the New York point system, have also appeared. The Association of American instructors was formed in 1871, has met biennially ever since, usually as the guest of one or another of the institutions. The proceedings of each con- vention have been published. The principles underlying the scheme for educating the blind being to make them as little as possible a class apart from the rest of the community, it has not been deemed wise to attempt to establish p national college for the higher education of BLIND FISHES — BLINDAGE those capable of taking it, but efforts are mak- ing towards enabling the brighter and worthier pupils to attend one of the colleges for the seeing, at the expense of the states or the schools from which thej'^ come. The school in- struction of the blind is comparatively an easy matter. The work is less of a science than the more difificult task of instructing the deaf. When an exhaustive census of the gradu- ates from all over the country was compiled, it revealed the following encouraging facts : i6 became superintendents of other institutions ; 214 became teachers or were otherwise em- ployed in institutions ; 34 became ministers of the gospel; 84 authors, publishers, or lecturers; 310 were engaged as teachers of music or were vocalists outside of institutions ; 69 had been organists in churches ; 125 piano tuners ; 937 had been engaged as teachers, employees, and work- ers in handicraft ; 277 were storekeepers, etc. ; 45 bcame owners and managers of real estate ; 760 (mostly women) were employed at house- work at home or in families, or at sewing with machines, or by hand, and 78 were in homes of employment. Further, according to the nth census of the United States (1890) when there were 50,568 blind in the land, but 2,560 were found in almshouses. What proportion of these ever attended our schools, will never be known, but it must be remembered that blindness is an affliction of old age. Bibliography. — Cary, T.G., < Memoir of Thomas Handasyd Perkins^ (1856) ; Diderot, 'An Essay on Blindness' (1895) ; Hauy, V., 'An Essay on the Education of the Blind' (1894) ; Howe, J. W., 'Memoir of Dr. S. G. Howe> (1877) ; Howe, S. G., Fort}'-three Annual Reports of the Perkins Institution (1833-1875) ; Kitto, J., 'The Lost Senses' (1852) ; Mell, A., ^Encyclopadisches Handbuch des Blinden-wesens' (1899) ; Pres- cott. W. H., "^The Blind,' in 'Biographical and Critical Essays' (1846) ; Robinson, E. B. F., 'The True Sphere of the Blind' (1896); Rutherford, J., 'William Moon and his Work for the Blind' (1898) ; Sizeranne, M. de la, Les Aveugles par un Aveugle (1891) ; Sturgis, D., ^The Kindergarten for the Blind' (New England Magazine, Dec, 1895, P- 433) ; *The Mentor' (i89i;-94) ; Wickersham, J. P., < His- tory of Education in Pennsylvania' (1886). Edward Ellis Allen, Principal Pennsylvania Institution for the Instruction of the Blind. Blind Fishes. See Cave Animals. Blind Spot. The place of entry of the optic nerve in each retina is insensitive to light. Mariotte in 1668 first demonstrated the existence of the blind spot. Its existence may be easily shown as follows : Pin a large sheet of paper against the wall so that a cross marked thereon may be at the level of the eyes ; fix the position of the head b}'^ means of a headrest (a ruler about 50 centimeters in length, held by the teeth at one end, the other end resting against the paper, is a convenient headrest) ; with one eye closed or covered, look steadily at the cross with the other eye ; move a pencil, that has been covered with paper so that the point only shows black, from the cross toward the temporal side of the field of vision ; mark on the paper the position at which the pencil point dis- appears ; move the pencil farther and mark the position at which the point re-appears. By mov- ing the point in various directions near this place on the paper, and marking the positions where the pencil point disappears, and re-appears, a series of marks may be made which furnish an outline figure of the form of the blind spot. The diameter of the blind spot (1.5 mm.) corresponds to a visual angle varying from 3° 39' to 9° 47'. The average is about 6°. An image of light sufificiently small thrown upon the optic nerve by means of the ophthalmoscope, gives rise to no sensations. These experiments show that at the blind spot we see nothing, yet, as we look at this page with one eye only the surface ap- pears to be covered with letters in the regular forms ; there is no blank space corresponding to the blind spot. In binocular vision the blind spot of one retina is covered with a sensitive portion of the other retina. Why we should not be aware of our inability to see a continuous field with one eye, is a problem for which there are two proposed explanations. The blind spot may be filled out by association, whose nature is determined by the character of the surround- ing field, or, by eye movements which serve as retinal local signs for the insensitive region. Propably the two processes are necessary and. aid each other in presenting to the mind the- continuous visual field. Consult: Ladd, ^Ele- ments of Physiological Psychology' ; Helmholtz, 'Physiologische Optik' (1901) ; Sandford, 'Course in Experimental Psychology' ex. 113,. 114; Wundt, 'Physiologische Psychologic' (1893) : Titchener, ^Experimental Psychology.' Blind Tom (Bethune^ Thomas), a musical' freak: b. about the middle of the 19th century. He was a negro slave in Georgia, and was born blind and with very weak mental development. He showed remarkable aptitude for music and after hearing a piece played once could repro- duce it accurately on the piano. He also per-^ formed other musical wonders, and for several years was exhibited in various cities. His lack of intellect developed into almost brutal idiocy, and he disappeared from the public eye. Blindage, in operations against fortresses,, the name of all preparations which tend to in- tercept the view of the enemy. There are sev- eral species: (i) A fascine placed across the embrasures, to prevent the enemy from observ- ing what passes near the cannon. (2) Blinds before port-holes are shutters made of strong planks, placed before the port-holes, as soon as the guns are discharged, to obstruct the enemy's view. (3) Single and double blinds. The for- mer consists of three strong perpendicular posts, five feet in hei-ght, between which are planks covered with iron plates on the outside, and thus made shot-proof. This screen is furnished with rollers, to enable the laborers in the trenches to push it before them. The latter consists of large wooden chests, on four block wheels, filled with earth, or bags of sand, and serve likewise- in the trenches, etc., to cover the soldiers from the fire of the enemy. (4) Chandeliers used to protect the workmen in the trenches. Two square beams of timber are placed parallel, and at a distance of six feet, on the ground, and fastened by two cross beams. Upon the ends perpendicular posts are erected, and the inter- val is filled up with fascines, at least to a height of five feet. (,5) Coverings placed over the most exposed parts in the saps or the fortres-s. BLINDNESS — BLISS These are made of beams over which hurdles or fascines are spread, that finally receive a suffi- ciently thick layer of earth as a covering. Dur- ing the Boer war of 1899-1902 Ladysmith, Mafeking, and Kimberley were largely defended by means of bomb-proof shelters or blinds. Blindness, inability to see, resulting from disease or injury of the external eye. of the light-receiving portions of the eye, the retina, of the nerve-conducting paths, the optic tracts, or of the light-perceiving or intellectual centres in the occipital cortex of the brain. It may be transitory or permanent, partial or complete, congenital or acquired, curable or incurable. There is a form of night-blindness, in which dim light fails to give impressions ; or of day-blind- ness, in which excess of light is obstructive to vision. Certain regular or irregular areas on the retina may be blind ; one half of one eye or of both eyes may be blind. Blindness to cer- tain colors is a well-known form of this affec- tion. Objects may look too small, or too large, or be distorted. See Amaurosis ; Amblyopia ; Blind; Eve, Diseases of. Blinds, screens or shutters to prevent too strong a light from shining in at a window, or to keep outsiders from seeing in. Venetian blinds are made of slats of wood, so connected as to overlap each other when closed, and to show a series of open spaces for the admission of light and air when in the other position. Blindsnake, a family of small serpents {Typhlopidcc} having worm-shaped bodies, only a few inches in length, very rigid, and suited for burrowing. These little snakes exist in all warm countries, and lead a subterranean life, worming their way through the loose top-soil, and feed- ing on earth-worms, grubs, and insects. Their eyes, through disuse, have become minute and weak, and in many species almost covered by overlapping plates. In India thej'^ sometimes come out upon the surface after showers, when they are regarded with superstitious dread by the natives ; but they are perfectly harmless. Many species inhabit Mexico and tropical America, two or three occurring in New Mexico and Texas, where they are frequently found in ant-hills. Blindstory. See Triforium. Bliss, Aaron Thomas, American politician: b. Smithhald, N. Y., 22 May 1837 ; d. 16 Sept. 1906. He served in the Federal army during the Civil War, and was for six months a prisoner in Andersonville, Columbia, and other Southern prisons. In 1865 he settled in Saginaw, Mich., where he engaged in lumbering, banking, and other business ei^terprises. He was a member of Congress, 1889-91, was elected governor of Michigan in 1900, and re-elected 4 Nov. 1002. Bliss, Cornelius Newton, American mer- chant and statesman : b. Fall River. Mass., 26 Jan. 1833. He was educated in New Orleans; entered his stepfather's counting room there; engaged in the commission business in Boston, and became head of the dry goods commission house of Bliss, Fabyan & Company, New York, in 1881. He was a member of the Pan-Ameri- can Conference ; chairman of the New York Re- publican State Committee 1877-8: and treasurer of the National Republican Committee in 1892 and 1896; declined to be a candidate for gov- ernor of New York in 1885 and 1891 ; and was secretary of the Interior Department in Presi- dent McKinley"s Cabinet in 1897-8. Bliss, Daniel, American missionary: b, Georgia, Vt., 17 Aug. 1823. He graduated at Amherst College in 1852, and at the Andover Theological Seminary in 1855; was ordained a Congregational minister 17 Oct. 1855; engaged in missionary work in Syria in 1855-62 ; and in 1866 became president of the Syrian Protestant College of Beyrout. His publica- tions include: 'Mental Philosophy^ and 'Na- tional Philosophy,* both in Arabic. Bliss, Edwin Elisha, American mission- ary': b. Putney, Vt., 12 April 1817; d. Constanti- nople, 29 Dec. 1892. He graduated at Amherst College in 1837, and at Andover Theological Seminary in 1842; was ordained as a mission- ary in 1843, and joined the American Mission in Turkey, being stationed at Trebizond, 1843-52; Marsovan, Armenia, 1852-6; and at Cons:anti- nople after 1856. In addition to the ordinary work of a missionary he edited, 1865-92, the 'Messenger,* published at Constantinople in the Turkish and Armenian languages, and compiled a number of text-books, notably the 'Bible Handbook,* in Armenian. Bliss, Edwin Munsell, American mission- ary: b. Erzerum, I urkev, 12 Sept. 1848. He was educated at Robert College, Constantinople ; at the high school, Springfield, Mass., and at Amherst College, where he graduated in 1871, later taking a course at Yale Divinity School. In 1872 he was sent to Constantinople as agen*: for the American Bible Society, and traveled in Turkey and Persia. On his return to the United States in 1888 he edited the 'Encyclopaedia of Missions.* He has also written 'The Turk in Armenia, Crete, and Greece,* and 'A Concise History of Missions.* Since 1896 he has been associate editor of the New York 'Independent.* Bliss, Frederick Jones, American explorer (son of Daniel Bliss, q.v.) : b. Mount Lebanon, Syria, 2t, Jan. 1859. He graduated at Amherst College in 1880, and at the Union Theological Seminary in New Y'ork in 1887 ; was principal of the preparatory department of the Syrian Prot- estant College of Beyrout for three years; was appointed explorer to the Palestine Exploration Fund in 1890, and is best known for his excava- tions and finds in Jerusalem in 1894-7. Here he unearthed an ancient city wall with towers, be- sides streets, drains, stairways, churches, and other structures. He has published 'Mounds of Many Cities* ; 'Excavations at Jerusalem,* et'- Bliss, George, American lawyer: b. Springfield, Mass., 3 May 1830 ; d. near Wake- field, R. I., 2 Sept. 1897. He graduated at Harvard College in 185 1 ; studied for two years in Berlin and Paris, and after his return read law principally at the Harvard Law School. He established himself in practice in New York. In 1859-60 he was private secretary to Gov. Morgan; in 1861 was appointed to his staff; in 1862 became paymaster-general of New York ; and in that and the following year or- ganized three regiments of United States col- ored infantry under instructions from the secretary of war. In 1866 he was appointed at- torney for the Metropolitan boards of excise and health : in 1872, United States attorney for the Southern District of New York, and in 1881 a BLISS — BLISTER-BEETLE special assistant to the United States attorney- general for the prosecution of the 'Star Route' postal cases. He drafted the New York charter of 1873 ; drew up the New York Consolidation Act, and was author of the first tenement-house act for the city. He published three editions of the *Law of Life Insurance' and four edi- tions of the <^ Annotated Code of Civil Proce- dure.^ Bliss, Philip Paul, American singing evan- gelist : b. Clearfield County, Pa., 9 July 1838; killed in railroad accident, Ashtabula, Ohio, 29 Dec. 1876. He received some musical instruc- tion from G. W. Root, but was very largely self-taught. His evangelistic work was done chiefly in conjunction with Maj. D. W. Whittle and D. L. Moody, who became his warm friend and admirer. He had a fine personal presence, a gift of ready and effective speech, and these, combined with his wonderful voice, which ap- pealed strongly to the hearts of the multitude, gave him great power over his audiences. He frequently composed both the words and music of the songs which have made his name known throughout Christendom. Of these the most popular are : "Hold the Fort, for I am Com- ing" ; «Down Life's Dark Vale We Wander"; «Jesus Loves Me» ; "Hallelujah! 'Tis Done» ; and "Pull for the Shore, Sailor." His services as a revivalist were in demand throughout the United States and Canada. His songs appeared in the following named collections: *^The Charm> (1871) ; In his miles south-southwest of Paris, situated on ecc esiastical capacity he displayed great the right bank of the Loire, from which it ^ea land energy, more churches having been rises in the form of an amphitheatre. It ^uilt m London under his episcopate than consists of an upper town, with very narrow ""f^ t^at of any bishop since the a.nd crooked streets; a lower town, with Reformation. He incurred, however, some many handsome houses, extending along a animadversions on his proceedings in rela- handsome quay; and of Several suburbs, with tion to the Tractarian controversy by a one of which it communicates by a stone vacillating policy which gave satisfaction to bridge of II arches. The city is furnished "Either of the parties. with spring water through an old Roman Blomfield, Edward Valentine, English aqueduct, in excellent preservation. Thierry, clergyman (brother of the preceding): b, the historian, was born here. The castle 1/88; d. October 1816. He studied at of Blois is rich in historical associations. Caius College, Cambridge, and excited the It was long occupied by the counts of highest expectations. Among several prizes the name, and became a favorite residence which he gained was a medal assigned him^ of the kings of France. Louis XII. was in 1809 for his beautiful ode 'In Desidenum born, Francis I., Henry II., Charles IX., Porsoni.' In 1812 a fellowship m Em- and Henry III. held their courts in it; and manuel College was conferred on him. In the Guises, by a cruel though not unjust 1813 he visited Germany, where he ac- retribution, were murdered in it. When quired a good knowledge of the _ German Maria de' Medici was, in 1617, exiled from language, and became acquainted with Wolf the court, she resided, probably as a prisoner, in Berlin, and Schneider in Breslau. After in this castle, whence, 18 months later, she his return he wrote in the 'Museum Crit- escaped through a high window, which is icum,^ or 'Cambridge Classical Researches,' also an object of curiosity. In 1814, on the remarks on German literature which were approach of the European armies to Paris, received with approbation. The University the Empress Maria Louisa and the council of Cambridge appointed him one of the of regency repaired for a while to this place, preachers of St Mary's Church. He began Afterward the castle was entirely neglected, a translation of Schneider's 'Gnechisch- and even used as barracks for cavalry. Deutches Lexicon,' but did not live to- During the later years of Louis Philippe's finish it. Matthias's 'Griechische Gram- reign, this curious specimen of architecture matik,' however, he translated completely, was carefully and tastefully restored. Blois His translation was published by his brother has several literary and scientific societies, and was everywhere well received. He was a botanical garden founded by Henry IV., in Switzerland in 1816 with his pupil, a young a public library with 19,000 volumes, a de- nobleman, and in his haste to return to Cam- partmental college, and a diocesan seminary, bridge on hearing that he was appointed It trades in wines, spirits, vinegar, staves, proctor for the following year, the fatigue of and licorice, while it produces serges, hosiery rapid traveling occasioned a sickness of and gloves, cutlery and hardware. Pop. which he died. (1896) 23,542. Blomfield, Reginald, English architect: b. Blok. Petrus Johannes, pa-troos yo-han-es, 20 Dec. 1856. He was educated at Exeter Dutch historian: b. Helder, 1855. He was College, Oxford. He is architect to the Army educated at Leyden; in 1884 became professor and Navy Society and among his many im- of history at Croningen and later at the portant professional works are 'Brocklesby University of Leyden. He was also Queen Park.' 'Caythorpe Court,' 'Holbrook House.' Wilhelmina's tutor in history. His work ^New Buildings at Haileybury College,' has been chiefly in social-political history ^Lady Margaret Hall.' 'Portsea Institute.' of the Netherlands. He is the author of He has published 'The Formal Garden 'History of the People of the Netherlands' in England' (1892); for the head and arms, and at the point where it arches backwards and downwards to pass through the chest and the belly till at A, it gives off branches for the legs. Running alongside the arteries are represented in blue, veins At K, is represented the position of the kidneys and their veins. L, represents veins of the lung. J, jugular vein. Ch outhnes of the chest. BLOOD-FLOWER — BLOOD-RAIN civilized governments, the regulation cf the blood feud was a marked step in the advance- ment of the race. It is trr^ that the right of private vengeance was recognized, but it was put under restrictions and gradually nar- rowed in its action. The slayer had the right of sanctuary, illustrated by the cities of refuge in Israel under the Mosaic economy, by the altars of pagan deities and by the churches of the Middle Ages. The danger of dragging entire clans into retributive warfare to avenge a single murder was averted bv limit- ing the right of vengeance to the immediate family, or the next of kin to the one slain, and the privilege of purchasing exemption by the weregild tended to check a blood penalty. The acceptance of the blood-money was iinallj- made obligatorv. The amount of the fine imposed upon the murderer varied among the Anglo-Saxons according to the rank of 'he victim. The family feuds among the mountain whites in certain sections of the United States form an interesting modern in- stance of the survival of the primitive insti- tution of blood feud. See Asylum, Right of. Blood-flower, or Blood-lily, a genus (H(riiia)ithus) of about 60 species of summer- and autumn-blooming bulbous-rooted plants of the natural order Amaryllidacccc, natives mostly of South Africa, named from thie gen- eral color of their flowers, which are arranged in umbels arising on an often beautifully col- ored scape either before the foliage or from a rosette of radical leaves. The few species cultivated in American greenhouses have not become widely popular, but are worthy of more extended culture, since the individual flowers are often two inches in diameter and the umbel sometimes a foot across. They may be cultivated like the nerine. Since some of the most attractive species reproduce slow^ly, the bulbs are often cut in two horizon- tally and treated like hyacinth bulbs simi- larly cut. Several new bulbs form around.the margin of the cut halves. Consult Bailey and Miller, 'Cyclopedia of American Horticul- ture^ (igoo-2). Blood Indians, or Kino Indians, a tribe of North American Indians of the Siksika Confederacy, dwelling in the Northwest Ter- ritories of Canada. Blood-letting. See Bleeding. Blood-lily. See Blood-flower. Blood-money, money paid to the next of kin of a man who met with his death at the hands of another, accidentally or with pre- meditation. The Greeks called it iroivrj, the Latins poena, the Franks. Allemanni, and Scandinavians manbote, xvclirgcld, or zvyrgilt, the British Celts named it saarliard. and the Irish Celts eric. The institution still flour- ishes in many communities of Asia and Africa. In English criminal law the term blood-money was also applied to rewards paid to informers against highway robbers, thieves, burglars, and utterers of false coin or forged bank- notes. Laws empowering such payments were passed between 1692 and 1742. In 1813 the to- tal amount paid in this way was £18.000.^ By this time a number of persons made a living out of these laws by entrapping unwary and foolish people into the commission of the Vol. 2 — 47. crime of forging or uttering false coin, and then informing against them. As early as 1756 one McDaniel had brought to the scaf- fold and earned the blood-money of no less than 70 victims. Parliament, recognizing the abuses the system had engendered, repealed all the laws relating thereto, except iu rela- tion to the forgers of bank-bills, in which case the informer can still get nis pecuniary reward. Blood-pheasant, one of the small quail- like pheasants of the Himalayan genus If! (1858); L' Alle- magne et la Provence^ (1869) ; *Le Mariage Royal d'Espagne' (1878); *Une Course a Con- stantinople* (1884). He retired from his posi- tion as Times correspondent only three weeks prior to his death. Blowpipe, an instrument by means of which the flame of a candle, a gas-jet, etc., is made to produce an intense heat, being then em- ployed for a variety of useful purposes. Its most usual form is described in the article on blowpipe analysis (q.v.). It is employed by jew- elers and goldsmiths in the work of soldering, and by other workers on small metallic objects; by the glassblower in making thermometers, barometers, and other glass instruments; by the enameler ; and indeed wherever it is re- quired to subject a small body to a strong heat. It has undergone a variety of improvements in the hands of the chemist, to whose researches it has proved an excellent auxiliary. Wollas- ton's portable blowpipe is formed of three pieces fitted into one another when in use, but which may be taken down and made to slide within each other. Most laboratory blowpipes have a hollow bulb or enlarged part at or near the end, the object of which is to condense the vapor of the breath, which often proves injurious in the common form of the instrument. To pre- vent corrosion from the action of the moisture, the bulb is made either of silver or sheet-tin, and it is capable of being opened in order that it may be more easily cleaned. A little prac- tice is necessary to enable the operator to keep up a constant blast for any length of time, the current of air being propelled through the pipe by the muscular exertion of the cheeks, while respiration is carried on through the nose. But when the process has to be long continued, the current of air is supplied by bellows. This is the form commonly used by glassblowers. The gas blowpipe, commonly called the oxyhydrogen blowpipe, is a very important and intensely pow- erful variety, whose structure is due to Mr, Newman of London. Sir Humphry Davy sug- gested the employment of other gases instead of common air, and Dr. Clarke of Cambridge adopted the suggestion. Dr. Clarke found that a mixture of two volumes of hydrogen and one of oxygen produced the greatest effect. These gases are contained in a bladder attached to the end of a pipe which leads into a vertical cylin- der, in which is fitted a piston, working through a collar at the top. By the action of this piston the gas from the bladder is compressed into a copper chamber, and thence issues to the flame through an ordinary blowpipe nozzle. To guard against explosions, the gases are kept in separate holders, and by means of a special kind of burner are prevented from mixing until they are just going to be burned. There are various other species of blowpipe, and many uses to which they may be applied. For information on the subject see Plattner, ^On the Blowpipe' to whom the present form of the instrument is due. Blow'pipe Anal'ysis, a branch of chemical analysis in which the composition of the sub- stance under examination is inferred from its behavior when subjected to certain flame tests. The blowpipe itself commonly consists of a tapering brass tube about eight inches long, provided with a bell-shaped mouthpiece at one end, and at the other with a nozzle that is turned at right angles to the general length of the instrument. The nozzle should be tipped with platinum, and provided with a very minute per- foration through which the operator blows a tiny blast of air that drives the flame of his lamp against the object to be analyzed. The flame used in blowpipe work should not be round and colorless, like those of spirit lamps and Bunsen burners, but should be flat and luminous, containing plenty of free, incandescent carbon. A large candle-flame serves very well, although it is not flat. L'sually a gas-flame is employed, in connection with a burner formed by flatten- ing a piece of brass tubing, and then cutting it off at the top, at an angle. When the blow- pipe is in service its tip is introduced into the flame of the lamp, which the air-blast deflects laterally in the form of a long, almost non-lumi- nous cone, which consists of two visibly differ- ent portions. The inner part is somewhat brighter, and is richer in unoxidized gases. The outer layer, being more plentifully supplied with oxygen, consists almost entirely of completely oxidized gases. The outer portion of the blow- pipe flame is called the "oxidizing flame,*' since this part, when directed against the specimen under examination, heats it while it is iri con- tact with the air, and causes it to oxidize, if it is capable of doing so at the temperature that is attainable by the blowpipe. The inner portion of the flame is called the "reducing flame,* BLOWPIPE ANALYSIS from the fact that when the specimen is ex- posed to this part, it is heated, not in contact with the air, but while surrounded v/ith an atmosphere of partially unoxidized hydrocarbon gases. Under these circumstances many metallic oxides give up their oxygen to the hot hydrocar- t bon gases in which they are bathed, and are themselves reduced to the metallic form. If a fiame still richer in free carbon and uncon- sumed hydrocarbons is desired, the tip of the blowpipe is held just outside of the lamp-flame, and a jet of flame with a luminous tip con- taining particles of solid carbon can easily be thrown down upon the specimen. In blowpipe analysis there is no recognized ^^scheme'^ to be followed out. The method is oftenest used for the determination of minerals, and in such cases the analyst usually has some sort of idea, in advance, of the elements that may possibly be present. The substance to be examined is usually first pulverized, and a por- tion of it heated in a tube that is open only at the upper end. If it carbonizes, it contains organic matter of some kind, and the odor that is produced is often a good indication as to whether the organic matter is of an animal or vegetable nature. If the substance, when heated in the closed tubes, gives off water which con- denses in the upper part of the tube, the moisture so condensed should be tested with litmus paper. If it is neutral, the substance is a hy- drated compound, or a hydroxide. An acid re- action indicates acid salts, and an alkaline one may usually be taken to indicate the presence of compounds of ammonia. If the substance melts but does not change its color, it is an alkaline or a hydrated salt. If it melts and turns yellow, remaining yellow even after cool- ing, it contains oxide of bismuth ; while if it melts to a yellow color, but turns red upon cooling, it contains oxide of lead. If it does not melt, but changes color, the indications are as follows : Yellow, both hot and cold, indi- cates stannic oxide ; if yellow while hot, but white when cold, zinc oxide ; if black while hot, and reddish-brown when cold, ferric oxide ; if black while hot, but bright red when cold, mer- curic oxide. If gas is evolved, its nature should be determined. Oxygen may be detected by the kindling of a glowing splinter of wood inserted into the tube ; carbon dioxide by its extinguish- ing such a spark promptly ; carbon monoxide by the gas burning with a bluish flame when ignited at the mouth of the tube ; sulphur dioxide, ammonia and cyanogen, by the odor. Oxygen indicates chlorates, peroxides, etc. : carbon diox- ide indicates carbonates or oxalates; carbon monoxide indicates oxalates or formates ; sul- phur dioxide indicates certain sulphites or sul- phates ; cyanogen indicates cyanides ; and ammo- nia indicates some compound of that substance. If the gas is reddish-brown in color, bromides, nitrates, or nitrites, are probably present; if it is violet, an iodide is indicated. A sublimate may also be deposited upon the tube. If the sublimate is black, or nearly so, selenium or mercuric sulphide are indicated ; if yellow, sul- phur or a sulphide ; if white, a salt of ammo- nia or mercury, a volatile organic acid, or an oxide of antimony or arsenic. Gray rnetallic globules indicate mercury, and a metallic mir- ror may represent either antimony or arsenic. When the substance is heated in an inclined tube, open at both ends, similar indications are to be observed ; modified somewhat, however, by the fact that oxygen can now pass up through the tube and come in contact with the specimen under examination. Thus sulphides are com- monly oxidized in the open tube, arsenic will sublime as the trioxide and not as the metai, and selenium gives a sublimate that may be gray or red, and also a strong odor of horse- radish. The color that the specimen communicates to the non-luminous part of the flame is like- wise of great service in determinations by the blowpipe. A piece of platinum wire, bent at the end into a small loop, is dipped in hydrochloric acid and held in the flame, this process being re- peated several times until "the analyst is con- fident that the wire itself is free from any sub- stance that can color the flame. The little loop at the end is then brought into contact with some of the finely pulverized specimen, and introduced into the flame again. Sodium gives a strong lasting yellow ; calcium an orange red ; lithium and strontium a crimson ; potassium a lavender ; barium an apple green ; thallium, cop- per, and boracic acid a brighter green ; lead and antimony a pale blue; selenium a deep blue. The yellow due to sodium is so powerful, even when that metal is present only in slight amounts, that the colors due to the other metals present are sometimes difficult to observe by the unaided eye. Hence colored glasses are often used, through which to take note of the flame color ; the tint of the glass being selected so as to cut off the yellow light of the sodium, while allowing the particular color that is sought to pass through unobstructed. Cobalt blue glass, for example, is used in this way in testing, by flame coloration, for potassium. When a sample of the specimen to be ana- lyzed is heated upon charcoal, it is often possible to obtain some of the elements that are present, in the form of a metallic bead, by the reduction of their oxides or of the other compounds in which they were originally contained. Lead, tin, and silver give beads that are white and mal- leable; copper gives a malleable red bead; anti- mony and bismuth give brittle beads ; and iron, cobalt, and nickel may often be obtained in the form of gray, magnetic powders. While the substance is being heated upon charcoal, an incrustation commonly forms on the charcoal, from the character of which useful inferences can be drawn. Thus antimony gives a white incrustation ; bismuth, an incrustation that is deep yellow when hot and lighter yellow when cold ; lead, one that is light yellow when hot and deep yellow when cold, and is sur- rounded by a white border ; arsenic gives a white incrustation that is very volatile ; and with zinc the color is yellow when hot and white when cold. Many metallic oxides are soluble in melted borax, and valuable color indications are ob- tained by heating small quantities of the sub- stance in little beads of melted borax, that are held in the flame upon tiny loops of platinum wire. The phenomena that are observed in this way are quite complicated, however, and for an account of them the manuals on blowpipe analysis should be consulted. See Cornwall, * Manual of Blowpipe Analysis^ ; Moses and Parsons, < Elements of Mineralogy, Crystallogra- phy, and Blowpipe Analysis' ; Dana, ^Minerals and How to Study Them.^ BLUCHER Blucher, Gebhard Leberecht von, geb'hart la'be-reHt fon blii-ker ( Prince of Wahlstadt, val'stat), Prussian soldier: b. Rostock, i6 Dec. 1742; d. Krieblowitz, Silesia, 12 Sept. 1819. When 14 years of age he visited the island of Riigen, -where the sight of some Swedish hussars aroused a desire to become a soldier, and in spite of the opposition of his parents and relatives he took service in a Swedish regiment as cornet. His first campaign was against the Prussians, and he was taken prisoner by the same regiment of hussars which he afterward commanded. The commander of this regiment, Col. von Belling, induced him to enter the Prussian service. An exchange was agreed upon with the Swedes, and Blucher was made lieutenant in Belling's regi- ment. Discontented at the promotion of other officers over his head, he left the army, devoted himself to agriculture, and by industry and pru- dence acquired an estate. After the death of Frederick 11. he became a major in his forrner regiment, which he commanded with distinction on the Rhine 1793-4. Orchies, Luxemburg, Frankenstein, Oppenheim (16 Jan. 1794), Kirr- weiler and Edisheim in the Palatinate, bear wit- ness to his achievements. After the battle of Kirrweiler, in 1794, which added greatly to his reputation, he was appointed major-general of the army of observation stationed on the lower Rhine. In 1802, in the name of the king of Prus- sia, he took possession of Erfurt and Miihl- hausen. On 14 Oct. 1806, he fought at the bat- tle of Auerstadt. He then, with the greater part of the cavalry, followed the retreat of the Prince of Hohenlohe to Pomerania. His squad- ron, moving on the left of the main army, be- came separated from it, and the Prince of Hohenlohe was forced to surrender at Prenzlau. Blucher, cut off from Stettin by this accident, threw himself into Mecklenburg where he joined at Dambeck the corps of the Duke of Weimar, commanded by Prince William of Brunswick-Oels. All the troops, how- -ever, were too much fatigued to under- take any enterprise. Having the Grand Duke of' Berg on his left flank, the Prince of Ponte Corvo in his front, and Marshal Soult on his right, Blucher was obliged to take post behind the Trave in order to draw off the three great divisions of the French forces from the Oder as long as possible. With this view he entered the territory of the free city of Lii- beck, which was soon stormed by the French. Although BKicher escaped with some troops he was obliged to surrender at Ratkau on 6 Novem- ber, but with a clause in the capitulation that he "accepted it only from want of ammunition, provisions, and forage." He was soon ex- changed for the French general Victor, and on his arrival at Konigsberg was placed at the head of a corps and sent to Swedish Pomera- nia to share in the defense of Stralsund and to assist the efforts of the Swedes. After the Peace of Tilsit he labored in the department of war at Konigsberg and Berlin. He then received the chief military command in Pomerania, but at the instigation of Napoleon was afterward dis- missed from the service. In the campaign of 1812, when the Prussians assisted the French, he took no part ; but no sooner did Prussia rise against her oppressors than Blucher, already 70 years old, engaged in the cause with all his former activity. He was appointed commander- m-chief of the Prussian army and the Russian corps under Gen. Winzingerode, which at a later period was separated from him. In 1813 he was created field-marshal. His heroism in the battle of Liitzen (2 May 1813) was rewarded by the Enjperor Alexander with the order of St. George. The battles of Bautzen and Hanau, those on the Katzbach (26 Aug. 1819) and Leipsic added to , his glory. On the Katzbach Blucher defeated the army of Marshal Macdonald and delivered all Silesia. On 3 October Blucher crossed the Elbe at Wartenburg, and encouraged the Bohe- mian army under Schwartzenberg, and the north- ern army under the crown-prince of Sweden, to act with more spirit. On 16 October he gained a signal advantage over Marshal Marmont at Mockern, forcing his way as far as the suburbs of Leipsic. On the i8th, in connection with the crown-prince of Sweden, he contributed greatly to the defeat of the enemy, and on the 19th his troops made the first assault upon Leipsic. His promptitude and peculiar manner of attack- ing had already procured him from the Russians the name of "Marshal Forward.^^ On i Jan. 1814, with the Silesian army, which now consisted of two Prussian, two Russian, one Hessian, and one mixed corps, he crossed the Rhine at Kaub, took possession of Nancy on the 17th, gained (i February), the battle of La Rothiere, and pushed forward toward Paris. His detached corps were, however, checked by Napoleon ; yet Bliicher, though with a great loss, effected his retreat toward Chalons. He then crossed the Aisne at Soissons, joined the northern army, obtained (9 March) a victory over Napoleon at Laon, and, in connection with Schwartzen- berg, at the close of the month, pressed forward to Paris. The day of Montmartre crowned this campaign, and on 31 March Blucher entered the capital of France. For this triumph he was created Prince of Wahlstadt, with a suitable income. In England, whither he followed the allied monarchs in June of the same j^ear, he was received with enthusiasm. The University of Oxford conferred on him the degree of Doctor of Laws. He then lived on his estates in Silesia till 1815, when the chief command was again committed to him, and he led his army into the Netherlands. On 15 June Napoleon threw him- self upon him, and Blucher, on the i6th, was defeated at Ligny. In this engagement his horse was killed, and he was thrown under his body. In the battle of the i8th Blucher arrived at the most decisive moment upon the ground, and, taking Napoleon in the rear and flank, assisted materially in completing the great victory of Belle Alliance, or Waterloo (q.v.). He refused the proffered armistice, and forced Paris to surrender ; opposing with energy, on this second conquest of the capital, the system of forbear- ance practised on the former occasion. As he was already a knight of all the military orders of Europe, the king of Prussia, to reward his new services, created the new order of the Iron Cross expressly for him. After the Peace of Paris he retired to his estate, where he died. On the anniversary of the battle on the Katz- bach, a monument commemorating his glory, executed by Schadow in Berlin, was erected at Rostock. On that of Waterloo (18 June 1826) a bronze statue 12 feet in height, modeled by Ranch, was erected to his memory in Berlin. Blucher was not so eminent for military science as for ability in action. His simplicity, good nature, and bravery endeared him to his sol- BLUE — BLUE BOY •diers, who loved him as a father. His ad- dresses and proclamations are distinguished for their brevity, precision, and simplicity. Consult *Blucher's Life,^ by Varnhagen von Ense (Ber- lin 1827) ; and Scherr's *Blucher's Life and Times ^ (Leipsic 1862). Blue, Victor, American naval officer: b. North Carolina, 6 Dec. 1865. He graduated at the naval academy June 1887, and serving through the grades of ensign and junior lieuten- ant, was promoted lieutenant 3 March 1899. At the outbreak of the war with Spain he was ordered to the gunboat Suwanee, and while on duty off the Cuban coast captured two Spanish patrol sloops having on board a heliographic .signal outfit. On 11 June 1898 he landed at Aserraderos, passed through the Spanish lines, proceeded to the hills overlooking Santiago city and harbor, where he located the Spanish fleet commanded by Admiral Cervera. On 25 June he made a further reconnoissance and mapped the position of the Spanish ships. To accom- plish these things he traveled a distance of nearly 140 miles, mostly through territory occupied by the intrenchments of the Spanish army. Ad- miral Sampson highly commended the manner in which these tasks had been performed and recommended that Lieut. Blue be advanced ten numbers as a promotion. He was placed in command of the captured gunboat Alvarado, and on 12 Aug. i8q8 bombarded the fortifica- tions of Manzanillo. Subsequently he served in China and the Philippines. Blue, one of the seven primary colors. The blue pigments commonly employed by art- ists are few in number, including native and artificial ultramarine, cobalt, indigo, and Prus- sian blue. Genuine ultramarine, prepared from the inineral lapis lazuli, and ordinary cobalt blue, sold for artists' work, are permanent colors. They are used either alone, or mixed with other pigments, chiefly for skies and distances in landscape, and by themselves, or to make up grays and other mixed tints in figure painting. Owing to the exceptionally high price of real ultramarine, the artifi.cial color, which is of ■doubtful permanency, is usually substituted for it. Prussian blue and indigo are highly useful ■colors, since it is only these that yield dark blues, and only from them, mixed with yellows ■or browns, that strong greens can be obtained. It is unfortunate accordingly that both are more or less fugitive. All the blues above named are used both in oil or water color painting, but indigo less than the others in oil, since it is most apt to fade in that medium. A number of different names are used in commerce for what is essentially the same pig- ment, or for pigments closely resembling one another. The following statement gives some explanation of these: Cobalt blues are mixtures of cobalt with earthy or metallic bases, which have been subjected to the action of heat, and have received the following names : Cobalt blue, cerulean blue, royal blue. Dumont's blue, Saxon blue, Thenard's blue, Leithner's blue, Hun- gary blue, Zaft're or enamel blue, Vienna blue, azure blue, and Paris blue. The last name is also applied to a Prussian blue, and azure is also given to a variety of ultramarine blue. Smalt is a powdered cobalt glass used in illumination and flower painting. Artificial ultramarine is also called French ultramarine, French blue, new blue, and permanent blue. Coarse qualities ot this color are largely used by house painters. Intense blue is a refined indigo. Prussian blue (sesqui-ferrocyanide of iron) is otherwise named Berlin blue, Paris blue, and ferrocyanide of iron. The name Paris blue is also given to a cobalt color. Antwerp blue is a variety of Prus- sian blue made lighter by the addition of an aluminous base, and not so permanent. Blue ochre (hydrated phosphate of iron) is a sub- dued permanent blue, but not much employed. Blue verditcr is a hydrated oxide of copper which changes and ultimately blackens by time. It is used in distemper work and paper staining. Blue was adopted as their distinctive color by the Scottish Covenanters in the 17th century and is the usual color of the uniforms of the sol- diers of the United States army. A dark shade of this color is generally worn by the sailors of most countries, whence the term navy blue is derived. Blue Beech. See Hornbe.\m. Blue Bird, or the North American thrush, is widely distributed throughout the United States, where it holds a similar place, in the hearts of the people, as the redbreast in Eng- land. In fact, locally, it is sometimes termed *^blue-robin.'^ It is a smaller bird than the rest of the thrushes. Its whole upper parts are sky blue, shot with purple, with its throat, neck, breast, and sides reddish chestnut, and part of its wings and its tail feathers black. The *'soft and agreeable warble" of the bluebird is one of the first and most welcome sounds of bird-music, that we hear in the early spring. The male is remarkably attentive to his more protectively colored mate, and takes exuberent pride in their five or six pale-blue eggs, laid in holes in the trees of gardens, and often also in bird-boxes, and in the crevices in the walls of outbuildings. There are often two broods in a season. The bluebird fights hard to protect his small, neatly constructed nest from the house- sparrow, swallows, wrens, and other birds, which make his life miserable by their intrusion on his domestic privacy. Several other sorts of birds, of other countries, prevailingly blue in color, receive the name "bluebird.** such as the "Orien- tal fairy-bluebirds'* of the genus Irena, more particularly Irena puella, one of the East Indian bulbuls. Blue Books, the official reports, papers, and documents printed for the British govern- ment to be laid before the Houses of Parliament. They are so called simply from being stitched up in blue paper wrappers, and include bills presented to, and acts passed by, the houses ; reports and papers moved for by members or granted by government ; reports of committees : statistics of trade, etc. The term is used also in a broad way as descriptive of special reports put forth by the government of any country or its various executive departments. In the United States the publi.shed lists of government employees and the navy regulation manual are known as Blue Books and the foreign diplomatic correspondence is commonly issued in Red Books. French official reports, etc.. are called Yellow Books : those of Italy are styled Green Books, and those of Spain Red Books. Blue Boy, The, a celebrated picture by Gainsborough, dated 1679; its subject, a boy dressed in a blue satin i6th century costume. BLUE-COAT SCHOOL — BLUE LAWS Blue-coat School. See Christ's Hospital. Blue Flag. See Iris. Blue Grass, Kentucky Blue Grass, June Grass, Meadow Grass, Spear Grass, a species {Poa pratensis) of the natural order Craminw, native of the cooler parts of the northern hemi- sphere. The plant is a perennial with very numerous rootstocks and long, soft radical leaves. The more or less leafy stems w^hich rise from one to two feet are terminated by a loose, pyramidal panicle three to four inches long, which readily distinguishes it from its somewhat larger close relative, Texas bhie grass {P. arachnifera) , in which the panicle is contracted and which is further distinguished by its woolly seeds. Blue grass forms a dense sod, which is very resistant to the trampling of stock, upon soils favorable to its growth, and is ranked as the best pasture and lawn grass throughout its range in districts and upon soils adapted to it. It attains its highest develop- ment upon limestone soils, and where found growing naturally, is considered to indicate a superior agricultural soil especially useftil for stock raising. The Blue Grass region of Ken- tuck}', which also extends into Tennessee, and from which the former State derives one of its popular names, is of limestone formation, and is noted for its superior, strong-boned, well- formed stock, especially horses. Upon soils other than limestone this grass does not produce so well and upon sandy soils it usually fails. Blue grass hay is of high quality, but is pro- duced in too small amount to pay as well as other hay grasses. The hay cut when the seed is in the milky stage, has the following com- position : Nitrogen-free extract, 34.3 ; crude fibre, 24.5 ; water, 24.3 ; ash, 7.0 ; proteid matter, 6.3 ; fat. 3.6. If the grass be allowed to mature its seed before being cut it is somewhat less nutritive because of the change in the relative proportion of nutrient material to non-digestible matter. The composition of the fresh grass is as follows : Water, 65.1 ; nitrogen-free extract, 17.6; crude fibre, 9.1; proteid matter, 4.1; ash, 2.8; fat, 1.3. Texas blue grass (P. arachnifera) is a valuable species for the Southern States, where Kentucky blue grass is less resistant to the effects of drouth. Both species may be propagated by sowing seed or by setting out pieces of sod, a method most commonly prac- tised with the southern species, because of the difficulty of spreading its woolly seeds evenly. The method is very popular in lawn-making with the northern species. Since the seed of Kentucky blue grass is often of low vitality, and is frequently mixed with chaff, it should be sown rather thickly. A permanent blue grass pasture requires about three years to become established, after which, without much atten- tion, beyond ordinary fertilizing, it may remain profitable for half a centurj'- or more. In long settled districts there are occasional pastures of more than 75 years standing. Blue Grass State, a nickname for Ken- tucky. Blue-green Algae. See Cyanophyce;e. Blue Hen State, a nickname for Delaware. During the War for Independence, a certain popular officer of Delaware, named Capt. Cald- well, asserted that a game cock to be unconquer- able must be *a blue hen's chicken.'' This name was at once applied to his regiment and later to the State and its people. Blue Island, III, a city of Cook County- situated on the Calumet River and on the Illi- nois C, the Chicago, R. I. & P., the Chicago ik G. T., and the Chicago & C. T. R.R.'s. It forms a southern suburb of Chicago, about two miles south of the city limits, and is an important manufacturing, commercial, and railroad centre. Among its industries are brick-making, stone- quarrying, etc. There are also smelting-works, oil-works, and breweries. It was settled in 1833 and incorporated in 1872. The municipal organ- ization provides for a mayor with a term of two years, and a city council. The city operates its own waterworks and electric light system. Pop. (1900) 6,114. Blue Jay. See Jay. Blue John, a name for fluorspar (q.v.). Blue Laws, a term sometimes applied to the early enactments of several of the New Eng- land colonies, but more frequently limited to the laws of New Haven Colony. The origin of the term is not exactly known. Various con- jectures have been made, but the most probable derivation is that given by Prof. Kingsle}', who thinks the epithet "blue" was applied to any one who immediately after the Restoration of the Stuart,s looked with disapprobation on the licen- tiousness of the times. Thus, in Hudibras, For his religion, it was fit To match his learning and his wit; 'Twas Presbyterian true hhie. That this epithet should find its way to the colonies was a matter of course. It was here applied not only to persons, but to the customs, institutions, and laws of the Puritans, by those who wished to render the prevailing system ridiculous. Hence, probably, a belief with some that a distinct system of laws, known as the blue laws, must somewhere have had a local habitation. The existence of such a code of blue laws is fully disproved. The only author- ity in its favor is Rev. Samuel Peters, whose 'General History of Connecticut' (1781) is a spiteful, satirical work, full of exaggerations. The traditions upon this subject, from which Peters framed his stories, undoubtedly arose from the fact that the early settlers of New Haven were uncommonly strict in their applica- tion of the ^'general rules of righteousness.* Judge Smith, in his continuation of the history of New I'ork, published in 'New Yo/k Histori- cal Collections,' Vol. IV., gives evidence against the existence of the blue laws, which is particu- larly valuable, as it was put on record some 15 years before Peters' history was published. He writes: "Few there are who speak of the blue laws (a title of the origin of which the author is ignorant), who do not imagine they form a code of rules drawn tip for future con- duct, by an enthusiastic precise set of religion- ists ; and if the inventions of wits, humorists, and buffoons were to be credited, they must con- sist of many large volumes. The author had the curiosity to resort to them when the com- missioners met at New Haven for adjusting a partition line between New York and Massa- chusetts in 1767; and a parchment covered book of demi-royal paper was handed him for the laws asked for, as the only volume in the office passing under this odd title. It contains the BLUE LIGHT — BLUE-STOCKING memorials of the first establishment of the colony, which consisted of persons who had wandered be}^ond the limits of the old charter of Massachusetts Bay, and who, as yet unauthor- ized by the Crown to set up any civil govern- ment in due form of law, resolved to conduct themselves by the Bible. As a necessary con- sequence, the judges they chose took up an au- thority which ever}- religious man exercises over his own children and domestics. Hence their attention to the morals of the people in instances with which the civil magistrate can never inter- meddle in a regular well-policied constitution, because to preserve liberty they are recogniz- able only by parental authority." See Trumbull, (1789) ; Offen- bach's (1888); 'Freighted with Bliss> (1890); < Storms in Port* (1802). She is a zealous ad- vocate of woman's rights. Blumenthal, Jacob von, ya'kob fon bloo'- men-tal, German pianist and composer: b. Hamburg, 4 Oct. 1829. Going to London jn 1849, he became pianist to Queen Victoria, taught music, and was soon well known as a composer of popular pianoforte numbers and equally popular songs such as 'My Queen' ; is an adaptation of his composition, He has published several volumes of critical an"d miscellaneous essays. Blundell, (Mrs.) Francis (M. E. Francis), English novelist : b. Dublin. She is the widow of Francis N. Blundell and has lived for many years in Lancashire, but more recently in Dor- setshire. Her writings, which have steadily in- creased in popularity, both in England and the United States, are: ^Whither?' (1892); *In a Nort^ Country Village* (1893) ; ^The Song of Dan* (1894) ; ^Town Mice in the Country, a Story for Children* (1894) ; ^A Daughter of the Soil* (1895) ; "^Frieze and Fustian* (1896) ; * Among the Untrodden Ways (1896) ; ^Maime o' the Corner* (1897) ; 'The Negro in Ancient History' ; etc. Blythe, Herbert. See Barrymore, Maurice. B'nai B'rith, b'ni b'reth, Independent Order of the, an association of German Jews formed in the United States in 1843. Its pur- pose is the moral improvement of the mem- bers. Its organization resembles that of the Free Masons, but it is not a secret society, and has no elaborate ceremonial. The organization has since been established in Germany, and in the East. In 1901 it had over 400 lodges and 28,000 members. Bo-tree, the sacred fig of India. See Peepul. Boa, a serpent of that section of the fam- ily BoidcE called Boince. The boas are mostly of great size, and inhabitants of the forests of tropical America ; and, with the pythons, consti- tute a family of the largest of modern snakes, which are noted for their power to enfold and fatally crush their prey in muscular coils. These serpents are notable not only for great size, but for certain structural peculiarities, of which the most noteworthy and characteristic is the fact that vestiges remain of the pelvis and hinder limbs, which appear externally as claw-like spurs on each side of the vent, which are of service in hanging from trees. The muscular power is very great, the tail is partly prehen- sile ; and the bones of the head, and especially of the jaws, are more than ordinarily loosely joined together (see Serpent), so that bodies surprisingly large may be swallowed. This fam- ily is distributed throughout all tropical re- gions, and is divided into two sub-families, by diversities of structure. One (Pythonince) con- BOAS. I. Boa Constrictor. 2. Dog-Headed Boa (Xiphosoma Caninum). BOABDIL — BOADICEA tains the Old World pythons (q.v.), which have a pair of supraorbital bones, some teeth on the premaxilla, and the sub-caudal scales in two rows ; while the boas lack supraorbital bones, never have premaxillary teeth and but a single row of scales on the under side of the tail. Most of 'the 40 or 50 species of Boince are American, but several small species inhabit the warmer parts of the Old World. Several of the American boas are very large snakes, perhaps occasionally reaching 30 feet in length, though few carefully measured have exceeded 20 feet ; but such a one would weigh several hundred pounds, and be a very formidable foe to the largest animals exposed to their attacks. They inhabit the forests, and climb to the lower .branches of the trees, where they seek or await their prey, usually above a path. There the ser- pent swings about in the air till some luckless animal approaches ; then, suddenly relinquish- ing its position, he seizes the victim, and coils his body spirally round its throat and chest, till, after a few ineffectual cries and struggles, the animal is suffocated, and expires. In pro- ducing this effect, the serpent does not merely wind itself around its prey, but places fold over fold, as if desirous of adding as much weight as possible to the muscular effort ; these folds are then gradually tightened with enor- mous force, and speedily induce death. The animals thus destroyed by the larger boas are sometimes as large as tapirs, deer, and even bul- locks, but ordinarily the much smaller mam- mals and birds of the forest, while one species feeds mainly upon aquatic prey. Having crushed and rolled its prey until its bones are broken into pieces, and it is compacted into the form of a sausage, it takes it into its mouth, and at first by the help of the strong recurved teeth on its jaw bones, and later by reflex movements of its throat and ribs slowly engulfs it, the action being facilitated by a copious flow of saliya; but there is no truth in the reputed preparation of the prey by a covering of slime, etc., related in so many books. The process of digestion is slow, and while it is proceeding, the snake is inert, and easily caught and killed. Several of the larger species are well known and often seen in menageries, where they are easily distinguished by the shape of the head and by the well-defined pattern of the markings. These are exceedingly handsome in most cases, the colors being yellow, buff, chestnut, and vary- ing browns, set off by black and white ; and the skins, whicn may be tanned into good leather with the scales on, are of high commercial value for making purses, belts, and other ornamental articles. Among the best known species are the common boa — the Boa constrictor proper (for that term is ignorantly given to all), which is one of the lesser forms, rarely exceeding 10 feet in length. Its home is the region of the Ama- zon and Orinoco rivers, and it is pale brown, with a chain-like series of dark-brown mark- ings on each side of the spine, enclosing large oblong-oval spots, and a series of large dark spots along the sides, each with a light centre; on the tail the markings become brick-red. Sev- eral other species of this genus, some much larger, inhabit South and Central America. One, the imperial boa, has a Mexican variety, often called the abonia, which is believed to be the serpent venerated by the ancient Mexicans, and worshipped with bloody sacrifices. Two species of true boas also inhabit Madagascar. Of a clostly related genus is the great water-boa, or ana- conda (Eunectes nuerinus) , which adds to the arboreal habits of the others the custom of crawling into the rivers and swamps of the half-flooded forests, where it lives, and there lying in wait for animals that come down to drink, or seizing those of semi-aquatic life. This is the largest, most formidable, and one of the handsomest of the tribe. Many species are of smaller size, down to only three feet in length, but all have similar habits. One genus (Licli- anura) has a few species that dwell in the West Indies and Mexico, and are occasionally taken in Arizona and southern California ; and small boas of this or an allied sort are fre- quently brought into the United States from Cuba, tightly coiled about bunches of bananas. They are harmless, of course, unless of a great size, having no poison sacs or fangs, and all the larger ones are susceptible of taming, and seem to acquire a positive regard for their human friends. Boabdil, bo-ab-del', or Abu-Abdullah, a'boo-abd-ool'ah, last Moorish king of Gra- nada. He gained the throne in 1481 by expelling his father, Mulei Hassan ; but being attacked by Ferdinand of Aragon, was defeated and taken prisoner. His father having resumed his crown, Ferdinand set Boabdil at liberty, and promised to assist him against his father, on con- dition of his agreement to become the vassal of Spain. He accepted the ignominious condition, and his father died of a broken heart. Boabdil was not permitted to reign in peace. By his tyranny he provoked the hostility of his own subjects, and Ferdinand, taking advantage of the dissensions which prevailed, laid siege to Granada. The Moors made a valiant defense, and were prepared to bury themselves under the ruins of the city, but Boabdil capitulated, and retired to a domain of the Alpuj arras asigned him by the victor (1491). When on his way he turned round to take a last look of the city, and burst into tears. "Right, my son." exclaimed his mother, Aixa, who was standing by him, *^weep like a woman for the throne which you had not the spirit to defend as a man and a king.'* The spot is still called "El Ultimo Sospiro del Moro" (the last sigh of the Moor). (See Granad.\.) Boabdil soon after- ward passed into Africa, and fell in battle while assisting the king of Fez in an attempt to dethrone the king of Morocco. Boadice'a, queen of the Iceni, a British tribe, inhabiting what are now the counties of Cambridgeshire. Suffolk. Norfolk, and Hert- fordshire. She died about 62 .\.d. The cele- brated earthworks still extant, known as the Devil's ditch, at Newmarket heath, and at Six- I\Iile bottom, are supposed to be the fortifica- tions of this tribe, and perhaps of this queen, against the Romans. She was a contemporary of Nero, and was a woman of remarkable character, both for firmness and ability. Her husband, the king of the Iceni. Prasutagus, dying, left Nero and his own two daughters joint heirs to his great wealth, hoping thereby to preserve his family and kingdom from the rapacity of the conquerors. But immediately on his death his kingdom was taken possession of by the Roman centurions. For some real or imaginary offen.se, the British queen was pvb- BOANERGES — BOAS licly scourged by the executioner, and her daughters were abandoned to the lust of the slaves. Stung to frenzy by this outrage, taking advantage of the absence of Suetonius Paulinus, the Roman governor, from that part of Eng- land, Boadicea raised the whole military force of her barbarians, and bursting upon the Roman colony of London, reduced the city to ashes, and put to the sword in that and neigh- boring places, — of Roman citizens, traders, Italians, and other subjects of the empire, — at least 70,000 individuals. Suetonius lost not a moment in hurrying to the scene of action, although it was well known that the queen of the Iceni was in command of 120,000 men, which gradually increased to 230,000, according to Dion Cassius, while he could bring into the field in all less than 10,000 soldiers. It is true that absolute credit cannot be given to state- ments of prodigious numbers, such as the above, but at all events the disparity of force was extraordinary. The legion, posted on heights, where its flanks and rear were covered by woods, seems to have received the attack passively, sheltered from the missiles of the Britons by their large, oblong bucklers, until, when the darts and arrows of the barbarians began to fail, by one compact charge they car- ried all before them. They spared nothing; women, children, the beasts of burden, the dogs, were all cut to pieces. It is said that 80,000 Britons were butchered that day, while of the legionaries only 400 fell, and about as many more were wounded. It is believed that the action took place not far from St. Albans, Veru- lamium, a Roman colony, which at the first irruption had shared the fate of London. The queen, seeing that her cause was lost, committed suicide, rather than submit to the conqueror. Beaumont and Fletcher's play, <^ Boadicea,^ is founded upon the resistance made by Boadicea against Suetonius. Boanerges, bo-a-ner'jez, an appellation given by Christ to two of his disciples, the brothers James and John, apparently, on account of their fiery zeal. See Mark iii. 17. Boar, Wild, a ferocious, swift-footed species {Sus scrofa) of wild swine, made dangerous by its extreme courage and superior strength. It is found in marshy forest-grounds of Europe, Asia Minor, and North Africa. The boar is much larger than the domesticated swine ; and covered with short, grayish-black, woolly hair, thickly interspersed with stifl: bristles, assuming the form of a crest along the spine. The great tusks of the lower jaw are formidable weapons in youth, but later becom- ing useless by curving over the snout, when the teeth of the upper jaw which protrude and curve out take their place as weapons. The boar seeks its food at night and feeds on roots, grain, and small animals, birds' eggs, etc. Besides this species, several others exist, notable among which are Sus vittatiis of Asia and Africa, Sus ver- rucosus of Java, and the Celebes and Sus bar- batus of Borneo. Boars were common in Eng- land until the time of Henry II., when they seemed to disappear for the time being, re- appearing again in the reign of Charles I. Formerly the sport of hunting this animal with the aid of great dogs (boarhounds), was the favorite amusement of the nobles of France and Germany, but is now rarely followed except in a few estates in eastern Europe, where the animal is preserved for the purpose. In India, however, the chase of the wild boars of that country, usually called "pig-sticking,^^ is still foremost among the field-sports of the Anglo- Indians. Board, the collective name applied to a number of persons having the management, direction, or superintendence of some public or private office or trust ; often an office under the control of an executive government, the business of which is conducted by officers specially appointed, as board of admiralty, board of trade, etc. Boardman, George Dana, American mis- sionary: b. Livermore, Me., 8 Feb. 1801 ; d. 11 Feb. 183 1. He studied at Andover and was ordained in the Baptist Church. In 1825 he went to India, and in 1827 to Burma, where he labored assiduously in spreading Christianity. The mission planted by him became the central point of all Baptist missions in Burma. Boardman, George Dana, American cler- gyman and author : b. Tavoy, British Burma, 18 Aug. 1828; d. Atlantic City, N. J., 28 April 1903 ; son of the American Baptist missionary of the same name. He was educated in the United States, graduating at Brown Uni- versity in 1852, and at Newton Theological In- stitution in 1855. He was pastor at Barnwell, S. C. ; afterward at Rochester, N. Y., till 1864, when he became pastor of the First Baptist Church in Philadelphia. In 1899 he established a lectureship at the University of Pennsylvania, known as the ^^Boardman Foundation in Chris- tian Ethics.'' Besides sermons and essays, his chief works are : '■ Studies in the Creative Week' (1878) ; < Studies in the Model Prayer' (1879) : ^Epiphanies of the Risen Lord^ (1879) ; ^Stud- ies in the Mountain Instruction' (1880) ; ^The Kingdom' (1899) ; (1885) ; "The Central Eskimo," in the ^Annual Report^ of the United States Bureau of Ethnology (1888); 'Indians of British Co- lumbia^ (1888-92) ; etc. Boat, properly a small vessel propelled by oars or poles. Boats are made of iron, copper. India-rubber, gutta-percha, skins, and of all kinds of wood. Wooden boats are usually built either smooth or lap-streak, that is, where the upper plank laps over the next lower. Boats differ much in shape and size, depending on the use to which they are to be put. Launch is the largest boat carried by a man-of-war. Long boat, used by merchant vessels for conveying heavy burdens ; this name is given to the largest boat, without regard to size. Cutter, shorter and lighter than the launch, and much faster. Jolly boat, smaller than the cutter, and not so fast, used for going on shore, usually rowed with four oars. Gig, a fast-rowing boat nearly the size of the cutter, employed both in the mer- chant service and navy. Barge, in the English navy, about the 'size of the cutter. This name is given to the large boats used on occasions of state. On the Mississippi it means a scow, flat- bottomed, and of very light draught. Some- times also applied to the large 8- and lo-oared race boats. Pinnace, smaller than the barge, used for conveying light articles. In the Eng- lish navy the pinnace launch is next in size to the launch. Paddle-box boat, so called from the place where they are stowed, commonly built like a whale boat, and smaller than the cutter. Whale boat, a sharp, light boat, very wide amidships, bow and stern alike, rowed W'ith six oars. All surf boats are whale-boat model, or modifications of it. Dory, light, flat- bottomed, very sharp, with sloping sides, froni 15 to 20 feet long, used very extensively in the fisheries. Wherrj^ in the United States, a dory ; in England, a race boat for one rower, and from 15 to 30 feet long. Skiff, a little boat for crossing rivers, or going on shore from a vessel. Cobble, a small fishing boat, flat- bottomed. Punt, a flat-bottomed, decked boat, of very light draught, used chiefly by gunners. Shallop, small ship's boat ; term not now used. Scow, a broad flat-bottomed boat, with square bow and stern, for conveying heavy weights, propelled by poles or sweeps, from 30 to 50 feet long, and 12 to 18 feet wide. Canal boat, a broad shallow boat, like the scow, except in having a keel and a rather sharper bow, used only on canals. Flats, flat boats, arks, etc., boats resembling scows, save in being decked. They are still to be found on the Mississippi and its tributaries, and are used for bringing all kinds of produce down the river. Bateaux, boats smaller than the scow, and used in the same way. Gondola, in the United States, a scow; properly, a very sharp, fast boat, sculled with one oar. Moses, large flats, used in the West Indies for taking molasses hogsheads from shore to ship. Felucca, a large boat with lateen sails, decked, and rowing from 10 to 16 banks of oars. Life-boats, boats used in storms for saving life. (See Life-eoat.) Dingy, a wooden life-boat, carried by a man-of-war, has wooden air-chambers at each end, and is about 18 feet in length. Waist boats and quarter boats take their name from the part of the ves- sel where they are kept, and are somewhat smaller than the cutter. Race boats differ very much in shape from any of those before named. Having only speed in view, they are built as light, narrow, and sharp as possible. They are rowed with from 2 to 12 oars, and are from 15 to 70 feet in length, and generally not more than eight inches above water. The two-oared boats are called shells, sculls, or wherries; the larger ones sometimes barges. Boatbill, a South American heron (Cjh- croma cochlearia), having a remarkable bill, suggesting in its broad, inflated shape an up- turned boat, the keel of which is represented by the ridge of the culmen. The bird is about the size of a night-heron, but with shorter legs. Its general color is reddish-gray, with black and white markings. The back of the head and neck are covered with elongated, erectile feathers. A naked gular pouch hangs beneath the lower jaw. It feeds upon worms, crabs, and other small aquatic animals caught in muddy shal- lows. Another species {Cancroma zelendom) inhabits Central America. Boat-fly {Notonecta glatica), an aquatic hemipterous insect which swims on its back ; the hind-legs aptly enough resembling oars, the body representing a boat ; hence the name. It frequents stagnant waters, swimming rapidly on the surface, but diving below whenever the water is disturbed. In color it is gray and black, with greenish elytra and white wings. The small insects which constitute its food are devoured in very large numbers. The female visually deposits the eggs on the stems and leaves of aquatic plants. Boatswain Bird, or Marlin-spike, either of two species of a sea-wandering bird, so called because of the long, pointed feathers in its tail, which resemble a marlin-spike. the boatswain's badge of office. One is the skua-gull (Stereo- rariiis parasiticus), and the other a tropic bird (q.v.). Bo'az, a wealthy Bethlehemite, who took upon himself the duty of providing for Ruth, as the near relation of her dead husband, Elimelech. From him Jesus Christ was directly descended. Bob-white. See Quail. Bo'bac, a European and Central Asian gregarious marmot (Aretomys bobac), re- sembling the American woodchuck in habits and appearance, but smaller. Bobadilla, Francisco de, fran thes'ko de bo-ba-del'ya. Spanish soldier: d. 29 June 1502. In the year 1500 he was selected as a commissioner to enquire into the condition of the new Spanish colony of Hispaniola, and especially into the complaints which had been made against the administration of Columbus (q.v.). He was entrusted with unlimited pow- ers, which he immediately exercised by arresting Columbus, putting him in chains, and sending him to Spain. He next abolished the regula- tions which had been enacted by Columbus, and indulged the colonists in all the excesses of power, and, above all, in boundless oppression of the natives. The unexpected outrage upon the most noted man of the time excited general BOBBIN — BOCAUE indignation in Spain, and was regarded as a national dishonor. Orders were accordingly sent fcr the recall of Bobadilla, and when Columbus, now reinstated in his honors and emoluments, made his fourth landing in Hispaniola, the fleet bearing Bobadilla and other enemies of Colum- bus started for Spain. A fearful tropical hurri- cane wrecked the ships, and Bobadilla perished. Bobbin, a reel or other similar contrivance for holding thread. It is often a cylindrical piece of wood with a head, on which thread is wound for making lace ; or a spool with a head at one or both ends, intended to have thread or yarn wound on it, and used in spinning machinery (when it is slipped on a spindle and revolves therewith) and in sewing-machines (applied within the shuttle). Bobbinet, a lace, with a hexagonal eyelet, manufactured by machinery, in imitation of the lace made on a pillow. Bob'bio, Italy, a small town in the prov- ince of Pavia, the seat of a bishop, with an old cathedral, and formerly a celebrated abbey founded by St. Columbanus, in the library of which was a famous collection of manuscripts now divided between the Vatican and the Am- brosian Library at Milan. The population of the commune is about 5,000. Boboli (b5'b6-le) Gardens, the grounds of the Pitti Palace at Florence, planned in 1550 by Eleanora of Toledo. They contain many fine statues and the Isoletto fountain, designed by Jean de Bologne. Bobolina, bo-bo-le'na, a heroic Greek woman ; d. 1825. Her husband was put to death at Constantinople in 1812 by order of the Sultan, and Bobolina vowed revenge. At the beginning of 1821 she fanned the flames of insurrection among the Greek population in Turkey, equipped at her own expense three ships, herself taking command of one bearing her flag, as admiral, and giving the others to competent captains, while her two sons fought against the Turks on land. In September 1821 she attended the siege of Tripolitza, to meet the Peloponnesian leaders there assembled. She put her ships at the disposal of the government and maintained the blockade of Nauplia for 14 months, until the Turks were forced to capitu- late. She then proceeded, with a small Greek fleet, which was entrusted to her charge, to the coasts of Morea, and during the siege of Monemvasia, when one of her nephews lost his life, she did not even waste one hour upon him, but quietly drawing a cloak over his body, avenged his death by continuing to bombard the city. After the war she lived with her brothers at Spezzia. In 1825 her house was attacked by the friends of a young lady who was supposed to have been dishonored by some member of her family, and she was killed by a rifle shot fired by one of the assailants. Bob'olink, an oriole of the family Icteridce, found in plains, prairie-lands, meadows, and cultivated fields throughout the entire United States, except on the Pacific coast. The male is 7.7 inches long, its tail taking up fully half of its length. It is distinguished from the black- birds and other orioles by its pointed tail-feath- ers, long middle toe, and variegated plumage. The male has two distinct sets of plumage, a summer or breeding dress, and a winter one. The former dress is lustrous black, with the neck, scapulars, rump, and upper tail coverts buff, inclining to ochraceous on the neck, and ashy on the tail ; the latter is similar to that of the female, who is protectively clothed in much- streaked yellowish-brown neutral tints; the young of both sexes also resemble her, until the young males reach maturity. The gay sum- mer dress of the male, especially the black part, is due to the black margins upon the feathers that come in with the spring renewal of plum- age. These edges wear away, and thus, as the season advances, the brownish centres of the feathers are gradually revealed. The song of the male is a varying melody, an incessant out- pour of ecstatic music, in which one detects distinctly enunciated the word "bob-o-link.*^ Its excited manners are as peculiar as its song, which often bubbles out of its beak as it flutters and dances in mid-air. As the summer advances and the plumage changes, the song diminishes, and finally ceases altogether. Their nests consist of grasses neatly and skilfully entwined, and ingeniously hidden among the stems and leaves of plants, and are guarded carefully and most jealously by the male, whose exuberant pride in the four or five dull-white, flecked, and marbled eggs is remark- able. The bobolink goes in summer as far north as the banks of the Saskatchewan, but is most plentiful in the northeastern States, where it ren- ders good service by the destruction of insects and their larvae. It begins to migrate southward in August, and assembles in huge flocks in early autumn in the great wild-rice marshes that bor- der Delaware and Chesapeake bays and their rivets, where they fatten on the wild rice, and are shot in vast numbers for market, under the name of ^'reedbird." Later in the season these birds advance southward and assail the culti- vated rice plantations, where they are known as rice-birds and would ruin the crops, partly by eating, but mainly by breaking the stalks and shaking out the grain, were they not constantly killed or scared away by thousands, by men and boys who are employed to shoot them. On their return from the tropics in the spring they also attack the young plants. In consequence of this necessary persecution in the rice fields the species has been seriously diminished of late years, and bobolinks are becoming rare in many parts of the United States and Ontario. On account also of their beauty and powers of song, many are caught, caged, and sold in the bird-stores. Bobruisk, bo-broo'esk, Russia, a fortified town in the government of Minsk, on the right bank of the navigable Beresina, at its junction with the Bobruisk, 108 miles southeast of Minsk, with which it is connected by rail. By steam navigation it is connected with stations on the Dnieper and the Beresina. The chief exports consist of timber and grain. The place was fortified by Alexander I., and the defenses were extended by Nicholas I., who raised it to the position of a fortress of the first rank. In 1902 an extensive conflagration nearly destroyed the town. Pop. (1902) 26,000. Bobs, a nickname given by English sol- diers to Gen. Lord Roberts (q.v.). Bocaue, bo-kow-a, Philippines, a town in the province of Bulacan, Luzon, situated a few miles east of Manila Bay, near the city of Bula- can, and near the railroad line. BOCCACCINO — BOCCACCIO Boccaccino, Boccaccio, bok-kacho bok-kii- che'no, Italian painter: b. Cremona, 1460; d. 1518. Few details of his life are known. He came under the influence of Mantegna, and in his school in Cremona numbered Benvenuto Garofalo among his pupils. In 1497 he painted a series of frescoes in St. Agostino in his native city, but he is better known by his frieze in the cathedral. This represents the birth of the Virgin and various incidents in her life. Among his paintings are: 'Marriage of St. Catharine,^ in the Venice Academy; 'Virgin and Two Saints,' in San Quirilo, Cremona, and a 'Holy Farnily,' in the Louvre, Paris. He committed suicide. Boccaccio, Giovanni, j6-van'ne bok-kach'o, Italian novelist: b. 1313, in Paris or Florence; d. Certaldo, 21 Dec. 1375. His family was originally of Certaldo, but his father being en- gaged in commerce, removed to Florence, where he amassed wealth, and filled several important public offices. Very early in life Giovanni dis- played a remarkable aptitude for learning, and before he was seven years old, composed verses with perfect facility. He was placed under the care of an eminent master, Giovanni da Strada, but his father having determined on a commercial career for his son, removed him from his tutor before his Latin course was completed, and as soon as he had acquired a sufficient knowledge of arithmetic appren- ticed him to a merchant, with whom he re- mained six years. His master finding that he profited nothing, although he made in his company several commercial journeys, finally in despair sent him back to his father, and was accustomed to regard him as a very nar- row-minded youth. His father discovering that his son would never make a merchant, thought that his studious habits might serve him in the legal profession. But the law proved as distasteful as commerce, and the father, finding that the law had little attrac- tion for Giovanni, forced him to return to commerce, and fix his residence in Naples. The king, Robert of Anjou, a friend and patron of Petrarch, was greatly devoted to literature, and thus drew to his court the most eminent scholars of Italy. Boccaccio was well acquainted with Giovanni Barrili, a man of erudition, and Paolo of Perugia, the king's librarian, and excited by their example and encouragement, he entirely abandoned commerce and gave himself up to the pursuit of learning. His father gave his consent only on the condition that he should study the canon law, and although against his disposi- tion, he applied himself to it for some time, took his doctor's degree, and after that found himself more at liberty to indulge his pas- sion for poetry, while at the same time he devoted himself to the higher branches of philosophy, astrology, then a favorite study, and to the fathers of the Church. He re- mained eight years in Naples, and during his stay there was filled with desire of distinction by the visit of Petrarch on his way to Rome, where he had been decreed the honor of the laurel crown. Boccaccio marked with de- light the splendid reception given to Petrarch, his examination of three days, his noble ora- tion, and the applause which followed, but was far more pleased in after years to make the acquaintance of the illustrious poet, with whom he formed a life friendship. Boccaccio was naturally fond of gay company, and fell in love with the princess Alary, illegiti- mate daughter of King Robert, and half- sister of the celebrated Joanna of Naples. She was married to a Neapolitan gentleman, but at once ardently returned Boccaccio's love and became his avowed mistress. At her instance, he composed his romance of 'II Filocopo,' and 'L'Amorosa Fiammetta,' in the latter of which his lady, under the name of Fiammetta, bewails the loss of Pam- philo, supposed to represent himself. The ^Filocopo* is not skilfully constructed, and is filled with spectres and visions of every kind, and the powers of darkness are sum- moned before the reader to account for its scenes and incidents. Yet it contains pas- sages of that wondrous grace and vivacity afterward so signally displayed in the 'Deca- merone,' and touches of human nature in which the whole character is pictured in a single sentence. While thus employed at Naples he was suddenly summoned to Flor- ence by the illness of his father. His separa- tion from the princess Mary appears to have afifected both lovers with violent sorrow, and it was only by the composition of the ro- iTiance of 'Ameto' that he could console himself during his absence. His father's re- covery and marriage set him again at liberty to return to the favors of his adored princess. He was not only happy from his connection with the princess Alary, but possessed the favor of Acciajuoli, who had great power in Naples, and even the regard of Queen Joanna herself. It is asserted on respectable authority that many of the most licentious passages in the 'Decamerone' were written in conformity with the taste and by the com- mand of the queen. His father died in 1350, leaving a son by his wife Bice dei Bosticchi, who was also dead, to the care of Boccaccio. The poet faithfully attended to his trust, and becoming acquainted with Petrarch, the lat- ter's example and influence began very shortly to act upon the mind of his younger friend, who from the date of their friendship commenced to turn his thoughts more from licentious pleasures to purer fame. Being now permanently settled in Florence, Boc- caccio, by Petrarch's advice, began to take some interest in the affairs of state. His mo- tives were appreciated, however, and he was sent on an embassy to Padua, to invite Petrarch to accept the presidency of the uni- versity. Several other missions followed, and in April 1353, he took part in one to Pope Innocent VI., the papal court then residing at Avignon. In the same year was published his 'Decameron' or '10 Days' Entertainment,' one of the most extraor- dinary works of genius ever written, and which after the lapse of five centuries is still regarded as one of the purest specimens of Italian prose, as an inexhaustible repository of wit, beauty, and eloquence, although un- happily deformed with licentious descrip- tions. While occupied with these popular compositions, Boccaccio did not lose sight of higher pursuits in literature. Like Petrarch he was a devoted collector of ancient manu- scripts, and a diligent student of the classics. On one occasion Boccaccio visited Monte BOCCAGE Cassino, within whose monastery he knew many works had been collected, which had escaped the ravages of the barbarians, but fonnd, to his amazement, that they were suf- fered to rot in a damp loft exposed to the weather, and that frequently when the monks were in want of money, they took some of the manuscripts, obliterated the writing, re- placed it by copying on the parchment some part of the ritual, and then sold the new pro- ductions among the people of the neighbor- hood. To such collectors as Petrarch and Boccaccio, and to the latter pre-eminently, the world owes a debt of gratitude for the rescue of many of the great classic works which otherwise would have been irretrievably lost. In 1359 the author of the Decameron visited Petrarch at Milan, conversed with him, as he informs us, at great length on the subjects of morality and religion, and determined to de- vote himself more seriously to holy studies. This resolve received additional stimulus in 1362 from a singular circumstance. A monk from the Carthusian monastery at Sienna came to visit him, saying that he was charged with a message to him from Father Petroni, who on his death-bed, although he had never seen Boccaccio, declared that he knew him in spirit, and commissioned the inonk to exhort him to repentance. In order to prove the truth of his words, the monk told Boccaccio of a circumstance in his life which the poet thought known only to himself. So great was the effect of this warning, that he deter- mined to abandon poetry, sell his library, and lead a life of penance and meditation. With this view he wrote to Petrarch, sup- posing that his sudden purpose would meet with kindred enthusiasm, but his friend an- swered in a strong, common-sense letter, instructing him to receive the warning to re- pentance, but informing him that there was no necessity for selling his books or aban- doning his studies. Boccaccio accordingly wrote in a strain altogether free from his former one, while he assumed the ecclesiasti- cal habit, and applied himself to theology. With disinterested generosity a large part of his means was dissipated in the collection of Greek manuscripts, his emissaries visiting many parts of Europe to procure them. His fortune was thus gradually impaired, and toward the decline of life he found himself poor and deserted by all his friends, except the noble-minded and constant Petrarch. That great poet wished his friend to take up his abode with him, but Boccaccio prefer- red independence, and declined the offer, al- though he visited Petrarch whenever he found an opportunity. In 1363 he was in- vited to Naples by the grand seneschal Ac- ciajuoli, but was so hurt by his cold recep- tion, that he soon left and went to Venice to meet Petrarch. On returning to Florence he found its turbulent state of society in lit- tle accordance with his wish of retirement, and took up his abode in a little cottage in Certaldo, in the vale of Elsa, dear to him as the birthplace of his family. From this re- treat he was soon summoned by the chief citizens of Florence, to undertake an em- bassy to Urban V. at Avignon, and repair- ing to the papal court he experienced the most flattering reception. He was again sent to Urban in 1367, after the pontiff had re- moved to Rome, when the character of Boc- caccio had so completely changed from his former looseness, that he was characterized by the bishop of Florence as one in whose purity of faith he had the utmost confidence. He was now honored by the Florentine magistrates with a professorship founded in memory of Dante, for the better explication of the 'Divina Commedia.' His lectures commenced in October 1373, and continued until his death, which was doubtless hastened by the demise of Petrarch 10 months before his own. In eloquent language he bewailed his loss. Boccaccio wrote numerous works in Italian and Latin, and both in prose and poetry, few of which are referred to at the present day; his great fame rests upon the Decameron. In these hundred tales of love, displaying the most wondrous fertility of invention, the reader is perpetually delighted with the beauty of the narrative and the variety of the scenes, whether of intrigue, wit, or pathos — no two stories, nor even their introductions, resembling each other. The author's fondness for involving friars in every imaginable scene of mischief and ludicrous mishap, created great scandal to the Church, and his famous romance, the tenth novel of the sixth day, in which "Friar Onion promises some country people to show them a feather from the wing of the angel Gabriel, instead of which he finds only some coals, which he tells them are the same that roasted St. Lawrence,'^ drew^ down the solemn anatheina of the council of Trent. The editions of the Decameron are almost innumerable, and translations exist in all the languages of Europe. The earliest editions are extremely rare, and of that of Valdarfer in 1471, only one copy is known. Boccaccio's poem, 41 Teseide* is written in the ottava rinia, of which he is usually considered as the inventor, and is the first Italian poem which presents a specimen of the epopee. Chaucer borrowed from this poem his ^Knight's Tale,^^ and Shakespeare a part of his < Midsummer Night's Dream. ^ The great English dramatist has also, in some measure, availed himself of Boccaccio's Decameron, as in ^Cymbeline-* and ^ All's Well that Ends Well.^ With all his faults, we may consider Boccaccio one of the great revivers of learn- ing and a benefactor to mankind, as well as worthy of the third place in that great triumvirate with Dante and Petrarch, ^^which renders the 14th century so splendid an epoch in the history of literature.* See Cochin, ^Boccaccio, etudes italiennes' (1890), Symonds, ^Giovanni Boccaccio as Man and Author> (1895). Boccage, Marie Anne Piquet du, ma-re an fe-ka dii bok-kazh (Le Page) French poetess: b. Rouen, 22 Nov. 1710; d. there, 8 Aug. 1802. She was educated in Paris, in a nunnery, where she discovered a love of poetry. Her first pub- lished work, a poem on the mutual influence of the fine arts and sciences, appeared in 1746, and gained the prize from the Academy of Rouen. She next attempted an imitation of * Paradise Lost,^ in six cantos; then of the ^Death of AbeP ; next, a tragedy, ^The Amazons^ ; and a poem in 10 cantos, called *The Columbiad.* BOCCANERA — BOCHART Madame du Boccage was praised by her con- temporaries with an extravagance for which only her sex and the charms of her person can account. Forma Venus, arte Minerva, was the motto of her admirers, among whom wer€ Vol- taire, Fontenelle, and Clairaut. There is a great deal of entertaining matter in the letters which she wrote on her travels in England and Hol- land. She was a member of the academies of Rome, Bologna, Padua, Lyons, and Rouen. Many of her works have been translated into English, Spanish, German, and Italian. Boccanera, Simone, se-mo'na bok-ka-na'- ra, first doge of Genoa: d. 1363. He was born of an illustrious noble family, but early took part with the democratic party and gained great popularity by undertaking the defense of the people against the nobles. During a com- motion caused by the severity with which Philip of Valois had punished a mutiny on board some Genoese galleys in the service of France, the people wished to appoint Boccanera their abbe, an office which appears to have been similar to that of the tribunes at Rome. Boccanera de- clined to accept, on the ground that his noble birth would not allow him to become a plebeian magistrate. The excuse only made the people more determined to place him at their head and as he would not be abbe they by acclamation hailed him doge. The office, thus introduced into Genoa for the first time in 1339, was exer- cised by Boccanera till 1344, when the ascen- dency of a faction opposed to him obliged him to aiadicate and retire to Pisa. He afterward regained the office in 1356, and had held it for seven years, when his enemies succeeded in de- stroying him by poison. Boccherini, Luigi, loo-e'je bok-ka-re'ne, Italian composer of instrumental music : b. Luc- ca, 14 Jan. 1740; d. Madrid, 28 May 1805. He received his first instruction in music and on the violoncello from his father and the Abbe Va- nned, music-master of the archbishop. He fur- ther improved himself in the art at Rome, and afterward went, with Filippo Manfredi, his friend and countryman, to Spain, where he met with but indifferent patronage, and latterly suf- fered greatly from indigence. Previous to 1797 the king of Prussia, Frederick William II., who was a great lover of the violoncello and admired Boccherini's compositions, had paid him a pen- sion on condition of his sending him yearly some of his quartets and quintets. The compositions which Boccherini published himself consist of symphonies, sestets, quintets, quartets, trios, duets, and sonatas for the violin, violoncello, and pianoforte. He never composed anything for the theatre; and of church compositions we find but one, his n! W < a 3 ^ a 2; 3-9 7.2 10 15.2 27.4 52.9 95-4 192 300 Close as is the correspondence between the law and the actual distances, no physical reason has been given to account for it, although there is little room for doubt that such exists. Kepler was the first to perceive the law, and Bode argued from it that a planet might be found between Mars and Jupiter, to fill up the gap that existed at the time in the series. The dis- covery of the planetoids has proved the correct- ness of this prediction. Bodenstedt, Friedrich Martin von, fre'driH mar-ten fon bo'dcn-stet, German poet and miscellaneous writer: b. 1819; d. 1892. He stud- ied at Gottingen, Munich, and Berlin, and be- came tutor to the young Prince Gallitzin at Moscow. Having obtained an educational ap- pointment at Tiflis he published a work on the peoples of the Caucasus (1848), and *^A Thou- BODIE — BODLEY sand and One Days in the East* (1849-50), ■which were very successful. In 1854 he was appointed professor of Slavic at Munich, and in 1858 was tranferred to the chair of Old Eng- lish. He subsequently was theatrical director at Meiningen, and traveled and delivered lec- tures in the United States. Among the best of his poetical works are the * Songs of Mirza- Schaffy,^ purporting to be translations from the Persian, but really original, which have passed through more than 150 editions. He pub- lished translations from Marlowe, Ford, Web- ster, and other contemporaries of Shakespeare, translated Shakespeare's ^Sonnets,* and with ■other writers joined in a new translation of Shakespeare's dramatic works (1866-72, 9 vols.). Bodie, or Body's Island, an island of sand between the Atlantic Ocean and Albemarle and Roanoke sounds. The sand shifts often, and inlets from the ocean appear and disappear. There is a lighthouse with a first-class light on the island. Bodieron, bo-di-e'ron, a fish {Hexagram- mus lagoccphalus) of Puget Sound, similar to the rock-trout (q.v.), but having greenish- colored flesh. Bodin, Jean, zhon bo-dan, French political writer: b. Angers, 1529 or 1530; d. Laon, 1596. He studied law at Toulouse ; delivered lectures ■on jurisprudence there, and afterward went to Paris and practised. Being unsuccessful in his profession, he turned his talents to literary labors; was invited by Henry HI. to his court; and afterward traveled with the king's brother, Francis, Duke of AlenQon and Anjou, to Flan- •ders and England, where he had the gratification •of hearing lectures in Cambridge on his work, *De la Republique,^ originally written in French, but afterward translated by Bodin himself into Latin. He died of the plague. Bodkin, Matthias M'Donnell, Irish novel- ist and journalist. He has written ^Poteen Punch'; < Pat o' Nine Tales' ; ious to the higher orders of vegetation, and the circumstance that the decomposition of the plants takes place under water, where they are excluded from the action of the oxy- gen and nitrogen of the air, and consequently deprived of the power of evolving carbon and ammonia. Black bog is formed by a more rapid decomposition of plants. It is heavier and more homogeneous in quality. It is common in Ireland and Scotland, but is usually found in limited and detached por- tions. In Ireland these frequently rest on calcareous subsoil, which is of great value for reclaiming them. The black bog is so fre- quently found at high elevations that its re- clamation presents considerable difficulties, but when it is found in plains or gentle in- clinations it may be reclaimed with compara- tive ease. The soil in mountainous districts, being shallow, is not suited for cereals, but if the mistake of sowing these is avoided, they may be made into good pasture land. The reclamation of the extensive red bogs found in various parts of the country, especially in Ireland, which has more than 1,500,000 acres of them, has long occupied attention; but the progress of improvement has been hindered by questions of land tenure, disposal of capi- tal, and other difficulties external to the prac- ticabilitj' of the desired reformation. IVIany extensive experiments have, however, been made with encouraging success, and while it is perhaps doubtful how far reclamation will repay the immediate improver, it appears from a national point of view to offer un- doubted advantages. In the reclamation of bog land three things require to be accomplished. The land must be thoroughly drained, and a permanent system of drainage established. The loose and spongy soil must be mixed with a suf- ficient quantitjr of mineral matter to give the requisite firminess to its texture, and to fer- tilize its superabundant huinus. Proper ma- nures must be provided to facilitate the ex- traction of nutriment from the new soil, and a rotation of crops suitable for bringing it into permanent condition adopted. The diffi- culties of reclamation lie chiefly in the first and second of these requirements. The materials best adapted for reclaim- ing peat are calcareous earths, limestone gravel, shell marl, and shell sand. Caustic lime, although it neutralizes the acids of the soil, causes too rapid a decomposition of the vegetable matter. These materials are fre- quently found in the subsoil or in the neigh- borhood, but the labor of raising them from the subsoil is often greater than that of bringing them from other, especially from adja- cent quarters. Paring and burning, or removing a por- tion of the peat for fuel, when the subsoil is good, are other modes of facilitating im- provement. The limited demand for peat fuel prevents the latter system being carried on extensivel}^ Thoroughly reclaimed bogs are not liable to revert to their former condition. For further particulars see Chatmoss. Bog-bumper, Bog-jumper, or Bog-pumper. See Bittern. Bog-butter, a fatty spermaceti-like sub- stance found in masses in peat-bogs, com- posed of carbon, oxygen, and hydrogen, and for years supposed to have been formed by the decomposition of peat. In 1885 Macadam proved that it is of animal origin, being, in fact, a variety of adipocere, and is formed by the decomposition of animal substances, out of contact with the air. Bog Iron Ore, a variety of limonite formed in bogs and swamps by the reducing action of decaying vegetable matter on soluble iron salts. It is generally loose textured, and brown or brownish yellow in color. The ore usvially contains such a high percentage of im- purities, especially sulphur and phosphorus, that it cannot be utilized for iron manufacture ; it finds limited application, however, in the puri- fication of illuminating gas. Deposits of bog iron ore are widespread. In the United States extensive beds occur along the Atlantic coast from New York southward, and the first blast furnaces erected in this country were supplied from them. Similar deposits occur in Great Britain and most of the countries of Europe, BOG-MOSS — BOGDANOWITCH Bog-moss. See Sphagnum. Bog-oak, trunks and large branches of oak found imbedded in bogs and preserved by tiie antiseptic properties of peat, so that the grain of the wood is Httle affected by the many ages during which it has lain interred. It is of a shining black or ebony color, derived from its impregnation with iron, and is frequently converted into ornamental pieces of furniture and ornaments, as brooches, earrings, etc. Bog-trotter, a name contemptuously ap- plied to the Irish peasantry on account of their ability to make their way across the bogs where no one else can find footing, wdiich frequently gives them a means of escape from officers of police, and other pursuers. Bogaers, Adriaan, a'dri-an bo'gars, Dutch poet : b. The Hague, 1795 ; d. 1870. He holds an eminent place among the many disciples of Tollens, and surpasses his master in correctness of taste. He long withheld his compositions from publication, and not till 1832 did he be- come known to his countrymen ; he then pub- lished his first lyric poem, < Volharding,* — an appeal to his countrymen to stand fast in the struggle with Belgium, — together with other patriotic pieces. His first poem of any consid- erable compass, the epic '^Jochebed,' and his masterpiece, 'The Voyage of Heemskerk to Gi- braltar,' were first formally published in 1860-1, though they had had for many years a private circulation among friends. He afterward pub- lished three volumes, 'Ballads and Romances,^ 'Flowers of Poesy from Abroad,' and 'Poem.' Bo'gan, or New Year River, a river of East Australia, rises in the Harvey range, flows northwest, and empties into the Darling River ; length over 300 miles. Bogar'dus Everardus, second pastor of the church in New Amsterdam (New York) : d. 27 Dec. 1647. He is noted as the husband of An- neke Jans, whose ownership of 60 acres of land in the business portion of New York has given her descendants occasion for almost continuous law suits, during 200 years, to re- cover possession of the property which is held by the corporation of Trinity Church. Bogardus, James, American inventor: b. Catskill, N. Y., 14 March 1800; d. 13 April 1874. He was apprenticed to a watchmaker, and early showed the bent of his mind by improve- ments in the construction of eight-day clocks, and by the invention of a delicate engraving machine. The dry gas meter is his invention, as is also the transfer machine to produce bank- note plates from separate dies ; and in 1839 his plan for manufacturing postage stamps was ac- cepted by the British government. Later he in- troduced improvements in the manufacture of ind'a-rubber goods, tools, and machinery ; and invented a pyrometer, a deep-sea sounding ma- chine, and a dynamometer. In 1847 he built the first iron building ever erected in the city of New York. Bogatzky, Karl Heinrich von, karl hin'- riH fon bo-gats'ke, Protestant theological writer: b. Tankowa, Silesia, 1690; d. Halle, 1774. His principal works are: 'Tagliches Schatz-Kastlein der Kinder Gottes,^ published in 1718; 'Geistliche Gedichte.' in 1749- The former has been translated into English under the title of Bogatzky's 'Golden Treasury.^ Bogdo-ola, bog-do-oo'la, or Holy Mount, a hill in Russia, in the government of Astrakhan, near the Aktuba, and 14 miles east of Tcher- noiarsk. It forms an isolated cone, nearly 500 feet high, in the middle of a vast steppe. It ap- pears to rest on limestone, overlain by sand- stone, which on the northeast side rises per- pendicularly like a wall, and is cut into deep clefts, frequented by innumerable birds. The sandstone is succeeded by alternate red and white layers of clay and sand, which have a very singular appearance. The summit is chiefly composed of masses of rock-salt. At the foot of the hill there is a salt lake called Bogdoin Dabassu. Bogdan, Negrul, governor of Moldavia, son of Stephen the Great, who, at his death in 1522, counseled his son to anticipate by volun- tary submission to the Turks, an inevitable conquest. Bogdan did not at first follow this counsel ; but having lost within a year the battle of Mohacs, and Hungary having been invaded by a large Turkish force, he sent to Solyman off'ers of submission. He was received with favor by the Sultan, and in return for an an- nual tribute of 4,000 crowns of gold, beside numerous horses and falcons, Moldavia was al- lowed to preserve its own religion, an inde- pendent administration, and the right to choose its own princes. Bogdan did not long survive this treaty, and his successor refusing to pay the tribute, drew again the arms of the Turk's upon the Moldavian principality. Bogdanovich, Modest Ivanovich, mo-dast e-van'o-vich bog-da-no'vech, Russian mili- tary historian and commander : b. 1805 ; d. 6 Aug. 1882. He was a very able soldier, and even abler with the pen; his 'Bonaparte's Cam- paign in Italy, 1796,' and 'History of the Art of War,' and particularly his 'History of the Campaign of 1812,' having attracted wide notice. Bogdanowitch, Hippolyt Federowitch, hip'- po-lit fed-er-6'vech bog-da-no'vech, Russian Anacreon : b. Perewolotschna, in White Russia, 1743; d. 1803. His father was a physician. He was designed for an engineer, but the sight ot a splendid play, and the reading of Lomonos- sow's poems, turned his inclination to poetry. He wished to become an actor, but the managei- of the theatre. Cheraskow, dissuaded him from his purpose. By his advice he applied himself to the study of the fine arts, and to learning foreign languages. He gained patrons and friends, and in 1761 was made inspector in the Universit\f of Moscow, and afterward translator in the department of foreign affairs. In 1762 he traveled with Count Beloselsky as secretary of legation to Dresden, where he devoted his whole attention to the study of the fine arts and of poetry till 1768. The beautiful pictures in the gallery of that place inspired him to write his 'Psj'che,' which appeared in 1775, and fixed his fame on a lasting foundation. After this he devoted himself to music and poetry, in solitary study at St. Petersburg, till Catharine called him from his retirement. He then wrote on dif- ferent occasions several dramatic and historical pieces. In 1788 he was made president of the imperial archives. In 1795 he took leave of the court, and lived as a private man in Little Russia. Alexander recalled him to St. Peters- burg, W'here he lived till his death. He was as BOGERMAN — BOGOS remarkable for modesty as for genius, and a man of childlike goodness and vivacity. Bogerman, Jan, yan bo'ger-man, Dutch theologian: b. Oplewert, 1576; d. 1637. He was professor of divinity at the University of Frane- ker; participated in the Armenian controversy, and was president of the Synod of Dort, 1618. With four others he translated the Bible into Dutch; this translation is at present the common Dutch version. He also wrote <^Annotationes contra H. Grotium,^ and translated Beza's 'De- la punition des heretiques.-* Bogert, George H., artist: b. New York, 1864. His first studies were made under Thomas Eakins ; later he studied in Paris under Raphael Collins, Aime Morot, and Puvis de Chavannes. He won the Webb prize, 1898; the first Hall- garten prize of the National Academy of De- sign, 1899; and was awarded a bronze medal at the Paris Exposition, 1900. His studio is in New York. Boggs, Charles Stuart, American naval officer: b. New Brunswick, N. J., 28 Jan. 181 1 ; d. 22 April 1888. He entered the navy in 1826 ; served on the Princeton in the Mexican war; was assigned to the gunboat Varuna in Farra- gut's Gulf squadron in 1861. In the attack on forts St. Philip and Jackson, in April 1862, he destroyed six Confederate gunboats and two rams, and in the last moments of the fight his own vessel was sunk. In 1869-70 he served with the European squadron ; in the latter year was promoted to rear-admiral; and in 1873 was re- tired. Boggs, Frank M., artist: b. Springfield, Ohio, 6 Dec. 1855. He received his art educa- tion at the ficole des Beaux Arts and under Gerome in Paris. In 1882 the French govern- ment bought his picture, 'Place de la Bastille,^ for the Luxembourg Museum, and in 1883 his (1882) ; (1891). Bohlen, Peter von, pa'ter fon bd'len, Ger- man Orientalist : b. Wiippels, Oldenburg, 9 March 1796; d. Halle, 6 Feb. 1840. He spent the first 20 years of his life in straitened circum- stances, but his talents and perseverance at- tracted attention, and he obtained admission to the Hamburg gymnasium. He afterward stud- ied the Eastern languages at Halle and Bonn; and he obtained an appointment at Konigsberg, first in 1825 as extraordinary, and afterward in 1830 a* ordinary professor of Oriental literature. Bohlen has left many works, which fully support his title to the high place which he held among Oriental scholars. One of the most important is a work entitled *Das alte Indien' (1830-1), not yet superseded by any other work on the same subject. The details of his life are given with great minuteness and honesty in an '^Auto- biography^ (1841), which is full of interest, and cannot be read without producing a full conviction that he was no less distinguished by his amiability in private life than by his literary- acquirements. Bohlen Lectures, a lecture course estab- lished in 1875 on a foundation of $10,000 be- queathed by John Bohlen, a lay member of the Protestant Episcopal Church. They are deliv- ered each year in Philadelphia, Pa., by eminent representatives of that Church. Among the most notable are those upon ''The Influence of Jesus," by Bishop Brooks, and the "Fitness of Christianity to Man," by Bishop Huntington. Bohm, bem, Theobald, Bavarian musician: b. Munich, 9 April 1798; d. Munich, 25 Nov. 1881. He is best known for his improvements in the construction and fingering of the flute. He wrote 'Ueber den Flotenbau und die neuesten Verbesserungen desselben^ (1847), and ^Die Flote und das Flotenspiel.^ Bohme, or Bohm, Jakob, ya'kob be'me, one of the most renowned mystics of modern times: b. 1575, Altseidenberg, a village in upper Lusatia ; d. Gorlitz, November 1624. Boehrne being the son of poor peasants, rem.ained to his loth year without instruction, and employed in tending cattle. Raised by contemplation above his circumstances, and undisturbed by exterior influences, a strong sense of the spiritual, par- ticularly of the mysterious, was awakened in him, and he saw in all the workings of nature upon his mind a revelation of God, and even imagined himself favored by divine inspirations. He became afterward a shoemaker ; and this sedentary life seems to have strengthened his contemplative habits. In 1594 B6hme_ became a master shoemaker in Gorlitz, married, and continued a shoemaker during his life, but with- BOHN — BOIELDIEU drew himself more and more from the world. If we take into view his retirement, his piety, his rich and lively imagination, his imperfect education, his philosophical desire for truth, together with his abundance of ideas, and his delusion in considering many of those ideas as immediate communications of the Deity, we have the sources of his doctrine and his works. His first work, ^Aurora, oder die Morgenrote,' was written in 1616, and contains his revelations on God, man, and nature. This gave rise to a prosecution against him ; but he was acquitted, and called upon from all sides to continue writ- ing. One of his most important works is ^De- scription of the Three Principles of the Divine Being.^ His works contain profound and lofty ideas, mingled with many absurd and confused notions, but the basis of his thought is the the- orj'^ that everything exists and becomes intelligi- ble only through its opposite. The first col- lection of his writings was made in Holland in 1675 by Henry Betke; a more complete one in 1682 by Gichtel (10 vols. Amsterdam), from whom the followers of Bohme, a religious sect highly valued for their silent, virtuous, and be- nevolent life, have received the name Gichte- lians. Another edition appeared in Amsterdam in 1730 under the title "^Theosophia Revelata,' (2 vols.) ; the most complete in six volumes. In England, also, Bohme's writings have found many admirers. William Law published an English translation of them, two volumes. A sect, taking their name from Bohme, was like- wise formed in England, and in 1697 Jane Lead, an enthusiastic admirer of his, established a particular society for the explanation of his writings, under the name of the Philadelphists. In very recent years his views have taken on fresh importance, his fundamental principle hav- ing been perceived as akin to that underlying the philosophical systems of Spinoza, Schelling, and Hegel. See Hartmann, 'Life and Doctrines of Bohme^ (1893). Bohn, bon, Henry George, English pub- lisher, of German parentage : b. London. 4 Jan. 1796; d. Twickenham, 22 Aug. 1884. On com- pleting his education he worked for a time under his father, but about 1831 started business on his own account as a second-hand bookseller, and in 1846 he began the issue of his famous libraries. The first of these was the Standard, succeeded in the following year by the Scientific and the An- tiquarian, in 1848 by the Classical, and from then till 1853 by the Illustrated, the Shilling, the Ec- clesiastical, the Philological, and the British Classics libraries. The whole number of volumes contained in these series exceeded 600. In 1864 and subsequent years he sold all his copyrights and other business property, thus realizing a sum of nearly $500,000. Among his own works were: 'The Origin and Progress of Printing' (1857) ; 'Biography and Bibliography of Shakespeare' (1863); 'Dictionary of Quota- tions' (1867); 'Handbook of Proverbs'; 'Hand- book of Games' ; * Guide to the Knowledge of Pottery and Porcelain' ; and editions of Lown- de's Bibliographer's Manual and Addison's Works. Bohol, bo-hol', Philippines, an island be- longing to the Visayas or Bisayas group. It has an area of about 1,300 square miles and an esti- mated population (1900) of 245,000. Sugar- cane is grown and the island is reputed rich in gold deposits. The most important town is Tagbilaran, a port on the southwest coast. In the north is Caiape. These ports were officially declared open to commerce 11 Dec. 1899. The Visayas dialect prevails throughout Bohol. Bo'hor, an east African antelope (Cervica- pra bailor ), one of the reitboks. Bohtlingk, bet'lmk, Otto von, German .Sanskrit scholar: b. St. Petersburg, 11 June 1815; d. 16 April 1904. He received his edu- cation in his native city, and in 1853 removed to Germany. In 1842 he returned to St. Peters- burg, but subsequently lived much in Jena and Leipsic. His chief work is a Sanskrit-German dictionary in seven volumes, prepared in con- junction with Prof. Roth of Tiibingen (1853- 75). In 1S79-89 he issued a smaller edition giving the meanings (with considerable addi- tions), but omitting the quotations. Boiardo, Matteo Maria, ma-ta'6 ma-re'a bo-yar'do (Count of Scandiaxo), Italian poet: b. near Ferrara, 1434 ; d. Reggio di Modena, De- cember 1494. From 1488 to 1494, the period of his death, he was commander of the city and castle of Reggio, in the service of his protector, Er- cole d'Este, Duke of Modena. This accom- plished courtier, scholar, and knight was par- ticularly distinguished as a poet. His 'Orlando Innamorato' (1496) is continued to the 79th canto, but not completed. He immortalized the names of his own peasants and the charms of the scenery at Scandiano in the persons of his he- roes and his descriptions of the beauties of nature. In language and versification he has been since surpassed by Aricsto, whom he equaled in invention, grace, and skilful conduct of complicated episodes. Domenichi, Berni, and Agostini new modeled and continued the work of Boiardo without improving it. One continu- ation only will never be forgotten — the Orlando of Ariosto. In some of his works Boiardo was led by the spirit of his times to a close imitation of the ancients — for example, in his 'Capitoli' ; also in a comedy borrowed from Lucian's 'Ti- mon' ; and in his Latin eclogues and transla- tions of Herodotus and Apuleius. In his son- nets and canzoni (first printed at Reggio, 1499) he has displayed great talents as a lyric poet. Boiars. See Boyars. Boieldieu, Adrian Frangois, a-dre-en fran- swa bwal-dye, French composer of distinc- tion: b. Rouen, 15 Dec. 1775; d. Groshois, 8 Oct. 1834. He early displayed great musical talent, and at 18 wrote an opera, 'La fille cou- pable,' which was performed with great ap- plause. In 1795 he went to Paris, and rose rap- idly in reputation, producing several operas and various other pieces which have become classi- cal. Such as 'Le deux lettres' ; 'La famille Luisse' ; 'Calife de Bagdad' ; and '!Ma tante Aurore.' When the Conservatoire de Musique was established he was nominated a professor. In 1803 he went to Russia as inaitre dc chapelle to the Emperor Alexander, but returned to Paris in 1811, and subsequently composed 'Jean de Paris' (1812) ; 'Le chaperon rouge' (1818); 'La Dame blanche.' his masterpiece (1825); 'Les deux nuits' (1829). The 'Calife de Bag- dad' ; 'Jean de Paris,' and *La Dame blanche- still hold the stage and continue popular. BOIES — BOILER Boies, Horace, American statesman : b. Au- rora, N. Y., 7 Dec. 1827. He went to Wiscon- sin in 1844; and after working on a farm re- turned, studied law and was admitted to the bar in 1849. He practised at and near Buffalo till 1867. becoming active in Republican politics dur- ing this period; and in the last year removed to Waterloo, Iowa, where he continued law prac- tice. His opposition to the tariff and prohibition pohcy of the Republican party caused him to unite with the Democrats; and, in 1890-4, he served two terms as governor of Iowa, being defeated for a third term in 1893. He was a conspicuous candidate for the presidential nom- ination in the National Democratic conventions in 1892 and 1896; and in the campaign of 1896 he supported Bryan. Boii, bo'i-T, a Celtic people, who at first inhabited Transalpine Gaul. Their original seat is supposed to have been between the upper Saone and the higher parts of the Seine and Marne. They migrated to Cisalpine Gaul, crossed the Po, and established themselves be- tween it and the Apennines, in the country pre- viously occupied by the Umbrians. They are found, 396 B.C., engaged along with the Insubres and the Senones, two other tribes of Cisalpine Gaul, in the capture and destruction of Melpum, a neighboring city, of which the site and history are unknown. They united their forces with the Etruscans, 283 B.C., after the defeat of the Senones, and were defeated by the Romans at the Vadimonian Lake, the scene of a previous defeat of the Etruscans. After another defeat they made a peace with the Romans, which was preserved for 45 j^ears, when the occupation of the territory of the Senones by the latter led to another war, in which the Boii were again de- feated. At the commencement of the second Punic war, 218 B.C., they again attacked the Romans and supported Hannibal. From this period they were engaged in almost constant war with the Romans till they were completely subdued by Scipio Nasica, 191 b.c. Many of *hem were put to the sword; the remainder were at length compelled to migrate, and cross- ing the Alps found a refuge among the Taur- iscans, a kindred tribe in the territory of modern Bohemia, to which the Boii have given their name. They were afterward driven out or exterminated by the Dacians (some say the Marcomans). Part of them migrated about 58 B.C. to Bavaria. The Boii, like the other Gauls, were a people of considerable civilization, pos- sessing a strong love of mdependence, and for- midable from their military disposition and vir- tues. Boil, a superficial or deep localized in- flammatory process of the skin leading to the destruction of tissue and the formation of pus. In practically all instances some form of in- fection by a micro-organism, usually the Staphylococcus pyogenes aureus, is present in boils. In the superficial varieties, the bacteria enter the hair follicles or the sebaceous glands and travel down beneath the skin and here either set up a process of destruction or con- tinue one already begun by a wound. There results a local swelling; with exquisite tender- ness, and later a pointing and discharge of the purulent detritus from the boil. In the deep- seated varieties similar processes are in action, but the heading and discharge of the boil is de- layed. The marked tenderness is due to the involvment of the nerve fibres in the tissues, immediately surrounding the inflammatorj' cen- tre. The predisposition to the formation of boils varies widely, some people being particu- larly prone to them. They are apparently more liable in those who are ^"^run down," or in those whose tissues are non-resistant. Boils are of commoner occurrence following the winter time of housed individuals, combined with the re- newed activities of the skin in the warm spring atmosphere, and they occur following the de- pressed states of many diseases, and particularly as a result of excessive athletic exercise, "over- training." Faulty diet and hygiene are respon- sible for many of them. In their treatment at- tention to the intestines is imperative. Tonics,, particularly those containing sorne forms of sul- phur, are of value. Proper hygiene of the skin is imperative. For the immediate treatment heat is helpful. This is usually applied as a hot flax-seed poultice, preferably, combined with a mild antiseptic; two per cent carbolic acid, being excellent. Early and complete incision is also advisable. Boileau Despreaux, Nicolas, nik-6-la bwa- lo-da-pra-o, French poet of distinction: b., Paris, I Nov. 1636; d. there, 13 March 1711. He applied himself at first to the study of the law and afterward of theology, but devoting himself eventually to the pursuit of literature, he produced, within the space of 40 years, a vast number of works, the most important of which, is that on the art of poetry, establishing an aesthetic code for all forms of poetical com- position. His satirical poem, "^Le Lutrin,^ and the * Dialogue des heros de roman,^ must also be particularly mentioned. His other writings comprise translations of the classics, miscel- laneous effusions on art, music, and poetry, and his famous epistles, of which those treating of 'Le respect humain,' ^La connoissance de soi- meme,^ and ^Plaisirs de la campagne' are the best. When Boileau began to write, Mon- taigne, Pascal, Malherbe, Corneille, Moliere, La Fontaine, and other eminent authors, had al- ready made their appearance ; yet the people were slow to appreciate the genius of the new school, to which they preferred the previous mediocre and imitative writers. Boileau's great achievement was to cure this perversion of taste. Like his friend Racine, he was histori- ographer of Louis XIV., and the recipient of an annual pension of 2.000 francs. His admission to the French Academy did not take place be- fore 1684, owing to his attacks upon some of the members. The latter part of his life was passed in neglect and troubles, which accelerated his death. He left the reputation of a genial, h'gh- minded, and generous man. The best edition of his works is by Gidel (1870-3). See Descha- nel, ^Le romantisme des classiques,' 4th series (1888); Faguet, See also the 1899 'Code' for boiler trials, in Vol. 20 of the 'Transactions of the American Society of Me- chanical Engineers.' A. p. RiSTEEN, Ph.D., Hartford Steam Boiler Insp. and Ins. Co. Boiler Shop Terms. The following list of terms includes the principal terms and phrases commonly employed in connection with the work of the design, constructon, and use of steam boilers. Specific information relative to boiler fittings such as valves and cocks may be found under the title Valves and Valve Terms. Information relative to the design and con- struction of locomotive engine boilers, and con- cise descriptions of their various parts, fittings, and accessory appliances and devices such as pumps and injectors, and cocks, valves, and feed-water heaters, will be found carefully treated under the title Locomotive, Design and Construction of the Modern. Special information relative to the general methods and operations of constructive work such as the boring, drilling, and punching of holes, and the joining of plates by riveting and welding, will be found under the title Work- Shop Terms; while the definitions of the various terms and their abbreviations such H.P. — Horse- power, and B. T. U. — British Thermal Units, etc., may be found under the title Engineering AND Structural Terms in this encyclopedia. Acidulated Water. — Water in which acids have been generated by the introduction of too much tallow into the boiler to prevent incrustation. Its use tends to produce boiler corrosion. Air Casing. — The enclosed space which envelops the uptake of marine boilers and prevents the loss of heat therefrom by radiation. Air Spaces. — The openings between the fire-bars of engine boilers. Anti-fouling Compositions. — See Incrustation. Ash Pit. — ■ That part of the furnace of a stationary boiler which lies below the fire-bars and immediately in front of the fire-door. It is provided for the re- ception of the ashes which fall through the bars, and constitutes the main draught entrance of the furnace. Baffle Plates or Bafflers. — The plates provided in the fire-boxes and flues of steam boilers for throwing the flames and hot gases against the best heating sur- faces. Also to admit air above the fire, and to pre- vent the burning and buckling of the door of the furnace. Ballooning. — The process which takes place within a steam boiler when a sediment of fine mud and scale is carried to the surface of the water by the ebulli- tion of the bubbles of steam. Large boilers are pro- vided with " scum-troughs " for collecting this sedi- ment. Banding or Bonding. — The securing of the lagging around steam cylinders and boilers with broad encir- cling bands of sheet-brass or hoop-iron. Bar-stays. — Solid screwed stays as distinguished from tube-stays or stay-tubes. Bearing Ring. — The ring which form's the support of the fire-bars in a vertical boiler. Blast. — The volume of air forced artificially into the furnaces of marine boilers to quicken the combustion. Bleeding. — The red streaks of rust which soak through the scale adhering to the inner surfaces of boilers and serve to indicate the presence of corrosion in the plates underneath. Blisters. — Defects in boiler plates of poor quality, caused by the retention of cinders or sand therein during the rolling process. Blow-off or Blow-off Cock. — The pipe and cock situ- ated at the lower part of the boiler by which the boiler is blown-off or emptied of its contents to pre- vent incrustation. In horizontal boilers of the Lan- cashire and Cornish type, a pipe called the blow-off bend connects the cock with the blow-oif seating through which the boiler is blown-off into the ash pit. Bear or Boiler Bear. — See Punching Bear. Bottle-tight. — The seams, rivets, fittings, and mount- ings of a steam boiler are said to be bottle-tight when the joints are so close and perfect that there is not the slightest leakage through them under the application of the water or the steam tests. BoTTLiNG-uP. — The temporary confinement of steam in the tubes of a sectional boiler caused by its being generated too rapidly. Bowling Hoop. — A ring of arch-shaped section, and provided with flanges for the reception of rivets, em- ployed for uniting the sections of furnace shells in horizontal boilers. Breaking Joint. — -The manner in which the longitudi- nal seams of the plates of the boiler are arranged so as to act as supports for each other. Bridge. — The barrier of brickwork built upon a girder- like casting which stretches across the fire-box of an engine boiler at the farther end of the grate. It serves to throw the flames upwards to the heating surface, and also prevents a too rapid escape of the heated gases. Brine Pump. — A pump employed for periodically draw- ing off a certain amount of water from a marine boiler to prevent saturation. Bunker Plate. — A sheet-iron plate which encloses the bunker or space which holds the coal or coke used in the furnace of an engine boiler. Bursting. — The destruction of a boiler by an excess- of internal pressure, as distinguished from collapsing, or the failure of a boiler under the force of an ex- ternal pressure. Calorimeter. — The sectional area of a boiler flue, given in square inches. Capacity. — ■ See Heating Surface. Carbonate of Lime. — The principal substance which causes the incrustation of steam boilers and water- pipes. It is held in solution in the water as a bi- carbonate by the excess of carbonic acid. When the boiler is heated the excess of acid is driven off, and the carbonate is precipitated in the form of a muddy deposit which hardens in the presence of heat into- the form of an injurious scale. Caulking. — The process of burring or driving up the edges of boiler plates along the riveted seams to make them steam and water tight. The caulking of the joints between boiler shells and the flanges of cast-iron man-holes, and safety and stop valve seat- ings, is accomplished by means of caulking-strips or strips of sheet metal interposed between the wrought- iron of the shells and the cast-iron of the pieces attached thereto. This is rendered necessary on ac- count of the impossibility of caulking the cast-iron. Chimney. — The tube or funnel through which the waste steam and smoke escapes from an engine or boiler into the open air. Its proportions bear a defi- nite relation to the grate area, and vary in the different types of engines. Circulating Tubes. — The cross tubes of vertical boil- ers, or the ordinary forms of tubes used in multi- tubular boilers or surface condensers. Circulation. — The circulation in a steam boiler is caused by the bubbling up of the lighter boiling water from the heating surfaces through the heavier cooler water in the upper portions which descends and thus comes in contact with the heating surfaces. Efficient circulation is necessary to the rapid generation of steam, and for the prevention of incrustation. It is promoted by the use of properly arranged water tubes. Clinkering. — The removal of the clinkers or other vitrified material from the fire in the boiler, period- ically. Clothing. — The felt and wood coverings placed around boilers to prevent loss of heat by radiation. Coating. — Non-conducting compositions of felt, silicate cotton, asbestos, etc., which are smeared or placed around steam boilers while the substances are in a plastic state, and which become subsequently hard- ened by the heat, and prevent the loss of heat from the boiler by radiation. Cold Water Test. — The hydraulic test, for pressures, only, applied to steam boilers, as distinguished from the hot water test. Collapse. — The destruction of the tubes and fire-boxes, of steam boilers by external pressures which cause them to fail by bending or crumpling inwardly. Collector. — A cylindrical vessel enclosed in a steam boiler for the purpose of collecting the sedimentary matter contained in the water, which if allowed to BOILER SHOP TERMS remain in the water would produce injurious scale and incrustation. The material thus collected is re- moved by being blown-out at intervals. Combined Steam. — Dry and wet steam allowed to mingle together before being used. Its use, at a tem- perature not exceeding 310° Fahr., tends to diminish the evils of corrosion and priming. Combustion Chamber. — That portion of a boiler flue in which the gases liberated by the action of the fire are burned. It lies between the grate and the smoke- flue. Corrosion. — The rusting or oxidation of metals by con- tact and chemical union with oxygen in the presence of water. Boiler corrosion is either internal or ex- ternal. Internal corrosion is due to the presence of acidulated water, or to superheated steam in the steam-chamber. E.xternal corrosion results from leak- age and from contact with damp foundations and seatings. Corrugated Furnace Tubes. — Furnace tubes which are ribbed in their longitudinal sections. They are ex- tensively used both in land and marine boilers. The elastic character of the corrugations absorbs the linear expansion of the tubes under the influence of heat, and thus prevents the strains which tend to bulge the end-plates of the boiler. Cross-tubes. — The heating tubes in a vertical or cross- tube boiler. They pass through the fire-box, and therefore, being surrounded by the fire, materially assist in maintaining a rapid circulation of the water. They are cleaned through a mud-door placed opposite the end of each tube. Crown. — The boiler crown proper, is the uppermost plate in the shell of the boiler. It is formed either in the shape of a hollow disc flanged around the edges, and by which it is riveted to the outer shell- plates, or it is made flat and secured in place by means of stays. That portion of the crown which lies over the top of the furnace or inner shell is usually designated as the fire-box crown. Damper. — -The plate, cover, or valve, employed for regulating the amount of draught in a boiler or fur- nace flue. The contrivance is usually balanced with a weight called the damper-weight which assists in its adjustment. Dead-plate. — The cast-iron plate which lies immediately within the furnace door of an engine boiler. It is provided for the reception, and for the partial cok- ing of the coal before it is passed forwards onto the grate. Dead-water. — The water which lies below the heating surface of the boiler, and, therefore, is in compara- tively slow circulation. In some forms of boilers the flues are brought forwards under the bottom so as to heat the dead water and thus induce a more rapid circulation therein. Dolly. — .\ riveting tool used by boilermakers for hold- ing under the heads of rivets during the act of rivet- ing. Double-ended Boiler. — A marine boiler provided with furnaces and flue doors at each end, and is therefore fired fro.n each end. . Dry Steam or Saturated Steam. — Steam which has not been superheated, nor mixed with the water of priming. It is the most suitable form of steam for use in engine cylinders. Economizer. — An arrangement of pipes by means of which the feed-water for steam boilers is heated up to, or higher than, the boiling point. Evaporative Value. — • The relative capacities of the various types of steam boilers to vaporize water, ex- pressed in horse-powers, units of work, or in thermal units. Expanding. — The tightening of boiler tubes in the tube plates by expanding or opening out their ends. Expansion Hoop. — The metal ring which is used in the forming of an expansion joint provided in long boiler flues for the purpose of taking up the linear expansion due to heat. Feeder. — The agency by which the feed-water supply of a boiler is maintained. Usually, it is some form of force pump, or an injector. Fire-bars. — The grate-bars of the furnaces of engine and other boilers. Fire-box. — A term which is specifically applied to the furnaces of locomotive and vertical boilers. Firing. — ■ Boilers are fired both internally and exter- nally. Internally fired boilers are those in which the fuel is consumed in a tube or arrangement of tubes within the boiler itself. The Cornish with one flue, the Lancashire with two flues, the locomotive boiler and other forms of boilers with many internal tubes, the vertical boilers with uptake and cross-tubes, and the marine boilers with return flues are of the inter- nally fired class. Externally fired boilers are those which are not provided with internal fire-boxes or furnace flues. The egg-end, the balloon, the hay- stack, and the wagon boilers are of this class. They are practically obsolete. Fire Tube Boiler. — A multitubular boiler, as distin- guished from a sectional boiler or a water tube boiler. Fittings. — The fittings of a boiler comprise the man- hole and mudhole doors, the fire-bars and their rings and bearers, the furnace doors, the dampers and frames, etc. Flame Plates. — The crown plates of a boiler flue or fire-box. Flanging. — The bending over of the edges of the boiler plates so as to form narrow flanges by which they are attached to each other either by riveting or by welding. Float. — A buoy employed to indicate the height of the water in the boiler. It is usually made of stone or of iron, and is rendered buoyant by means of a counterpoise the proportion of which relatively to the specific gravity of the float renders the float quite as susceptible to the variations in the water level as a float of wood. Its movements are observed by means of the float gauge attached to the boiler. Flash Boiler. — .\ steam boiler composed of a large number of small tubes which are kept red-hot, and unto which the water is fed in the form of a spray which is instantly converted into steam. They are principally used in connection with steam driven automobiles. Flues. — • The flues of a boiler are the arrangements or parts which carry off the waste gases and smoke, and produce the draught. Flue Plates. — The ends of horizontal boilers to which the flues are attached, or the fire-box crowns of ver- tical boilers. Flue Surface. — The area of the flues as distinguished from the grate-area. F"ollowing Joints. — The lap joints of the rings which compose a cylindrical boiler. As all of the joints lap in the same direction, they are called following joints. Fullering. — A mode of caulking boiler plates. It diff^ers from caulking proper in that the entire edge of the plate is hammered over instead of only a por- tion of the edge. Grate. — • The area which contains the burning fuel in the furnace of an engine boiler. The grate-area is the number of square feet covered by the grate-bars or fire-bars which compose the grate. It is equal to the area over which full combustion can take place, and is usually estimated in relation to the weight of coal burned. Grooving or Furrowing. — The cutting or corroding which takes place in the seams of improperly stayed boiler plates. It is partly due to the leverage to which those parts are subjected, and partly to the action of acids in the lines of strain. Gross Section. — The total number of inches contained in the circumference of a steam boiler. Gusset or Gusset Stay. — A triangular piece of wrought-iron or steel employed to support the flat ends of boilers. Large boilers are provided with five gusset stays at each end, which are secured to the end-plates and the shell by angle-irons. Holes. — • When the rivet holes in boiler plates are punched or drilled so inaccurately that they do not coincide within an amount equal to one-half their diameters when the plates are brought together, they are called half-lap or half-blind holes. When the holes do not correspond within the extent of a whole diameter they are called blind-holes. In riveting, such holes are either pulled together with a drift, or they are reamed out and larger rivets inserted. Hand Holes. — Holes provided in the shells of steam boilers in cases where a mudhole is impracticable, through which the hand may be introduced for pur- poses of cleaning and repair. Hard Water. — Water which contains a large percent- age of carbonate and sulphate of lime. Its tendency to produce calcareous deposits makes it very objec- tionable for use in steam boilers. Heating Surface. — The entire surface of a steam boiler, comprising the surfaces exposed to the heat on one side and the surfaces in contact with the water on the other side. Hogging. — The distortion of the furnace tubes of boilers caused by the expansion of the plates under the influence of heat. Honeycombing. — A form of boiler corrosion consisting of numerous blank holes or pits. It is due to the action of acids, to galvanic action, or to a lack of uniformity in the quality of the plates. Horizontal Boiler. — One in which the longitudinal axis of the barrel is horizontal, such as the Cornish, Galloway, and Lancashire boilers, and various forms of marine boilers. BOILER SHOP TERMS Inclination. — Some forms of horizontal boilers are inclined forwards about half an inch per ten feet of length so as to drain properly through the blow- cff cock. Fire-bars are inclined backwards about one inch in ten inches to permit of the fuel being moved rapidly away from the dead-plate. Incrustation. — ■ Coatings of carbonate and sulphate of lime and other solids formed on the internal portions of engine boilers by deposition from the feed water. Injection. — The process of drawing water into a steam boiler by means of an injector. Keelsons. — The wrought-iron or steel saddles which support marine boilers. Laminated Plates. — Wrought-iron or rolled steel plates in which the several layers are imperfectly united. They are very apt to blister when used for boiler plates. Leakage. — The loss of feed water due to the alternate expansion and contraction of the plates under the influence of sudden heatings and coolings, which tend to start the rivets and open the seams. Longitudinal Seams. — The plates which run length- ways of the boiler. They are always arranged to break-joint, and are never placed in-line. Manhole. — An opening provided in the shell of the boiler through which a man may gain access to the interior for purposes of examination, cleaning, and repair. It is ova! in form and is usually stayed either with a wrought-iron ring, or with a casting. Marine Boiler. — A horizontal boiler of the return tubular type. They are of many different types, and vary in their arrangement to suit different condi- tions. MuDHoLE. — An opening in the lower part of a boiler through which the sediment deposited by the water is removed. When the boiler is being used, the mud- hole is closed by a door called the mud-lid whicli is inserted within the hole and pulled up against its inner face by means of a bolt. This bolt is attached to the door and passes through a bridge which spans the hole and rests against its outer face. The bolt is tightened to the bridge by means of an ordinary nut. Multitubular Boiler. — A boiler composed of numer- ous tubes of brass or of iron, through which the hot gases pass from the fire-box to the chimney, and thus heat the water which is in contact with the outer surfaces of tlie tubes. The locomotive, horizontal, and portable boilers are of this type. Overheating. — The overheating of boiler parts are due either to incrustation, or to an insufficient supply of water. It tends to soften the plates so that they bulge or fracture under the force of internal pres- sures. Overpressure. — The pressure developed in a steam boiler exceeding that which it is designed to sustain. Patch. — A strengthening plate of wrought-iron or steel riveted or bolted to the boiler plates which have been injured by accident, or have become weakened by corrosion. Pitting. — The corrosion of boiler plates in patches. See Honeycombing. Plate. — In the manufacture of steam boilers the use of wrought-iron plates has been completely aban- doned for those of steel. The steel plates are rolled in larger sizes, thus reducing the number of riveted seams, and as they possess a much greater tensile strength, they permit of the development of the higher pressures required by modern engines. Plate Furnace. — A reverberatory furnace used by boilermakers for heating plates preparatory to bend- ing, flanging, and welding. Pressure. — • The working pressures in steam boilers vary with the type of the boiler, the material of the boiler plates, and the method of construction. They range from 45 to 60 pounds per square inch in those of the Cornish and Lancashire type; from 100 to 180 pounds in the marine boilers; and from 120 to 235 pounds in the portable and locomotive boilers. Punching Bear or Boiler Bear.— A portable punch- ing machme. The punch is actuated either by a screw, or by hydraulic pressure. Return Flues. — The flues in horizontal boilers, which are brought from the back of the furnace to the front, and are then carried back again to the chim- ney. Return Tubular Boiler.— A marine boiler in which the smoke tubes extend from the back of the boiler forwards to the smoke-box. By this arrangement, the products of combustion are carried first to the back of the boiler through the fire-box, and then to the front of the boiler through the tubes. Ribbed Tubes. — ■ Tubes which are rolled so as to form several deep radial ribs on their internal surfaces and thus increase the area of the available heating surface. They were invented by M. Serve. The Purves tubes are ribbed or corrugated transversely. The use of these tubes gives from 15 to 20 per cent. better results relative to the economical consump- tion of fuel and the increase in steam pressure than may be obtained by the use of the ordinary tubes with smooth surfaces. Rings. — Metal rings used for uniting the shells and fire-boxes, for the jointing and caulking of seams and other similar purposes. They are either cast 01 welded. Ring Seams. — The circumferential joints of a boiler shell. Salinometer. — An instrument employed for ascertain- ing the amount of salt in the feed-water of a marine boiler. It is either a hydrometer graduated for degrees of saltness, and by which the specific gravity of the water is measured, or a thermometer by which the boiling point of the water is determined, and the percentage of salt in solution deduced therefrom. Salting. — -The deposits of salt which accumulate on the plates of a marine boiler. It is not injurious to the plates unless excessive in quantity. The density of the feed-water should not exceed ten ounces of salt per gallon. Saturated Steam. — Steam which remains in contact with the water from which it has been generated, and therefore retains a quantity of water in suspen- sion. Also called Dry Steam. Scaling. — The process of removing the scale or de- posits of carbonate of lime, etc., from the interior of boiler plates. It is effected by a process of chip- ping with a keen-edged hammer called a scaling- hammer. Sectional Boiler. — A boiler composed of a number of small independent heating tubes. The advantages of sectional boilers are the high pressures that may be developed in them, the strength of the small tubes, the prevention of explosions, the rapid trans- mission of heat, and the facility with which local injuries may be repaired. Their disadvantages con- sist in the tendency to accumulate deposits in the flues, the tendency to overheating, and the difficulty exjierienced in clearing them out. Scum Cock. — A cock inserted in the side of a marine boiler for discharging the dirt and scum carried to the surface of the water, and which if allowed to remain in the water would deposit and form an in- jurious scale. See Ballooning. SooT Door. — A square iron door built into the front ends of the brickwork flues of horizontal boilers, through which the accumulations of soot are removed periodically. Stays. — Rods or tubes which connect and stay the flat ends of the boiler. They are made either of copper, wrought-iron, or steel. Bar stays and tube staj'S, also called screwed stays, are first screwed into the ends of the shells or fire-boxes, and then secured either with nuts or by riveting. Gusset stays are riveted. Steam Room. — The area included between the highest water level in, the boiler and the boiler crown. It is the space occupied by the steam. Testing. — The strength of steam boilers or their ca- pacity to withstand the stresses due to internal steam pressures are usually ascertained by the appli- cation of a pressure of water produced by means of a test pump. The pressure usually applied under test is about twice the working pressure. Through Tubes. — The flue tubes of horizontal boilers. They pass from one end of the boiler to the other, and are attached to the end plates. Tie Bolts. — Long screw bolts employed for the pur- pose of staying large, flat surfaces, which are in- herently weak. Transfer of Heat. — The transmission of heat from the furnace of a boiler to the water in the boiler. The rate of transmission or the number of heat units transferred per hour, varies according to the amount of heating surface, and is directly proportional to the thickness of the plates. Furnace area is more efficient than tube area. Tube Plates. — The plates into which the tubes of multitubular boilers or surface condensers are in- serted and secured. Tubular Boiler. — Various forms of locomotive, ma- rine, portable, horizontal, vertical, and sectional boilers. Uptake. — In a vertical boiler, it is the internal flue which leads from the furnace to the chimney. In a marine boiler, it is the return flue. Vent. — The value obtained by multiplying the calori- meter of a boiler by its length. Vertical Boiler. — A ste.nm boiler of circular hori- zontal section. Vertical boilers are chiefly used in con-i2ction with small steam engines, and are not BOILING POINT— BOIS DE BOULOGNE nearly as economical as those of the horizontal type, as the products of combustion pass from the fire-box directly into the chimney. Water Bridge. — A form of bridge which is made of iron and is continuous with the boiler itself. It is hollow, and therefore assists the circulation of the water which passes through the interior of the boiler. Water Tube Boiler. — Various forms of sectional boilers of the Yarrow, Thornycroft, Babcock and ^Vilcox, Belleville, and other classes. William Morey, Jr., C. E., Consulting Civil and Mechanical Engineer, Nczu York City. Boiling Point, the temperature at which a liquid boils, when e.xposed to a definite pres- sure, which is understood to be the ordinary atmosplieric pressure, in the absence of any spe- cific statement to the contrary. When a hquid is freely e.xposed to the air, evaporation goes on constantly from its surface, the heat required being absorbed from surrounding bodies. If the liquid is warmed, the evaporation goes on at an increased rate; but as its temperature is increased by the application of heat, there comes a time when mere superficial evaporation can- not take care of all the heat supplied. Bubbles of vapor then form within the body of the liquid, and the liquid is said to have attained its "boil- ing point." If the supply of heat be now in- creased, it is found that the temperature of the liquid remains stationary; bubbles merely form more rapidly, so that the rate of loss of heat through evaporation is still maintained equal to the rate of supply. The temperature of boiling depends upon the pressure ; for at an increased pressure the bubbles are formed in the interior of the liquid with greater difficulty, and therefore not until a higher temperature is attained. The variation from this cause is considerable. Thus the boiling point of water, under a pressure of one atmosphere, is 212° F., while under a pres- sure of two atmospheres it is about 250° F. At the reduced pressures prevailing on the tops of mountains, the boiling point of water is lower than 2X2° F., and advantage of this fact is taken for determining the heights of mountains by observations of the boiling point at their sum- mits. (See Hypsometry.) When the liquid is not open freely to the air, but confined in a closed vessel, its temperature can be raised indefinitely by the application of heat, but the vapor in the space above it is denser, and has a greater pressure, at higher temperatures. The correspondence between pressure and tempera- ture, under these circumstances, is very exact, although no simple law connecting the two is known. Rankine gave an empirical formula for the relation between them, of which com- puters of steam tables have made great use ('Miscellaneous Scientific Papers,^ page i); but the physical significance of this formula is un- known. The relation between the pressure and boiling point of a liquid is commonly exhibited by means of a table in which the temperatures of ebullition are set down opposite the corre- sponding pressures. (For a table of this sort for water, see Ste.\m.) The phenomena de- scribed above in connection with the free evapo- ration from a liquid exposed to the air are in general true, but certain qualifications must be made, under certain special conditions. Thus, it is difficult to induce water to boil when it has been freed from dissolved air; and in the entire absence of such air De Luc found that water can be heated as high as 234° F., under ordinary atmospheric pressure, before boiling, if the ex- periment is performed with proper care. A liquid thus heated to a temperature in excess of the normal boiling point corresponding to the pressure to which it is subjected is said to be ^^superheated." When boiling does finally oc- cur in a superheated liquid, it takes place with almost explosive suddenness, and the loss of vapor is exceedingly rapid for a moment or two, until the temperature of the liquid has been reduced by this means to the normal tempera- ture corresponding to the pressure prevailing at the time. The temperature at which ebullition takes place is also influenced to a certain extent by the nature of the vessel in which the liquid is heated. Thus Marcet found that in a glass vessel which had been carefully washed out with sulphuric acid, and then well rinsed, pure water does not boil until a temperature of 223° F. has been attained. All results of this kind are of an indefinite character, however, since they relate to the temperature at which boiling first begins, rather than to the state in which the liquid and its vapor are in a condition of permanent thermal and mechanical equilibrium. Superheated water is in an unstable state, and, according to some authorities, not a few boiler explosions have been due to the superheating of the water present, from some cause, and the subsequent explosive liberation of steam, as the water returned to its normal condition ; but this notion concerning the cause of boiler explosions has never been substantiated by experiment or otherwise, and must be regarded as a mere speculation, without any foundation in fact. A liquid has a higher boiling point, when it con- tains some substance in solution, than it has when pure. The effect of dissolving salt or any other electrolyte is complicated by the occurrence of dissociation (q.v.) ; but for dilute solutions of non-electrolytes, like sugar, the following law, first given by Raoult, holds true: If a series of dilute solutions of such substances be pre- pared, each solution containing, per unit weight of the solvent, an amount of solid proportional to the molecular weight of the solid, then the solutions so prepared will all boil at the same temperature. (See Solution.s.) For marking the "boiling point" upon thermometers, it is the universal practice to expose the thermometers to the steam rising from the boiling water, rather than to immerse them in the water itself; for the temperature of the steam is independent of the presence of traces of dissolved substances in the water, and also of the action of such acci- dental or irregular causes as the superheating of the water. See Thermometry. Boilly, Louis Leopold, loo-e la-6-p61d bwa'ye, French painter: b. La Bassee. France; d. 1845. To his prolific brush are attributed about 5.000 paintings, chiefly historical. The period represented on his canvases ranges from the time of Louis XVI. to the end of the Resto- ration. Among his w^orks are: 'Arrival of the Diligence* (1803) ; and 'Isabey's Atelier.* Bois d'Arc, bwa-dark, the osage orange (q.v.). Bois de Boulogne, bw^a-de boo-16-ny, oncc a forest abounding with game near the gates of Paris, now a beautiful park belonging to the city: area, 2.250 acres. The greater part of the old trees were destroyed during the revolution. When Napoleon chose St Cloud for a summer BOIS-LE-DUC — BOISSEREE residence, he ordered young trees to be planted, had the place enclosed with a wall, and stocked with game. In 1815 the British troops under the Duke of Wellington were stationed ni it, and many of the trees were then cut down, but new ones were planted by Louis XVIII. In 1852 it came into the possession of the municipality, and is now one of the gayest holiday prome- nades. During the Franco-German war of 1870-1 a large number of the trees were cut down by the French in preparing for the defense of Paris. In the time of the disturbances of the Commune in 1871 several sanguinary encounters took place here. In the Bois are the noted Auteuil and Longchamp race courses, and also the Jardin d'Acclimatation. Bois-le-Duc, bwa-le-diik (Dutch Herto- genbosch), the capital of the province of North Brabant, in Holland, 49 miles southeast of Amsterdam, at the confluence of the Dommel and the Aa, which form, by their junction, the Diest. It was a strong fortress up to 1876, but has ceased to be kept as such. It is intersected by canals, and among its buildings the chief is the cathedral, in late Gothic, built in 1458-98, with an old tower of the nth century, and a chapel of the 13th, the whole recently restored. Other buildings are the town-hall, palace of jus- tice or court-house, the episcopal palace, and the government buildings. Among educational in- stitutions are a gymnasium, a Latin school, and a normal school for teachers. Bois-le-Duc has many industrial establishments and an active trade. Its chief manufactures are gold and sil- ver wares, cigars, mirrors, boots, and shoes, etc. The city suffered much in the religious wars of the i6th century, and fell into the hands of the Dutch in 1629. On 14 Sept. 1794, the French defeated the English here, and on 9 October of the same year it surrendered to Pichegru. In January 1814, it was taken by the Prussians, but the citadel held out. Pop. (1900) 44,034. Bois-Guilbert, bw^a-gel-bar. Sir Brian, a character in Scott's "^Ivanhoe.' He is a Knight Templar whose passionate attachment to the beautiful Jewess Rebecca, severe struggle with his pride and tragical death in the lists, form one of the most dramatic features of the ro- mance. Bois de Vincennes, bwa de van-sen, the ancient hunting park of Louis IX. ; now a pleasure-ground of 2,250 acres on the west of Paris. A large portion of it is devoted to the purposes of the Champ de Manoeuvres, drill- ground, and polygene d'artillerie. Boise, James Robinson, American edu- cator: b. Blandford, Mass., 27 Jan. 1815: d. Chi- cago. 9 Feb. 1895. He was graduated at Brown in 1840. and received an appointment there as tutor in ancient languages. In 1850 he went abroad to study ; in 1852 became professor of the Greek language and literature in the Um- vprsity of Michigan ; in 1868 took the same chair in the University of Chicago. Upon the es- tablishment of the new University of Chicago, he was appointed professor emeritus of New Testa- ment Greek. The numerous classical text-books edited bv him were widely used. Besides these, he published: 'Notes on the Greek Text of Paul's Epistles to the Ephesians. Colossians, Philemon, and the Phih'ppians^ (1884) : < Notes on the Greek Text of Galatians and Romans^ ri886). Boise, Otis Bardwell, American composer and music teacher : b. Oberlin, Ohio, 13 Aug. 1844. After studying music in Leipsic he set- tled in New York as a teacher of composition and for a time was organist of the Fifth Avenae Presbyterian Church. During 1876-7 he was again in Europe studying and had the benefit of Franz Liszt's advice and criticism, after which he resumed teaching in New York. Since 1888 he has been engaged in professional work in Berlin. He has published: 'Harmony Made Practical^ (1900); 'Music and Its Masters^ (1901), and many articles in journals devoted to music. Boise, Idaho, the capital of the State and county-seat of Ada County ; on the Boise River and the Union P. R.R. ; 45 miles southwest of Idaho City. It occupies the site of a former trading post of the Hudson Bay Company ; is in an agricultural and a rich mining region ; and is supplied with pure hot water from a flowing boiling well. The city is said to be the only one in the world having a natural supply of hot water. It contains the State capitol, erected in 1885-7, penitentiary. United States assay ofhce, State library, high and graded schools, and two national banks. Its mayor is elected biennially. Pop. (1900) 5,957. Boisgobey, Fortune Abraham du, for-tu- na ab-ra-ham dii bwa-go-ba, French novelist: b. Granville, 11 Sept. 1821 ; d. February 1891. In 1844-8 he was paymaster in the army at Al- giers, and began to write in 1868, somewhat on the lines of Emile Gaboriau. His novels were popular, and include: 'The Scoundrels' (Paris 1873); 'Chevalier Casse-Con' (1873); 'The Mysteries of Modern Paris' (1876) ; 'The Demi-Monde Under the Terror' (1877) ; 'The Old Age of M. Lecoq> (1878) ; 'The Cat's Eye> (1888); and 'The Cold Hand' (1879). Boisseree (bwa-sra) Collection, a number of pictures exhibited in Munich, which were col- lected by the brothers Sulpice (1783-1854) and Melchior Boisseree (1786-1851), and John Ber- tram, men who, animated by love of the arts, began, at the time of the destruction of the monasteries, during and after the French revo- lution, to purchase old pictures, and afterward completed their collection by the addition of many valuable paintings of the old German school. By this collection the brothers Bois- seree and Bertram happily realized the idea of a historical series of old German paintings. It is to their endeavors that we owe the discovery that Germany possessed, as early as the 13th century, a school of painters of much merit, which, like the Italian, proceeded from the old Byzantine school, but became, in the sequel, distinguished by excellences of its own. We owe to these collectors, also, the restoration to favor of the forgotten Low German masters, and a just estimation of John van Eyck, as the crea- tor of the genuine German style of painting. The most distinguished connoisseurs and art- ists, including Goethe, Canova, Dannecker, and Thorwaldsen, have strongly expressed their ad- miration of this collection. It was first brought together and exhibited at Heidelberg, and after- ward removed to Stuttgart, where the king of Wurtemberg assigned it a suitable building. The collection remained there till 1828, when King Louis of Bavaria, having purchased it in the previous year for 120,000 thalers, removed BOISSIER — BOITO it to Schleissheim, and in 1836 most of the paint- ings were sent to Munich. A lithographic work on this collection was published in 40 parts between 1821 and 1840. See ^Sulpiz Boisseree/ a biography (1862). Boissier, Marie Louis Gaston, ma-re loo-e gas-ton bwa-sya, French archseologist and historian : b. Nimes, 15 Aug. 1823. After study- ing at the Ecole Normale he was an instructor in rhetoric in his native city 1847-57 5 professor of Latin eloquence and literature at the College de France from 1861, was elected to the French Academy in 1876 and to the Academy of In- scriptions and Belles-lettres 1886. His literary style has been much praised for its clearness and beauty. His works comprise ^Le poete Attius^ (1857); ^Etude sur la ire et les ouvrages de Terentius Varron^ (1861) ; ^La religion ro- maine d'Auguste aux Antonins' (1883) ; * La- fin du paganisme^ (1894) ; ^Ciceron et ses amis^ (1892) ; and 'Promenades archeologiques Rome et Pompei' (1892) ; the two last named being marvelously accurate and vivid reconstructions of the antique spirit and atmosphere. Other works are: 'Roman Africa,' and *The Country of Horace and Vergil.' Boissieu, Jean Jacques de, zhoii zhak bwa- sye, French painter and engraver: b. Lyons, 1738; d. there in 1810. He was intended bj^ his parents for the magistracy, but manifested such a decided inclination for drawing that he was allowed to follow it. After remaining for some time at Lyons, and painting some excellent imi- tations of the Flemish school, he visited Paris, where his intimacy with the most celebrated artists of the time enabled him greatly to im- prove his style. On his return to Lyons he de- voted his attention chiefly to engraving. He afterward accompanied the Due de Rochefou- cauld to Italy, and having studied the works of the great masters with the greatest assiduity, resumed painting; but as the use of oil injured his health, he, shortly after his return to France, abandoned it finally for engraving, in which his reputation soon became European, and his works were eagerly purchased by the most wealthy and distinguished amateurs. His en- gravings amount to 140 plates, among which that of 'Le Charlatan,' after a picture by Karel Du- jardin, is considered his masterpiece. Boissonade, Jean Frangois, zhoii friin-swa bwa-s6-nad, French classical scholar: b. Paris, 12 Aug. 1774; d. Passy, 8 Sept. 1857. He was educated at the College d'Harcourt, and at the age of 18 was attached to the ministry of foreign affairs. He subsequentlj' became a con- tributor to periodical literature in the 'Magasin Encyclopedique' of Millin and the 'Journal de I'Empire,' the precursor of the 'Journal des Debats.' Ancient and modern literature, both French and foreign, grammatical criticism, bibli- ography, and natural sciences occupied his pen. In 1813 he was admitted a member of the Acad- emy of Inscriptions and Belles-Lettres. He afterward wrote about 150 articles for the 'Bi- ographic Universelle.' He became, in 1809, assistant of Larcher, as Greek professor of the faculty of letters in Paris, and four years after- ward he succeeded him both in the faculty and in the institute. Finally, in 1828, he was called to the chair of Greek literature in the College of France. From this time he devoted himself entirely to his duties as a professor, and his labors as a classical editor. He has produced no complete work in French, but is said to have written Latin with natural grace and elegance, and his editions of the classics are highly es- teemed. His editorial labors were also extended to a few French works, and he translated a heroi-comic poem, the "Genpillen," from the Por- tuguese. Boissy d'Anglas, Fransois Antoine, friin- swa an-twan bwa-se dan-glas (Comte de), French statesman of the revolutionary period: b. Saint Jean-la-Chambre, near Annonay, 1756; d. Paris, 20 Oct. 1826. He studied at Annonay, and was admitted as an advocate to the parlia- ment of Paris. In 1789 he was elected to the States-General where he was a moderate advocate of revolutionary principles, in support of which he wrote at this time various brochures. In 1792 he was returned as a deputy to the con- vention. He voted against the death of Louis XVI., and after the fall of Robespierre he was appointed secretary of the convention, and a member of the Committee of Public Safety. He was created a peer by Louis XVIII. in 1814, but supported Napoleon during the Hundred Days, and was consequently expelled from the peerage by a royal ordinance, but shortly afterward re- instated. He was from 1803 a member of the consistory of the Reformed Church, a member of the Institute from its commencement, and on its reconstruction in 1816 he became a mem- ber of the Academy of Inscriptions. He wrote an essay on the life and writings of Alale- sherbes (1819-21) ; 'Etudes Litteraires et Poetiques d'un Vieillard' (1825). The fame of Boissy d'Anglas rests chiefly on a scene in the convention in 1795, when the hall was invaded by an angry mob demanding bread and the Constitution of 1793. Called temporarily to take the chair, in the absence of the president, Boissy had presented to him the head of a deputy, Feraud, which had been cut off by the insurgents and placed on the end of a pike. He saluted it, and continued calmly facing the mob, and to his courage and firmness the safety of the convention at this crisis is attributed. Such is the popular version of a story of which the most various and contradictory accounts are given. It has been said that Boissy d'Anglas exhibited no such courage as has been attributed to him, and that he was merely kept in his place by the pressure of the mob. His enemies, who accused him of reactionary tendencies, even said the in- surrection was started by the reactionary party to discredit the revolution, and that Boissy was in understanding with the leaders of the mob. For this last accusation there appears to be no foundation, but it is quite likely the scene may have been represented in a more dramatic form than as it actually occurred. Boito, Arrigo, a-re'go b5-e'to, Italian com- poser : b. Padua, 24 Feb. 1842. His great work, the opera 'Mefistofele,' occupied him for nearly 20 years. The garden scene was written while he was a student in the IMilan Conservatory in 1856, and the score was finished for the stage in 1868, the composer having done much literary work in the interim and lived variously in France. Germany, and Poland. On 5 March 1868, 'Mefistofele' was sung at La Scala. Milan, the performance lasting six hours, much inter- rupted by hissing and applause, and its failure was evident. Boito then remodeled the opera. BOIVIN — BOKHARA and in 1875 it was produced at Bologna with great success. It was sung in other cities with equal success, but it has never been a popular opera in the full sense of the word. In 1883 it was produced at the New York Metropolitan Opera House with Campanini and Nilsson in the cast and was revived in 1896 and again in 1901. The opera is considered one of the most important of modern Italian operas, marking, as it does, the precise point where the modern school of Italian composition, illustrated by the later works of Verdi, Mascagni, Puccini, etc., diverges from the work of the Bellini and Doni- zetti school. Boito's other operas, ^Ero e Leandro^ ; ^Nerone^ ; and *Orestiade^ have never been sung. Boivin, Marie Anne Victoire, ma-re an vic-twar bwa-vah (Gillain), French midwife, upon whom a diploma of M.D. was conferred by the University of Marburg, noted for her writings on obstetrics : b. Montreuil, 9 April ^712)\ d. 16 May 1841. She was educated in a nunnery, where by her talents she attracted the attention of the sister of Louis XVI., Madame Elisabeth. When the nunnery where she was placed was destroyed in the course of the revo- lution, she spent three years in the study of anatomy and midwifery. In 1797 she married an employee at Versailles, of the name of Boivin, but on being left after a short time a widow with a child and without fortune, undertook the office of midwife at the Hospital of the Maternity, and, in 1801, was appointed chief superintendent of the institution, to which, in accordance with her suggestion, a special school of accouchement was added by Chaptal. Her < Memorial de I'art des accouchements,^ published in 1824, passed through several editions. The empress of Russia invited her to St. Petersburg, but she declined. Bojaca, bo-zha'ka. Battle of, so called from having been fought near the bridge of the small town of Bojaca, not far from the city of Tunja, between the Spaniards under Barreyro, and the united forces of Venezuela and New Granada, commanded by Bolivar. It occurred 7 Aug. 1819, and was decisive of the independ- ence of New Granada. Among the Republicans, Gens. Anzuategui, Paez, and Santander distin- guished themselves; and tiie Spaniards sustained a total defeat, their general, most of their offi- cers and men who survived the battle, together with all their arms, ammunition, and equipments, falling into the hands of Bolivar. So complete was the destruction of the Spanish army, that the viceroy instantly fled from Santa Fe, leav- ing even the public treasure a prey to the conquerors. Bojador, bo-zha-dor'. Cape, a promontory on the west coast of Africa; lat. 26° 7' 10" N. ; Ion. 14° 29' W. It is one of the projecting points of the great desert of Sahara, and forms the west extremity of a rocky ridge called the Jebel-khal or Black Mountain. The coast north' of this cape is extremely dangerous, being shal- low to a great distance out, and constantly en- veloped in a haze. It has been, in consequence, the scene of many a melancholy disaster. Cape Bojador was long the limit of navigation toward the south and was first passed by the Portuguese in 1433. Bojol', Philippines, an island north of Mindanao, about 40 miles long by 30 miles wide. It is woody and mountainous. Rice and gold are its chief productions. Pop. 187,000. Bok, Edward William, American editor: b. Helder, Holland, 9 Oct. 1863. He came to the United States in infancy, and was educated in the public schools of Brooklyn. He has edited the ^Ladies' Home Journal,^ and written ^The Young Man in Business,^ and ^Successward.' Boker, George Henry, American poet and dramatist: b. Philadelphia, Pa., 6 Oct. 1823; d. there, 2 Jan. i8qo. He graduated from Prince- ton in 1842 ; studied law ; and was United States minister to Turkey in 1871-5, and to Russia in i875~9- His plays include: *Calaynos' (1848); 'Anne Boleyn^ (1850) ; 'Francesca da Rimini^ ; 'The Betrothed^ and 'All the World's a Mask.^ He published also 'Poems of the War^ (1864) ; 'Konigsmark and other Poems' (1869) ; 'The Book of the Dead> (1882) ; and Sonnets' (1886) ; 'Francesca' is his best play and has been several times put upon the stage by Barrett and other actors. Bokelmann, Christian Ludwig, krist-yan lood-vig bo'kel-man, German painter: b. Saint Jixrgen, 1844; d. 1894. He was a pupil of Wilhelm Sohn at Dtisseldorf and became dis- tinguished as a genre and portrait painter. Among his works are: 'House of Sorrow'; 'Pawnbroker's Shop'; 'Opening of the Will': ^Portrait of Klaus Groths.' Bokhara, bo-ka'ra, a khanate of Central Asia, practically vassal to Russia, bounded on the north by Russian Turkestan, west by Khiva and the Russian Trans-Caspian territory, south by Afghanistan, and east by Russian Turkestan. It formerly occupied considerably more territory than now, having been reduced by the conquests and encroachments of Russia, which have been only partially compensated by some additions. The present area of the khanate is estimated at about 92,000 square miles. The country is to a great extent occupied by deserts and low and naked ranges of mountains, and the cultivated portions of it are confined to the valley of the rivers, especially the Oxus or Amoo Daria, which forms the southern boundary for a considerable distance, and then flows from southeast to north- west parallel to and not far from the frontier of the country. Bokhara lies between lat. 2)1° and 41° N., and in greater part is no more than 1,100 or 1,200 feet above the level of the sea, but in the extreme east is mountainous. The climate is subject to great extremes, being warm, in summer and very cold in winter. There is very little rain, on which account it is necessary to resort to artificial irrigation. Besides cereals, cotton, tobacco, and vegetables are cultivated, and there is abundance of fruit. The total popu- lation amounts to about 2,250,000, and consists of the Uzbecks, who are the ruling race, and to whom the emir belongs: the Tajiks, who form the majority in the capital; the Kirghizes, less numerous than the Tajiks; about 60,000 Arabians, descendants of the soldiers who were brought into the country by the third caliph of Bagdad on the occasion of the conquest of Turkestan ; Persians who have chiefly been brought as slaves to Bokhara ; Turcomans, Hin- dus, and about 10,000 Jews who live in the towns beyond the protection of the law. and accordingly oppressed by the other inhabitants. Since the BOKHARA separation of Samarcand there are now only two towns of importance in Bokhara, namely, the chief town Bokhara, with a population of about 60,000 ; and Karshi, with about 25,000. Besides these there are a few small towns and some hun- dred villages in the country. The capital, ac- cording to Vambery, the centre of Tartar civili- zation, is ill built and has a gloomy aspect, and in luxury of dress and mode of life is far be- hind the towns of western Asia. Among the people there reigns the utmost moral corruption along with a rigorous adherence to outward forms. The country is distinguished from the other countries of Central Asia by its numer- ous schools, and in the same proportion by the amount of culture diffused among the people generally ; but the women are even more de- graded than in other Mohammedan countries. The rule of the emir is absolute, though he is to some extent under the influence of the clergy. The manufactures are unimportant, but there is a very considerable caravan trade, cot- ton, rice, silk, and indigo being exported, and woven goods, sugar, iron, etc., being imported. There is also now a trade by railway, since the making of the line from the Caspian to Samar- cand. Bokhara is remarkable for its religious fanaticism, and various European travelers have been exposed to danger. After Alexander Burnes had visited Bokhara on a commission from the government of India in 1832, the British ambassador in Teheran sent Col. Stod- dart in 1838 to obtain from the Emir Nasrulla the deliverance of the Russian prisoners that he had taken on his predatory incursions into Russian territory. Nasrulla, however, irritated at the neglect to answer his letter to the queen of England, ordered Col. Stoddart to be thrown into prison, and after treating him with great cruelty, compelled him to acknowledge the Mo- hammedan creed. Capt. Conolly, who had been with a similar object in Khiva and Khokand, came in 1841 to Bokhara, and after having to submit to the same treatment as Col. Stoddart, was executed along with him in 1842. Infor- mation of their fate was brought to Europe by the missionary Wolff, who had been sent to Bokhara in 1843 for this purpose. In 1850 the Russians established themselves at the mouth of the Sir (Jaxartes), where it flows into the Sea of Aral, and in 1864 they found it necessary to proceed farther up the river. They made themselves masters of the two towns Turkestan and Aulie-ata, and after bringing them into communication with one another, invested Chemkend, Niazbek, and Chinab. The land thus occupied, which up to that time had formed the northern half of the khanate of Khokand, was, along with some other districts that had previously been an- nexed to Russia, erected into the Russian gov- ernment of Turkestan, and incorporated with the general government of Orenburg, by the ukase of 14 Feb. (26) 1865. By a subsequent ukase, dated 11 July (23) 1867, this territory wac constituted a general government. Soon after the khan of Khokand invaded the Russian territory, in consequence of which the Russians advanced still farther south and attacked Tash- kend, which they took on 28 June 1865. They did not, however, incorporate Tashkend with the Russian territory, but declared it an inde- pendent khanate under the protection of Russia. This arrangement was opposed by Muzaffer- Eddin, Emir of Bokhara, whereupon the Rus- sian general Romanovski again assumed the offensive, and marching into Bokhara took Kho- jend by storm on 5 June 1866. In this way Russia came into the possession of the whole basin of the Sir. Not long after Tashkend was incorporated with the Russian territory by the desire of the inhabitants. Meanwhile the war with Bokhara still went on, and peace was not concluded till the beginning of 1867. This' peace, however, did not last long. The war was renewed in the spring of the following year, and it was only in July 1868 that the terms of peace between Russia and Bokhara were finally agreed upon. Bokhara was to give up Samarcand and Katti Kurghan, along with the surrounding districts (constituting the tract of land watered by the Zerafshan), and at the same time promised to pay an indemnity to Rus- sia and to protect her trade. Since then the peace has not been broken, but the Emir of Bokhara has sunk more and more into a posi- tion of entire dependency on Russia. During the autumn the Russians intervened against the emir's son, who had risen in revolt against him, and on 12 October in the following year the emir sent an embassy with presents (tribute) to the czar at St. Petersburg. In the meantime Muzaffer-Eddin had fallen into a dispute with Afghanistan. Shere Ali Khan, of Kabul, had given a favorable reception to the rebellious son of the emir, and Muzaffer-Eddin, probably in consequence of encouragement from Russia, now thought himself able to make good his for- mer claim to Badakshan, and the territory lying about the sources of the Oxus, especially since the Khan of Kabul seemed to have but a slight hold of these parts. He had accordingly already sent out an army with the view of conquering those parts, when, toward the end of 1869, pres- sure being put upon him by Russia, he con- cluded a treaty with Kabul by which the Oxus was fixed as the boundary of the conterminous states, and this boundary was afterward recog- nized by Russia and England. After the Rus- sian expedition to Khiva in 1873 an agreement was made between Russia and Bokhara on 28 September of that year, according to which Bokhara received a portion of the territory that had been ceded by Khiva to Russia, while the Russians received various privileges in return. Muzaffer-Eddin died in 1885. and was succeeded by his son Abd-ul-Ahad. Bokhara will prob- ably be ultimately completely placed under Rus- sian administration, for what little po\yer it had lapsed in 1884 by the practical absorption of the country, resulting from the annexation of Merv. Since 1885 the troops, which were formerly ill trained and badly armed, have been drilled by Russian instructors and armed with rifles. See Le Messuner, Friedmann, *Anne Boleyn' (1885). Bolgrad, Russia, a town on the river Yalpookh, in the Lower Budjak, colonial dis- trict of Bessarabia, 162 miles from Odessa and 30 miles from Ismail. It is celebrated for the frequent mention made of it in the discussions relative to the territorial difficulties of Russia with Turkey in the Treaty of Paris of 1856. Pop. about 13,000. Bolingbroke, Henry St. John (Viscount), English statesman, b. Battersea in Surrey, 1678 (baptised 10 Oct.) ; d. Battersea^ 12 Dec. 1751. He was the son of Sir Henry Ct. John, after- wards Viscount St. John, of Battersea, and Mary, daughter of Robert Rich, Earl of War- wick, thus being (in Goldsmith's words) of a fa.nilv "of the first rank, equally conspicuous for its antiquity, dignity, and large possessions." BOLIVAR As a child he was brought up in the house of his grandmother, a rigid Presbyterian, where his early and enforced studies of Dr. Manton's famous commentaries are supposed to have "prepared him to become a High Churchman.^' However, he went early to Eton, where he com- pleted his education, although it w^as long as- serted that he went to Oxford (Christ Church). About 1698-9 he travelled abroad, and lived generally for a time, with all the avidity of youth and of high spirits, what is called a life of pleasure. He dabbled a little in literature; but his chief ambition seems to have been dis- tinction in dissipation. In 1700 he married Frances Winchescombe, daughter and co- heiress of Sir Henry Winchescombe ; and en- tered Parliament for the family borough of Wootton Bassett in Wiltshire. His brilliant ora- torical abilities speedily attracted attention ; and he eventually cast in his lot with the then domi- nant Tories, of whom Harley (the Speaker) was the leader. In 1702 he received an hon- orary doctor's degree at Oxford. Two years later, when Harley became Secretary of State, he was made Secretary of War, a post which he retained until February, 1708, when upon the accession of the rival Whig party under Marl- borough and Godolphin, he and Harley went out together. For the next two years he led a retired life. But in August, 1710, the political whirligig re- '•tored the Tories to power with Harley again at their head; and Bolingbroke sitting in the new Parliament as member for Berkshire, be- came Secretary of State for Foreign Affairs. In 1712, he was created Viscount Bolingbroke and Baron St. John of Lydiard Tregoze, and he bore a chief part in the «vile Utrecht Treaty,* as Prior calls it, cf March, 1713. By this time his friendship for his temporising, sluggish co- adjutor had greatly declined; and the last years of their political alliance were years of wrang- ling hostility, which Swift (the friend of both) strove vainly 10 mitigate. Then when, at last, Bolingbroke had compassed the downfall of Harley ; and was intriguing for a Jacobite suc- cession, Queen Anne died suddenly in August, 1714, and changed the aspect of affairs. With the accession of George I., Bolingbroke's power passed away. The new King dismissed him, and after a short time he found it expedi- ent to fly to France. His impeachment and at- tainder speedily followed. In France, where he remained seven years, he became Secretary of State to the Pretender, by whom als^ he was eventually dismissed for alleged neglect of duty. In October, 1718, his hrst wife, with, whom he had never got on ver}-- well, died ; and in 1722 he was married to Marie-ClaireDes- champs de Marcilly, widow of the Marquis de Villette, by whose exertions, and interest with King George's mistress, the Duchess of Kendal, he was ultimately allowed to return to England. In 1725 his property was restored, but he could not recover his rights as a peer, and was thus excluded from the House of Lords. At this date he resided at Dawley, near Uxbridge, w^here he occupied himself in the preparation of philosophical treatises, and of political articles in the 'Craftsman,^ 1727-34, in opposition to Walpole. In 1735, finding it hopeless to re-enter political life, he retired again to France, where he lived at Chantelou in Touraine until his father's death in the spring of 1742. This brought him again to his paternal home at Bat- tersea. Here for nine years longer he for the most part resided until 12 December, 1751, when he died of a cancer in the face, — the long tor- ture of which he bore with exemplary fortitude. His second wife, to whom he was tenderly at- tached, had died in the previous year. Both were buried at Battersea, where theie is a mon- ument to them in the parish church, with medallions by Roubillac. Bolingbroke's biographers have dwelt effect- ively upon his personal advantages, his hand- some presence, his mingled dignity and sweet- ness, his vivacity, his wit, his marvellous mem- ory, and his quickness of apprehension. "His- mind," said Swift, who loved him, "was adorned with the choicest gifts that God has yet thought fit to bestow upon the children of men,** and he refers especially to his "clear judgment,* "his- most agreeable elocution," and his "invincible eloquence." Of his eloquence, whether in speech or script, there is no doubt, and writer after writer has spoken to its seductive charm. His patriotism, upon which he himself insisted, has also found sturdy advocates. But in the main, he is now regarded rather as a brilliant and meteoric intriguer than a really great states- man with honest convictions ; while his boasted philosophy and his learning are held to be equally unsound and superficial. Pope, his pupil in the ^Essay on Man,* is the accredited mouth- piece of his religious opinions; and it is a cur- rent criticism of Pope's cleverly executed thesis that it is an exposition of undeveloped doctrine by a disciple to whom it was unintel- ligible. Apart from Bolingbroke's political tracts, and contributions to the the bulk of his writings w^ere published posthumously. The Letters on the < Spirit of Patriotism,* and the was published during his lifetime. By his first wife, Lucien had two daughters; by his second, nine children. His eldest son, Charles Lucien Jules Laurent Bonaparte, Prince of Canino and Musignano : b. Paris, 24 BONAPARTE PRETENDERS — BONAPARTES OF BALTIMORE May 1803 ; d. 29 July 1857, achieved a consider- able reputation as a naturalist, chiefly in or- nithology. He published a continuation of Wil- son's 'Ornithology of America* (1825-33); the *Iconografia della Fauna Italica* (1832-41); his chef d'ocuvre; 'Catalogo Aletodico degli Uccelli Europei* (1842) ; ' bones, because of the large amount of air contained, float in water. The bones ot birds are remarkable for their strength and lightness. The twofold nature of bones is read- ily demonstrated by two simple experiments. If one bone is placed in acid, 20 per cent hydro- chloric, the acid will attack and dissolve out the mineral salts, after which the bone may be bent and its shape altered at pleasure, nothing but the organic material remains; another simi- lar bone ma}' be placed in a furnace and the heat will burn out the organic matter entirely; that which remains will be the mineral mat- ter. It will retain the shape of the original bone, will be white, but will break down into powder at the least pressure. Uses of the Bones. — In dietetics bones make a substratum for soups. These are important carriers of salts to the body. As for the gela- tine alone, it is a tissue sparer, the body can not use it for purposes of anabolism, but it spares katabolism of proteids. It is a useful menstruum for foodstuffs. Bone marrow is highly nutritious, contains iron, and is a super- lative food, and thought to be particularly val- uable as a blood maker. TV>e uses of bone in the arts are numerous. (See Fertilizers.) Con- sult Sj'minowitch, * Histology^ ; Gray, ^ Anat- omy.^ See Ax.-\TOMY ; Kixetogexesis ; Osteology. Bone Black, Ivory Black, or Animal Char- coal, the black carbonaceous substance into which bones are converted by calcination or de- structive distillation in close vessels, and which is extensively used in the process of sugar- refining. This application of it is due to the prop- erty which it possesses in common with other kinds of charcoal, but in a superior degree, of depriving various kinds of solutions, syrups, etc., of their coloring matters, and thus blanch- ing or purifying them. Animal charcoal is pre- pared either by heating the bones in a retort similar to that in which the coal is decom- posed in gas-works, or, which is the better plan, in small cast-iron pots piled up in a kiln. The pots are placed above each other with their mouths in contact, the mouths being luted to- gether with loam. Two of the pots together hold about 50 pounds of bones, which should previously be freed of all fatty, fleshy, and ten- dinous matters, as the quality of the charcoal is in this case improved. The bones lose, on the average, about half their weight in the process of calcination. The charcoal is ground between grooved rollers in order to prevent the formation of dust, and by this means it is re- duced to the condition of coarse grains varying from the size of turnip-seed to that of peas. Liquids are decolorized by passing them through a filter or bed of thin granular char- coal, which absorbs by mechanical action the coloring matters held in solution. The filteriner beds used in sugar-refininar are sometimes of the depth of 50 feet. .'Kfter the liquor has flowed for a certain time the charcoal becomes completely saturated, and its purifying action ceases. It has then to be restored so that it may be used again, and this is effected by vari- ous means, such as washing with water or with weak hydrochloric acid, long exposure to air and moisture, or heating to redness. The last is the best method, and is the one almost invari- ably adopted, the charcoal being heated in iron pipes, fire-clay chambers, or in rotating cylin- ders. See Charco.\l, Animal. BONE-CAVES — BONHAM Bone-caves, caverns containing deposits in uhicli are embedded large quantities of tlie bones of animals (many of tliem extinct), dating from the fleiocene or later geologic periods. See Cave. Bone Diseases. See Osteomyelitis; Peri- ostitis; Osteitis. Bone-dog. See Bone-shark; Dogfish. Bone-dust, bones ground to dust to be used as manure. See Fertilizers. Bone-fish. See Lady-fish. Bone-shark, or Basking-shark, a compara- tively rare species of pelagic shark, found in the Arctic seas, and soutnward as far as Portugal and New York. It obtains the name ^^bone- shark" from the resemblance of its slender, long and close-set gill-rakers to whale-bone. It is also known as "basking-shark," because of its habit of remaining quiet for hours in one place. It reaches a length of 40 feet, and its skin is rough and covered with small spikes. It is usually seen in the brooding season, sluggishly swimming in groups, on the surface of the water, and undisturbed by the approach of boats. Bonebreaker, the great fulmar-petrel (Ossi- fraga giga)itca) of the islands and coasts of the South Pacific and Atlantic oceans. It is as large as an albatross, and feeds mainly upon the carcasses of dead seals and cetaceans, whose bones it is capable of breaking with its A'ulture-like beak. Boner, John Henry, American poet and literary worker: b. Salem, N. C, 31 Jan. 1845. A contributor to the magazines, he was on the editorial staff of the "^Century Dictionary' and the ^Standard Dictionary,' and was at one period literary editor of the New York World. He has written *^ Whispering Pines' (1883), a volume of verse. Boner, Ulrich, ool'riH bo'ner, the most ancient German fabulist, a Dominican friar at Bern, in the first half of the 14th century. His collection of fables under the title *Der Edel- stein' (the Gem), is distinguished by purity of language and picturesque simplicity of descrip- tion. The first editions of these fables were by Bodmer and Eschenburg. Benecke published a very good edition with explanatory notes and an excellent vocabulary (1816) ; that of Pfeiffer appeared in 1844. and a recent imprint is found in Reclam's ^Universal Bibliothek' (1895). Boneset, or Thoroughwort ( Eupatorlum perfoliatuin), a stout, ill-smelling perennial herb of the natural order Compositce, native of America, common in moist soil. The plants, which attain a height of sometimes eight feet, are often planted as ornamentals in low ground. In midsummer when the profusion of purplish or white flowers are in full blow they are strik- ing objects. The foliage and flowers have been used as a tonic in domestic medicine, their in- tensely bitter taste being supoosed to commend them for this purpose. See Eupatorium. Bonet, Juan Pablo, hoo-an' pab'lo bo-net', Soanish teacher of the deaf and dumb of the 17th century, distinguished as one of the first teachers of this class, and the author of a re- markable work ^Reduccion de las letras y artes para ensenar a hablar a los mudos,' published in IVIadrid, 1620. It explained his method o! instruction, cdntaining the first alphabet for the deaf and dumb, and was of good service to Dalgarno, Wallis, and, a century later, to the Abbe de I'Epee, who acknowledged his indebt- edness to Bonet's labors. Bonfiglio, or Buonfiglio, Benedetto, ba-na- det'to bdn-fe'lyo, Italian painter: b. 1425 (?) ; d. 1490 ( ?). His chief work was the frescoes of the Palazzo Connmale at Perugia, where he lived. These frescoes placed him in the first rank of the painters of the Umbrian school. It is be- lieved that he also assisted Pinturicchio in dec- orating the Vatican. Bong'abong, Philippines, a town in the southeast part of Luzon, with an estimated pop- ulation of 20,000. It lies in a mountainous dis- trict, and attained military importance as the headquarters of a regiment of United States troops. The town has a municipal government based upon popular election. Bongar, bon'gar. a serpent of the genus Bungarus. See Krait. Bonghi, Ruggero, rood-ja'ro bon'ge, Ital- ian scholar and publicist : b. Naples, 21 March 1826; d. near Naples, 22 Oct. 1895. The com- mencement of his brilliant career indicated scholarly activities only, for he made fine stud- ies and versions of Aristotle and Plato ; but latterly he took up such subjects as *The Finan- cial History of Italy, 1864-8' (1868); *The Life and Times of Valentino Pasini' (1867), and 'The Life of Jesus' (1890); ^The Roman Festivals' (1891) ; the popularity and value of these and other works giving him great promi- nence. He held professorships in several Italian universities ; was minister of public instruc- tion in 1874-6; was a member of the Chamber of Deputies nearly continuously from i860; founded the Stampa, the leading Turin journal, and the magazine *Cutura,' of which he was editor at the time of his death ; and presided over the International Peace Congress held in Rome in 1891. Bon'go, or Obongo, the name of a negroid people in the basin of the Ogowe River, in the French Congo. They live by the chase, grazing, and agriculture, and are skilful workers in iron. Bongo, a large west African bushbuck (q.v.). Bonham, Milledge L.. American lawyer and soldier: b. Edgefield, S. C, 25 Dec. 1813; d. White Sulphur Springs, N. C, 27 Aug. 1890. He graduated at South Carolina College. 1834, was admitted to the bar. 1837, and served as a representative in Congress 1840-4. In 1836 he was major and adjutant-general of the South Carolina Brigade in the Seminole war in Flor- ida: and colonel of the I2tli U. S. Infantry during the Mexican war. In 1856 he was elected to Congress as a State Rights Demo- crat, and re-elected in 1858. but left Congress 21 Dec. i860, when the South Carolina delega- tion withdrew. Commissioned a brigadier in the Confederate army, 19 April 1861 ; he com- manded Beauregard's centre at the first battle of Manassas, but gave up his commission to enter the Confederate Congress. 27 Jan. 1862. He was governor of South Carolina 1862-4, when he was again commissioned a brigadier- general, and was serving with Gen. Johnston BONHAM — BONHOMME RICHARD at the time of the latter's surrender. In 1868 he was a delegate to the National Democratic con- vention in New York. Bonham, Texas, a town and county-seat of Trannin County, situated on the Texas & P. and the Denison, B. & N. O. R.R.'s. It is the seat of Carlton College, and the Masonic Female Institute. As the centre of an agricul- tural region it has a large export trade, especially in cotton. Its chief manufacturing in- dustries are flour mills, cotton-gins, machine- shops, carriage and wagon factories, tobacco factories, etc. Pop. (1900) 5.042. Bonheur, Frangois Augusta, frah-swa a-gust b5-ner, French painter, brother of Rosa Bonheur: b. Bordeaux, 4 Nov. 1824; d. 2,3 Feb. 1884. The beauty of his landscapes has been much praised. He was made Cheva- lier of the Legion of Honor in 1867 and received numerous medals. Bonheur, Jules Isadore, zhiil ez-a-dor bo- ner, French painter and sculptor, brother of Rosa Bonheur (q.v.) : b. Bordeaux, 15 May 1827. In the Salon of 1848 he exhibited both paint- ings and sculpture but in later years confined himself to sculpture. Medals were awarded him in 1865 and 1867. Among noted works of his are ', and confirmed by the Emperor Honorius, who declared the anti-pope Eulalius a usurper. Boni- face condemned Pelagianism, and extended his authority by prudent measures. In a contest with the Emperor Theodosius, who endeavored to take from the bishops of Thessalonica their canonical jurisdiction over Illyria, he success- fully vindicated the primacy of the Roman See. Boniface II., elected 530; d. 532. The death of his rival, the anti-pope Dioscorus, a few days after his election, left him in quiet possession of the papal chair. During his pontificate St. Benedict laid the foundations of monasticism in the West. Boniface III., chosen 607, died nine months after his election. Boniface IV. reigned 608-615. He consecrated the Pantheon to the Virgin and all the saints. Boniface V., a Neapolitan, was Pope 619-625. He confirmed the inviolability of the asylums, and endeavored to diffuse Christianity among the English. Boniface VI., a Roman, elected 896, died a fortnight after. Boniface VII., anti- pope,, elected 974 during the lifetime of Benedict VI., whose death he was suspected of having caused. Expelled from Rome he returned on the death of Benedict VII., and found the chair occupied by John XIV., whom he deposed and threw into prison, where he died. Boniface died II months after his return. Boniface VIII., BONIFACIO — BONITO Benedict Gaetano : b. Anagni of an ancient Cata- lonian family; elected Pope 24 Dec. 1294. He studied jurisprudence, was a canon at Paris and Lyons, advocate of the consistory, and prothono- tary of the Pope at Rome. After Martin IV. had elevated him to the dignity of a cardinal (1281) he went as legate to Sicily and Portu- gal, and was intrusted with the charge of recon- ciling the king of Sicily with Alphonso of Aragon, and Philip the Fair with Edward I. of England. After Coelestine V. had resigned the papal dignity at Naples, in 1294, at the insti- gation of Boniface, the latter was chosen Pope. He met with opposition from the cardinals of the family Colonna, whose antagonism followed him throughout his entire pontificate. His in- duction was magnificent. The kings of Hungary and Sicily held his bridle on his way to the Lat- eran, and served him at table with their crowns on their heads. Boniface, however, was not successful in his first efforts for the increase of his power. He first opposed Albert of Aus- tria in his contest for the imperial title, but finally yielded and crowned him emperor. He was equally unsuccessful in his attempt to arbi- trate between England and France. The bulls which he issued at this time against King Philip the Fair of France obtained no consideration. This was also the case with the interdict which he pronounced against him at the Council of Rome in 1302. Intimidating the clergy in France, Philip refused to yield to the Pope's de- crees. The Pope was accused of duplicity, of simony, of usurpation, of heresy, of unchastity ; and it was resolved to condemn and depose him at a general council at Lyons. Philip went still further ; he sent Nogaret to Italy in order to seize his person and bring him to Lyons. No- garet united himself for this purpose with Sciarra Colonna. who with his whole familj' were bit- terly inimical to Boniface. Boniface fled to Anagni, where Nogaret and Colonna surprised him. Boniface acted with spirit. "Since I am betrayed,* said he, "as Jesus Christ was betrayed, I will die at least as a Pope.'^ He assumed the pontifical robes and the tiara, took the keys and the cross in his hand, and seated himself in the papal chair. But the insignia of his holy office did not save him from seizure. Nay, Colonna went so far as to use personal violence. Boniface remained in imprisonment for two days, when the Anagnese took up arms and delivered him. After this he departed to Rome, where he died, a month later, in 1303. Boniface IX., Pietro Tomacelli of Naples, suc- ceeded Urban VI. at Rome during the schism in the Church, while Clement VII. resided in Avignon. He was distinguished for the beauty of his person and the elegance of his manners, rather than for a profound knowledge of the- ology and canon law. Even the counsel of his experienced cardinals could not save him from the commission of gross blunders. He made the annates a regular tax in 1392. Many abuses in the sale of benefices were indulged during his pontificate. A notable event in his reign was the suppression of the rebellion in Rome in favor of a Republic. He supported the pre- tensions of Ladislaus to the throne of Naples, and during the greatest part of his pontificate was engaged in negotiations at Avignon with his rivals, Clement VII. and Benedict XIII. He died 1404. Bonifacio, Veneziano, va-nad-ze-a'no b(5' ne-fa'cho, Italian painter: b. Venice, abqut 1525; d. about 1579. He belonged to the Vene- tian school and his 'Saint Jerome and Saint Margaret' ; 'Saint Barnabas and Saint Sylves- ter' ; 'Saint Anthony and Saint Mark' are still in the Venice Academy. Bonifacio, bo-ne-fa'cho. Strait of, the Fre- tum Gallicuni of the Romans, lies between Cor- sica and Sardinia, and at the narrowest part is only seven miles wide. The navigation is diffi- cult owing to the rapid current and the great number of rocks, which, however, are favorable to the production of coral. Bonifazio Veronese, bo-ne-fa'tse-o va-ro- na'sa (the Elder), Italian painter: b. Verona, 1490 ; d. 1540. He was a notable colorist of the Venetian school and many of his works have been attributed to Titian and to Giorgione, whose styles he imitated. Among known works of his are 'The Finding of Moses' in the Dresden Gallerj', and 'Dives and Lazarus' in the Venice Academj'. Bonin (bo-nen') Islands, several groups of islands. North Pacific Ocean, extending from lat. 27° 44' 30" to 26° 30' N., south of and belong- ing to Japan. The northwest island of the most northern cluster, called Parry Group, is in lat. 27° 43' 30" N. ; Ion. 142° 8' E.; the cluster consists of small isles. The largest of the chain is Peel Island, on the west side of which is a good harbor called Port Lloyd, in lat. 27° 5' 30" N. ; Ion. 142° 11' 30" E., nearly surrounded by hills crowned with palm trees. Almost every valley has a stream of water. Green turtle abound in the sandy bays. Sharks are numer- ous, and fish of several kinds plentiful. Peel Island is inhabited by some English, Americans, and Hawaiians, who cultivate maize, vegetables, tobacco, and the sugar-cane. It is frequently visited by vessels in want of water and fresh provisions. The islands were discovered by the Japanese in 1593 and since 1876 have been in the possession of Japan. Pop. about 1,400. Bon'ington, or Bennington, Richard Parkes, English painter: b. 25 Oct. 1801, at Arnold, a village near N^oltingham, where his father was a painter and lace manufacturer; d. London, 23 Sept. 1828. When Richard was in his boyhood the family removed to Calais and afterward to Paris. He early displayed a de- cided predilection for art, and entered as a student at the Louvre, and was also for a time in the studio of Baron Gros. His genius dis- played itself in landscape-painting, and he rap- idly rose to great eminence in this department, first in Paris and afterward in England, to whose Royal Academy Exhibition he contributed several pictures which created a great sensa- tion. He worked at first entirely in water-color, but from about 1825 he also used oil. A bril- liant career was in prospect for him, when he was cut off by pulmonary consumption. See Muther, 'History of Modern Painting' (1896). Bonito, bo-ne'to, a fish of the mackerel family {Scoinbridcr) nearly related to the gigan- tic tunny, but smaller, longer in body, and with- out teeth on the vomer. There are two Ameri- can species. One (Sarda sarda) lives in the open seas, except at spawning time, from Cape Cod to Cape Sable, and occasionally in the Gulf of Mexico, where it weighs 10 to 12 pounds. In color it is dark steel blue above, BONITZ — BONNEMERE with numerous dark narrow strips obliquely downward and forward from the back, and the under parts, silvery. The California bonito or skipjack (Sarda chiliensis), is heavier and is found from San Francisco northward to Japan. In the tropics, the bonito is known as the worst foe of the flying-fish. On the Rhode Island coast the fish is called abbicore. Bonitz, Hermann, her'man bo-nits, Ger- man classical scholar: b. Langensalza, 29 July 1814 ; d. Berlin, 25 July 1888. He was professor in the University of Vienna, 1849-67, director of a gymnasium at Vienna from 1867, and a mem- ber of the Academy of Sciences. He was a profound student of Plato and Aristotle and was the author of ^Ueber die Kategorien des Aristoteles^ (1853); ^Platorische Studien^ (1858-60) ; ^Aristotelische Studien^ (1862-7). Bonn, a city of the Prussian province of the Rhine, formerly the residence of the Elect- ors of Cologne, on the left bank of the Rhine, over which there is a magnificent new bridge, erected at a cost of |i, 000,000, with a central span of 600 feet. It is a flourishing place, and has been greatly extended and improved in re- cent years, though it still has many narrow ir- regular streets. The town hall, completed 1782, is one of the handsomest of its edifices. An- other important building is the cathedral, cruci- form in plan, and forming an imposing and picturesque example of the late Romanesque style of architecture. The greater part of it dates from the 13th century. But all other buildings and institutions are eclipsed by the celebrity of the university, the charter of which w^as given 18 Oct. 1818, at Aix-la-Chapelle, by the king of Prussia, who at the same time endowed it with an annual income of about $60,000. The former residence of the Elector of Cologne was bestowed on the university, and was fitted up at great expense, being sur- passed in extent and beauty probably by no university building in Europe. The university possesses a library of more than 275,000 volumes, 1,235 incunabula and 1,376 MSS. ; a museum of antiquities, a collection of casts of the principal ancient statues, a collection of coins, observa- tory, botanic garden, etc. The paintings in the Academical Hall (among others, the great allegorical picture, the * Christian Church^) were executed by some pupils of Cornelius. In the front of the university is an extensive garden, with fine old avenues of trees, while from this quarter runs westward a broad straight avenue, half a mile long, planted with horse- chestnuts, passing the observatory, and leading to the botanic garden and natural history collec- tions of the university, and to the chemical laboratory, the anatomy building, etc. In this quarter also are grounds and buildings for the use of the agricultural institute. Particular advantages are afforded for the education of young men intended for instructors. Many men distinguished in various branches of science have been connected with the university, includ- ing Arndt, A. W. Schlegel, and the historian Niebuhr. The exertions of the government to collect in Bonn all the means of instruction, united with the charms of the place and the beauties of the scenery, have made the place famous. In igoi the students numbered over 2,400. The manufactures, which are not very important, comprise carpets, machinery, soap; chemicals, stoneware, etc. The means of com- munication are ample, both by the steamers which ply upon the Rhine and by the railways. Prince Albert studied at Bonn and Beethoven was born there, the house of his birth being now a museum. There are statues of Beetho- ven and Arndt, a monument commemorative of the war of 1870-1, a monumental fountain, etc. The antiquity of Bonn is considerable, and, as the residence of the electors of Cologne, it is of historical importance. Pop. (1900) 50,737. Bonn, University of. See Bonn. Bonnassieux, Jean, zhoh bo-na-sye, French sculptor: b. Paunissieres, 1810; d. 1892. He studied in Paris and in 1836 received the Prix de Rome. He gained the favor of the French clergy by refusing to model a statue of Voltaire for the fagade of the Louvre and thereafter did much work for churches. He was commissioned in 1857 to model a colossal statue of Notre Dame de France for the valley of Puy from the bronze cannon taken at Sebastopol. Other important works of his are ^ Amour se conpant les ailes' ; ^ David Berger, 1814' ; and ^Medita- tion,' for which last he received the cross of the Legion of Honor. Bonnat, Leon Joseph Florentin, la-6n zho- sef fld-roh-tah bo-na, French painter: b. Bay- onne, 20 June 1833. When a young man he spent several years in Spain and Italy. He studied under Madrazo at Madrid, and under Leon Cogniet at Paris, first gaining recognition at the Paris Salon in 1861, when he received a second-class medal. The list of his honors is a large one, including the medal of honor at the Salon of 1869. In the Legion of Honor he was made chevalier in 1867, officer in 1874, and commander in 1882. He paints portraits and genre subjects; many of these are reminiscences of his visits to Italy and Egypt. He became a member of the Institute in 1874, and was cho- sen chief professor of painting in the Ecole des Beaux Arts in 1888. His work shows the influence of Velasquez and Ribera, and his por- traits, such as those of Thiers, Victor Hugo, and Don Carlos, are remarkable for their real- ism. He has painted the portraits of many Americans and his portrait work is well known in this country. Bonnechose, Frangois Paul Emile Bois- normand de, fran-swa pol a-mel bwa-nor- man bon-shoz, French poet and historian : b. Leyerdorp, Holland, 1801 ; d. 1875. He was librarian of the palace of Saint Cloud for some years and subsequently held similar posts. His one notable poetical composition is ^The Death of Bailly' (1833). Besides a ^History of France' he was author of 'Reformers Before the i6th Century Reformation' (1844) ; *^The Four Conquests of England' (1851) ; 'History of England' (1859) ; 'Bertrand du Guesclen' (1866). Bonnemere, Joseph Eugene, zho-sef e-zhan bon-mar, French historian: b. Saumur, 21 Feb. 1 81 3. In early life he wrote a number of plays ; but owes his reputation to a series of historical publications, 'History of the Peasants' (1856) ; 'Vendee, in 1793' (1866) ; 'Popular History of France' (1874-9) ; 'History of the Religious Wars in the Sixteenth Century' (1886); etc. BONNER — BONNET-ROUGE Bonner, Edmund, English prelate: b. about 1495 ; d. London, 5 Sept. 1569. For his skill in canon law he was patronized by Cardinal Wol- sey, on whose death he acquired the favor of Henry VIII., who made him one of his chap- lains, and sent him to Rome on business con- nected with his divorce from Queen Catharine. In 1535 he was made archdeacon of Leicester. In 1538 he was nominated bishop of Hereford, being then ambassador at Paris ; but before his consecration he was translated to the see of London. In 1542-3 he was ambassador to the Emperor Charles V. After Edward VI. 's accession in 1547 he was deprived of his bishopric for non-obedience in connection with the injunctions and the ^Book of Homilies.^ He was shortly afterward restored, but still continuing to act with contumacy, he was, after a long trial, once more deprived of his see, and committed to the Marshal sea (1549) ; from which prison, on the accession of Mary, he was released, and once more restored in 1553. Dur- ing this reign a most sanguinary persecution of the Protestants took place, many of whom Bon- ner was instrumental in bringing to the stake, though it appears he was hardly severe enough to meet the wishes of the king and queen. When Elizabeth succeeded he went with the rest of the bishops to meet her at Highgate, but was coldly received. He remained, however, un- molested, until his refusal to take the oath of supremacy ; on which he was committed to the Marshalsea (1560), where he remained a pris- oner for nearly 10 years, until his death. He was buried at midnight, to avoid any disturb- ance on the part of the populace, to whom he was extremely obnoxious. Bonner, Robert, American publisher: b. near Londonderry, Ireland. 28 April 1824 ; d. New York, 6 July 1899. Coming to the United States in 1839 he learned the printer's trade on the Hartford Cotirant, and gained the reputation of being the most rapid compositor in Con- necticut. In 1844 he removed to New York, and seven years later had saved enough money to buy the plant of the "^ Merchants' Ledger,^ a small business periodical. Changing its name to the ^New York Ledger,^ he turned it into a literary publication, printing the most popular kind of stories. This, combined with sensa- tional advertising methods, and the unprece- dented prices paid to famous contributors, soon gave the * Ledger' an enormous circulation. Henry Ward Beecher was paid $30,000 for his ^^Norwood'^ ; Tennyson received $5,000 for a short poem, and Dickens the same amount for a short story. At times $25,000 a week was spent in advertising the paper. Retiring in 1887, the rest of his life was spent in indulging his taste for fast horses. It was his ambition to own the fastest trotters in existence, and whenever he purchased a record breaker, the animal was immediately withdrawn from public racing. His expenditures for fast horses ex- ceeded $600,000. Some of them and their cost were : Dexter. $35.000 ; Rarus, $36,000 ; Maud S., $40,000; Sunof, $41,000. He was a generous giver to many charitable institutions and causes, to Princeton University and the Fifth Avenue Presbyterian Church. He had a genuine dis- like for publicity, and many of his benefactions were never made public till after his death. Bonnet, Charles, Swiss naturalist and metaphysician: b. Geneva, 13 March 1720; d. Genthod, 20 May 1793. His essay *0n Aphides,* in which he proved that they propagated with- out coition, procured him in his 20th year the place of a corresponding member of the Acad- emy of Sciences at Paris. Soon afterward he partook in the discoveries of Trembley respect- ing the polypus, and made interesting observa- tions on the respiration of caterpillars and but- terflies, and on the structure of the tapeworm. Bonnet was a close and exact observer. He carried religious contemplations into the study of nature. In his views of the human soul many traces of materialism are to be found ; for instance, the derivation of all ideas from the movements of the nerve fibres. Of his works on natural history and metaphysics there are two collections; one in 9 volumes 4tc, the other in 18 volumes 8vo (Neufchatel, 1779)- The most celebrated are' ^Traite d"In- sectologie* ; *Recherches sur I'Usage des Feuilles dans les Plantes* ; ^Considerations sur les Corps organises* ; ^Contemplation de la Nature* ; ^Essai analytique sur les Facultes de I'Ame* ; ^Palingenesie Philosophique* ; and ^Essai de Psychologie.* Bonnet, in fortification, an elevation of the parapet at a salient angle, designed to pre- vent the enfilading of the adjoining front of the work, where it is situated. The bonnet accomplishes, however, only part of this object, and is subject, at least in field-works, to the dis- advantage, that the men destined for its defense are too much exposed to be taken in flank by the fire of the enemy, on account of the neces- sary elevation of the banquette, a fault which cannot occur in the works of a fortress which are well laid out. The term also denotes a covering for the head, now especially applied to one worn by females. In England the bon- net was superseded by the hat as a head-dress two or three centuries ago, but continued to be distinctive of Scotland to a later period. Bonnet-head, a small shark of the genus Reniceps, frequenting warm seas and related to the shovel-heads (q.v.). Bonnet Monkey. See Macaque. Bonnet-piece, a Scotch coin, so called from the king's head on it being decorated with a bonnet instead of a crown. It was struck by James V., and is dated 1539. Bonnet-pieces are very rare and in high estimation among anti- quaries. Bonnet-rouge, bo-na-roozh, an emblem of liberty during the French Revolution, and worn as a head-dress by all who wished to show themselves sufficiently advanced in democratical principles. It is said by some to have been adopted in imitation of the Phrygian cap of the same color which was worn by those who had obtained emancipation from slavery, while others maintain that it had a much more lowly origin, and was borrowed either from the Marsellais bands that flocked to Paris, or from a few Swiss soldiers who, having been sentenced to the galleys for insubordination to their officers, obtained their liberty on the acceptance of the constitution in 1790. Having returned in a kind of triumphal procession, wearing the red cap, which had formed part of their galley dress, the fancy of the people was struck, and the BONNEVAL — BONNIERES bonnet-rouge was considered indispensable to every true patriot. Even the unfortunate Louis XVI. wore it when paraded through the streets, after narrowly escaping with his life from the mob which had burst into his palace. After it had ceased to be generally worn, it became the •distinctive badge of the men of the Mountain. During the storms of more recent periods at- tempts have repeatedly been made to bring it again into fashion. These have not been suc- cessful, but the revolutionary cap rejected by France has met with a more favorable reception abroad, particularly among the newly formed republics of America, where it is often stamped upon coins, or used as an emblem upon seals. Under the restoration of the Bourbons the sou- briquet of bonnets-rouges was applied to indi- viduals who either had figured in the revolution or were supposed to hold revolutionary prin- ciples. Bonneval, bon-val, Claude Alexander (Count de or Achmet Pasha), French ad- venturer : b. Coussac, 1675 ; d. Constantinople, 1747. In the war of the Spanish Succession lie obtained a regiment and distinguished him- self by his valor as well as by his excesses. He was, in 1706. appointed major-general by Prince Eugene, and fought against his native country. At the Peace of Rastadt in 1714, by the inter- ference of Prince Eugene, the process against him for high treason was withdrawn, and he was allowed to return to his estates. In 1716 he was lieutenant field-marshal of the Austrian infantry, and distinguished himself by his valor against the Turks at Peterwardein (1716). In 1 718 Bonneval was made a member of the imperial council of war, but his licentiousness and indiscretion induced Prince Eugene to get rid of him by appointing hmi in 1723 master- general of the ordnance in the Netherlands. To revenge himself on Eugene, he sent com- plaints to Vienna against the governor, the Marquis de Prie ; but the latter received an order to arrest Bonneval, and to imprison him in the citadel of Antwerp. Bonneval being afterward ordered to appear at Vienna and give an explanation of his conduct, spent a month at The Hague before he chose to comply with the summons. He was therefore confined in the castle of Spielberg, near Briinn, and condemned to death by the imperial council of war ; but the sentence was changed by the emperor into one year's imprisonment and exile. Bonneval now went to Constantinople, where the fame of his deeds and his humanity toward the Turkish prisoners of war procured him a kind re- ception. He consented to change his religion, received instructions in Mohammedanism from the mufti, and received the name of Achmet, with a large salary. He was made a pasha of three tails, commanded a large army, defeated the Austrians on the Danube, and quelled an insurrection in Arabia Petrsea. His exertions, as commander of the bombardiers, to improve the Turkish artillery, were opposed by the jeal- ousy of powerful pashas, the irresolution of Mohammed V., and the dislike of the Turkish troops to all European institutions. He enjoyed, howev.er, the pleasures of his situation. The memoirs of his life under his name are not genuine. Bonneville, bon-vTl, Benjamin L. E., Amer- ican soldier and explorer: b. France about 1795; d. Fort Smith, Ark., 12 June 1878. He gradu- ated from West Point 1815, became a captain of infantry 1825 ; and in 1831-6 engaged in an exploring expedition to the far West, across and beyond the Rocky Mountains. His journal and other manuscripts were edited and enlarged by Washington Irving, who published them under the title of 'Adventures of Captain Bonneville, U. S. A.^ (1837). He fought with gallantry in the Mexican war, taking part in the siege of Vera Cruz, the battle of Cerro Gordo, the capture of San Antonio, battle of Churubusco, where he was wounded, the battle of Molino del Rev, the storming of Chapultepec, and the en- suing assault and capture of the city of Mexico. In 1857 he commanded the Gila expedition, and in 1861 was retired from active service, "for dis- ability resulting from long and faithful service, and from sickness and exposure in the line of duty.* In 1865 he was brevetted brigadier- general in the regular army '*for long and faith- ful services.* See Cullum, <^ Officers and Grad- uates of the U. S. Military Academy,' Vol. I. (1868). Bonneville, Lake, a lake of the Pleistocene epoch that twice filled a now desert basin of Utah. At its greatest dimensions it had an area of 20,000 square miles, and was 1,000 feet deep. Bonney, Charles Carroll, American lawyer: b. Hamilton, N. Y., 4 Sept. 1831 ; d. Chicago, 111., 1903. In 1850 he removed to Peoria, 111., took an active part in establishing the present educational system of that State; was admitted to the bar 1852, settled in Chicago in i860, and acquired a large and successful practice. He was one of the originators of the law and order movement and was president of the National Law and Order League 1885-93. .In i893 he was the organizer and general president of the World's Congresses held at the Columbian Ex- position ; there were over two hundred of them, and they proved a marked feature of the World's Fair. Besides numerous pamphlets, addresses and essays on public questions he has written ^Rules of Law for the Carriage and Delivery of Persons and Property by Railway' (1864) ; 'Summary of the Law of Marine, Fire, and Life Insurance' (1865) ; 'Our Remedy in the Laws' (1887) ; and edited A. W. Arrington's 'Poems' (1869). Bonney, Thomas George, English geolo- gist : b. Rugeley, 27 July 1833. He was president of the Geological Society of London 1884-6, and in 1899 became vice-president of the Royal Society. He has written 'Outline Sketches in the High Alps of Dauphine' (1865) ; 'The Al- pine Regions' (1868) ; 'The Story of Our Planet' (1893) ; 'Charles Lyell and Modern Geology' (1895); 'Ice Work' (1896); 'Vol- canoes' (1898), and four volumes of Sermons. Bonnie Blue Flag, a popular Confederate ballad first sung in public at the Varieties Thea- tre in New Orleans in 1861. Bonnieres, Robert de, ro-bar de bon-ni-ar, French journalist and novelist: b. Paris, 7 April 1850. He began his literary career as contribu- tor to Paris journals of spirited but waspish bi- ographies of contemporary men ; these were collected and published in three successive vol- umes of 'Memoirs of To-Day.' His novels are full of transparent allusions to noted persons, BONNIVARD — BONSTETTEN and have had a very great vogue. In one of them, *The Monarch, > he portrays high Jewish society in Paris. Bonnivard, Frangois de, frah-swa de bo- ne-var, Swiss patriot, a younger son of a ' family which held large possessions under the House of Savoy: b. Syssel about 1496; d. Ge- neva, 1570. In 1513 he became prior of St. Victor at Geneva, but falling under the suspi- cion of the Duke of Savoy, was taken prisoner by him in 1519. After 20 months' imprisonment he was set free, but^in 1530 he was agam seized and taken to the castle of Chillon at the east end of the Lake of Geneva, where he was im- prisoned for six years, the last four in that subterranean vault which Byron has made famous by his poem on the sufferings of *The Prisoner of Chillon.^ He left the town his books, which were the nucleus of the Geneva library. His chief works are his *Chroniques de Geneve' (1551; new ed. 2 vols. 1831), and *De I'Ancienne et Nouvelle Police de Geneve' (1555)- See Gribble. 'Lake Geneva and Its Lit- erary Landmarks' (igoi). Bonny, a river of west Africa, one of the mouths of the Niger. The town of the same name is situated on the eastern bank of the river near its mouth. It has a good harbor and does a considerable trade in palm-oil, but the climate is unsuitable for Europeans. Pop. about 8,000. Bonnycastle, Charles, English mathema- tician: b. Woolwich, 1792; d. Charlottesville, Va., October 1840. He was professor of math- ematics at Woolwich Military Academy, pro- fessor of natural philosophy in the University of Virginia (1825-7), and of mathematics there from 1827. His publications included 'Ele- ments of Geometry' ; 'Elements of Algebra' ; 'Mensuration,' etc. Bonnycastle, Sir Richard Henry, English military engineer : b. 1791 ; d. 1848. He was a brother of Charles Bonnjxastle (q.v. ) and spent the greater part of his life in British North America. He was author of 'Spanish America' (1818) : 'The Canadas in 1842' (1842) ; 'Canada and the Canadians in 1846' (1846) ; and 'Canada as It Was. Is, and May Be' (1846). Bonomi, Giuseppe, joo-sep'pe bo-no'me, Italian artist: b. Rome, 9 Oct. 1796; d. 3 March 1878. He was a .son of Giuseppe Bonomi, the architect. He studied art in London, and be- came famous as a draftsman, especially of Egyp- tian remains. He repeatedly visited Egypt and the Holy Land, and illustrated important works by Wilkinson, Birch, Sharpe, Lepsius, and other Eg3'ptologists. He also published a work of his own on Nineveh, and at his death was curator of Soane's Museum. Bononcini, or Buononcini, Giovanni Bat- tista, jo-van'ne bo-non-che'ne, Italian com- poser: b. Modena about 1660; d. about 1750. His proficiency on the violoncello gained him admittance into the band of the Emperor Leo- pold at Vienna, where, at the age of 18, in emulation of Scarlatti, he wrote an opera called 'Camilla,' which was favorably received. In England for several years scarcely any opera was tolerated which did not contain some of Bononcini's airs, and upon the almost simul- taneous arrival of himself and Handel in Lon- don, notwithstanding the superiority of the lat- ter, two parties, the one for Bononcini and the other for Handel, were formed, betv/een whom an exciting contest was waged for several years. Gradually, however, Bononcini's popularity waned, and having been detected in an act of musical plagiarism, he left England in 1733, found his way to Paris and Vienna, and fmally went to Venice, where all traces of him are lost. Bononcini, Giovanni Maria, Italian musi- cian: b. Modena, 1640; d. 19 Nov. 1678. He was educated at Bologna, was in the service of the Duke of Modena, Francis II., and also maestro di capella of San Giovanni in Monti. He was considered an authority on the theory of music on account of his work 'Musico prat- tico' ; he also wrote numerous musical compo- sitions, both vocal and instrumental. Bonone, bo-no'na. Carlo, Italian painter: b. Ferrara, 1569; d. 1632. He studied the works of the Caracci and Veronese, and shows the influ- ence of both styles in his own work. He taught painting in Ferrara, having many prominent painters of the town under his instruction. Among his paintings are 'The Arisen Christ' and 'Patriarchs and Prophets.' Bonpland, Aime, a-ma boh-plaii, Jacques Alexandre, French naturalist, noted as the friend of Humboldt, and the companion of his wanderings: b. Rochelle, 22 Aug. 1773; d. Cor- rientes, Argentina, May 1858. He studied medi- cine, and served for a while in the French navy as surgeon. Having returned to Paris to con- tinue his studies, he there made the acquaintance of Humboldt, then a young man actively en- gaged in the pursuit of scientific knowledge at the French capital. On the latter projecting his journey to the New World, Bonpland read- ily agreed to accompany him, and shared in all the adventures and toils of that celebrated ex- pedition. In the course of it he collected up- ward of 6,000 plants, previously unknown, and on his return to France in 1804 presented his herbarium to the Museum of Natural History, and had a pension granted him by the Emperor Napoleon. A great friendship subsisted between him and the Empress Josephine, who frequently endeavored to cultivate in her garden at j\j"^al- maison the flowers whose seeds he had brought from the tropics. On the Restoration he pro- ceeded to South America, and became professor of natural history at Buenos Ayres. He sub- sequently made an extensive journey across the Pampas to the foot of the Andes, and ascended the river Parana into Paraguay, but was ar- rested by Dr. Francia. the governor of Para- guay, as a spy, and detained a prisoner for eight years, till 1829. He afterward settled at San Borja, near Monte Video, and after 1850 lived at Corrientes. Bonsai, Stephen, American journalist: b. Virginia, 1863. He was educated at Concord and Heidelberg. In the Bulgarian-Servian war he was special correspondent of the New York Herald, serving in the same capacity in Mace- donia and Cuba. He has been secretary of Legation of the United States in Pekin. Madrid, Tokio. and Corea. He has written 'The Real Condition of Cuba' ; 'The Fight for Santiago' ; 'Morocco as It Is' ; ^Across the Pacific' Bonstetten, bon-stet'en, Karl Victor von, Swiss publicist: b. Bern, 3 Sept. 1745; d. Ge- neva, 3 Feb. 1832. He studied at Leyden, Cam- BONTEBOK — BOOK bridge, and Paris; entered the council of Bern, and became district governor, and, in 1795, a judge in Lugano. He lived in Italy and at Copenhagen from 1796 to 1801, and after his return settled at Geneva. Among his larger works are *Recherches sur la Nature et les Lois de rimagination-* (Geneva 1807) ; "^Pensees Di- verses' (1815); ^Etudes de L'Homme* (1821), and *L'Homme du Midi et L'Homme du Nord^ (1824), an examination of the influence of cli- mate. Several volumes of his correspondence have been published. Bontebok, bon'te-bok, a small South American antelope (Bubalis pygargtts) closely allied to the blessbok (q.v.), but a slightly larger size, and having the continued white blaze on the face to the root of the lyrate horns. See Hartbeest. Bonus Bill, an act reported to the United States House of Representatives by John C. Calhoun, 23 Dec. 1816, appropriating ^*as a fund for constructing roads and canals" the $1,500,000 paid by the United States bank as a bonus for its charter privileges, and all future dividends from its stock. The real object was to build the Erie Canal, which New York did not feel able to do alone. Its managers, — De Witt Clinton, Gouverneur Morris, etc., — relying i>n the ad- ministration holding the same ideas which Jef- ferson and Gallatin had formerl}' voiced, formed a "log-roll" in Congress with various local in- terests, and carried the bill by 86 to 84 in the House, and 20 to 15 in the Senate, the opposi- tion being scatteringly local rather than sec- tional, or constitutional ; but Madison vetoed it on strict-construction grounds. The apparent injury was to New York: the real injury was to the South. New York went on and built the canal herself, giving her an irresistible ad- vantage over her rivals, while the South was not rich enough to build the canals from the Chesapeake to the Ohio, enriching Maryland and Virginia, nor from the Santee to the Ten- nessee, enriching the Carolinas and Tennessee, and if the general government had helped the Erie it must have helped the others also. Bonvalot, Pierre Gabriel, pe-ar ga-bre-el bon-va-lo, French explorer: b. Espagne, Aube, 1853. He traveled in central Asia, 1880-2; Persia, Turkestan, and the Pamirs, 1885-7 ; and in Siberia and Tonkin, 1889-90. He has written .X;ia.>d. In addi- tion to his central publishing house he had dis- tributed in various portions of Rome and in- provincial centres, tabernarii, or retail dealers. Horace's publishers were the Sosii in the Vicus Tuscus. Argiletum, Martial says, was the street of the book-sellers, as it was, likewise, of the tailoring shops of fas.iion. By the close of the 1st century a.d.. the Roman book-trade was ex- tensive and well organized. Papyrus was im- ported in great quantities from Egypt, and large staffs of copyists were kept busy preparing edi- tions of various works, the average edition for the general public running from 300 to i.oco copies. Very considerable shipments were made to the provinces. During the Middle Ages book-making and sellmg belonged to the monasteries. The dif- ferent nionasteries transcribed the particular manuscripts treasured in their libraries, and their editions came to have a peculiar value, depending upon the character of the original text and the accuracy of the copy. At the be- ginning of the new learning, the manufacture and sale of books passed to the universities, within which the manifolding of MSS. was done by an organized guild. Outside the universities, however, there was a considerable trade in MSS., beginning with the end of the 14th century. The invention of printing naturally revolution- ized the book-trade. The publications of Guten- berg, Fust, Froben of Basel.. Aldus Manutius of Venice, Estiennes (Stephani) of Paris, Caxton of Westminster, Plantin of Antwerp, and the Elzevirs of Leyden and Amsterdam, are well known. For further information, see the article Book, above referred to ; and American Pub- " LISHING. Book-worm, the ''book-worm" of librarians is probably the larva of a boring beetle (Ano- bium paniceum) one of the family Ptinid(P. These worms are small white grubs like those of weevils, which live in various drugs, dried meat, etc. It also burrows in hard biscuits, re- sulting in the weevily biscuits complained of on ship-board. It more commonly bores in old furniture, causing it to te "worm-eaten.* These grubs become the beetles known as ''death-ticks" or "death-watches" (q.v.). See the various works on entomology and Blade's 'Enemies of Books.' Book of Days, The, a noted work edited by Robert Chambers, 1863. It has for its sub- title 'A Miscellany of Popular Antiquities in Connection with the Calendar.* In bringing it out the editor expressed a desire to preserve interest in what is "poetical, elevated, honest, and of good report, in the old national life" — recognizing the historical, and even the ethi- cal, importance of keeping this active and pro- gressive age in touch with obsolescent customs, manners, and traditions. Beginning with i Jan- uary each day of the year has its own curious or appropriate selection, and its allowance of matters connected with the Church Calendar, — including the popular festivals, saints' days, and holidays, — with illustrations of Christian antiquities in general. BOOK OF THE DEAD Book of the Dead, The. — The literal trans- lation of the hieroglyphic title is : **Coming PERT EM HR— U Forth by Day.'* Modern Egyptologists have adopted the name given by Lepsius : Das Aegyptische Todtenbiich, "The Egyptian Book of the Dead.'' That title, however, is considered unsatisfactory, for the simple reason that it is not one single book dealing exclusively with funereal ritual, but is a collection of books and chapters treating of psychostasia in the '^Double Hall" before Osiris ; the peregrinations of the Ka in the "valley of the shadow of death ;" the Osirian doctrine of resurrection, etc. No better laconic definition of the Book of the Dead can be given than that of the late Sir Peter le Page Renouf. He says : "It is not a book in the usual sense of the word ; it is not a literary whole, with a beginning, middle and end; it is a mere unmethodical collection of religious compositions (chapters) as independ- ent of each other as the Hebrew Psalms." Part of the Book of the Dead is of remote antiquity, dating back to the pre-dynastic period. There are numerous late copies of it in the museums of Europe and of this country, but the best and most complete copy is the Papyrus Ani, in the British Museum. It contains one hundred and eighty-six chapters, and is beauti- fully illuminated ; and, although about 3,400 years old (belonging to the XVIII Dynasty), it is well preserved. A fac-simile of that Papyrus was published by order of the trustees of the British Museum, and translated (1895) by the eminent Egyptologist, Dr. E. A. Wallis Budge. Several excellent translations have been made into French, German, and English of various papyri of the Book of the Dead. There are several versions of the book extant. That of Heliopolis, which was subjected to numerous modifications and recensions, is considered the most ancient; then the Theban version of which the Papyrus Ani is an example — dating from the middle of the XVIII Dynasty. These two versions are written in hieroglyphics, in vertical columns and in cursive linear style. Two other ver- sions of a later period are written in hieratic as well as in hieroglyphic characters. Com- plete translations of the Book of the Dead were made by Birch, Brugsch, Pierret, Pleyte, Massy • Davis, from the French translation by Pierret), Le Page Renouf, and Budge. The style of writing and the vignettes, repre- senting embalming, funeral processions, weigh- ing of the heart, etc., have undergone great changes in the course of time, and the texts of some of the Theban school in the XVIIT Dynasty differ materially from later produc- tions; i. e., the Papyrus Ani (Theban recension), contains one hundred and eighty-six chapters, and the Turin papyrus, of a later period, con- tains only one hundred and sixty-five chapters. The late Sir Peter le Page Renouf, for many years keeper of the Egyptian antiquities in the British Museum, says : "Out of many manuscripts which are extant, no two contain exactly the same chapters or follow exactly the same arrangement." The earliest texts, before the XVIII Dynasty, are fragmentary, inscribed on the walls of tombs, monuments, sarcophagi, mummy carton- ages, etc. The plate is one of the numerous presentations upon the walls of the Egyptian tombs of that period, many of which have been faithfully reproduced in the magnificent volumes of the Description de TEgypt, and in Lepsius, etc. It represents part a of tomb XXIV, now in the Sepulchral Chamber of the Royal Mu- seum, Berlin, showing Prince Merab, son of Khufu, the builder of the great Pyramid of Gizeh (about 4000 years b.c.) enjoying himself after his beatification with the same good things he was accustomed to have in his former life. The sum and substance of the Book of the Dead is chapter CXXV, generally considered the most ancient. It is always connected with a vignette, which depicts the beatification of "The Osiris," in the presence of the presiding deities in Amenti, when the "Negative Confes- sion" and the weighing of the heart of the dead before the supreme deity in the netherworld takes place. Before proceeding with the description of psyclwstasia, it is necessary to say a few words concerning the deities taking part in the weigh- ing of the heart in the supreme tribunal of Osiris, called "The Double Hall," represented* in this plate. The name which every dead Egyptian as- sumed was that of the chief deity of Amenti, called "Osiris." As Osiris was considered the type of life after death, it was only natural that in the development of their mythology he should become the chief god of Amenti — the Justifier of the dead. Osiris, according to Egyptian legend, was a prehistoric king, the embodiment of goodness. His brother, the wicked Set, becoming envious, treacherously killed him, cut the corpse in pieces and hid them in different parts of the land. Osiris' sister-wife, Isis, accompanied b}'^ her sister Nephthys, collected the scattered parts, which were then embalmed by the god Anubis. By means of magic, which Thoth, the god of letters and science, taught Isis, she resuscitated the body. Finally, Horus, son of Osiris and Isis, avenged the death of his father, by engag- ing Set, or Typhon, in combat and killing him. In the course of time Isis, Horus, etc., came to be considered as gods, and Osiris became identi- fied with Turn, the setting sun, symbolizing death; and Horus on the horizon (Her-em- khu, sometimes called Her-em-Khuti), the type of birth and resurrection. Thus the Ka, whilst wandering through the regions of darkness and molested by demons, is the dead Osiris. After the weighing of his heart and if found not wanting, he is beatified and obtains new life. He is no more Osiris the dead, but Osiris Horus, the resurrected. Plate b represents the weighing of the heart in the tribunal of the netherworld, Amenti; presided over by the supreme deitj' Osiris (Ausar). On the extreme right and left of the hall are two massive pillars, carved to imitate bundles of lotus stalks, fastened together near the top of the column. The deceased at the entrance to the hall is in an adoring attitude; his uplifted arms are supported by Maat. the goddess of truth and justice. She is always MERCHANT KENNA WEIGHED IN THE BALANCE IN THE DOUBLE HALL OF JUSTICE MERCHANT KENNA JUSTIFIED BOOK OF MORMON present in the Judgment Hall and is represented headless, with an ostrich feather in place of the head. Her figure, sometimes only the feather of her headgear, is placed in the scale-pan, opposite the one containing the vase with the heart.* The jackal-headed Anubis and the hawk-headed Horus superintend the weighing. In the scale-pan to the right is the weight in the shape of the goddess Maat. This scale is adjusted by another divinity un-named in the hieroglyphic text. In the scaie-pan to the left is a jar containing the heart of the departed. Upon the beam of the balance sits the dog- headed ape deity called Hapi. The little figure seated on the crook to the left represents the new birth after the justification of the "Osiris.** Close to the balance stands the ibis-headed scribe Tlwtli, with his tablets, recording the re- sult of the weighing. Close in front of him, upon a shrine, sits the adversary (the Egyptian Cerberus), called in hieroglyphics Amemit, the devourer of the dead, in the shape of a strange being composed of three beasts : hippopotamus, lion and crocodile, ready to destroy the Ka in case he should, after weighing, be found wanting. Immediately facing the throne is an altar full of sacrifices, consisting of bread, geese, onions, lotus flowers, buds, and burning incense. Be- neath the altars are jars containing wine and other liquids for oblations. At the head of the hall is Osiris himself, sitting upon a throne which is richly decorated wuth ankhs, emblems of life, and uas, emblems- of purity. He is closely shrouded, and wears the white crown of Upper Egypt, called Aief, ornamented with two ostrich feathers, the symbols of truth and jus- tice; his hands crossed upon his breast, on his wrists are bracelets. He holds in his right hand the Nekhekh, scourge; and in his left, Hek,\.\\Q crooked staff, symbolical of justice. Above are the forty-two divine assessors, seated in two rows of twenty-one each, with different type of head, such as the heads of apes, serpents, crocodiles, etc., adorned with the feather repre- senting truth and justice, and each holding in his hand a sharp-pointed knife. The Ka of the deceased stands, in beseeching posture, with hands raised, in front of each row of the judges. The same chapter (125) contains the con- fessions of the deceased. Every one of the forty-two judges whom the deceased called by their proper names had to pronounce him inno- cent, he emphatically affirming before each of them in turn that he did not commit any of the forty-two sins. The negative confession is very interesting but space forbids the mention- ing of more than a few of them. The judge having to consider the crime of theft was id- dressed by the deceased as follows : "O De- vourer of Shades, coming out of the orbits . . I have not stolen;'* another was addressed: "O Eyes of Flames, coming out of the shrine I have not played the hypocrite;" "O Cracker of Bones, coming out of Suten Khcnt (Bubastis) . . I have not told falsehoods;*' "O Swallower, coming out of Khnem . . I have not blasphemed ;** <'0 Eater of Hearts, coming out of the thirty . . I have not made conspiracies;** «0 Eye in the Heart, coming out of the land of Salui . , I have not defiled the river,** etc. * Many of the Pharaohs adopted her name in their royal titles. /. ^•..Ramesis II styled himself Se Ra. Usur Ma, " Son of the Sun, the Keeper of Truth." Among Other sins denied are : "I am not sluggish ; I have not made to weep ; I am not a landgrabber ; I committed not adultery ; I ana not a slayer of man ; I tamper not with the balance ; I do not cheat,** etc. Howsoever absurd the Egyptian Pantheon may appear to our eyes, we must acknowledge from the evidence of these forty-two confessions, that they possessed a superior code of morality, a code which included not only our decalogue, but much of the ethical teachings and humanity of modern civilization. The vignettes of this chapter, as we have already remarked, vary. The finer illuminated papyri made for royal personages or high priests and priestesses are exquisitely illuminated and the texts are unabridged. For instance, the Papyrus of Kii is more than sixty-five feet long. The Papyrus of Ani is seventy-eight feet long by one foot and three inches wide. Most copies of the Books of the Dead are defective, others betray gross ignorance on the part of the scribe or copyist. The common people who were unable to purchase a well- written and illuminated text for their dead had to be satisfied with a cheaply, badly written, abridged copy. The scribes must have possessed a large stock of blanks on hand, containing spaces to be filled with the deceased (Osiris') name. Some of the Egyptian scribes were as dishonest as most of the embalmers. As the papyrus was to be placed witn the mummy, the mercenary scribe or embalmer substituted a spurious for a good one. Samuel A. Binion, Author of '■Ancient Egypt or Misraim.' Book of Mormon, a collection of 16 dis- tinct books professing to be written at different periods by successive prophets. Its style is an exceedingly clumsy and verbose imitation of that of the common English translation of the Bible, portions of which, to the number in all of 300 passages, are incorporated without acknowledgment. It constitutes the scriptures of the members of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-Day Saints. Joseph Smith, an Ameri- can, of Manchester. N. Y.. professed to have heard in 1823 the Angel Moroni reveal to him in visions that the Bible of the Western Con- tinent was buried in a box near his residence. This, according to his own account, he at length found — a volume six inches thick, with leaves of thin gold plate, eight inches long by seven broad, bound together with three gold rings ; on which leaves was a mystic writing that he char- acterized as reformed Eg^'ptian. With the book he professed to have found a pair of magic spec- tacles, bv means of which he was able to read the contents, which he dictated to an amanuen- sis. This book consists of an alleged history of America from 600 B.C., when Lehi and his fam- ily (descended from the dispersion after the building of the Babel tower) landed in Chile. Between the descendants of Nephi, Lchi's youngest son, and the offspring of his older brothers, who are the North American Indians, long conflicts waged : the Nephites finally being almost annihilated. There remained a fragment, among whom were Mormon and his son, Moroni. They collected the records of their people, and buried them in the hill of Cumorah, on the Divine assrirance that they would be found by the Lord's prophet. Besides this his- tory, the book, as it finally was received, has various moral and religious teachings. The real Vol. -53- BOOK OF NONSENSE — BOOKBINDING history of it is as follows: Solomon Spalding, an eccentric Presbyterian preacher, wrote a historical romance in 1809, which a compositor, into whose hands it fell, sold to Smith. This was, in substance, the ^Book of Mormon, > which Smith issued, and to which various addi- tions have since been made. See Mormon. Book of Nonsense, A, a nursery classic by Edward Lear. It is made up from four minor collections published at intervals during a long life. The author began as an artist; colored drawings for serious purposes were supplemented by others for the amusement of the groups of little ones he loved to gather around him ; and the text added to them has proved able to endure the test of time without the aid of draw- ing, and much of it has become part of the rec- ognized humorous literature of the language. Book of Snobs, The, a series of sketches by William Makepiece Thackeray. It appeared first in * Punch,' and was published in book form in 1848. The idea of the work may have been suggested to Thackeray when, as an undergrad- uate at Cambridge in 1829, he contributed to a little weekly periodical called the *Snob.' Bookbinding, the art of arranging, fasten- ing together, and covering sheets of paper com- posing a book, including the ornamentation or decoration of the covers. Following the use of rolls of papyrus or wax-covered tablets, leaves of parchment were introduced, and it became necessary to fasten or bind them together. This improvement in fonn is, on somewhat doubtful authority, attributed to Attains II., king of Per- gamus, about 150 B.C. The monks were the early bookbinders, up to the time of the invention of printing, and examples in the British Museum dating as far back as 700 a.d. illustrate the great labor be- stowed on their most precious manuscripts. All the early specimens were bound in heavy boards, strong metal clasps, and bands, and the material used in covering varied from the parch- ment and iron to ivory, enamels, and jeweled silver and gold. The invention of printing made a great change in the art of bookbinding, the delicate, beautiful specimens, the workmanship of Jean Grolier and many nameless Italian and French binders em- ployed by Grolier, Macoli, and others contrasted strikingly with the rather clumsy, inartistic work of the monks. It was not until 1820 that cloth was introduced as a covering, invented, it is said, by Archibald Leighton, one of the most enterprising and suc- cessful of London binders. In the < Bookseller' of 4 July 1881 there is an interesting account by Robert Leighton of the invention of cloth by his father. The embossing of bookbinding cloth was suggested to the late Mr. de la Rue, and was carried out so admirably by him, with the appliances he possessed for embossing paper, that his process remains comparatively un- altered. The desired pattern was engraved on a gun-metal cylinder, and transferred in reverse to one made of compressed paper, strung upon an iron spindle, and turned in the lathe the ex- act circumference of the gun-metal one, and these two being worked together in a machine, and the pattern transferred from one to the other, the cloth was passed between them and received the impress of the pattern. Extra work and edition work are the two classes into which bindings may be divided. Extra work bound with greater care, and largely by hand methods, forming a small por- tion of all books bound. Edition work being the binding of quantities, principally by machinery. The following description will apply to extra work, and methods in vogue do not differ greatly from the process of hundreds of years ago, al- though the use of the press and plow, hammer and backing boards is giving way to the trim- ming, smashing and backing machines. The first process takes the sheets from the printing press, folds them in sections of 8, 16 or 22 pagos, done generally by a girl pressing each fold down with a bone folder in such a manner that the pages come in consecutive order. If a book con- tains 320 pages it will be seen that 20 sections or signatures are required to complete it. When all the sections are folded, they are gathered up in order and collated, that is, examined to see that each signature follows in proper sequence. Smashed or hammered, the book is then ready to sew. Throughout the world in binderies given up to extra work will be found a frame of peculiar make called a sewing-bench. On this is stretched bands or cords of soft twine in a ver- tical position, and to these the signatures are at- tached by passing the needle and thread through the middle of the signature and around each band or cord, and the raised bands showing on back of book inform how many cords the book has been sewn on, although in many cases grooves are sawed in the back of the book into which the cords fit, and false bands are pasted on back to show the raised band effect. The book is taken down from the sewing bench and an inch or more of twine is left on each side to be later laced through holes punched in the boards. Before this is done the marble or colored linings are pasted on the front and back of book inside the first fly leaf. Leather or cloth joints in some cases are added. The book is then trimmed in a cutting or trimming machine ; formerly the edges were trimmed by a knife called a plow while the book was clamped firmly in a press. Before cutting the back is struck forcibly against an iron plate, to square up the signature, then placed against gauge, set to position desired and clamped, knife descending and cutting book while under pressure. After trimming the three sides the book is again carefully knocked up and a thin coating of glue, sometimes flexible in character, is well rubbed in between signatures, for unless this is done the signatures will show a tendency to split open, where one signature joins another. The book is then rounded by drawing or shaping the curve, at same time beat- ing in a peculiar manner with a flat-faced ham- mer, then clamped in pair of jaws, and the joints drawn over by repeated taps of hammer, or in some shops by a heavy roller set in a machine called a backing machine, which clamps the back under treadle movement. Many extra forward- ers round the book before trimming, then knock the round out. After cutting, the book will spring back to its former round, leaving the front concave. In most particular classes of work the boards are laced to book before it is cut. The book is now laced to boards forming the cover and the ends of cords glued down on BOOK OF THE DEAD. BOOKBINDING the inside of the cover. If the edges are to be marbled, gilt or colored, they must go through that process before books are rounded. Marbling. — Prepared colors are thrown in a shallow trough containing gum tragacanth, on which the colors float and spread as desired. The pattern is formed by various combs that mingle the colors. The edges of the book are dipped into the liquid just deep enough for the colors to adhere, and when removed from trough, a sizing is drained over the edges, re- moving the surplus gum and fastening the col- ors more securely to edge. After edges are thoroughly dry they may be burnished with an agate or stone burnisher. Gilding is done by laying thin sheets of gold leaf on the edges of books previously scraped and smoothed with steel scraper and fine sandpaper, and sized heavily with a preparation of white of e^g. When dry it is then burnished with bloodstone, flint and agate burnishers. Colored Edges. — Mix aniline colors with alcohol, adding a little ammonia to drive color in, spread over surface of edges with a fine sponge. If desired, then clamp in press and burnish. The book is then ready for the headbands, linings and cover. The headbands are merely ornamental, and are woven with a colored silk, by machine or made over cords with muslin. The older process was to work over a piece of parchment with col- ored silks and partially fasten to back of book in the weaving or sewing. The back is then lined with strong paper glued on, the amount of stiff- ening varying with the size of book and style of binding, most books being made with loose backs on which false bands are glued. Coverings. — The leather cover is dampened and covered with paste, then drawn smoothly over and turned in, over boards which have previously been laced to the book. After leather has dried, clean out joints and paste against covers the lining papers. Finishing. — Artistic taste of the highest order finds employment in this branch of bookbinding, and an expert finisher must be at once artist and craftsman of much ability. The ornamentation and lettering of fine bindings all are done by hand, the finisher bringing into use many tools and ornaments, cut on brass and fastened into small wooden handles, much depending on the manner of cutting and shaping the tools. The leather must first be prepared with paste wash and a glair or sizing generally made from the white of an egg, over which the gold leaf is laid, and the tools which are heated over a gas burner are then impressed on the gold leaf, the surplus gold being brushed off with a piece of crude rubber. Upon the most careful prepara- tion of leather, the proper heat of tools, and the tooling of book before sizing is too dry, depend the brilliancy or gloss of the impression. Ornamentation without gold is called <^ blind tooling'' and is produced by rubbing or stamp- ing the hot tool on the dampened leather. Few books bound now have such a wealth of orna- mentation and so great an amount of time given to the finishing as was common in Groliers time, although there are still many novel effects produced by the use of inlaid colored leathers, incised leather, etc. After the period of Grolier, the taste for magnificent binding in France ran riot and many indulged in most sumptuous bindings, and designs were prepared under the superintendence of the most celebrated artists. During the i6th and 17th centuries bindings were produced in England which compared fa- vorably with the contemporary masterpieces of French, Italian, and German bibliography, but in the i8th century England took the leading place in the workmanlike forwarding and artistic fin- ishing of books. EDITION WORK. So slow was the process of hand folding, 2,500 signatures of three folds being a fair day's work, a single sixteen folding machine was built with steel points set about fifteen inches apart, over which the sheet is placed, registered exactly on the points, or holes punched into the sheet as it was being printed, a knife descend- ing makes first fold, carrying through rollers ta gauges, when the second knife drops, forcing sheet through second roller, and third knife likewise, making three complete folds, and drop- ping them in a trough at the rate of ten thousand a da}% or in other words, one machine doing the work of four hand folders. It was soon found possible to build double i6-folding machines doing nearly 20,000 sheets daily, and at present in some of the larger edition binderies, special machines have been built which will take a sheet nearly 40 x 60 inches in size, and will turn out 40,000 signa- tures of t6 pages each, equivalent to the work of 16 girls folding by hand. When the books are found complete, they are put through a powerful machine called a smash- ing machine, which compresses and makes solid the book, then to the sewing machine, where each signature in turn is laid over the arms, is carried to a position under a row of curved needles, punches concealed within the arms first make an incision through which the curved needle carries a thread meeting a looper which fastens each stitch. The first and last sheet is. pa.sted before they are placed over the arms, and when finished the book is cut apart from the following book, and the thread is held by the pasting of signature, from unraveling. Following the sewing, books are re-smashed,, the linings and cloth joint pasted in and books are ready for trimming. If it is to be marbled or gilt, the back is tipped with glue to keep the signatures from getting out of square or becom- ing irregular. Trimming. — To remove the rough and un- even edges of the signatures, the book should be cut or trimmed. This may be accomplished in the straight cutter, a machine using one knife which, making a clean, smooth cut, descends while book is clamped, in some machines with a hand clamp, in others, automatically. This machine, while very satisfactory in its results, has given way for the trimming of editions of books to automatic trimmers of various makes, which, unlike the process of trimming in the straight cutter, trims the edges of the top, front and bottom of book without removing from ma- chine. An improvement on the automatic trim- mer is a machine using two knives with each cut of machine, and while the output of this ma- chine is very large, there has just been installed in one of our large school-book binderies, a continuous cutter which permits the books to be BOOKKEEPING constantly fed into the machine, and the output is so large, the machine is in a class by itself. After trimming and gilding, marbling or col- oring, it is glued over back with thin coating of glue well rubbed in between the signatures to prevent the breaking between signatures, which, while not taking from the strength of binding, looks as if poorly bound; just before glue is dried too thoroughly, book is fed against the gauges of the rounding and backing machine, the front rolls of machine drawing or rolling the round under pressure, then carried to back part of machine where a backing plate rotates against the back and forms the joints. This machine will do the work of six to eight men. After the process of rounding and backing, headbands are prepared by forming muslin over a cord or twine ; the backs of books are thor- oughly glued, headbands affixed at top and bot- tom of back, crash lining cut to extend about one inch or more over the joints, is rubbed on with a bone folder, heavy manila paper is then glued against the book and well rubbed in, after which books, when thoroughly dried, are ready to case in, or in other words, put in the covers which have previously been prepared. Boards called binder's boards are cut in rotary cutters to proper size for books ; cloth is cut sufficiently large to overlap about one half to three quarters of an inch, and fed over a cylinder which, revolving, carries it against glue rollers, which place a thin coating of glue thereon. This glued piece of cloth is carried to a certain part of ma- chine and awaits the laying thereon of boards and strip of back lining paper which has been forwarded by a clever device from the rear part of machine. Grippers then carry it through rollers after end and side slides have turned in the cloth over the board, and a rubber belt de- livers it on stand completely finished. Stamping. — The ornamentation of both cloth and leather covers for most bindings other than single books or single sets is rapidly and neatly accomplished by a process called stamping. .Stamping was introduced to overcome the dif- ficulty in hand tooling the cotton cloth and prin- cipally for reason of the need of a much cheaper and quicker method for lettering and ornament- ing the increased quantities of books sold when the muslin or cloth was introduced as a binding for books. The process of casing, as it is called, con- sists in pasting the outer end leaves of a book, placing in proper position on cover, and cover then is drawn over and book shifted to secure evenness of squares or margins, then built up on press boards with brass rims which press into the joints, and after several hours' pressure, suf- ficient time being given to thoroughly dry, the books are removed from press, opened up and examined, wrapped and boxed for delivery. Edwin S. Ives, Of Edzvin Ives & Sons, Neiv York. Bookkeeping is the recording of the trans- actions of a business so that the resources and liabilities may be readily exhibited. Transac- tions are recorded in the order of their occur- rence in such books of original entry as may be imposed by the nature of each business or which conform to the requirements of the accounting system in use. If but a single book is used for this purpose, its form is usually that of the day-book, which contains a narrative of all the transactions as they occur. Formerly this was the general procedure, but it is found that busi- ness can be expedited by classifying the transac- tions in separate books, consequently the cash- book, purchase-book, and sales-book are now commonly used concurrently. Whatever may be the character and extent of the original records, the transactions are ultimately transferred in classified form to the ledger, which is the princi- pal book of accounts. There are two systems of bookkeeping in use, namely, single and double entry. The primary element in each of the two systems is the Account. In bookkeeping by single entry only accounts with persons are kept in the ledger, and the profits and losses are ascer- tained solely by comparison of past with pres- ent conditions ; in other words, by taking the difference between the net worth at the begin- ning and the net worth at the close of a stated period. The principal books used in single entry are the day-book, cash-book, and ledger. Being a simple though necessarily imperfect method, single entry is used chiefly by retail traders. Bookkeeping by double entry, as the term im- plies, is that mode in which every transaction is entered twice, first on the debtor side of one or more accounts, and next on the creditor side, thereby keeping the ledger perpetually in balance. The chief objects of keeping accounts, it may be stated, are to determine (i) the amount of profit or loss during a definite period, and (2) the amount of net capital or net insol- vency at the end of such period. The system of double entry gives the net capital or net insol- vency in two different ways, from two different sources, the one corroborating the other, and constituting what is called the balance of the books. Upon the classification resulting from this arrangement rests the claim of double entry bookkeeping to be considered as a science. Bookkeeping,- like most other sciences, has adopted a terminology of its own to avoid circumlocution. For example, the terms debtor and creditor, usually abbreviated Dr. and Cr., are used arbitrarily to designate the right-hand and left-hand side, respectively, of an account. An account is a collection of items, under an appropriate title, so arranged as to give a result by comparison. Journalizing is the mental process of decid- ing how every transaction is to be disposed of in the ledger ; that is, what accounts are to be debited and credited in each case. Posting is the transferring of debit and credit items to their proper accounts in the ledger. A trial bal- ance is a list of the open accounts in a ledger together with' the debit and credit footing of each account. A business statement is a sum- marized exhibit of those accounts which com- prise all items of revenue, otherwise de- nominated a profit and loss account. A financial statement is a compilation of those accounts having to do with capital, in other words, a balance sheet. A balance sheet is a condensed statement of the resources and liabilities of a business. It is usually com- piled from the trial balance and inventory sched- ules at the end of a fiscal period and it is frequently accompanied with a profit and loss statement which confirms the increase or diminu- tion of finance as displayed in the balance sheet proper. The function of a balance sheet is. BOOKKEEPING therefore, to present a scientific statement of the financial condition of a business at a speci- fied date. The problem presented in bookkeeping, as may be inferred from the foregoing, is that of exhibiting financial transactions as they occur in the most minute detail, and ultimately in the most condensed form. The best solution of this problem in any given instance, depends largely upon the nature of the individual business the operations of which are to be recorded. The advantages of the double entry system over the single entry system may be summar- ized briefly as follows: (i) The susceptibility of infinite modification in its minor features without disturbing the general results as shown in the balance sheet ; (2) the constant equilibrium of debits and credits, the mathematical proof of which is afforded in the trial balance; (3) the separate classification of capital and revenue accounts, the resultant statement of each class being confirmatory of the accuracy of the other ; (4) the displaying of the channels through which profit and loss items have accrued, thus revealing the methods by which the movements of the business have been financed; (5) the provision for the ascertainment of gross profit on the different departments of a business by means of the trading accounts ; (6) the working economy resulting from the introduction of special columns in the books of original entry ; and (7) the ease with which a thorough audit can be conducted at any time, this circumstance serving as a check upon erroneous entries. A double-entry ledger, as before stated, is the book of accounts. As such it is a concrete ex- pression of the principle of classification, and the philosophic basis of the "science of accounts* is displayed therein with mathematical preci- sion. Each separate account contained in the ledger is built up on the theory of comparison. Thus, the items of one side denote increase or plus of financial ability, those of the other side denote its decrease or minus. Hence, to know the proper place in the ledger in w-hich to assign each item in a transaction, is to know the laws, principles, and objects of each account in the ledger ; and a false entry can only be proved false by showing its want of conformity to some principle of the ledger. Take the cash account for illustration : The left-hand or debit side contains the items of cash received ; and the right-hand or credit side the items of cash dis- bursed ; the difference between the receipts and payments will, -necessarily, be the balance or amount of cash on hand, which, in this case, can be confirmed by actual count. Again, the mer- chandise account shows on the debit side the value- of the goods on hand at the beginning and the cost of all subsequent purchases ; the credit side shows all returns or sales of such goods, to which is added the value of the goods on hand at the end; the difference or balance, being the excess of production over cost, or of cost over production, as the case may be — in other words, the gain or loss. Each separate account, therefore, is constructed in accordance with a fixed and unalterable plan and each con- tributes a definite result which must be con- sidered in the final showing. Being based upon the theory of the equation, there follows a double lecord of each item in every account with the result that the total debits always equal the total credits when the several accounts are taken together. It should be noted in this connection that finance, only, is the essential object of ac- counts, namely, cash, notes, book debts, or their equivalents ; any other property is only intro- duced into the books to show how far it con- tributed to the increase, or occasioned the dimi- nution of finance, and so to corroborate the actual amount of financial ability found to exist. The great and almost the only source of con- fusion in double entry is that of confounding an account kept to show financial ability with an account to ascertain how much the profit on some property dealt in has contributed to what- ever augmentation may be found in the state of the finances after a certain period of busi- ness. It will be apparent that two distinct ideas are concurrently promulgated through all movements of the business directed toward an increase of wealth. These two ideas are concentrated in the cash and merchandise accounts, respectively, as types of the two classes of accounts. These two classes of accounts have been denominated, business and financial : the former revealing the moveinents of the business, the latter its finan- cial results. In other words, business accounts show the losses and gains, and financial ac- counts show the resources and liabilities. Thus it will appear that the debits of the financial ac- counts show an increase of wealth and the credits decrease, and that the business accounts simply show the same thing reversed. Accord- ingly, the sum of all the resources of a concern less the sum of all its liabilities is its net capital. All increase or diminution of net capital comes from the receiving of more or less for property than its cost or the appreciation or depreciation of property while in possession, or from rent, interest, taxes, and service. The net gain or net loss of a concern, therefore, during any specified period must be exactly equal to the increase or decrease of net capital during the same period. In a manufacturing concern, for example, it is important that the progress of the business be shown at frequent intervals. It should be possible at any time to ascertain the cost of production of each article manufactured and to verify this cost by a statistical compari- son with previous costs. This implies (i) that such a system of stock-keeping be inaugurated as shall -show the amount of material con- sumed in the process of manufacture; (2) that the expenditures for labor be shown for each of the successive steps essential to bringing the article to a completed condition; (3) that costs of superintendence and incidental shop charges be pro-rated; (4) that the general expenses be distributed among the goods manufactured ; (5) that adequate provision be made for depreciation ; (6) that specific reserves be set aside for bad debts, taxes, contingencies, etc., and (7) that final profit shall be based on the total inclusive cost of production. The application of scientific principles to the accounting system should enable the management to have placed periodically before it, such facts relating to the cost of production as are essential to the shaping of a successful policy in these times of intense industrial competition. The manner of recording transactions before they are arranged in the ledger, varies in almost every business, but this variation presents no confusion whatever when the different accounts embodied in the ledger are thoroughly under- BOOKKEEPING £tood. Double-entry accounting, in fact, ad- mits of a great variety of modifications, erro- neously, in many cases, called systems. The so-called voucher system, for instance, now ex- tensively used in railway and manufacturing cor- porations, is an expedient for eliminating from the ledger individual accounts with creditors. At the same time, by the device of special col- umns in a voucher register, it facilitates the most minute subdivision of revenue expenditures and renders periodic comparison of such items possible to any degree desired. In most lines of business special columns may also be intro- duced in the cash-book, sales-book, and journal for the purpose of minimizing the mechanical labor of posting, the aggregate of each column being transferred to the corresponding ledger accounts instead of the separate items. The principle of consolidated postings is applied in dividing the accounts of the general ledger among a series of subordinate ledgers, a com- Loose leaf and card ledgers, impression sales- books, duplicate order blanks, and the many me- chanical devices for the curtailing of labor or the securing of expediency or directness in re- cording, do not come within the limits of this discussion which is intended rather to give a general view of the subject and its underlying principles. Auditing. — Broadly stated, it is the province of the accountant to devise the accounting sys- tem and to specify the nature and character of the records that shall be kept ; it is the duty of the bookkeeper to perform the routine work of recording the transactions of the business in accordance with the plan outlined by the ac- countant ; it is the function of the auditor to examine critically the completed records of the bookkeeper, to compare the entries with the documents, to ascertain if the plans of the ac- countant have been strictly followed, and. finally, to prepare the profit and loss account and certify FORM OF DAY BOOK. New York, July i, 1903. Joseph Hardcastle began business this day with the following resources and liabilities: Cash on hand. Bills receivable, note signed by B. F. Williams, Elston E. Gaylord owes him on account, Stock of goods on hand at present value, Total resources, Bills payable, for note favor Charles W. Haskins, Leonard H. Conant for amount owed him on account, Total liabilities, Joseph Hardcastle's net capital, Bought of Henry R. M. Cook on account 200 bush, potatoes @ $1.10, 3 Received cash for B. F. Williams' note now due, Sold Edgar M. Barber on account at 30 days, 60 bbls. apples @ $3.50, 400 bush, corn @ 8oc., Received from Elston E. Gaylord, cash in full of account, 6 Lent O. P. Kinsey, cash, receiving his note at 90 days with interest at five per cent. 6000 4000 2500 5000 8400 2850 210 320 17500 11250 6250 530 2500 40 mon division being: general, sales, and pur- chase ledgers. Each of these ledgers can be made self-balancing, if desired, by means of special columns in the books of original entry, a controlling account being kept in the general ledger, representing the aggregate sums in each of the subordinate ledgers. A separate ledger can thus be appropriated, if the magnitude of the business demands it, to the names beginning with each letter of the alphabet, or any number of letters may be included in one, as A to K, A to G, etc. By this means separate duties may be assigned by the accountant to a large number of subordinates, the general ledger con- sisting of but few accounts, from which, how- ever, he is enabled to show promptly the con- dition of the entire business. A private ledger is kept by some proprietors for the purpose of withholding from subordinates certain informa- tion. The difference between the total debits and credits of the private ledger accounts should complete and confirm the general trial balance. Capital, profit and loss, investments, and other accounts can be kept in this manner with per- fect security. to the correctness of the balance sheet. It is incumbent upon the auditor to exercise every faculty and means in his power to determine (i) that the liabilities are all stated; (2) that the resources are not overstated; (3) that the profit and loss account contains all expenses chargeable to the period under review; (4) that the profits earned are all included; (5) that proper charges against revenue have not been capitalized ; and (6) that intentional errors, ir- regularities, and fraudulent entries have not been permitted. The professional duties of the competent public accountant and auditor, there- fore, cover a wide range of technical knowledge and commercial experience. A large number of text-books on elementary bookkeeping have been published, principally for schoolroom instruc- tion. For a broader treatment of the subject application for special reference books may be made to members of the State Societies of Certi- fied Public Accountants and the American Asso- ciation of Public Accountants, or the following works may be consulted: Lisle, ^Accounting in Theory and Practice^ ; Dicksee, *^ Auditing^ ; Broaker, 'American Accountants' ManuaP ; BOOKKEEPING this to the ner, Cost Accounts/; Keister, ^Corporation is proper to state that in the preparation of Accounting and Auditmg> ; Metcalf, 'Cost of article the undersigned is also indebted to tw. Manufactures^ ; Lewis, 'Commercial Organiza- writings of Mr. Thomas Jones and to sugges tion of Factories); Matheson, 'Depreciation of tions from Prof. Joseph Hardcastle, two of the Factories'; Whmney, 'Executorship Accounts> ; ablest writers on accounting that America has Garcke & Fells, 'Factory Accounts' ; Norton produced. - - - FORM OF JOURNAL. New York, July i, 1903. Edgar M. Barber. CcrliUcd Public Accountant. L.F. 2 3 9 5 IS Cash, Bills receivable, Elston E. Gaylord, Merchandise, Bills payable, Leonard H. Conant, Joseph Hardcastle, Merchandise, Cash, Henry R. M. Cook, 3 Edgar M. Barber, Bills receivable, 4 Merchandise, 5 Cash, Elston E. Gaylord, 6 Bills receivable, Cash, 6000 4000 2500 5000 4000 530 2500 1000 8400 2850 6250 530 2500 40 FORM OF CASH BOOK (Debit Side). 1903 ' July I Balance on hand, 16428 42 2 Merchandise, cash sales. ^ 450 bS 6 Bills receivable, A. C. Lobeck's note, 3 3500 9 Herbert H. Swasey, on account, 10 4000 15 Bills receivable, M. A. Bigelow's note, 3 692 48 15 Interest on above 7 7 20 20 James G. Cannon, on account. II 1200 25 Merchandise, cash sales. 5 1570 83 28 Lyman J. Gage, on account, Cash Dr., lb 2 230 09 1 165 1 25 28079 67 ' FORM OF CASH BOOK (Credit Side). 1903 July 4 7 8 10 16 16 Merchandise, Invoice No. 43, Garner & Co., Bills payable, note favor W. F. Wakeman, John L. N. Hunt, on account Expense, cartage. Bills payable, acceptance Charles E. Sprague, Interest on above, 30 days, Cash Cr., Balance, 5 15 12 4 15 7 2 12000 1740 1235 14 2000 10 75 50 • 17000 1 1079 25 42 28079 67 FORM OF LEDGER ACCOUNT. Merchandise. Dr. Cr 1903 July I 12 31 On hand. Chas.H.Parkhurst. Profit and Loss 31 10 <;ooo 8471 974 % 1903 July 4 16 31 1 W.J.Kinsley, Note at 30 days, Inventory. 18 24 2764 6041 5640 25 90 14446 15 14446 15 BOOK-PLATE FORM OF BALANCE SHEET. COMPANY JULY I, I9O3. Resources. Cash on hand, Cash in bank, Stocks and bonds, as per Schedule A, Properties as under: Land, per Ledger valuations. Buildings, per Ledger valuations, Plant ana machinery, less deprecia- tion, Inventory of stock, valued by Mr. as under: Raw material, Goods unfinished, Goods manufactured. Sundry trade debtors as under: Bills receivable as per Schedule B, Accounts receivable, as per Schedule C, Less reserve for discounts. Prepaid charges as under: Insurance premiums. Rent for July, 1903, Liabilities. Mortgages payable. Interest due and accrued. Sundry trade creditors as Bills payable as per Schedule D, Accounts payable as per Schedule Capital stock, Reserve for ■ Surplus, under: E, Book-plate, a printed or engraved label, usually decorative, placed on the inside cover of a book as the owner's symbol. In a certain sense, any individualized label is entitled to the name; but as usually understood, the term is restricted to those with some special artistic design, which, however, may range from the simplest to the most elaborate and ornate com- position. The elements are — the owner's name; his coat of arms if he has one, usually, but not invariably; allegorical emblems or com- positions ; landscape designs ; mottoes ; quota- tions, etc. In purpose they are probablj^ very ancient : some of the small tablets found in Assyrian libraries are intelligible only as book- plates, and they are accredited to Japan in the loth century. Indeed, something of the sort may almost be predicated of any society where books circulate much. But our modern book- plates are of German descent, and seem to have been nearly contemporaneous with printing, one being mentioned as of the mid-i5th century; the earliest actually known, however, is a hand- colored heraldic wood-cut of about 1480, in some books and luanuscripts presented to the monas- tery of Buxheim, Swabia. The earlier ones were all mere indices of ownership, rough wood- cuts with no artistic design ; they were perma- nently raised into the domain of an art by the great Albrecht Durer (1471-1528), the "father of the book-plate.® He made two for Bilibald Pirckheimer, probably before 1503 — one a mix- ture of armorial and allegorical elements, and the other a large bold portrait of the famous Nuremberg senator ; but his earliest dated one is for Hieronymus Ebner of the same city, in 1516. Several of the great German artists of that age —Holbein, Cranach, Amman, and others — designed book-plates ; indeed, since Diirer's time the best have not disdained this branch of art, and wealthy collectors have vied with each other in costly designs. The idea was soon adopted in other Euro- pean countries. The French wrought with great delicacy and beauty, but Avith too elaborate and profuse decoration. The English were very late in adopting the fashion : the number of examples which have come down from before the Restoration is singularly few, and the first engraved one we possess is that of Sir Nicholas Bacon, father of the Chancellor, dated 1574; though an old folio volume from Henry VIII.'s library, now in the British Museum, contains an elaborately emblazoned drawing which formed the book-plate of Cardinal Wolsey, with his arms, supporters, and cardinal's hat. But after the Restoration they multiply so rapidly that owing to the great number of wealthy English collectors, they far outnumber all the rest of the world, and some of them have considerable historical interest. Pepys had several, one with initials and crossed anchors probably as early as 1668, one with his portrait not earlier than 1685. Among other English names highly prized by book-plate collectors may be men- tioned Bishop Burnet, William Penn, Robert Harley, Matthew Prior, Lawrence Sterne, David Garrick, Horace Walpole, John Wilkes, and Charles James Fox. Among the artists who have engraved them are those of William Mar- shall and Robert White, Hogarth, Bartolozzi, Bewick, and Vertue. Bewick at one time was regularly employed in their production. One of the prettiest of book-plates is that designed in 1793 by Agnes Berry for the Hon. Mrs. Darner, and engraved by l^rancis Legat. The style of design, naturally, has varied with the taste of the age, and is no mean index of its characteristics. The chief English styles have been classified by Lord de Tabley, the leading modern authority, as follows : Early English, entirely armorial, with profuse man- tling, and large fuII-rounded curves surround- ing three and often four sides of the shield. Jacobean, from about the time of James II. to 174s, with a heavy carved appearance, an even balance of proportions, always a regular out- line, and often a carved molding around it which makes a massive rectangular frame — a dignified and reposeful if rather formal st}de. The Chippendale succeeded, lighter and more graceful, with rich curves and airy scrolls, the helmet gone, no set form of shield, and a pro- fusion of careless sprays and garlands, etc. This degenerated with poor artists into an in- congruous mass of overdone and rococo orna- mentation, a heap of all the unrelated objects of nature and art and the most artificial frivoli- ties of design, portraits, and castles, and ruined abbeys, Watteau shepherdesses and shepherds, lambs and dragons, dogs and ships, etc. About 1770 came in the Ribbon and Wreath, with a shield decorated as the name implies, much sim- pler and more tasteful. The American settlers for more than a cen- tury made no attempt at book-plates of their BOOKS own manufacture: the richer colonists looked to England for everything, especially luxuries and articles of culture, and the others had no time or taste for superfluities. Naturally enough, most of these early plates belong in the southern colonies, where there was more of leisure and cultivation of the decorative side of life; but for the same reason, their more in- timate connection with England and preference for its ways, as well as superior taste, they con- tinued to use its book-plates almost exclusively long after American engravers were actively employed upon this branch of work. Very few of the old southern plates are of American de- sign, and consequently they are much less valued by collectors (except for the owner's sake, as with Washington's) than the northern; though the latter are much cruder in heraldry, design, and execution. The earliest dated and signed American plate by a native engraver is that of Thomas Dering, engraved in 1740 by Nathaniel Hurd of Boston ; the next is of John Burnet (1754), by Henry Dawkins, who settled in 1730-77, the best of our early engravers, though there is no doubt that an earlier one of Kurd's was that of Edward Augus- tus Holyoke; Philadelphia and later in New York; then comes that of Benjamin Greene (1757), by Hurd; then of the Albany Society Library (1759). Paul Revere also engraved book-plates ; as did Amos Doolittle of New Haven, Peter Maverick of New York, Alex- ander Anderson of New York (the first Amer- ican wood engraver, sometimes called the *^ American Bewick"), and others, in the north- ern States, especially around the great centres like Boston, New Haven, Philadelphia, and Baltimore. They worked mainly in the Chippen- dale style till it gave place to the Ribbon and Wreath, and originated no new style. The earliest book-plates were of large size, as if made specially for folios ; but a smaller size soon became general, and was used for books of all sizes. Some owners, however, have used different plates for different sizes; some of Sir William Stirling-Maxwell's were of gigantic proportions. The collection of book-plates is a very mod- ern amusement, but has risen to enormous proportions. The first collector known was Dr. Joseph Jackson Howard, and his collection numbered over 100.000. Sir Augustus Wollas- ton Franks of London had one of some 200.000, which he left to the British Museum. A Ger- man nobleman, Count Karl Emich zu Leinin- gen-Westerburg, had also an exceedingly fine one. A number of large and valuable ones exist in the United States, including that of the Grolier Club, which gave in 1894 the fir.st American public exhibition of them. There is a cosmopolite association of collectors and con- noisseurs, the Ex Libris Society of London (1890), issuing a monthly journal, and there are also periodicals devoted to it in France and Germany. There are regular «prices current" of book-plates among dealers, and auction sales as of books. The intelligent study of them is based on the work of the English poet John Byrne Leicester Warren, afterward Lord de Tabley, who published, in 1880, his (1893) ; C. D. Allen's •^American Book-Plates' (1894), Labouchere's 'Ladies' Book-Plates' (1895); Hamilton's 'Dated Book-Plates' (1896) ; etc. Books, Censorship of. Unless we con- sider the burning of condemned books under the Roman emperors as a censorship, the establish- ment of this institution must be attributed to the popes ; but it cannot be denied that it would have sprung up in a thousand other places even if it had not existed in their dominions. Soon after the invention of printing, the popes per- ceived the influence which this art exerted over the diffusion of knowledge. It was besides doubly dangerous at a time when the authority of the Church had been assailed, and was shak- ing under the load of its abuses. They en- deavored therefore to prohibit first the reading, and secondly the printing, of certain literary works. They enforced the ancient decrees of the Church against the reading of heretical books, and introduced an ecclesiastical super- intendency of the press in 1479 and 1496, more completely established by a bull of Leo X. in 1515. In this the bishops and inquisitors were required to examine all works before they were printed, and thus to prevent the publication of heretical opinions. They went still farther: as this papal decree could not be carried into execution in all countries on account of the Reformation, they prepared an index of books which nobody was allowed to read under pen- alty of the censure of the Church. This index was commenced by the Council of Trent, in the fourth session of which (1546) the decree of the censorship was renewed ; but it was not executed, and was finally left to the popes (25th session of 1563), by whom several such 'Indices Librorum Prohibitorum' have been published. Works of an established character, which could not well be prohibited, it was determined to expurgate. The Duke of Alva caused such an 'Index Expurgatorius' to be prepared in the Netherlands ; another was drawn up at Rome in 1607 ; but there are serious difficulties in ex- purgating books. The papal government still continues the policy of prohibiting to the faith- ful the reading of works deemed dangerous, and the Congregation of the Index has still its place and functions at Rome. In Germany the politico-theological contro- versies gave the first occasion for the introduc- tion of this institution, as they were carried on with the greatest violence on both sides. The decree of the German diet in 1524 prohibited them. By the diet of 1530 a more severe super- intendence of the press was established ; and this was confirmed by later laws of the empire in 1541, 1548, 1567, and 1577, etc. It was also provided at the Peace of Westphalia, 1648 (Osnabr. Instr., cap. v. sec. 50), that the states should not suffer attacks on religious parties. From that time the emperors have premised, in their elective capitulations, to watch strictly over the fulfilment of this article. In the capitu- lations of the Emperor Leopold II., 1790, and of the Emperor Francis IL, it was further added (art. vi. sec. 8), "that no work should he printed which could not be reconciled with the symbolical books of both Catholics and Protestant?, and with good morals, or which BOOLAK — BOOLE might produce the ruin of the existing consti- tution, or the disturbance of public peace.^* It was, however, not difficult in most Protestant •countries for individual authors or literary jour- nals to obtain an exemption from the censor- ship ; and many institutions, academies, univer- sities, etc., were privileged in this way as far as concerned their regular professors. The gov- ernments sometimes protected their subjects with great energy; as, for instance, that of Hanover, in the case of Putter and Schloezer. ■Censorship Avas first abolished in England. It was formerly exercised by the well-known Star- chamber, and, after the abolition of this court in 1641, by the Parliament. In 1662 it was regu- lated by a particular statute, but only for a certain number of years. This statute was re- newed in 1679, and again in 1692 for two years more. In 1694 the right of the crown to render the printing of writings, journals, etc., ■dependent on its permission, — that is, the cen- sorship, — ceased entireh'. In Holland, and even in the Austrian Netherlands, a great liberty, if not an entire freedom of the press, prevailed. All that was not permitted to be printed in France appeared in the Netherlands or in Swit- zerland, at Lausanne and Geneva, to the great advantage of the Dutch and Swiss book-trade. In Sweden, by an edict of 1766, and accord- ingly under the aristocratical constitution, the abolition of the censorship was ordered ; yet Gust-avus III., personally a friend to the liberty of the press, was obliged to retain the censor- ship, and even to execute it with severity, during the aristocratical machinations which disturbed "his reign, and which were but imperfectly coun- teracted in the Revolution of 1771. Gustavus IV. issued an edict soon after he ascended the throne, by which the censorship was retained ■only in matters of religion, and was admin- istered by the consistories. This, however, was not permanent ; at first penalties were enacted, and in 1802 the censorship was entirely re-estab- lished, committed to the chancellor of the court, and executed with severity. French and Ger- man books were prohibited. King Charles XIII., immediately after his ascension to the throne, abolished it entirely by a provisional order of 12 April 1809, which was confirmed as an article of the constitution (sec. 86), 6 June 1809. In Denmark, by a royal rescript of 14 Sept. 1770 (under the minister Struensee), the censorship was wholly abolished; neither has it been restored, though the laws by which the liberty of the press has been regulated have been changing, and have sometimes been very oppressive. In France the censorship, which had belonged to the department of the chan- cellor and been administered by royal censors, was annihilated by the revolution. All the con- stitutions, from 1791 to the Charte Constitution- elle in 1814, declare the liberty of the press one of the fundamental laws. During the re- public there was no censorship, but the revolu- tionary tribunals took its place. Napoleon re- stored it in another form by the decree of 5 Feb. 1810 (Direction de ITmprimerie). Since the Restoration it has also undergone various changes. Books of more than 20 sheets have always remained free, but the censorship has been exercised over pamphlets and journals at different periods. Under the government of the Em.Deror Napoleon III. the censorship was re-established with new penalties, and is still maintained. In the kingdom of the Netherlands the cen- sorship was abolished by a fundamental statute of 24 Aug. 1815 (art. ccxxvi.), and this statute is still in force in the kingdom of Holland. By art. xviii. of the constitution of Belgium, 1831, it is declared that the press is free, and that no censorship can ever be established. In the German states the liberty of the press was much restrained till 1806, the state-attorney having till then had control over it. After 1814 several states abolished the censorship, though with very different provisions as to the respon- sibility of authors, printers, and booksellers. In accordance with the unhappy decrees of Carls- bad, 1819, and the resolutions of the German diet of 20 Sept. 1819, the censorship in all the states of the German confederation became one of the conditions of union, but only with re- gard to books of less than 20 sheets, and jour- nals. These laws were repealed in 1S49, but in the course of a few years they were gradually introduced, although in a modified form, and in this form they still exist in inost of the separate German states as well as in the empire. In Russia and Austria there is naturally a despotic censorship. In the United States of America a censorship has never existed. Besides the different degrees of severity with which the censorship is exercised in different countries, it inay be divided into different kinds, according to the field which it embraces, (i) A general censorship of the book-trade and of the press, under which even foreign books can- not be sold without the consent of the censors, exists in Russia, Austria, Spain, etc. (Austria has, in the censorshiD of foreign books, four formulas: (a) admittitur, entirely free; (b) transeat, free, but without public advertisements for sale; (c) erga schedam, to be sold only to public officers and literary men on the delivery of a receipt; (d) datnuatur, entirely forbidden) (2) A general censorship of the press, extending only to books printed in the country, exists in Prussia (edict of 19 Sept. 1788; order of the cabinet of 28 Dec. 1824; law of 12 May 1851). (3) A limited censorship, only over works of less than 20 sheets, and journals, is at present the law in the states of the German empire. See Press, Liberty of the. Boolak, boo-lak', Boulak, or Bulak, an Egyptian town on the Nile, and the port of Cairo. Its site was once an island, but that part of the river which separated it from Cairo has been filled up. In 1799 Boolak was burned by the French. Mehemet Ali rebuilt it, and es- tablished extensive cotton-spinning, weaving, and printing works, a school of engineering, and a printing establishment, from which is issued a weekly new^spaper in Arabic. The town contains a mosque, a naval arsenal, a dockyard, and a custom-house, and is surrounded by the country residences of numerous Egyptian gran- dees. An electric railway connects it with Cairo. Pop. about 13,000. Boole, George, English mathematician and logician; b. Lincoln, 2 Nov. 1815; d. Cork, 8 Dec. 1864. Educated in his native place, he opened a school in his 20th year, and by private study gained such proficiency in mathematics that in 1849 he was appointed to the mathemat- ical chair in Queen's College, Cork, where till BOOM — BOONE rest of his life was spent. In mathematics he wrote on ^Differential Equations' ; 'General Method in Analysis' ; * William Booth of the Salva- tion Army, he prefixed Booth to his own name of Tucker. From 1896-1904 he was commander of the Salvation Army in the United States, but resigned to become secretary of all the branches of the Army outside of Great Britain. Boothby, Guy Newell, English novelist: b. Adelaide, South Australia, 13 Oct. 1867; d. Lon- don, England, 27 Feb. 1905. In 1891 he crossed Australia from north to south, and also traveled in the East. His novels include : 'On the Wal- laby' ; 95,282,3ii 133,690 60,667,145 118,785,831 210,649,353 $42,994,028 111,152 43,001,438 102,442,442 166,050,354 The output of 12 leading manufacturing cities for 1890 and 1900 was as follows : Cities. 1900 1890 Value of Product. 0i Value of Product. Brockton, Mass I 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 II 12 $19,844,397 16,830,733 15,231,440 8,788,424 8,286,156 6,933-111 5-931,045 5-733-432 5,723,126 4,176,826 4,052,204 3-882,655 2 I 3 7 9 6 5 12 4 23 $16,171,624 80,190,695 s6,i37,35^ 6,024,454 '85250,960 6,489,382 6,851,834 2,489,885 7,257,034 39,024 1,508,697 Haverhill, Mass Cincinnati, Ohio Rochester, N. Y Philadelphia, Pa Brooklyn, N. Y Auburn, Me Manchester, N. H The total quantity of boots and shoes m.^n«- factured in 1900 was 219,235,419 pairs, an in- crease over 1890 of 45,372,479 pairs. This is about the same as the percentage of increase in population for the United States. In 1900 89,123,31;" pairs of men's, youth's, and boys' boots and shoes were manufactured, valued at $129,505,235. Women's, misses', and children's shoes were made to the number of 107,415,855 pairs, valued at $112,823,914. Slippers were produced for men, youths, and boys to the num- ber of 4,456,965 pairs, valued at $2,812,213. An- other item "slippers, oxfords, and low cuts for women, misses, and children," is represented by 12,655,876 pairs, valued at $10,146,393. In 1900 capital to the amount of $33-667,533 was invested in the manufacture of rubber boots and shoes, with a total product valued at $41,089,819. Frederick D. Hull, Vice-President '-The Shoe Retailer,^ New York and Boston. Bora, Katharina von, wife of Luther: b. 29 Jan. 1499; d. 20 Dec. 1552. She took the veil very early in the nunnery of Nimptschen, near Grimma; but feeling very unhappy in her situation, applied, with eight other nuns, to Luther, whose fame had reached them. Luther gained over a citizen of Torgau, by the name of BORACIC ACID — BORASSUS PALM Leonard Koppe. who, in union with some other citizens, undertook to dehver the nine nuns from their convent. This was done the night after Good Friday, 4 April 1523. Luther brought them to Torgau, and from thence to Wittenberg. At the same time, to anticipate the charges of his enemies, he published a letter to Koppe, in which he frankly confessed that he was the author of this enterprise, and had persuaded Koppe to its execution ; and he also exhorted the parents and relations of the virgins to admit them again into their houses. Some of them were received by citizens of Wittenberg ; others who were not yet too old Luther advised to marry. Among the latter was Katharina, whom Philip Reichenbach, at that time mayor of the city, had taken into his house. Luther proposed to her several of his friends. She declined these proposals, but declared her willingness to bestow her hand on Nicholas von Amsdorf, or on Luther him- self. Luther, who in 1524 had laid aside the cowl, was not averse to matrimony, yet appears to have been led to the resolution of marrying by reason rather than by passion. This step gave rise to many disadvantageous rumors, some of them as shameful as they were unfounded. After Luther's death Katharina removed from Wittenberg to Leipsic, where she was compelled to take boarders for her support. She after- ward returned to Wittenberg and finally re- moved to Torgau, where she died. In the Church of Torgau her tombstone is still to be seen, on which is a life-size image of her. Borac'ic (-ras'-) Acid, or Bo'ric Acid (from "borax"), a compound of boron with oxy- gen and hydrogen, having the formula H3BO3, and possessing feebly acid properties. It occurs :n an impure state in the crater of Vulcano, one of the Lipari islands. It is also found plenti- fully in Tuscany, where it issues from fissures in the soil, together with sulphurous exhalations, ammonia, and other substances. On account of its having been obtained at Sasso, the acid is called by mineralogists Sassolite. The principal supply of boracic acid is obtained from Tuscany, the exhalations above referred to being passed through water which absorbs the acid. The preparation of boracic acid from these aqueous solutions is an interesting process on account of the natural obstacles which have to be sur- mounted. The apparentlj' simple operation of concentrating the solution, so as to obtain the acid by crystallization, in reality involves great practical difficulties, because in Tuscany the fuel supply is limited. This drawback has been overcome by utilizing the volcanic heat of the district to concentrate the solution. Around the cracks in the soil (called "fumaroles*^ or "soffioni"), from which the steam containing the acid issues, and enclosing the small lakes or lagoons in which it condenses, brick tanks are built on different levels, but communicating with each other. These are supplied with cold water, in which the steam is further condensed. When the water in the tanks is sufficiently salu- lated, it is run off into a deep vessel, where it is allowed to stand until the black mud mechan- ically suspended in it falls to the bottom, and then the cl(;ar fluid is run into a series of shallow evaporating pans of lead. These pans are heated by steam from the soffioni, the steam bemg made to pass under them by a system of flues. As the evaporation proceeds the fluid becomes richer in boracic acid, and when it attains a cer- tain specific gravity, it is passed into a deep vat, where it is allowed to cool. Boracic acid then crystallizes out. The first crop of crystals is quite impure, but it is improved by re-crystal- lization, and the second crop as thus obtained is packed in casks and exported. Commercial boracic acid sometimes contains as much as 25 per cent of foreign matter, consisting largely of clay, salts of calcium and magnesium, and sulphates and other salts of the alkalis. About 2,000 tons of crude boracic acid are exported from Tuscany per annum. Boracic acid is also prepared artificially by decomposing a hot solu- tion of borax with sulphuric acid. The boracic acid separates out upon cooling. Boracic acid is a white, glassy substance, slightly soluble in cold water, and considerably more soluble in hot water. It possesses strong antiseptic prop- erties, and is used as a preservative for meat. It is also used for glazing porcelain, and in the manufacture of certain kinds of glass. Boracic acid forms salts called "borates" with various metallic bases, of which borax (q.v.) is the most important. See Borox. In medicine, boracic acid is used very widely. It is a mild antiseptic, and its solutions are use- ful for cleansing the ej'es, nose, mouth, bladder, etc. It forms with aromatic oils the basis of most mouth washes and nasal sprays. Boracic acid is also very useful in the nursery for keeping nip- ples free from bacteria, and it is of great ser- vice in washing out nursing-bottles, babies' mouths and eyes, and the mother's nipples while nursing. Large doses may prove poisonous. Bo'racite (from "borax*'), a mineral, tetrahedral and isometric in external form, but orthorhombic in molecular structure, and be- coming isotropic only when heated to 510° F. It has the composition 6MgO.MgCl2.8B:03, and a little iron is also occasionally present, probably as an impurity. It occurs in beds of anhydrite, gypsum, and salt, notably at Stassfurt, Prussia. also in crystals at Liineberg, Hanover and Westeregeln, Saxony. The mineral has been pre- pared artifically by melting together 10 parts of boracic acid. 100 of sodium chloride, and 5 of magnesium borate. Boracite is strongly pyro- electric. Its molecular structure has been the sub- ject of much study, on account of its exhibiting double refraction, although the mineral is ap- parently isometric in crystalline form. Borage, the small genus, typical of the natural order Boragiiiacccc, the species of which are most numerous in the Mediterranean region. Common borage (Borago oiHcinalis), a coarse growing annual herb frequent in waste places, is about two feet tall with erect stem, rough, hairy leaves, and blue flowers arranged in racemes. Like many other innocuous plants, borage was highly valued medicinally, but is now not so emploj-ed. It is occasionally raised as a pot herb or salad plant, its young leaves being palatable. The flowers are still used to make the beverage known as cool tankard, a mixture of wine, lemon, sugar, and water. The plant's chief use, however, is as bee pasturage, its flowers being rich in nectar. Boras, Sweden, a tow^n in the province of Elfsborg, 36 miles east of Gothenburg. It was founded by Gustavus Adolphus in 1632. I'here are some cotton and linen manufactures, and also some dyeworks. Pop. (1903) 15,837. Borassus Palm. See Palmyra Palm. BORAX — BORDEAUX Bo'rax, a compound of the metal sodium with boracic acid (q.v.). The formula of boracic acid maj^ be written HBO2 + H2O ; and if the hydrogen of the HBO2 is replaced by sodium, a compound known as sodium borate is formed, which crystallizes as NaBOs + 4H2O. Fused borax is this salt deprived of its water of crys- tallization, and combined with boron trioxide in the form 2NaB02 + B2O3, or NajBiOr. Com- mon borax, when crystallizing from aqueous solution, however, contains 10 molecules of water. Other forms of borax are easily ob- tained, crystallizing wuth different quantities of water. Borax occurs native, both as a saline efflorescence on the soil, and as monoclinic crys- tals. Until recent times the principal borax supply of the world was obtained from the salt lakes of Tibet. It was brought to Europe in the crude state, under the name of Tincal. Enormous quantities of borax are now obtained from California and Nevada. Borax Lake, some 80 miles north of San Francisco, was discovered in 1856. It contains borax in solution, and crys- tals of the mineral also occur in the surround- ing mud and marshes. The crystals are occa- sionally quite large, weighing as much as a pound each. It is also found in large quantities at Borax Lake in San Bernardino County, Cal., and it occurs abundantly as an efflorescence in Death Valley, Inyo County, Cal. Borax is ex- tensively used in the household, and it is used also as an antiseptic and preservative. Like boracic acid, it is employed in glazing porcelain. Its property of dissolving metallic oxides makes it of great value in blowpipe anah^sis (q.v.) and as a flux in the soldering of metals. In the United States commercial borax is chiefly de- rived from the colemanite deposits of California. Borax is of toxicological interest because it is widely used as an antiseptic, a preservative for meats and other foodstuffs, and also as an abortifacient. In large doses there is marked gastro-enteritis, in addition to which there are symptoms of collapse, coldness of the skin, bad pulse, psychical depression, and diminution in the quantity of urine eliminated. Similar symp- toms may occur from the use of borax in wash- ing out large abscess cavities. Singultus and general motor paralysis are the symptoms in fatal cases. Borax certainly has atoxic action on the kidneys when taken in large amounts. There is albumen in the urine, casts, pain in urination, and even bloody urine. While the kidneys are markedly affected by large doses it is questionable whether borax, in the small amounts used in food preservation, causes any grave symptoms of kidney irritation, even when taken for a considerable length of time. It may well be that certain individuals have an idiosyn- crasy to boron salts, in which case their use would prove detrimental. See Boron. Borchgrevink, Carsten Egeberg, Norwe- gian explorer and lecturer : b. Christiania, 1864, his mother being English and his father a Scandinavian. He went to sea at an early age, but returned to go to college. In 1808 he went to Australia, joined the survey department, and scaled Mount Lindsay. In 1894-5 he was in Antarctic waters, a region more fully explored by him in 1897, when he attempted to reach the South Pole without success. In 1899 (17 Febru- ary) he had, however, reached Robertson Bay. Returning to London in 1900 he reported hav- ing reached lat. 78.50 S. ; Ion. 195.50 E., the farthest point south ever reached by man. Con- sult his work, 'First on the Antarctic Conti- nent.^ Borda, Jean Charles, French engineer, and afterward a captain in the French marine, famous for his mathematical talents: b. Dax, de- partment of Landes, 4 May 1733; d. 20 Feb. 1799. In 1756 he was chosen a member of the Academy of Sciences, and occupied himself in making experiments on the resistance of fluids, the velocity of motion, and other topics relating to dynamical science. In 1767 he published a dissertation on hydraulic wheels, and afterward one on the construction of hydraulic machinery. In 1771, with Verdun de la Crenne and Pingre, he made a voyage to America, to determine the longitude and latitude of several coasts, isles, and shoals, and to try the utilitj'' of several astronomical instruments. In 1774 he visited the Azores, the Cape Verde Islands, and the coast of Africa for the same purpose. In the Ameri- can war he was very useful to the Count d'Estaing by his knowledge of navigation. Borda was the founder of the schools of naval architecture in France. He invented an instru- ment, of a very small diameter, which measures angles with the greatest accuracy, and which has been used in measuring the meridian ; the re- flecting circle, which has made his name immor- tal ; besides an instrument for measuring the inclination of the compass-needle, and many others. On the establishment of the National Institute, he became one of its members, and was occupied with other men of science in fram- ing the new system of weights and measures adopted in France under the republican govern- ment. Among the latest of his labors was a series of experiments to discover the length of a pendulum which should vibrate seconds in the latitude of Paris. The principal of his writings are: 'His Voyage^ and his 'Tables Trigonome- triques Decimales.^ Bordeaux, France, capital of the depart- ment of Gironde, is situated on the left bank of the Garonne, about 70 miles from the sea, and 284 southwest of Paris. It is built in a crescent form round a bend of the river, which is lined with fine quays for more than three miles, and is crossed by a magnificent stone bridge of 17 arches, finished in 1821 at a cost of $1,200,000. There is another bridge, a fine iron structure, for the railway from Paris. Bordeaux consists of an old and a new town, the boundary be- tween them being formed by a wide and hand- some street which, commencing at the quay near the centre of the crescent, stretches across the city from east to w^est. The objects chiefly deserving of notice in the old town are the arch called the Porte de Bourgogne at the extrem- ity of the bridge, forming the principal entrance to the town ; the cathedral, a fine Gothic edifice built at different periods ; St. Michael's Church, ■with a lofty detached tower, and a superb front of florid Gothic ; the Church of St. Croix, a specimen of gorgeous Romanesque ; the bourse or exchange, the custom-house, the Hotel de Ville, once the residence of the archbishops of Bordeaux, and the Palais de Justice. The new town is not so rich in public buildings. The most conspicuous are the library (200,000 vol- umes) , the museum, and the theatre, a Grecian structure, regarded as the handsomest edifice BORDEAUX MIXTURE— BORDEAUX WINES in Bordeaux. Among the beneficent establish- ments the first place is due to the grand hospital or infirmary, which occupies the highest site in the town and is admirably arranged. Few cities are so well supplied with extensive and finely planted promenades. Bordeaux is the seat of a court of appeal, of courts of the first instance and of coPimerce ; and has an academy of sci- ence, literature, and art ; a preparatory school of medicine and pharmacy ; a lyceum ; a normal school for female teachers ; a school of hydrog- raphy and navigation ; a school of painting and design ; a botanic garden, an observatory, vari- ous literary and scientific associations and a branch of the Bank of France. There are con- suls resident here from all the states of Europe and America. The position of Bordeaux gives it admirable facilities for trade, and enables it to rank next after Marseilles and Havre in re- spect of the tonnage employed. Large vessels can sail up to the town, which by railway, river, and canal communicates with the Mediterranean, with Spain, and with the manufacturing centres of France. The chief exports are wine and brandy : drugs, dj-es, and fruits are also largely exported. Sugar and other colonial produce and wood are the chief imports. Ship-building is the chief branch of industry, and there are also sugar-refineries, woolen and cotton mills, pot- teries, soap-works, distilleries, etc. Bordeaux is the Burdigala of the Romans. In the 5th century it was in possession of the Goths, and it was pillaged and burned by the Normans. By the marriage of Eleonor, daugh- ter of the last Duke of Aquitaine, to Louis VIL, it fell into the hands of France. But in 1152 the princess was repudiated by her husband, and married to Henry of Anjou, who ascended the throne of England in 11 54, as Henry II., and transferred Bordeaux to that crown. After the battle of Poitiers, Edward the Black Prince carried John, king of France, prisoner to Bor- deaux, where he resided 11 years. L'nder Charles VIL, in 1451, it was restored again to France. In 1548 the citizens rebelled on account of a tax on salt, and the governor, De ]\Iorems, was put to death, for which the constable of Montmorency inflicted a severe punishment on the city. During the revolution it was devas- tated as the rendezvous of the Girondists, by the Terrorists, almost as completely as Lyons and Marseilles. The oppressiveness of the conti- nental system to the trade of Bordeaux made the inhabitants disaffected to the government of Napoleon, so that they were the first to declare for the house of Bourbon, 12 March 181 4. The Roman poet, Ausonius, was a native of Bor- deaux. Montaigne and Montesquieu were born in the neighboring country, and t!ie latter lies buried there in the Church of Saint Bernard. Pop. U903; 268,330. Bordeaux Mixture. See Fungicides. Bordeaux Wines. The finer red wines of the country around Bordeaux are the best which France produces. They contain but little alco- hol, keep well, and even improve by removal. As the original fermentation is complete, they are, if judiciously managed, less subject to dis- order and acidity than the Burgundy wines. None of the very best quality, however, is ex- ported pure: a bottle of the best Chateau-Mar- gaux, or Haut-Brion, is a rarity hardly to be procured in Bordeaux itself, at the rate of six or seven francs a bottle. For export, the sec- ondary growths of Medoc are mingled with the rough Palus. The red wines of Bordeaux are known in America under the name of claret. They have less aroma and spirit, but more astringency than the Burgundy wines. They are the safest wines for daily use, as they are among the most perfect of the light wines, and do not easily excite intoxication. In this re- spect they contrast with the Burgundy wines, which have more generous qualities than those of Bordeaux, although these wines have some- times been accused of producing the gout, but this disparagement is without reason. Persons who habitually drink madeira, port, etc., and /ndulge in an excess of claret, may indeed be visited in that way; because a transition from the strong, brandied wines to the lighter is always followed by a derangement of the digestive organs. The principal vineyards are those of Medoc, Graves, Palus, and Vigncs Blanches ; after these, those of Entre-deux-Mers, Saint Emilion, and the Bourgeais are the most important. The first growth of Medoc are the famous wines of Chateau-Margaux, Lafitte, and Latour. The Lafitte is characterized by its silky softness on the palate, and a perfume partaking of violet and raspberrj'. The Latour is fuller, has more aroma but less softness. The Chateau-Margaux is lighter than the Latour, and delicate like the Lafitte, but has not so high a flavor. Of the second growth, we may mention the Rauran and the Leoville. The average produce of the first growth is 217,000 gallons. The soil of Medoc is a sandy and calcareous loam. The gravelly lands (Ics Graves) to the south and west cf Bordeaux produce the Graves. The first growth of the red Graves is the Haut-Brion, which rivals the first growth of Medoc; it has more color and body, but is inferior in aroma and taste. The prin- cipal white Graves are Saint Bris and Carbon- ieux. The best Medoc ought to be kept three or four years before removal : the Graves five or six. The wines of Palus, which is a bed of rich alluvial deposits, are inferior to the preceding ; they are stronger and more deeply colored than those of Medoc. Being hard and rough, they are improved by a voyage, and are principally sent to the East Indies and America as vins de cargaison, or are mixed with Medoc which is intended for exportation. By the voyage they become more light and delicate, but are not to be compared with the growths of Medoc and the Graves. The best are Queyries and Mont Ferrand. The former are deeply colored, and have much body. Age gives them an agreeable aroma, resembling that of a raspberry. Among the white Bordeaux wines, besides those already mentioned, the finest growths are Sautemes, Preignac, Barsac, and Bommes. Mar- tillac and Saint Medard are of a good quality, and have lightness and body. Dariste, formerly Dulamon, is equal to Saint Bris and Carbonieux. Among other red wines are the Bourgeais, which are of a fine color, and acquire by age lightness and an agreeable almond aroma ; of all the Bordelais wines they most resemble tlie Burgundy wines. The first growths are De- bosquet, Chateau-Rousset. Tajac, and Falfax. The Bourgeais wines were formerly preferred to Medoc. The wines of Saint Emilion h.ive been much esteemed. The Fronsac and Caron are the best. Those of Entredeux-Mers beco.tne BORDEN — BORE agreeable with age. The vius dcs Cotes are good vins ordinaires ; they are generally fermes and hard, and improve by age. The best are those of Bassens and Cenon. Consult Henderson's ^History of Ancient and Modern Wines. ^ Borden, Simeon, American inventor and surveyor : b. Fall River, Mass., 29 Jan. 1798 ; d. 28 Oct. 1856. He instructed himself in mathe- matics and devised successful surveying instru- ments. The first American geodetic survey was his work. In 1846 he began the construction of railroads. Bordentown, N. J., a city on the Delaware River, the Delaware and Raritan Canal, and the Pennsylvania R.R. ; 57 miles southwest of New York. It is noted as being a former resi- dence of Joseph Bonaparte (q.v.), brother of Napoleon I., and for many 3'ears the house and grounds belonging to the estate possessed much interest for the tourist. The city is the seat of the Bordentown Military Institute, the St. Joseph's Academy for girls (Roman Catholic), and the Bordentown Female College. Tiiere are steam forge and iron works, foundry and ma- chine shops, worsted mills, shirt factory, canning factories, a shipyard and other industries. The city was incorporated in 1866. Pop. '1900) 4,110. Border Ruffians, a name given, after the Kansas-Nebraska Bill of 1854, to the pro-slavery Missourians who acted as the allies of the slave element in Kansas, crossing the boundary to vote, by which means they organized the first government against the bona-fide free-labor resi- dents by a vote of nearly double the inhabitants of the Territory. They kept the State in an- archy for three years, terrorizing the inhabitants by murder, arson, the sack of towns, and other outrages. The most graphic comment is the fact that they adopted this term of their enemies and prided themselves on it as an excellent joke. See Kansas-Nebraska Bill. Border States, before the War, the line of slave States lying next the free States : Dela- ware, Maryland, Virginia, Kentucky, and Mis- souri. The term was sometimes improperly made to include North Carolina and Tennessee, probably because their mountain districts held so large a proportion of loyalists ; and Arkansas, for no special reason. Their political position was dictated by the facts that : ( i ) After the prohibition of the slave trade one of their chief industries was breeding slaves for exportation to the cotton, rice, and sugar plantations of the southernmost States. _ In the Virginia conven- tion of 1832 it was said to be the most profitalile in the State. (2) From their position they were the chief sufferers from the escape of fugitive slaves ; in 1850 this was estimated at a loss of $3,000,000 a year, and these States were the most insistent advocates of the Fugitive Slave Law and its enforcement ; and in i860 a Missouri sen- ator urged the creation of a Federal police to patrol the border line for this purpose. (3) In case of war they would be the chief battlelield. They therefore furnished the backbone, if not the genesis of every political movement to stop the slavery agitation or conciliate the sections. The strength of the Know-Nothing party of 1856 and the Constitutional Union party of i860 (Bell-Everett) was almost exclusively in the border States ; the Peace Conference of 1861 and the proposed Crittenden Compromise were the work of these States. They tried to prevent the outbreak of hostilities, and when the war be- gan the governor of Kentucky went so far as to. attempt making his State a neutral power out- side both governments, and forbade either of themoccupymg it without the consent of the State authorities. Finally, however, they split up ac- cording to their natural affinities ; the three not border States at all — North Carolina, Tennessee, and Arkansas — seceded, with Virginia ; while in Kentucky, Maryland, Delaware, and Missouri, the loyal element, with government help, pre- vented the State from going out. They never gave up hope through the war, however, of reconciling differences by a convention of all the old States, North and South. Border War, a name given during the struggle for Kansas to the intermittent civil war in that Territory, about 1854-8, between the free-soil and the slavery parties. It was begun by the attempt of the Missouri slaveholding party ("Border Ruffians,^' q.v.) to reclaim by violence what the actual settlers had won by colonization ; many of the worst atrocities were- perpetrated, and all the temporary success of the slavery side won, by bodies of men who were not residents of Kansas at all. This caused up John Brown (q.v.) to move there from northern Ohio with his sons, and fight against them. Of the other partisan leaders on that side, the most notable was James Mont- gomery, who, however, was a bona fide settler. The most efficient leaders among the Mis- sourians, or border ruffians, were James R. Atchison of Missouri :'>nd the Federal courts. Bordighera, Italy, a town on the Mediter- ranean coast, in the district of San Remo and province of Porto Maurizio, a favorite winter residence for invalids, having been made fash- ionable by the visits of the members of the Eng- lish royal family. Few places on the Riviera are better fitted for the accommodation of in- valids and tourists. In addition to the usual facilities for the entertainment of strangers, the town has a library, museum, and a theatre. Pop. (1903) about 6,000. Bordone, Paris, Italian painter of the Venetian school: b. Treviso, 1500; d. 1570. Under Titian he made rapid progress in painting. The execution of many works for his native city and for Venice spread his fame as far as Prance, whither he was invited by the king. The galleries of Dresden and Vienna possess several of his pieces. His most famous picture is the ^Old Gondolier Presenting a Ring to the Doge^ ; it is considered one of the masterpieces of the Venetian school. Other examples of his work are: ^Prophecy of the Tiburtine Sibyl, ^ in Florence; ^Combat of the Gladiators,' in^ Vienna, and ^The Chess Players,* in Berlin. Bore, a word probably of Icelandic origin, and used to designate a very remarkable phe- nomenon which occurs in some rivers in spring- tides. At such times as the tide advances the water is suddenly thrown in as if in a mass, and then pursues its course up the river, and in opposition to the current, presenting a volume of water moving with great rapidity and resist- less force, and with a height varying from two or three feet, as in the Severn, Trent, Solway,. and Dee, to more than 12 feet in the Brahma- pootra, and Tsien-Tangkiang. The last is said. BORE — BORGHESE to have a rise of 20 feet, and advances with a loud roar, at the rate of 10 miles an hour. The tide in the Bay of Fundy rises with great rapid- ity, and is sometimes spoken of as the bore of Fundy. The circumstances in which the bore occurs afford an easy explanation of its cause, and show that it is produced by the disproportion between the volume of the tidal wave and the receiving power of the rivers into which it is thrown. Bore, the cavity of a steam engine cylin- der, pump barrel, pipe, cannon, barrel of a fire- arm, etc. In mechanics it is expressed in inches of diameter ; in cannon formerly in the weight in pounds of solid round shot adapted thereto, but since the introduction of modern rifled ord- nance of the breech loading pattern, the bore of cannon is always expressed in inches of diameter or in the equivalent of inches. Boreas, the north wind, worshipped by the Greeks as a deity ; residing in Thrace, and rep- resented with wings, which, as well as his hair and beard, were full of flakes of snow ; instead of feet he had the tails of serpents, and with the train of his garment he stirred up clouds of dust. Boreas was the son of Astraeus and of Eos. When Apollo and his favorite Hyacinthus were once playing at quoits, he blew the quoit of the former, of whom he was jealous, upon the head of the youth, who was killed by the blow. By Oreithyia, daughter of Erechtheus of Athens, he was father of Cleopatra, Chione, Calais, and Zetes. The last two took part in the Argonautic expedition. Borecole, a pot-herb. See Kale. Boregat. See Rock Trout. Borelli, Giovanni Alfonso, Italian physi- cian and scientist: b. Naples, 1608; d. Rome, 31 Dec. 1679. After studying medicine he both practised and professed it at various places, but particularly at Pisa and Florence, and distin- guished himself as the leader of those who have been called mathematical physicians, from regarding the human body as a kind of hydrau- lic machine, and then attempting to explain all its motions and functions in accordance with the principles of mathematics. He appears to have possessed very original and inventive powers, and made various discoveries, among which may be mentioned that of an apparatus apparently of the nature of a diving-bell, by which persons could descend into the water, remain in it and move about or rise and sink at pleasure, and of a boat by which two or more persons might row themselves beneath the water in any direction. His works discuss many important subjects in medicine, mathematics, and philosophy; but the great work on which his fame rests, though not published till after his death, is entitled the 'Dying Seneca,' 'Amor and Psyche.' Bonaparte pro- vided for the payment out of the national domains in Piedmont, which the king of Sar- dinia confiscated in 1815; at the same time, in consequence of the second invasion of France, the prince received back part of these treasures of art. In 1818 he sold Lucedio, in Savoy, for 3,000,000 livres. In the kingdom of Naples he possessed the principalities Sulmone and Rosano. He was one of the richest Italian princes. Borghese, Marie Pauline (Princess), sis- ter of Napoleon: b. Ajaccio, 20 Oct. 1780; d. 9 June 1825. When the English occupied Cor- sica in 1793 she went to Marseilles, where she was on the point of marrying Freron. a member of the Convention, and son of that critic whom. BORGHESI — BORGIA Voltaire made famous, when another lad}' laid claim to his hand. The beautiful Pauline was then intended for Gen. Duphot, who was after- ward murdered at Rome in December 1797; but she bestowed her hand from choice on Gen. Leclerc. then at Milan, who had been in 1795 chief of the general staff of a division at Mar- seilles, and had there fallen in love with her. When Leclerc was sent to St. Domingo with the rank of captain-general, Napoleon ordered her to accompany her husband with her son. She embarked in December 1801, at Brest, and was called bj' the poets of the fleet, the Galatea of the Greeks, the Venus Marina. Her statue, in marble, as A'enus, was made by Canova at Rome — a successful image of the goddess of beauty. She was no less courageous than beau- tiful, for when the negroes under Christophe stormed Cape Frangois, where she resided, and Leclerc, who could no longer resist the assail- ants, ordered his lady and child to be carried on shipboard, she yielded only to force. After the death of her husband she married at Morfon- taine, in 1803, the Prince Camillo Borghese (q.v.). Her son died at Rome soon after. With Napoleon, who loved her tenderly, she had many disputes and as many reconciliations, for she would not always follow the caprices of his policy. Yet even the proud style in which she demanded what her brothers begged made her the more attractive to her brother. Once, however, when she forgot herself toward the empress, whom she never liked, she was obliged to leave the court. She was yet in dis- grace at Nice when Napoleon resigned his crown in 1814, upon which occasion she imme- diately acted as a tender sister. Instead of remaining at her palace in Rome, she set out for Elba to join her brother, and acted the part of mediatrix between him and the other mem- bers of his familJ^ When Napoleon landed in France she went to Naples to see her sister Caro- line, and afterward returned to Rome. Before the battle of Waterloo she placed all her dia- monds, which were of great value, at the dis- posal of her brother. They were in his carriage, which was taken in that battle, and was shown publicly at London. He intended to have returned them to her. She lived afterward sepa- rated from her husband at Rome, where she occupied part of the palace Borghese, and where she possessed, from 1816, the Villa Sciarra. Her house, in which taste and love of the fine arts prevailed, was the centre of the most splendid society at Rome. She often saw her mother, her brothers Lucien and Louis, and her uncle Fesch. When she heard of the sickness of her brother Napoleon, she repeatedly requested per- mission to go to him at St. Helena. She finally obtained her request, but the news of his death arrived imrnediately after. At her death she left many legacies, and a donation, the interest of which was to enable two young men of Ajaccio to study medicine and surgery. The rest of her property she left to her brothers, the Count of St. Leu and the Prince of Montfort. Her whole property amounted to about $500,000. Borghesi, Bartolommeo (Count). Italian numismatist: b. Savignano. 11 July 1781 ; d. 16 April 1866. His attention was devoted to elucidating, through the study of inscriptions, several obscure points in Roman history; and the books he published secured for him a great reputation among the learned. He completed, after more than 30 years' labor, a full chrono- logical list of the Roman consuls, embracing all the modern discoveries on the subject, with disquisitions on the most important questions connected with Roman antiquities. After his death a complete collection of his writings was ordered by the Emperor Napoleon, but it was not until 1S97 that the work was finished. Borgi, Giovanni, j6-van'ne bor-je, the orig- inator of ragged schools: b. Rome, about 1736; d. about 1S02. He was a mason by trade, and after his daily toil was completed, he was in the habit of attending the sick in the hospital of Santo Spirito, spending entire nights in his labor of love, and frequently falling asleep at his work during the da}^ In his daily walks he had noticed troops of vagrant children in the streets, fast ripening into vice and crime. He took them home to his humble lodgings, and, having clad them with the aid of alms which he collected, he apprenticed them to useful trades. This noble work was observed and admired by others, who freely lent their aid, and in due time a society was formed, which was further devel- oped in 1784. Although Giovanni was himself entirely uneducated, he perceived the advantages of instruction, and caused the children to be taught reading, writing, and arithmetic by one Francesco Cervetti, who afterward left him and founded another refuge for orphans called the ^Assumption of the Virgin,^' which was consoli- dated with that of Giovanni in 1812. Pius VI. purchased for the institution the Palazzo Ruggi, and became the society's principal protector. Subsequently the charity was removed to dif- ferent convents, and finally to the church of St. Anne of the Carpenters. Borgia, Cesare, cha-za're bor'ja, Italian ecclesiastic and soldier: b. 1476; d. 12 March 1507. He was the natural son of Rodrigo Bor- gia, and a Roman lady named Vanozza. His father, who in 1492 became Pope, with the title of Alexander VI., made him a cardinal. When Charles VIII. of France made his entry into Rome, Alexander was obliged to treat with him, and delivered Cesare Borgia into his hands as a hostage, though he escaped a few days after from the camp of the king. In 1497 Alexander bestowed the duchy of Benevento, together with the counties of Terracina and Pontecorvo, on his eldest son, Giovanni, who had already received from the king of Spain the duchy of Gandia. Giovanni died shortly after his investiture, and Cesare has been accused of murdering his brother out of jealousy, but historical proof of this charge is utterly lacking. His father per- mitted him to abandon his ecclesiastical office and devote himself to the profession of arms, and sent him to France to carry to Louis XII. the bull for divorce and dispensation for mar- riage which he had long desired to obtain. Louis rewarded Borgia with the duchy of Valentinois, a body-guard of 100 men, and 20,000 livres a year, and promised to aid him in his projects of conquest. In 1490 Cesare married a daughter of King John of Navarre, and accompanied Louis XII. to Italy. He first undertook the conquest of Romagna, expelled the lawful possessors of the land, caused them to be treacherously murdered, and himself, in 1501, to be appointed by his father Duke of Romagna. In the same year he wrested the BORGIA — BORGOGNONE principality of Piombino from Jacopo d'Apiano. He also endeavored, though in vain, to make himself Duke of Bologna and Florence. In 1502 he announced that he was about to attack Cam- •erino, and demanded for that purpose soldiers and artillery from Guidobaldo of Montefeltro, Duke of Urbino. Camerino was taken by storm, and Giulio di Barona, the lord of the city, with both his sons, was strangled at the command of Borgia. Meanwhile all the petty princes had tmited and collected soldiery for their defense ; but Cesare Borgia terrified some by means of 3,000 Swiss whom he called to Italy, and gained over others by advantageous offers. Thus he dissolved their alliance, seized their lands, and saw no further obstacle to his being made, by his father, king of Romagna, of the March, and of Umbria, when Alexander VI. died, 17 Aug. 1503. At the same time Cesare Borgia was attacked by a severe disease at a moment when his whole activity and presence of mind were needed. He found means, indeed, to get the treasures of his father into his possession, assembled his troops in Rome, and formed a closer alliance with France ; but enemies rose against him on all sides, one of the most bitter of whom was the new Pope, Julius II. Borgia was arrested and carried to Spain, where he remained for two years in prison. He at length made his escape to his brother-in-law, the king of Navarre, went with him to war against Castile, and was killed by a shot before the castle of Viana. Borgia, Francisco, fran-thes'ko, or St. Francis (Duke of Gandia), Spanish ecclesias- tic: b. Janda, Spain, 1510; d. Rome, October 1572. He was eminent as a soldier and states- man, and enjoyed the confidence and friendship of Charles V.. who appointed him viceroy of Catalonia. While very young he married a noble Portuguese lady. Eleonora de Castro, by whom he had a large family. He was always very strict in his morality, and exact in his religious duties. After the death of his wife he entered the Society of Jesus, and was ordained priest in the 40th year of his age. At the death of Laynez, in 1565, he was elected General of the society, and remained in office until his death. Several bishoprics, and the dignity of cardinal, were repeatedl}'' pressed upon him, but he refused them all. He was canonized by Clement X. in 1671. Borgia, Lucrezia, loo-krad'ze-a, daughter of Pope Alexander VI., and sister of Cesare Borgia (q.v.) : b. 1480; d. Ferrara. 24 June 1519- When a mere child she was betrothed to a gen- tleman of Aragnn. but her father, on attaining the popedom, thought the match beneath her, ?nd broke the engagement, marrying her to Giovanni Sforza. lord of Pesaro. After she bad lived with him for four years, Alexander dissolved the marriage on the ground of the busband's impotency. and gave her to Alphonso, Duke of Bisceglia, natural son of Alphonso II. of Aragon. Two years after her husband was assassinated in a quarrel with Cesare Bor- gia. Within the course of a year she married Alphonso d'Este, son of Ercole. Duke of Fer- rara. Here she became a liberal patroness of poets, who endeavored to repay her benefactions by lauding her as the pattern of every virtue. The character of Lucrezia Borgia has been the subiect of much controversy, but recent historical researches have placed her in a much fairer light and it has been shown beyond dispute, that after her marriage to Alphonso d'Este her life was a model of virtue and beneficence. Borgia, Rodrigo. See Ale.xander VI. Borgia, Stefano, ste-fa'no, Italian ecclesias- tic : b. Vclletri. 3 Dec. 1731 ; d. Lyon, 23 Nov.' 1804. He was brought up by his uncle, Alex- ander Borgia, Archbishop of Fermo, and in 1750, on becoming a member of the Etruscan Academy of Cortona, commenced at Velletri to form a museum which has since become one of the richest private collections in existence. In 1759 he was appointed by Benedict XIV. governor of Benevento, and in 1770 he became secretary to the College of Propaganda, which brought him into immediate relation with missionaries to all parts of the world, and enabled him, at comparatively little expense, to enrich his museum with manuscripts, coins, statues, idols, and all the other rarities v,'hich each country possessed. In 1789 Pius VI. made him a car- dinal, and at the same time appointed him inspector-general of the foundling hospital, into which he introduced extensive reforms. In 1797 the revolutionary spirit which had broken out in France extended itself to Rome, and the Pope, as the best means of counteracting it, gave all his confidence to Borgia and installed him as dictator. The situation was extremely dif- ficult, but he showed himself worthy of the trust, and gained such ascendency over the pub- lic mind that tranquillity and good order remained uninterrupted till 1798. By this time the French were at the gates, and the popular party, becoming dominant, established a repub- lic. The Pope was compelled to depart, and Cardinal Borgia, at first arrested, was ordered, on obtaining his liberty, to quit the papal states. After disembarking at Leghorn he repaired to Venice and Padua, and continued regularly to discharge his functions in connection with the Propaganda as if nothing had occurred to inter- rupt them. He returned to Rome with the new Pope. Pius VII., who treated him with the same confidence as his predecessor. Afterward, when Pius VII. was carried off to France, Borgia was ordered to accompany him. and he accordingly set out, but had only reached Lyons when he was seized with a serious illness, and died. He was the author of several antiquarian and his- torical works, and deserves honorable mention for his liberal patronage of arts and artists. Borgne, bor-ne. Lake, Louisiana, a body of water situated in the southeastern part of the State. Though termed a lake, it is strictly the termination of that large arm of the Mexican Gulf known as Pascagoula Sound, being united to that by a pass or strait crossed by a line of small islands and faced on the east by Grand Island. Lake Borgne is also connected with Lake Pontchartrain by the Rigolet Pass. It is about the average depth of Lake Pontchartram, and approaches within 15 miles of New Orleans. Its greatest extent is in a northeast and south- west" direction, in which its length is about 30 miles. Lake Borgne forms a part of the west- ern boundary of the Mississippi Delta. Borgognone. Jacopo Cortesi, ya-ko-po kor-ta-ze bor-go-nyo-ne. French pamter: b. St. Hippolite, Burgundy, 1621 ; d- 1676. He BORGU — BORING studied painting under his father, but enlisted in the army and remained in it for three years. On his return he resumed his art, and went to Bologna where he attracted the notice of Guido and became an inmate in his house, where he made good use of the valuable opportunities of improvement thus afforded him. After realiz- ing an independence he visited his native place. Returning again to Italy, where he painted with much success, he resolved to become a Jesuit. He was accordingly admitted into the order at Rome in 1655, but he appears to have painted as diligently as ever. He is remarkable for free- dom of design, and the vividness with which his pictures bring the subjects which they represent before the mind. Borgu, bor-goo', Africa, a district in the Western Sudan, lying about lat. 10° N., and stretching from the meridian of Greenwich east to the Niger. It is hilly in parts, but much of it is well watered and extremely fertile. Among its numerous productions are rice, grain, indigo, cotton, bananas, and citrons. The inhabitants are Mohammedan. Kiama and Wawa are chief towns. Bo'ric Acid. See Boracic Acid. Boring, a species of circular cutting in which a cylindrical portion of a substance is gradually removed. When tubes of metal are to be formed, a cast is, in some cases, made in solid metal, and the whole of the bore is pro- duced by the boring-machine: in others the cast is made hollow at first, and the borer is only used to give uniformity and finish to the inside of the tube. In boring cannon sometimes the tool is made to revolve while the cannon is at rest, and sometimes the cannon is made to revolve while the tool is at rest. By the latter arrangement the bore is said to be formed with more accuracy than by the other method of putting the borer in motion. In the jewelry and small metal industries, hand drills, which consist of a spindle with steel bits, to which reciprocating rotation is given, are the implements for piercing small holes. The boring of holes in metal plates is effected by means of drills driven by machinery. The drill is inserted in the end of a vertical spindle, which revolves in a fixed frame and is driven by the bevel wheels. The metal to be bored is placed on a table or other support, below the drill ; and the up and down motion, or end pres- sure and off action, of the drill is effected by the hand gear turning the screw; which, being coupled to the top of the spindle, presses it down or raises it, according to the way it is turned. The spindle slides vertically in the collar forming the axis of the bevel wheel, but is carried round with it by means of a pin which projects into a groove. As applied to the earth and to rocks, boring embraces two classes of operations — boring of shot-holes for blasting, and the sinking of bores in prospecting for minerals and in forming wells for water, brine, and mineral oils. Blast-holes in rocks are made from one to two — sometimes more — inches in diameter, and may pierce to the depth of nine feet. Such holes are most simply made in hard rock by a steel-pointed drill, struck by a hammer, and turned partly round after each blow to make the hole cylin- drical. The addition of a little water serves to preserve the temper of the boring tool, and makes the rock more easy to cut. In soft rock, whenever the hole is to be vertical, a jumper is used. This is a weighted drill, which acts- merely by its own weight when let fall from- about a foot in height. The powdered stone is removed at intervals by a scraper. But in all great engineering undertakings rock-boring machinery now supplants hand work. The machines are principally devised to imitate the percussive action of the hand drill, the boring chisel being worked and rotated by compressed air, and sometimes directly by steam. The com- pressed-air machines possess the great advan- tage of aiding in the ventilation of the working — often a most important consideration, seeing the- operations are chiefly carried on in confined spaces where large volumes of poisonous gases are evolved from explosions. The earliest prac- tical rock-boring machine was that of Sommeil- ler, one of the engineers of the Mont Cenis tunnel, at which undertaking the apparatus was first used. Now the forms of percussion machines are very numerous, improvements being directed toward lightness and simplicity of parts, and to the method — automatic or otherwise — of advancing the boring-tool as the work proceeds. Among the best knowrt machines are the Barrow, Burleigh, Darlington, Ferroux, Ingersoll, and McKean rock-borers. Diamond drills working in the manner described below are also used. Brandt's rotatory borer is- an apparatus similar in action to the diamond drill, but with a crown of hardened steel in place of cutting diamonds. The tool is pressed against, and rotated by water power. An appa- ratus similar in principle to the brace and bits of the carpenter is used with advantage in uni- form rock, such as slate. The bores for deep wells of all kinds, and for discovering the mineral contents of a region, come under one category. As a preliminary operation in mining, boring is of the utmost importance for discovering the position, thick- ness, and dip of mineral strata or lodes, and for ascertaining the nature of the overlying deposits. Bores are made by three classes of implement — ■ (i) boring-rods, (2) rope borers, and (3) dia- mond drills. The rod-boring instrument consists of an iron shank having a cross-bar at the top and a hollow screw at the bottom ; to this all the suc- cessive boring instruments are fastened. A sim- ple chisel is first attached to the screw, and one or two men press upon the cross-bar, and, at the same time, force it round like an auger; while another workman, by means of a lever erected overhead, with a chain descending from it to the cross-bar, gives an up-and-down motion to the instrument. When the chisel becomes clogged, from the accumulation of material which it has loosened, it is exchanged for a cylindrical auger, provided with a valve, which scoops out the separate material ; and thus by alternate chop- ping and scooping the work is carried on. The- nature of the strata is determined with consider- able facility and certainty by examining the frag- ments brought up by the auger. As the work advances, successive lengths of rod are screwed on at the upper end. A derrick pole is erected over the bore hole for the purpose of elevating the rods, to permit the change of the tools. The rope method of boring has been long in use among the Chinese. By it the great loss_ of time arising from the screwing and unscrewing BORISSOGLEBSK — BORN -of the rods at each elevation of the chisel or -auger is saved. The chisel and scooping instru- ment are fastened to a rope, which is alternately elevated and allowed to descend by the simple force of gravity; the instrument thus forces its way through the ground. In the softer rocks of the newer formations this method has been suc- cessfully employed in boring for artesian wells. The rope-boring machinery of Mather and Piatt, of Salford, England, in which a flat hempen rope is employed, is in extensive use. For deep well-sinking, as in the Pennsylvania oil region, where depths of 2,000 feet and more have to be reached, and for mineral prospecting, the diamond drill has of late years largely super- seded all other borers. With this apparatus the earth can be pierced at any angle, which is a great advantage in investigating mineral deposits ; and, moreover, the drill produces solid and continuous cores of the strata through which' it passes, so that a complete section of any bore can be exposed to view. The diamond drill con- sists of a crown, or cylinder of steel, around one edge of which are fixed a series of black dia- monds. These diamonds are so set that they project alternately a little beyond the outside and inside edge of the cylinder. This crown is screwed to lengths of iron ttibing as it cuts its v^^ay by rotation into the rock, and it makes, as it descends, an annular cutting somewhat larger than the thickness of the continuous tube, which the crown and its shaft form. Thus, a core of rock is cut out and held within the tube, and the pieces may be lifted out from time to time as the work proceeds. The detritus resulting from the abrasion of the ring of rock is continuously washed away by a current of water, forced down within the tubing. Diamond drills are made of many sizes, from 1^4 tip to 18 inches in diameter. The prototype of the diamond drill was M. Fau- velle's hollow boring-rod with steel crown, described at the British Association meeting in 1846. Borissoglebsk, bo-re's5-glepsk, Russia, a town in the government of Tambof, 120 miles south of the town of that name, and capital ■of the government. From its situation and water communications it is the centre of a very large trade. It is the seat of an annual fair, and has woolen and iron manufactures. Pop. about 25,000. Borissov, bo-re'sof, Russia, a town in the government of Minsk, 50 miles northeast of the town of that name, on the left bank of the Bere- zina. Not far from it took place the disastrous passage of the Berezina by the French in 1812. Pop. about 15,000. Borjeson, Johan Helenus Laurentius, yo- han el-a'nus l6-ren'she-us ber'yt;-s6n, Swedish sculptor : b. Halland, 1835. He studied at Rome and Paris, and in 1879 became professor at the Art Academy of Stockholm. His work includes both portrait-statues and ideal subjects, in which he unites fidelity to nature with love of beauty. Among his works are ^The Bowler' ; 'The Fisher Bov of Capri' ; ' they acquired a preponderating influence on the north- west coast. Bor'neol, or Borneo Camphor, a crystal- line organic compound, often used as a substitute for common or laurel camphor. Borneol is obtained from a tree indigenous to Sumatra, Borneo, and Labuan, being deposited in crystals in cracks in the wood. To obtain it the tree is cut down, and the longitudinal fissures are opened, and the camphor removed. Large trees often yield only from 3 to 11 pounds; and owing to the reckless manner in which the trees have been destroyed without the planting of others, the Sumatran forests now contain few that are worth working. Borneol has the chemi- cal formula CioHir.OH, and it may be prepared from common camphor by the action of redu- cing agents. It is not so volatile as common camphor, and is also harder. It is but slightly soluble in water, although it dissolves freely in alcohol and ether. When distilled with phos- BORNHOLM — BORODIN phorous pentoxide, borneol is converted into one or more terpenes, prominent among which is borneo-camphene or borneene (doHie). Pure borneol sinks in water, while common camphor floats. Born'holm, a Danish island in the Baltic Sea, nearly surrounded with rocks ; situated in lat. 55° lo' N. ; Ion. 15° E. ; about 24 miles long, and 16 broad ; pop. 35,364. It is stony but fer- tile ; yields oats and butter ; has excellent pas- tures ; and also mines of coal, marble quarries, and fisheries. The island has long been famous for its rock-crystals. Bornier, Henri, oii-re bor-ne-a (Vicomte BE, ve-koht de), French dramatist: b. Lunel, 25 Dec. 1825. His plays are notable for splendor ■of diction. Among them are 'Luther's Wed- ding^ (1845) ; 'Dante and Beatrice^ ; 'The Daughter of Roland.' He twice won fhe prize ■of the Academy, with the lyrics, 'The Isthmus of Suez* (1861) ; and 'France in the Extreme East' (1863). He is the author of several suc- cessful novels and romances, and is a member of the Academy. Bor'nite, a native sulphide of copper and iron, containing these metals in various propor- tions. The mineral crystallizes in the isometric system, and its crystals have the formula 3Cu;S.Fe2S3. It is reddish brown in color when freshly broken, but speedily takes an iridescent tarnish. Its hardness is 3, and its specific grav- ity from 4.9 to 5.4. The massive varieties con- tain from 50 to 70 per cent of copper, and the mineral constitutes a valuable ore of that metal. Bornite occurs abundantly in a copper-mine at Bristol, Conn. Bornite occurs in many western ■copper mines, as at Butte, Mont., and in Colo- rado, being at times highlv argentiferous. It abounds in Chile, Peru, Mexico, Canada and many other countries. Bornou',' a kingdom of Central Africa, lying between lat. 10° and 15° N., and Ion. 12° and 16° 30' E. ; bounded north by Kanem and the desert, east by Lake Chad, south by Man- dara, and west by Sudan. From March to July the heat is extreme, the thermometer rising to 107° and rarely falling below 86° F. ; during this time scorching winds from the south prevail. As in other tropical countries the seasons are divided into the dry and rainy : the latter con- tinues from March to October, when the air becomes milder and fresher. The country is populous, containing 13 principal towns. These are generally large and well built, with walls 40 feet high, and about 20 feet thick. The houses •consist of several courtyards, with apartments for slaves, habitations for the different wives, and several turrets connected by terraces, form- ing the apartments of the owner. The Bornou people, or Kanuri, have negro features ; they are peaceable and industrious, practising agri- culture and various mechanical arts. The gov- ernment is an absolute monarchy, with certain constitutional forms, and the sultan or mai can, it is said, muster a well-equipped army of 25,000 or 30,000 men, partly cavalry, armed with musket, rifle, sabre, etc. Indian corn, cotton, and indigo are the most valuable productions of the soil. Fruits and vegetables are also raised. The domestic animals are asses, camels, horses, dogs, sheep, goats, and oxen. Lions, leopards, hyenas, jackals, elephants, and buffaloes roam the forests. The crocodile and hippopotamus are considered a luxury. The ostrich, pelican, crane, and guinea-fowl abound. Locusts often appear in great clouds, and are eaten by the natives. The capital is Kuka, near the shore of Lake Chad. Bornou belongs to the British sphere of influence. Estimated pop. 5,000,000. Boro Budor, bo-ro boo-dor (the "Great Buddha''), the ruin of a temple in Java, near the junction of the Ello and Progo, the most elaborate monument of the Buddhist style of architecture anywhere existing. Javanese chron- icles ascribe the building of the temple to the beginning of the 7th century ; there are no inscriptions, but it was probably finished between 1400 and 1430. Boro Budor is built on a low hill between four vast volcanoes which supplied the blocks of trachyte of which the edifice is built; its height to the cupola is 118 feet. It is a pyramid of a square form, each side at the base measuring 520 feet, and consists of seven walls, which are built like the steps of a stair, up a hill. Between the walls are narrow ter- races running round the building; in each is an arched doorway leading to the next higher terrace. These walls are richly ornamented with statuary. Outside are over 400 niches topped with fantastic domes, and each occupied by a large statue of Buddha. Between each of these are bas-reliefs, including figures of the god seated, and architectural ornaments and carvings of all sorts. Below the niches, on the -, lower story, is an immense bas-relief running •' round the whole building, representing scenes ' from the life of Buddha, and religious subjects. The inner faces of the building are also profusely ornamented with bas-reliefs, representing bat- tles, sea-fights, processions, and chariot races, carried to an extent unrivaled by any other building in the world. Of the large reliefs alone there are over 2,000 ; and most of them are as vigorously designed as they are carefully exe- cuted. Within the upper square terrace are three circular ones, the outer ornamented with 32, the next with 24, and the upper with 16 small bell-shaped shrines (dagops), each con- taining a seated statue of Buddha, which can be seen through the open works of their roofs. The whole is surmounted by a cupola, the prin- cipal and probably the most ancient part of the structure. It is now empty, a sunken chamber, 10 feet deep, representing what was, no doubt, a dagop intended to contain the precious relic for which this splendid temple was erected. The niches containing the cross-legged figures have been supposed to be a copy, in durable architec- ture, of the cells of a Buddhist monastery, each - occupied by a shaven priest ; the cupola is rather to be classified with the topes or stupas of Afghanistan. The structure is thus a compound of a tope with a copy, in durable architecture, of the frail cells of a vihara. Borodin, bo-ro'den, Alexander Porfirye- vich, por-fer-ya'vich, Russian coinposer: b. St. Petersburg. 12 Nov. 1834; d. there, 27 Feb. 1887. He studied medicine and chemistry, and was made professor of chemistry at the Medico- Surgical Academy of St. Petersburg- He was at the same time an excellent musician, one of the chief representatives of the new Russian school. His chief works are two symphonies and 'In Central Asia.' His opera, 'Prince Igor,' which he had not completed at his death BORODINO — BOROUGH was finished by Rimsky-Korsakoff and Glazou- noff, and was brought out in St. Petersburg in November 1890. Borodino, bo-ro-de'no, Russia, a village 70 miles west of Moscow ; on the Kaluga, an afflu- ent of the Moskwa. It gave name to the great battle fought between the French army under Napoleon and the Russians under Kutusoff, 7 Sept. 1812. The battle of Borodino was one of the most obstinately disputed in history, and the loss on both sides was almost equally great. Out of 257,000 men engaged, between 70,000 and 80,000 were killed and wounded. The Rus- sians retreated on the following day, but in the most perfect order, and therefore claim this bat- tle as a victory : but the French, who name the battle from the Moskwa, have always maintained a similar claim. Boroglyceride, -glis'- (from *boron'^ and ^'glycerine"), an antiseptic substance, soluble in alcohol and in 40 parts of water, and containing about 25 per cent of borate of glycerine (C3H5BO3), the remaining 75 per cent con- sisting of free boracic acid and glycerine in equivalent proportions. Boroglyceride is con- sidered harmless, and is much used in the pres- ervation of fruits and wines, and other articles of food. Bo'ron (from "borax^'), one of the non- metallic elements. In nature it is never found in the uncombined or elementary state, though it occurs abundantly in combination with other elements, especially in regions that are or have been volcanic. The principal compounds of it that are found in nature are borax and boracic acid (qq.v.). It is a constituent of numerous other minerals, but most of these have but little commercial importance. Boron was first ob- tained in the elementary state about the year 1808, by Gay-Lussac and Thenard in France, and by Sir Humphry Davy in England. Gay- Lussac and Thenard prepared the element by heating boracic acid very strongly until all its water was expelled, and then heating the result- ing substance (now known as boric oxid) with metallic potassium. The potassium removed the oxygen from the boric oxid, setting the element boron free. When thus prepared boron is an opaque amorphous powder of a greenish-brown color. It has neither taste nor odor, but it stains the fingers strongly. Owing to its finely divided condition it is apt to take fire spontaneously; but if it is consolidated by pressure it is not affected by the air at common temperatures, though it burns with a reddish light when heated. It is not affected by water save that water will dissolve a slight amount of it when it is freshly prepared. Strong nitric acid will dissolve it in the cold, and hot sulphuric acid attacks it also. It is one of the few substances that will combine directly with nitrogen, which it does when heated in that gas. The atornic weight of boron has not been determined with satisfactory precision, but Clarke gives 10.97 as the best result obtainable from the existing data. The amorphous boron described above is soluble in melted aluminum, from which it crystallizes out on cooling. The crystals so obtained were formerly thought to consist of pure boron, but it has been shown that they always contain a definite amount of aluminum. These crystals may be obtained of such hardness that they will scratch both corundum and the Vol. 2— 5v ruby, the diamond being the only substance that exceeds them in this respect. The specific gravity of amorphous boron has not been sat- isfactorily determined, but it appears to exceed 1.84. The specific gravity of the crystals obtained as described above is said by Miller to be 2.68. The specific heat of boron varies con- siderably with the temperature. At 250° C. it is .2,7, and at 1,000° C. it is probably 0.5. Boron is a non-conductor of electricity. Bororos, bo-ro-ros', a tribe of South American Indians of the Tupi or Guarani stock, variously reported from a few hundred to a few thousand, living in southwestern Brazil around the headwaters of the Parana and Paraguay, the small remnants of a once powerful race, thinned by old Portuguese slave raids and disease. They live in villages and do some planting, but live mainly by hunting with long bows and bone-tipped arrows. They are excep- tionally tall, averaging over five feet eight inches, and athletic, and are reported to prac- tice both polygamy and polyandry, but little is really known of them. Borough, in England, either an incorpo- rated municipality with an organized govern- ment and a charter of special privileges (muni- cipal borough), or a district represented by a member of Parliament (parliamentary bor- ough). The burh (hill) was originally a hill- fort ; then the settlement around it, with its own court, and head officer called a "port-reeve." Under the Norman dynasty the port-reeves were replaced by royal officers, and the boroughs grad- ually received special charters and were gov- erned by their leading guilds. As their support came to be needed by the governing factions they were given representation in Parliament ; and under the Tudors, especially Mary, small bor- oughs in great profusion were created expressly to return members in the government interest. This was stopped under Elizabeth. Besides these the older boroughs decayed till they had little or no population, but were allowed to keep their parliamentary power to strengthen the aristocratic and land-owning interest, the proprietors of the sites returning whom thej' chose: these were called ^'rotten boroughs," and the chief was "Old Sarum" (that is, Old Salisbury), with not a single inhabitant but two members of Parliament. Others had only one. Those somewhat larger, but still so small as to be at the dictation of some one person or family, were called "pocket boroughs." The Reform Bill of 1832 swept away the worst of these anomalies. In the United States the term is now restricted to certain incorporated villages below the rank of cities in four States — Connecticut, New Jersey, Minnesota, and Pennsylvania ; and is practically synonymous with "town" in most other States, and with "village" in Ohio. At the beginning of colonization the natural idea was to transplant the English borough system to America; but the conditions of settlement and government made it generally inapplicable. In Virginia the term was applied in the sense of "parliamentary borough." to districts made up of hundreds and plantations, having representa- tion in the House of Burgesses, of which in 1619 there were 1 1 ; but the municipal borough did not take root there. Lord Baltimore and William Penn were empowered to establish the latter in BOROUGH-ENGLISH — BORROW thei. colonies of Maryland and Pennsylvania; but ./ic former did not avail himself of it at all, jnd the latter very little, nor his heirs after him. After the Revolution, however, the Penirsylvania legislature granted special bor- ougn charters freely, and in 1834 passed an act empowering courts of quarter sessions to grant thciii; in 1851 a general act for their creation and regulation was passed. In New Jersey they weie created by special charters as early as the beginning of the 18th centurj^ and in 1818 a gi^neral act was passed. In Connecticut they ha\c always been created by the legislature, in special acts. In Minnesota and Pennsylvania the boundaries of the borough are conterminous witf. the township, forming one of the primary couiity divisions: in Connecticut and New Jer- sey the borough is only a village government witnin a town, which in all cases is a separate bod/ including the borough ; the latter being onl> the thickly settled portion within the range geutei-ally of the postal, fire, etc., departments, and governed by a warden and burgesses, cor- responding to the mayor and single-chamber couiicil of a city. A still further extension was given to the term by the New York legislature in 1897. when the city of Greater New York was constituted of five ^oroughs^^ — IManhattan, Brooklyn, Queeirs, The Bronx, and Richmond. Borough-English, in law, a mode of de- scent in some ancient boroughs and manors, in which the owner's youngest son, or his young- est brother (if he has no issue), is the heir. It is evidently a custom of Saxon origin, and is so named to distinguish it from the Norman cus- toms. It. still holds in a few places. Borromean (bo-ro-ma'an) Islands, four small islands in a bay of Lago Maggiore, north Italj% belonging to the Borromeo family, and named respectively Isola Bella, Isola Madre, Isola dei Pescatori, and L'Isolino. The Isola Madre lies farthest from the shore of the lake. It is laid out in seven terraces, rising one above the other, v- ith charming walks and a mansion on the top. The Isola Bella contains a hand- some and extensive palace, with private chapel and picture gallery, the fine gardens adjoining being laid out upon 10 terraces rising above each other. The island was formerly little more than a barren rock and much soil required to be brought from the mainland. The Isola dei Pes- catori is mostly occupied by a fishing village. Magnificent views of the surrounding scenery are obtained from these islands. Borromeo, bo-ro-ma'o, Carlo (Count), saint and cardinal of the Roman Catholic Church : b. Arona, Italy, 2 Oct. 1538; d. 3 Nov. 1584. He studied law at Pavia ; was in 1559 made doctor, and in 1560 was successively appointed by his uncle Pius IV. apostolical prothonotary, refer- endary, cardinal, and archbishop of Milan. As legate over Romagna, the March of Ancona, and Bologna, he had a great share in the civil gov- ernment : as protector of Portugal, of the Neth- erlands, of Switzerland, of the Franciscans, Car- melites, and of the Knights of Malta, he admin- istered several important branches of the spiritual government of the Pope, who created him his grand penitentiary, and did nothing of importance without his advice. The re-opening and the results of the Council of Trent, so advan- tageous to the papal authority, were chiefly effected by the great influence of Borromeo' He did much for the embellishment of the papal buildings, employing even his own fortune for that purpose, and established many excellent institutions as archbishop of Milan ; improved the discipline of the clergy, founded schools, seminaries, an order of secular priests (oblates), libraries, and hospitals, and was indefatigable in doing good. During the pestilence which raged in Milan in 1576 he distinguished him- self by his heroic devotion to his flock. As soon as the scourge appeared in the city he hastened from a distant part of his diocese, where he was making a pastoral visitation, and spent all his energies in giving bodily aid and spiritual con- solation to the plague-stricken inhabitants. All his virtues, however, could not save him from persecution and calumny : he was even severely attacked by the government, but no charge could be proved against him. ]\Iiracles were said to have been wrought at his tomb immediately after his death, and his canonization took place in 1610. Borromeo, Federigo, fa-da-re'g5 (Count), cardinal, and archbishop of Milan, nephew of St. Charles: b. Milan, 1564; d. 22 Sept. 1631. He founded the Ambrosian Library at Milan in 1609, and devoted to it most of his fortune. He sent emissaries to several countries to collect manu- scripts for it. He added to it a printing estab- lishment, and founded academies, schools, and charitable institutions. When Milan was deso- lated by a pestilence in 1630, Federigo showed the same heroism as his uncle Carlo had done during that of 1576. Borromini, Francesco, fran-ches-ko bor- r5-me'ne, Italian architect: b. Bissone, 1599; d. (by his own hand) 1667. He studied sculp- ture in Milan and architecture in Rome under Maderno, architect of St. Peters. After Ma- derno's death he was a pupil of Bernini, by whom he was employed on various parts of St. Peters. He built the church of San Ivo alia Sapienza, the Oratory and Cloister of San Fil- ippo Neri, the facade of the church of Santa Agnese in the Piazza Navona, and the interior of San Giovanni in Laterano. He was one of the chief representatives of the baroque style. Borromini conceived an unreasoning hatred for his instructor Bernini and determined to surpass him in his art, but maddened by the latter's success he committed suicide. Borrow, George, English traveler, linguist, and writer on gypsy life: b. East Dereham, Nor- folk, 1803 ; d. Ouiton Broad, Suffolk, August 1881. On his father's side he was descended from a Cornish family, and his mother was of French extraction. His father was a recruit- ing officer who constantly changed his residence, and thus Borrow's early years were passed in various parts of the United Kingdom. He received part of his education in Edinburgh High School, and in 1S20 was articled to a Norwich solicitor. It was about this time that he laid the foundation of his linguistic knowledge under the guidance of William Taylor, a friend of Southey. After his father's death he went to London, where he earned his livelihood by lit- erary hackwork ; but, soon tiring of this, he set out on a series of journeys through England, France, Germany, Russia, and other countries, acting latterly as agent of the British and For- eign Bible Society and making gypsy life and BORROWING DAYS — BOSANQUET customs a special study. During the seven years or so prior to his engagement by the Bible So- ciety he seems to have suffered great privations, but of his movements at thnt time he has told us nothing. He married in 1840, and settled on a small estate of his wife's at Oulton Broad, in the northeast of Suffolk, where he died. He main- tained to the last his strong sympathy for gypsy life, and not only permitted but encouraged the gypsies to encamp on his estate. His best known work is ^The Bible in Spain' (3 vols. 1843) ; and his other publications include 'Targum: or, Metrical Translations from Thirty Languages and Dialects' (1835) *The Zincali : or, an Account of the Gj'psies in Spain' (1841) ; ^Lavengro, the Scholar, the Gypsy, the Priest' (1851), a sort of idealized autobiography; *The Romany Rye,' a sequel to ^Lavengro' (1857) ; 'Wild Wales, Its People, Language, and Scen- ery' (1862) ; and 'Romano Lavo-LiP (1874), a dictionary of the gyspy language. Borrow was a strong, manly character, delighting in the free, open-air existence of the gypsies whose life he knew so well, and despising heartily all affecta- tion and false gentility. His later works, by their outspokenness, lost him much of the repu- tation earned by his 'Bible in Spain.' See the 'Life Writings, and Correspondence' by Dr. Knapp (2 vols. 1899). Borrowing Days, the last three days of March, Old Style ; the popular notion being, in Scotland and some parts of England, that they were borrowed by March from April. The fic- tion is of great antiquity, and probably arose in the observation of a frequent wintry relapse about the end of March. Borrowstounness' (popularly pronounced and now often written Bo'ness), a town in Lin- lithgowshire, Scotland, distant 17 miles west by north of Edinburgh. It is situated on a low peninsula, washed by the Forth, and possesses three principal streets running from west to east, one of them a continuation of the other two. The chief industrial establishments are potteries, iron-foundries, engineering shops, chemical manure works, saw-mills, timber-yards, coal and coke works, distilleries, brick-fields, etc., and in the vicinity are very extensive collieries. A new dock has recently been constructed and the old harbor improved, hydraulic hoists and other appliances being provided. The wall of Anto- ninus ran through Borrowstounness, and traces of it are still visible. Pop. (1901) 9,100. Borsip'pa, a very ancient city of Babylonia, the site of which is marked by the ruins Birs Nimrud. Bert, a rounded, translucent variety of diamond, harder than the distinctly crystallized gem variety. It is of much value as an abrasive. Bortnyanski, Dmitri Stepanovitch, dme'tre step-an'o-vich bort-nyan-ske, Russian com- poser: b. Glukhov, 1751; d. St. Petersburg, 9 Sept. 1825. He received his education at Mos- cow and at Venice and other Italian cities, under Galuppi. In 1779 he returned to Russia and was appointed director of the Imperial Chapel, devoting himself to the improvement and traming of the choir. His compositions are almost entirely church music, including 35 sa- cred concertos, a liturgy for three voices, and a collection of psalms. His music, combining the spirit of both the Slavic and the Italian, is thor- oughly original and made an epoch in Russian church music. Bory de Saint Vincent, Jean Baptiste George Marie, zhon bap-test zhorzh ma-re bo-re de san van-son, French naturalist: b. 1780; d. 1846. About 1800-2 he visited the Canaries, Mauritius, and other African islands. He afterward served for a time in the army, and conducted scientific expeditions to Greece and to Algiers. Among his chief works are 'Annales des Sciences Physiques' (8 vols. 1819-21); 'Voyage dans les Quatre Principales lies des Mers d'Afrique' (3 vols. 1804); 'Ex- pedition Scientifique de Moree' (3 vols. 1832) ; 'L'Homme, Essai Zoologique sur le Genre Hu- main' (2 vols. 1836). Borysthenes, bo-ris'then-es, the ancient name of the Dnieper. Borz'oi, or Russian Wolfhound, a hunting- dog of northern Europe, substantially the same as the ancient long-haired greyhound of the Arabs and Persians, whose coat has been length- ened in adaptation to a cold climate. It is a lithe, active dog, standing 28 inches high at the shoulders, and upward, and weighing from 75 to 100 pounds. Its hair is silky and loose, espe- cially so on the tail, which, contrary to the other greyhound characteristics, is "feathered" longer than is the setter's, which it very mucli resembles. It has large padded feet. In color the borzois are combinations of black, white, and tan. These dogs are popular, especially as stately attendants upon ladies, and good speci- mens may be seen at all the principal kennel shows of the country. Bos, Lambert, Dutch philologist: b. Wor- kum, Friesland, 23 Nov. 1670; d. 6 Jan. 1717. He was instructed by his father in Greek and Latin. Vitringa, the distinguished Oriental scholar, was professor at Franeker, and thither young Bos went to pursue his philological stud- ies. Not long after he was chosen Greek pro- fessor in that university. He is best known by his work entitled 'Ellipses Graecse' (1702), though he was the author of several others, among which may be mentioned an edition of the Septuagint and 'Animadversiones ad Scrip- tores Grascos.' Bosa, a seaport on the west coast of Sar- dinia, province of Cagliari, built partly on the side of a hill crowned by an old castle, and partly in an unhealthy plain. It has a cathedral and other churches, a theological seminary, and is the residence of a bishop, suffragan to the archbishop of Sassari. It is in a wine and oil producing region and carries on coral fishing and tanning. Pop. (1901) 6.846. Bosanquet, bo-san-ka, Bernard, English philosopher : b. 1848. He was lecturer af Uni- versity College, Oxford, 1871-81, and from 1881 to 1897 was much engaged in university exten- sion lecturing and charily organization. He has written ' Logic, or Morphology of Knowledge' ; 'History of .Esthetic'; 'Knowledge and Real- ity' ; 'Essays and Addresses'; 'Civilization of Christendom'; 'Essentials of Logic'; 'Aspects of the Social Problem'; 'Psychology of Moral Self ; 'Companion to Plato's Republic, for Eng- lish Readers' ; 'Education of the Young in Plato's Republic' ; 'Philosophical Theory of the State.' BOSC — BOSCOBEL Bosc, Louis Augustin Guillaume, French naturalist: b. Paris, 29 Jan. 1759; d. there, 10 July 1828. Employed in various public offices until 1793, his political sympathies made him ob- noxious to the terrorists, and concealing him- self in the forest of Montmorency, he resumed there, under the greatest difficulties, his favorite science of botany, having already previously gained some distinction as a naturalist. On returning to Paris after the fall of Robespierre he was sent in 1796 as French consul to the United States ; but, not recognized in this posi- tion by the American authorities, he explored the country for scientific purposes. In 1799 he was appointed chief of the administration of prisons, but lost this office on the i8th Brumaire. Applying himself thenceforward to literary la- bors, he made numerous contributions to natural science. His ^Histoire Naturelle des Coquilles^ (S vols. 2d ed. Paris 1824) and 'Historic des Vers et des Crustacees-* (2 vols. 2d ed. Paris 1829), and his studies on the vines of France, are his principal achievements. He was made a member of the Academy of Sciences, of the Central Agricultural Society, and finally, after having been inspector of the gardens at Ver- sailles, he became professor at the Jardin des Plantes at Paris. Roland, under whose admin- instration he had served, and who perished with his wife on the guillotine, made him guardian of their daughter. Bosc published memoirs of the celebrated Madame Roland, and succeeded in obtaining for Mile. Roland the confiscated property of her unfortunate parents. Boscan Almogaver, Juan, Spanish poet: b. Barcelona, about 1493 ; d. near Perpignan, April 1542. His parents, who belonged to the most ancient nobility, gave him a careful educa- tion. He followed the court of Charles V. and in 1526 was attached to it for some time in Granada. His noble manners and character gained him the favor of the emperor, and the education of the Duke of Alva was committed to him. After his marriage Boscan lived at Barcelona, occupied in publishing his works, together with those of his deceased friend Gar- cilaso, in which task he was employed at the time of his death. Boscan first introduced Italian measures into Spanish, and thus became the creator of the Spanish sonnet. He published his poetical works in I.S43. His poems are still esteemed, the best edition being that published at Madrid in 1875. Among his works are ^Le- andro y Hero^ and ^La Allegoria.^ Boscawen, Edward, British admiral: b. Cornwall, England, 19 Aug. 171 1; d. near Guild- ford, Surrey, 10 Jan. 1761. He was a son of Viscount Falmouth. Having entered the navy he distinguished himself at Porto Bello (1740) and Cartagena (1741), where he stormed a bat- tery at the head of a part of his crew. In 1744 lie was promoted to the Dreadnought, a 60- gun ship, in which he took the French frigate Medea. Three years afterward he signalized himself under Anson, at the battle of Cape Finisterre. Toward the close of this year he was appointed commander-in-chief by sea and land in the East Indies, and was despatched thither with a squadron. He failed in attempts on Mauritius and Pondicherry, and in 1750 re- turned to England, where he obtained a seat at the admiralty board. In 1755 he became vice- admiral and sailed for North America, and in an action with a French squadron two ships of the line fell into his hands. It was he who signed the immediate order for the execution of Byng in 1757. In 1758 he was promoted to the rank of admiral of the blue, and in con- junction with Lord Amherst, who commanded the land forces, he was present at the capitula- tion of Louisburg. The year following, having then the command in the Mediterranean, he pursued the Toulon fleet, under De la Clue, through the Straits of Gibraltar, and coming up with it in Lagos Bay, completely defeated it, burning two ships and taking three. For these services he received the thanks of Parliament and $15,000 a year, with the rank of general of marines, in 1760. Bosch, Balthazar van den, Dutch painter: b. Antwerp, 1681 ; d. 1715. The first work which brought him into notice was an equestrian pic- ture of the Duke of Marlborough, executed in concert with Van Bloemen, who painted the horse. He was afterward employed on a num- ber of works, for which he is said to have received as high prices as Teniers or Ostade; and a short time before his death was appointed director of the Academy of Antwerp. Bosch, Ernst, German painter: b. Crefeld, 1834. He studied under Schex at Wesel and at the academy in Diisseldorf. His works show a pleasing combination of figure, animal, and land- scape painting ; many of his pictures excel in humor. Among his best paintings are *The Smuggler^ ; ^Defense of a Block-house against Indians' ; 'Gipsy Gang in the Village' ; 'The Rogues' School' ; 'Hermann and Dorothea at the Spring.' Bosch, Hieronymus, Dutch painter and engraver : b. Bois le Due, Netherlands, about 1462; d. there 1516. His fancy partook of the grotesque, Gothic character of the Middle Ages, and his pictures are ingenious representations of devils, spectres, and the torments of the lost. Some of his works, however, representing scrip- tural scenes, possess greater dignity. His en- gravings resemble his paintings, and have be- come very scarce. Boschbok, the Dutch form of the English name "bush-buck," given to several South Afri- can antelopes, specifically the Tragelaplius syl- vaticus. It is prized for its venison. Boschvark, the bush-hog or bush-pig of South Africa (Chccropoiamiis or Potamochccrus africanus), one of the swine family, about five feet long, and with very large and strong tusks. The Kaffirs esteem its flesh as a luxury, and its tusks, arranged on a piece of string and tied round the neck, are considered great orna- ments. Boscobel, England, a parish in Shropshire, unimportant in itself, but remarkable historically as the hiding place of Charles II. for some days after the battle of Worcester, 3 Sept. 1651. Boscobel House belonged at the time to a stanch royalist, and as it was judged a con- venient place of retreat, Charles at once pro- ceeded in that direction, and hid himself during the day in the thickest part of the wood. After making one attempt to escape from England through Wales, he was compelled to return again to his former hiding-place, and concealed himself among the branches of a pollard oak in Boscobel Wood, where it is related that he could actually BOSCOVICH — BOSNIA see the men who were in pursuit of him, and hear their voices. The "royal oak» which now stands at Boscobel, is said to have grown from an acorn of this very tree. An account of Charles' adventures after the battle of Worces- ter was published in 1662, with the title/ Bos- cobel, or the Compleat History of his Sacred Majestie's most Miraculous Preservation after the Battle of Worcester.^ This history is said to have been the work of Thomas Blount. Boscovich, Roger Joseph, Italian astrono- mer and physicist : b. Ragusa, Dalmatia, 18 May 1711; d. Milan, 12 Feb. 1787. He was educated among the Jesuits, and entering into their order, was appointed professor of mathematics in the Roman College, before he had entirely com- pleted the course of his studies. He was em- ployed by Pope Benedict XIV. in various under- takings, and in 1750 began the measurement of a degree of the meridian in the Ecclesiastical States, which operation occupied him for two years. He afterward visited the Pontine Marshes, to give advice respecting the draining of them. He was then intrusted by the Republic of Lucca with the defense of its interests, in a dispute about boundaries with the government of Tuscany. This affair obliged him to go to Vienna, and having terminated it with success, he visited Paris and London. He was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society, and dedicated to this body a Latin poem on eclipses. Returning to Italy, he was appointed mathematical pro- fessor in the University of Pavia ; whence, in 1770, he removed to Milan, and there erected the celebrated observatory at the College of Brera. On the suppression of the order of Jesuits, he accepted an invitation to France from Louis XV., who gave him a pension of 8,000 livres, with the office of director of optics for the navy. This appointment induced him to pay particular attention to that part of optical science which treats of the theory of achromatic telescopes, on which subject he wrote a treatise of considerable extent. He was obliged to leave Paris in 1783, on account of ill health, when he retired to Milan. He was one of the first among continental philosophers to adopt the Newtonian theories. An edition of the works of Father Boscovich was published by himself at Bassano, in 5 volumes, 4to, 1785. His "^Theoria Philosophias Naturalis reducta ad Unicam Legem Virium in Natura Existentium,' first published in 1758, is a curious production containing spec- ulations of which Dr. Priestley availed himself in his writings in favor of materialism. He wrote also ^De Maculis Solaribus.^ Bosio, Angiolina, Italian opera singer: b. Turin, 22 Aug. 1829; d. St. Petersburg, 12 April 1859. At an early age she showed so decided a taste for music, that her parents were induced to place her under the instruction of Cattaneo, at Milan. The best evidence of her progress and talent for singing, was her debut in her 15th year at Milan, in Verdi's ^Due Fos- cari,^ with decided success. Thenceforth a series of triumphs awaited her. Bosio, Frangois Joseph (Baron), French sculptor: b. Monaco, 19 March 1769; d- Paris, 29 July 1845. He was much employed by Napo- leon I., for whom he executed busts of Josephme and Hortense, and by the successive Bourbon and Orleans dynasties. His works are well known in France and Italy. Bosna-Sera'i, or Serajevo (ancient Tiberiop- OLis), formerly capital of the province of Bosnia, now of the Austro-Hungarian district of Sera- jevo, situated on the Miliatzka, which is here crossed by a handsome stone bridge, 122 miles southwest of Belgrade, and 570 miles west- northwest of Constantinople. The town was founded about 1263. It is well built, and al- though most of the houses are of wood, has a gay and pleasant appearance from the number of towers and minarets with which it is embel- lished. Many improvements have been intro- duced since the Austrian occupation. It con- tains a serai or palace, built by Mohammed II., to which the city owes its name ; many mosques, great and small ; churches, monasteries, two large bazaars, schools, baths, and charitable insti- tutions. It v/as formerly surrounded with walls, but these are now completely decayed ; and its only remaining defense is a citadel, built on a rocky height at a short distance east from the town, mounted with cannon. Serajevo is the chief mart in the province, the centre of com- mercial relations between Turkey, Austria, and South Germany ; and has, in consequence, a con- siderable trade. It has manufactures of arms and utensils of copper ; ironware, woolen and worsted stuffs, morocco leather, cottons, etc. There are also several tanneries in the city, and at a short distance from it several impor- tant iron mines ; and on a plain which stretches to the west the baths of Serajevesko. Pop. 26,286. Bosnia (properly Bosna), the extreme northwestern province or eyalet of European Turkey, comprising Bosnia proper, Herzegovina, and parts of Turkish Croatia and Dalmatia, bounded north by the river Save, west by Dalma- tia and the Adriatic, east by Servia, and south by Albania and Montenegro. By the terms of the Treaty of Berlin (1878), it was occupied by Austrian troops, to be administered for an undefined future period by the Austrian govern- ment. It comprehends, besides the ancient Bos- nia, part of Croatia, a tract of Dalmatia, and Herzegovina, and contains from 23,000 to 24.000 square miles (of which Bosnia proper occupies 16,200). The inhabitants are mostly of Slavo- nian origin, and comprise Bosniaks, Servians, Morlaks, and Croats, besides Turks, Greeks, Jews, Gypsies, etc. The Bosniaks are the most numerous. They are partly Mohammedans, partly Roman and Greek Catholics. The Ser- vians and Croats are next in point of number. The country is level toward the north ; in the south mountainous and woody. Its chief rivers are the Save, the Verbas, the Bosna, Rama, and Drina. Bosnia contains fertile fields, orchards, and vineyards ; the breed of cattle is excellent, and the mountains furnish good iron, of which a great part is manufactured in the country into guns and blades. The other articles manufac- tured are leather, morocco, and coarse woolen cloths. In the 12th and 13th centuries Bosnia belonged to Hungary. In 13.^9 't fell into the hands of Stephen, king of Servia. After his death it remained independent, and the Ban Twartko took the title of king in 1370. In 1401 it became tributary to the Turks, and since 1463 has been a Turkish province. It is divided into the southern and northern parts, or Upper and Lower Bosnia. The former is commonly called Herzegovina (q.v.). The capital of Bosnia is BOSPORUS — BOSSE Bosna-Serai (q.v.) ; Zvornik, Banyaluka, Mos- tar, and Travnik are also important places. The Bosniaks are boorish in their manners and un- courteous toward strangers, but industrious and temperate. The women, like the men, are well and strongly made, and mostly good-looking. The Bosniaks are fond of hunting and fishing, and engage to some extent in agriculture and cattle-raising. Servian is the language gener- ally spoken. Bosnia has often attempted to throw off the Turkish yoke, and after the Russo- Turkish war of 1877-8, which was led up to by an insurrection in Herzegovina and Bosnia, the provinces were with the consent of the great powers occupied by Austria. Pop. including Herzegovina (1895) 1,591,036. Bosporus, or Bosphorus (that is, "^^Ox- ford"), the strait, 18 miles long, joining the Black Sea with the Sea of Marmora, called also the Strait of Constantinople. It is defended by a series of strong forts, and by agreement of the European powers no ship of war belonging to any nation shall pass the strait without the permission of Turkey. The shores of the Bos- porus are elevated and the scenery picturesque. Over this channel (about 3,033 feet wide) Da- rius constructed a bridge of boats, on his expe- dition against the Scythians. The Cimmerian Bosporus was the name given by the ancients to the strait that leads from the Black Sea into the Sea of Azov, now the strait of Kaffa or Yenikale, the other Bosporus being distin- guished as the Thracian Bosporus. There was anciently a Greek kingdom of the name of Bos- porus, so called from the Cimmerian Bosporus, on both sides of which it was situated. The capital of this kingdom was Panticapjeum (rep- resented by the modern Kertch), in the Tauric Chersonese, the ancient name of the Crimea. This kingdom was founded about 480 B.C. Spar- tacus was among the first kings. Under a successor, Satyrus, the kingdom was extended to the coast of Asia, and his son Leucon far- ther extended it. He improved the commerce of the country (in particular by the exportation of corn to Athens, also of fish, fur, skins, bees'- wax, and slaves). From him his descendants were called Leuconidae. Leucanor became trib- utary to the Scythians 290 B.C., and the tribute was finally so oppressive that Parisades, the last of the Leuconid,'?, preferred to submit to Mith- ridates king of Pontus, who vanquished the Scy- thians under Scilurus 116 b. c, and made his son king of Bosporus. At the death of Mith- ridates the Romans gave the country, 64 B.C., to his second son, Pharnaces, who was afterward murdered. The Romans placed different princes successively upon the throne, who all pretended to be descendants of Mithridates. When this family became extinct, 259 a.d., the Sarmatians took possession of the kingdom, from whom it was taken by the Chersonesians in 344. The Tauric Chersonese then belonged to the East- ern Empire, till it was seized by the Chazars, and afterward by the Tartars, under the Mon- gol princes. Bosquet, bos-ka, Pierre Frangois, French soldier : b. Mont de Marsen, France, 8 Nov. 1810; d. Toulouse, 5 Feb. 1861. In 1829 he entered the Polytechnic School, and, in 1833, became a sub-lieutenant in the artillery. In 1835, he went with his regiment to Algeria, where he began to distinguish himself. Be- tween 1836 and 1848 he had passed through the successive ranks of captain, chef-de-bataillon, lieutenant-colonel, and colonel, when, in that year, he was appointed by the Republican gov- ernment general of brigade. In 1854 the Em- peror Napoleon HI. raised him to the rank of general of division, and enrolled him in the staff of the army of Marshal St. Arnaud. He was with the French army in the Crimea, where he greatljr distinguished himself, and was wounded in the assault on the IMalakoff Tower at the siege of Sebastopol. In 1856, he was made a marshal of France, and a senator. In 1859, he was ap- pointed to a command in the war against Aus- tria. Boss, Lewis, American astronomer: b. Providence, R. I., 26 Oct. 1846. He was grad- uated at Dartmouth College, in 1870 ; astronomer of the Northern Boundary Survey for the deter- mination of the line between the western part of the United States and British America ; and, since the completion of that work, director of the Dudley Observatory, Albany, N. Y. He was chief of the United States party sent to Chile in 1882 to observe the transit of Venus; was elected a member of the National Academy of Science, in 1889, and an honorary foreign associate of the Royal Astronomical Society, in 1890. He is best known for his work upon star declinations, undertaken in connection with his work on the boundary survey, which is the most complete investigation of the kind ever executed, and for his "^Catalogue of 8,241 Stars^ — ■ which was a part of the *^ Co-operative Cata- logue^ prepared by leading astronomers of Europe. Boss, a master or overseer, a term often applied to the superintendent of a gang of work- men. In American politics, the term came into use, after the exposure of the Tweed Ring, to designate the leader of a political organiza- tion who retains his power by unscrupulous methods and the use of public offices as rewards for his supporters. Boss, in Gothic architecture the protuber- ance in a vaulted ceiling formed by the junc- tion of the ends of several ribs, and serving to bind them together; usually elaborately carved and ornamented. Bosse, bos, Abraham, French engraver and etcher; b. Tours, 1605 (?); d. there, 1678. He lived most of his life in Paris and was pro- fessor in the Royal Academy of Painting there. He prepared about 800 plates representing fes- tivals and various scenes in the life of the peo- ple. He wrote also ^Traite des Manieres de Graver en Taille Douce sur I'Airain par I'Eau Forte et les Vernis Durs et Mols.^ Bosse, bos-se, Robert, German statesman: b. Quedlinburg, 1832. He studied law at Heidel- berg, Halle, and Berlin, held different offices in Prussia, and in 1876 he entered the Prus- sian ministry. In October 1889 he became under-secretary of state in the imperial Depart- ment of the Interior, and in this capacity had an important part in framing the laws for the insurance of workingmen, and in defending them in the Reichstag. In 1891 he became sec- retary in the Department of Justice, and was president of the commission to frame the new Civil Code. In 1892 he again entered the Prus- sian ministry as minister of education. He was BOSSI — BOSTANJI editor of the ^Monatsschrifte fiir Deutsche Beamte' ; and he wrote * Commentary on the Laws of 1889 for the Insurance of Invahds and the Aged' ; ^An Official Journey to the Orient-* (1900) and several articles in sociological and legal periodicals. Bossi, Enrico Marco, en-re'ko mar-ko bos-se, Italian composer: b. Salo, 1861. He was educated at the Milan Conservatory, was organ- ist in the Como cathedral and instructor in or- gan-playing at the Naples Conservatory. His musical compositions include an organ concerto, *I1 Cieco,' an opera, and 'Canticum Canti- corum,' a sacred cantata. He has written (with Tebaldini) * Method of Study for the Modern Organ.' Bossi, Giuseppe Carlo Aurelio, Italian pol- itician and poet: b. Turin, 15 Nov. 1758; d. Paris, 20 Jan. 1823. When only 18 years old he made a successful debut as a dramatist. In 1792 he was sent on a diplomatic mission to Berlin, and a few months later to St. Petersburg. In 1796 King Charles Emanuel IV. appointed him his agent near Gen. Bonaparte. He acted a some- what conspicuous part in the various changes imposed upon the Sardinian states by the direct- ory and the consular government of France; and finally was, with Carlo Giulio and Carlo Botta, a member of the triumvirate which gov- erned Piedmont previous to its annexation in 1802. Some two years later he entered the French civil service, and was appointed prefect of Ain. In 1810 he was made a baron of the empire, and promoted to the prefecture of Manche, which post he kept on the first resto- ration ; but having, in March 1815, adhered to Napoleon, he was dismissed on the second re- turn of the Bourbons. He wrote some lyrical poems, and also ^L'lndipendenza Americana,' *La Olanda pacificata,' in two cantos, and ^Oro- masia,' in 12 cantos, giving a description of the principal events in the French revolution. Bossuet, Jacques Benigne, Bishop of Meaux: b. Dijon, 2^ Sept. 1627; d. 16 April 1704. While attending the Jesuit College at Di- jon he got possession of a Latin Bible, which made an indelible impression upon him. At the age of 15 he was sent to Paris, where he entered the College of Navarre, the president of which, Nicholas Cornet, took pleasure in forming his mind. Bossuet, under the direction of this worthy teacher, studied Greek and the Holy Scriptures, read the ancient classics, and investigated the Cartesian philosophy. He was made Doctor of the Sorbonne and canon in Metz. Here he edified his hearers by his preach- ing and example ; was commissioned by his bishop to refute the catechism of the Protestant minister Paul Ferry, and did it in such a way that even his antagonists were obliged to re- spect him. The queen-mother (Anne of Aus- tria) was induced, by this work, to employ Bos- suet in the conversion of the Protestants in the diocese of Metz. This business often called him to Paris, where his sermons met with great ap- probation. The sermon which he delivered in *i668, on the occasion of Marshal Turenne's join- ing the Roman Church, procured him the bish- opric of Condom. In 1670 the king charged him with the education of the dauphin. In con- sequence of this appointment he resigned his bishopric in 1671, because he thought it in- consistent with his duty to retain it during a continual absence from his diocese. At this time he delivered his sermon at the funeral oi Madame the Duchess of Orleans — a princess who, in the midst of a brilliant court, of which she was the ornament, died suddenly in the bloom of youth. His last sermon of this kind (that at the tomb of the great Conde) is con- sidered as a masterpiece. The manly vigof which characterized his orations is seen alsd in the ^Discours sur I'Histoire Universelle,' de- signed for the instruction of his royal pupil. The care which he took of the education of this prince was rewarded in 1680 by the office of the first almoner of the dauphin; in 1681 bji the bishopric of Meaux; in 1697 he obtained the dignity of a councilor of state, and a year afterward that of the first almoner of the Duch- ess of Burgundy. His practice and his doctrine were equally severe. AH his time was divided between his studies and the execution of his official duties ; he seldom allowed himself any recreation. The learned Benedictines of the Brotherhood of St. Maur published a complete edition of the works of Bossuet in 43 volumes Svo (Versailles 1815-19). Bossuet was unrivaled as a pulpit orator, and greatly distinguished for his strength and acumen as a controversialist. Among the most celebrated of his works are his *^Oraisons Funebres' ; ^Histoire des Variations des Eglises Protestantes' ; * Politique tiree des propres Paroles de I'Ecriture Sainte.' The French Academy consider him among their mosi renowned members. He has described his own life at length. For his dispute with the arch- bishop of Cambrai, Fenelon, see Fenelon and Quietism. Bossut, Charles, French mathematician: b. Tartaras, in the department of the Rhone, II Aug. 1730; d. 14 Jan. 1814. He was edu- cated at the Jesuit College, Lyons, and having met with the ^Eloges of Fontenelle,' was smitten with so eager a desire to imitate the distin- guished individuals therein described, that he wrote to Fontenelle himself on the subject. That veteran, now 90 years of age, not only answered the letter, but expressed such an interest in the future progress of his young correspondent, that Bossut repaired to Paris, and was introduced by Fontenelle to Clairaut and D'Alembert, the lat- ter of whom he appears to have particularly ad- mired and studied to imitate. In 1752 he was appointed profes.sor of mathematics to the school of Mezieres, and held that office for 16 years, during which he gained several prizes offered by the Academy of Sciences. He was afterward ad- mitted a member of that body, and was at the same time appointed examiner of candidates for the artillery and engineers. At the Revolution he was deprived of all his appointments, and after- ward lived in retirement till his death. His most important works are a ^Course of Mathe- matics,' which was long in repute as a text- book; a ^Treatise on Hydrodynamics' ; the ^In- troductory Discourse to Mathematics,' and various other articles in the Encyclopedic ; and a 'History of Mathematics.' He also edited the works of Pascal. Bostanji, a class of men in Turkey, num- bering about 600, originally the Sultan's garden- ers, but now also employed in several ways about his person, as mounting guard at the ser- aglio, rowing his barge, etc., and likewise in attending the officers of the royal household. BOSTON Boston, England, a municipal and parlia- mentary borough and port of Lincolnshire, sit- uated on the river Witham, about five miles from the sea, 32 southeast from Lincoln. It derived its name (a corruption of Botolph's town) from St. Botolph, who founded a monas- tery here about the year 650. Its chief interest for Americans lies in the fact that it was the English home of the most influential of the settlers of Boston, Mass. The port had for- merly a flourishing trade, but owing to various causes, and especially the fact that in dry sea- sons the river became choked up with sand brought in by the tides, this trade greatly declined. In 1881 a new channel was con- structed so as to bring the town within three miles of the sea by navigable water ; and a new dock of seven acres area, capable of admit- ting vessels of 3,500 tons at the highest tides, was opened three years later. Boston contains some fine buildings, notably the parish church of St. Botolph, the Cotton chapel, and various other places of worship, a grammar-school dat- ing from 1554, the Athenaeum, the Guildhall, and the Assembly rooms, under which are arranged the butter-market, poultry-market, and the po- lice-station. St. Botolph's Church is a very large and handsome Gothic structure, with a tower, known as Boston Stump, 282 feet high, containing a carillon of 36 bells cast at Louvain. In the upper part of the tower, octagonal in shape, lights used to be suspended for the guid- ance of mariners at sea and travelers crossing the fens by night. The town is now well sup- plied with water brought from a reservoir dis- tant about 14 miles. The leading industries comprise iron and brass foundries, the manu- facture of farm implements, sails, ropes, and bricks, and tanning, brewing, and malting. Fish- ing also gives occupation to many of the inhab- itants, and there is steam communication with Hamburg, Hull, and London. Pop. (1901) 15,711. Boston, Mass., the capital of the State, and, according to the United States census of 1900, fifth city in population in the United States. It is situated on the western shore of Massa- chusetts Bay. The settlement from which it has grown was made in 1630 by members of the Massachusetts Bay Company, bearing with them the charter granted to this organization by Charles I. The leader of the first expedition of settlers who landed at Charlestown, 17 June 1630, was Gov. John Winthrop, a Puritan gentleman. In his fleet came others of like condition. Sir Richard Saltonstall, Isaac Johnson and his wife, the Lady Arbella, daughter of the Earl of Lincoln, together with a company of sturdy Puritans, chiefly from Lincolnshire. They landed 700 or 800 strong, a number soon in- creased to 1,000 and then to 2.000 by later ar- rivals — the most considerable settlement on the American coast. At the end of the first sum- mer, a season of hardship, they moved across the Charles River to the promontory of Shaw- mut — an Indian word translated "living foun- tains.^^ This headland, with ample water-supply, was called by the English settlers Trimountain, from the three-peaked hill, now Beacon Hill, which formed its highest eminence. On 17 Sept. 1630 it was voted to change its name to Boston, after the Lincolnshire town from which some of the chief settlers had come. The origi- nal settler of the land, the Rev. William Black- stone (q.v.), a scholar who had left England to avoid the *lord-bishops,*^ sold the newcomers his land and moved on to Rhode Island, in order to escape the ''lords-brethren.** From the first the power of the Puritan clergy was important. Church and State were practically one. Trained in the English univer- sities, the ministers set a true value upon edu- cation. A free public school was established in 1633, and in 1636 the General Court provided for the beginnings of Harvard College. The government both of town and of colony was purely democratic, having for its unit the town- meeting, which in Boston itself maintained its sway, with the single interruption of British military rule at the outbreak of the Revolution, until the town became a city in 1822. Besides the training in self-government thus acquired, Boston had the advantage of virtual independ- ence through its early years. At first the Crown was fully occupied with its own problems in England ; and when Cromwell came into power, so strongly Puritan a settlement was naturally left much to its own devices. Thus the charter of the Bay Company, and the liberties enjoj^ed under it. became very dear to the people of Bos- ton. When Charles 11. came to the throne there were grave fears that these liberties would be seriously curtailed. In 1664 four roj'^al com- missioners came from England to adjust difficul- ties in several colonies. Their mission to Bos- ton was a failure, and for some years to come the town was secure under its original system of government. Under James II. came the dreaded change. Complaints of the Boston spirit of independence and religious intolerance were borne more fre- quently to the English court, and before the death of Charles II. the Court of Chancery voted the Massachusetts Bay charter vacated. In the summer of 1686 the original government of the colony came to an end. Before the close of this year. Sir Edmvmd Andros, the new governor appointed by the king, the first chief magistrate in Massachusetts not chosen by popular election, arrived in Boston. Prob- ably nobody in his peculiar place could have sat- isfied the people at this time. Within less than three years from his arrival a bloodless revolu- tion in Boston, a well-organized uprising of the people, removed him from office. Early in 1690 he was sent back to England, where Increase Mather, the leading minister of Boston, had already been for nearly two years, trjnng to have the old charter restored, or to get the best possible substitute for it. This he suc- ceeded in doing, after the accession of William and Mary, and had the further satisfaction of choosing the first governor under the new instrument making Massachusetts a royal prov- ince. With this governor. Sir William Phipps, Mather returned to Boston in the spring of 1692. By this time Boston had grown to impor- tance as the leading seaport, and in many respects the foremost town in America. Before the end of the 17th century its population was approximately 7,000. In another half century this number was more than doubled. A good idea of certain aspects of the town in this period is given by an Englishman, Daniel Neal, who wrote in 1719 : BOSTON " The bay of Boston is spacious enough to contain in a manner the navy of England. The masts of ships here, and at proper seasons of the year, malve a kind of wood of trees like that we see ujion the river of Thames about Wapping and Limehouse, which may easily be imagined when we consider that by com- putation given into the collectors of his Majesty's customs to the governor upon the building of the light- house, it appeared that there was 24,000 ton of ship- ping cleared annually. "At the bottom of the bay is a noble pier 1,800 or 2,000 foot long, with a row of warehouses on the north side for the use of merchants. The pier runs so far into the bay that ships of the greatest burthen may unlade without the help of boats or lighters. From the head of the i)icr you go up the chief street of the town [now State Street], at the upper end of which is the town house or Exchange, a fine piece of build- ing, containing, besides the walk for the merchants, the Council-Chamber, the House of Commons, and another spacious room for the sessions of the courts of justice. The Exchange is surrounded by booksellers' shops, which have a good trade. There are five print- ing presses in Boston, which are generally full of work, by which it appears that humanity and the knowledge of letters flourish more here than in all the other English Plantations put together; for in the city of New York there is but one bookseller's shop, and in the Plantations of Virginia, Maryland, Carolina, Barbadoes, and the Islands, none at all." As in the 17th so in the i8th century, the clergy and ecclesiastical affairs loomed large upon the local horizon. The prominence in Boston records of what is known as the "Mather dynasty* — of which Increase and his son, Cot- ton Mather, were the chief figures — bears wit- ness to this condition. The younger of these Puritan priests is remembered largely for his connection with the witchcraft delusion, which had its worst effects in Salem, but in tem- poral matters and humanitarian work he im- pressed himself no less forcibly on the life of his time. Of the devout laity, educated at Harvard College, giving themselves to public service, living private lives of dignity and piety, Samuel Sewall, whose diary preserves the true flavor of ancient Boston, stands as an admirable type. In contrast with the background of lives like his, the society of which royal governors were the central figures presents a less austere pic- ture. About the governors, established from 1716 onward in a sort of vice-regal state in the Province House, gathered the more worldly ele- ment of the place — prosperous merchants, offi- cials of the Crown, members of the King's Chapel congregation and the two other Anglican churches established before the middle of the century. Under the Province charter religious liberty was increasing, and churches of various denominations — including even the Quakers, whose first representatives in Boston were hanged on the Common — had come into being. Mean- while the constant friction between the governors and the General Court, always meeting in Bos- ton, kept the spirit of political independence wide awake. A fruitful source of trouble was the annual grant voted by the court to the governor. A salary the people steadily refused to pay to an oflficial not of their own choice ; and the amount of the grant varied according to the personal popularity of the chief magistrate. Through all these years, moreover, the town- meeting was educating the people in self-rule, so that when the time was ripe for active oppo- sition from American coloni.sts to the colonial government of England, the men of Boston were ready to take a leading part in the struggle. In 1761 James Otis, advocate-general of the province, resigned his position under the Crown in order to contest the Writs of Assistance, which permitted customs officials tc enter any hoiise, search for smuggled goods, ; vd on sus- picion seize what they might find. The argu- ment against these writs was the first of many conspicuous acts of resistance to royal authority. In 1765 the Stamp Act, taxing many articles of daily use in the colonies, was passed by Parliament. Its principle was bitterly resented in Boston, where riotous outbreaks soon took place^ A mob completely destroyed the house of Thomas Hutchinson, chief justice of the Province, and was properly denounced by re- spectable citizens. In the next year the repeal of the act was joyfully celebrated by all classes. In 1770 occurred the "Boston Massacre'* (q.v.), the result of friction between the inhabitants and the British troops stationed in the town. In the use of "a word which historians apply to such events as Cawnpore or the Sicilian Vespers'* — the word "massacre'* to describe "the careless shooting of half a dozen townsmen" — John Fiske finds "all the mildness of New England civilization brought m.ost strikingly before us.'* The town-meeting was even more typical of this civilization, and from its training Samuel Adams, at about this time, stepped into virtual leadership of the revolutionary cause in Bos- ton. The Committee of Correspondence was formed upon his motion, and out of it grew by degrees the union not only of towns, but of colonies, in their opposition to the throne. On 16 Dec. 1773, occurred the "Tea Party,'* a clev- erly planned and executed plot for throwing into Boston harbor, by men disguised as Mohawk Indians, the cargoes of three vessels bearing tea upon which the people of Boston would not pay the hated tax. Parliament retaliated by passing the Boston Port Bill, which closed the harbor and brought the chief industry of the town, its maritime trade, to a standstill. A military governor. Gen. Gage, took the place of Hutchin- son, who had been acting as the chief civil mag- istrate, and open hostilities were at hand. The events of ig April 1775 — the warning ride of Paul Revere, the escape of John Han- cock and Samuel Adams, the fights at Concord, Lexington, and along the road between the two towns — are the commonplaces of American his- tory. They belong to Boston in so far as the Boston revolutionary leaders were concerned in them, and as the British troops set forth from the town and returned to it defeated. The battle of Bunker Hill in Charlcstown, 17 June 1775, bears much the same relation to Boston history. On 3 July Washington arrived in Cambridge and took command of the American army, which from that time until the following March kept the British closely within the lines of the siege of Boston. Many of the inhabitants were per- mitted early to depart. Those who remained suffered hardships and privations, besides wit- nessing the destruction of much American prop- erty, and such scenes of desecration as the use of the Old South meeting-house as a riding- school. On the night of 4 March 1776 Wash- ington made his memorable seizure of Dorches- ter Heights (now South Boston), and on the 17th Howe with all his army and a large fol- lowing of American Tories sailed for Halifax. Thereupon Washington entered the city, and even before the signing of the Declaration of Independence Boston ceased to be a scene of active warfare in the long conflict. Yet John Adams, Hancock, and other Boston men bore BOSTON an important part in the counsels of the young nation', in whose army and navy the town was fully represented. The recovery from the effects of the siege was slow. To take the place of the departed Tories, and to occupy their spacious houses, there was in the remaining years of the i8th century a gradual immigration from the neigh- boring country (where Tories were few) of families possessing wealth, energy, and qualities of leadership. Local government by town-meet- ing was resumed. In 1780 a State government for Massachusetts was formed, and John Han- cock was chosen the first governor. In the gen- eral readjustment maritime affairs took their previous place of importance. Cut off by Brit- ish legislation from the West India trade, the Boston merchants looked farther abroad. The prospects of the fur trade on the northwest coast of America became known through Capt. Cook's journals, published in 1784. In 1787 two small vessels, the Columbia and the Washington, sailed from Boston to attempt this trade. Before her return in 1790 the Columbia had circumnavi- gated the globe — first of American vessels to accomplish this feat. The furs collected in the Northwest had been sold in China, and the example thus set led the way to an important trade with the East in which Boston long maintained the American supremacy. In such a seaport as Boston, Jefferson's Embargo and the War of 1812 were naturally unpopular. The Federalist party, moreover, had much of its best strength in Boston. The powerful mercantile class saw its best interests in a strongly cen- tralized government and conditions of general stability. The opinions of this class colored the influential feeling of the community to an ex- tent which laid Boston open to charges of something very near disloyalty to the national government. The crippling of commerce, how- ever, had the good effect of turning capital and energy toward manufacturing. In 1814 Francis C. Lowell, of Boston, made the first American use of the power-loom in his mill at Waltham at almost the same time with its introduction into England. The growth of the great cotton industry at Lowell followed rapidly upon this invention. With the spread of manufactures Boston itself was growing. In 1820 its popula- tion was over 43,000. The old form of town government had become unwieldy. For some years efforts had been making toward the adop- tion of a city charter. In 1822 this was finally achieved. From the time of this change in local gov- ernment to the present, the outward growth of the city, as figures can speak for it, has been unbroken. In matters not computed in this way, che development has been in several important respects unique. With Boston, for example, the Unitarian movement in America is especially associated. Before the town became a city there were divisions among the clergy of Congrega- tionalism — practically the established order in New England — on various doctrinal points, no- tably that of the Trinity Under the leadership of 'William Ellery Channing the ^'liberaP' clergy and most of the older and more influential reli- gious societies turned from Calvinism to the ■new theology. Especially between 1820 and 1830, an acute controversy took place. Between 1840 and 1850 the Unitarian body itself was disturbed by differences between the more conservative element and the radicals, of whom Theodore Parker was a type. The result of the succes- sive controversies has been a liberalizing of religious beliefs not only in what came to be Unitarian Boston, but in the many Protestant bodies which now acknowledge an important debt to Unitarianism. Another far-reaching movement which had its headquarters in Boston was that of anti-slavery. Here in 183 1 William Lloyd Garrison established his journal, the Lib- erator. A year later the first anti-slavery soci- ety in America was established in Boston. The agitation of the Abolitionists was for a long time opposed by the conservative class, which resorted even to mob violence in the hope of suppressing the reformers. But to Garrison and his associates it was due, as Mr. J. F. Rhodes has said, "that slavery became a topic of dis- cussion at every northern fireside.'^ When the Civil War broke out, the cause of the union, perhaps even more than that of abolition, en- listed the enthusiastic support of the Boston community ; yet, as if in fulfilment of the work which Garrison began, it was from Boston that Gov. Andrew sent forth the first regiment of colored troops raised in the North. With Boston and its immediate vicinity, moreover, are associated the names which stand for the most important contribution of the 19th century to American literature. Prescott, Tick- nor, Bancroft, Motley, and Parkman; Emerson, Hawthorne, Lowell, Longfellow, Holmes, and Whittier, — these and their associates, bound together by many ties of sympathy and friend- ship, constituted a group of writers which gave the place a unique distinction in letters. The ^Atlantic Monthly,^ founded in 1857, became the vehicle for much of their most characteristic utterance. The influences of Transcendentalism (largely a local movement, culminating in the forties), of anti-slavery feeling, of creative ex- pression, combined to give to this utterance as a whole something of the distinction which the individual writers won each for himself. During the 19th century two important changes in the Boston landscape affected the future of the city, in the regions both of resi- dence and of business. The first of these was the filling in of the Back Bay, an arm of the Charles River which spread between the Com- mon and the hills of Brookline, running south and east as far as the Neck or narrow strip of land connecting Boston and Roxbury. From the early years of the century changes in the shore line of Boston had been wrought by cut- ting down the principal hills and filling out the irregularities of the harbor front. The first step in the series of events which led to the conversion of the Back Bay from water into land was the granting of a charter in 1814 to the Roxbury Mill Corporation, permitting the building of dams across the Back Bay and con- fining its water for mill purposes. To these rights the Boston Water Power Company sue- ceeded in 1832. At about the same time the Boston & Providence and Boston and Worcester railroads invaded the Back Bay with their bridges. Moreover the waters became unsani- tary through drainage, and to solve the entire problem, hygienic and legal, a State commission was appointed, and made a full report in 1852. Its recommendations to create the whole tract of land now known as the Back Bay did not at once satisfy the various conflicting interests, ajPLEY S()UARE, BOSTON. MUSEUM OF FINE ARTS. BOSTON. BOSTON but in 1858 the actual work of filling up the waters was begun. The result was a large en- richment of the State treasury, and the addition to the city of the whole district occupied by the residences, clubs, churches, hotels, and other institutions connected with the most prosperous life of the city. The original peninsula of Bos- ton contained 783 acres. Through its encroach- ments upon water, largely in the Back Bay, it has grown to 1,829 acres. With the accessions of outlying districts, the total area of the city is now 23,707 acres. The second great change in the outward as- pect of Boston resulted from the great fire of 9 and 10 Nov. 1872. From the beginning of its history Boston had been afflicted by serious fires. This greatest of them all destroyed 776 build- ings, all but 67 of which were of brick and stone. It devastated Summer Street (both sides), Washington Street from Summer to Milk, Milk Street to the post-office, Devonshire Street, Water (both sides). Congress, Lindall and Oliver streets to the harbor. From the corner of Washington and Franklin -streets the shipping at the wharves was in clear view. Nearly 2,000,000 feet of land were burned over. The total loss was estimated at more than $75,000,000. Yet by private enterprise and State aid the recovery was immediate. The oppor- tunity to widen and straighten streets in the business district was seized. Statelier buildings rose in the place of those destroyed, and a new business region, corresponding to the new dis- trict of residences, was created. The census of 1900 gave the population of Boston as 560,192. The metropolitan dis- trict, including the 38 cities and towns of which Boston is the centre, has by the same census a population of 1.162,197. The territory within 50 miles of Boston has 2,849,686 inhabi- tants — a population second in America only to that in the corresponding area about New York. The assessed valuation of all taxable property in Boston itself is $1,191,308,100 — a figure sur- passed in the United States only by the cor- responding figures for New York and Philadel- phia. The city government is conducted by a mayor, elected for two years, salary $10,000; a board of 13 aldermen, elected annually; and a common council of 75 members, three for each ward, elected annually. The fire department is controlled by one commissioner, the police and health departments by three each. The school committee consists of 24 members, of whom 8 are elected anrtnally for a term of three years. In the 807 public schools under their charge there were, according to the < Boston Municipal Register for 1902,^ i,939 teachers and 84,778 pupils. The park system of Boston is under the Joint control of the Metropolitan Park Commission (appointed by the governor of Massachusetts) and the Board of Park Commissioners ( appointed by the mayor of Boston ) . These com- missioners serve without pay. In theMetropolitan system are included the Blue Hills Reserva- tion (4.232 acres), the Middlesex Fells and Mystic Lakes (3,002 acres) and smaller reser- vations, including 66 acres at Revere Beach, where the State bath-house of 1,000 rooms provides the best facilities for sea-bathing. To the Board of Park Commissioners falls the n^anagement of the Marine Park at South Bos- ton, Franklin Park at West Roxbury, Arnold Arboretum at Forest Hills, boulevards, fens, playgrounds, and open-air gymnasia. The Common (48% acres) and the adjoining Public Garden (2454 acres), both in the heart of the city, are in charge of the Public Ground Depart- ment of the city of Boston. The State com- mission acts in consultation with local boards, including that of Boston, and serves the people of 12 cities and 25 towns within a radius of 25 miles from the State House. The general park system thus provided is remarkable for its beauty, accessibility, and actual benefit to the community. The work of the city bath depart- ment is a characteristic example of municipal service to the people. The five trustees of this department maintain seven beach baths, one river bath, two swimming-pools, nine floating baths, five gymnasia, and the Dover Street bath- house, a model building with free baths for men and w^omen throughout the year. Metropolitan commissions of water and sewerage correspond- ing to the Park Commission, serve the city and surrounding towns. The water-supply is drawn from lakes and rivers in eastern Massachusetts, — the Sudbury River, Mystic Lake, Lake Cochituate, and watersheds of wide area. A city water department does its separate work in connection with the Metropolitan Commission. The churches of Boston, according to the 'City Directory* of 1902, are 309 in number. Of these 50 are Roman Catholic (including Pol- ish. German, Italian, French, Portuguese, and Syrian parishes), 38 are Baptist, 37 Congrega- tional-Trinitarian, 34 Methodist-Episcopal, 32 Protestant Episcopal, 25 Congregational-Uni- tarian, 13 Lutheran, and 10 Universalist, with others in smaller numbers. The First Church of Christ (Scientist) is the "mother church'* of "Christian Science** throughout the country and the world. Charitable organizations, both muni- cipal and private, abound, and enlist the unpaid services of a large class in the community. An admirable organization of Associated Charities gives direction to the proper sources or seeks to obtain therefrom for the sick and needy adequate and suitable relief. The principal hospitals are the Boston City Hospital, a city institution, the Massachusetts General, supported by private endowment, the Carney, in charge of Roman Catholic Sisters of Charity, and the Massachusetts Homoeopathic. These are open to persons of all races and creeds. In the Mass- achusetts General Hospital in 1846 the properties of ether as an anjesthetic were first demon- strated. From the discovery then made the pro- gress of modern surgery took its first great step. There are. besides the institutions mentioned, many smaller hospitals for special classes, chil- dren, women, etc. The provisions for industrial training and the education of defectives are ample. The Perkins Institution and Massachu- setts School for the Blind (incorporated 1829) typifies the good work they have done and are doing. Here Dr. Samuel G. Howe did his memorable pioneer work in the case of Laura Bridgman. As a centre of higher education in many branches Boston attracts and maintains a large population of students. The Public Library, housed in one of the most beautiful buildings in the country, and distributing its more than 800,000 volumes through 10 branch libraries and 21 delivery stations throughout the city, puts the BOSTON CASE — BOSTON MASSACRE materials of scholarship within the reach of all. Harvard University is close at hand. Its Medi- cal School is in Boston itself. Here also are the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Bos- ton University, the Boston Museum of Fine Arts, with its School of Drawing and Painting, and the New England Conservatory of ]\Iusic, supplemented by the concerts of the Boston Symphony Orchestra. The courses of free lec- tures provided by the Lowell Institute, estab- lished in 1838, with an original endowment of $237,000, have made a constant contribution to the cause of general education. If the sugges- tion to co-ordinate these and the many other educational institutions of Boston into a general university is ever carried out, the place may well become one of the foremost centres of organized learning in the world. In 1894 the Union Station at the North End of the city brought together the terminal facili- ties of all the railroads connecting Boston with northern New England, with Canada, and, through Fitchburg, with the West. On i Jan. 1899 the first train entered the South Station, the largest railway terminal in the world. Here the railroads connecting Boston with southern New England, New York, the South, and the West, by way of Albany, meet under one roof. The North and South Stations are connected both by surface and by elevated electric cars — a part of the system of the Boston Elevated Railway. This company has succeeded to the rights of the several street railways formerly holding franchises, and by surface cars, elevated lines, and subw^ays, upon which the underground systems of other cities have been modeled, gives the city, with the attractive and accessible sub- urbs for which Boston has always been noted, a rapid-transit service of unusual comfort and effectiveness. The subway system will be still further extended, first of all by the completion of the tunnel now building under the harbor to connect Boston and East Boston. In the Rivers and Harbors Bill passed by the United States Congress in June 1902 an appro- priation of $3,600,000 was made for the improve- ment of Boston Harbor. Its expenditure in making a broader and deeper channel from Charlestown and Chelsea bridges to the sea is expected to forward the progress made in recent years by Boston as a seaport. Its ample harbor, well protected from the sea bj^ islands, has always played an important part in the life of Boston. In foreign commerce for the gov- ernment fiscal year ending 30 June 1902, Boston stood second in the United States only to New York, with imports and exports valued at $172,325,740. For peculiar temporary causes this was smaller by more than $40,000,000 than the volume of trade for the year before. Fourteen transatlantic steamship lines run from Boston. The coastwise commerce of the port is valued, in merchandise, in sums ranging annually be- tween $85,000,000 and $131,000,000. As a wool market Boston stands second in the world only to London. In the single week of 1901, in which Boston made its greatest record in the sales of wool, it sold more than the total clip of any State in the Union, excepting Montana and Idaho, for that year. In the business of shoes, leather, and hides, Boston is the chief distributing centre of the United States. The trade in salt and fresh fish — as befits the capital of the State with a cod for its emblem — is larger than in any other city of the country. The cotton industry of Massachusetts looks to Boston for much of its capital and control. Mis- cellaneous trades and manufactures, added to the branches of business enumerated, give Bos- ton a high place among the commercial and in- dustrial cities of the country. In the growth from an ancient to a modern city many historic buildings have inevitably disappeared. But Boston is fortunate in a few of those that remain. Chief among these are Christ Church (1723), the Old South Meeting- house (1729), Faneuil Hall (1742, enlarged in 1806), the Old State House (1748), King's Chapel (1749, built around the previous wooden church erected in 1688), the front portion of the present State House (i795~8), and Park Street Church (1809). 'The Memorial History of Boston^ (Boston 1881) in four volumes, edited by Justin Winsor, completely covers the local history from 1630 to 1880. Its chapters are written by persons with special knowledge of the themes assigned them. 'Boston,' by Henry Cabot Lodge in the series of "Historic Towns'^ (New York 1892) is an excellent shorter history. M. A. DeWolfe Howe, Author of ^Boston: The Place and the People.^ Boston Case, in the history of slavery, a case where a Georgia slave hid or was hidden on the ship Boston returning from Georgia to Maine, and on arrival escaped to Canada. The governor of Georgia issued a requisition to the governor of Maine for the surrender of the captain to the Georgia authorities, as a slave-stealer and fugitive from justice; and on his refusal, the Georgia legislature demanded that Congress pass a law obligating the governor of Maine and all others in similar cases to com- ply with the requisitions. The resolution was warmly advocated by the Georgia senators, re- ferred to the judiciary committee, and never reported on. In his next message, the governor of Georgia recommended that "all citizens of Maine who should thereafter come within the jurisdiction of Georgia on vessels, either as owners, officers, or mariners, should be con- sidered to have done so with intent to commit the crime of seducing negro slaves from their owners, and be dealt with accordingly by the officers of justice.'^ Boston College, an educational institution in Boston, Mass.; founded in 1864; under the auspices of the Roman Catholic Church. Pro- fessors and instructors, 20 ; students in all de- partments, 477; scholarships, 15; volumes in the library, 34.109 ; value of grounds and build- ings, $537,000; income, $17,000; and benefac- tions, $3,000. The course is four years leading to the usual academic degrees. Boston Massacre, a riot in Boston, 5 March 1770, provoked by the presence of the British regiments quartered there since i Oct, 1768. On Friday the 2d, some ropemakers started a war of insults with passing soldiers, and on being challenged to a boxing match, used sticks instead, . to which the soldiers retorted with cutlasses; several persons were hurt when the fray was stopped by outsiders, but it was reported that it would be resumed Monday. Early Monday evening the soldiers passing to their posts from the main guard, at the head of King (State) Street, were met by a crowd BOSTON MOUNTAINS — BOSTON PORT BILL armed with canes and sticks, who refused to make way, and shouted insults; the soldiers were about to force a passage when an officer came up and ordered them into the yard ; but the alarm-bell had called out the citizens, the hot-heads wished to assault the main guard, and apparently they and the boys set to harrying the sentinel in front of the custom-house oppo- site the main guard, who about 9 o'clock hit a specially annoying boy with the butt of his musket. The boy ran off and brought a crowd to the spot, headed by one Crispus Attucks (q.v., apparently a half-breed Indian), and pointed out the sentinel, at which they shouted *'Kill him! Knock him down!'^ The sentinel retreated up the steps and loaded his gun amid a shower of snowballs and other missiles ; told Henry Knox who was passing, and counseled him not to fire ; that he would if they touched him ; leveled the gun and warned off the crowd, and called for help from the main guard across the street. A sergeant and seven men were sent to his help, and he came down and took his place in line; soon afterward Col. Thomas Preston joined them, making 10 in arms. They loaded; the crowd jeered, hooted, taunted them as cowards, dared them to fire, and closed about them ; the soldiers drove them back with clubs and bayonets ; Preston, in turn warned by Knox, rushed among his men, and either with or without his orders they fired, killing Attucks and two others and mortally wounding two more. The crowd fell back, and Preston pre- vented the men firing again and rejoined the main guard. The drums beat to arms, and the vicinity was soon thronged with divisions of soldiers and masses of enraged citizens. Lieut.- Gov. Hutchinson quieted the tempest by having Preston bound over for trial, placing the im- plicated soldiers under arrest, and inducing the officers to order the companies back to barracks ; but the next day a town-meeting forced Hutch- inson to have the regiments removed to the Castle in the harbor. Preston was tried in Oc- tober and the soldiers in November before the Superior Court, and defended by Robert Auch- muty, assisted by John Adams and Josiah Quincy, who took their futures in their hands from professional duty ; Preston was acquitted, six soldiers were brought in not guilty, and two found guilty of manslaughter, branded in the hand, and discharged. Boston. Mountains, a range in western Arkansas, extending into the Indian Territory; highest summits, 3,000 feet above the sea. Boston News Letter, 1704-76; the first real newspaper issued in America. A periodical called 'Publick Occurrences,^ to be issued monthly, or oftener if ^^a glut of occurrences^' made it advisable, had been essayed in Boston by Richard Pierce, 25 Sept. 1690; but it was in- stantly suppressed by the authorities as contain- ing "reflections of a very high nature,'' and the first number was the last. The next venture was by John Campbell (q.v.), a Scotch book- seller and postmaster of Boston, who had been actively writing and sending "news letters* of European occurrences to New England gover- nors for a year or more, and thought it would save trouble to print them for all. With official permission he issued on 24 April 1704 the first number of a weekly consisting of a single leaf, 8 x 12, printed on both sides, and dated "From Monday April 17. to Monday April 24. 1704." It was printed by Bartholomew Green, for many years one of the best printers of Boston, who in 1722 became its editor. Dying in 1732, he was succeeded by his son-in-law, John Draper, who conducted it till his death in 1762, and made it a representative of the best interests of the province; he was a journalist of the highest character. His son Richard Draper, considered the best news compiler of his day, though in feeble health, edited the paper till his death in 1774, when his widow succeeded him and carried it to the end. Draper had been an ardent loyalist, and firmly supported the mother country in the stormy times of the previous decade ; his widow naturally shared his feeling, and when the young man Robert Boyle whom she installed as editor showed sympathy with the Revolution, she replaced him by John Howe, who conducted it till the British evacuated Boston, 17 March 1776, when he and Mrs. Draper left with them and the paper ceased to exist. The British government gave her a life pension. There are only three copies of the first number extant: in the Massachusetts Historical Society at Boston, the American Antiquarian Society at Worcester, Mass., and the New York Historical Society at New York. A facsimile of the first page is given in the ^Memorial History of Boston,' Vol. II., page 389. See Newspapers, American. Boston Port Bill, of 31 March 1774, was Great Britain's retort to the destruction of the tea in Boston harbor, 16 Dec. 1773. (See Boston Tea P.\rty.) The maintenance of Eng- lish authority by force, or abdication in favor of a party which would maintain it, were the only alternatives left to the government. The King's Speech of 7 March 1774 charged the colonists with attempting to injure British commerce and subvert the constitution ; and on the i8th Lord North brought in the Port Bill, providing that there should be no further "land ing or discharging, lading or shipping of goods, wares, and merchandise at the town and within the harbor of Boston" till the town paid for the tea and promised submission to the laws ; that the colony's seat of government should be re- moved to Salem, and Marblehead made a port of entry ; the act to take effect i June. Even some of the best friends of America in Parliament at first approved it as moderate and reasonable, as the town could end the punishment at any moment by paying for legitimate merchandise destroyed by riot, and allowing law and order to have their course; but the Whig opposition soon collected itself, and the bill was fought in its various stages by Burke, Barre, Pownall, and others. In spite of them it became a law 31 March, without a division in the Commons, and by unanimous vote in the Lords. The fleet and army were of course to join in enforcing the blockade; Boston was filled with troops, and Gage made com- mander-in-chief. The immediate results were: a flood of contributions from the other New England towns, of grain and provisions, so great that the Boston leaders boasted that it would become the chief grain port of America if the act were not repealed; and. in connection with the regulating acts for changing the gov- ernment of the province passed soon after, a speedy union of the colonies for joint defense. BOSTON SYMPHONY ORCHESTRA — BOSTON TERRIER Boston Symphony Orchestra, a large orchestra organized in Boston in 1881, having abc at 80 members in 1903. It gives a series of concerts in Boston annually, and in 1900 ina igurated a series of Wednesday afternoon cor certs in New York. Daily rehearsals are th(. rule throughout the season, and the orches- tra plays only at concert performances. The c( nductors are now appointed for five years ; the conductor in 1903 was William Gericke; ithers who have held the position are, George Henschel, the first, Arthur Nikisch, and Emil Paur. Boston Tea Party, 16 Dec. 1773. Till shortly before the Revolution, imported teas paid a shilling a pound duty at English ports ; but the inerchants received a drawback of three fifths on exports to the colonies, who were charged the remaining 4J4''i '.■ ";'' ="-■'"■" ■"■ ^Hni -A a'cmr.iis.' "■'"■'■. -■ Network of N'orwlsVom s\pm";l"fV^ vascular 1,;.skc in a 1-\tii. lMr„ms v,,-m. -> KL-.-a .irtictiire of K^ogcnous stem. =* Medi.Ilarv r^y nf Oak. To ^^''?^;^* Sow-ih.stt. -•' Cross ^cct.or '-■ Longilurrmal section nf Root Stock of Iris. ^ Vertical i?L'"°f'n'''^",?'? "^^ Endogtn..i,. s tmcar section of Beecli leaf. Uo. of young Aide Crrss section of a Monocotyledonous vsscular bundle. i Ulack Currant Hark. ^. -" Cross and longitudinal scctiops nf I BOTANICAL GARDENS proper selection of this number may be made to represent somewhat fairly the principal forms of plants, which include about 250,000 species. That is to say, it is possible to grow in one place about one species out of every 17 in existence. Living plants cultivated in the open air are most suitably arranged in plantations according to their general habit, and in such manner as to show their general relationships. Then special groups are often made of certain families, such as the conifers, the willows and poplars, the grasses, ferns, or mosses. The most common arrangement of plantations includes the her- baceous grounds, the aquatic plants, alpinum, viticetum, fruticetum, arboretum, and economic plantations. Some institutions bring together collections for the purpose of illustrating the local flora, or the flora of any given geographical district. The herbaceous plantations are intended to include the representatives of small soft-bodied plants which die down to the soil during the winter or resting season, and which may or may not have a perennial underground stem- formation of some kind. Many of the species are annuals and must be grown from seeds every year. The pools for aquatic plants are arranged to afford suitable means for the culture of forms which float or root in ponds and streams of fresh water, and include a wide variety, such as the water-lily, pondweeds, Philotria, water- hyacinth, etc. An alpinum is a special plantation generally arranged to afford means of cultivation of species from cold climates on mountain-tops or in higher latitudes. Plantations of this kind are often termed rockeries, and are in the form of a ridge or hill covered with boulders. In such plantations precautions must be taken to give lime-loving plants a place among limestone rocks, and with the necessary low temperatures. The viticetum is a plantation devoted to the cultivation of climbing and trailing vines, and may take almost any form demanded by the exigencies of practical gardening. Among the necessary features are trellises or supports for twining and tendril climbing forms. The fruticetum includes all woody perennial plants which do not form a central trunk six feet in height, and which are therefore not trees. These are most effectively grouped when the individuals of the separate species are placed in the ground separately in a scheme of general arrangement by which every plant may be in- spected from all sides and is unshaded by its neighbors. The arboretum includes trees, and these may be variously arranged, singly or in groups, al- ways with respect to their mutual relationships. On account of their great size and comparatively slow growth and greater permanency, the plac- ing of trees in any given landscape scheme in a garden is attended to with the greatest care. The economic plantations may include useful plants arranged according to their relationships, and grouped according to the use or nature of the derivative. Thus a division may be made in which only species used for medicine, foods, or cloth- ing are included, or a division may be made to include plants which yield starches, oils, gums, and resins. Special plantations of selected families must depend for their constituency upon the location of the garden. Thus it would be possible to form a collection of palms in a tropical garden, and one of pines or willows in a temperate climate. Geographical plantations may take any given district by variously arranged plantations. Still another group of plantations is being made in some gardens to illustrate types of habit and structure. Some of the principal groups to be illustrated in this manner are parasites, which draw nourishment from the living bodies of other organs; saprophytes, which live on de- caying organic matter; xerophytes, plants adapted to living under the driest conditions; plants with structures serving as a protection against animals. Forms of propagation and re- production, methods of dissemination of spores and seeds, etc., also serve as subjects to be illus- trated by separate groups. The collections grown under shelter and in conservatories are generally grouped in such manner that species are partly assembled with regard to their climatic requirements, and partly according to their relationships. Thus a house may be devoted to tropical plants, or to tem- perate plants, or may contain only orchids, palms, ferns, cacti or succulents, or other special groups. The part of the vegetable kingdom which may not be cultivated may be represented in a museum by dried specimens, material in pre- serving-fluids, and dissections of various kinds. Here again the arrangement may be upon the basis of natural relationship, or upon the basis of economic usefulness. The species which formed the vegetation of the previous geological periods are represented by fossil specimens, completing the history of the plant-world so far as it is known, and yielding suggestions as to the de- scent of the present types. Two general educational purposes are served by an institution of this character. Its collec- tions are arranged to present information on the form, relationship, mode of life, habit, and gen- eral biological character of the principal types of vegetation, in such manner as to be capable of comprehension by persons unacquainted with the technical aspects of the subject. Further interpretation of such facts may be made by means of books, journals, lectures, etc., devoted to this branch of work and study. The material accumulated for the exploita- tion of popular knowledge of plants also affords an excellent basis for the induction of students into the more strictly scientific aspects of botanj^ ; and when such material is supplemented by laboratories furnished with apparatus, micro- scopes, and other instruments of precision, the activities of these students may be carried be- yond the frontiers of the subject into the in- vestigation and discovery of new facts and phenomena. This extension of the boundaries of knowledge concerning the plant-world may be carried on to advantage only when a library is at hand containing all of the more important literature bearing upon the subject. Botanical gardens owe their origin to the needs of medical science, in accordance with which species showing valuable medical proper- ties were grown in convenient places. The first authentic record of the introduction of medicinal plants into cultivated plots of ground dates no farther back than the time of BOTANICAL GEOGRAPHY — BOTANY the elder Pliny (23-79 A. D.), who writes of the garden Antonius Castor, at Rome, in which were grown a large number of medicinal plants. This step, however, may have been taken much earlier by the Greeks, Chinese, or Mexicans. Later the Benedictine monks of northern Italy paid great attention to the growing of remedial herbs, and devoted an important proportion of the monastery gardens to this purpose. This practice was also carried beyond the Alps, and in 1020 a garden was in existence at the monastery of St. Gall, in Switzerland, not far from Lake Constance, which contained 16 plots occupied by medicinal plants. A garden of this character was founded 1309 at Salerno, and another at Venice 1330. The i6th and 17th centuries witnessed the foundation of many gardens in England, France, Germany, Holland, and Sweden, some of which have had a continuous existence to this day. The garden of Bologna was founded 1568; Leyden, 1577; Leipsic, 1579; Montpellier, 1596; Paris, 1597. The last-named was organized for the determination of "what variations were pos- sible in the style of bouquets worn at the royal courts.^' Then followed the establishment of the gardens at Giessen, 1605; Strasburg, 1620; Jena, 1629; Oxford, 1632; Upsala, 1667; Chelsea, 1680. The number of these institutions at the present time is nearly 300, only a few of which, however, are devoted to the more important purposes named above. Many botanical gardens are merely municipal parks in which some at- tempt is made to exhibit special groups of plants, and are devoted chiefly to floriculture. Others are almost entirely experiment stations for the exhibition and testing of economic species, while still others find their chief useful- ness as an aid in teaching botany in schools and colleges. D. T. MacDougal, Director of Laboratories, New York Botanical Garden. Botanical Geography. See Distribution OF Plants. Botany is that branch of biology, or the science of living organisms, which deals with plants, and is thus distinguished from zoology, which deals with animals. An individual plant, considered as a living or once living organism, may be studied in two ways — with reference to its structure or with reference to its functions. These represent the two great subdivisions of pure botanical science — anatomy and physiology respectively. All other phases of botanical sci- ence are special developments of one of these two, either alone or in combination with the other, or in relation additionally to some other branch of knowledge. Anatomy and physiology are thus the primary elements, as it were, of botany, which in varying combinations with each' other and with the elements of other sciences constitute the branches of botanical science actually in existence, such as taxonomy, ecology, cytology, and pathology. The term plant anat- omy is restricted frequently in actual use to gross anatomy and is often called structural bot- any. In this sense is covered about as much of the whole of anatomy as can be studied by the unaided eye or with a lens. Minute anatomy, or histology, covers the minute structure of plants, the principal instrument in its study being the compound microscope. A study of the rela- tionships of plants on the basis of anatomical re- semblances constitutes comparative anatomy, or morpholog}\ The classification of plants, known as taxonomy or systematic botany, is in the main a specialized branch of morphology, for the principal means by which plants may be grouped so as to indicate their genetic relationship is a comparison of their structural differences and resemblances. In its actual study plant physi- ology is closely associated with plant histology because most of the functions of the plant are intimately connected with the structure of plant cells, and the physiologist must of necessity understand these structures. A special branch of botanical research which has to do with the complex structure and activities of the plant cell is known as plant cytology. The study of the diseases of plants, whether they are due to fungi or other plant organisms, or are purely physiological, is plant pathology, sometimes called vegetable pathology. History. — Among the ancients, Aristotle the Greek philosopher (384 to 322 B.C.), The- ophrastus his pupil (about 372 to 287 B.C.), the Roman naturalist Pliny the Elder (23 to 79 A.D.), and the Greek physician Dioscorides (of the 1st or 2d century a.d.) left botanical records of historical interest, but botany as a modern science has developed in the last four centuries, dating from the Reformation. The writing, par- ticularly by the Germans, of herbals, or treat- ises on economic and medicinal plants, and the founding of botanical gardens, occupied most of the i6th century, but in the j^ear 1583 Cesal- pino, an Italian physician, published the first formal and comprehensive classification of plants. This, though artificial, formed the basis of all generally recognized classification to and including the time of Linnaeus in the latter part of the i8th century. The 17th century was chiefly notable for advances not in the classifi- cation of plants, but in their structure and vital processes. Malpighi, an Italian, and Grew, an Englishman, almost simultaneously published their researches on the gross anatomy and the cellular structure of plants, the first of which were presented in 1671. To the work of these men in plant anatomy little of importance was added in more than a hundred years. The other important discovery of the century was the demonstration by Camerarius in 1691, through direct experiment, of the sexuality of plants. The i8th century was marked especially by advances in classification. In the year 1700 Tournefort published his *^Institutiones,^ in which for the first time genera were systematic- ally named and described. During this century Linnasus, the great botanical compiler and sys- tematizer, brought out his successive works, cul- minating in the 'Species Plantarum,^ in 1753. It was later in the same century, too, that botani- cal exploration came to be recognized as an important department of the voyages of geo- graphic and scientific discovery in which the nations of Europe became engaged. In 1789 A. L. de Jussieu published his * Genera Plantarum,' in which was first systematically formulated a comprehensive classification of plants according to their natural relationship, as opposed to the artificial systems followed by Cesalpino and Lin- naeus. In the last two decades of this century were laid the foundations of our present know- BOTANY. An Alaskan Valley, Covered with Arctic Vegetation (upper). Spruce Forest of Interior Alaska, Representing the Boreal Zone (lower). BOTANY ledge of the important part played by the air in the nutrition of plants, a proper conception of which was possible only in the light of the new developments which took place at that time in chemistry. The 19th century witnessed enor- mous strides in plant anatomy and plant physi- ology, the latter largely contributed to by work- ers in chemistry and physics, and the former rendered possible by improvements of the com- pound microscope and accessory instruments, es- pecially those which came into general use about 1840. From this movement has been derived most of our knowledge of the life history and relationship of the lower groups of plants, the fungi, algse, and lichens, and the assignment of the pines and their relatives to their true posi- tion next above the ferns. The whole realm of botanical research was profoundly affected by the work of Darwin, beginning with the publi- cation of his ^Descent of Man,^ in 1858, which gave a new point of view for all subsequent work. In systematic botany the principle of the development of species from a common ancestor was substituted for the old view of the con- stancy of species. The remarkable adaptations for cross fertilization in the coloration, odor, and structure of flowers was given its true and sig- nificant explanation as a means for originating and perpetuating species. Darwin's work gave a new philosophical basis for the interpretation of observed phenomejia and facts. Progress in the United States. — At the be- ginning of the 19th century the advancement of botany in North America was largely in the hands of physicians, through their requirement of a knowledge of plants as materia medica. Professors of botany were unknown. Linnseus and other great botanists in Europe had had American correspondents, and geographic expe- ditions accompanied by European botanical col- lectors had touched the margins of the continent. Some botanical exploration, chiefly by European visitors, had been effected east of the Alleghany Mountains. The centre of botanical activity was at Philadelphia, among the members of the American Philosophical Society. With Lewis and Clark's expedition across the continent to the mouth of the Columbia, in 1803-6, began a se- ries of American explorations of the great inte- rior, directed first to the Louisiana Purchase, then to Oregon, and finally to California. These were supplemented on the north by the British expeditions of Sir John Franklin and others in quest of a Northwest Passage. In the fifties be- gan the Pacific Railroad surveys and these were followed by the geological surveys. All these contributed materials for the discovery, descrip- tion, and orderly arrangement of the North American flora, the collections going largely mto the hands of Thomas Nuttall at Harvard Lhi'versity, John Torrey at Columbia, Asa Gray, who was Nuttall's successor, and George Engel- mann, a physician of St. Louis. Meanwhile ap- peared a new factor which was destined to play an important part in the development of bo- tanical science in America, the establishment of agricultural colleges in the late sixties. These institutions created a demand for a class of bot- anists who did not exist in the United States or anywhere else, botanists who had brought a critical scientific training to bear on the hard problems of agriculture. For the succeeding two decades the universities of the country, including some of the agricultural colleges them- selves, were busily engaged in educating the re- quired men, a movement which resulted in the preparation of many wiio were competent not only to act as teachers of botany in the agricul- tural colleges but, a still more important matter, to act as investigators in agricultural experiment stations, one of which was established in each of the States and Territories in the late eighties. The branch of botany which received its great- est impulse was pathology, the science of the diseases of plants. Plant pathology has al- ready been carried to a point of high scientific development and practical application attained in no other country. Systematic, or, as it is now more commonly known, taxonomic, botany has made rapid strides forward in the past two decades, largely through the application of methods developed and perfected by American ornithologists. These methods differ from others chiefly in a full consideration of the ge- ographic relationships of plants and the exam- ination of very large series of specimens. A new revision of the whole North American flora along these lines and accompanied by syste- matic botanical exploration is now under way. For the future two lines of inquiry are likely to be conspicuous in American botany, first, the principles of heredity in plants and "the applied phase of the subject, plant breeding on a sci- entific basis; and second, the correlation of plant functions with plant structures, a work which will have far-reaching importance in broadening our understanding of the processes of nature. The geographic location of American botanical research has undergone a profound change as a result of the Spanish-American war. The area to which up to that time the energies of Ameri- can botanists had been chiefly directed was the north temperate belt of one hemisphere, but they now must deal in addition with botanical problems in the tropics of both the New World and the Old World. Classification. — The plant kingdom is divisi- ble into five great groups, the Myxophyta, or slime molds ; the Thallophyta, including the bacteria, algse, fungi, and lichens; the Bryophyta, including the liverworts and mosses ; the Pteridophyta, including the ferns and their al- lies; and the Spermatophyta, or flowering plants. The first four of these are often jointly desig- nated as the Cryptogamce, or cryptogams, in con- tradistinction to the Phanerogamce, an older name for the flowering plants. The Myxophyta, or slime molds, known also as the Myxomycetes, Mycctozoa, and Myxothal- lophyta, are organisms which though usually treated as belonging to the vegetable rather than the animal kingdom, have no cellulose walls covering the cells of which they are composed; pass a part of their life as plasmodia. or masses of naked creeping protoplasm similar to the animals known as amoeb?e ; and are reproduced without even the simplest method of sexual re- generation. Most of them resemble fungi in that they grow upon decayed animal or vegetable matter. The Thallophyta include a wide variety of plants, associated with each other by exclu- sion, on the one hand, from the animal-like Myxophyta, and, on the other, from the Bry- ophyta and higher plants. The plant body is commonly not differentiated into stem and leaf, and may even be unicellular; a cell wall is usually present; chlorophyll is often wanting; and frequently sexual reproduction does not ex- BOTANY ist. Among the important groups belonging to the Thallophyta are the Schiso)iiycctes, or bac- teria; the ScliizophycecE, or bluegreen algae; the Euphycea, or true algre, including the diatoms, desmids, green algae, stonevvorts, brown algse, and red algae ; the Eumycetes, or true fungi ; and the Lichenes, or lichens. The Bryophyta, or liver- worts and mosses, are small plants, having in their life cycle a sexual generation in which the sexual organs are borne on a plant body usu- ally differentiated into stem and leaves, followed by a non-sexual generation, which consists of a stalked or sometimes sessile spore-bearing cap- sule remaining attached to the plant body of the preceding generation. The female organ of reproduction consists of an oosphere in a sac called an archegonium, the walls of which are made up of many cells, much more complex structurally than the female organ of the Thal- lophyta. The male organ consists of motile antherozoids produced from an antheridium. The group consists of the Hepaticce, or liver- worts, some of which have a flat scale-like body called a thallus, and of the Musci, or mosses. The PteridopJiyta, represented by the ferns, re- semble the Bryophyta in their sexual organs, but differ in the possession of what is known as vascular, as opposed to merel}' cellular, tissues, and also in that the asexual generation becomes a large plant and maintains a separate existence independent of the earlier generation. The group includes, besides the true ferns, the grape- ferns, jointrushes, clubmosses, quillworts, and a few others. The Spermatophyta, or flowering plants, also known as Anthophyta or Phanero- gamce, find their essential difference from the Pteridophyta, not in the production of flowers, but in the relationship of the sexual and the asexual generations and in the character of the sexual organs and their embryonic product. In an ordinary fern the sexual generation is a small flat green organism, resembling a thallose liver- wort, growing on the ground or other sub- stratum and deriving its nourishment from it, but in the Spermatophyta the sexual generation is reduced to almost microscopic dimensions, and leads no independent existence but is enclosed within the body of the non-sexual generation, the male portion consisting of the pollen grain and the tube that grows out of it w^ien the pollen grain germinates, the female portion con- sisting of a minute cellular structure within the embryo sac of the ovule. It is to be noted that no motile bodies are produced, as in the two preceding groups, and that the fertilization of the ovule results in the development of an embryonic plant called a seed, which is pro- duced by none of the lower groups of plants. The Spermatophyta are divided into two groups, of which the lower is the Gyninospennce, in- cluding the cycads, the cone-bearing trees, and a few related families. In these the ovules are borne not in ovaries but naked among the floral bracts, and the sexual generation of the female is still comparatively complex before fer- tilization and bears considerable resemblance to that of some Pteridophyta. In the other group, the Angiospermcc. the ovules are borne in ovaries, and only the simplest remnant of a sex- ual generation persists. In this group are the Monocotyledones, including the grasses, palms, lilies, orchids and their relatives, and the Dicoty- ledoncs, including the great majority of flower- ing plants. The dicotyledonous and the gym- nospermous plants were at one time classed as a group Exogena:, in contradistinction to the group Efidogena, which consisted of the mono- cotyledonous plants. This grouping of the flow- ering plants into exogens and endogens, how- ever, is no longer maintained, it having been shown from embryological studies that the gymnosperms should stand next above the ferns. The old division of dicotyledonous plants into Apetalcc, Gainopetalce, and Polypctala is also now discarded, the families included under Apetalce appearing not to constitute a real group. They have therefore been interpolated among the families of the remaining two groups, most of them going with the Polypetalcc. All three of the old names have been abandoned, the name Archichlamydece being now used for the apeta- lous and polypetalous plants jointly, and the name Sympctalce for the gamopetalous plants. The known species of plants as based on recent standard and conservative enumerations of the various large groups are approximately as fol- lows : Myxophyta 400 Thallophyta SQ.ooo Bryophyta 8,000 Pteridophyta 3,500 Spermatophyta 120,000 190,900 Plants hi Relation to Geology. — Plants pla}, an important part in the configuration of the earth's surface bv the prevention or retardation of erosion. This is accomplished by the direct binding action of roots on the soil, by obstruct- ing the run-off of water as it filters through a layer of decaying vegetable matter, and by hin- dering the melting of snow under the shade of a forest cover. Wind erosion of sand or dust soils both on beaches and in arid regions is prevented chiefly by vegetation. In the build- ing up of peat deposits, such as the sphagnum bogs of the Northern States, or the Dismal Swamp, Okefinokee Swamp, or the Everglades, plants are the principal factors. Deposits of coal and petroleum are of vegetable origin. The disintegration of rocks is hastened by the pres- ence of living mosses and other plants. The fertility of soils is largely dependent on the ad- mixture of decayed vegetable matter, or humus ; and the so-called nitrifying organisms of the soil, which change nitrates, which can not be taken up as food by plants, to nitrites, which are readily absorbed, belong to a group of micro- scopic plants known as bacteria. A very im- portant role in soil fertilization is played by a certain group of plants, the Legiiminosce, in- cluding the clovers, beans, and peas. One of the essentials of plant food is nitrogen. Ordinary plants have not the power to take free nitrogen from the air, where it exists in almost unlimited quantities, but absorb their nitrogen from cer- tain nitrogenous substances in the soil. This element of soil fertility is soon exhausted. Leguminous plants, however, produce on their roots small tubercles containing bacteria which have the power to take free nitrogen from the air in the soil and put it into a form suitable for plant food. By the death and rotting of the plant the nitrogen thus absorbed from the air is incorporated in the soil and is available as food BOTANY. 1. Samnela, and Vegetation of Western Texas. ". Agave, and Vegetation of \\'c?tcrn Texas. 2. Yellow Pine Forest of Oregon. 4- Tree Fern, and Vegetal vjn of the Tropical Zone. BOTANY for all sorts of vegetation. In this way the legu- minous plants are almost indispensable for the rehabilitation of soils worn out by excessive cropping. Plants in Relation to Geography. — Most of the land surface of the earth is covered by a green mantle of vegetation, which varies in its makeup at different points in accordance with several factors, the most general of which in its variation is temperature. Certain areas of the north polar and south polar regions, permanently or almost permanently covered with snow or ice, and various similarly cold areas on mountains of higher and higher elevation in lower latitudes, are devoid of vegetation. Next to this is an area of sufficient warmth in summer to produce a vegetation of herbaceous plants and shrubs but devoid of trees — the arctic, antarctic, and al- pine vegetation. Then come the temperate areas of the earth, characterized by a vegetative cov- ering able to withstand freezing during a portion of the year, yet sufficiently warm to permit an abundant growth of trees. Next follows the tropical area, with a vegetation not subjected to frost and characterized especially by forests made up in part of palms. A factor of probably even greater im.portance, but more broken and re- stricted in its distribution, is moisture. The four great temperature categories outlined above are cross-hatched by moisture lines parallel with the lines of equal precipitation. With too little moisture forests can not exist, and we have plains and deserts of grass or brush. Neither do forests exist in a soil too persistently moist and poorly drained, and thus we have moors, bogs, natural meadows, and savannas. The ex- treme of moisture is reached in the plants called aquatics, growing either in fresh water or in the ocean, often wholly submerged. Each of the other factors in plant growth, light, air, food, and the complex mechanical re- lations of the plant, varies greatly from one lo- cality to another, and in their various combina- tions with different degrees of heat and moisture they furnish an almost endless variety of envi- ronments. Each of these combinations of condi- tions has its characteristic association of plants, which, adapted to the conditions, and to each other, form a community. The study of plants in their detailed relation to these local surround- ings forms a branch of geographic botany known as plant ecology. North America furnishes a good series of geographic areas with sufficient climatic differences to necessitate different floras. The vegetation of the continent is divided by Merriam into the following zones : Arctic, Boreal, Transition, Upper Austral, Lower Aus- tral, Tropical. The Arctic zone extends from northern Labrador northwestward across the northern edge of the continent to Bering Strait, dipping southward along the shores of Bering Sea to Bristol Bay, Alaska. The vege- tation of this zone consists of herbaceous or of depressed woody plants, trees being absent. Over large areas, known as tundra, the ground is permanently frozen underneath, a few inches of the surface thawing each summer and permit- ting the growth, in a cold, wet soil, of an often luxuriant but low vegetation. The Arctic zone is represented southward as far as southern Cal- ifornia and northern Arizona by certain alpine plants on the summits of mountains high enough to have a timber line, approximately 12,000 feet in that latitude. The Boreal zone, sometimes subdivided into a northern, or Hudsonian, belt and a more southerly, or Canadian, belt, extends trom the Arctic zone southward to a line trav- ersing the northern part of New England, On- tario, Michigan, and Minnesota, jumping to the higher elevations of the Adirondack and Ap- palachian Mountain systems, then continuing westward across North Dakota and Assiniboia to British Columbia, dipping south in the higher elevations of the Rocky Mountains nearly to Mexico, in the Cascades and Sierra Nevada to southern California, and along the shores of the Pacific to northern California. The most cha- racteristic feature of this zone is forests of spruce or balsam fir. The Transition zone cov- ers most of New England, New York, Michigan, Minnesota, North Dakota, about half of South Dakota, and the southern part of Assiniboia, thence extending southward through the Plateau and Great Basin 10 Arizona, New Mexico, and California, in the southern parts of those States reaching down to an elevation of about 6.000 feet. The most characteristic tree of the eastern, humid part of this zone is the white pine ; of the western, arid part, the yellow pine. The Upper Austral zone, as represented in the eastern United States by the so-called Carolinian flora, covers the lower Hudson valley, southern New Jersey, Delaware, eastern ^laryland, the Pied- mont section of the south Atlantic States, middle Tennessee and Kentucky, and most of Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, Iowa, and Missouri, north- western Arkansas, southeastern South Dakota, and eastern Nebraska and Kansas. It is espe- cially characterized by its forests of certain spe- cies of oak and hickory. The flora of the west- ern part of this zone, known as the Upper Sonoran, covers the principal part of the arid western plains, from Washington and Montana southward through the Mexican plateau. The flora is devoid of trees and is commonly cha- racterized by sagebrush or bunchgrass. The Lower Austral zone is divided, like the last, into an eastern humid and a western arid part. The eastern, containing the Austroriparian flora, cov- ers the coastal plain from Chesapeake Bay to middle Texas, extending northward in the ^lis- sissippi valley to extreme southern Illinois and Indiana. One of the most characteristic wild plants is the cane, while cotton is the most con- spicuous cultivated plant. In the arid region of western Texas, the great valleys of New Mex- ico, and the deserts of southwestern Arizona, southern Nevada, and southeastern California, lies the western part of the Lower Austral zone, containing the flora known as the Lower So- noran, characterized especially by the creosote bush and the mesquite. This flora has large extensions into northern Mexico. The Tropical zone covers the lower third of the Florida peninsula, enters the extreme southern point of Texas, and on the Pacific coast reaches north on the east side of the Gulf of California to the lower Colorado and Gila rivers. From these northern extremes the tropical flora extends southward through Mexico. Central America, and the West Indies. Various genera and spe- cies of palms form the most conspicuous and characteristic features of this flora. Plants in Their Economic Relation to Man. — Every savage race is intimately associated with the flora of its region. Having no means by which to supply the ordinary necessaries of life through foreign trade, as do many civilized BOTANY BAY — BOTHA races, the savage has learned from necessity to know the precise qualities of the plants about him as foods, textiles, poisons, dyes, tans, fuels, etc. In connection with the making of a single aboriginal instrument, such as a bow or a fire- drill and block, there is required on the part of the savage a knowledge of the strength, elas- ticity, texture, and other qualities of all the kinds of wood occurring in the range of his travels, such as is not possessed by one person in a thousand among highly civilized races. The economic value of a correct and discriminating record of the uses of plants among aboriginal peoples is evident. The influence of a familiar flora in attracting a savage race to a wider ge- ographic range or that of a strange flora in lim- iting migration in any direction is a natural outcome of the savage's exact knowledge of the plants of his native region. The practice of some of the migratory races of prehistoric man to transport their cultivated plants with them has resulted in the wide extension of these plants from the regions they naturally occupied. From this association it turns out that a critical study of the origin and distribution of the plants cul- tivated by aboriginal races throws important light on their prehistoric migrations. Some of these botanical facts appear to be of very great antiquity, perhaps even antedating those fur- nished by aboriginal arts or by language. This study of the relation of primitive man to his plant environment is called ethnobotany, or aboriginal botany. Some of the processes of plant life are important to man as being funda- mental to his existence. The plant is an engine which through the energy furnished by sunlight is capable of transforming inorganic substances into organic compounds, without which animal life could not exist. The ordinary economic re- lations of plants to civilized man are many, and enter as important factors into such arts and in- dustries as agriculture, horticulture, medicine, manufacture, and commerce. The production and elaboration of plant products and their trans- portation from those parts of the world in which they can be and are produced to other parts in which they are needed occupies probably the largest part of the energies of the human race. Bibliography. — Bailey, < Cyclopedia of Horti- culture' ; Bailey, ^Lessons with Plants' ; Bail- Ion, ^Dictionnaire de Botanique' ; Britton and Brown, < Illustrated Flora of the Northern United States and Canada' ; Engler and Prantl, *Nalunicne Pflanzenfamilien-' ; Figuier, ^Veg- etable World' ; Kerner and Oliver, < Natural History of Plants' ; Lindley and Moore, 'Treas- ury of Botany' ; Sachs, 'History of Botany' ; Sargent, 'Silva of North America.^ Frederick V. Coville, Chief Botanist, U. S. Deft, of Agriculture. Botany Bay, New South Wales, Australia, so called by Capt. Cook on account of the many strange plants found growing here. Cook landed in Botany Bay on his first voyage in 1770, and Took possession of the country in the name of his sovereign. The penal settlement, founded in 1788, and popularly known by the name of Botany Bay, was established on Port Jackson, where the city of Sydney now stands. Botany Bay Gum, a gum resin produced by the XanihorrJiaxi hastilis, or resinifera, of Australia. Botargo, a relish made of the salted roe of the mullet or tunny, used on the Mediterranean coasts. Botetourt, Norborne Berkeley, a conspic- uous actor in American colonial history rb. Eng- land, 1734 (?); d. Williamsburg, Va., 15 Oct. 1770. He was the descendant of John Berkeley, the cavalier, who was ennobled by Charles II. in 1660. He was sent to Virginia as royal gov- ernor in 1768, just eight years before the Decla- ration of Independence. He had full instructions from the Crown and directions to assume more dignity than had been the wont of colonial gov- ernors, and accordingly he paraded the streets of Williamsburg with guards, a coach, and other requisites of vice-regal pomp. Conflicting duties to the king and the people made his situation most unpleasant. In 1769 the assembly took into consideration the incipient troubles with England, and on 16 May passed firm but re- spectful resolutions remonstrating against par- liamentary taxation and the rigTit claimed to *end them to England for trial. So firm were they that Lord Botetourt summoned the speaker and burgesses before him and dissolved them. The result was that a convention met in a pri- vate house and took the incipient steps for the revolution. The convention did not attempt to legislate, but simply remonstrated with Parlia- ment, sending its resolutions to the other colo- nies and to England. Under the influence of these resolutions Lord Hillsborough wrote a letter to Lord Botetourt, assuring him that it was not the intention of government to tax the colonies, and that the obnoxious imposts would be 'withdrawn, which letter Lord Botetourt com- municated to the assembly. All these anticipa- tions, however, were destroyed by the policy of Lord North, who succeeded Charles Townsend, and the promise was not fulfilled in full, the duty on tea being retained. Botetourt was deeply mortified, and soon died of disease aggra- vated by mental sufi^ering. He was deplored by men of all classes in the colony, and the legisla- ture erected a inarble statue to his memory, which is still standing in the college of William and Mary. Both, John and Andrew, two Flemish painters, were born at Utrecht about the year 1610, Andrew being the younger. They were the sons of a glass painter, who instructed them in the rudiments of drawing. They afterward made further progress in the school of Abraham Bloemaart, and went at an early age together to France and Italy. John, attracted by the works of Claude Lorraine, chose him for his model ; Andrew preferred the painting of the human fig- ure, and imitated the style of Bamboccio. But although their inclinations led them in different directions, their fraternal affection often united their talents in the same works. Thus Andrew painted the figures in the landscapes of his brother ; and their labors harmonized so well, that their pictures could not be suspected of coming from different hands. The ease and fine coloring in the beautiful figures of John cannot be overlooked in spite of the excess of yellow sometimes found in them. Andrew was drowned at Venice in 1650. John, inconsolable for his loss, abandoned Italy, and returned to Utrecht, where he died shortly after. Botha, Christian, Boer commander: b. the Transvaal ; d. Kokstad, Griqualand West, 8 BOTHA — BOTOCDOS Oct. 1902. At the opening of the Boer war in 1899 he led a commando into Natal and was active in the siege of Ladysmith and at the de- fense of the Tugela crossing. After the relief of Ladj'smith, he retreated to Laing's Neck, where he was left by his brother, Louis Botha, in command of the Boer forces. By opening negotiations with Gen. Buller he delayed that general's advance for several days, and after the fall of Pretoria he was placed in command of all the Boer forces in the southeastern Trans- vaal. His frequent raids into Zululand effected the diversion that allowed Gens. Louis Botha and De Wet to continue the war. Botha, Louis, Boer soldier: b. Greytown, Natal, about 1864. He began life as a farmer, and, as a young man, had a share in the estab- lishment of the Transvaal Republic. Later he fought in the Kaffir campaign. He was elected to the Volksraad at Pretoria. Upon the out- break of the Boer war with England in 1899 he was given a subordinate command, and upon the death of Gen. Joubert in March 1900 he became comm-^ndcr-in-chief of the Boer iforces, gaining victories at Spion Kop and Colenso. In 1906 he became Prime Minister of Pretoria. Bothie (Gael, bothag, a cot), a house, usu- ally of one room, for the accommodation of a number of work people engaged in the same emplo3'ment ; especially, a house of this kind in parts of Scotland, in which a number of un- married male or female farm servants or labor- ers are lodged in connection with a farm. Bothies are most common in the northeast of Scotland, and are chiefly for the accommodation of unmarried male farm servants engaged on the larger farms, who as a rule have to do their cooking and keep the bothie in order for them- selves. The bothie system has often been con- demned. Bothnia, the name formerly given to a country of northern Europe, e.xtending along the east and west shores of the Gulf of Bothnia, the east portion now being comprised in Fin- land, and the west in Sweden. Bothnia, Gulf of, the northern part of the Baltic Sea, w-hich separates Sweden from Fin- land. It commences at the island of Aland, lat. 60° N., and extends to 66° ; its length is about 450 miles, its breadth from 90 to 130, and its depth usually from 20 to 50 fathoms. As its water contains little salt, it freezes over in the winter, so as to be passed by sledges and car- riages. It abounds in salmon and other fish, and also in seals. Bothriocephalus, a genus of cestoid worms which is found very abundantly in the intestines of predaceous fishes, and one species of which is sometimes found in the intestinal canal of man. It belongs to the same family as the tape- worm (Tocnia solium), but it is distinguished from it by having its segments broader than they are long; by wanting the four disks which surround the head of the tapeworm, and hav- ing in their place two lateral longitudinal open- ings; and thirdly, by having the se.xual organs on one of the flat surfaces of each segment instead of at the edges of the segments. The two longitudinal openings (whence the worm re- ceives its name, from bothrion, a little pit, and kephalc, the head) do not seem to be organs of nutrition, but merely a kind of suckers by which the worm is enabled to attach itself to the intes- tines of the animal which it infests, while it is nourished by absorption throughout its whole length. Although, as already stated, this worm generally infests the bodies of predaceous fishes, it is capable of being transmitted to all vertebrate animals, and especially it is found in those birds which live upon fish. The only species which is found in the intestines of man is the Bothriocephalus latus, and it is rare to find even this species except among the inhab- itants of two distinct parts of Europe, the north and the centre. It is found, on the one hand, in Russia, in Norway, and in Sweden, and on the other hand, in Switzerland, the north of Italy, some provinces of Germany, and some depart- ments of France, but rarely elsewhere. It has been remarked that this worm is common where the Taenia or true tapeworm is rare, and vice versa. It is rare in the United States, but with the increase of emigration from the regions of Europe, where it abounds, its appearance may be looked for. Bothwell, James Hepburn, Earl of, is known in Scottish history by his marriage to Queen Mary. He was the only son of the third earl: b. about 1536; d. 1578. He succeeded his father in 1556, thus obtaining important offices and estates, and by 1566 he had attained to high favor with the queen. The plot by which Darn- ley lost his life in 1567 was of his contrivance, and the queen was suspected of conniving at it. Bothwell was charged with the crime and under- went a mock trial, being of course acquitted. After the death of Darnley he seized the queen near Edinburgh, and carrying her a prisoner to Dunbar Castle, prevailed upon her to marry him. Before this he had divorced his own wife, Jean Gordon, sister of the Earl of Huntly. Though seemingly secure in the possession of power, and though created Duke of Orkney by the unfortu- nate queen, he soon found that his conduct had roused the indignation of the kingdom. A con- federacy was formed against him by the barons, the queen was liberated from his power, and he escaped to the Orkneys, and afterward to Nor- waJ^ The Danish authorities kept him impris- oned for some time at Malmo, latterly at Drang- holm in Zeeland, where he died insane. See the various histories of Scotland, and the ^Life of BothwelP by Prof. Schiern (English transla- tion 18S0). Bothwell, Scotland, a village of Lanark- shire, on the north bank of the Clyde. It is situated eight miles east of Glasgow, and about one mile beyond it stands Bothwell bridge, where a decisive battle was fought in 1679 between the Scottish Covenanters, commanded princi- pally by their clerg\', and the royal forces, com- manded by the Duke of Monmouth, in which the former were totally routed. Near the village are the fine ruins of Bothwell Castle, once a stronghold of the Douglases. Botocdos, or Aymores, a Brazilian race of Indians. They live 70 to 90 miles from the At- lantic, in the virgin forests of the coast range (Serra do Mar or Serra dos Aymores), on the borders of the forests of Minas-Geraes and Espirito-Santo, especially on the Rio Doce. They receive their name from the custom which they have of cutting a slit in their under lip and in the lobes of their ears, and inserting in these, by way of ornament, pieces of wood shaped like BOTRYCHIUM — BOTTARI ihe bung of a barrel (Fortuguese botoque). They have oblique eyes and projecting cheek- bones. Their color is a dirty brown. They go quite naked, and paint their bodies, and a Botocudo warrior with his lip and ear plugs, his body painted black and red, and his face bright red, strongly reminds one of a denizen of the infernal regions. They are very skilful vi^ith the bow and arrow, and live chiefly by hunting. They now number only a few thousands, and are decreasing. Botrychium, a genus of fern (adder's- tongue), of the sub-order Osmimdca and tribe OphioglossecE, characterized by its distinct tliecce in a compound spike attached to a pinnate or bipinnate frond. The common American species are: B. hinaria, common moon wort, which grows on elevated lands and pastures where other ferns are seldom found. It was once supposed to possess great virtues, both magical and medicinal, and was carefully gath- ered by the light of the moon. B. virginicum, the largest of the species, is known by the name of rattlesnake fern, from growing in places fre- quented by that dangerous reptile. Botrytis, a genus of fungi belonging to the section Hypomycetes, and familiar by name to cultivators from its connection with the potato disease. The genus contains a number of those minute plants known as inolds and mildews, and of these some have the peculiar habit of growing in the tissues of living vege- tables. The threads of which their growth con- sists creep among the loose cells of the under side of leaves, and send up their fertile shoots through the stomata. Many kinds of Botrytis are extremely destructive to Various plants. Whole crops of onions are soon destroyed by one species ; legumes suffer from another, but in a less degree; and a third species is some- times injurious to turnips. The decay of the leaves and stem in the potato disease is now charged against PJiytopJithtlwra infcstens, but old writers attributed the trouble to B. infestcns. Though extremely injurious to the farmer these molds are sometimes very serviceable by destroying weeds. Various agricultural pests may often be seen looking yellow and unhealthy, when an examination of the under side of the leaves will show that this is owing to the rav- ages of these minute parasites. Botta, Anne Charlotte Lynch, American author: b. Bennington, Vt., 1820; d. 28 March 1891. She was educated in Albany, N. Y. ; began her literary career in Providence, R. I., and, removing to New York, married Prof. Vincenzo Botta, in 1855. From the time of her marriage to her death, her house was a favorite centre of literary and art circles. Her publications in- cluded a collection of poems, many essays, re- views and criticisms, and ^A Handbook of Universal Literature.^ She was a sculptor of much merit, and was influential in promoting the establishment of Barnard College for Women. Botta, Carlo Giuseppe Guglielmo, Italian statesman, historian, and poet : b. San Giorgio del Canavese in Piedmont, 6 Nov. 1766; d. Paris, lu Aug. 1837. During the time of the French Revolution he was a student of medicine at Turin, and adopting revolutionary opinions with enthusiasm, he suffered for his zeal by *.wo years' imprisonment (1792-4). After pass- ing as a physician he entered the French service, and accompanied the expedition which Napoleon sent to Corfu, and he was soon after elected as a member of the provisional government of Piedmont. When this territory was, in 1803, annexed to the French empire, Botta was elected a member of the Corps Legislatif, where his behavior was characterized by a bold opposi- tion to the emperor. During the ''Hundred Days*^ he was rector of the academy at Nancy, and after the second return of the Bourbons he went in a like capacity to Rouen. The greater part of the remainder of his life was passed by him as a private gentleman at Paris. His chief works belong to the department of history. Among these are: 'Storia della Guerra dell' independenza degli Stati Uniti d' America^ ; (1866) ; 'Kirkwall Harbor> C1867) ; . ■/ ' , T)^„_ him the necessary supplies. In order to prevent prmce and prelate; brother of Ai tome de Bour- ^^^ dispersion of his army he led the soldiers to bon; uncle to Henry IV., king of France, b. 22 ^^^ ^.^^ ^^ ^ ^^^ y^^^^^ ^^ Dec. 1520; f. Fontenay^le-Come 9 May 15^. i,%^ them. He was the first to mount the He was archbishop of Rouen legate of Avig- i^^ ^^^^ ^,^^ ^.„^^ ^ .^ non, cardinal, peer of Trance, and member 01 , ^i 4. r- ir ■ xj- u ^ u • J the Council. In spite of family ties he ardently ^y Benvenuto Cellini. His body being conveyed supported the Guises and the League, and was ^o Gaeta, his soldiers erected over it a splendid declared by that faction heir presumptive to the monument afterward destroyed. See Coignet, throne on the ground that his brother, Antoine, ^Francis the First and His Times> (1888). through heresy, had forfeited his claim. On Bourbon, Louis, loo-e. Spanish prelate: b. the death of Henry III. he was declared king, as ^ ^^^^^^ ^g j^e was the son of the Charles X and was recognized by a majori y .^^^^^^ Louis, brother of King Charles III. of of the parlemcnts; though he was all the while ^ ■ ^^^^ ^j^^ Duchess of Chinchon. The mar- a prisoner at Fontenay-le-Comte. ^-^^^ ^^^^ concluded with the royal assent: Bourbon, Charles sharl (Duke of Bour- nevertheless, it was doubted, after the death of BONNAis), French general, known as Constable Charles III., whether the prince would be law- DE Bourbon; son of Gilbert, Count of Mont- f^l heir to the throne, if a male descendant of pensier and Clara of Gonzaga : b. 17 Feb. 1489; the old line should be wanting. He therefore d. 6 May 1527. He received from Francis I., in entered the Church, was appointed archbishop of the 26th year of his age, the sword of Constable. Seville in 1799, and of Toledo in 1800. A ear- By the coolness with which he faced death in final's hat was also given to him in 1800. After posts of the greatest hazard he excited the ad- ^^^^ imprisonment of Ferdinand VII. at Valen- miration of his fellow-soldiers. When viceroy ^^y^ ^^ joined the party of the Cortes, and of Milan he won all hearts by his frankness and became very influential. He offered, in 1814 affability. His fame was not yet tarnished when ^he constitution of the Cortes to Ferdinand VII. the injustice of his king deprived him of his f^j. ^^^s signature; and the king having altered offices, banished him from France, and brought j^j^ determination, Bourbon lost his favor and the family of Bourbon into disgrace, in which ^^^ deprived of the archbishopric of Seville, state it continued until the conclusion of the ^fter the events which took place on the insur- reign of Henry III. Whatever may be the true rection of the army at the island of Leon, he cause of her conduct, it is certain that the engaged in the revolution, and was president of Duchess of Angouleme, mother of Francis I.. ^^^ provisional junta before which the king strove to invalidate a formal donation of gwore, at Madrid, 9 March 1820, to abide by the Louis XII. The constable, enraged at see- constitution of the Cortes of 1812. ing himself deprived of his estates by the ^ ^ mother of the king whom he had served with Bourbon, Louis Henri, loo-e oii-re (Due so mAich fidelitv and zeal, listened to proposals de), French courtier, Prince of Conde : b. Ver- made him by Charles V. and the king of Eng- sailles, 1692; d. Chantilly, 27 Jan. 1740. As land. He experienced the usual fate of de- chief of the Council of Regency and superin- serters; he was well received while his services tendent of the king's education, he robbed the were needed, but narrowiy watched to secure public treasury and extorted huge bribes. Made his fidelity. Exposed as he was to the con- prime minister in 1723. he persecuted the Prot- tempt of the Spanish nobility and the jealousy estants, and granted exorbitant privileges to the of the generals of Charles V., nothing remained India Company, in which he held shares. He to him but his courage and repentance. His ^^g entirely controlled by his mistress, the Mar- ability, however, induced the emperor to bestow guise de Prie. upon him the command of an army, and to treat , . . n t:- -i tUc fr^,^r^r\pr him with honor. He was already beyond the Bourbon (boor-bon) Family. ihetounoer confines of France, when Francis I. sent to of this family, which has governed !:< ranee, demand the sword which he bore as constable, Spain, the two Sicilies, Lucca, and Farma was and the badge of his order. His answer dis- Robert the Strong, who in 861, became ^"^6 ot ■ plays the anguish of his heart:— «The king took Neustria, and in 866 lost his lite in a Dattie from me mV sword at Valenciennes, when he against the Normans. Some trace his descent gave to D'Alenqon the command of the van- from Pepin I'Heristal, others from a natinal son guard, which belonged to me: the badge of my of Charlemagne, and others from the kings ot order I left under my pillow at Chantelles.» Lombardy. It is certain that the two sons ot His flight was a misfortune to France; the this Robert were kings of France, ihe elder. BOURBON FAMILY named Eudes, ascended the throne in 888, and died in 898; the younger, Robert, in 922, and died in 923. The eldest son of this Robert was Hugh the Great, Duke of the Isle of France, and count of Paris and Orleans. Hugh Capet, son of Hugh the Great (great grandson of Rob- ert the Strong), founded the third French dynasty in 987. One of his descendants, named Robert, was the root of the elder line of the dukes of Burgundy, which became extinct in 1361. A descendant of this Robert, Henry of Burgundy, was first regent of Portugal in 1995, where his legitimate descendants became extinct in 1383. Pierre de Courtenay, a descendant of Hugh Capet, in the fifth generation, was father and ancestor of many emperors of Constan- tinople. The house of Anjou descended from Hugh Capet, in the eighth generation, possessed the throne of Naples for two centuries, and for some time that of Hungary. Another descend- ant of Hugh Capet, in the loth degree, founded the house of Navarre, which continued from 1328 to 1425. A second family of Anjou, descended from Hugh Capet, in the 13th degree, gave some distinguished princes to Provence. In the same degree, the younger line of the powerful dukes of Burgundy derived its origin from him. This line became extinct with the death of Charles the Bold, in 1477, whose suc- cessor, Maria, married Maximilian, archduke of Austria, and became grandmother of Charles V. Robert, Earl of Clermont, second son of St. Louis, married Beatrice, Duchess of Bourbon. In this way the city of Bourbon I'Archambault, or Bourbon les Bains, in the department of Allier (formerly Bourbonnais), became the birthplace of the house of Bourbon, and Louis I.. Duke of Bourbon, son of Robert and Beatrice, its founder. Two branches took their origin from the two sons of this Louis, Duke of Bourbon, w-ho died in 1 341. The elder line was that of the dukes of Bourbon, which became extinct at the death of the Constable of Bourbon in 1527, in the assault of the city of Rome. The younger was that of the counts of La Marche, afterward counts and dukes of Vendome. Of these, Charles, Duke of Vendome, who died in 1537, and who had been the head of the house of Bourbon since the death of the Constable, had two sons, Anthony and Louis, founders respec- tively of the royal line of Bourbon, and of the line of Conde. Henry, the son of Anthony, obtained the throne of France as Henry IV., when the house of Valois became extinct in 1589 by the murder of Henry III. His father had obtained the kingdom of Navarre through^ his wife, who inherited it, and Henry now added it to the French dominions. Anthony's younger brother Louis, Prince of Conde, was the founder of the line of Conde. There were, therefore, two chief branches of the Bourbons —the royal, and that of Conde. The royal branch was divided by the two sons of Louis XIII., the elder of w'hom, Louis XIV., continued the chief branch, which, through his son, Louis (the dau- phin), and grandson, Philip V., was separated into the elder or royal French branch, and the younger or royal Spanish branch : while Philip, younger son of Louis XIII., founded the house of Orleans, when he received the duchy of Orleans from Louis XIV. The kings of the elder or French line of the house of Bourbon are as follows: Henrv IV., Louis XIII.. XIV., XV., XVI., XVIL, XVIII., and Charles X. The house of Bourbon consists of the following branches and members : A. The Elder French Royal Line of Bourbons as Distinguished from the Younger Branch or House of Orleans. The last sovereigns of this line were three brothers, Louis XVI., Louis XVIII., and Charles X. (Louis XVIL, son of Louis XVI., never obtained the crown), all of whom were grandsons of Louis XV. Louis XVIII. had no children, but Charles X. had two sons, namely: Louis Antoine de Bourbon, Duke of Angouleme, who was dauphin till the revolution of 1830, and died without issue in 1844, and Charles Ferdinand, Duke of Berr>% who died 14 Feb. 1820, of a wound given him by a political fanatic. The Duke of Berry had two children, (i) Louise Marie Thercse, called Mademoiselle d'Artois, and afterward by mar- riage Duchess of Parma, died at Venice, i Feb. 1864; and (2) Henri Charles Ferdinand Marie Dieudonne, born in 1820, and at first called Duke of Bordeaux, but afterward Count de Chambord. His mother was the Princess Caroline, daughter of Francis I., king of the two Sicilies. Charles X., having abdicated in favor of his grandson Henri above mentioned in 1830, and the dauphin having renounced his claims on the French throne also in favor of the latter, the Count de Chambord was until his death looked upon by his party as the legitimate heir to the crown of France, and was styled by them Henri V. B. The Branch of the Bourbons Knozcn as the House of Orleans. — This branch raised to the throne of France by the revolution of 1830, and deprived of it by that of 1848, derives its origin, as already mentioned, from Duke Philip I. of Orleans (d. i/Oi), second son of Louis XHI., and only brother of Louis XIV. By his second wife, Charlotte of the Palatinate, he left as his successor in the dukedom his son Philip, known as Duke of Chartres during his father's life- time, and was regent of France during the minority of Louis XV. Philip, second Duke, was succeeded by his son, Louis Philip (b. 1703), who married a princess of Baden, and died in retirement in 1752, leaving a son of the same name. Louis Philip. Duke of Orleans, who was born in 1725, and died in 1785. The son of the last-mentioned Duke was Louis Joseph Philip, the Duke of Orleans whose name figures in the first French Revolution, who perished on the scaffold in 1793, after he had laid aside his princely name the year before and assumed that of "Citizen Egalite." He left four children : (i) Louis Philip, before the Revolution Duke of Chartres, after his father's death Duke of Orleans, from 1830 to 1848 king of France, died 26 Aug. 1850, leaving a numerous family; (,2) the Duke of Montpensier. who died in England in 1807; (3) the Count de Beaujolais. w^ho died at ]\Ialta in 1808; and (4) a daughter. Adelaide, Mademoiselle d'Orleans. born in 1777. died 31 Dec. 1847. The eldest son of King Louis Philip was Ferdinand. Duke of Orleans (b. 1810. d. 1842). who married a daughter of Frederick Louis of Mecklenburg- Schwerin. and left two sons: (i) Louis Philip. Count de Paris, b. Paris, 24 Aug. 1838; and (2) Robert. Duke of Char- tres, b. Paris, 1840. Louis Philip having abdi- cated in favor of the former in 1848. the Count de Paris till his death in 1894 was looked upon by the Orleanists as the true heir to the throne. He was married to his cousin, Isabella, a daugh- ter of the Duke of Montpensier, and left issue. BOURBON — BOURCHIER C. The Spanish-Bourbon Dynasty. — In 1700 Louis XIV. placed his grandson Philip, Duke of Anjou, on the Spanish throne, who as Philip V. founded the Bourbon dynasty in Spain. Philip V. 'was succeeded in 1746 by his son, Ferdinand VI., who, dying in 1759 without heirs, was suc- ceeded by his brother, Charles III. To him succeeded (1788) his son Charles IV., who, in 1808, resigned the throne in favor of a successor nominated by Napoleon, and died at Naples in 1819. His son Fernando, Prince of the Astu- rias, obtained the crown on the fall of Napoleon, and reigned as Ferdinand VII., dying 29 Sept. 1833, and leaving behind him two daughters by his third marriage, the elder of whom succeeded him as Isabella II. She was married, in 1846, to her cousin Francisco de Assis. In 1868 she had to leave Spain in consequence of the revo- lution, and in 1870 she renounced her claims to the throne in favor of her son Alphonso, who became Alphonso XII., and died in 1885, his son, Alphonso XIII. , succeeding him. D. The Royal Line of the Two Sicilies. — The Two Sicilies being then a possession of the Spanish monarchy, in 1735 Don Carlos, the younger son of Philip V. of Spain, obtained the crown and reigned over Sicily and Naples as Charles III.. In 1759, however, he succeeded his brother Ferdinand VI. on the Spanish throne, when he transferred the Two Sicilies to his third son Fernando (Ferdinand IV.), on the express condition that this crown should not be again united with Spain. Ferdinand IV. had to leave Naples in 1806; but after the fall of Napoleon he again became king of both Sicilies under the title of Ferdinand I. He was succeeded by his son Francis I in 1825 ; Francis was succeeded by his son Ferdinand 11. in 1830; and the latter was succeeded by his son Francis II. in 1859, who was deprived of the kingdom in i860. E. The Ducal Line of Parma. — This line, like that of the Two Sicilies, was founded by a son of Philip V. of Spain, namely: Don Philip, his youngest son, who obtained the duchies of Parma and Piacenza in 1748. Louis, grandson of Don Philip, obtained Tuscany likewise (1802), with the title of king of Etruria. The family did not long retain this honor, however, being soon forced by the power of France to give up not only Etruria, but also Parma and Piacenza ; and it was not till 1847 that there was again a Bourbon Duke of Parma. In 1859 the reigning Duke, Robert, had to leave his dominions, which were soon incorporated in the kingdom of Italy. See Coiffier Demoret, (1890). Bourbon, Isle of. See Reunion, Isle de la. Bourbon-Lancy, laii-se, a French watering place, department Saone-et-Loire, famous for its thermal springs, containing chloride of sodium and iron. Its situation is notably fine, and by the Romans it was called Aquae Nisineii or Nis- ienses. Remains of the Roman baths are still to be seen here, and the town contains a hospital, built by the Marquis d'Aligre, with 400 beds. Pop. (1896) 4,162. Bourbon- Vendee, v6n-da, Napoleon-Ven- dee, or, since the dissolution of the Second Empire in 1870, La Roche-sur-Yon, a town in France, the capital of the depart- ment Vendee, 231 miles southwest from Paris, situated on a hill on the right bank of the Yon. The streets nearly all end in a spacious square, bordered with ranges of fine trees, and surrounded by public monuments and elegant mansions. The parish church, with a peristyle of six Doric columns, and the mairie or mansion-house, an elegant Italian building, are both in the square. Besides these there are an elegant market-house, theatre, and extensive public offices, large barracks, and a small public library. There is an active trade in woolen cloth, and hardware. It was founded by Napo- leon I. on the site of the ancient castle of Roche- sur-Yon, destroyed at the Revolution, and received the name of Napoleon- Vendee, which was changed to Bourbon-Vendee at the Restora- tion. Pop. (1891) 12,215. Bourbon Whisky, a term applied to Ken- tucky whisky, made from a mixture of corn, rye, and malt, of which the corn constitutes the larger part. In its distillation some of the oils and acids are allowed to remain. These, with age, undergo chemical action, and are converted into aromatic ethers. Bourbonnais, a province and government of old France, with the title, first of a county, and afterward of a duchy, Jying between the Nivernais, Berry, and Burgundy. It now forms the department of the Allier. It derived i^s name from the small town Bourbon I'Archanl- bault, from which the Bourbon family received their title. Consult Montegut, ^En Bourbonnais et en Forez* (1880), Bourbonnais, boor-bon-na, 111., a village in Kaskaskia County, 56 miles south of Chicago, the seat of two important Roman Catholic schools, Notre Dame Academy, and Saint Via- teur's College, opened in 1865. Pop. 595. Bourbonne-les-Bains, boor-bun-la-ban, a town of France, department of Haute Marne, 21 miles east-northeast of Langres, with hot springs, which were resorted to by the Romans. They contam much chloride of sodium, with a temperature which varies from 140° to 150° F.^ and frequented by some 3,coo invalids annually. The town has a 12th century church, a large military hospital, and interesting ruins of an ancient chateau. Pop. (1896) 4,156. Bourboule, boor-bool. La, France, a health resort in the department of Puy-le-Dome, 22 miles southwest of Clermont. It is pic- turesquely situated amid striking scenery and its mineral thermal springs are visited by over 7,000 persons yearly. Its waters when bottled are extensively exported for medicinal use. Pop. 1,947- Bourchier, boor'chi-er, Arthur, English actor: b. Speen, Berkshire, 22 June 1864. He was educated at Oxford where he was promi- nent in amateur theatricals and in 1889 went upon the stage. He has played in leading theatres in England and the United States and took the Royalty Theatre in 1895 when he brought out one of his own adaptations, ^The Chili Widow, ^ which ran 300 nights, and the Garrick Theatre in 1900, where he produced Barrie's play, ^The Wedding Guest.^ BOURDALOUE — BOURGEOIS Bourdaloue, Louis, loo-e boor-da-loo, the founder of genuine pulpit eloquence in France : b. Bourges, 20 Aug. 1632; d. Paris, 13 May 1704. He was sixteen when he entered the society of Jesuits and his instruUors succes- sively entrusted to him the chairs of polite let- ters, rhetoric, philosophy, and moral theology. In 1669 he entered the pulpit, and extended his reputation by attacking, with a powerful and religious eloquence, free from the bad taste of the age, the passions, vices, and errors of mankind. The dignity of his delivery, and the fire of his language, made him distinguished, amidst the victories of Turenne and the feasts of Versailles, among the master-spirits of the arts and of literature in the time of Corneille and Racine. Louis XIV. invited him, in 1670, to preach before the court, and Bourdaloue acquitted himself with so much success that he afterward received invitations at 10 different times. After the repeal of the Edict of Nantes, he was sent to Languedoc, in order to explain to the Protestants the doctrines of the Roman Catholic faith, and he succeeded in this difficult business in reconciling the dignity of his office with the rights of mankind. In his latter days he devoted himself to the care of hospitals, prisons, and religious institutions. He well knew how to accommodate his manner to the capacity of those to whom he gave instruction, advice, or consolation. With the simple, he was simple; with the learned, he was a scholar ; with free- thinkers, he was a logician ; and came off suc- cessful in all those contests in which the love of his neighbor, religious zeal, and the duties of his office, involved him. Beloved alike by all, he exercised authority over the minds of all ; and no consideration could make him give up his openness and integrity of character. His ^Sermons and Moral Discourses* appeared in English (3d ed. 1855); and < Married Life: Its Obligations and Trials* (1897). See Fengere, * Bourdaloue, sa predication et son temps* (1874) ; Tousserat. ^Etude genealogique sur les Bourdaloue' (1900). Bourdillon, Francis William, English poet: b. 22 March 1852. He has taught private pupils for many years and as a poet is widely known as the author of the lyric, (1875); 'EdeP (1878); and 'Les Aveux> (1881). His 'Essais* (1883) was the first indication of his strength. The second series, 'Nouveaux Essais de Psychologic Con- temporaine' (1886), was a singularly subtle and exceedingly searching inquiry into the causes of the pessimism then widely prevalent in France. Bourget's first novel. 'LTrreparable' (1884), was followed by 'Cruelle Enigme' (1885); 'Un Crime d'Amour> (1886); 'Andre Cornells' (1887), and 'Mensonges' (1887). The keen insight into the hidden springs of human motive, and the marvelous subtlety of psychological analysis of these stories, together with their clearness and refinement of style, have lifted Bourget into the front rank of contem- porary French novelists. His intimate know- ledge of English and Italian life, and his travels in Spain and Morocco, gave him the material for 'Sensations d'ltalie' (1891) ; and 'Cosmopo- lis' (1892) ; and he recorded his impressions (1894) of travel in the United States. Other novels are 'Le Disciple,' 'Notre Cceur,' 'La Terre Promise,' 'Un Saint,' 'Antigone,' 'Drame de famille' (1900); 'Un homme d'Af- faires' (1901) ; 'La fantome' (1901). Bourget was admitted to the Academy in 1894. Bourgoin, Edme Alfred, ed-ma al-fra boor- gwaii, French chemist : b. Saint Cyr-les- Colonne, 1836. In 1867 he became chief phar- macist of the Children's Hospital in Paris and has been director of the central pharmacy of the Paris hospitals from 1885. Among his writ- ings are 'Electro-chimie' (1868) ; 'Chimie organique, Principes de la classification des sub- stances' (1876); 'Traite de Pharmacie galen- ique' (1880). Bourgoin, a French town, capital of a canton in the department Isere in southeastern France. It is situated on the River Bourbre and was called by the Romans Bergusium. It contains important paper, linen, and woolen industries. Pop. (1901) 7,279- Bourgoing, Jean Frangois, zhon fran-swa boor-gwaii, French diplomatist: b. Nevers, 20 Nov. 1748; d. Carlsbad, 20 July 181 1. While at a military school in Paris his talents were so marked that he was educated by the government at the University of Strassburg for the diplo- matic service. After four years spent in Ger- many on diplomatic missions he went to Madrid in 1777 and was secretary of legation there BOURIGNON — BOURNE seven years, writing in that time his noted ^Nou- veau voyage en Espagne, ou Tableau de letat actuel de cette monarchic' (1789). In 1791 he was^ minister plenipotentiary to Spain, minister to Saxony in 1808, and was at various times employed on diplomatic missions to Germany and Holland. Besides the work above named he wrote ^Memoires historiques et philosoph- iques sur Pie VI.' (1789). Bourignon, Antoinette, an-twiin-et boo-re- nyoh, Flemish visionary: b. Lille, 13 Jan. 1616; d. Ffaneker, 30 Oct. 1680. She was born so ugly that her parents held a consultation to determine whether it would not be better to •destroy her as a monster. She was spared, but her infancy was spent in neglect and solitude. The first books she put her hands on were lives •of early Christians and mystical tracts, which she read eagerly. She entered a convent and was subsequently in charge of a hospital at Lille, but was obliged to leave on account of her reli- gious vagaries. She held that religion consists in internal emotion and is independent of know- ledge or practice. Her views were adopted by large numbers of Protestants and Roman Catho- lics, and in the 17th and i8th centuries Scottish Presbyterian ministers were for a long time com- pelled to renounce Bourignianism at their ordination. Among her works are ^Treatise of Solid Virtue' (1699) ; -